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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and

-Rubber Products, by William H. Dooley

-

-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most

-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions

-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of

-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at

-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have

-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.

-

-

-

-Title: A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and Rubber Products

-

-Author: William H. Dooley

-

-Release Date: September 1, 2017 [EBook #55474]

-

-Language: English

-

-Character set encoding: UTF-8

-

-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING ***

-

-

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-Produced by deaurider and the Online Distributed

-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was

-produced from images generously made available by The

-Internet Archive)

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-

-A MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING

-

-

-

-

-[Illustration: An Old-Fashioned Shoemaker. _Frontispiece._]

-

-

-

-

-                                A MANUAL

-                                   OF

-                               SHOEMAKING

-                                   AND

-                           LEATHER AND RUBBER

-                                PRODUCTS

-

-                                   BY

-                            WILLIAM H. DOOLEY

-                PRINCIPAL OF THE LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL

-

-                              _ILLUSTRATED_

-

-                                 BOSTON

-                       LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY

-                                  1912

-

-                           _Copyright, 1912_,

-                     BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.

-

-                         _All rights reserved._

-

-                       Published, September, 1912.

-

-

-

-

-PREFACE

-

-

-The author was asked in 1908 by the Lynn Commission on Industrial

-Education to make an investigation of European shoe schools and to assist

-the Commission in preparing a course of study for the proposed shoe

-school in the city of Lynn. A close investigation showed that there were

-several textbooks on shoemaking published in Europe, but that no general

-textbook on shoemaking had been issued in this country adapted to meet

-the needs of industrial, trade, and commercial schools or those who have

-just entered the rubber, shoe, and leather trades. This book is written

-to meet this need. Others may find it of interest.

-

-The author is under obligations to the following persons and firms for

-information and assistance in preparing the book, and for permission

-to reproduce photographs and information from their publications: Mr.

-J. H. Finn, Mr. Frank L. West, Head of Shoemaking Department, Tuskegee,

-Ala., Mr. Louis Fleming, Mr. F. Garrison, President of _Shoe and Leather

-Gazette_, Mr. Arthur L. Evans, _The Shoeman_, Mr. Charles F. Cahill,

-United Shoe Machinery Company, Hood Rubber Company, Bliss Shoe Company,

-American Hide and Leather Company, Regal Shoe Company, the publishers of

-_Hide and Leather_, _American Shoemaking_, _Shoe Repairing_, _Boot and

-Shoe Recorder_, _The Weekly Bulletin_, and the New York Leather Belting

-Company.

-

-In addition, the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to the

-great body of foreign literature on the different subjects from which

-information has been obtained.

-

-

-

-

-CONTENTS

-

-

-                                                        PAGE

-

-    PREFACE                                                v

-

-    CHAPTER

-

-       I. FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS                           1

-

-      II. HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT                        4

-

-     III. PROCESSES OF TANNING                            21

-

-      IV. THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT                         77

-

-       V. HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE                        93

-

-      VI. DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY                  103

-

-     VII. MCKAY AND TURNED SHOES                         144

-

-    VIII. OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING         162

-

-      IX. LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS                   177

-

-       X. LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE                   218

-

-      XI. RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE AND TERMS              228

-

-     XII. HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR                            250

-

-          INDEX                                          281

-

-

-

-

-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

-

-

-    An Old-fashioned Shoemaker                 _Frontispiece_

-

-                                                 FACING PAGE

-

-    Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear              2

-

-    Green-salted Calfskin                                 12

-

-    Tanning Process                                       24

-

-    Tanning Process, showing Rotating Drums               28

-

-    Sole Leather Offal                                    34

-

-    Bones and Joints of the Human Foot                    78

-

-    The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle             78

-

-    A Last in Three Stages of Manufacture                 98

-

-    A Modern Shoe Factory                                104

-

-    A Skin Divided before Cutting                        112

-

-    Cutting Leather                                      116

-

-    Goodyear Stitching                                   116

-

-    Stock Fitting Room                                   120

-

-    Lasting                                              124

-

-    Welting                                              124

-

-    Rough Rounding                                       128

-

-    Edge Trimming                                        128

-

-    Leveling                                             132

-

-    Heeling                                              132

-

-    Sole Scouring                                        136

-

-    Heel Shaping                                         136

-

-    Ironing                                              140

-

-    Packing                                              140

-

-    Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe     144

-

-    Stitching                                            148

-

-    Tacking                                              148

-

-    Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe               160

-

-    Side of Leather divided as to Quality                168

-

-    Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe                    200

-

-    Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe                  200

-

-    Crude Rubber                                         228

-

-    Washing and Drying                                   232

-

-    Calender Room                                        234

-

-    Cutting Room                                         236

-

-    Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe          240

-

-    Heel-making Department                               242

-

-    Parts of a Rubber Boot                               248

-

-    Insole for Hand-sewed Shoe                           264

-

-    Hand-sewed Shoe                                      264

-

-    Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory              276

-

-

-

-

-SHOEMAKING

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER ONE

-

-FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS

-

-

-Before explaining the manufacture of shoes, it is necessary to fix

-definitely in our minds the names of their different parts. Examine your

-shoes and note the parts that are here described.

-

-The bottom of the shoe is called the sole. The part above the sole is

-called the upper. The top of the shoe is that part measured by the lacing

-which covers the ankle and the instep. The vamp is that section which

-covers the sides of the foot and the toes. The shank is that part of

-the sole of the shoe between the heel and the ball. This name is often

-applied to a piece of metal or other substance in that part of the sole,

-intended to give support to the arch of the foot. The throat of the vamp

-is that part which curves around the lower edge of the top, where the

-lacing starts.

-

-Backstay is a term used to denote a strip of leather covering and

-strengthening the back seam of the shoe. Quarter is a term used mostly in

-low shoes to denote the rear part of the upper when a full vamp is not

-used. Button fly is the portion of the upper containing the buttonholes

-of a button shoe. Tip is the toe piece of a shoe, stitched to the vamp

-and outside of it. The lace stay is a term used to denote a strip of

-leather reënforcing the eyelet holes. Tongue denotes a narrow strip of

-leather used on all lace shoes to protect the instep from the lacing and

-weather.

-

-[Illustration: Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear. _Page 2._]

-

-Foxing is the name applied to leather of the upper that extends from the

-sole to the laces in front, and to about the height of the counter in the

-back, being the length of the upper. It may be in one or more pieces, and

-is often cut down to the shank in circular form. If in two pieces, that

-part covering the counter is called a heel fox. Overlay is a term applied

-to leather attached to the upper part of the vamp of a slipper. The

-breast of the heel is the inner part of the heel, that is, the section

-nearest the shank.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER TWO

-

-HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT

-

-

-If we examine our shoes, we will find that the different parts are

-composed of material called leather. The bottom of the shoe is of hard

-leather, while the part above the sole is of a softer, more pliable

-leather. This leather is nothing more than the hides of different animals

-treated in such a way as to remove the fat and the hair.

-

-After the hides have been taken from the dead body of the animal, they

-are quite heavily salted to preserve them from spoiling. In this salted

-condition they are shipped to the tanneries.

-

-The process or series of processes by which the hides and skins of

-animals are converted into leather is called tanning. The process may be

-divided into three groups of subprocesses as follows:--

-

-Beamhouse process, which removes the hair from the hides and prepares

-them for the actual process of the tanning or conversion into leather;

-tanning, which converts the raw hide into leather; and finishing, which

-involves a number of operations, the objects of which are to give the

-leather the color that may be desired and also to make it of uniform

-thickness, and impart to it the softness and the finish that is required

-for a particular purpose.

-

-Hides are divided roughly in the tannery, according to the size, into

-three general classes:--

-

-(1) Hides, skins from fully grown animals, as cows, oxen, horses,

-buffaloes, walrus, etc. These are thick, heavy leather, used for shoe

-soles, large machinery belting, trunks, etc., where stiffness, strength,

-and wearing qualities are desired. The untanned hides weigh from

-twenty-five to sixty pounds.

-

-(2) Kips, skins of the undersized animals of the above group, weighing

-between fifteen and twenty-five pounds.

-

-(3) Skins from small animals, such as calves, sheep, goats, dogs, etc.

-This last group gives a light, but strong and pliable leather, which may

-be used for a great many purposes, such as men’s shoes and the heavier

-grades of women’s shoes.

-

-The hides, kips, and skins are divided into various grades, according to

-their weight, size, condition, and quality.

-

-The quality of the hides not only depends upon the kind of animal, but

-also upon its fodder and mode of living. The hides of wild cattle yield a

-more compact and stronger leather than those of our domesticated beasts.

-Among these latter the stall-fed have better hides than the meadow-fed,

-or grazing cattle. The thickness of the hide varies considerably on

-different animals and on the parts of the body, the thickest part of the

-bull being near the head and the middle of the back, while at the belly

-the hide is thinnest. These differences are less conspicuous in sheep,

-goats, and calves. As regards sheep, it would appear that their skin is

-generally thinnest where their wool is longest.

-

-In the raw, untanned state, and with the hair still on, the hides are

-termed “green” or “fresh.” Fresh, or green hides are supplied to the

-tanners by the packers or the butchers, or are imported, either dry or

-salted.

-

-Hides are obtained either from the regular packing houses or from farmers

-who kill their own stock, and do not skin the animal as scientifically as

-the regular packing houses, in which case they are called country hides.

-There are different grades of hides and leather, and these different

-grades are divided in the commercial world into the five following

-grades:--

-

-I. NATIVE HIDES

-

-    Native Steers

-    Native Cows, heavy

-    Native Cows, light

-    Branded Cows

-    Butts

-    Colorado Steers

-    Texas Steers, heavy

-    Texas Steers, light

-    Texas Steers, ex-light

-    Native Bulls

-    Branded Bulls

-

-II. COUNTRY HIDES

-

-    Ohio Buffs

-    Ohio Ex.

-    Southerns

-

-III. DRY HIDES

-

-(Raised on plain. Rough side suitable for soles.)

-

-    Buenos Ayres

-

-IV. CALFSKINS

-

-(Green salted)

-

-    Chicago City

-

-V. PARIS CITY CALFSKINS

-

-    Light

-    Medium

-    Heavy

-

-Hides obtained from steers raised on Western farms are known as native

-steer hides.

-

-Native cowhide (heavy) is hide weighing from fifty-five to sixty-five

-pounds, obtained from cows.

-

-Native cowhide (light) is cowhide weighing under fifty-five pounds.

-

-Branded cowhide is hide obtained from cows that are branded on the face

-of the hide.

-

-Butts is a term applied to the part of the hide remaining after cutting

-off the head, shoulders, and strip of the belly.

-

-Colorado steer hide is from Colorado steers, which are very light.

-

-Texas steer hide comes in three grades, heavy, light, and extra light.

-The heavy grade is very heavy because the animal is allowed to graze on

-the plains. That is the reason why it is heavier than the Colorado steer

-hide, which is raised on the farm.

-

-Bull hide is divided into two classes, the regular hide and the branded

-grade. The branded grade usually is one cent a pound less than the

-regular.

-

-Country hides are of three grades, Ohio Buffs, Ohio Ex., and Southern.

-The Ohio Buffs weigh from forty to sixty pounds. The Ohio Ex. weighs from

-twenty to forty pounds. Southern hides have spots without hair and other

-blemishes on them, due to the sting of insects. This makes the Southern

-hide inferior to the Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, and Chicago hides that have

-no such blemishes. Ohio Butt hides are the best, because in Ohio they

-kill a great many young calves, while in Chicago young cows (that have

-calved) are killed, causing the hide to be flanky.

-

-The season of the year in which cattle are slaughtered has considerable

-influence upon both the weight and condition of the hide. During the

-winter months, by reason of the hair being longer and thicker, the hide

-is heavier, ranging from seventy-five to eighty pounds, and gradually

-decreasing in weight as the season becomes warmer and the coat is shed,

-until in June and July it weighs from seventy down to fifty-five pounds,

-the hair then being thin and short. The best hides of the year are

-October hides, and short-haired hides are better for leather purposes

-than long-haired ones.

-

-A thick hide which is to be used for upper leather is cut into sides

-before the tanning process is completed. This is performed by passing

-it between rollers where it comes in contact with a sharp knife-edge,

-which splits it into two or more sheets. Great care must be exercised in

-cutting the leather in order to have good “splits” (sheets of leather). A

-split from a heavy hide is not as good as a whole of a lighter leather.

-

-Butts and backs are selected from the stoutest and heaviest oxhides. The

-butt is formed by cutting off the head, the shoulder, and the strip of

-the belly. The butt or back of oxhide forms the stoutest and heaviest

-leather, such as is used for soles of boots, harness, etc.

-

-[Illustration: Green-Salted Calfskin. _Page 12._]

-

-Hides and skins are received at the tannery in one of three conditions,

-viz. green-salted, dry, or dry-salted. Very few hides are received by

-tanners in fresh or unsalted condition, salt being necessary to preserve

-them from decay. Green-salted hides are those that have been salted in

-fresh condition, tied up in bundles, and shipped to the tanner. Dry

-hides are those that were taken from the carcass and dried without being

-salted; these are usually stiff and hard. Dry-salted hides are hides that

-were heavily salted while they were fresh, and then dried. The hides

-and skins that are received from the slaughterhouses of this country

-are almost invariably green-salted; those from foreign countries are

-green-salted, dry, and dry-salted.

-

-It does not matter in what condition the hides are received or the kind

-of leather into which they are to be tanned; they all require soaking in

-water before any attempt is made to remove the hair or to tan them. The

-object of the soaking process, as it is called, is to thoroughly soften

-the hides and to remove from them all salt, dirt, blood, etc. Ordinary

-hides are usually soaked from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Dry hides

-require much longer. The water should be changed once or twice during the

-process, since dirty water may injure the hides. Soft water is better

-than hard for this process. Where the water is hard, it is customary for

-the tanner to add a quantity of borax to it to increase its cleansing

-power and to hasten the softening of the hides.

-

-When dry hides have become soft enough to bend without cracking, they are

-put into a machine and beaten and rolled, then soaked again until they

-are soft and pliable. It is very important that all the salt and dirt are

-removed during the process of soaking, as they injure the quality of the

-leather if they are not removed before the hides are unhaired. When the

-soaking process is completed, the lumps of fat and flesh that may have

-been left on by the butcher are removed by hand or by a machine, and the

-hides are then in condition to be passed along into the next process. The

-parts that cannot be made into leather, such as tails, teats, etc., are

-trimmed off before the hides are soaked. Large hides are cut into two

-pieces or halves, called “sides,” after they have been soaked.

-

-For the purpose of taking the hair from the hides and skins, lime,

-sulphide of sodium, and red arsenic are used. Lime is sometimes used

-alone, but usually one of the other two chemicals is mixed with it. The

-lime is dissolved in hot water, a quantity of either sulphide of sodium

-or red arsenic is added to it, and the solution is then mixed with water

-in a vat, the hides being immersed in this liquor until the hair can be

-easily removed. The action of the unhairing liquor is to swell the hides,

-then to dissolve the perishable animal portion and loosen the hair so

-that it can be rubbed or pulled off.

-

-There are several different processes of unhairing the hides. Each tanner

-uses the process that will help to give the leather the qualities that it

-should have, such as softness and pliability for shoe and glove leather,

-or firmness and solidity for sole and belting leather. This is one of the

-most important in the series of tannery processes, and if the hides are

-not unhaired properly and not prepared for tanning as they should be, the

-leather will not be right when it is tanned and finished.

-

-There is also a process of unhairing, called “sweating,” which softens

-the hide and loosens the hair so that it can be scraped off. In this

-process the hides begin to decay before the hair is loose; it is

-therefore a dangerous process to use and must be carefully watched or the

-hides will be entirely spoiled. Sweating is never used for the finer,

-softer kinds of leather. It is applied chiefly to dry hides for sole,

-lace, and belt leather. It is an old-fashioned process and is not used as

-much nowadays as some years ago.

-

-The pelts of sheep are salted at the slaughterhouses and then shipped to

-the tannery. Here they are thrown into water and left to soak twenty-four

-hours to loosen the dirt and dissolve the salt. The pelts are next

-passed through machines that clean the wool, and any particles of flesh

-remaining on the inner or flesh side are removed. The pelts are then in

-condition to have the wool removed. As long as a sheepskin has the wool

-upon it, it is called a pelt; as soon as the wool has been taken off, it

-is called a skin or a “slat.”

-

-Each pelt is spread out smoothly on a table with the wool down and the

-inner or flesh side up. A mixture of lime and sulphide of sodium is

-next applied uniformly over the skin with a brush. The pelt is then

-folded up and placed in a pile with others. The solution that was

-applied penetrates the skin and loosens the wool, which, at the end

-of twenty-four hours, more or less, can be easily pulled off with the

-hands or rubbed off with a dull instrument or stick. The workman must be

-careful not to get any of the solution on to the wool, as it dissolves it

-and makes it worthless. Since the wool is valuable, the solution must be

-applied to the flesh side very carefully so that it does no injury. The

-wool that is removed from the skins is called “pulled wool.”

-

-The slat is now ready to be limed, washed, pickled, and tanned. Heavy

-skins are often split into two sheets after they have been limed. The

-part from the wool side is called a skiver, and that from the flesh side

-is called a flesher.

-

-After the skins have been limed, they are bated and washed, which makes

-them soft, clean, and white; they are then put into a solution of salt,

-sulphuric acid, and water, called “pickle,” and after a few hours they

-are taken out, drained, and tanned.

-

-Large quantities of sheepskins are sold to tanners in the pickled

-condition by those who make a business of preparing such skins and

-selling the wool. Pickled skins can be kept an indefinite length of time

-without spoiling; they can also be dried and worked out into a cheap

-white leather without any further tanning whatever. Most of such skins,

-however, are sold to tanners, who tan them into leather. Sheepskins

-contain considerable grease, which must be removed before the leather can

-be sold.

-

-For some processes of tanning, calfskins, goatskins, and cattle hides are

-also pickled the same as sheepskins; for other processes they are not

-pickled, but are thoroughly bated or delimed, washed, and cleansed. Heavy

-hides are sometimes split out of the lime; more frequently, however, they

-are not split until after they have been tanned.

-

-To capitulate, the preparatory processes may be briefly described as

-follows:--

-

-Soaking, which dissolves the salt, removes the dirt and makes the hides

-soft and comparatively clean.

-

-Liming and unhairing, which swell the hides and dissolve the perishable

-animal portion, loosen the hair, and put the hides into proper condition

-for tanning. Hides tanned without liming, even if the hair is removed by

-some chemical, do not make pliable leather, but are stiff and hard.

-

-Bating, which removes the lime from the hides.

-

-Pickling, which helps in the tanning later, and keeps the hides and

-skins from spoiling if they are not tanned at once.

-

-The lumps of fat and flesh that may be on the hides are removed by

-machinery or by placing the hide over a beam and scraping it with a

-knife. The hair, when it is loosened by the lime, is removed by a machine

-or by hand.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER THREE

-

-PROCESSES OF TANNING

-

-

-The various processes of tanning may be roughly divided into two

-classes, vegetable chemical and mineral chemical. The first class is

-often spoken of in tanneries simply as the “vegetable” while the second

-is called “chemical” process. In the vegetable processes the tanning

-is accomplished by tannin, which is found in various barks and woods

-of trees and leaves of plants. In the so-called chemical processes the

-tanning is done with mineral salts and acids which produce an entirely

-different kind of leather from that procured by vegetable tanning.

-

-There is also a method of tanning, or, more properly speaking, tawing, in

-which alum and salt are used. This process makes white leather that is

-used for many purposes; it is also colored and used in the manufacture

-of fine gloves. Leather is also made by tanning skins with oil. Chamois

-skins are made in this way.

-

-The materials that are used to tan hides and skins act upon the hide

-fibers in such a way that the hides are rendered proof against decay

-and become pliable and strong. There are many vegetable tans; they are

-used for sole leather, upper leather, and colored leather for numerous

-purposes. The bark of hemlock trees is one of the principal tans. The

-woods and barks of oak, chestnut, and quebracho trees are often used.

-Palmetto roots yield a good tan. Large quantities of leather are treated

-with gambier and various other tanning materials that come from foreign

-countries. Sumac leaves, which are imported from Sicily, contain tannin

-that makes soft leather suitable for hat sweatbands, suspender trimmings,

-etc. Sumac is also obtained from the State of Virginia, but the foreign

-leaves contain more tannin and make better leather than the American.

-

-To a large extent the so-called chemical processes have supplanted the

-vegetable processes, that is, old tan bark and sumac processes; but in

-some tanneries both methods are used on different kinds of skins.

-

-In the old bark process the tan bark is ground coarse and is then treated

-in leaches with hot water until the tanning quality is drawn out. The

-liquor so obtained is used at various strengths as needed.

-

-In the newer method the tan liquor is displaced by a solution of

-potassium bichromate, which produces its results with much less

-expenditure of time.

-

-When the hides or skins are ready for the tanning process, they are put

-into a revolving drum, known as a “pinwheel,” or into a pit in which

-are revolving paddles, with a dilute solution of potassium dichromate

-or sodium dichromate, acidified with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.

-If the pinwheel is employed, it is revolved for seven hours or longer;

-after which time the liquor is drawn off and replaced by an acidified

-solution of sodium thiosulphate or bisulphite, and then the revolution

-is continued several hours longer. If the pit is used, the skins are

-removed to another drum containing the second solution, and kept at rest

-or overturned for a like period.

-

-In removing the skins from the pinwheel or vat, and in handling them

-after treatment with lime for the loosening of the hair, the hands and

-arms of the workmen are seriously injured, becoming raw if not protected

-by rubber gloves; even with gloves it is difficult to prevent injury, and

-in some establishments the workmen are relieved by the substitution of a

-single-bath process, in which the liquor is less harmful to the skin.

-

-[Illustration: Tanning Process

-

-Showing the vats, the unhairing and liming processes. _Page 24._]

-

-The hides are then removed from the pits, washed and brushed, followed

-by slow drying in the air. When partly dried, they are placed in a pile

-and covered until heating is induced. They are then dampened and rolled

-with brass rollers to give the leather solidity. Sole leather is oiled

-but little. Weight is increased by adding glucose and salt.

-

-Various rapid processes of tanning have been devised in which the hides

-are suspended in strong liquors or are tanned in large revolving drums.

-It is claimed that this hastens the process, but the product has been

-criticized as lacking substance or being brittle.

-

-Chrome tannage has been chiefly developed in this country during the

-last twenty years and is now in general use. It consists in throwing an

-insoluble chromium hydroxide or oxide on the fibers of a skin which has

-been impregnated with a soluble chromium salt--potassium bichromate.

-Other salts like basic chromium chloride, chromium chromate, and chromic

-alum are also used. The hydrochloric or sulphuric acid acts by setting

-free chromic acid.

-

-After several hours, the skin shows a uniform yellow when cut through its

-thickest part. It is then drained and the skin worked in a solution of

-sodium bisulphite and mineral acid (to free sulphur dioxide). The chromic

-acid is absorbed by the fiber and later reduced by sulphur dioxide.

-

-In the making of chrome black leather each tanner has his own method.

-Contrary to the general belief, there are many different methods of

-chrome tannage. No two tanneries employ just the same process.

-

-Tanners of chrome leather seek to produce leather suitable for the

-particular demands made upon it by the peculiarities or characteristics

-of the varying seasons. Summer shoes require a cool, light leather;

-at other times a heavier tannage is essential, with some call for a

-practically waterproof product.

-

-All leathers, whether vegetable-or chrome-tanned, must be “fat liquored.”

-That is to say, a certain amount of fatty material must be put into the

-skin in order that it may be mellow, workable, and serviceable. This is

-very essential in producing calf leather. Fat liquors usually contain oil

-and soap, which have been boiled in water and made into a thin liquor.

-The leather is put into a drum with the hot fat liquor; the drum is set

-in motion, and as it revolves the leather tumbles about in the drum and

-absorbs the oil and soap from the water. It is the fat liquor that makes

-the leather soft and strong.

-

-Leather used in shoes is divided into two classes: sole leather and upper

-leather.

-

-Sole leather is a heavy, solid, stiff leather and may be bent without

-cracking. It is the foundation of the shoe, and therefore should be of

-the best material. The hides of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for

-this purpose.

-

-The hide that is tanned for sole leather is soaked for several days in a

-weak solution (which is gradually made stronger) of oak or hemlock tan

-made from the bark. Oak-tanned hide is preferred and may be known by its

-light color. A chemical change takes place in the fiber of the hide. This

-is a high-grade tannage, and is distinguished principally by its fine

-fibers and close, compact texture.

-

-Oak sole leather, by reason of its tough character, and its close,

-fibrous texture, resists water and will wear well down before cracking.

-It is by many considered better than other leather for flexible-sole

-shoes, requiring waterproof qualities.

-

-Sole leather is divided into three classes according to the tanning--oak,

-hemlock, and union.

-

-[Illustration: Tanning Process

-

-Showing the rotating drums. _See page 24._]

-

-Oak tanning is as follows: the hides are hung in pits containing weak

-or nearly spent liquors from a previous tanning, and agitated so as to

-take up tannin evenly. Strong liquor would harden the surface so as to

-prevent thorough penetration into the interior of the hides. After ten

-or twelve days, the hides are taken out and laid away in fresh tan and

-stronger liquor. This process is repeated as often as necessary for eight

-to ten months. At the end of this time the hide has absorbed all of the

-tannin which it will take up.

-

-Hemlock tanning is similar to the oak tanning in process. The hemlock

-tan is a red shade. Hemlock produces a very hard and inflexible leather.

-It is modified by use of bleaching materials which are applied to the

-leather after being tanned. It is sold in sides without being trimmed,

-while the oak is sold in backs, with belly and head trimmed off.

-

-Hemlock leather is used extensively and almost principally for men’s

-and boys’ stiff-soled, heavy shoes, where no flexibility is required

-or expected. Its principal desirable quality is its resistance to

-trituration, or being ground to a powder, and its use in men’s and boys’

-pegged, nailed, or standard screw shoes is not in any way objectionable

-to the wearer. In fact, for this class of shoes, it is probably the best

-leather that can be used. But when hemlock is used in men’s and boys’

-Goodyear welt shoes, where a flexible bottom is expected and required,

-it generally does not give good results. It cannot satisfactorily resist

-the constant flexing to which it is subjected, and after the sole is worn

-half through, the constant bending causes it to crack crosswise. On this

-account it becomes like a sieve, and has no power of resistance in water,

-and therefore it is not at all suited to flexible-bottomed shoes.

-

-In “union-tanned” hides, both oak and hemlock are used and the result is

-a compromise in both color and quality. This tan was first used about

-fifty years ago. Twenty-five years ago the union leather tanners began to

-experiment with bleaching materials to avoid the use of oak bark, which

-was becoming scarce and high priced, and eventually developed a system of

-tanning union leather with hemlock or kindred tanning agents, excluding

-oak. The red color and the hard texture were modified by bleaching the

-leather to the desired color and texture. This produces leather which

-has not the fine, close tannage of genuine oak leather and at the same

-time lacks the compact, hard character of hemlock leather. Union leather

-produced in this manner is a sort of mongrel or hybrid leather, being

-neither oak nor hemlock. On account of its economy in cutting qualities,

-however, it is largely used in the manufacture of medium-priced shoes

-where a certain degree of flexibility is required in the sole. This is

-particularly true of women’s shoes.

-

-Union leather is sold largely in backs and trimmed the same as oak,

-though not so closely.

-

-Sole leather is also made nowadays by tanning the hides by the chrome or

-chemical process. This leather is very durable and pliable and is used

-on athletic and sporting shoes. It has a light green color and is much

-lighter in weight than the oak or hemlock leather.

-

-Many kinds of hide are used for sole leather. This country does not

-produce nearly enough hides for the demand, and great quantities are

-imported from abroad, although most of the imported hides come from South

-America. Imported hides are divided into two general classes, dry hides

-and green-salted hides.

-

-Dry hides are of two kinds, the dry “flint,” which are dried carefully

-after being taken from the animal and cured without salt. These generally

-make good leather, although if sunburnt, the leather is not strong.

-“Dry-salted hides” are salted and cured to a dry state. Dry hides of both

-kinds are used for hemlock leather only, although all hemlock leather is

-not made from dry hides.

-

-Green-salted hides are used in making oak-tanned leather as well as

-hemlock, and those used by United States tanners come largely from

-domestic points; but there is a variable amount imported each year from

-abroad, principally from Europe and South America. Green-salted hides are

-of two general classes, those branded and those free of brands.

-

-Cow and steer hides of the branded type are used by tanners of oak and

-union leather. Those not branded are used more largely for belting and

-upholstering leathers, a small part finding their way into hemlock

-leather.

-

-Sole leather remnants, strictly speaking, include such a wide variety

-of items that it is difficult to cover them all. Few people, however,

-realize the big range of usefulness of this class of stock. While not

-exactly a by-product, remnants are often classed as such. Under the

-class of sole leather remnants are included sole leather offal, such

-as heads, bellies, shoulders, shanks, shins, men’s heeling, men’s half

-heeling, men’s and women’s three-and four-piece heeling, etc. Stock that

-cannot be used in the shoe business goes into the chemical and fertilizer

-trade, among other outlets. By a special acid process of burning this

-stock, ammonia is derived from it, which goes into fertilizer; and

-another by-product is sulphuric acid for the chemical trade. The amount

-of ammonia obtained is small, being about seven per cent of ammonia to a

-ton of sole leather scrap. This is mixed with fertilizer and sold mostly

-in the Southern States, and to a small extent in the West, there being a

-law in many of the Western States against the use of fertilizer made from

-leather products, on account of its low grade.

-

-[Illustration: Sole Leather Offal

-

-Showing bellies, shoulders, etc. _Page 35._]

-

-In the disposition of offal, heads are used for taps, top lifts, and

-under lifts. Shoulders are used for outsoles and inner soles, while

-bellies are used for medium to heavy taps and counters. Lightweight

-bellies and shanks are utilized for making box toes and counters.

-

-Shanks are also used for taps and under lifts. This stock is solid and

-substantial and well suited for these purposes. The bellies, being

-flexible, are the best part of the hide obtainable for inner soles.

-

-In cutting out soles, the manufacturer accumulates a considerable

-quantity of solid or center pieces, which are used for small top lifts,

-also for “Cuban” tops, thereby using up the bulk of the small heavy scrap

-that ordinarily would be sold for pieced heeling. There is also a demand

-for similar stock from the hardware trade, where it is used for making

-mallet and tool handles, also for wagon and carriage washers. Large

-quantities of men’s and women’s heeling and half heeling go to England,

-where it is cut up by heel manufacturers into lifts and sectional lifts

-for the English trade; there being a shortage of this class of offal

-there.

-

-The shoe manufacturer, after cutting his soles and taps, is obliged to

-skive them to get the particular iron he needs. This leaves what is known

-as a “flesh sole shape,” also a “tap shape.” These skivings are pasted

-together by another class of trade and again used for inner soling and

-taps in the cheaper grades of shoes. Smaller skivings, or waste, after

-sorting out the sole and tap shapes, are sold to the leather board trade.

-This eventually comes back to the shoe trade in the shape of leather

-board and is cut into heel lifts. The waste after cutting heel lifts is

-again resold to the leather board trade and makes another round trip to

-the shoe manufacturer. This illustration, as well as many others in the

-leather remnant business, demonstrates the scientific principle that

-nothing is ever entirely lost. In regard to pieced heel lifts, these are

-made in either two, three, or four sections. This refers to what are

-known as sectional heel lifts. Scrap leather is also used for shanking

-for the European trade.

-

-Soles and taps, known as rejects, that is, those thrown out by the

-high-grade trade, are sold to manufacturers of cheaper lines. A shoe

-manufacturer cutting his own soles and buying sole leather in sides,

-after sorting out the soles suited to his own requirements, will sell

-what he cannot use to remnant dealers, who in turn re-sell them to

-shoe manufacturers requiring that particular class of stock. The scrap

-leather, or remnant dealer, thus forms a useful link in the chain of

-distribution, furnishing a market where shoe and leather manufacturers

-may dispose of their surplus products to best advantage, and providing a

-source of supply for buyers who wish any particular article to suit their

-individual needs.

-

-Upper or dressed leather is made from kips or large calfskins. It is

-tanned and finished like all other forms of leather by variations of the

-foregoing process. Thick hides are often split thin by machinery, and the

-parts retained and finished separately. The parts of the leather from the

-hair side are most valuable and are called “grain” leather; the inner

-parts or “flesh splits” are made into a variety of different kinds of

-leather by waxing, oiling, and polishing.

-

-It is finished by scouring with brushes and then rubbed with a piece of

-glass, which removes creases and wrinkles and stretches the leather. Then

-it is stuffed with a mixture of oil, soap, and tallow, which is worked

-into it by rolling. Various finishes are given to leather, such as seal

-grain, buff, glove grain, oil grain, satin calf, russet, plain shoe, etc.

-

-Upper leathers are blacked by rubbing with a mixture of lampblack and oil

-or tallow, or with a solution of copperas and logwood.

-

-No tanning process, no matter how good or thorough, can make firm,

-serviceable, wear-resisting leather out of all portions of any hide,

-because nature made some parts of every hide porous, spongy, and lacking

-in fibrous strength.

-

-Calfskins used by tanners are of several classes. American calfskins,

-taken off in the United States and Canada, are usually sold green pelted.

-Farmers raise only a small fraction of the calves born. Each cow must

-produce a calf in order to insure a maximum flow of milk. Most of the

-farmers keep cows to produce milk, hence they sell the young calves for

-veal and use their skins for high-grade calf leather.

-

-In European countries farmers fatten their calves before selling them in

-order to get a higher price for the veal. The skin is not so valuable for

-leather as the skin from younger calves, and it is used for lower-value

-leathers.

-

-Calfskin is not split. A heavier weight skin might be. It is shaved to a

-uniform thickness.

-

-Calf leather is divided into the following classes, depending upon the

-finish of the leather:--

-

-Boarded calf (made in both chrome and bark tannage).

-

-Wax calf, finished on the flesh side with a waxy, hard surface.

-

-Box calf is a proprietary name. It is boarded--rubbed with a board to

-raise the grain. It is known by minute, squarelike lines.

-

-Mat calf is a dull-finished calfskin, used more in topping.

-

-Suede calf is finished on flesh side. Most makes of suede calf are

-chromed, although there are some vegetable.

-

-Storm calf is a heavy skin, finished for winter wear. Considerable oil is

-used in finishing.

-

-French calf is finished on flesh side.

-

-Dry hides are obtained from Buenos Ayres, where the cattle are raised on

-the plains. This city exports a large quantity of hides, dry, salted,

-and cured by smoking. The hides of cows generally yield inferior grain

-leather; but South American cowhides may be worked for light sole leather.

-

-Calves’ hides are thinner, but when well tanned, curried, and dressed,

-they yield a very soft and supple leather for boots and shoes. They are

-finished with wax and oil on the flesh side, and can also be finished on

-the hair (grain of skin).

-

-Calves’ skin (green salted).

-

-Paris City calfskins. These are obtained in three grades--light, medium,

-and heavy.

-

-Light grades run from four to five, or seven to eight pounds; medium

-grades run from seven to nine pounds; heavy grades run from nine to

-twelve pounds.

-

-Patent leather may be made from colt, calf, or kid skin. Coltskin is the

-skin of young horses, or split skins of mature horses.

-

-Patent colt and kid are used for the most part in the medium fine grades,

-and patent side (cowhide) is used in the medium and cheaper grades.

-Chrome tanned are used entirely in the manufacture of patent leather.

-

-Patent leather, as it appears in shoes, may be described either as

-varnished leather, coltskin, or kid, and sometimes the French use

-calfskin. The process is largely a secret one, although there is no

-longer any patent on the principle of the same. It is made by shaving

-the skins on the flesh side or hair side to a uniform thickness. Then

-it is de-greased to put the skin in condition to receive the finish and

-protect the same from peeling off. Successive coats of liquid black

-varnish are applied, the first coats being dried and rubbed down, so as

-to work the liquid thoroughly into the fibers of the leather. The last

-coat is applied with a brush, and baked to from one hundred and twenty to

-one hundred and forty degrees Fahrenheit for thirty-six hours and then

-allowed to dry in direct sunlight for from six to ten hours, which seems

-to be essential to remove the sticky feeling. Various ingredients are

-used in making the different varnishes, the first coating consisting of

-naphtha, wood alcohol, amyl acetate, etc. The black varnishes consist of

-linseed oil and various other mixtures, heated in iron kettles. The final

-coating is a naphtha preparation resembling japanning material. The hide

-is stretched on a frame during the varnishing operations.

-

-It is almost impossible to tell the difference in quality of shiny

-leather by appearance, although in general the leather on which the

-grain shows through the varnish will prove more serviceable than that

-on which the finish is so thick as to hide the grain. Great care must

-be exercised in resewing patent leather shoes that have been exposed

-during the cold weather, as the cold has a tendency to freeze the finish.

-Patent leather, like all varnished coatings, is liable to crack. No one

-can guarantee it not to do so. The kid patent leather is more elastic

-and porous than other kinds. The serious objection to the use of patent

-leather for a shoe is its air-tightness. This makes it both unhygienic

-and uncomfortable. The kid patent leather is the only patent leather that

-has not this objection.

-

-Kid is a term applied to shoe leather made from the skins of mature

-goats. The skin of the young goat or kid is made into the thin, flexible

-leather used for kid gloves, which is too delicate for general use in

-shoes. The goats from which come the supply of leather used in this

-country for women’s and children’s fine shoes are not the common,

-domesticated kind known in this country, but are wild goats or allied

-species partially domesticated, and are found in the hill regions of

-India, the mountains of Europe, portions of South America, etc.

-

-There are about sixty-eight recognized kinds of goatskins that are

-imported from all over the world. The Brazilian, Buenos Ayres, Andean,

-Mexican, French, Russian, Indian, and Chinese are a few of the many kinds

-that are known as such. Each particular species of goat hide possesses

-its own peculiarities of texture. The thickness and grain differ

-according to the environment in which the animal has been raised. It is

-peculiar that those raised in cold climates do not have as thick skins

-as those raised in warmer climates, for the long, thick hair apparently

-takes the strength.

-

-We may wonder where all the skins come from that are made up into glazed

-kid, mat kid, and suede, at the rate of several thousand dozen every

-day. The great proportion of the skins are _goatskins_. These are almost

-all imported from abroad, where the animals are slaughtered and disposed

-of much the same as we dispose of beef and veal here. Sheepskins and

-carbarettas, the hides of animals that are a cross between sheep and

-goats, are also used.

-

-The finer grades of kid and goatskins which are tanned in large

-quantities in New England, come from the Far East.

-

-In China there are two great ports from which skins are shipped, Tientsin

-and Shanghai. Back in the interior, starting from a point about twelve

-hundred miles from the sea, collectors make their rounds twice a year.

-

-The breeder of goats kills his flock just before the collector is due,

-skins the animals on the hillside, preserves the meat for food, and with

-the kidskins, which have been partly dried, wrapped in a bundle carried

-upon the back, or upon a pack animal, the breeder makes his way to the

-station. It may be that there are a half hundred breeders awaiting the

-coming of the collector and he pays them the market price for the skins.

-

-Whenever the collector has a sufficient supply to make it profitable

-to ship, he bales the skins and then sends them over the thousand mile

-journey along the river to the seaport. From Tientsin or Shanghai they

-are taken by tramp steamers, which reach Eastern ports by way of the Suez

-Canal, and on the trip the steamers make several ports, so that it is

-from six to ten weeks before the skins reach America.

-

-Another method of importing is to have the raw material shipped across

-the Pacific and then transferred to a railroad, but the difference in

-cost to the manufacturer is so great that it is unprofitable.

-

-The China goatskins are rated as among the finest in the world and when

-tanned they make the highest-grade shoe.

-

-Then there are mocha skins, which come from Tripoli, Arabia, and Northern

-Africa. In those places the method of collection is practically the same

-as in China.

-

-The two best-known grades are the Hodieda and the Benghazi. They derive

-their designations from the exporting cities. Hodieda is located in the

-southwestern part of Arabia on the Red Sea, while Benghazi is in Barca,

-one of the provinces of Tripoli.

-

-Other goatskins are produced in India and Russia, and millions of skins

-are exported annually from Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. These skins are

-not brought direct to America, but are transshipped at Marseilles or

-London.

-

-The jobbers in Europe or India occupy rather a unique position, for

-according to their practice it is almost impossible for them to suffer

-financial losses in dealing with an American tanner. The latter, when he

-wishes to arrange for his year’s supply of raw material, negotiates with

-an agent in Boston, with whom he signs a contract for so many skins. Then

-it is necessary for the tanner to either purchase with money equal to

-the face value or secure by loans letters of credit from Boston banking

-houses which have European connections.

-

-Before the skins are exported, the jobber has his money from the European

-banking concerns and the bills of lading are forwarded to the Boston

-bankers, who turn them over to the tanners, and, when the occasion

-requires, obtain from the tanners what is known as a deed of trust.

-

-All goatskins are tanned by the same chrome tanning process, whether

-the finish is to be glazed or mat. The proportions of chemicals vary

-according to the texture of the skin, and according to the grain.

-

-The process of tanning is quicker than the tanning of heavier hides, and

-all varieties of tannage are used, the chrome methods having come into

-very general use. There are many kinds of finish given, such as glazed,

-dull, mat, patent, etc. One quality that distinguishes goat leather,

-the “kid” of shoemaking, is the fact that the fibers of the skin are

-interlaced and interlocked in all directions. The finished skins as they

-come from the tannery, by whatever process they may be put through, are

-sorted for size and quality, a number of grades being made. Instead

-of ripping straight through, like a piece of cloth, or splitting apart

-in layers, as sheepskin will do when made into leather, the kid holds

-together firmly in all directions.

-

-Glazed kid is colored after it is tanned by submerging it in the color,

-a very important process. The glossy surface is obtained by “striking”

-or burnishing on the grain side. It is made in black and colors,

-particularly tan, and is known by about as many names as there are

-manufacturers of it.

-

-Glazed kid is used in the uppers of shoes, making a fine, soft shoe that

-is particularly comfortable in warm weather, and is said to prevent cold

-feet in winter, owing to unrestricted circulation.

-

-Mat kid is a soft, dull black kid, the softness being the result of

-treatment with beeswax or olive oil. It is finished on the grain side the

-same as glazed kid, and is used principally for shoe toppings. It is very

-similar in appearance to mat calf and is often used in preference to it,

-as it is of much lighter weight, and about as strong.

-

-Suede kid is not tanned, but is subjected to a feeding process in an

-egg solution, called “tawing,” to make it soft and pliable. The skin is

-stretched and the color is applied by “brushing” (with a brush). The

-color does not permeate the skin, but is merely on the surface. Suedes

-are made from carbarettas and split sheepskins. Suedes are used very

-extensively in making slippers, and come in a great variety of colors.

-

-A castor kid is a Persian lambskin finished the same as a suede, and is

-used in making very soft, fine-appearing leather--like glove leather. The

-skin is of such a very light weight that it has to be “backed up” before

-being made into shoes.

-

-Fancy leathers are used extensively for toppings of shoes having patent

-leather vamps. Facings are selected from fancy leathers to make the

-inside of a shoe attractive and to increase its wearing quality.

-Leathers of dull or glazed finish are used in typical shoe colors.

-

-Miscellaneous kinds of kids are as follows:--

-

-    _A._ Kangaroo

-    _B._ Buckskin

-    _C._ Sheepskin

-    _D._ Chamois

-    _E._ Cordovan

-    _F._ Splits

-      _a._ Seal Grain

-      _b._ Buff

-      _c._ Oil Grain

-      _d._ Satin Calf

-    _G._ Enamel

-    _H._ Sides

-

-Kangaroo is the skin of the animal of that name.

-

-Buckskin is the skin of certain deer.

-

-Sheepskin is the skin of the familiar domestic sheep.

-

-Chamois is the skin of the animal of that name and by courtesy the

-specially treated skins of certain domestic animals.

-

-It is a simple matter to recognize a kid-skin among the various kinds of

-upper leather, because of its very light weight and pliability.

-

-During the winter, leather, in drying, is apt to become frozen,

-especially where no well-equipped drying loft is provided. Such leather

-becomes weak and limp if thawed out too rapidly. In freezing, the

-water in the hides which have been hung up to dry is forced out and

-stretches apart the hide fiber. The wetter the hides, therefore, the

-more demoralized they will be by the frost. The treatment of rushing the

-frozen leather into a warm room is inadvisable; the best method is to

-allow the hides to hang as they were and to tightly close all openings

-to the outside air. In case this is impossible, it is best to place the

-leather in a heap, in a room where the temperature will not fall below

-the freezing point, and to cover it with a cloth. In case the leather

-rolls up, it should be moistened before the roll becomes greater than

-is customary; it will thus become firmer throughout. Some upper leather

-and especially sheepskins for lining purposes are aided by freezing,

-since the leather becomes white and plump and also is of a bright color,

-though the durability is somewhat lessened.

-

-The popularity of white leather for shoes is increasing wonderfully.

-There is good reason for this. The modern white shoes have a stylish and

-fashionable appearance which has won the hearts of women of all ages and

-conditions, and when they want a thing, there is always alertness in

-supplying it. The new love for white shoes is interesting to trace. Years

-ago white leather for shoes was made principally from deerskins. But

-this leather, while attractive when new, would stretch soon after being

-worn, and take on a yellowish tinge. Besides, the price of such shoes

-was very high, and it is not surprising that they became supplanted by

-the cheaper, but attractive and useful, white canvas shoes, which became

-quick sellers during the season.

-

-It is greatly to the credit of our tanners that they have been able to

-perfect and put on the market a white leather for shoes which answers

-all requirements satisfactorily. This leather is made from cowhides; the

-white color will not fade nor turn yellow, and best of all, the leather

-can be easily cleaned and made to look good as new. Another advantage is

-that such leathers can be used in shoes that sell at popular prices.

-

-There are many common, commercial grades of upper leather.

-

-Willow calf is a fine, soft, chrome tannage of calfskin. It is sold in

-three colors, light tan, ox blood, and olive-brown. The distinguishing

-features of this leather are its durability and the fact that it always

-keeps soft and pliable. It is adapted to the highest quality of men’s and

-women’s shoes.

-

-Box calf is a storm-calf leather of highest quality. It is a waterproof,

-chrome tannage in a medium tan color, with a dull finish. This is the

-best leather obtainable for rough, outdoor wear, walking shoes, hunting

-boots, etc. It is also adapted to men’s and women’s very fine footwear.

-There is a growing demand for this kind of shoe. In the uppers of the

-best storm shoes you will always find box calf.

-

-Royal kid is a black chrome calfskin, dull finished with a smooth,

-natural grain of fine texture, soft and pliable. It is used for vamps

-and whole shoes of the highest grades for men and women, and is a very

-popular material for the fall and winter shoe. The desirable qualities

-of fine calf leather are making the demand for it grow faster than the

-supply of raw material increases.

-

-Tan royal is a tan color, chrome calf leather, smooth finish, fine grain,

-excellent cutting qualities, uniform, of medium rich tan shades. Tan calf

-leather is very attractive and the tan shoe is now a staple product.

-

-Cadet kid is a bright black, smooth-finished, chrome calfskin for men’s

-and women’s fine shoes. This tannage and finish give a remarkable

-cutting value. The stability of this stock is entirely unique and makes

-the finished shoe stand up, keeping its much desired shape through the

-different tests of manufacturing. It is said to be the best calfskin, by

-the best judges, the shoe manufacturers.

-

-Bronko patent is distinguished for its fine, coltskin-effect grain. It

-has a rich and lustrous black patent finish. The results obtained from

-bronko patent in its workings through the shoe factory and its wearing

-qualities afterward have never been equaled. Bronko is one of the finest

-results of the development of chrome patent leather.

-

-Cadet kid side is a chrome side leather that closely imitates the

-calfskin, called cadet kid. It has a bright, lustrous finish, and a

-remarkably fine grain. It is surprisingly like fine calf leather in

-appearance.

-

-Cadet calf sides are similar to cadet kid sides with the exception of a

-boarded finish. This is another black chrome, side leather which comes

-very near to a calfskin.

-

-Mat royal chrome side is a special finish, closely resembling calf, used

-for the tops of men’s and women’s medium fine shoes.

-

-Black hawk patent is a well-tanned, well-finished patent leather for

-medium-priced women’s shoes and for tipping.

-

-Colored box chrome side, boarded, is a substitute for willow calf.

-

-Black box chrome side, boarded, is a substitute for box calf in medium

-fine shoes.

-

-Kangaroo kid side is a back-tanned, dull, smooth, black leather nearly

-like calf, used in the tops of men’s shoes, and men’s and women’s whole

-shoes.

-

-Waterproof black is a high quality leather of great durability for men’s

-and boys’ heavy shoes. Waterproof brown is similar to waterproof black,

-except in color, and is a leather made for hard service.

-

-Amhide black is a soft, dry, high-grade tannage for lightweight,

-comfortable, sporting, work, and hard-wear shoes.

-

-Amhide russet is like black amhide in everything but color.

-

-Hercules storm chrome is a leather distinguished for its fine grain and

-good appearance of medium heavy weight.

-

-Boris is a heavy-weight, soft, waterproof leather for men’s medium

-quality shoes. It is finished in three colors and black.

-

-Zulu is a medium-priced leather, which makes a very fine wearing heavy

-shoe. It is made in two colors and black.

-

-Bison is a colored or black-finished leather, of a high grade, very

-comfortable and durable.

-

-Ottawa is of two colors and black finished, and is suitable for high

-quality, heavy, rough shoes.

-

-Sheboygan calf is a heavily stuffed, soft, waterproof leather. It is of

-two colors and black.

-

-Dongola calf is a black leather used for durable, medium-priced, heavy,

-outdoor shoes.

-

-Belt knife splits are sold in several tannages and finishes of the most

-improved manufacture. These splits are sorted in all weights. Uniform

-selection is maintained, and the quality in every way is of the highest

-order.

-

-Oxford calf union splits is one of the highest grades of grain-finished,

-union splits. It has an extremely soft and fine appearance.

-

-Cambridge calf union splits have a most careful and high-grade finish,

-but somewhat firmer than Oxford calf.

-

-Flesh splits are sold in two tannages. These are the highest-grade flesh

-splits that it is possible to make, and they are a long distance ahead of

-the ordinary flesh splits, their improved finish making them a modern and

-largely used substitute for satin.

-

-Ottawa black and russet splits include a variety of printed splits, used

-for shoes in combination with grain leather and for whole shoes. They

-are selected in many weights.

-

-Flexible splits for Goodyear, gem, McKay inner soles, is leather that

-offers the greatest advantages to large and small buyers. It is the

-product of six different tanneries, assorted in all the usual weights.

-Great care is taken in the manufacture of these splits to adapt them

-perfectly to the shoe manufacturer’s needs.

-

-Flexible bends are used by manufacturers of Goodyear welt shoes requiring

-a straight Goodyear or gem inner sole. They find these bends of great

-advantage on account of the small amount of waste, the strength and

-desirability of stock. They are made in six tannages.

-

-Chrome flexible splits for inner soles furnish a very strong and durable

-leather for inner soles, taps, and outer soles.

-

-Ooze gusset splits, colored, give a very low-priced leather suitable

-for gussets, bellows tongues for high-cut boots, also for the

-quarter-linings of Oxfords.

-

-Ooze vamp splits, black and colored, are strong, durable, low-priced

-leathers suitable for cheap work shoes where waterproof qualities are not

-required.

-

-Chrome-tanned embossed splits, colored, are made in a great variety of

-patterns for cheap shoes and other work where leather is required. They

-are durable and low priced.

-

-

-LEATHER FOR BELTING

-

-A native steer about four years old, killed in the month of October,

-affords the best example of a good hide for belting manufacture, that is,

-for the transmission of power from pulley to pulley. At this age and at

-this season the steer is in prime condition.

-

-On account of the great and enormous strain put upon belting, and the

-necessity for its running true upon the pulley, it should be of the

-highest grade possible, combining great strength to prevent stretching,

-and evenness of grain to insure long wear; therefore only hides of

-selected steers are serviceable, and these in turn are rejected when they

-contain any blemishes or cuts or other imperfections. After a hide is

-accepted for belting purposes, it is subjected to a generous trimming,

-the head, neck, legs, and belly being cut away, leaving only a small and

-compact section embracing from two to two and a quarter feet on each side

-of the backbone and extending about six feet along the same from the tail

-forward. This is the portion of the hide where the fibers are closely and

-firmly knit together, and where the vitality is the greatest, due to the

-close proximity of the network of nerves radiating from each side of the

-spine to all parts of the hide.

-

-The hides of the bull and cow of every breed are inferior for belting

-purposes to that of the steer. The hide of the bull is coarse and hard,

-with the neck very heavy and full of wrinkles, causing a variation in

-the thickness and run of the grain of the leather. The hide of the cow

-is thin, does not run uniform in thickness, being heavier on the hips

-than at the shoulder, and is lacking in the firmness necessary in good

-belting. The sharp angles of the hip bones of a cow also tend to form

-pockets in the hide.

-

-After the hide has been trimmed, it is subject to the process of

-“currying.” All membranes or particles of flesh adhering to the hide

-are removed by a machine which shaves the membrane, etc., off, with

-lightning rapidity. The leather is then washed and scoured by machine,

-which removes all dirt still adhering to the hide. After the leather

-is thoroughly cleaned and while in a damp state, it is placed upon the

-table, and greases, composed of pure animal oil, are worked into the

-leather on both the grain and the flesh side with brushes. This is

-carried on in the cold state. It is then put into a large revolving

-wheel containing water heated to a high degree, which causes the leather

-to swell and pores to open. The leather is then taken out and put into

-another wheel containing heavy mineral oil and heated several degrees

-greater than the water, and tumbled about in the wheel until the heavy

-oil fills the distended pores and fibers. After this, the leather is

-allowed to dry.

-

-The hides are allowed to remain for several months in the tan liquor

-until the green hide is changed into leather.

-

-After the hide has been changed into leather, it is stretched. To

-properly stretch the leather for belting purposes, it must first be cut

-so as to remove that part which shows the markings of the backbone of the

-steer.

-

-Leather is stretched by placing it in clamps, every part of the piece

-getting the same pull. (The leather is put into the clamps while damp,

-as damp leather will give the greatest amount of stretching.)

-

-When the stretching process is completed and the leather has thoroughly

-dried in stretching clamps, it is released. These pieces of leather

-are quite dry, very firm, and not very pliable. The leather is now

-moistened in order that it shall be more pliable as it passes through the

-finishing processes. After the water has soaked into the leather (called

-sammied), it becomes very soft. It is then subjected to a roller under

-heavy pressure to take all the unevenness out of the hide. It is next

-thoroughly dried, causing the fibers to shrink; then again moistened and

-put through a polishing machine, which acts on the same principle as the

-rolling jack.

-

-The sides and centers are now put through a cutting machine, which

-reduces the leather to strips of different sizes.

-

-Belts are put together by cementing the parts. Belt cement is a most

-powerful adhesive. It actually governs the strength of the belt, as the

-belt is as strong as the weakest part of the joint.

-

-

-RAWHIDE PRODUCTS

-

-Rawhide is used for a great many purposes. After the side of leather has

-been trimmed of the portions that cannot be used, it is sold to the lace

-maker. He measures the same in a machine.

-

-The trimmings from the side of the hide may be used for a mallet head

-or other tools made of leather. The most common products of the strong

-section of rawhide strings are shoe strings, belting laces, and parts of

-harnesses. It is also made into leather shoe strings that are used in the

-logging camps.

-

-When the hide is selected for the rawhide purposes, it is first passed to

-a de-hairing machine, where all the hair is removed. It is then fleshed;

-that is, all loose membrane and any flesh that may have adhered to the

-hide are removed from the flesh side. The rawhide is then placed in a

-special bath for the purpose of opening the pores, before the oils and

-greases are added to it. After this bath, it is dried thoroughly in a hot

-box and then put into wheels which mill the greases into the hide.

-

-The hide, which is made hard by this drying process, is put through

-breakers, where it is thoroughly worked into soft and pliable form.

-

-The hide is next passed to the setting-out machine, which finishes all

-forms of leather--by condensing and strengthening the fibers. Special

-oils are applied to both the grain and flesh side of the hide. It is

-finished by hand and cut into laces. This hand finishing is usually done

-in order to reject all parts that are not perfect.

-

-Haired leather is tanned by acid--a quicker method. The hide is split

-into sides and tanned with the belly stock on them, which is used for

-car straps, cowbell straps, trunk straps, and riding bridles.

-

-

-THE BY-PRODUCTS OF A LEATHER BELTING FACTORY

-

-There are a great many by-products in a leather belting factory, all of

-which are used. The finest strips are used for whip lashes, small pieces

-are used for the French heel, and the extremely small pieces are used in

-leather mats.

-

-The by-product from the belting bull, which is about fifty per cent, is

-used for shoe leather and leather straps. There is considerable leather

-taken from the belting bull for certain harness work. The belly is thick

-and porous though not tough, and is used for halters, cow bridles, and

-other parts of harness where the strain is not great.

-

-

-ROUND BELT MAKING

-

-Round belt is made from the best belting, but while the strain on round

-belting is not severe, the leather must be soft and pliable. It is

-selected from regular stock of native steer hide.

-

-

-PROPERTIES OF TANNED LEATHER

-

-Leather that has been tanned is made up of a great many little bundles of

-fibers. The coarser and stronger fibers are on the inside, and the very

-fine and smoothly laid fibers are on the outside. These fibers are so

-intertwined and so elastic that when the leather bends these bundles play

-on one another. On account of the smoothness of the surface it may be

-polished, and beautiful finishes and effects obtained on the leather.

-

-The elasticity of leather (which is due to the elasticity of its fibers)

-allows it to stretch to a great extent. The tendency to return to its

-original position is very strong at the beginning, but grows weaker if

-the strain is continued at any one point. Of course, in stretching the

-leather, there is always a corresponding drawing in another part of the

-shoe, which gives it a worn and baggy appearance.

-

-When shoes are removed from the feet, they are oftentimes damp, due

-to perspiration. The stretched or strained fibers are apt to shrink

-and return to their original position. In order to avoid this, it is

-necessary to place shoe-trees in them.

-

-When the linings of shoes are exposed to friction and excretion of

-perspiration from the feet of some people, they deteriorate. This is due

-to the fact that the acids of perspiration (acetic, formic and butyric

-acids) have become so concentrated that they act on the fibers of the

-leather. These acids exert a burning effect, causing the fibers to lose

-their elasticity so that they no longer play on one another, but become

-fastened to each other. The result is that they become hard, and any

-attempt to bend the leather tears them apart; and once the union of

-fibers is destroyed it cannot be repaired.

-

-In order to keep the fibers in such a condition (soft and flexible), they

-should be lubricated often (twice a week) with a liquid followed by a wax

-paste, usually called shoe dressing. When a brush or a piece of cloth is

-rubbed over the surface of leather containing the shoe lubricants (shoe

-polish), it produces a smooth surface called a “shine.”

-

-Compounds which shine without friction produced by brush or cloth should

-not be used, as they are simply varnishes and one coat on top of the

-other destroys the leather.

-

-

-SUBSTITUTES FOR LEATHER

-

-In olden times our fathers and mothers used handmade shoes, and wore

-them till they had passed their period of usefulness. At that time the

-consumption did not equal the production of leather. Knowledge of

-conditions in the great western countries to-day will show that many of

-the big cattle-raising sections, once famed for their cattle, have been

-taken up by homesteaders and are now producing grain instead of cattle.

-But since the appearance of the machine-made shoe, different styles of

-shoes are placed on the market at different seasons, to correspond to

-the change of style of clothing, and shoes are often discarded before

-they are worn out. We have not been able thus far to utilize cast-off

-leather as the shoddy mill uses wool and silk, etc. The result is that

-the consumption of leather is above the production, therefore substitutes

-must be used.

-

-In shoe materials there is at present an astonishing diversity and

-variety. Every known leather is used from kid to cowhide, and textile

-fabrics have developed rapidly, especially in the making of women’s and

-children’s shoes. The satins, velvets, serges, and other fabrics that

-are used in the manufacture of shoes must be firm and well woven, and

-are usually supplied with a backing of firm, canvas-like fabric, to give

-strength.

-

-As to wearing quality the old saying, “There is nothing like leather,”

-still holds good; but people do not buy shoes for their wearing qualities

-alone in these days. Style and intrinsic beauty are considered, and have

-a cash value just as in any other article of apparel.

-

-Each fabric is made of two sets of threadlike yarn woven at right angles

-to each other. They are called the warp and filling (weft). The warp is

-composed of yarn running the longest way of the fabric, and filling runs

-the short way of the fabric. Since the warp is the body of the cloth, it

-is its strongest part and all fabric in shoes should be placed warpwise

-across the foot of the wearer, so as to be able to resist the great

-strain.

-

-Various attempts have been made for legislation to prohibit the treating

-of leather by chemicals or the use of substances to increase its weight.

-Complaints have been made by a number of shoe manufacturers that the

-excessive use of glucose (a form of sugar) in sole leather has resulted

-in injuring the leather and fabrics composing the uppers of shoes.

-

-Representatives of large leather firms claim that the methods of tanning

-sole leather have radically changed during the last few years, and that

-the small quantity of glucose and epsom salts that is used to-day in

-finishing sole leather is absolutely necessary to its value, and is in

-no sense an adulterant or weighting material. Shoe manufacturers, on the

-other hand, claim that in some cases larger amounts of glucose, salt,

-etc., have been added to the soft leather from the belly of the animal,

-in order to give it the desired stiffness. On account of the high price

-of leather, various attempts have been made to find a substitute for

-it. Most of these substitutes consist of strong cloth treated with some

-drying oil like linseed, the oil having previously been mixed with other

-solid substances.

-

-A prize of five thousand francs has been awarded to a Belgian inventor,

-Louis Gevaert, for his unusually superior artificial leather. The process

-consists in the more or less intimate impregnation of stout cloth with

-tannic albuminoid substances. Shoes made of this are said to possess not

-only the resistance and elasticity of natural leather, but its durability

-of wear. Moreover, they are much cheaper, costing, including manufacture,

-only four francs (about eighty cents) and being sold at about six francs

-per pair.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER FOUR

-

-THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT

-

-

-Very few people, even among those engaged in the shoe industry, know much

-of the anatomy of the foot. Yet it is evident that they ought to know

-something about it in order to furnish the foot with a proper covering.

-

-The first thing that strikes a person on looking at the human foot is its

-large proportion of bone. On pressing its top surface and that of its

-inner side, the amount of flesh will be found to be very small, indeed.

-The same is true of the inner and outer ankle. The extreme back of the

-ankle has scarcely any flesh covering. The most fleshy portions of the

-foot are its outer side, the base of the heel and the ball of the big

-toe.

-

-The reason for this disposition of flesh is to protect or cover those

-parts of the foot that support the body by coming in contact with the

-ground. They act as pads and lessen the concussion. The abundance of

-flesh on the outer side of the foot is to protect or act as a shield

-against danger. The inside of the foot is not exposed as much as the

-outside.

-

-The foot is divided into three parts, the toes, the waist and instep,

-and the heel and ankle. The largest bone of the foot is the heel bone

-(called calcaneum). It is the bone that projects backward from the

-principal joint and forms the main portion of the heel. When a person is

-flat-footed, this bone is thrust farther backward than nature intended to

-have it. The connection between it and the tarsal bones is lost.

-

-[Illustration: The Bones and Joints of the Human Foot.]

-

-[Illustration: The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle. _See page 86._]

-

-The top bone of the foot is the astragalus, and it forms the main joint

-upon which the process of walking depends. This bone has a smooth,

-circular, upper surface that connects it with the main bone of the lower

-leg. It is absolutely necessary that this bone should be in perfect

-harmony (relation) with the others in order to insure comfort and health.

-If the arches of the foot are forced out of position, up or down or

-sidewise, this joint is not permitted to do its work normally.

-

-Rheumatism is a frequent evil of an injured joint. Hence the necessity of

-absolutely normal action, unhampered by ill-fitting shoes.

-

-The principal arch of the instep is called the cuneiform or tarsal bone.

-Persons are troubled with defective insteps to quite an extent. Misshapen

-joints at this point due to shoes that do not fit and consequently

-disarrange and throw out of position the delicate, natural structure,

-work great havoc with the comfort of the foot. Nine joints cluster at

-this point.

-

-The bones of the toes are called the metatarsal bones and phalanges.

-There can be no doubt that nature intended mankind to walk in his

-bare feet, and in that event the phalanges of the foot would occupy a

-much more important part than is now the case as a result of modern

-civilization. There are nineteen bones in the foot, and the disturbance

-of one or more of these will serve to upset the entire foot by throwing

-out of relationship the general unit of work devolving upon the whole

-number of joints and bones. Each joint has its accompaniment of muscles,

-and each lack of alignment of bones and joints provokes discord and lack

-of harmony in the muscular action.

-

-Muscles are attached to bones, and by their contraction or extension the

-bones are moved. Very few movements are effected by means of a single

-muscle. The muscles of the foot in nearly all cases are in combination,

-and are so complex in their action that the best surgeons find it

-difficult to describe them satisfactorily.

-

-The chief characteristics of the foot are its spring and elasticity.

-While the foot has wonderful powers of resistance and adaptability, it

-is the shoemaker’s duty not to strain the same, but to provide for each

-action.

-

-The most sensitive part or the one part that is most susceptible of

-injury is the big toe. This is due to the fact that the tendency of

-the foot in walking is to travel toward the toe of the boot, and in a

-word to press into rather than shun danger. The shoemaker provides for

-this, first, by allowing sufficient length of sole to extend beyond the

-termination of the toe, and second, by the fit of the upper and the

-preparation of the sole. In this way, if the toe of the shoe strikes

-against a hard substance, the big toe of the foot will remain untouched.

-

-Seventy-five per cent of the people have more or less trouble with their

-feet. Some of these troubles are caused by the manufacturer putting on

-the market shoes whose lines look handsome and attractive to the eye,

-but are lacking in any other good features. Shoes that fit properly

-should have plenty of room from the large toe joint to the end of the

-toes, and also should have plenty of tread, especially at this point.

-

-A mere glance at our bare foot will show conclusively that pointed-toe

-boots are false in the theory of design. The toes of a foot when off

-duty touch each other gently. When they are called on to assist us in

-walking or in supporting our body, they spread out--although not to any

-great extent. This, then, being the action, no sensible maker of boots

-and shoes would attempt to restrain them. Box or puff-toe shoes allow the

-greatest freedom.

-

-The pointed-toe shoes, which join the vamp to the upper immediately over

-the big toe joint, exceedingly high heels, and thick waist shoes are not

-for the best interests of the foot.

-

-The evils of ill-fitting shoes are corns, bunions, and calluses.

-

-Corns are mainly due to pressure and friction. When the layers of skin

-become hardened, they form a corn, which is merely a growth of dead

-skin that has become hard in the center. This hardened spot acts like a

-foreign body to the inflamed parts.

-

-A hard corn is formed more by friction than pressure. It is produced by

-the constant rubbing of a tight or small shoe against the projecting

-parts of some prominent bony part, as the last joints on the third,

-fourth, and little toe. When this action continues, it produces

-inflammation. Rest--as relieving the feet of the friction--decreases

-this inflammation, leaving a layer of hardened flesh. Renewed action

-reproduces the same effects, leaving behind a second layer of hardened

-flesh. This continued action and reaction brings on a callus, rising

-above the surface of the skin. This increases from its base. An ordinary

-hard corn may be removed by scraping up the callous skin around its

-border, and prying out carefully with a knife. Soft corns are chiefly

-the result of pressure or friction. These corns are soft and spongy

-elevations on the parts of the skin subjected to pressure. Soft corns are

-mostly found on the inner side of the smaller toes. Those on the surface

-of joints by mechanical action will become hard.

-

-The blood corn is excessively painful. It is the result of an ordinary

-corn forcibly displacing the blood vessels surrounding it, and causing

-them to rest upon its surface.

-

-The bunion is an inflammatory swelling generally to be found on the big

-toe joint. The chief cause of bunions is known to be the wearing of boots

-or shoes of insufficient length. The foot, meeting with resistance in

-front and behind, is robbed of its natural actions, the result being

-that the big toe is forced upward, and subjected to continuous friction

-and pressure. The wearing of narrow-toe boots that prevent the outward

-expansion of the toe is another cause.

-

-The comparisons of quantities are often called ratios. The ratios of the

-different parts of the foot to the height are different in the infant

-from that of the adult period. Between these two periods the ratios are

-constantly changing.

-

-There are two series of shoe sizes on the market; the smallest size of

-shoe for infants (size No. 1) is, or was originally, four inches long;

-each added full size indicates an increase in length of one third of an

-inch (sizes 1 to 5). Children’s sizes run in two series, 5 to 8, and 8

-to 11; then they branch out into youths’ and misses’; both running 11½,

-12, 12½, 13, 13½ and back again to 1, 1½, 2, etc., in a series of sizes

-that run up into men’s and women’s. Boys’ shoes run from 2½ to 5½; men’s

-from 6 to 11 in regular runs. Larger sizes usually are made upon special

-orders. Some few manufacturers go to 12. Women’s sizes run from 2½ to 9.

-Some manufacturers do not go above size 8. The rate of sizes is sometimes

-varied from by manufacturers of special lines of shoes. A man’s No. 8

-shoe would be nearly eleven inches long. These measurements originated in

-England and are not now absolute.

-

-A system of French sizes is used which consists of a cipher system of

-markings to indicate the sizes as well as widths so that the real size

-may not be known to the customer.

-

-All feet are not alike in structure and shape. In infancy the foot is

-broad at the toes, which press forward in the direction of their length.

-The heel is small in comparison to the width of the toes, and also short

-in length, due to the undeveloped bones. But during growth, the thickness

-above the heel bones disappears, and the heel itself becomes thicker and

-assumes the beauty of perfection at maturity. This development is due

-to the growth of bones which must be well exercised and properly cared

-for during this period. The various parts of the feet and legs do not

-mature at the same rate--those at the upper part of the body increase at

-a greater rate than the lower parts. Thighs develop first, next the upper

-part of the legs, and lastly the feet.

-

-The adult foot, when properly formed, is straight from heel to toe on the

-inner side, and is wider across the joints than one inch or so farther

-back. The manner of walking has a considerable bearing on the character

-and development of the foot.

-

-There are many sorts of feet, which are due to a number of causes, such

-as habits, climate, occupation, locality, etc. As a general rule we may

-divide the feet into four classes: Bony feet--those with very little

-flesh upon them; hard feet--those that have plenty of flesh, but which

-are almost as hard as a stone; fat feet--plump, with plenty of flesh, but

-having little shape; spongy feet--those that seem to have no bones in

-them, usually found in the female sex.

-

-The characteristics of a foot are common with the body to which it is

-connected. Some people have a strong, bony frame, with strong, firm

-muscles, prominent bones and muscles, and a flesh that is hard. The

-feet of this type of person are usually long, bony, and arched, with

-a well-developed big toe joint. The heel measurements are large in

-proportion. A soft foot is prevalent among the Scotch. The feet of a

-person who is delicately shaped, with a small frame and thin, small,

-tapering muscles, are usually thin and finely formed, giving evidence of

-quickness. This kind of a foot in a man has a tendency to develop a flat

-foot.

-

-A person with a form inclined to plumpness, full of exercise and

-activity, and a good circulation, has a well-developed foot. The heel

-is round and fairly prominent, although there are no special bony

-prominences. On the other hand a person with a body of general roundness,

-but with tissues and muscles flabby, and a languid blood circulation, has

-feet that are short, soft, and flabby.

-

-We will allow that these four different kinds of feet all measure a 4

-size and D in width. One would naturally think that the same size shoe

-would fit them all, but this is not so. This size shoe will only fit one

-and that is the bony foot. The hard feet require a C½ width; the fat feet

-require a C width, and the sponge feet require a B width.

-

-The same last may, and often will possess a slight variation in some

-manner or other. The fitter of feet must know the stock, each pair, and

-be on intimate terms with the peculiarities of each last and the inside

-lines of each pair of shoes before attempting to try them upon the feet

-of the customer.

-

-Different makes of footwear are apt to be manufactured over a slightly

-varying system of measurements. One line of shoes made over a small

-measure may be longer or shorter or narrower or wider than some other

-line. The heel measurements require careful study for each line

-introduced. The peculiarities of each line must be tested by tape and

-measure, and the foot fitter must have a strong knowledge along these

-lines.

-

-We should measure the foot by the stick if necessary, and make a note

-of the size and width that will be likely to prove a fit. The height of

-the arch must be considered, and the shape of arch curve, the shape of

-the instep, and the general contour of the foot. A normal foot will show

-about a half-inch arch. The average foot will carry from an inch to an

-inch and a quarter heel, without putting a strain on any of the joints of

-the foot. Some feet vary from this by a wide margin. A foot is a trifle

-longer in walking than in repose. Allowance should be made, in using the

-measuring stick, over what the foot actually draws on the stick. In men’s

-shoes the allowance, should be from two to two and one half sizes.

-

-When a one-legged man buys a shoe, the dealer sends to the factory a shoe

-to match the one left remaining. In these days of the use of machinery

-in every process of their manufacture, shoes are made with the utmost

-exactness and precision, and it is easily possible to mate that remaining

-shoe with the greatest nicety in size, style, material, and finish.

-

-Few people have feet exactly alike; commonly the left foot is larger than

-the right, so that one shoe may fit a little more snugly than the other.

-Commonly, however, people buy shoes in regularly matched pairs, the

-difference in their feet, if it is noticeable to them at all, not being

-enough to make any other course desirable.

-

-But there are people who buy shoes of different sizes or widths, in

-which case the dealer breaks two pairs for them, giving them, to fit

-their feet, one shoe from each. In such cases the dealer matches up the

-two remaining shoes, one from each of two pairs just as he would where he

-had broken one pair to sell one shoe to a one-legged man.

-

-But a man does not have to be one-legged nor to have feet of uneven

-sizes or shapes to make him ask the dealer to break a pair of shoes for

-him. A man with two perfectly good feet came into the store where he was

-accustomed to buy and wanted one shoe. While traveling in a sleeping car,

-his shoes had been mixed up with others and he had received back one of

-his own and one of some other man’s; a fact which he had not discovered

-until he was too far away from train and station to set things right. So

-he came in to buy one shoe to match his own.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER FIVE

-

-HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE

-

-

-If you examine the shoes worn by people in a large city, you will notice

-different styles. Shoe styles that were called grotesque a few seasons

-ago are comparatively usual to-day, for the new designs in women’s

-footwear, which manufacturers are now making, are the most varied that

-ever have been put on the market. Pink and green and blue are among the

-new colors in materials for footwear.

-

-Some of the styles for the coming seasons are more lavish than have

-hitherto been seen in the women’s shoe trade of America. Coronation

-purple velvet boots look like an extravagant color for footwear, but they

-are now selling. Samples of pink, green, and blue shoes, both boots and

-pumps, are being made up, and they will soon be offered to buyers.

-

-The style of the shoe is dominated by fashion. All styles are related,

-that is, every part of our dress is influenced by the prevailing fashion,

-ideas of color, fabric, or garment outline. To illustrate: when short

-skirts are stylish, women wear mannish shoes to harmonize with them; on

-the other hand, with long skirts they must have a shoe that is neat and

-small, hence, the short vamp. When women wear white in the summer, cool

-canvas shoes spring into favor; when gray and blue dress materials are to

-be used, a variety of tan shoes are worn to harmonize, etc.

-

-After the style has been decided upon, it is necessary to work out an

-exact reproduction. An expert model maker, called a last maker, produces

-a last, a wooden model of the shoe. In order to do this, it is necessary

-to lay out certain plans or specifications for the details of the

-manufacturer of the shoe.

-

-There are certain parts of all feet that have fixed measurements. To

-illustrate: the length of the shank, that part of the sole of the foot

-between the heel and ball, in every person’s foot is always the same. The

-part of the foot back of the ball or large toe joint conforms to certain

-fixed measurements. These definite measurements form a basis by which the

-last maker originates new styles by shortening, lengthening, widening, or

-narrowing the space in front of the toes, but always retaining the true

-and fixed measurements of the back part of the last.

-

-When the last maker desires to produce a new style, he takes an old last

-and tacking pieces of leather on some parts of it (front of the toes), he

-builds it up and cuts off other parts. This patched-up last is taken to a

-special machine (lathe), where a number of duplicates are turned from a

-block of wood.

-

-The “pattern maker” is the man in the factory who makes patterns,

-consisting of heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass, in the shapes

-of the various pieces of leather required to make up the upper part of

-the shoe.

-

-The pattern maker has found by experience that the top part of the shoe

-also conforms to certain fixed measurements, and by working in sympathy

-with the last maker he need only to change the front part of the vamp to

-bring out the latter’s ideas. With these measurements as a foundation, he

-puts forth from time to time different style uppers, as buttons, lace,

-blucher, fixings, scrolls, straps, ties, pumps, etc. This is the way new

-style tops originate.

-

-After the manufacturer has approved of sample patterns, the pattern

-maker receives an order for a certain quantity of patterns to be made

-over a certain last which is submitted to him. Working on the fixed top

-measurements and the last submitted as a basis, the pattern maker draws

-plans for a model pattern. The standard size of a model pattern is size

-7 in men’s shoes and size 4 in women’s. He is also given an order for a

-certain number of widths; for instance, B, C, D, and E, and he draws out

-on paper a complete set for each width in the size 7. These four sets of

-model patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet iron by hand. But from

-these sheets any number of iron models, and any size regular cardboard

-pattern can be reproduced by a machine.

-

-Wood to be made into lasts comes to the shoe manufacturers in a rough,

-unchiseled form. The lasts are made of maple wood; hollow forms used by

-traveling salesmen and window trimmers are made of bass wood.

-

-The making of the model of the last is the most exacting operation in the

-factory. It is produced by a machine most important. The principle of

-this machine has been brought about by the pantograph; that is, it will

-turn from a rough block of wood an exact copy of the model last; or it

-will enlarge or reduce a duplicate of any other size or width, so, from a

-single model last, such as the manufacturer has decided on, any number of

-lasts can be made, and of any size or width. The machine itself consists

-of two lathes. On one is placed the model and on the other the block of

-wood. The model is held against a wheel by a spring. By adjusting this

-wheel, any desired width last can be obtained, and by adjusting a bar in

-front of the machine any length last can be produced from the block of

-wood.

-

-[Illustration: Rough Unchiseled Block of Maple.

-

-A Last after leaving Turning Lathe.

-

-A Finished Last.]

-

-The lathe, when in motion, revolves both the last and the model, the

-model being pressed against the wheel, which is really a guide for the

-revolving knife that digs into the block of wood, and regulates the depth

-that the knife is allowed to cut. In this manner the model is reproduced

-from the block which is also regulated as to size and width by the wheel

-and by the bar. This machine is so accurate that a tack driven into the

-model to locate the center of the last is reproduced by a sort of a

-wooden pimple in the block of wood when finished. The model sole pattern

-is now tried on the half-finished last to insure accuracy.

-

-Notice in the figures of lasts that the turning lathe has left stubs of

-wood on the toes and heels. These must be finished to a “templet.” The

-templet is a measure or guide used to indicate the shape any piece of

-work is to assume when finished. From the heel and toe of the model, a

-piece of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that model, and is used on

-the heeler machine as a guide to form an exact copy of the heels and

-toes of the model. This machine works very rapidly, and by the aid of

-an irregular shaped, revolving knife it quickly transforms the toes and

-heels to the desired shape. The bottoms are again tried out on a sole

-pattern and the last number, the size and the width are stamped on.

-

-We now have the last as a solid piece of maple wood and turned to the

-desired shape, size and width. Were it possible to insert and extract

-the last in this form from the half-finished shoe, no other steps

-would be necessary in last manufacture, but inasmuch as the leather is

-stretched very tightly over this last a little later, it necessitates the

-introduction of some method that will facilitate a quick removal of the

-last from the shoe. This is accomplished by cutting it in two parts and

-making a hinged heel. The fact that the slightest measurement changes

-the size of the shoe, necessitates great care in the introduction of

-the hinge as a part of the last, and in order to insure accuracy and

-uniformity in all the lasts, they are marked with templets and gigs. The

-hinge must be placed inside of the last.

-

-The finished last is so constructed that it can be readily inserted or

-withdrawn from the shoe, and the strong hinge provides the last, when

-inserted, with the same rigid qualities as though it were one piece. The

-center of the last is indicated, as before stated, by a reproduction in

-the side of the last of the tack that was placed in the model. This is

-the mark that locates the position of all the holes, and it is done by a

-“gig” in the following manner:--

-

-A gig is a piece of steel having cylinders that guide the bit of the

-boring machine in an exact perpendicular line. This gig, being placed

-on the last in the position marked by the turning machine, forms the

-accurate location of the bolt holes that hold the hinge.

-

-After the hinge is placed in the last, it goes to the ironers to have

-the bottom put on it, if it is a McKay last, and a heel plate if it is a

-welt. The bottom is again tried and the plate filled up to the same. The

-last is then ready to go to the scouring room. In this room the last goes

-through three operations, first of which is ruffing. This consists of

-scouring with a coarse grade of quartz. This operation must be carried on

-so that the sole lines and insteps are not brought into contact with the

-quartz.

-

-The second operation, medium grinding, is done with a fine grade of

-quartz, and in this operation, also, the worker keeps away from the toe.

-The third operation is done with a much finer-grade quartz, the operator

-going over the entire last. The last is now ready for polishing, and

-after that, for a heavy coat of shellac. It is polished and waxed on a

-leather wheel. Then it goes into the shipping room ready for shipment to

-the manufacturer.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER SIX

-

-DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY--GOODYEAR WELT SHOES

-

-

-The principal methods of manufacturing shoes are the following:--

-

-Goodyear welt; McKay; turned; standard screw; pegged; nailed.

-

-The simplest and the clearest way of showing how the various kinds of

-shoes are made is to explain the manufacture of a Goodyear welt and

-afterwards bring out the points in which this method of shoemaking

-differs from the others.

-

-Shoes are manufactured in up-to-date factories, employing hundreds of

-operatives. The modern shoe factory of to-day is divided into six general

-departments: the sole leather department, upper leather department,

-stitching department, making department, finishing department, and the

-treeing, packing, and shipping departments.

-

-In some sections of the country, several of these departments are often

-designated by other names. The stitching department is often called the

-fitting department; the making department, the bottoming department;

-and the sole leather department, the stock-fitting department. The

-departments are popularly termed rooms for brevity.

-

-A shoe factory is designed so as to have a width of about fifty feet

-for each room, while the length is according to the number of shoes to

-be produced. A width of about fifty feet gives plenty of daylight and

-ample room in the center of each department, which is very essential in

-shoemaking.

-

-[Illustration: A Modern Shoe Factory.]

-

-Shoe factories are usually about two hundred feet long, while many are

-nearly four hundred feet. A few exceed four hundred feet, running as long

-as eight hundred feet. Some are built in the shape of hollow squares,

-while others have wings added, which give almost as much floor space as

-the original building.

-

-The average factory has usually four floors. The first floor, or

-basement, is occupied by the sole leather department. The next floor

-above includes the treeing, finishing, packing, and shipping departments,

-and also the office. The third floor is devoted entirely to the making or

-bottoming department. The top floor is divided so that the cutting and

-stitching departments have each half a floor.

-

-There are several exceedingly large factories in this country that find

-it advantageous to divide the factory into more departments, as, for

-example, the cutting room is divided so that the linings and trimmings

-are cut in a separate department. The skiving may also be done in a

-separate room. The making room will be divided so that the lasting is set

-off as a separate department on account of the many workmen and machines

-employed. In the same way there will be a division of work so that the

-packing and shipping will be set apart from the treeing. Then, again, in

-the sole leather room, the making of heels as well as the fitting of the

-bottom stock may become independent departments.

-

-The system of making women’s shoes is practically the same as that of

-men’s except that in a great many factories the method of preparing the

-bottom stock is somewhat different. Most manufacturers of women’s shoes

-do not cut sole leather, but buy outsoles, insoles, counters, and heels,

-all cut or prepared. These soles are in blocked form and large enough so

-that they can be cut or rounded by the manufacturers to fit their lasts.

-The counters, when bought, are all ready to put in the uppers, while the

-heels are ready to put on the shoes. Whenever a manufacturer of women’s

-shoes cuts his sole leather, he has the same system as that in the men’s

-factories.

-

-In women’s factories where sole leather is not cut, they do not have a

-complete sole leather department. Instead, they have what is called a

-stock-fitting department. There are independent cut sole houses, etc., in

-the trade, which supply the soles to manufacturers. The same system of

-buying supplies also applies to many other parts of the shoe, as in the

-top lift, half sole, welt, rand, etc. In the upper leather department,

-manufacturers of both men’s and women’s shoes often buy trimmings and

-other parts of the upper all prepared.

-

-A large proportion of the men’s shoe manufacturers are now buying heels

-all built, while fully nine tenths buy counters all molded. The soles and

-other parts that are needed for a shoe are put up in different qualities

-and grades, and a manufacturer can buy any grade of sole he wants, so

-that it is considered an advantage to buy some parts, instead of cutting

-them. In a side of sole leather there are twenty-five or more different

-qualities and grades of soles, and very few manufacturers, especially in

-the women’s trade, can use all of these. The greater variety of shoes a

-manufacturer turns out, the more advantageous it is for him to cut his

-own sole leather, and prepare all parts in his own factory.

-

-In this country the number of factories in the shoe trade appears to be

-growing less and the average factory larger each year. It is estimated

-that there are at present something like fifteen hundred factories in

-all. These range from the smallest product up to the largest. The average

-factory may be said to produce about twelve hundred pairs of shoes per

-day. Many turn out five thousand pairs daily, while a few manufacturers

-turn out ten thousand or more pairs. Several manufacturers and firms have

-half a dozen or more factories and have a total output of between twenty

-thousand and thirty thousand pairs of shoes a day. There is no such

-thing as a trust or monopoly of any kind in this trade, and there never

-has been up to the present time.

-

-In all factories and all classes of work, the “case” has always been

-of such a number of pairs that it can be divided by twelve in every

-instance. A case can be twelve, twenty-four, thirty-six, forty-eight,

-sixty, or seventy-two pairs, and in children’s work it is often sixty and

-seventy-two pairs. All cases of these numbers are regular cases, whereas

-any other number would be out of the ordinary. Of course, a case of shoes

-may contain any number of pairs, but the numbers given above have always

-been used in regular work.

-

-Cases of shoes may differ, but every pair of shoes in any one case must

-be made exactly alike. All shoes are made in cases, except in the matter

-of custom work or single-pair orders or samples. In making men’s heavy

-shoes, or working shoes, the regular case was formerly sixty pairs or

-thirty-six pairs, but the tendency has been of late to have a standard

-case of twenty-four pairs. In the men’s fine trade the regular case is

-twenty-four pairs, while in the women’s it is thirty-six pairs. Long

-boots for men have always been made in twelve-pair cases.

-

-Goods are sold by the samples, sent out with the traveling salesman. As

-fast as he receives an order, he sends it to the main office. Here the

-orders are subdivided and sent to the factories making the goods. For

-example, an order for seventy-five dozen men’s shoes of a certain style

-received by the main office from the traveling salesman would be sent

-to the factory in the form of a typewritten order, covering the general

-description and sizes written out in the proper form, for each case is

-made according to the specifications on the tags that are made out in the

-office. These tags specify the sole, heel, upper, kind and quality, how

-stitched, the last to be used, how bottomed finished, treed, and packed.

-Everything is marked plainly on the tags so that a buyer can have any

-shoe made just as he wants it.

-

-This order would be sent from the factory office to the cutting room,

-where a clerk would make out twenty-five long tickets.

-

-Twenty-five are made because the shoes go through the factory in lots

-of twenty-four pairs, each lot being called a job and when finished

-making a case of shoes. The long ticket is made in duplicate form, and is

-perforated so it may be tied to a lot of shoes. Both parts of the tickets

-are made out to contain the various operations with the specifications

-as to detail. The lower part is sent to the stock or sole leather room,

-while the top part remains with the uppers which are cut in the cutting

-room. While each part of the ticket is sent by a different route through

-the factory, they finally meet in the form of finished shoes.

-

-In addition to the long ticket already described, two other tickets are

-made out, the top ticket and the trimming ticket. The top ticket is sent

-to the leather bins of the factory, where the sorter knows by experience

-exactly the amount of leather required to cut the order, being careful to

-see that it is all of uniform quality and free from blemishes. He rolls

-the leather in a bundle, attaches the ticket and sends it to the cutter.

-

-In the cutting room there are three classes of cutters; cutter of

-trimmings, who cuts lace stays, top facings, back stays, tongues, etc.;

-outside cutter, who cuts quarters, vamps, tops, tips, etc.; and the

-lining cutter, who cuts cloth linings.

-

-[Illustration: A Nine and One-Half Foot Skin divided to best advantage

-before Cutting.]

-

-Skins of leather are received in the shoe factory in different shapes.

-Some are perfect, others have blemishes or imperfect spots. The skins

-that are to be used for upper stock are carefully graded by two or three

-men, as to quality of leather and weight. This is necessary in order to

-be sure that a lot of shoes made for a certain dealer will be uniform. On

-account of the leather coming in different shapes, some skins perfect,

-others having imperfect spots, the cutter must place his patterns in such

-a way that certain parts of the shoe will use up all the perfect parts,

-and others, less important, will be composed of the weaker parts of the

-skin. This explains why you sometimes find the inside top part of a shoe

-made of flanky leather, while the vamp is made of a better grade.

-

-There is a pattern for each and every size shoe, and each piece of

-leather is cut out separately on a block of wood. Nothing is wasted.

-In order to make each cutter as efficient as possible, the cutters are

-divided, so as to have a different cutter for each grade of leather. In

-this way they become better judges of leather.

-

-The lining cutters use patterns and knives on drilling. The facing is cut

-out with a knife and pattern. The side stays and the tongue are cut out

-by dies.

-

-After the leather has been cut into the desired shape, uppers, vamps, toe

-pieces, back stays, lace stays, etc., cutting at times ten pieces, and

-for some styles of shoes as many as fourteen pieces, the cutters take

-care to keep the parts for the same shoe together, matching and marking

-them so that eventually all will meet again in the shoe.

-

-Machines are used now on almost every operation, and annually several new

-machines make their appearance. The cutting of uppers up to four or five

-years ago was performed by an operator cutting the leather by running the

-knife along the side of the pattern. Now they are using a cutting machine

-and dies to cut uppers in nearly all factories. This cutting machine is

-called the “clicking machine,” and it is considered quite a labor saver

-in a department where it was the universal opinion that machines never

-could be used.

-

-It is impossible to give a list of all the operations performed and have

-it complete. But a good general idea of the system can be given and the

-name and meaning of the main operations in the several departments.

-It should be kept in mind that the methods in rooms differ, and that

-hardly any two factories put a shoe through in exactly the same manner.

-The general system and plan is the same everywhere and the machines are

-the same in all factories, but the details and minor operations are so

-numerous that there is plenty of scope for them to vary.

-

-The function of the clicking machine is to cut the upper leather into the

-desired shapes required. It consists of an iron frame, with a cutting

-board on the top of it. Above this is a large beam which can be swung to

-the right or left of any portion of the board. The skin to be cut, which

-may be of any kind, is placed on the board and a die of the design or

-shape of the leather desired is placed on it. The handle of the swinging

-beam is taken by the operator and moved over the die; then by pressure

-of the handle the beam is brought downward, pressing the die through the

-leather. As soon as this is done, the beam automatically returns to its

-full height.

-

-These dies are made in different designs and sizes to meet the different

-sizes and designs in the upper of the shoe. One die for each design and

-size. They mark the vamps for the location of the toe cap and blucher

-foxings as well as the size by means of nicks in the edge of the piece

-cut. The dies are about three-quarters of an inch in height and so light

-that they do not mar the most delicate leather.

-

-[Illustration: Cutting the Leather by Means of Pattern and Knife. _Page

-118._]

-

-[Illustration: Goodyear Stitching.

-

-A machine that sews around the edge of the welt and joins it to the sole

-exactly at the heel. _Page 119._]

-

-After the outside cutter has cut the skin into pieces to make up the

-shoe, these are tied up in separate bundles, that is, the twenty-four

-of tips in one bundle, twenty-four pairs of vamps in another. These are

-turned over to girls who stencil the sizes on the edge and match them,

-that is, see that each upper is exactly like the mate.

-

-After the different parts have been cut by the operator of the clicking

-machine or by hand, the edges of the upper leather, which shows in the

-finished shoe, must be thinned down (skived) by a “skiving machine” to a

-beveled edge. This is done in order that the edges of the leather that

-are to show in the completed shoe may be folded to give a more finished

-appearance. The machines are operated by girls; each one an expert on one

-particular piece.

-

-The order number and size of shoe are stamped on the top lining of each

-shoe. After all linings have been prepared, according to the data given

-on the instruction card attached to parts of the shoe, the parts are

-sent to the stitching department, where the stitchers on a multitude

-of machines stitch all the different parts together very rapidly and

-accurately.

-

-The toe caps are then given a series of ornamental perforations along

-the edge. This is done by either “power tip press,” or a “perforating

-machine.” The first consists of a series of dies placed in a machine by

-which the leather is perforated according to the designs desired. Each

-series of dies represents a different design.

-

-The perforating machine resembles a sewing machine, but instead of a

-series of dies, the one in this machine is made of single or combination

-dies which make one or more holes on each downward movement. The machine

-feeds automatically and does the work very accurately. The cutting

-tool is kept from becoming dull by pressing against a band of paper.

-Ornamentation on other parts of the shoes, such as the edges of vamps,

-etc., is made by this machine.

-

-Before going to the stitching room, every bundle is examined by sorters.

-The sorters are divided and subdivided; that is, one man always sorts

-tips, another vamps, etc. They examine each piece for imperfection, and

-if any is found, the piece is thrown out and a new one put in. The last

-operation is the assembling of pieces. Here each job of twenty-four pairs

-is brought together and securely tied and numbered.

-

-This stitching department is one in which female labor is generally

-employed, although in late years more men are being used to operate

-machines, especially on vamping or other heavy parts. In some parts of

-the country it is called the fitting room. The work of the department

-consists of stitching the different parts of the upper together, so

-that it is ready to put on the last. The terms used mean in most cases

-stitching the part named to the rest of the upper. There are very many

-operations in the department, several of which are named below, together

-with their meaning.

-

-The bundles of pieces which have come from the cutting room are placed

-on the table, where they are subdivided into three parts, the linings,

-the tops, the vamps and the tips.

-

-The linings for the tops of the shoes are pasted together (with the back

-strap and top bands), care being taken to join them at the marks made for

-that purpose. After being dried, they go into the hands of the machine

-operators, where they are joined together by a stitching machine, and

-the edges, etc., trimmed. The sewing machines used are very similar to

-an ordinary home sewing machine, with the exception that they are much

-larger and stronger.

-

-[Illustration: Stock Fitting Room.

-

-Where all bottom stock is prepared after being cut. _See page 120._]

-

-The lining is finished. The next step is to join the lining to the piece

-of leather making up the outside of the same shape, called the top. The

-top receives the eyelets by a machine placed in proper position. The top

-and lining can be put together by sewing them face to face. The top is

-inspected and all threads clipped off.

-

-After the shoe uppers have been properly stitched together, the eyelets

-are placed on by a “duplex eyeletting machine,” which eyelets both sides

-of the shoe at one time. The top of the eyelets are solid black knobs, so

-as not to wear brassy, while the bottom (which clinches inside the shoe)

-called the barrel, is of nickel. This finishes the shoe upper.

-

-The vamp, tongues, and tip are then put together. The edges of the

-vamps, quarters, tips, etc., are covered with a cement made of rubber

-and naphtha, which is kept in small bowls on the benches in front of

-employees. Several grades of cements are used. The cemented parts

-are allowed to dry, and the edges are then turned over by “pressing

-machines,” which gives a finished appearance. The shoe is put together

-by stitching the vamp to the quarters. This work is done by both men and

-women, and is work which demands much care.

-

-In stitching men’s uppers, the system varies in various factories as much

-as it does on women’s. Here are some of the operations, which will give

-an idea how men’s uppers go through.

-

-Extension or toe piece sewed to vamp.

-

-Leather box stitched on.

-

-Tip stitched to vamp.

-

-Vamp seamed up back.

-

-Top folded around edge.

-

-Top seamed up.

-

-Eyelet row stitched up and down.

-

-Lining seamed up.

-

-Side facing put on lining.

-

-Top facing put on lining.

-

-Lining and outside pasted together.

-

-Under trimming.

-

-Eyeletting.

-

-Hooking.

-

-Vamping.

-

-The upper is complete when it leaves the stitching room and is all ready

-to be put on the last. While the upper is being prepared, the soles,

-insoles, counters, and heels are made in other departments.

-

-When the foreman of this department has received the tags with the data

-necessary for the preparation of outsoles, insoles, counters, toe boxes,

-and heels, they are sent to the stock room, where these parts are kept.

-

-The soles are roughly cut out by means of dies, pressing down through the

-leather, in “dieing out machines.” Before the soles are cut, the leather

-is dipped in water and sufficiently dampened. After they are cut out,

-they are made to conform to the exact shape by rounding them in a machine

-called the “rounding machine.” The roughly died out piece of leather is

-held between clamps, one of which is the exact pattern of the sole. The

-machine works a little knife that darts around this pattern, cutting the

-sole exactly to conform. The outsole is now passed to a heavy rolling

-machine, where it is pressed by tons of pressure between heavy rolls.

-This takes the place of the hammering which the old-time shoemaker gave

-his leather to bring the fibers very closely together, so as to increase

-its wear.

-

-Counters and toe boxes (stiffening which is placed between the heel and

-toe cap and the vamp of shoe) are prepared in the same room with the

-heels. After they are made, they are sent to the making or bottoming

-room, where the shoe upper is awaiting them. As the counter is an

-important feature in the life of a shoe, much depends upon the quality of

-leather that goes into it.

-

-The sole is next fed to a “splitting machine,” which reduces it to an

-absolutely even thickness. The insole is made of lighter leather than the

-outsole, but has the same thickness and is cut out in the same way one at

-a time. The sizes are stamped on them and they are sorted.

-

-[Illustration: Lasting. _Page 127._]

-

-[Illustration: Welting.]

-

-If you examine a Goodyear welt shoe, you will notice no stitches in

-sight, the seam being fastened to an under portion of the insole. The

-durability of the shoe relies, to a great extent, on the quality and

-strength of the insole.

-

-The smooth-appearing insole of a welt shoe must be either pasted in

-or fastened underneath in some manner. This fastening is accomplished

-by passing the insole through a very small machine called a Goodyear

-channeler, which makes two incisions at one operation. It cuts a little

-slit along the edge of the insole, extending about one-half inch toward

-its center.

-

-The upper part of insole made by the slit on the edge is turned up on

-a lip turning machine so that it extends out at right angles from the

-insole. In other words, the channel is opened up and laid back, forming

-a ridge around the outer edge of the sole. This forms a lip or shoulder,

-against which the welt is sewed. In this way the thread used in sewing

-cannot be seen in the finished shoe. The cut made on the surface serves

-as guide for the operator of the welt sewing machine when the shoe

-reaches him.

-

-The inner and outer soles as well as the uppers are now brought into the

-lasting or gang room. The first part of lasting is called “assembling,”

-which means that many parts are brought together, such as upper, counter,

-insole, box toe, and last. The counter is placed in the upper, between

-lining and vamp, while the box toe is shellacked and put in the toe of

-the upper (provided it has not been stitched in the stitching room). The

-operator first tacks the inner sole on to a wooden last.

-

-There are very many different styles of lasts, and in cutting uppers a

-different pattern must be used for each style. Then the upper is placed

-in position on the last, and it is ready to be pulled and stretched to

-the wood and take its required shape. This is accomplished by placing the

-shoes on the “pulling over machine,” where the shoe uppers are correctly

-placed on the last by the pincers of a machine holding the leather at

-different points securely against the wood of the last. By the movements

-of levers the shoe uppers are adjusted correctly. Then the pincers draw

-the leather securely around the last and at the same time two tacks on

-each side and at the toe are driven in part way, to hold the uppers

-securely.

-

-It is now placed on the “hand method lasting machine,” where the leather

-is drawn tightly around the last. Before this operation, it is dipped in

-water to preserve its shape when formed and that it may be more easily

-formed by the machine. At each pull of the pincers a small tack, driven

-automatically part way in, holds the edge of the upper exactly in place,

-so that every part of the upper has been stretched in all directions

-equally. A special machine by means of a series of “wipers” is used to

-last the toe and heel. After the leather has been brought smoothly

-around the toe, it is held there by a little tape fastened on each side

-of the toe, which is held securely in place by the surplus leather,

-crimpled in at this point. The surplus leather crimpled in at the heel is

-forced smoothly down against the insole and held there by tacks driven

-by an ingenious hand tool. In all these lasting operations the tacks are

-only driven in part way, so they may afterwards be withdrawn and leave

-the inside perfectly smooth, except at the heel of the shoe, where they

-are driven into the iron heel of the last and clinched.

-

-[Illustration: Rough Rounding. _See page 131._]

-

-[Illustration: Edge Trimming. _See page 130._]

-

-After these operations, the surplus leather at the toe and sides of the

-shoe is removed by the “upper trimming machine,” which cuts it away by

-means of a little knife and leaves it very smooth and even. A small

-hammer operating in connection with the knife pounds the leather on the

-same parts. A pounding machine hammers the leather and counter around

-the heel so that the stiff position conforms exactly to the last.

-

-After the “lasted” shoe has been trimmed and pounded down to the shape

-of the last, it is turned over to the tack setter, who pulls out all the

-tacks except a few, called draft tacks. The insole is then wet to make it

-pliable, and is turned over to a very experienced operator, called the

-“inseamer,” who is to sew the welt on.

-

-The shoe is now ready to receive a narrow strip of prepared leather,

-that is sewed after it is wet to make it pliable, along the edge of the

-shoe, beginning where the heel is placed and ending at the same spot on

-the opposite edge. This is called the welt, and is sewed from the inside

-lip of the insole, so that the curved needle passes through the lip, the

-upper, and the welt, uniting all three securely and allowing the welt to

-protrude beyond the edge of the shoe. The thread is very stout linen, and

-is passed through a pan of hot wax before being looped into chain stitch

-that holds the shoe together.

-

-The nature of the stitch is a chain--two rows of threads on the outside

-that loop with the single thread in the inside lip of the insole. When

-the welt is finally sewed on, and the shoe put down on the bench, it

-looks like an ordinary shoe resting on a wide flange of leather. This

-flange is the welt, and to it the heavy outer sole is to be sewed fast.

-Should a single stitch break in this operation, it is passed to a

-cobbler, who repairs it by hand.

-

-Before the outer sole is put on, the edges of the uppers must be trimmed

-along the seam that holds the welt. A slip of steel called steel shank

-is laid along the insole where the hollow of the foot is, and a piece of

-leather board laid over this to give the necessary stiffness and prevent

-the shoe from doubling up. As the welt has left a hollow space along the

-ball of the foot, it is necessary to fill this up, either with a piece

-of leather, tanned felt, or other filler. Felt is not waterproof, and

-leather squeaks, hence a mixture of ground cork and rubber cement is

-used. This is heated and spread on the sole, and run over a hot roller

-until the bottom of the shoe is perfectly smooth and even. The shoes are

-placed on a rack and are ready for the outsole.

-

-Sole fastening is performed by a number of operations, in which a score

-or more of separate machines are used. The sole layers smear a rubber

-cement over this welt with a “cementing machine,” after the outsole has

-been soaked in water to make it pliable, and then place it on the shoe

-and tack a single nail in the heel. The “sole laying machine,” through

-great pressure, cements the sole on and fits it to every curve of the

-last. Then the sole is trimmed by a “rough rounding machine,” which trims

-the soles to the shape of the last. This machine also channels the outer

-sole at the same time, which is necessary for the next operation. The

-“channel opening machine” now turns up the lips of the channel and the

-sole is ready to be stitched to the welt.

-

-The outsole is now sewed by a waxed thread to the welt, by an “outsole

-lock stitch machine,” which is similar to a welt sewing machine. The

-stitch is finer and extends from the slit (channel) to the upper side of

-the welt, where it shows after the shoe has been finished.

-

-It unites the sole and welt with a tightly drawn lock stitch of

-remarkable strength. It sews through an inch of leather as easily as a

-woman would sew through a piece of cloth. The stitches are made through

-the welt and outer sole, the seam running in the channel of the outsole.

-

-[Illustration: Leveling. _See page 135._]

-

-[Illustration: Heeling. _See page 136._]

-

-The inside of the slit in which this stitch has just been made is now

-coated with cement by means of a brush. The channel lip is forced back to

-its original position after the cement has dried, by a rapidly revolving

-wheel of a “channel laying machine.” In this way the stitches are hidden.

-

-Welt shoes are stitched on in three different ways: “channeled,” which,

-when finished, leaves an invisible stitch on the bottom of the sole;

-“regular stitched aloft,” showing the stitches on both sides; and “fudge

-stitched,” in which the seam is sunk down in a groove, being almost

-invisible from the welt side.

-

-Every stitch must be of such a nature that it is independent of the one

-next to it, so that should one stitch break, the others will not work

-loose. This is accomplished by running the threads through a pan of hot

-wax just before entering the leather, which causes the waxed thread to

-solidify, becoming, as it were, a part of the leather.

-

-Notice should be taken of the difference between the way the outsole

-is stitched and the inner sole is stitched to the upper. In place of

-three threads in the chain stitch “that holds the welt to the upper

-and insole” there are but two here--an upper and a lower one. The upper

-thread extends only part way down, where it loops, twists, and locks into

-the lower thread. This is the reason why you can wear a welt sole clear

-through without its pulling loose.

-

-Shoes that are stitched aloft go through the same operations as the

-channel-stitched shoes, with the exception that the rounding machine

-contrivance of cutting is eliminated.

-

-Shoes that are to be fudge stitched are sent through the same machine

-as the regular stitched aloft, but an additional little knife point on

-the arm of the Goodyear stitcher digs a channel in the welt so that the

-stitches on that side are sunk into the leather.

-

-The outsole is nailed at the heel after the stitching on the “loose

-nailing machine,” which drives the nails through the outsole and insole

-and clinches against the steel plate of the last. The machine drives

-separate nails fed from the hopper of any desired size or length, at the

-rate of three hundred and fifty per minute.

-

-The edge of the outsole around the heel is now trimmed to conform exactly

-to the shape of the heel on the “heel seat pounding machine.”

-

-The stitches of the regular stitched shoes are separated by a series of

-indentations, giving the shoe that corrugated effect which adds so much

-to the appearance of the shoe. In the fudge-stitched work the stitches

-are entirely covered up by the indentations.

-

-Then a leveling machine, called the “automatic sole leveling machine,”

-with a pressure of about two and a half tons to each of the concave

-rollers, comes into play. The rolls move automatically back and forth and

-from side to side, doing the work that the shoemaker used to do on his

-lap with a hammer and stone, but doing it better and more quickly. It

-practically levels off the bottom of the soles.

-

-An automatic guage regulates exactly the distance from the edge of the

-last, and by the use of this machine the operator is enabled to make a

-sole conform to that of all others of a similar design and size.

-

-Heels are formed by cementing different lifts of leather. A machine

-called a “heel cutter” shapes out the lifts. The heel is then placed

-under pressure, giving it exact form and greatly increasing its wear.

-

-[Illustration: Sole Scouring. _See page 138._]

-

-[Illustration: Heel Shaping. _See page 138._]

-

-In speaking of the ends and sides of a heel, the part that rests on the

-ground is spoken of as the top, and the first piece is called the top

-lift. The part that is fastened to the shoe is spoken of as the bottom,

-while the side nearest the toes is called the breast. The wedge is a

-flat, heel-shaped piece or lift of leather that is skived to a thin edge

-at the breast. Being thicker at the back, it tips the heel forward.

-Wedges are made from thin strips of waste leather, or from sheets of

-leather board, and are cut out with a hollow die. The gouges are cut in

-the sole leather room from scraps, and are a regular heel lift, having a

-horseshoe-shaped piece of leather with an opening at the breast.

-

-The sole leather, insoles, counters, and heels, in the stock fitting

-department are “got out” by being cut into shape by a machine die.

-

-The heel is now trimmed of all rough and surplus portions of leathers to

-the exact size of top lift. A blower attached to the machine removes all

-scraps, etc.

-

-The breast of the heel, which faces the forepart of the shoe, is trimmed

-evenly across and with the desired slant by means of a peculiar-shaped

-knife which extends over the sole at shank. The edges of the heel are

-now scoured by revolving rolls with molded sandpaper to make perfectly

-smooth. Blowers attached to the machine remove all dust.

-

-There are several types of machines for fastening the heel to the shoe,

-all very rapid in operation. One of the latest is that which feeds the

-nails, and which is operated by a man and boy, who together turn off a

-great quantity of work.

-

-The nails are left protruding slightly above the heel so as to retain the

-top lift, which is now placed in position by the same operator on the

-same machine. It is pressed down over the heads of the nails securing it

-in position. The small brass or steel nails which protect and ornament

-the heel are now driven in by the “universal slugging machine.” This

-machine cuts the slugs from a coil of wire and drives them in with great

-rapidity.

-

-We have practically now a roughly formed shoe ready for the finishing

-room.

-

-Here the heel slugs are ground down, heel and sole buffed by sandpaper

-rolls on a scouring machine, wet down, stained, or blacked, as case may

-be, finished on bristle brushes, placed to dry, polished by a polishing

-machine, bottom stamped with the trademark, and passed to an operator

-whose duty it is to see that no tacks are left inside the shoes.

-Generally girls are hired to do this, as their hands are smaller and it

-is very important that no tacks are left, which might cause a great deal

-of trouble. If any are found, they are cut out with nippers or otherwise

-removed.

-

-A lining is also generally put inside the shoe, covering the whole of the

-insole in a McKay shoe, and the heel only in a Goodyear shoe. Shoes must

-also be inspected here before they are packed, to see if they are perfect

-in every way and that each shoe is a perfect mate in the pair.

-

-The shoes are now sent to the last department, called treeing, dressing,

-and packing department.

-

-This department has to do with the finishing of the uppers. The bottoms

-and edges are all finished when shoes get to this department, and nothing

-remains but to finish the uppers and pack the shoes in single-pair

-cartons and then in wooden boxes or cases.

-

-The different uppers are all finished by a different process, some being

-ironed with a hot iron, which is done to take out the wrinkles and smooth

-the uppers. Ironing was first introduced on kid shoes, but in recent

-years the hot iron has been put on nearly all kinds of stock. A shoe must

-be on a form or tree when ironed, the form or tree being the same shape

-as the last. The whole idea in ironing is the same as that followed by

-the tailor, who uses a hot iron to press and smooth out clothes. The

-operations in detail are as follows:--

-

-[Illustration: Ironing.]

-

-[Illustration: Packing.]

-

-Each shoe is treed, after having been drawn over a foot form similar to

-that on which the shoe was lasted, and any stain or dirt which may have

-been carelessly put on in former operations is cleaned off; the shoe is

-sponged with a gum prepared for either black or tan goods, rubbed down

-dull, and then rubbed to a polish. In many patent leather shoes the

-treeing is to clean off the surface, as we said before, and then to iron

-it with a hot iron, which takes out all stains, and leaves the leather

-shiny and black.

-

-The shoes finally go to hand operators, who rag the edges and heels,

-leaving them ready to be laced and put into the boxes. After lacing, the

-shoes are passed to inspectors, whose duty it is to see that they are

-perfect, to throw out all which are not, make a record of them, and pass

-the perfect shoes to the packers, who see that the sizes are right, that

-each pair is mated, and placed in paper cartons, ready to be packed in

-wooden cases for shipment. The packing of cartons into wooden cases is

-done by men who nail on the lid when each case is full, mark where goods

-are to be sent, make a record of same and load the cases into freight

-cars.

-

-There are other uppers that are treed, such as wax calf, for instance,

-and split uppers, which are used in heavy shoes. The main idea of treeing

-a shoe is to give it a smooth and finished appearance and a good “feel.”

-In the regular treeing operation they use liquid preparations, often

-called composition, and these are worked into the upper, filling it to

-some extent. French chalk is used a great deal in some uppers, and oil or

-some form of grease or gum is also used, all of which make the upper as

-it was when first put on the cutting board of the shoe factory. All work

-done in this room is intended to give leather its original luster, which

-has been lost to a certain extent in going through the different rooms

-and in being handled so much.

-

-There are still other uppers that may not be treed or ironed but merely

-cleaned and polished to give luster. Some of these may be dressed. To

-dress a shoe means to put on a liquid dressing. In some cases two coats

-of dressing are put on and in other cases one coat. A shoe can have a

-dull dressing or a bright dressing, according to how the buyer prefers to

-have his shoes look.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER SEVEN

-

-McKAY AND TURNED SHOES

-

-

-The McKay process is used very extensively in the manufacture of cheap

-shoes. Its introduction was a great improvement over the nailing and

-pegging of the soles to the uppers. It allows the two to be stitched

-together by means of a straight needle running through the entire

-thickness of upper, sole, and insole.

-

-In following the McKay process through the factory, we find it very

-similar to the Goodyear welt process, which has been explained, the main

-difference being in the methods of fastening the sole to the uppers.

-

-[Illustration: Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe.]

-

-The lasts and patterns are obtained in the same manner as described in

-the previous chapter. The order is made out in the factory office, and

-the ticket is given to the sorter, who selects the required number of

-skins, which he rolls in a bundle and turns over to the cutter. The

-cutters form the various pieces of leather and linings, which are tied

-up in bundles and sent to the stitching room. Here they pass through the

-various sewing machines, finally coming out in the form of a complete

-upper ready to be attached to the bottoms.

-

-The soles, insoles, counters, and heels for McKay shoes are all formed in

-the same room, as described in the Goodyear process.

-

-There is a difference in making ready the outsoles and insoles. It will

-be recalled that the outsole for the Goodyear welt shoe was simply a

-block of leather cut to fit the shoe and was not channeled. The outsole

-for the McKay shoe is run through a channeling machine, which cuts a

-slit around the edge of the sole, folds the leather back, and digs a

-little trench along the inside of the slit. It will also be remembered

-that the insole of the Goodyear welt shoe was channeled with two slits,

-one of which was turned back to form the breast for sewing on the welt

-strip. The insole of a McKay shoe is not channeled in any way, but is

-left plain, like the outsole of the Goodyear welt. The uppers, the soles,

-insoles, counters, and heels all having been made ready, the pieces are

-taken to the lasting room.

-

-The first process is called “assembling.” The operator takes up one of

-the uppers, inserts the last, sticks in a counter between the lining and

-the outside, puts in a “box” (a stout piece of canvas to give stability

-to the toe) at the toe, beneath the tip, puts in the insole, and then may

-pull the shoe tight on the last or give it to the operator on the pulling

-over machine to have it done. The pulling over machine is now used in

-nearly all factories, having displaced hand pulling the same as the

-lasting machines have displaced hand lasting. The assembling, pulling,

-and lasting on the machine are all parts of the regular operation of

-lasting. The hand laster had to do all three parts in former times,

-but now there are machines to do nearly everything, and at the present

-time the operation of lasting is divided into assembling, pulling over,

-and lasting on the machine. But even these machines do not do it all,

-as there is surplus upper to be cut away, toes to be pounded down, and

-filling to be put in the bottom, all of which are done on a McKay shoe

-before the sole can be laid. There are machines to do these parts, too.

-

-A trimmer (this is done by hand) now takes the shoe, trims off all the

-surplus leather, tacks in the shank (a little piece of steel to give

-rigidity to the shank of the sole), fills all up smoothly and then passes

-it to the sole layer, who puts on the outer sole and tacks it in place.

-

-The last is now pulled out of the shoe and it is ready for the McKay

-sewing machine.

-

-This machine sews right through the inner and outer sole, and at the same

-time catches the edges of the upper leather and the lining in between

-the two and draws them all snugly and firmly together. The stitches are

-made right along in the channel of the outer sole, which is deep enough

-to admit the row of stitches without raising a ridge on the outside of

-the sole, after the channel is closed up and leveled. The channel is

-next filled with cement and passed on to the leveler, which turns down

-the loosened flap of leather, presses it all out smooth, and covers the

-seam up so completely that no trace of the sewing is to be seen. This

-little folded-over flap of leather serves the double purpose of hiding

-the stitches in the sole, and at the same time protecting them from wear

-against the ground.

-

-[Illustration: Stitching.]

-

-[Illustration: Tacking.]

-

-The shoe is then ready to be heeled, and from here to the shipping door

-the McKay generally goes through the same process as a welt. After

-heeling, the McKay shoes are relasted or have followers put in to keep

-them in shape while going through. The sock lining may be put in here,

-too, before relasting, or it may not be put in till the shoes get to

-another room. The McKay lasting last must be pulled from the shoe to have

-the bottoms and heels put on and this also applies to a pegged or nailed

-shoe. But in the case of a welt shoe or a turn shoe, both stay on the

-original last until the bottoms and heels have been fastened on. The turn

-shoe being lasted inside out, must come off the last to be turned right

-side out, and it goes right on the last as soon as it can be turned. The

-different methods of fastening the bottoms constitute the main difference

-between Goodyear and turn shoes on the one hand, and McKay, pegged, and

-nailed on the other. The bottom stock must be prepared differently in

-order to fit the methods. Thus it is seen that only two departments are

-affected, namely, the sole leather and the making departments. In the

-cutting, stitching, finishing, treeing, and packing, all operations are

-practically the same on every shoe, no matter how it is bottomed. The

-patterns, however, by which shoes are cut may be different.

-

-In the finishing room all of the finishing of the bottoms and heel edges

-is done. The heels are sandpapered or scoured, and are then blacked and

-polished under hot-iron pressure. Considerable wax is used on the edge

-and is melted by the hot iron. Heel edges may also be finished on a wheel

-or roll. There are several different ways, but the object of each method

-is to give a hard, black, and highly polished surface to the edge.

-

-In finishing the bottom the top lift is scoured or buffed, and all of

-the sole and the breast of the heel also. Each is a different process,

-a different operator attending to each part. The object of scouring or

-buffing with sandpaper is to get a smooth foundation for the finish,

-which is put on next, and which may be all the same color in all parts

-of the bottom or may have one color in the shank and another in the

-forepart. The stains and blackings are used on bottoms, and these are

-brought to a high, hard gloss by means of rolls and brushes. Hot irons

-are often used on black shanks and bottoms to give added hardness and

-luster to the finish.

-

-The turned or turn shoe is a woman’s fine shoe that is made wrong side

-out, then turned right side out. The sole is fastened to the last, and

-the upper is twisted over, the wrong side out. Then the two are sewed

-together, the thread catching through a channel or shoulder cut in the

-edge of the sole. The seam does not come through to the bottom of the

-sole, nor to any part inside where it would chafe the foot.

-

-The preparation of the upper for a turn shoe is identical with that of

-a welt or McKay, with the exception that the back is cut a little longer

-and a little larger, in order to last it over the sole. The important

-difference in the make-up of a turn shoe as compared with that of a McKay

-or welt is that it has no insole, the upper being sewed directly to a

-portion of the sole itself.

-

-As the cutting of the uppers and the stitching operations of a turn shoe

-are the same as the Goodyear and McKay, and have been explained, we will

-take up the forming of the sole, which is entirely different from either

-of the other two methods.

-

-A turn shoe is put together wrong side out, and it is necessary, during

-the course of making, to turn it by rolling the sole up like a roll of

-carpet. It is evident, then, that nothing but good quality, pliable

-leather can be used satisfactorily, and great care is taken to include

-nothing but the best.

-

-The soles are cut out on the beam machines, also previously described.

-They are then channeled on the side that is next to the foot. This

-channeling is similar to that done on the welt insole. Two incisions are

-made, the inside one being the same as in the welt insoles. The outside

-one, however, is different, as the flange is cut off square instead of

-being rolled up. This leaves a channel which begins at the edge and

-surface of the sole and extends in semicircular form to the abrupt wall

-of the cut in the sole, which forms the breast against which the upper is

-to be sewed.

-

-After the soles are channeled, they are soaked until they become soft

-enough to roll up easily. They are then placed on racks and kept in a

-damp room until needed.

-

-A turn shoe is hand lasted wrong side out. First the uppers are turned

-with the lining outside, then the last is inserted and also the toe

-boxing.

-

-The sole is set straight on the last and is tacked firmly to it. The

-operator, by aid of hand pullers, draws the upper over the sole and tacks

-it securely from a point where the breast of the heel will rest to where

-the large toe will extend, and then along the same distance on the other

-side. The toe part is next lasted by machinery, a wire being fastened at

-one side and run around the edge holding the pulled-up parts of the upper

-which has been stretched tightly over the last.

-

-The shoe is next passed over to the Goodyear inseamer operator, who

-sews the upper to the sole, the needle passing down through the inside

-channel, through the sole leather, out through the square-cut channel

-and then through the upper, uniting the upper to the sole with the chain

-stitch. In fact, the bottom of a turn shoe at this time looks exactly

-like the bottom of a welt, with the exception that the turn shoe is still

-turned wrong side out. The nature of the stitch is the same--a waxed,

-threaded chain, with two rows of thread on the outside that loop with

-the single thread in the inside lip of the insole. The shoe is sewed only

-from the back of the shank to the toe, the heel part still being loose.

-

-The seam is now trimmed with an inseam trimmer, a machine with a

-revolving, jagged-edged knife that saws off the surplus portions of the

-upper, leaving it smooth and even with the sole. The tacks are all pulled

-out with a sort of a nail puller, which works rapidly and automatically.

-

-The lasts are then taken out and the shoe is turned right side out.

-This turning process is not a difficult one, but it is perhaps the most

-interesting operation that the layman will see in the entire factory. The

-operation is accomplished by means of a rigid iron bar set slantwise in a

-table. The upper is turned right side out by hand and the sole is rolled

-right side out by means of pressure on this bar.

-

-After this turning process, which twists and rolls the shoe out of

-shape, it has no semblance of its final form. The back part of the sole

-and upper are still loose, the upper being fastened from the shank to the

-toe.

-

-The turn shoe must be “second” lasted, and the inserting of the last is

-no easy matter. A contrivance called a push jack assists the operator

-greatly. He uses a flat, narrow rod to smooth out the lining, and after

-squeezing, pushing, and smoothing, the last is finally made to fit in the

-shoe. The counter is placed in at this time, the shank piece is set in

-place, and the shoe and last are placed on a jack for nailing. The back

-part upper is now stretched tightly over the heel part of the last by

-means of lasting pullers, and is tacked down, the nails going through the

-shank piece and clinching against the anvil heel seat of the last. This

-operation completes the lasting, the shoe now having a form exactly like

-the last over which it is made.

-

-Workmen now level the bottoms and form the shank by a hand method,

-preparatory to the machine leveling process. The shoe is still wet and

-is left to dry on the last twenty-four hours. Then it is run through the

-machine called the “leveler,” which, with its enormous pressure, forms

-the sole to that of the last. The shoes are now left four days on the

-lasts, to dry thoroughly, so that they may retain their shape permanently.

-

-The putting on of the heel, and the various finishing processes are

-practically the same as that of the welt, with the exception that a turn

-sole must have a sock lining.

-

-Some factories use a grain leather sock lining, which is pasted in,

-covering up the channels of the sole which hold the stitches and forming

-a smooth surface for the foot to rest upon.

-

-The difference between a McKay and a turn shoe may be told by the fact

-that the stitching on the inside of the sole is much closer to the edge

-in a turn. Another thing, in a turn shoe, the seam connecting the upper

-and the outsole can be seen.

-

-Nothing is likely to excel the turn shoe for lightness and flexibility,

-since the method of making, whereby the sole is stitched directly to the

-upper, interposes no thick or cumbersome material. Sole leather of good

-quality is used. In fact, the sole would have to be not only strong,

-but thin and light, or the shoe could not be turned in the process of

-manufacture without straining it and getting it out of shape.

-

-

-HISTORY OF THE TURN SHOE

-

-History states that prior to 1845, which marked the date of the

-introduction of shoe machinery, most of the shoes were sewed by hand,

-the lighter ones turned and the heavier ones welted. In fact, the early

-factories that began to spring up in New England about the beginning of

-the century, were merely cutting rooms and places for storing the lasts

-and stock.

-

-Here the uppers, soles, and linings were cut by hand and then given out

-to people in the vicinity, mostly farmers and fishermen, to be stitched

-together and paid for at so much a dozen. Such was the beginning of

-the shoe industry in New England. Hundreds of families added to their

-resources in this way, the women doing the lighter work and the men the

-heavier.

-

-In fishing communities, where men were away most of the time in their

-boats, their wives and daughters, who stayed at home, undertook the

-lighter grades of shoemaking--the turn process. This was the case in

-the “North Shore” towns like Lynn, Haverhill, and Marblehead, and these

-to-day, keeping to the old traditions, are the great centers for the

-finer turn-grades of shoemaking, whereas the “South Shore” towns, like

-Brockton, Whitman, Abington, Rockland, and the Weymouths, with the men

-at home all the year, came to make a specialty of shoes for men, and

-absorbed the heavier part of the growing industry.

-

-With the introduction of the Goodyear turn machine, however, the handwork

-was gradually done away with, although more handwork is done in the turn

-process than in either the McKay or welt process.

-

-

-STANDARD SCREW SHOEMAKING

-

-Many good qualities of heavy shoes are made by the standard screw method,

-which differs from the McKay method by having the outsole and insole

-fastened together with a double-threaded wire, which is screwed through

-and cut off by the machine the instant it reaches the inside of the shoe.

-

-[Illustration: Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe.]

-

-A pegged shoe is made in much the same way as the standard screw, except

-that wooden pegs are used instead of wire to fasten the sole together.

-

-The nailed method of shoemaking consists in nailing the soles together

-around the edge. It is used principally for heavy, cheap shoes.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER EIGHT

-

-OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING

-

-

-The old-fashioned shoemaker formerly made shoes by hand as follows:--A

-last, which is a wooden model of a foot, was used, and pieces of leather

-were pasted here and there on it so as to build up a model conforming to

-the measurements of the foot. Then paper patterns of the upper leather

-were made from the last, and from these the upper leathers were cut out

-of tanned calfskins and sewed together.

-

-The leather for the soles was cut out of tanned ox or steer hide, the

-pieces being the insole, the outsole, and the lifts of the heel. The

-inner soles were made of softer leather. Sometimes split sole leathers

-were used for uppers. The shoemaker then softened the leather by steeping

-it in water, until it was pliable and at the same time firm, and would

-cut like cheese.

-

-The insoles were attached to the bottom of a pair of wooden lasts, and

-the wet leather fastened on with lasting tacks so as to mold it to the

-last. When it was dry, the shoemaker with pincers drew the leather out

-until it had taken the exact form of the bottom of the last. Then he

-rounded the soles by paring down the edges close to the last, and formed

-around these edges a small channel or feather cut or slit about an eighth

-of an inch in the leather.

-

-Next he pierced the insoles all around with a bent awl, which “bit” into,

-but not through, the leather, and came out at the channel or feather

-edge. The boots were then lasted by placing the uppers on the lasts,

-drawing the edges by means of pincers tightly round the edge of the

-insoles. Then they were fastened in portions with lasting tacks. Lasting

-was considered a very important operation, for unless the upper was

-drawn smoothly and equally over the last, leaving neither a crease nor

-wrinkle, the form would be a failure. A band of flexible leather about

-an inch wide, with one edge pared, was then placed in position around

-the sides of the shoes, up to the heel or seat, and the maker proceeded

-to “inseam,” by passing his awl through the holes, already made in the

-insole, catching with it the edge of the upper and the thin edge of the

-welt, and sewing all three together in one flat seam, with a waxed thread.

-

-The threads which shoemakers use are called “ends,” and are made of two

-or more strands of small flaxen threads. The shoemaker makes his own

-waxed thread as follows:--

-

-He holds the main part of the thread from the spool, in his left hand,

-holding it firmly--where he wants to break it--between the first finger

-and thumb, so that it will not turn beyond that point. Then with

-the left hand, he lays the end of the flax on the knee and rolls it

-from him. This will cause the small fibers that compose the thread to

-separate--thus enabling him to break it easily. When the fibers separate,

-he gives the thread a light, quick turn, which causes it to break. As the

-thread breaks he pulls it apart gradually, so that the fibers will taper.

-Then he places the threads together, one just behind the other, so that

-the end will have a very fine point. He rolls the end and allows it to

-turn between the fingers of the left hand. After it has been rolled and

-twisted, it is waxed by drawing the thread through a piece of wax.

-

-The fine ends are waxed to a point. A bristle is fastened on in the

-following manner: the head of the bristle is held in the left hand, and

-the portion to which the thread is to be fastened is waxed; then the

-thread and bristle are twisted together. A hole is made in the thread and

-the bristle pulled through and fastened. After the threads are fastened,

-the heads of the bristle are cut off, and the ends sandpapered.

-

-The wax thread or “end,” as it is called, should never be made longer

-than is necessary to sew a shoe. Experience shows that if a portion of an

-end left after sewing one shoe is used on the second shoe, it is never as

-strong as a new end. The thread grows weaker and weaker as it is used.

-When the thread is well waxed, it is cemented to the shoe.

-

-After the shoe is sewed, the shoemaker pares off inequalities and levels

-the bottoms, by filling up the depressed part in the center with pieces

-of tarred felt. The shoes are now ready for the outsoles. The fibers

-of the leather to be used for the soles are thoroughly condensed by

-hammering on the lapstone. Then they are fastened through the insole with

-steel tacks, their sides are pared, and a narrow channel is cut round

-their edges. Through this channel they are stitched to the welt, about

-twelve stitches of strong, waxed thread being made to the inch. The soles

-are next hammered into shape; the heel lifts are put on and attached with

-wooden pegs. Then they are sewed through the stitches of the insoles; and

-the top pieces, similar to the outsoles, are put on and nailed down to

-the lifts.

-

-The finishing operations of the shoe include smoothing the edges of the

-heel, paring, rasping, scraping, smoothing, blacking, and burnishing the

-edges of the soles, withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning out any pegs

-which may have pierced through the inner sole. There are numerous minor

-operations connected with forwarding and finishing in various materials,

-such as punching holes, inserting eyelets, etc.

-

-

-HOW SHOES ARE REPAIRED

-

-Before one can understand how shoes are repaired, it is necessary to know

-the difference between the inside and outside of a shoe.

-

-The last is divided into four parts, viz. toe, ball, shank, and heel.

-

-Diagram No. 1 shows these parts and their shapes.

-

-Diagram No. 2 shows the length of the inside of the divisions as compared

-with those of the outside. Notice the long shank and short ball.

-

-Diagram No. 3 shows the outside of the divisions and the effect they have

-upon the shape of the shoe. See short shank and long ball.

-

-Always remember that the ball of a shoe is longer on the outside, having

-a short shank. The ball is shorter on the inside, having a long shank.

-Compare outside and inside diagrams Nos. 2 and 3.

-

-[Illustration: How a Side of Leather is shaped and divided as to Quality.

-_See page 5._

-

-_Dia. 1._ _Dia. 2._ _Dia. 3._]

-

-

-SHOE REPAIRING

-

-The first operation in half soling a shoe is to cut off the old portion

-from “a” to “c” as shown on diagram No. 1. The shoe is placed in

-different positions and corrected in every way before putting on the new

-sole. It is generally better to wet the shoe in order to put it in shape.

-

-The leather is skived thin and accurate enough to make a neat,

-comfortable joint, and yet thick enough for the nails to hold.

-

-Then the filling is added before placing on the sole. The sole is trimmed

-and a guide line drawn around the edge, so that the nails may be properly

-arranged.

-

-Finishing the sole is an important part. If everything else is properly

-done, this part becomes comparatively easy. See that all nails are

-clinched. With a level bottom, smooth joints and edges, the shoe can be

-made to look like a new shoe and yet feel like an old one.

-

-On account of the heel being more directly under the body and the first

-part to strike the ground, it generally wears out first. For this reason

-in repairing a heel great care must be taken to see that good leather

-and solid work are put into it. Pull off the worn top piece and see that

-what is left is hammered down solidly. Next split a piece of solid,

-easy-cutting, scrap sole leather, so that two pieces can be made out of

-one. Put them on the shoe and fasten them on well, piece by piece, with

-tacks. See that the heel is level before putting on the top piece. (If

-necessary, a small piece may be put under the top piece.) After it is

-level, put on top piece, trim in shape, then draw guide line and nail

-down. The nails are placed thicker on the side that is worn down most, to

-protect the heel. The heel is next rasped, and smoothed with a buffer and

-sandpaper. When finished, it should set level.

-

-

-MODERN METHOD OF REPAIRING SHOES

-

-As the shoemaking industry has become more and more perfect, there has

-been an increasing interest taken in shoe repairing. A medium-priced

-shoe as it is made to-day may often be in good enough condition to be

-heeled and soled a couple of times. Hence, although in the past many shoe

-stores and departments have had their shoe repairing done by outside

-shops, the tendency to-day is for every shoe store to have its own repair

-department. This method has resulted largely from the development of

-machinery for shoe repairing, which is revolutionizing the business to

-such an extent that in a few years repairing by hand will be among the

-lost arts. With the new inventions for restoring upper leather, and the

-improvement of machinery for shoe repairing, repair departments will very

-soon be but little short of miniature factories.

-

-The machinery ordinarily used consists of the Goodyear stitcher, used

-for attaching soles to Goodyear welts by the lock-stitch method, just

-as in shoe factories making Goodyear welt shoes. Then there is a heel

-trimmer, a bottom finisher, consisting of a rapidly revolving roll

-covered with coarse and fine sandpaper, and an opera heel builder for

-forming concave heels. There are two wheels used for tan and white

-heel work, one heel being covered with a white cloth, and the other

-with a coarse brush. Adjoining these are usually the shank and heel

-finisher,--capable of smoothing and highly polishing a shank or heel in

-about a dozen seconds,--the bottom finisher, that grinds and smooths down

-the new sole, and a machine used for rubbing off dirt before the shoe is

-finished, consisting of a heavy horsehair brush. Another useful part of

-the equipment is an edge setter, which is also identical with the one

-used in factories. The shoe stitching machines and the parts used in

-finishing are all operated on one long shaft, rapidly revolved by the aid

-of a motor. It is a fact that a shoe may be actually soled and heeled in

-less than six minutes.

-

-Five or six men are usually employed in the repair department of a large

-establishment. When the customer’s shoes are brought in, one of these men

-cuts off the old sole and traces an outline of the new sole on a block of

-the very best oak leather. After these are cut out by hand in rough form,

-they are soaked in water and channeled; that is to say, a part of the

-sole is turned up in which the stitches are to be run. A second man, by

-the use of the Goodyear stitcher, joins the sole and welt together with a

-very strong and tightly drawn lock stitch. This is a large machine with a

-curved, barbed needle and awl, and a shuttle which sews through an inch

-of leather with the greatest ease and speed. There are from one hundred

-and fifty to two hundred stitches in each shoe; moreover, every one of

-them is locked with heavy wax thread, so that there is no chance of their

-ever giving away. If one stitch should break, the other stitches would

-remain intact, as they are all independent of each other. Both soles are

-stitched on in a little over half a minute without breaking a thread or

-stopping the machine.

-

-A coating of rubber cement is now placed in the edges of the outsole, and

-the lip of the channel is smoothed down so that the stitches are entirely

-hidden when looking at the bottom of the shoe. The edge trimming is done

-next with the aid of a rapidly revolving wheel, which trims the edges

-square and true in about forty seconds. After this, the shank is finished

-on a rapidly revolving wheel covered with emery cloth.

-

-Bottom finishing is the next step. This is done on a machine having

-two long cylinders, one covered with fine and the other with coarse

-sandpaper. These cylinders revolve rapidly, and the operator uses the

-coarse sandpaper for scouring the dirt and old finish off the leather,

-and the fine sandpaper for finishing the sole as smooth as that of any

-new shoe.

-

-The brushing in or smoothing is next done by the horsehair brush we have

-mentioned before. A preparation called Lewis’s rival bottom polish--a

-sort of white wax--is placed on the brush machine. The brush now smooths

-the surface of the sole, filling in all small holes with wax and leaving

-the sole absolutely perfect. Finally, the shoe is placed against a

-rapidly revolving brush which finishes the uppers with a luster that

-would make any ordinary boot-black green with envy. Another operation

-that fully completes the process is the hardening of the edges with hot

-steel, which ends in producing an edge that is as hard as iron. When it

-is polished with a black dye, it looks exactly like a new sole.

-

-A few words are necessary with regard to the heel. The old heel having

-been removed, several lifts of new leather in rough form are tacked

-on. The shoe is then taken to the heel trimmer and is formed correctly

-and then smoothed down to a brilliant surface on the finely covered

-revolving wheel. In a few seconds it is stained, smoothed, and polished.

-In less than six minutes the shoe is ready for the customer.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER NINE

-

-LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS

-

-

-ASSEMBLING. Includes the following operations: tacking the insole to the

-last, putting in the box and counter of the shoe, and putting the upper

-of the shoe on the last.

-

-BACKSTAY. A term used to denote a strip of leather covering and

-strengthening the back seam of a shoe. English backstay means the strip

-of leather that meets the quarters on each side and is sewed to them,

-forming the lower part of the shoe. California backstay is a term applied

-to piping caught in the back seam.

-

-BACK STRAP. The strap by which the shoe is pulled on the foot.

-

-BAL. An abbreviation of the word “Balmoral” and means either men’s,

-women’s, or children’s front lace shoe of medium height, as distinguished

-from one that is adjusted to the ankle by buttons, buckles, rubber

-goring, etc.

-

-BALL. Refers to the ball of the foot--the fleshy part of the bottom of

-the foot, back of the toes.

-

-BEADING. Means folding in the edges of the upper leather instead of

-leaving them raw, or wheeling any impression around the sole to the heel.

-It is called seat wheeling in many shoe factory rooms.

-

-BEATING OUT. The same as leveling. It is the term used in turn-shoe work.

-

-BELLOWS TONGUE. A broad tongue sewed to the sides of the top, seen in

-waterproof and some working shoes.

-

-BELTING. The term applied to the usual back tanned cowhide, used in

-various thicknesses for machinery belts.

-

-BETWEEN SUBSTANCE. That part of the sole that holds the stitch.

-

-BLACKBALL. A mass of grease and lampblack, formerly used by shoemakers

-on edges of heels and soles; sometimes called “cobbler’s botch.”

-

-BLACKING THE EDGE. Blacking or dyeing edge of sole, welt, or that part of

-the edge which cannot be blacked so well in the making room.

-

-BLOCKING. The cutting or chopping of a sole in such a form or shape that

-it can be rounded.

-

-BLOOM. A term often applied to the grayish white deposit that gathers on

-shoes in stock. It can be wiped off readily.

-

-BLUCHER. The name of a shoe or half boot, originated by Field Marshal

-Blücher of the Prussian Army, in the time of Napoleon I. It became very

-popular and has since received occasional favor, being used with high

-tops as a sporting or hunting boot. Its distinguishing feature is the

-extension forward of the quarters to lace across the tongue, which may be

-an extension upward of the vamp.

-

-BOOT. A term used (especially abroad) to designate women’s high-cut

-shoes. In this country it applies only to high or topped footwear,

-usually made with the tops stiff and solid. It is sometimes laced, as in

-hunting boots.

-

-BOOTEE. Leather legging extending between knee and ankle, usually of

-Russian calf,--a riding boot originating with the English.

-

-BOTTOM FILLING. The filling that goes in the low space on the bottom in

-the forepart of the shoe. It is either ground cork, tarred felt, or other

-filler.

-

-BOTTOM SCOURING. Sandpapering the parts of the sole, except the heel.

-

-BOXING. A term used to designate the stiffening material placed in the

-toe of a shoe to support it and retain the shape; such as leather,

-composition of leather and paper, wire net, drilling (a cotton fabric)

-stiffened with shellac, etc.

-

-BOX CALF. A well-known proprietary leather having a grain of

-rectangularly crossed lines.

-

-BOX TOE. Used to hold up the toe of the shoe so as to retain the shape.

-It is generally of sole leather, but often made of canvas or other

-material and stiffened with shellac or gum.

-

-BREAKING THE SOLE. Molding the sole so as to fit the spring better.

-

-BROGAN. A heavy pegged or nailed work shoe, medium cut in height.

-

-BRUSHING. The final finish of the top edge, heel, and bottom, by means of

-a brush.

-

-BUCKSKIN. A soft leather, generally yellow or grayish in color. One way

-of preparing it is by treating deerskins in oil.

-

-BUFF. A split side leather, coarser than glove grain, but otherwise

-similar. It is used for cheaper grades of shoes, principally for men.

-

-BUFFING. The same as bottom scouring.

-

-CABARETTA. A tanned sheepskin of superior finish used for shoe stock.

-There are sheep with wool not far removed from hair in texture, which

-produce a skin of greater tenacity and finish than the ordinary sheep.

-

-CACK. A sole leather bottom without a heel. An infant’s shoe is called a

-cack.

-

-CALFSKINS. Skins of meat cattle of all kinds, weighing up to fifteen

-pounds, are usually included in this term. They make a strong and pliable

-leather. Calfskins were formerly finished with wax and oil on the flesh

-side, but can now be made so as to be finished on the “grain,” which is

-the hair side of the skin.

-

-CAP. A term meaning the same as tip.

-

-CARTON. A cardboard box intended for one pair of shoes.

-

-CEMENTING. This is the operation of placing cement on the outsole and the

-bottom of the welt shoe so that the outsole is held to the shoe by the

-cement.

-

-CHAMOIS. A leather made from the skins of chamois, calves, deer, goats,

-sheep, and split hides of other animals.

-

-CHANNELING. Cutting into the sole in such a way that the thread or

-stitching is away from the surface. In the outsole department it means

-preparing a place for the stitch. In insoles and turn soles, channeling

-is done so that soles are prepared to hold the stitching.

-

-CHANNEL SCREWED. A process by which the sole is fastened to the uppers.

-After a channel is cut and laid over on the outside of the outsole, the

-outsole and insole are fastened together, holding the upper and lining

-between them by means of wire screws, which are fastened in this channel.

-The skived part is then smoothed down over the heads of the screws,

-entirely covering them from sight, and preventing the screws from easily

-working up into the foot.

-

-CHANNEL STITCHED. A method of fastening soles to the uppers, either by

-McKay or welt process, in which a portion of the sole’s outer side is

-channeled into, and the stitches afterwards covered on the lower side by

-the lip of this channel.

-

-CHANNEL TURNING. Turning a lip or flap of sole leather (called channel),

-so that the stitching can be done in the proper place; or it may mean

-turning up the flap or lip of the channel, that is, the part that is to

-cover the stitch.

-

-CHECKING. A term applied to the edges of heels or soles that have

-cracked, or have been injured in process of construction.

-

-CLEANING INSIDE. Cleaning the lining.

-

-CLEANING NAILS. Scraping the blacking off the tops of the heel slugs.

-

-CLEANING SHOES. Removing dirt, wax, cement, etc., from them.

-

-CLICKING. Cutting the uppers of shoes.

-

-CLOSING. Putting two or more pieces together.

-

-CLOSING ON. Stitching the lining and outside together.

-

-COLONIAL. A name given to a woman’s low shoe, with vamp extended into a

-flaring tongue, with a large, ornamental buckle across the instep. The

-buckle and tongue are the distinctive features of the shoe, whether the

-shoe fastens with a lace or strap.

-

-COLTSKIN. Coltskin has been brought into general use in shoemaking

-within the past few years. The skin of a colt is thin enough to use like

-calfskin in its entirety, with such shaving as is given all hides in

-tanning. Coltskin makes a firm basis needed for patent leather, and has

-been much used in recent years for this purpose. Russia is the chief

-source of supply.

-

-COMBINATION LAST. One with a different width instep from the ball. It may

-be one or two widths’ difference, such as the D ball with a B instep.

-Combination lasts are generally used in fitting low insteps.

-

-COMPOSITION. A term used to denote the small scraps that accumulate

-about tanneries and factories, which are ground up and mixed with a

-paste or a kind of cement, and flattened into sheets which are used as

-insoles, and in other parts, in various grades of shoes, where wear is

-not excessive.

-

-CONGRESS GAITER. A shoe designed especially for comfort, with rubber

-goring in the sides which adjusts it to the ankle, instead of laces, and

-sometimes made with lace front to imitate a regular shoe.

-

-CORDOVAN. Originally a Spanish leather made from horsehide. The Spaniards

-were, for a great many centuries, the best leather makers. The term

-is applied to a grain leather from the best and strongest part of a

-horsehide.

-

-COUNTER. The stiffening in the back part of a shoe, often called

-stiffening, to support the outer leather and prevent the shoe from

-“running over” at the heel. It is made either of sole leather, shaved

-thin on the edge and shaped by machinery, as in the best shoes, or

-composition or paper, in cheap shoes. Metal is occasionally used on the

-outside of the shoes in heavy goods for miners and furnacemen.

-

-COUPON TAG. A tag from which a coupon is cut for every operation.

-Operatives hold part of the coupon and the holders of the coupons are

-paid for the part named.

-

-COWHIDE. Refers to hides of cattle, heavier than kips, which run up to

-twenty-five pounds each.

-

-CREASING VAMP. Making hollow grooves across the front of the vamp to add

-to its looks.

-

-CREEDMORE. A man’s heavy lace shoe, with gusset, blucher cut.

-

-CREOLE. A heavy congress work shoe. This shoe, the creedmore, and brogans

-are usually made of oil grains, kip, or split leather, sometimes pegged,

-sometimes “stitched down.”

-

-CRIMPING. Shaping any part of the upper so that it will conform to the

-last better.

-

-CUSHION SOLE. An elastic inner sole.

-

-CUT-OFF VAMP. One cut off at tip for economy when tip is to be covered by

-a cap.

-

-DIEING. Cutting soles to fit the last, outsoles, insoles, heel lifts,

-counters, or half soles, with a machine and a die.

-

-DOM PEDRO. A heavy, one-buckle shoe, with gusset or bellows tongue.

-Originally it was a patent name for certain shoes made of fine material,

-but is now applied to cheap grades.

-

-DONGOLA. A heavy, plump goatskin, tanned with a semibright finish.

-

-DRESSING. A process for giving the upper its original finish by means of

-liquid put on with sponge.

-

-EDGE SETTING. The finishing edge of the sole,--polishing it.

-

-EDGE TRIMMING. Trimming the edge of a sole smoothly to conform to last.

-

-ENAMEL. Leather that is given a shiny finish on the grain side. The

-process is similar to that of patent leather, only that patent leather is

-finished on the flesh side, or the surface of the split.

-

-EYELET. A small ring of metal, etc., placed in the holes for lacing; the

-eyelet holes are sometimes worked with thread like a buttonhole.

-

-EYELETTING. Putting on eyelets.

-

-FACING. The bleached calf or sheepskin used around the top of the shoe,

-and down the eyelet row and inside of the upper.

-

-FAIR STITCH. Term applied to the stitching that shows around the outer

-edge of the sole, to give the McKay shoe the appearance of a welt shoe.

-

-FAKING. Putting a gloss on any part of the bottom of the shoe.

-

-FINDINGS. The small parts of a shoe, such as blacking, cement, nails,

-wax, tacks, thread, etc.

-

-FLAP, LIP, AND SHOULDER. Terms used in connection with the channel or

-with the operation of sewing.

-

-FOLLOWER. Any last or form put in a shoe from which the original last has

-been pulled.

-

-FOREPART FINISHING. The staining and polishing of the forepart of the

-shoe.

-

-FORM. A term applied to a filler last. It may be of wood, papier-mâché,

-leather board, or any similar material, and is used to enhance the

-appearance of sample shoes, in salesmen’s lines or in window displays.

-

-FOXED. Having the lower part of the quarter a separate piece of leather

-or covered by an extra piece; “slipper foxed” is a term sometimes applied

-to women’s full vamp shoes.

-

-FOXING. The name applied to that part of the upper that extends from the

-sole to the laces in front, and to about the height of the counter in the

-back; being the length of the upper. It may be in one or more pieces and

-is often cut down to the shank in circular form.

-

-FRIZZING. A process to which chamois and wash leather are subjected,

-after the skins are unhaired, scraped, “fleshed,” and raised. It consists

-in rubbing the skins with pumice stone or a blunt knife till the

-appearance of the grain is entirely removed.

-

-FRONT. A term used for part of a congress toe.

-

-GAITER. A term usually applied to a separate ankle covering or to a

-congress shoe.

-

-GEMMING. The operation of making gem insoles.

-

-GEM INSOLES. An insole for welt shoes of leather.

-

-GLAZED KID. See Kid.

-

-GLOVE GRAIN. A light, soft-finished, split leather, for women’s or

-children’s shoes or topping.

-

-GOATSKIN. See Kid.

-

-GOODYEAR WELT. A term used to denote the process of attaching the sole

-to the upper of a shoe by means of a narrow strip of leather called a

-welt.

-

-GORE. A rubber elastic used in a congress shoe. It is also applied to the

-long, wedge-shaped piece of leather set in an upper to widen it.

-

-GRADING. The sorting of outsoles and half soles to get uniform weight in

-edges of finished shoes.

-

-HALF SOLE. Half of a complete sole used in forepart of bottom under

-outsole.

-

-HARNESS LEATHER. Similar to belting, and is made from hides heavier than

-kips.

-

-HEEL. Made of layers of leather or wood called liftings, and attached to

-rear part of shoe (heel seat). There are different varieties of heels.

-The French heel is an extremely high heel with a curved outline in back

-and front (breast). It is sometimes made of wood covered with leather,

-with thicknesses of sole leather, or all sole leather. The Cuban heel is

-a high, straight heel, without the curve of the French or “Louis XV”

-heel. Military heel is a straight heel not as high as the Cuban. A spring

-heel is a low heel formed by extending back the outside of the shoe to

-the heel, with a slip inserted between the outsole and heel slat. Wedge

-heel is somewhat similar to a spring heel, except that a wedge-shaped

-lift is tacked on the outside instead of a slit. Slugging heels is the

-process of affixing the made-up heel by one operation of the machine.

-

-HEEL FINISHING. Blacking and polishing the heel edge.

-

-HEEL LINING. The lining to cover heel nails inside the shoe; it is often

-known by other names.

-

-HEEL PAD. In the manufacture of shoes, is a small piece of felt, leather,

-or other substance fastened to and covering the full width of the insole

-at the point upon which the heel rests. A heel cushion is sometimes

-called a heel pad.

-

-HEEL SCOURING. Sandpapering the edge of the heel, except the front or

-breast portion.

-

-HEEL SEAT. That part of sole on which heel is fastened.

-

-HEEL SEAT NAILING. Nailing the heel part of sole.

-

-HEEL SEAT TRIMMING. Trimming the rear or heel part of sole.

-

-HEEL SHAVING. Shaving the heel, shaping it.

-

-HEMLOCK TANNED. A process of tanning leather by hemlock bark.

-

-HIDES. Distinguished from skins, in the trade. Hides refer to skins of

-animals which are over twenty-five pounds in weight. Skins refer to

-smaller animals; as skins of goats, calves, sheep.

-

-INLAY. A trimming of the upper by an insertion of the same or different

-kind of material than that of the body in which it is inlaid. It is used

-for decorative purpose on a shoe.

-

-INSEAMING. Sewing sole on turn shoe. Welting and inseaming are

-practically the same operation.

-

-INSEAM TRIMMING. Cutting off the surplus leather; term is also applied to

-pulling sole tacks.

-

-INSOLE. The first sole laid on the last, and is the foundation of all

-shoes with insoles. It is an important though invisible portion of a

-shoe. This inner sole is the part to which the upper and outsole are

-sewed or nailed in the McKay and welt shoes.

-

-INSPECTING. The examination of shoes to see that the work is perfect; it

-is sometimes called crowning.

-

-INSPECTING INSOLE. The operation of looking inside of the shoe for tacks.

-

-INSTEP. The top of the arch of the foot.

-

-IRON. A term indicating the thickness of sole leather; each unit is

-approximately one thirty-second of an inch in thickness.

-

-IRONING UPPERS. Taking wrinkles out of the uppers and smoothing the same

-with a hot iron.

-

-JULIETTE. A woman’s house slipper which is cut a little above the ankle

-in front and back, and cut down on the sides is called a Juliette.

-

-KANGAROO. The skin of the animal of that name, which makes a splendid

-leather, of firm texture. It is quite expensive, hence substitutes are on

-the market under the same name.

-

-KID. A term applied to the shoe leather made from the skins of mature

-goats.

-

-KIP. A term applied to leather made from hides weighing between fifteen

-and twenty-five pounds.

-

-LACE STAY. A strip of leather reënforcing the eyelet holes.

-

-LACE HOOK. An eyelet extended into a recurved hook, around which the lace

-is looped. It is most commonly used in men’s and boys’ shoes, although

-recently some have been invented for use in women’s shoes with curved

-ends, to avoid catching the dress.

-

-LACING. The operation of putting laces in shoes.

-

-LAST. A wooden form over which the shoe is constructed, giving the shoe

-its distinctive shape.

-

-LASTING. The process of making the uppers conform to the last in all

-respects. The operations of assembling and pulling over are parts of

-lasting.

-

-LAYING CHANNEL. Turning down the lip or flap to cover the stitching.

-

-LEVELING. Shaping the sole to the bottom of the last.

-

-LIFT. The name given to one thickness of sole leather used in the heel.

-Top lift is the bottom lift, when the shoe is right side up, and is the

-last piece put on in manufacture.

-

-LINING. The inside part of shoe, generally of cloth (dull) or sheepskin.

-

-LINING CUTTING. The operation of cutting the cloth linings.

-

-LINING-IN. The operation of putting lining inside of the shoe to cover

-insole or part of insole.

-

-LOADING LEATHER. Filling the pores of the leather with glucose to

-increase its weight.

-

-MAKING LININGS. Consists of closing up heel of lining; putting on top and

-side or eyelet stay.

-

-MATCH MARKING. An operation performed on colored uppers, except black, to

-get different parts of the upper the same shade and color, and both shoes

-in the pair alike.

-

-MAT. A term applied to a dull finish kid as distinguished from glazed.

-

-MCKAY SEWED OR MCKAY. A shoe in which the outsole is attached to the

-insole and upper by a method named for the inventor.

-

-MCKAY SEWING. Sewing through and through so that thread is seen inside

-of shoe.

-

-MIDDLE SOLE. Any sole between outsole and insole.

-

-MOCK WELT. McKay-sewed shoe with a double sole and having a leather sock

-lining. It is fair stitched to imitate a welt.

-

-MONKEY SKIN. A peculiar grained skin, and is considered in the trade as a

-fancy leather. It is often imitated.

-

-MOROCCO. A name applied to leather originally made in Morocco. It is a

-sumac-tanned goatskin, red in color, and is used in book binding. The

-name is also applied to a leather made in imitation of this, and to

-heavy, plump goatskins used for shoes.

-

-MOLDING. Shaping the sole to fit the bottom of last.

-

-MULES. The name applied to slippers with no counters or quarters.

-

-NAP. The woolly side of hide, cloth, or felt.

-

-NAUMKEAGING. Smoothing up the bottom with fine sandpaper. Sometimes the

-buffing grain.

-

-NULLIFIER. A shoe with high vamp and quarter, dropping low at the sides,

-made with a short rubber goring for summer or house wear.

-

-OAK TANNED. A process of tanning by means of a substance obtained from

-oak bark.

-

-OIL LEATHER. Leather prepared by currying hides in oil. The hides are

-moist, that the oily matter may be gradually and thoroughly absorbed.

-

-OOZE. A chrome tan calfskin treated on the flesh side in such a manner

-that the long fibers are loosened and form a nap surface; made in many

-colors.

-

-OUTSIDE CUTTING. Cutting the leather parts of the shoe, as vamp, tip,

-top, etc.

-

-OUTSIDE TAP. The tap used outside of men’s or boys’ heavy shoes.

-

-OUTSOLE. The sole next the ground, on which all wear comes.

-

-[Illustration: Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe.]

-

-[Illustration: Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe.]

-

-OXFORD. A low-cut shoe no higher than the instep lace, button, or

-goring, made in men’s, women’s, and children’s sizes.

-

-PACKER HIDES. Hides taken off in the large slaughterhouses. They are

-rated slightly higher in price, because great care and skill are used in

-taking them off.

-

-PACKING. Placing a pair of shoes in a carton.

-

-PACS. Coverings for the feet made of good quality calfskin, similar in

-form and appearance to the Indian moccasin. They do not have sole leather

-bottoms. If properly made, they are waterproof.

-

-PANCAKE. A term applied to one of the many artificial leathers formed

-from leather scraps, shaved thin, and cemented together under heavy

-pressure.

-

-PASTED COUNTER. One that is cut from two pieces of sole leather pasted

-together. It is sometimes called a two-piece counter.

-

-PATENT LEATHER. Varnished leather.

-

-PATTERN. The model by which the pieces comprising the upper of a shoe

-are cut, applied collectively to upper as modified by the differing

-shape of these pieces.

-

-PEBBLE. A term used in the process to bring out the grain of leather and

-give it a roughened or rubbed appearance.

-

-PEGGING. Lasting out soles with pegs.

-

-PERFORATING. Making very small holes around parts of upper. It is

-performed mostly for decoration.

-

-POLISH. The name of ladies’ or misses’ front-lace shoe of higher cut than

-“bal,” and named from Poland, where it originated.

-

-PRESSING. Consists of a flat-press pressure for heels and soles, to

-prevent cracking of edges and to make parts adhere.

-

-PORPOISE. This skin is sometimes used for leather and boot laces, but

-porpoise hides are ordinarily obtained from the white whale.

-

-PULLING LASTS. Removing the lasts from shoes.

-

-PULLING OVER. Pulling upper on the last and tacking it in position.

-

-PUMP. A low-cut shoe originally having no fastenings, such as laces or

-buttons. A pump is cut lower than the instep.

-

-PUMP SOLE. An extra-light single sole, running clear through to the

-back of the heel. A pump sole in former years was distinguished by its

-flexibility and was hand turned.

-

-PUTTING ON TAP. Sticking half sole to the outsole.

-

-QUARTER. The rear part of upper when a full vamp is not used. Term is

-used mostly in women’s, and Oxfords or low shoes.

-

-RAND. Made of sole leather about as wide as a welt, but thin at one edge.

-It is tacked to the heel so as to balance the heel evenly on the sole and

-fill any open space around the edge between sole and heel.

-

-RAPID STITCHING. Sewing the sole to welt.

-

-RELASTING. Consists in putting lasts in shoes from which the original

-lasts have been removed.

-

-REPAIRING. A term applied to filling slight cracks in patent tips or

-patent leather.

-

-ROAN. Sheepskin tanned with sumac. The process is similar in its details

-to that employed for morocco leather, but lacks the graining given to the

-morocco by the grooved rollers in the finishing. It imitates ungrained

-morocco.

-

-ROLLING. The process of passing leather between rolls to make it firm and

-hard. Rolling consists in polishing the bottom on roll and brush.

-

-ROUGH ROUNDING. Rounding outsole to the shape of last, and cutting

-channel in the welt-channeled shoes.

-

-ROYALTIES. Sums paid for the use of machines to machine companies.

-

-RUSSET CALF. Russet-colored calf is made from calfskins.

-

-RUSSET GRAIN. Russet-colored grain is made from a split cowhide.

-

-SABOT. The name of a one-piece wooden shoe, carved from a block of

-basswood. A novelty to Americans, but worn by people in the rural and

-manufacturing sections of Holland, Germany, and France.

-

-SACK LINING. The lining inside the shoe and insole.

-

-SANDAL. The name of a woman’s strap slipper, or a sole worn by children.

-Originally fastened on the foot by straps.

-

-SATIN CALF. A grain split, stuffed with oil, and smooth finished.

-

-SCOURING BREAST. Sandpapering the front part of the heel.

-

-SCREW-FASTENED. A shoe having the sole attached with screws, as in cheap

-or working shoes.

-

-SEAL GRAIN. Usually a flesh split, with an artificial grain which is

-stamped or printed on the finished leather.

-

-SECOND LASTING. The same as relasting. Term used most in turn work.

-

-SHANK. The middle position of the bottom of the foot. Shank supports are

-placed in shoes to stiffen that part of the bottom. They are of steel,

-of wood, or of a combination of leather board and steel, and can be

-placed in the shoe any time before the outsole is laid.

-

-SHANK BURNISHING. Polishing a black shank with hot iron.

-

-SHANK FINISHING. Finishing the shank with blacking or in colors. The top

-lift is generally finished at the same time.

-

-SHANKING OUT. Means making the edge of the shank thinner than the other

-part of the sole, and making it smooth.

-

-SHEEPSKINS. Used largely for linings and for cheap shoes for women and

-children. It is too soft and weak in texture for heavy wear, and liable

-to split and tear.

-

-SHORT VAMP. A foreshortened vamp. The distance between the extreme tip

-and the throat of the vamp shortened for appearances.

-

-SIDES. Leather made from hides which are split into two sides down the

-back.

-

-SIDE LASTING. Lasting the side of the shoe only.

-

-SIZE. Shoes are measured by the length and width. The length is expressed

-by numbers and the widths by letters.

-

-SKINS. A term used to represent the skin covering of small animals, such

-as goats.

-

-SKIRTING. The outer parts of leather (hide), such as shanks, bellies,

-necks, etc.

-

-SKIVING. Making the sole the same thickness in all parts. Skiving means

-cutting or shaving down to a thin edge. This operation may be done in the

-cutting department or stitching department.

-

-SLIP. The name applied to spring heels or to soles. Slip is a thin piece

-of sole leather inserted above the outer sole.

-

-SLUGGING. Driving slugs in heels, on part or all of the heel.

-

-SOCK LINING. The lining for insole, inside of shoe.

-

-SOFT TIP. A term applied to a shoe on which no boxing is used under the

-tip.

-

-SOLES AND SOLE LEATHER. Name applied to pieces of leather of various

-thickness on the bottom of a shoe, usually made from heavy hides of

-leather. There are many varieties of soles: a “full-double” sole has two

-thicknesses of leather extending clear back to the heel; “half-double”

-sole is a full outer sole, with slip extending back to shank; single sole

-is self-defining; “tap” is a half sole.

-

-SOLE LAYING. Sole laying is the operation of laying the outsole.

-

-SORTING. The process of selecting and sorting soles, so that they may be

-put up in different qualities.

-

-SPEWING. Shoes in stock sometimes become coated with a grayish white,

-powdery substance, that looks like mildew. This formation on leather that

-is not fully seasoned is called spewing, and the deposit is called bloom.

-It can readily be wiped off, and does not indicate any serious defect or

-trouble with the leather. It is not a mildew or growth, but apparently

-an exudation of materials used in tanning.

-

-SPLITS. A name applied to split leather, that is, two or more parts of

-the hide.

-

-SPRING HEEL. Consists of one or more lifts used between the outsole and

-upper. It is seen mostly in children’s shoes and is often called wedge

-heel. It can also be put on outside instead of under the outsole.

-

-STAMPING. The operation of putting size and width on the inside of the

-shoe. Parts of the uppers are often stamped or marked so that the whole

-are put together properly in the stitching room.

-

-STAY. The name given to any piece of leather put in the upper to

-strengthen it or to strengthen a seam.

-

-STAMPING BOTTOMS. The operation of stamping name on bottom. It is often

-performed in finishing rooms.

-

-STAMPING CARTON. Putting the size, width, and other marks on carton.

-

-STAMPING SIZES. Stamping sizes on heel part of the sole.

-

-STANDARD-FASTENED. Nailing bottom on standard screw machine.

-

-STAYING. Putting on a stay, generally heel stay.

-

-STITCH SEPARATING. Marking between stitches so as to make them show to

-good advantage.

-

-STITCH DOWN. A term applied to a flexible shoe used in the army, in which

-the top is turned out instead of under and stitched through the sole.

-

-STITCHED ALOFT. A term used to indicate that the sewing stitches show

-on the bottom. No channel is necessary in this sole. It may be a slight

-groove. In stitching, the shoe is held bottom up, therefore the name

-“stitched aloft.”

-

-STRAIGHT LAST. One that is neither right nor left, and a shoe made over

-such a last can be worn on either foot. This term is sometimes applied to

-right and left shoes that have a barely perceptible outside swing.

-

-STRIPPING. Consists of cutting in strips wide enough to cut soles all of

-equal size in length.

-

-SUEDE. A trade term applied to kid skins, finished on the flesh side.

-

-SWING. A term applied to the curve of the outer edge of a sole.

-

-TACKING ON. Consists in laying the outsole on McKay’s lasted shoes.

-

-TACK PULLING AND TRIMMING OUT. Consist of preparing bottom for welting.

-It also makes it better for the operation.

-

-TAMPICO. A variety of goat skins coming from the province of Tampico,

-Central America.

-

-TAP. Half of a complete sole, often called half sole when used under

-outsole.

-

-TAN. Tan is a sort of brownish leather.

-

-TANNING. Tanning is the process of converting hides or skins into

-leather.

-

-TAP TRIMMING. Shaping the tap to conform to the sole.

-

-TAWING. The process of making leather by soaking hides in a solution of

-salt and alum, or by packing them down with dry salt and powdered alum.

-Used to prepare skin rugs and furs.

-

-TEMPERING. The operation of wetting the leather in water to take hardness

-out and make leather “mull,” so that it may be worked easier.

-

-TIP. The toe piece which is stitched to the vamp and outside of it. Stock

-tip is a tip of the same material as the vamp. Patent tip is a patent

-leather tip. Diamond tip refers to the shape extending back to a point.

-Imitation tip-stitching across the vamp is imitation of a tip.

-

-TIP CUTTING. Cutting the tip which goes on the toe of the vamp.

-

-TOE AND HEEL LASTING. Lasting heel and toe.

-

-TOE PIECE. A piece attached to cut-off vamp to lengthen it.

-

-TONGUE. A narrow strip of leather necessary on all laced shoes.

-

-TOP. The part of the upper above the vamp; tip of shoe.

-

-TOP CUTTING. Cutting the top only.

-

-TOP FACING. The strip of leather or band of cloth around the top of the

-shoe on the inside is called the top facing. It adds to the finish of the

-lining, and is sometimes used to advertise the name of manufacturers by a

-design of letters woven or sewed on it.

-

-TOP LIFT. The lift which is next to the ground.

-

-TOP LIFT SCOURING. Sandpapering top lift of heel to make it smooth.

-

-TOP STITCHING. Consists of stitching across the top and down the side.

-

-TREEING. Shaping the shoe, making it smooth. Produces the same effect

-as ironing, although no hot iron is used. It makes the upper plump and

-gives it a good finish and “feel.”

-

-TRIMMING CUTTING. Cutting stays, facings, and other small parts of the

-upper.

-

-TRIMMING VAMP. Cutting off hanging or surplus thread.

-

-TURNING. To turn shoe right side out. Also turning upper right side out.

-

-TURNED SHOE. A lady’s fine shoe that is made wrong side out, then turned

-right side out, which operation necessitates the use of a thin, flexible

-sole of good quality. The sole is fastened to the last, the upper is

-lasted over it wrong side out, then the two are sewed together, the

-thread catching through a channel cut in the edge of the sole. The seam

-does not come through to the bottom of the sole where it would chafe the

-foot on inside.

-

-UPPER. A term applied collectively to the upper parts of a shoe.

-

-UNGRAINED. Smooth surface.

-

-VAMP. The lower or front part of the upper of a shoe. It is the most

-important piece of the upper and should be cut from the strongest and

-cleanest part of the skin. “Cut-off” vamp is one that extends only to the

-tip, instead of being continued to the toe and lasted under with the tip.

-Whole vamp is one that extends to the heel without a seam.

-

-VAMPING. Stitching the vamp to the top.

-

-VAMP CUTTING. Cutting vamp with or without the tip.

-

-VELOUR. A finish for calf leather. It is the French name for velvet and

-is used in the shoe trade for a patent chrome-tanned calf leather. It is

-an excellent leather and has a smooth and velvety finish.

-

-VELLUM. A name for skins that are made into a variety of parchment.

-

-VENEERING. Consists in making soles, whole or part, heavier, by means of

-leather-board or other material fastened to the sole by an adhesive.

-

-VESTING. A material originally designed for making vests. As used in

-shoes, it is made with fancy-figured weave, having a backing of stiff

-buckram or rubber-treated tissue to strengthen it.

-

-VISCOLIZING. A patent method of waterproofing sole leather by the use of

-partly emulsified oils with a water-resisting tendency. Viscolized soles

-are used in hunting and sporting boots.

-

-VICI. A patent trade name for a brand of chrome-tanned kid.

-

-WASH LEATHER. An inferior quality of chamois.

-

-WELT. A narrow strip of leather that is sewed to the upper of a shoe

-with an insole leaving the edge of the welt extending outward, so that

-the outsole can be attached by sewing through both welt and outsole,

-around the outside of the shoe. The attaching of the sole and upper

-thus involves two sewings, first the insole, welt and upper, then the

-outsole to the welt. The name is applied to the shoe itself when made

-in this way to distinguish it from a turned, or McKay sewed shoe. This

-is the method used by cobblers in the production of hand-sewed shoes to

-fasten the sole and upper together. Goodyear welt is a welt in which the

-sewing is done by a machine named for the inventor. There are very few

-hand-welted shoes made.

-

-WELT BEATING. The flattening out of the welt, making it smooth.

-

-WELTING. Sewing the welt to shoe.

-

-WHITE ALUM. Bleached leather tawed with white alum.

-

-WOODEN CASE. Large box for twelve or more pairs.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER TEN

-

-LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE

-

-

-The use of gloves is so old that relics of them have been found in the

-habitations of the cave dwellers. The Romans used them as decorative

-articles of dress and the Greeks to protect the hands when doing heavy

-work.

-

-The gloves of ladies and gentlemen in the days of Queen Elizabeth,

-and before and after, were most beautiful in hand workmanship and

-embellishments, but they were usually shapeless things, and in these days

-no one would wear them; they are not to be compared with the elegant

-style and artistic finish of the modern product.

-

-When the social world was restricted, so to speak, in the numbers of

-its members who could afford some of life’s luxuries, the use of the

-glove was confined largely to royalty, nobility, and the well-to-do.

-And the trade not being extensive, prices were high--being added to by

-decorative elaboration in needlework in order that the manufacturer and

-his employees might extract as much money as possible from the ultimate

-buyer. While glove making is now one of the stabilities of modern

-manufacture, it is, nevertheless, constantly changing in styles, due to

-eagerness for novelties and new fashions.

-

-Glove making of leather, in a rough, crude form, was carried on in this

-country to a very limited extent in New York State as early as 1760, by

-glove makers brought from Scotland to settle on the grants of Sir William

-Johnson, in Fulton county. But there was no general market for the home

-product until one was found in Albany in 1825. These early gloves, crude

-and clumsy, were cut with shears from leather by means of pasteboard

-patterns, and men did the cutting and women the sewing. Dies were later

-introduced, and this led to a great improvement in the character of the

-output.

-

-But a still greater step forward was taken when the sewing machine was

-introduced in 1852. This abolished handwork entirely, but still the

-industry remained largely of a domestic nature, since it could be carried

-on at home with a machine as well as in a factory. Later steam power was

-installed in factories with which to run the machines. The cutting of

-gloves, and the stitching on the backs, was done before the gloves were

-sent out to be completed in workers’ homes.

-

-As in everything wherein power can be substituted for hand labor in

-these days, the methods of glove manufacture have undergone a great

-transformation. The treating of skins in a great tub, three feet deep,

-whole dyeing and scouring, in rooms of high temperature, has been

-displaced by putting skins and colors into a cube-shaped box, which,

-revolving with an irregular motion, produces the same results more

-quickly than by the primitive way. But when color is to be applied to but

-one side the process is the same as of old,--hand use of a brush while

-the skin is stretched out on a slab.

-

-When taken from the stock on hand to be made into gloves, the first thing

-done to skins by some glove makers is to “feed” them with eggs--not eggs

-of suspicious merits, but good enough for table use. And of these nothing

-is used but the yolk. One glove maker imports from China large quantities

-of the yolks of duck eggs for his work, and his yearly consumption of

-yolks amounts to seventeen thousand.

-

-When the skins leave the dyehouse, they are rapidly dried in steam-heated

-lofts; and while stiff and rough they are, or were, worked into softness

-and smoothness over a wooden upright standard, called a stake, at the

-top of which is fitted a blunt semicircular knife. Over this the skin is

-drawn by hand, back and forth, until it becomes as pliable and delicate

-as silk. When this work was done manually it was most laborious. But now

-it has been mostly taken over by very ingenious machinery, which looks,

-in operation, as if it would tear a skin into fragments by the way it

-snaps and pulls at it, but which is adjustable to such nicety of action

-and power that the work is done exactly as it is wanted.

-

-The next operation is to pare the skins to uniformity of thickness. This

-also was handwork for a long time, done with a peculiarly shaped knife,

-but now emery-coated wheels, with rounded edges, are used by the workers,

-who, with their aid, do just as good and much faster work in drawing and

-thinning the skins with absolute precision. This completes the treatment

-of the skin.

-

-Now the function of the cutter begins, and he must be a workman of

-experience and good judgment, in that he must contend with the inconstant

-inelasticity of the skin, reducing it to uniform resistance. He must

-get so many pieces of glove size from each skin, and suit the pieces

-to particular features of the skin. When done with a skin he must have

-left, as useless, only trifling strips and shreds. The shapeliness of

-the glove which a woman draws over her hand, depends altogether upon the

-intelligence and skill of the cutter. In American factories the cutter is

-usually from some glove-making center in Europe and from a family whose

-occupation has been glove making for centuries.

-

-A punch next cuts these glove pieces into shape, forming and dividing the

-fingers, slitting the buttonholes, providing side pieces for fingers and

-thumbs, and also the fragments used for strengthening the buttonholes.

-The sewing, formerly the handiwork of women, is now done on machines

-of capacity for exceptionally fine quality of intricate stitching. The

-number of glove sizes made is sufficient to meet every likely demand.

-When sewn, and the buttons or fastenings put on, they pass beneath the

-critical eye of an inspector for scrutiny as to faults. Then they are

-finally shaped on a hot metal hand, smoothed, banded, boxed, and sent to

-the salesroom for shipment.

-

-The first and fourth fingers of a glove are completed by gussets, or

-strips, sewed only on the inner side; but the second and third fingers

-require gussets on both sides to complete the fingers. In addition to

-these, small, diamond-shaped pieces are sewed in at the roots of the

-fingers. Special care is necessary in sewing in the thumb pieces, as

-poorly made gloves usually give way at this point.

-

-Natural lined gloves are now common enough, although it is not many years

-since they were regarded as impracticable. These are made from pelts of

-various animals with the hair left on the skin to form the lining.

-

-

-AUTOMOBILE AND FURNITURE LEATHER

-

-For automobile and furniture leather only choice hides should be used.

-The kind of hides generally employed for this class of leather are French

-and Swiss, as these run full and plump on the bellies, are free from cuts

-on the flesh and are of clear grain. The hides are trimmed before placing

-them in the soaking pits, all useless parts, such as nose, shanks, etc.,

-being cut away.

-

-After remaining in soak for a day or two, the hides are hauled out,

-fleshed, and returned to the soaks for thorough softening. When

-thoroughly soaked, they are toggled and reeled into the first lime. The

-first lime must be a weak, mellow lime, or a harsh grain will show after

-the leather is tanned. The hides are reeled over into stronger limes

-every day for seven days, when they are ready for unhairing. After coming

-from the limes, the hides should go into a pit of soft water heated to

-about ninety degrees Fahrenheit and left over night before starting in

-to unhair. After unhairing, they are thrown into a vat of clean water

-and thoroughly worked out on the grain to remove short hairs and scud

-and are then ready for bating. One that has a little bacterial action

-is preferred to an acid bate. After bating, the hides are given a good

-scudding on the grain and are then ready for the tanning liquors.

-

-The liquors are made of hemlock and oak and are used very weak on the

-start. The hides are suspended for a day in a liquor not over six degrees

-specific gravity reading in strength, and the following day shifted over

-into a stronger liquor. The stock is given stronger liquors every day

-until tanned enough for splitting.

-

-The stock is struck out smoothly and brought to the machine for

-splitting. The buffing is first taken away and sold for hat bands,

-pocket-books, etc. The grains are finished and the splits are returned to

-the tanning liquors to be thoroughly tanned. As soon as the splits are

-tanned, they are washed up, drained, and then drummed in the drum in a

-sumac liquor. They are now scoured, and, after being well set out, are

-given a good oiling with cod oil.

-

-They are now tacked out on the frames and dried out. They are next taken

-from the frames and boarded by hand over the table. The splits are taken

-to the japan shop and are tacked out again and are ready for the first

-coat of daub. Two coats are applied. After each coat, the splits are well

-rubbed down, when they receive the slicker coat. The color coats are now

-applied, and after drying out, the leather is grained up and finished.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER ELEVEN

-

-RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE

-

-

-Examine the rubbers we wear during the winter and stormy weather.

-

-Rubber shoe coverings are made to protect the shoe from water and snow

-and may be in the form of either slippers or arctics. The covering is

-rendered waterproof by means of a compound rubber.

-

-Rubber is the name given to a coagulated milky juice obtained from many

-different trees, vines, and shrubs that grow on that part of the earth’s

-surface which forms a band some three or four hundred miles on either

-side of the equator.

-

-[Illustration: Crude Rubber.]

-

-Rubber is graded commercially, according to the district where it is

-found. In the order of importance it may be divided into three general

-sorts, viz., American, African, and Asiatic. The best and largest

-quantities of rubber come from Brazil, along the banks of the Amazon

-River. The countries in the northern and western part of South America,

-and the Central American States and Mexico furnish considerable rubber.

-Eastern and western Africa also produce many kinds of rubber in large

-quantities, though somewhat inferior to the Brazilian product. The

-Asiatic rubbers are unimportant in quantity, and, excepting the rubber

-obtained from cultivated trees in Ceylon, are decidedly inferior in

-quality.

-

-The fluid rubber obtained from Brazil is called Para and is used

-principally in the manufacture of rubber footwear. The method of

-gathering and coagulating the rubber juice (called latex) varies in the

-different countries. The native first clears a space under a number of

-trees and proceeds to tap the trees with a short-handled ax, having a

-small blade, by cutting gashes in the bark. A cup is fixed under each

-cut to catch the fluid as it flows out. As fast as the cups are filled,

-they are emptied into a large vessel and carried to the camp to be

-coagulated. A fire is started in a shallow hole in the ground, and palm

-nuts, which make a dense smoke, are thrown on. An earthen cover which has

-a small opening on top is placed over the fire, allowing the smoke to

-escape through the opening. A wooden paddle is first dipped in clay water

-and then into the latex and then held over the smoke. The heat coagulates

-a thin layer of rubber on the paddle. It is dipped again and again in the

-latex and smoked each time. After being dipped many times, a lump (called

-biscuit) of rubber is formed. A cut is made in the biscuit and the paddle

-removed. Then the rubber is ready for market. The world’s crop of rubber

-in 1911 was about ninety thousand tons.

-

-Few people realize the number of operations necessary to produce from the

-crude biscuit of India rubber the highly finished rubber shoe of to-day.

-Briefly stated, the various steps are washing, drying, compounding,

-calendering, cutting the various parts, making or putting these parts

-together, varnishing, vulcanizing, and packing. Each of these processes

-requires a distinct and separate department, and many of these processes

-are subdivided into minor operations.

-

-The huge stock of Para rubber, that is rubber obtained from the Amazon

-section, to be found in any of the leading rubber factories counts well

-up into the thousands of dollars. With rubber at or near $1.50 per pound,

-a stock of ten to fifty tons runs up into the five or six figures.

-

-This crude rubber, as it comes from the Amazon, contains more or less

-dirt, pebbles, and other foreign substances, which must be removed.

-

-The large cakes of crude rubber are first broken up by a cracker machine,

-consisting of two large, revolving steel cylinders, from which the

-product falls into pans or trays. It goes then to a machine known as a

-“washer” or “sheeter,” where it is run between revolving cylinders, upon

-which a continuous spray of clean water is maintained. After being rolled

-into rough sheets, it is put into a tank, from which it is taken to the

-“beater” machine, in which water runs continuously, and then it is washed

-again and “sheeted out.” It is then dried in one of two ways.

-

-(1) The older way. The sheets are hung over rods in a large room, and

-allowed to dry in the air. To facilitate the same, a fan or blower is

-often used to cause a circulation and removal of the moisture-laden air.

-This requires a period of from one to two or three months.

-

-[Illustration: Washing and Drying.]

-

-(2) The second method is called vacuum drying. This process is gradually

-being introduced, so that now probably more rubber is dried in vacuum

-than by air. The vacuum drier consists of a large iron cylinder filled

-with plates, through which steam is allowed to circulate. The rubber

-is placed on the plates and the air is exhausted from the cylinder by

-means of an air pump until very nearly twenty-six degrees of vacuum are

-obtained. By this process only from two to three hours are required to

-produce perfectly dry rubber.

-

-The making of a rubber shoe is not the simple matter which might at

-first be supposed. An ordinary rubber shoe consists of at least seven

-or eight different parts, sometimes twenty-one parts to a pair, while

-a high-button gaiter has seventeen distinct parts, and a rubber boot

-has twenty-three different pieces. There are insoles, outsoles, stays,

-piping, foxing, and a dozen other different pieces, each one of which

-is necessary to the proper construction of a rubber shoe or boot. The

-thinner sheets for the uppers are cut by hand, the deft work of the

-cutters in following the patterns outlined on the sheets being the result

-of years of practice. The sheets of rubber from which the uppers and

-soles are cut are at this stage of the work plastic and very sticky. It

-is necessary on this account to cut the various pieces one by one, and

-keep them separate. The soles and some of the heavier pieces are dried

-out by the machine, and the heels are made by a special machine, but by

-far the greater part is done by wonderfully skilled hands. All of these

-parts which go to make a shoe, or the twenty-three parts which go into

-a boot, are collected and sent to the making department, which, in most

-factories, is a large room containing several hundred operatives, each

-working by herself, and bringing the many separate parts into the fully

-finished footwear.

-

-[Illustration: Calender Room.]

-

-The sheets of rubber, after being dried, are taken to the “compound”

-room, where they are sprinkled with whiting, to prevent sticking, and

-weighed. Next they are taken into the calender room to a “mixer,” by

-means of which the rubber is combined with other substances, which

-include sulphur, litharge, whiting, lampblack, tar, resin, lime, palm

-oil, and linseed oil.

-

-There are different calendering machines. The ones called the upper

-calenders form sheets of rubber stock for the upper part of the shoe. The

-soling calenders form the stock for the sole or bottom part of the shoe;

-other calender machines are used to coat a layer of gum on one side of

-the fabrics used for lining and various strips, fillers, toe, and heel

-pieces. The gum sheets are sent to the cutting room.

-

-Generally, linings for nine pairs of shoes are cut at once. The linings

-are cut both by hand and by machine. Men who cut with dies, by hand,

-stand at the bench and use iron mallets, like those used in cutting

-heels. Inner soles, heel pieces, and linings are all cut by means of dies

-in the same manner.

-

-The edges of the several parts are spread with cement, and then the

-parts are taken to the making room and distributed. In the making

-department the boots and shoes are put together. Women make the light

-overshoes; men make the heavy ones. Rubbers are made by women, but men

-put on the outer soles.

-

-Linings are first applied smoothly to a wooden last and cemented

-together, the cement side out. The rubber parts are then stuck on and

-rolled firmly with a small hand roller. Young women become very skilled

-in this work, taking up the several parts in rapid succession, placing

-them accurately upon the last, and rolling and pounding them firmly

-together.

-

-[Illustration: Cutting Room.]

-

-Perhaps the most interesting single process is that of putting the rubber

-boot together. This work is done by men, and requires, in addition

-to accurate eyesight, rapid and very deft movements of the hand and

-considerable strength. No nails, tacks, or stitching are required. The

-natural adhesiveness of the rubber, assisted by the use of rubber

-cement, holds the parts solidly together.

-

-In the making of the shoe the last is covered with the various pieces

-which are so made as to adhere where they are placed. It is exact and

-nice work fitting all these pieces perfectly, each edge overlapping just

-so far and no farther. The lighter shoes are made by women, but the heavy

-lumbermen’s shoes, arctics, and especially the boots, are made by men,

-for this work needs strength as well as dexterity.

-

-The goods which require varnishing are put on racks and treated with a

-mixture of boiled linseed oil, naphtha, and other materials, which are

-applied with brushes, and impart a gloss to the surface.

-

-On vulcanizing boots and shoes, the shoes are placed on racks supported

-by iron cars, which are run over tracks into the vulcanizing chamber.

-This consists principally of a large room provided with a steam coil on

-the floor. The temperature rarely exceeds two hundred and sixty degrees

-Fahrenheit. In vulcanizing shoes, the heat is increased gradually from

-the beginning, about one hundred and eighty degrees Fahrenheit, otherwise

-the goods would be blistered, due to the rapid evaporation of moisture

-and other volatile constituents. They are kept in these heaters from six

-to seven hours. This causes a union of sulphur and rubber, which is not

-affected by heat or cold.

-

-They are wheeled on another truck to the packing room, where they are

-inspected, taken from the lasts, tied together in pairs, or placed in

-cartons, as the case may be. They are then sent to the shipping room to

-be packed in cases ready to be delivered to the cars waiting at a side

-track of the railroad, or sent to the storehouse until they shall be

-called for by the jobbers or retail dealers.

-

-An important branch of the rubber business is the manufacture of tennis

-shoes. This is a generic term, which is applied to all kinds of footwear

-having cloth tops and rubber soles. As the name indicates, they were

-first used in playing the game of tennis, but they have come into very

-general use as warm weather and vacation shoes, and every year shows

-an increased popularity. These shoes are made in a similar manner to

-the rubber shoes, the rubber soles being cemented to the cloth uppers

-and vulcanized the same as the rubber overshoes. Many different styles

-are made, and each year shows some improvements in the shapes, in the

-textiles which are used, in the colors and combinations of soles and

-uppers.

-

-Rubber shoes should not be expected to give satisfactory service unless

-properly fitted. If too short, too narrow, or if worn over leathers

-with extra heavy taps, or unusually thick, wide soles, strains will be

-brought upon parts not designed to stand them and the rubber will give

-way. Rubber goods, particularly boots, if too large will wrinkle and a

-continued wrinkling and bending is liable to cause cracking.

-

-Extreme heat or cold should be avoided. Rubber boots or shoes should

-never be dried by placing them near a heater of any kind. If left near

-a stove, register, or radiator, the rubber is liable to dry and crack.

-If left out of doors in winter, or in an extremely cold place, they will

-freeze. Then when the warm foot is put into them and the rubbers are

-worn, the rubber will crack.

-

-Oil, grease, milk, or blood will cause rubber to decay in a very short

-time. If spattered with any of these, the rubber should be promptly and

-thoroughly cleaned with warm water and soap.

-

-The oil in leather tops will rot rubber, so that care should be taken

-in storing and packing to prevent the leather and rubber from coming in

-contact.

-

-[Illustration: Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe.]

-

-Various heavy goods are advertised as proof against snagging. It should

-be remembered, however, that no rubber can be made strong enough to be

-absolutely proof against tearing or puncturing by extremely sharp edges,

-such as stiff stubble, sharp-edged rocks, broken glass, etc.

-

-Mud, barnyard dirt, or filth of any kind should never be allowed to dry

-on rubbers. They should be cleaned as carefully as leather boots or shoes.

-

-Exposure to strong sunlight for any length of time produces an effect on

-rubbers similar to that of putting them near a stove or radiator. Rubbers

-should not be left in the sun to dry. When not in use they should be kept

-in a cool, dark place.

-

-

-RUBBER HEELS

-

-Rubber heels are generally made for boots and shoes as follows. The

-compounded rubber is sheeted on a calender roll, on a drum, until

-several layers are obtained, thus making a sheet of about one inch in

-thickness. The heel is cut out from this sheet by means of a die and

-placed in a mold. It is there subjected to an extremely high pressure,

-generally obtained by hydraulic power. The plates of the press are heated

-with live steam. The heels are removed at the end of nine or ten minutes

-and the sheet which was formerly nearly an inch in thickness is now only

-about half an inch and has by pressure been molded into the shape of the

-heel desired, is semi or partially vulcanized, and also is imprinted upon

-the bottom with the name or other brand of the company.

-

-The cup-shaped portion of the heel is now coated with a layer of rubber

-cement, and firmly placed on the boot ready to go to the vulcanizer,

-where vulcanizing of the heel is then completed.

-

-[Illustration: Heel-making Department.]

-

-Many articles of rubber are vulcanized by the use of chloride of sulphur,

-which process is sometimes known as “cold cure.” The action of sulphur

-chloride itself is so violent that it must be diluted, and for this

-purpose carbon bisulfide is often used. In some cases, as, for example,

-the manufacture of tobacco pouches, the articles are submerged for from

-one to two minutes in the liquid, then removed and washed thoroughly. In

-another case, as in the manufacture of some kinds of rubber cloth, such

-as hospital sheeting, the coated cloth is suspended in a suitable room

-and the chloride of sulphur and carbon bisulfide mixed and evaporated

-by action of heat so that the cloth is subjected to the action of vapor

-alone. Only articles with comparatively thin walls can be successfully

-vulcanized by the cold cure, as at best the vulcanizing action of the

-chloride is only superficial.

-

-No account of vulcanization processes as employed in the manufacture of

-rubber goods is complete without the mention of “steam cure.” A great

-variety of rubber goods under the general term of mechanical sundries

-are cured by this method. This includes rubber matting, door mats, water

-bottles, druggists’ sundries, etc. This process consists in brief of

-submitting the articles to be vulcanized to the action of live steam

-for from half an hour to an hour, or until the goods are thoroughly

-vulcanized. The temperature and duration of time required depend to a

-considerable extent upon the thickness of the walls of the article. In

-order to prevent the goods from being pitted and damaged by the action of

-steam, they are wrapped with cloth or imbedded in pans of soapstone. A

-great variety of rubber tubing is cured by this method.

-

-In rubber cloth making, the crude rubber is put through the washing

-process, dried and mixed with sulphur, litharge, coloring matter, etc.,

-and then is taken to the cement room, where it is “cut” with naphtha,

-forming a thick paste or dough. This is taken to the spreading room in

-large tubs and fed into the roller machine, which is like a long table

-made of steam pipes placed horizontally in a single layer. Below one end

-is a roll of cloth, which is passed between two iron rollers on the end.

-The dough is fed in between these rollers and is spread smoothly over

-the cloth, which is rolled up and removed to a heating room, where it

-is unrolled and hung on racks, and then subjected to sufficient heat to

-cause the combination of the sulphur and rubber.

-

-

-CHEMISTRY IN THE MANUFACTURE OF RUBBER GOODS

-

-Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance in all rubber

-factories of the chemical department. During the last two or three years

-there has been an unusual development along these lines, and to-day no

-factory for the manufacture of rubber goods is complete that does not

-possess a well-equipped laboratory. Not only does this department enable

-the manufacturer to control the purity and uniformity of his compounding

-ingredients and the innumerable grades of crude rubber, but, what is of

-even greater importance, it enables him to inaugurate research work as

-applied to his particular line of manufacture. This part of laboratory

-work is already producing results not only of scientific interest, but of

-very great practical and economic value. Still another rôle of the modern

-chemical laboratory is to exercise a control over the finished material,

-so that the manager of the works may be in possession daily of reasons

-for any variation detrimental to the standard of his products.

-

-

-RUBBER TERMS

-

-ANKLE PIECE. A large piece of light sheeted gum, which goes around the

-ankle and extends about halfway up the leg.

-

-BACK STAY. A piece of frictioned sheeting similar to the side stay in

-shape and placed at the back of the heel and ankle.

-

-GUM COUNTER. A piece cut out of sheeted gum, on the under side of which

-is placed a counter form or a piece of frictioned sheeting.

-

-OUTER FILLER. A filling sole cut from rag-coated or frictioned sheeting,

-and designed to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused by bringing the

-edges of the gum vamp and counter underneath.

-

-INNER SOLE. Usually made of felt or sheeting coated on one side with

-rag stock. In lasting up, the bottom edges of the lining (which have

-previously been cemented) are pulled under and adhere to the inner sole.

-

-LEG COVER. A piece of sheeted gum rolled upon a piece of frictioned

-sheeting called the leg form.

-

-LEG LINING. The lining, usually of felt or wool netting, for the leg.

-

-PARA. A name given to rubber from Brazil.

-

-PIPING. Strips of frictioned sheeting used to join the lining together

-over the instep and up the back, and also to hold the lining up on the

-tree by passing a strip over the top.

-

-RAG COUNTER. Quarter stiff is a counter piece cut out of rag-coated or

-frictioned sheeting, which gives stiffness to the counter.

-

-SIDE STAY. A spike-shaped piece of frictioned sheeting, placed on each

-side of the ankle.

-

-RAG SOLE. A sole stiffening cut out of a sheet of rag stock, which covers

-the whole bottom. The edges are skived to make a perfect edge.

-

-TOE FILLER. A rag-stock filling sole to fill up the hollow on the bottom

-caused by attaching the lining to the inner sole.

-

-[Illustration: Parts of a Rubber Boot.]

-

-TOE LINING. The lining for the vamp, of the same material as the leg

-lining.

-

-VAMP. A piece cut out of sheeted gum.

-

-VAMP FORM. A piece of frictioned sheeting cut to the shape of the vamp,

-and put on over the toe lining.

-

-WEB STRAPS. Straps put on with the joined ends between the leg lining and

-the leg cover, and forming a loop on the inside of the boot to pull it on

-with.

-

-

-

-

-CHAPTER TWELVE

-

-HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR

-

-

-We find that primitive footwear, in common with all other beginnings,

-was of the crudest nature and took the form of the simple sandal. It is

-probable that man first protected his foot from the rough way by simple

-pieces of hide, which were bound to the bottom of the foot. The sandal,

-among the most primitive, is the type of footwear worn to-day. The sandal

-was simply bound to the foot by thongs of hides, which were brought

-between the toes and tied around the ankle.

-

-At about the Elizabethan period, shoemaking had really become a very

-fine art. Some foot creations were made by the Court shoemakers that

-reflected the individual taste of the monarch, and so great was the

-competition to produce something novel that very often the styles

-assumed a grotesque aspect. The toes were elongated so that sometimes

-they were carried up and fastened by cords and tassels to the tops of the

-shoes, and it finally became necessary to enact a law to prevent such

-outrageous types of footwear. The slippers of this period were of the

-extremely high-heeled variety, and small fortunes were often spent on

-their ornamentation. They were mostly of the turn-shoe type, and samples

-which are preserved show the excellent workmanship that was in vogue at

-that time.

-

-We now come to the first shoemaker in America. When the _Mayflower_

-made the second trip to America, she carried among others a shoemaker

-named Thomas Beard, who brought with him a supply of hides. Seven

-years afterwards there arrived one Phillip Kertland, a native of

-Buckinghamshire, who settled in Lynn in 1636.

-

-Kertland was the pioneer shoemaker of Lynn and for years he successfully

-worked at his craft, teaching others his methods and ways, so that

-fifteen years after his arrival, Lynn was not only supplying the

-requirements of its inhabitants, but was also sending a part of its

-products to the port of Boston. As early as 1648 we find tanning and

-shoemaking mentioned as an industry of the colony of Virginia, special

-mention being made of the fact that a planter named Matthews employed

-eight shoemakers on his premises. Legal restraint was placed on the

-cordwainer in Connecticut in 1656, and in Rhode Island in 1706, while

-in New York the business of tanning and shoemaking is known to have

-been firmly established previous to the capitulation of the Province

-to England in 1664. In 1698 the industry was carried on profitably in

-Philadelphia, and in 1721 the Colonial Legislature of Pennsylvania passed

-an act regulating the material and the prices of the boot and shoe

-industry.

-

-Prior to 1815 most of the shoes were hand sewed, a few having been copper

-nailed. The heavier shoes were welted and the lighter ones turned. This

-method of manufacture was changed, about the year 1815, by the adoption

-of the wooden shoe peg, which was invented in 1811 and soon came into

-general use. Up to this time little or no progress had been made in

-the methods of manufacture. The shoemaker sat on his bench, and with

-scarcely any other instrument than a hammer, knife, and wooden shoulder

-stick, cut, stitched, hammered, and sewed until the shoe was completed.

-Previous to the year 1845, which marked the first successful application

-of machinery to American shoemaking, this industry was in the strictest

-sense a hand process, and the young man who chose it for his vocation

-was apprenticed for seven years, during which time he was taught every

-detail of the art. He was instructed in the preparation of the insole

-and outsole, depending almost entirely upon his eye for the proper

-proportions; taught to prepare pegs and drive them, for the pegged shoe

-was the common type of footwear in the first half of the last century;

-and familiarized himself with the making of turned and welt shoes, which

-have always been considered the highest types of shoemaking, as they

-require exceptional skill of the artisan in channeling the insole and

-outsole by hand, rounding the sole, sewing the welt, and stitching the

-outsole. After having served his apprenticeship, it was the custom for

-the full-fledged shoemaker to start on what was known as “whipping the

-cat,” which meant traveling from town to town, living with a family while

-making a year’s supply of shoes for each member, then moving on to fill

-engagements previously made.

-

-The change from which has been evolved our present factory system began

-in the latter part of the 18th century, when a system of sizes had been

-drafted, and shoemakers more enterprising than their fellows gathered

-about them groups of workmen, and took upon themselves the dignity of

-manufacturers.

-

-It was soon found that the master workman could largely increase his

-income by employing other men to do the work while he directed their

-efforts, and this gradually led to a division of the labor: the shoe

-uppers, which had prior to this time been sewed by men using waxed thread

-with bristles, now were done by women, who often took the work home.

-

-One workman cut the leather, others sewed the uppers, and still others

-fastened uppers to soles, each workman handling only one part in the

-process of manufacture.

-

-We find that in the year 1795 the evolution of the factory system had

-reached a stage where in Lynn alone there were two hundred master

-workmen, employing six hundred journeymen and turning out three hundred

-thousand pairs of shoes per year. The entire shoe was then made under one

-roof, and generally from leather that was tanned on the premises.

-

-Factory buildings were not at this time of a very pretentious nature

-and did not by any means represent the amount of work undertaken by the

-proprietor; for the small ten by ten factories, which are even to-day in

-existence in some of the backyards of Lynn homes, came into existence

-at this time. Many farmers found that shoemaking was a remunerative

-occupation in the winter, and they, and perhaps their neighbors, gathered

-in these shops and took from the different factories shoes on which to

-fasten the soles, or uppers to bind, which, after completion of the work,

-were returned to the factory, where they were finished and sent to market

-packed in wooden boxes. It was in this way that the industry prospered

-and developed up to the period of the introduction of machines, which

-happened but a little over half a century ago.

-

-Up to the year 1811 absolutely no machinery was used in the making of

-shoes. This year shoe pegs were invented and a machine for making them.

-The pegged shoe became very widely worn, but it was not until 1835 that

-any machine for driving pegs was made, and even at this time the machine

-was but an indifferent success. It was a hand machine and its work was by

-no means of a reliable nature.

-

-The first machine to be widely accepted by the trade was the “rolling

-machine.” This was used for rolling the sole leather under pressure, and

-it is said that a man could perform in a minute with this machine the

-same office that he would have required half an hour to have performed

-with the old-fashioned lapstone and hammer. This was followed in 1848 by

-the most important invention, the “sewing machine,” which was perfected

-by Elias Howe, and was soon followed by a machine which sewed with waxed

-thread and made it possible to sew the uppers of shoes in a much more

-rapid, reliable, and satisfactory manner than had ever been done by hand.

-This, too, was soon followed by a machine which split the sole leather

-and by another for buffing or removing the grain.

-

-In 1855 William F. Trowbridge, who was a partner in the firm of F.

-Brigham & Company, of Feltonville, Massachusetts, then a part of

-Marlboro, conceived the idea of driving by horse power the machines then

-in use. The introduction of power became very general, so that in the

-year 1860 there were scarcely any factories which were not driven by

-either steam or water power.

-

-The year 1858 was marked by the invention by Lyman R. Blake of the

-McKay sewing machine, which probably more than any other has exerted a

-revolutionary effect on the industry.

-

-The McKay machine did not at this time sew the toe or heel; the sewing

-was started at the shank and carried forward to a point near the toe

-on one side, and the same operation repeated on the other side; but

-it seemed to possess great possibilities and created a great deal of

-interest throughout the trade. It was, of course, a very crude machine

-and very different from the McKay machine of to-day. It was set on a

-bench and the shoe to be sewed was placed over a horn, and the sewing was

-done from the channel in the outsole through the sole and insole. Colonel

-McKay immediately started to improve the machine. He employed skilled

-mechanics to work on it and attempted to introduce it in different

-factories, but encountered a great deal of opposition and criticism

-in regard to its future. It is said that he offered to dispose of the

-machine to the shoemakers of Lynn and allow them its exclusive use if

-they would pay him three hundred thousand dollars, an offer which was not

-accepted.

-

-The machine left a loop stitch and a ridge of thread on the inside of the

-shoe, but it filled the great demand that existed for sewed shoes, and

-many hundreds of millions of pairs have been made by its use.

-

-While Colonel McKay had met rebuff and discouragement in attempting to

-introduce his machine, the public necessity was such that manufacturers

-were obliged to take it up immediately; but Colonel McKay was still

-embarrassed by lack of capital to carry on his rapidly increasing

-business. It was at this time that a system of placing machines in

-factories, which system has proven to be the most potent factor in the

-upbuilding of the shoe industry, was started. This was a royalty system,

-whereby the machine or machine owner participated in the profits accruing

-from the use of the machine.

-

-It hardly seems that there can be any question as to the principle of

-royalty being one of the greatest forces in building up the successful

-industry which we have to-day; it afforded an easy means whereby machines

-could be introduced without entailing hardships on the manufacturers,

-who, had they been obliged to pay the actual worth of the machines,

-would have been entirely unable to adopt them. Instances are known where

-hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent on machines, which machines

-were abandoned without having made a single shoe.

-

-At the time of the introduction of the McKay machine, inventors were

-busy in other directions, and as a result, came the introduction of the

-“cable nailing machine.” This was provided with a cable of nails, the

-head of one being joined to the point of another; these the machines cut

-into separate nails and drove automatically. At about this time also

-was introduced the “screw machine,” which formed a screw from brass

-wire, forcing it into the leather and cutting it off automatically.

-This was the prototype of the “rapid standard screw machine,” which

-is a comparatively recent invention, and is very widely used at the

-present time as a sole fastener on the heavier class of boots and shoes.

-Very soon thereafter the attention of the trade was attracted to the

-invention of a New York mechanic for the sewing of soles. The device was

-particularly intended for the making of turn shoes and afterwards became

-famous as the “Goodyear turn shoe machine.”

-

-Closely following the Goodyear invention came the introduction of

-the first machine used in connection with heeling,--a machine which

-compressed the heel and pricked holes for the nails; this was soon

-followed by a machine which automatically drove the nails, the

-heel having previously been put in place and held by the guides on

-the machine. Other improvements in heeling machines followed with

-considerable rapidity, and a machine came into use shortly afterwards

-which not only nailed the heel, but which was also provided with a hand

-trimmer, which the operator swung round the heel, after nailing. From

-these have been evolved the heeling machines in use at the present time.

-

-One of the early uses to which the sewing machine was put was the sewing

-together of the pieces of soft and pliable leather which make the upper

-of a shoe--a simple thing, involving only a slight adjustment of the

-original machine. It is a far more complicated operation to sew the upper

-to the thick and heavy sole, and years passed by before the secret was

-discovered, and the McKay machine appeared. In the shoe sewed on the

-McKay machine, the thread ran through into the inside of the inner sole,

-leaving a rasping ridge on which the stocking of the wearer rubbed.

-The McKay shoe displaced only the coarser grades. The hand-sewed shoe

-remained the favorite of wealth and fashion, and was worn exclusively

-by those who cared for comfort and could afford the price. In sewing

-a shoe by hand, a thin and narrow strip of leather, called a welt, is

-first sewed to the insole and upper, and the heavy outsole is sewed to

-this welt, so that the stitches come outside and do not touch the foot,

-the insole being left entirely smooth. It is a delicate operation by

-hand, and many years elapsed before a machine was contrived by which it

-could be done. At last the problem was solved. The “Goodyear welting and

-stitching machines” appeared--so named for Charles Goodyear, who financed

-and perfected them, a son of the man who taught the world the use of

-rubber. These two machines are the nucleus of the Goodyear welt system,

-to which must be attributed the revolution of an industry. Although they

-are entirely distinct machines, they are inseparable, for neither can be

-used effectively without the other in making the modern Goodyear welt

-shoe.

-

-[Illustration: Insole for Hand Sewed Shoe.]

-

-[Illustration: Hand Sewed Shoe.]

-

-Much of the style of a shoe depends upon the wooden last over which the

-upper is shaped before being attached to the sole. To find a substitute

-for the human hand in fitting the shoe to the last and pulling the

-leather over its delicate lines and curves seemed for a long time

-impossible.

-

-This took place in the early seventies, when a machine was invented for

-doing this work. It created a great change in a department of shoemaking

-which, prior to this time, had been regarded as a confirmed hand process.

-This machine, as well as those which followed afterwards for a period of

-twenty years, was known as the best type of machine, by which the shoe

-upper was drawn over the last by either friction or pincers, and then

-tacked by use of a hand tool.

-

-At a comparatively recent period another machine which revolutionized all

-previous ideas in lasting was introduced. This machine is generally in

-use at the present time, and is known as the “consolidated hand method

-lasting machine.” It was fitted with pincers, which automatically drew

-the leather round the last, at the same time driving a tack which held

-it in place. This machine has been so developed that it is now used for

-the lasting of shoes of every type, from the lowest and cheapest to

-the highest grade, and it is a machine that shows wonderful mechanical

-ingenuity.

-

-The perfection of the lasting machine has been followed recently by

-the introduction of a machine which performs in a satisfactory way the

-difficult process known as “pulling over,” which consists of accurately

-centering the shoe upper on the last and securing it temporarily in

-position for the work of lasting. The new machine, which is known as the

-“hand-method pulling over machine,” is provided with pincers, which close

-automatically, gripping the shoe upper at sides and toe. It is fitted

-with adjustments by which the operator is enabled to quickly center the

-shoe upper on the last, and, on pressure of a foot lever, the machine

-automatically draws the upper closely to the last and secures it in

-position by tacks, which are also driven by the machine. The introduction

-of this machine marked a radical change in the one important shoemaking

-process that had up to this time successfully withstood all attempts at

-mechanical improvement.

-

-At about the time that lasting was first introduced, came the machines

-which were used for finishing heel and fore part. These machines were

-fitted with a tool, which was heated by gas and which practically

-duplicated the hand workman in rubbing the edges with a hot tool for the

-purpose of finishing them. From these early machines have been evolved

-the “edge-setting machines” which are in use at present.

-

-Thus, one after another, every operation has yielded to invention, until

-very recently the only remaining process was subdued when a machine for

-cutting uppers was devised. There are machines for shaping, compressing,

-and nailing heels; for attaching soles to uppers in heavy shoes by wooden

-pegs or copper screws and wires; for rounding, buffing, and polishing the

-soles; for trimming and setting the edges of the sole; for performing

-innumerable operations, some seemingly trivial, but all essential to

-perfection in comfort, durability or style; so that in shoe factories

-to-day a greater variety of intricate and expensive machines is used than

-in factories of any other kind.

-

-At the present time the genius of the American inventor has provided for

-every detail of shoemaking, even the smallest processes being performed

-by mechanical devices of some kind. This has naturally made the shoemaker

-of to-day a specialist, who very seldom knows anything of shoemaking

-apart from the particular process in the performance of shoemaking of

-which he is an adept, and from which he earns a livelihood. The American

-shoe of to-day is the standard production of the world. It is in demand

-wherever shoes are worn.

-

-In the year 1874 there had been perfected not only the machines which

-Colonel McKay and Mr. Goodyear had been instrumental in building, but

-other inventors had introduced similar machines for doing similar work.

-This brought about the most acute business competition, and finally

-resulted in many cases where one machine manufacturer alleged that the

-other machine infringed his rights of patent, and in many other cases the

-fiercest kind of litigation was established. This had a most disastrous

-effect upon shoe manufacturers, for in many cases the manufacturer was

-made to bear the brunt of the blows which contending shoe machinery

-manufacturers aimed at each other.

-

-Machines in use in factories were stopped by means of injunctions;

-damage suits were entered, and litigation was very general. During the

-year 1899, there was ushered in one of the most important events that

-ever transpired in the history of shoemaking. The most important of the

-concerns which had been making war upon each other were purchased by one

-large company and brought under one harmonious management.

-

-The United Shoe Machinery Company owes its origin to a call for a change

-in conditions menacing the industry of making shoes which could not

-be ignored. It was created by combining into one the three companies

-existing in 1899: the Goodyear Sewing Machine Company, the Consolidated &

-McKay Lasting Machine Company, and the McKay Shoe Machinery Company, each

-of which respectively made and leased machines adapted to a particular

-class of operations. The principal machines which each made did not

-interfere with the principal machines of any other. They were dependent

-links in an industrial chain. The Goodyear Sewing Machine Company

-chiefly made machines for sewing the sole to the upper in welt shoes

-and various auxiliary machines which helped to complete the shoe; The

-Consolidated & McKay Lasting Machine Company made machines for lasting

-a shoe; The McKay Shoe Machinery Company made various machines for

-attaching soles and heels by metallic fastenings, and furnished material

-for that purpose. A single manufacturer, in order to make Goodyear welt

-shoes, would be compelled to patronize all the companies, going to each

-of them for that part of his equipment which it exclusively supplied.

-Each company had its agents in factories looking after its machines.

-

-The gathering of these three companies into a single organization

-wrought an instant change. It resulted immediately in greater economy

-of administration; in relieving the manufacturer of the vexation of

-sometimes seeing his factory crippled while orders were piling up;

-in freeing him from the annoyance and expense of dealing with several

-different concerns in order to get his most important machines and keep

-them in repair.

-

-The attention which had been paid to royalty machines and which had been

-such an important factor in building up the industry in America, was

-magnified by the management of the new company. Large forces of men and

-expert machinists, as well as expert shoemakers, were maintained in the

-different districts where shoes were made, and every effort exerted to

-promote the growth of the industry.

-

-While the royalty system proved to be of great advantage to small shoe

-manufacturers, the largest manufacturers objected to paying royalty on

-machines and desired to purchase them outright. Being unable to do so,

-they placed experts at work to invent similar machines. This has resulted

-in the United Shoe Machinery Company claiming that these machines are

-infringements and causing considerable litigation.

-

-If one reviews the history of the trade during the past ten years, there

-will be little question but that one will find it has been a period of

-the greatest advancement that the trade has ever known.

-

-Within the time of those who read these words, the way to make a shoe has

-been completely changed. Methods which held their own for centuries have

-disappeared, to be replaced by processes which only recently would have

-been thought impossible, and which have brought within the reach of men

-of modest means a luxury once enjoyed exclusively by the well-to-do. The

-feet of the million are clad to-day as finely as the feet of yesterday’s

-millionaire. Shoes marked by comfort, durability, and style have driven

-to historical museums the stiff and clumsy boots and brogans which not so

-many years ago were worn by those who could not pay to have shoes sewed

-by hand.

-

-The American people spend more than three hundred million dollars every

-year in buying shoes, and average three pairs apiece, and yet few ever

-think about their shoes so long as they do not look clumsy, or wear out

-too quickly, or hurt the foot. Every one likes to buy good shoes as

-cheaply as he can, and every one likes to feel that shoe manufacturers

-are independent and successful, and that workmen get good wages, because

-these things help along prosperity; but that is all. Yet here is an

-industry in which the United States within a decade has come to lead

-the world, and there are many things about it which it would be worth

-while for every one to understand. It is worth while, for instance, to

-know that there is no important operation on a shoe which need be done

-by hand; that in the making of every good shoe no less than fifty-eight

-different machines, and sometimes twice that number, are brought into

-play; that nearly all these machines are of American invention; and

-that they have been so perfectly adjusted one to another that they work

-together almost with the precision of a watch; it is worth while to know

-something about the marvelous system under the encouragement of which

-this typical American industry has blossomed and borne fruit until it

-employs two hundred million dollars of capital and nearly two hundred

-thousand people, and turns out two hundred and fifty million pairs of

-shoes a year; and why it is that the average man you meet to-day has a

-better fitting, better wearing, and better looking shoe than the moneyed

-man of yesterday--at a fraction of the expense.

-

-This remarkable growth is distinctly American. In the United States

-the tendency among the artisan class has been to abandon the slow hand

-process. This tendency has been as strong as the tendency in Europe to

-adhere to it. Moreover, there has developed among the laboring classes

-in the United States a mobility such as is unknown elsewhere in the world.

-

-Another advantage which has contributed to the rapid development of the

-manufacture of shoes in the United States is the comparative freedom from

-inherited and overconservative ideas. This country has entered upon its

-industrial development unfettered by the old order of things, and with a

-tendency on the part of the people to seek the best and quickest way to

-accomplish every object.

-

-[Illustration: Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory.]

-

-In all of the European countries in which the manufacturing of shoes is

-an important industry, the transition from the household to the factory

-system was hampered by guilds, elaborate national and local restrictions,

-and by the national reluctance with which a people accustomed for

-generations to fixed methods of work, in which they have acquired a large

-degree of skill, abandon those methods for new ones. It was natural,

-also, that in spite of the superior advantages of machine methods, hand

-process of manufacture should still continue side by side with them, in

-the European countries, though machine work had long since usurped the

-whole field of the shoe industry in the United States.

-

-As an American goes about among the European shoe factories he is greatly

-surprised at the state of affairs. He is struck by three things which

-are very conspicuous. They are: (1) Lack of use of machinery, lack of

-all sorts of devices in order to save hand labor, which is carried out

-so extensively in the United States. (2) Lack of the division of labor,

-one factory attempting to make four or five kinds of shoes. (3) Lack of

-methods employed for handling large quantities of materials.

-

-One point that is overlooked in considering the shoe industries of the

-two countries is the great difference in organization. In most European

-factories, the manufacturer gets all the orders of different kinds, and

-then attempts to make one or two lines with one or two qualities in the

-same factory. In Switzerland one may find shoes and slippers for men,

-women, and children made under the same roof.

-

-In the United States the manufacturer makes a certain line of shoes in

-one factory, and no other kind. If he has more than one line, he has

-more than one factory, and each factory turns out a distinct shoe for a

-distinct purpose. The manufacturer has his salesmen to sell these shoes.

-

-The advantages of the American system are: (1) The managers and

-workers of a factory turning out a certain line of goods become highly

-specialized in that line, and can produce better results than the workers

-in a factory attempting to make two or three lines of goods. (2) A large

-shoe factory is laid out as a rule to do a certain kind of work, and it

-seldom changes. This practice makes possible a greater production. On the

-other hand we have something to learn from the European organization.

-American manufacturers must meet the foreign trade. In order to do

-this, the manufacturer must cater to the habits, customs, and climatic

-conditions. The European manufacturer does this.

-

-

-

-

-INDEX

-

-

-    Amhide, black, 58.

-      russet, 59.

-

-    Anatomy of the foot, 77, 80.

-

-    Ankle piece, 246.

-

-    Assembling, 126, 177.

-

-    Automobile leather, 225.

-      tanning of, 226.

-

-

-    Backs, 12.

-

-    Backstay, 2, 177, 247.

-

-    Back strap, 177.

-

-    Bal., 177.

-

-    Ball, 178.

-

-    Bating, 19.

-

-    Beading, 178.

-

-    Beamhouse process, 5.

-

-    Beating out, 178.

-

-    Bellows tongue, 178.

-

-    Belting, 62, 63, 178.

-      by-products, 69.

-      round, 69.

-

-    Belt-knife splits, 60.

-

-    Between substance, 178.

-

-    Bison, 59.

-

-    Blackball, 178.

-

-    Black box chrome side, 58.

-

-    Black hawk patent, 58.

-

-    Blacking the edge, 179.

-

-    Blocking, 179.

-

-    Bloom, 179.

-

-    Blucher, 179.

-

-    Boot, 180.

-

-    Bootee, 180.

-

-    Boris, 59.

-

-    Bottom, 1.

-      filling, 180.

-      scouring, 180.

-

-    Box calf, 55, 180.

-      toe, 181.

-

-    Boxing, 180.

-

-    Branded cowhide, 9.

-

-    Breaking the sole, 181.

-

-    Breast of the heel, 3.

-

-    Brogan, 181.

-

-    Bronko patent, 57.

-

-    Brushing, 181.

-

-    Buckskin, 181.

-

-    Buff, 181.

-

-    Buffing, 181.

-

-    Bull hides, 16.

-

-    Bunions, 84.

-

-    Button fly, 2.

-

-    Butts, 9.

-

-

-    Cable-nailing machine, invention of, 261.

-

-    Cack, 182.

-

-    Cadet kid, 56.

-      side, 57.

-

-    Calf leather, boarded, 40.

-      box, 40.

-      classes of, 40, 41.

-      cadet calf side, 57.

-      Dongola, 59.

-      dry hides, 40.

-      French, 40.

-      mat, 40.

-      Sheboygan, 59.

-      storm, 40.

-      suede, 40.

-      wax, 40.

-

-    Calf side leather, 57.

-      skins, 39, 182.

-

-    Calluses, 83.

-

-    Cambridge calf union splits, 60.

-

-    Cap, 182.

-

-    Carbarettas, 51, 181.

-

-    Carton, 182.

-

-    Cementing, 182.

-

-    Chamois, 182.

-

-    Channeling, 183.

-

-    Channel screwed, 183.

-      stitched, 183.

-      turning, 184.

-

-    Checking, 184.

-

-    Chemical tanning, 23, 24, 25.

-

-    Chrome flexible splits, 61.

-      tannage, 25, 26.

-      tanned embossed splits, 62.

-

-    Cleaning, inside, 184.

-      nails, 184.

-      shoes, 184.

-

-    Clicking, 184.

-

-    Closing, 184.

-      on, 184.

-

-    Colonial, 185.

-

-    Colorado steer hides, 9.

-

-    Colored box chrome side, 58.

-

-    Coltskin, 41, 185.

-

-    Combination last, 185.

-

-    Composition, 185.

-

-    Congress gaiter, 186.

-

-    Cordovan, 186.

-

-    Corns, 83, 84.

-

-    Counter, 124, 186.

-      pasted, 201.

-

-    Coupon tag, 187.

-

-    Cowhide, 187.

-      native, heavy and light, 7-9.

-      branded, 9.

-

-    Creasing vamp, 187.

-

-    Creedmore, 187.

-

-    Creole, 187.

-

-    Crimping, 188.

-

-    Cushion sole, 188.

-

-    Cut-off vamp, 188.

-

-

-    Dyeing, 188.

-

-    Dom Pedro, 188.

-

-    Dongola, 188.

-      calf, 59.

-

-    Dressing, 188.

-

-    Dry importation, 40, 41.

-      salted hides, 12, 32.

-

-

-    Edge setting, 188.

-      trimming, 188.

-

-    Enamel, 189.

-

-    Eyelet, 189.

-

-    Eyeletting, 189.

-

-

-    Facing, 189.

-

-    Factory system, first, 254.

-

-    Fair stitch, 189.

-

-    Faking, 189.

-

-    Fat liquored, 27.

-

-    Findings, 189.

-

-    Finishes of upper leather, 38.

-

-    Finishing of upper leather, 5.

-

-    Flap, 190.

-

-    Flesher, 18.

-

-    Flesh splits leather, 38, 60.

-

-    Flexible bends, 61.

-      splits, 61.

-

-    Follower, 190.

-

-    Foot, 77.

-      adult, 87.

-      anatomy of, 77, 78.

-      astragalus, 78.

-      calcaneum, 78.

-      characteristics of, 81.

-      cuneiform, 79.

-      flatfoot, 78.

-      measurements of, 95.

-      metatarsal, 79.

-      phalanges, 79.

-      rheumatism, 79.

-      structure of, 86.

-

-    Footwear, history of, 250.

-

-    Forepart finishing, 190.

-

-    Form, 190.

-

-    Foxed, 190.

-

-    Foxing, 2, 190.

-

-    Fresh hides, 7.

-

-    Frizzing, 191.

-

-    Front, 191.

-

-    Fudge-stitched, 133.

-

-    Fundamental shoe terms, 1.

-

-    Furniture leather, 225.

-      tanning of, 226.

-

-

-    Gaiter, 191.

-      congress, 186.

-

-    Gem insoles, 191.

-

-    Gemming, 191.

-

-    Glazed kid, 191.

-

-    Gloves, 218.

-      grain, 191.

-      tanning, 221.

-

-    Goatskin, 191.

-

-    Goodyear welt, 192.

-      difference between McKay and, 145.

-

-    Gore, 192.

-

-    Grades of leather, 7.

-

-    Grading, 192.

-

-    Grain leather, 38.

-

-    Green hides, 7.

-

-    Green salted, 12.

-

-    Gum counter, 247.

-

-

-    Half sole, 192.

-

-    Harness leather, 192.

-

-    Heel, 192.

-      breast of, 3.

-      finishing, 193.

-      lining, 193.

-      nailing, 194.

-      nailing machine, invention of, 262.

-      pad, 193.

-      scouring, 194.

-      seat, 194.

-      shaving, 194.

-      trimming, 194.

-

-    Hemlock leather, 29.

-      tanning, 29, 30, 194.

-

-    Hercules storm chrome, 59.

-

-    Hides, 4, 194.

-      bull, 10, 63.

-      classes of, 5, 6.

-      country, 10.

-      dry, 12, 32.

-      dry importation, 40, 41.

-      dry salted, 12, 32.

-      fresh, 7.

-      grades of, 7, 8, 9.

-      green, 7.

-      green salted, 12, 32.

-      imported, 32.

-      quality of, 6.

-

-

-    Inlay, 194.

-

-    Inner sole, 247.

-

-    Inseaming, 195.

-

-    Inseam trimming, 195.

-

-    Instep, 195.

-

-    Iron, 195.

-

-    Ironing uppers, 196.

-

-

-    Juliette, 196.

-

-

-    Kid, buckskin, 52.

-      buff, 52.

-      caster, 51.

-      chamois, 52.

-      characteristics of, 49.

-      Cordovan, 52.

-      dull, 49.

-      glazed, 49, 50.

-      importation of, 45.

-      kangaroo, 52, 196.

-      kangaroo kid side, 58.

-      kinds of finish, 49.

-      mat, 49, 50.

-      method of collecting, 46-48.

-      patent, 49.

-      process of tanning, 49.

-      seal grain, 52.

-      splits, 52.

-      suede, 51.

-

-    Kids, 41, 44, 196.

-

-    Kips, 5, 196.

-

-

-    Lace hook, 196.

-      stay, 2, 196.

-

-    Lacing, 197.

-

-    Lasting, 197.

-

-    Lasts, 97, 197.

-      combination, 185.

-      how made, 97.

-

-    Laying channel, 197.

-

-    Leather, 4.

-      automobile and furniture, 226.

-      belting, 62.

-      effect of cold, 53.

-      gloves, 218.

-      glove tanning, 221.

-      harness, 192.

-      hemlock, 29.

-      products, manufacture of, 218.

-      white, 54.

-

-    Leg cover, 198.

-      lining, 198.

-

-    Leveling, 197.

-

-    Lift, 197.

-

-    Lining, 197.

-

-    Lining-in, 198.

-

-    Lip, 190.

-

-    Loading leather, 198.

-

-

-    Mat royal chrome side, 58.

-

-    McKay shoe, 144, 198, 199.

-      difference between Goodyear welt and, 145.

-      difference between turned and, 152.

-

-    Middle sole, 199.

-

-    Mock welt, 199.

-

-    Molding, 199.

-

-    Monkey skin, 199.

-

-    Morocco, 199.

-

-    Mules, 199.

-

-

-    Nap, 199.

-

-    Native cowhides, 9.

-      steer hides, 9.

-

-    Naumkeaging, 199.

-

-    Nullifier, 200.

-

-

-    Oak-tanned leather, 28, 200.

-

-    Oak tanning, 28, 29.

-

-    Ohio buffs, 10.

-

-    Ooze gusset splits, 61.

-      leather, 200.

-      vamp splits, 62.

-

-    Ottawa, 59.

-      black and russet splits, 60.

-

-    Outer filler, 247.

-

-    Outside cutting, 200.

-      tap, 200.

-

-    Oxford, 200.

-      calf union splits, 60.

-

-

-    Packer hides, 201.

-

-    Packing, 201.

-

-    Pacs, 201.

-

-    Pancake, 201.

-

-    Para, 248.

-

-    Pasted leather, 201.

-

-    Patent leather, 41-43, 201.

-      black hawk, 58.

-      effect of cold on, 43.

-      objections to, 44.

-

-    Pattern, 201.

-

-    Pebble, 202.

-

-    Pegged shoemaking, 160.

-

-    Pegging, 202.

-

-    Perforating, 118.

-

-    Perforation, 202.

-

-    Pickled skins, 18.

-

-    Piping, 248.

-

-    Polish, 202.

-

-    Porpoise, 202.

-

-    Pressing, 202.

-

-    Pulling lasts, 202.

-

-    Pulling over, 202.

-      machine, 127.

-

-    Pump, 202.

-      sole, 202.

-

-

-    Quarter, 2, 203.

-

-

-    Rag counter, 248.

-

-    Rand, 203.

-

-    Rawhide products, 67.

-

-    Relasting, 203.

-

-    Remnants, 33.

-      sole leather, 33-37.

-

-    Repairing, 204.

-

-    Roan, 204.

-

-    Rolling, 204.

-      machine, invention of, 257.

-

-    Rough rounding, 204.

-

-    Royal kid, 56.

-

-    Royalties, 204.

-

-    Royalty system, invention of, 260.

-

-    Rubber, 228.

-      cloth manufacture, 244.

-      commercial grades of, 228.

-      drying, 232.

-      heels, 241.

-      shoe manufacture, 228.

-        calendering, 235.

-        cutting, 235.

-        varnishing, 237.

-        vulcanizing, 237.

-        washing, 231.

-

-    Russet calf, 204.

-      grain, 204.

-

-

-    Sabot, 204.

-

-    Sack lining, 204, 207.

-

-    Sandal, 205, 250.

-

-    Satin calf, 205.

-

-    Scouring breast, 205.

-

-    Screw fastened, 205.

-

-    Seal grain, 205.

-

-    Second lasting, 205.

-

-    Sewing machine, invention of, 257.

-

-    Shank, 1, 205.

-      burnishing, 206.

-      finishing, 206.

-

-    Shanking out, 206.

-

-    Sheboygan calf, 59.

-

-    Sheepskin, 206.

-

-    Sheep tanning, 16, 17.

-

-    Shoe, 103.

-      apprentice, 253.

-      case of, 109.

-      cutting room, 112.

-      departments of, 103.

-      dressing, 142.

-      factories, 103.

-      finishing, 138.

-      heeling, 140.

-      methods of manufacture, 103.

-      parts of, 1.

-      repairing, 167, 170.

-      sizes, 85, 207.

-      stitching, 119, 131.

-      treeing, 140.

-

-    Shoe Machinery Company, organization of, 270.

-

-    Shoemaker, first, in America, 251.

-

-    Shoemaking, 162.

-      old-fashioned, 162.

-      nail method, 161.

-      terms of, 177.

-

-    Shoe pegs, invention of, 257.

-

-    Shoulder, 196.

-

-    Sides, 206.

-

-    Side stay, 248.

-

-    Skins, 6, 207.

-

-    Skirting, 207.

-

-    Skiver, 18, 207.

-

-    Skiving machine, 117.

-

-    Slip, 207.

-

-    Slugging, 207.

-

-    Soaking process, 13, 19.

-

-    Soft tip, 207.

-

-    Sole, 11, 123, 208.

-      leather, 27, 28, 208.

-      laying, 208.

-      breaking of, 181.

-

-    Sorting, 208.

-

-    Spewing, 208.

-

-    Splits, 11, 60-62, 209.

-

-    Spring heel, 209.

-

-    Stamping, 209, 210.

-

-    Standard fastened, 210.

-      screw shoemaking, 160.

-

-    Stay, 209.

-

-    Staying, 210.

-

-    Steer hides, native, 9.

-

-    Stitch aloft, 210.

-

-    Stitch down, 210.

-      fair, 189.

-      separating, 210.

-

-    Stitching, rapid, 203.

-

-    Straight last, 210.

-

-    Stripping, 211.

-

-    Styles, how made, 93.

-

-    Suede, 211.

-

-

-    Tacking on, 211.

-

-    Tack pulling, 211.

-

-    Tampico, 211.

-

-    Tan, 211.

-      royal, 56.

-

-    Tanned leather adulterants, 75.

-      effects of perspiration, 71.

-      lubrication, 72.

-      properties, 70.

-      substitutes, 73, 74, 76.

-      weighing, 75.

-

-    Tannin, 21.

-

-    Tanning, 4, 21, 211.

-      chemical, 21.

-      hemlock, 29, 30.

-      leather for belting, 64, 65, 66.

-      oak, 28, 29.

-      processes of, 21.

-      rapid processes of, 25.

-      tawing, 21, 212.

-      Union, 30, 31.

-      vegetable, 21.

-

-    Tap, 211.

-      putting on, 202.

-      trimming, 212.

-

-    Tawing, 212.

-

-    Tempering, 212.

-

-    Tennis shoe manufacture, 239.

-

-    Texas steer hide, 9.

-

-    Tip, 2, 212.

-      cutting, 212.

-

-    Toe, and heel lasting, 212.

-      box, 181.

-      filler, 248.

-      lining, 248.

-      piece, 213.

-

-    Tongue, 2, 213.

-

-    Top, 1, 213.

-      cutting, 213.

-      facing, 213.

-      left, 213.

-      left scouring, 213.

-      left stitching, 213.

-

-    Treeing, 213.

-

-    Trimming counter, 213.

-      vamp, 213.

-

-    Turned shoe, characteristics of, 156.

-      difference between McKay and, 152.

-      history of, 158.

-

-    Turning, 214.

-      shoe, 151, 214.

-

-

-    Ungrained, 214.

-

-    Unhairing of hides, 15, 19.

-

-    Union-tanned leather, 30, 31.

-

-    Union tanning, 30, 31.

-

-    Upper, 1, 214.

-

-    Upper or dress leather, 37, 38, 55-57.

-

-

-    Vamp, 1, 214, 249.

-      creasing, 187.

-      cutting, 215.

-      form, 249.

-      short, 206.

-

-    Vamping, 215.

-

-    Vegetable tanning, 22.

-      tans, 22.

-

-    Vellum, 215.

-

-    Velour, 215.

-

-    Veneering, 215.

-

-    Vesting, 215.

-

-    Vici, 216.

-

-    Viscolizing, 216.

-

-    Vulcanizing, 243.

-      cold cure, 243.

-      steam cure, 243.

-

-

-    Wash leather, 216.

-

-    Waterproof black, 58.

-

-    Waxed threads, 164.

-

-    Web straps, 249.

-

-    Welts, 129, 216.

-      beating, 217.

-      Goodyear, 192.

-

-    Welting, 217.

-

-    White alum, 217.

-

-    Willow calf leather, 55.

-

-    Wooden case, 217.

-

-

-    Zulu, 59.

-

-

-

-

-

-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and

-Rubber Products, by William H. Dooley

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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 55474 ***
+
+A MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: An Old-Fashioned Shoemaker. _Frontispiece._]
+
+
+
+
+                                A MANUAL
+                                   OF
+                               SHOEMAKING
+                                   AND
+                           LEATHER AND RUBBER
+                                PRODUCTS
+
+                                   BY
+                            WILLIAM H. DOOLEY
+                PRINCIPAL OF THE LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL
+
+                              _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+                                 BOSTON
+                       LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY
+                                  1912
+
+                           _Copyright, 1912_,
+                     BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.
+
+                         _All rights reserved._
+
+                       Published, September, 1912.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The author was asked in 1908 by the Lynn Commission on Industrial
+Education to make an investigation of European shoe schools and to assist
+the Commission in preparing a course of study for the proposed shoe
+school in the city of Lynn. A close investigation showed that there were
+several textbooks on shoemaking published in Europe, but that no general
+textbook on shoemaking had been issued in this country adapted to meet
+the needs of industrial, trade, and commercial schools or those who have
+just entered the rubber, shoe, and leather trades. This book is written
+to meet this need. Others may find it of interest.
+
+The author is under obligations to the following persons and firms for
+information and assistance in preparing the book, and for permission
+to reproduce photographs and information from their publications: Mr.
+J. H. Finn, Mr. Frank L. West, Head of Shoemaking Department, Tuskegee,
+Ala., Mr. Louis Fleming, Mr. F. Garrison, President of _Shoe and Leather
+Gazette_, Mr. Arthur L. Evans, _The Shoeman_, Mr. Charles F. Cahill,
+United Shoe Machinery Company, Hood Rubber Company, Bliss Shoe Company,
+American Hide and Leather Company, Regal Shoe Company, the publishers of
+_Hide and Leather_, _American Shoemaking_, _Shoe Repairing_, _Boot and
+Shoe Recorder_, _The Weekly Bulletin_, and the New York Leather Belting
+Company.
+
+In addition, the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to the
+great body of foreign literature on the different subjects from which
+information has been obtained.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+
+    PREFACE                                                v
+
+    CHAPTER
+
+       I. FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS                           1
+
+      II. HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT                        4
+
+     III. PROCESSES OF TANNING                            21
+
+      IV. THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT                         77
+
+       V. HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE                        93
+
+      VI. DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY                  103
+
+     VII. MCKAY AND TURNED SHOES                         144
+
+    VIII. OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING         162
+
+      IX. LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS                   177
+
+       X. LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE                   218
+
+      XI. RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE AND TERMS              228
+
+     XII. HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR                            250
+
+          INDEX                                          281
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    An Old-fashioned Shoemaker                 _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                 FACING PAGE
+
+    Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear              2
+
+    Green-salted Calfskin                                 12
+
+    Tanning Process                                       24
+
+    Tanning Process, showing Rotating Drums               28
+
+    Sole Leather Offal                                    34
+
+    Bones and Joints of the Human Foot                    78
+
+    The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle             78
+
+    A Last in Three Stages of Manufacture                 98
+
+    A Modern Shoe Factory                                104
+
+    A Skin Divided before Cutting                        112
+
+    Cutting Leather                                      116
+
+    Goodyear Stitching                                   116
+
+    Stock Fitting Room                                   120
+
+    Lasting                                              124
+
+    Welting                                              124
+
+    Rough Rounding                                       128
+
+    Edge Trimming                                        128
+
+    Leveling                                             132
+
+    Heeling                                              132
+
+    Sole Scouring                                        136
+
+    Heel Shaping                                         136
+
+    Ironing                                              140
+
+    Packing                                              140
+
+    Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe     144
+
+    Stitching                                            148
+
+    Tacking                                              148
+
+    Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe               160
+
+    Side of Leather divided as to Quality                168
+
+    Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe                    200
+
+    Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe                  200
+
+    Crude Rubber                                         228
+
+    Washing and Drying                                   232
+
+    Calender Room                                        234
+
+    Cutting Room                                         236
+
+    Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe          240
+
+    Heel-making Department                               242
+
+    Parts of a Rubber Boot                               248
+
+    Insole for Hand-sewed Shoe                           264
+
+    Hand-sewed Shoe                                      264
+
+    Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory              276
+
+
+
+
+SHOEMAKING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER ONE
+
+FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS
+
+
+Before explaining the manufacture of shoes, it is necessary to fix
+definitely in our minds the names of their different parts. Examine your
+shoes and note the parts that are here described.
+
+The bottom of the shoe is called the sole. The part above the sole is
+called the upper. The top of the shoe is that part measured by the lacing
+which covers the ankle and the instep. The vamp is that section which
+covers the sides of the foot and the toes. The shank is that part of
+the sole of the shoe between the heel and the ball. This name is often
+applied to a piece of metal or other substance in that part of the sole,
+intended to give support to the arch of the foot. The throat of the vamp
+is that part which curves around the lower edge of the top, where the
+lacing starts.
+
+Backstay is a term used to denote a strip of leather covering and
+strengthening the back seam of the shoe. Quarter is a term used mostly in
+low shoes to denote the rear part of the upper when a full vamp is not
+used. Button fly is the portion of the upper containing the buttonholes
+of a button shoe. Tip is the toe piece of a shoe, stitched to the vamp
+and outside of it. The lace stay is a term used to denote a strip of
+leather reënforcing the eyelet holes. Tongue denotes a narrow strip of
+leather used on all lace shoes to protect the instep from the lacing and
+weather.
+
+[Illustration: Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear. _Page 2._]
+
+Foxing is the name applied to leather of the upper that extends from the
+sole to the laces in front, and to about the height of the counter in the
+back, being the length of the upper. It may be in one or more pieces, and
+is often cut down to the shank in circular form. If in two pieces, that
+part covering the counter is called a heel fox. Overlay is a term applied
+to leather attached to the upper part of the vamp of a slipper. The
+breast of the heel is the inner part of the heel, that is, the section
+nearest the shank.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER TWO
+
+HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT
+
+
+If we examine our shoes, we will find that the different parts are
+composed of material called leather. The bottom of the shoe is of hard
+leather, while the part above the sole is of a softer, more pliable
+leather. This leather is nothing more than the hides of different animals
+treated in such a way as to remove the fat and the hair.
+
+After the hides have been taken from the dead body of the animal, they
+are quite heavily salted to preserve them from spoiling. In this salted
+condition they are shipped to the tanneries.
+
+The process or series of processes by which the hides and skins of
+animals are converted into leather is called tanning. The process may be
+divided into three groups of subprocesses as follows:--
+
+Beamhouse process, which removes the hair from the hides and prepares
+them for the actual process of the tanning or conversion into leather;
+tanning, which converts the raw hide into leather; and finishing, which
+involves a number of operations, the objects of which are to give the
+leather the color that may be desired and also to make it of uniform
+thickness, and impart to it the softness and the finish that is required
+for a particular purpose.
+
+Hides are divided roughly in the tannery, according to the size, into
+three general classes:--
+
+(1) Hides, skins from fully grown animals, as cows, oxen, horses,
+buffaloes, walrus, etc. These are thick, heavy leather, used for shoe
+soles, large machinery belting, trunks, etc., where stiffness, strength,
+and wearing qualities are desired. The untanned hides weigh from
+twenty-five to sixty pounds.
+
+(2) Kips, skins of the undersized animals of the above group, weighing
+between fifteen and twenty-five pounds.
+
+(3) Skins from small animals, such as calves, sheep, goats, dogs, etc.
+This last group gives a light, but strong and pliable leather, which may
+be used for a great many purposes, such as men’s shoes and the heavier
+grades of women’s shoes.
+
+The hides, kips, and skins are divided into various grades, according to
+their weight, size, condition, and quality.
+
+The quality of the hides not only depends upon the kind of animal, but
+also upon its fodder and mode of living. The hides of wild cattle yield a
+more compact and stronger leather than those of our domesticated beasts.
+Among these latter the stall-fed have better hides than the meadow-fed,
+or grazing cattle. The thickness of the hide varies considerably on
+different animals and on the parts of the body, the thickest part of the
+bull being near the head and the middle of the back, while at the belly
+the hide is thinnest. These differences are less conspicuous in sheep,
+goats, and calves. As regards sheep, it would appear that their skin is
+generally thinnest where their wool is longest.
+
+In the raw, untanned state, and with the hair still on, the hides are
+termed “green” or “fresh.” Fresh, or green hides are supplied to the
+tanners by the packers or the butchers, or are imported, either dry or
+salted.
+
+Hides are obtained either from the regular packing houses or from farmers
+who kill their own stock, and do not skin the animal as scientifically as
+the regular packing houses, in which case they are called country hides.
+There are different grades of hides and leather, and these different
+grades are divided in the commercial world into the five following
+grades:--
+
+I. NATIVE HIDES
+
+    Native Steers
+    Native Cows, heavy
+    Native Cows, light
+    Branded Cows
+    Butts
+    Colorado Steers
+    Texas Steers, heavy
+    Texas Steers, light
+    Texas Steers, ex-light
+    Native Bulls
+    Branded Bulls
+
+II. COUNTRY HIDES
+
+    Ohio Buffs
+    Ohio Ex.
+    Southerns
+
+III. DRY HIDES
+
+(Raised on plain. Rough side suitable for soles.)
+
+    Buenos Ayres
+
+IV. CALFSKINS
+
+(Green salted)
+
+    Chicago City
+
+V. PARIS CITY CALFSKINS
+
+    Light
+    Medium
+    Heavy
+
+Hides obtained from steers raised on Western farms are known as native
+steer hides.
+
+Native cowhide (heavy) is hide weighing from fifty-five to sixty-five
+pounds, obtained from cows.
+
+Native cowhide (light) is cowhide weighing under fifty-five pounds.
+
+Branded cowhide is hide obtained from cows that are branded on the face
+of the hide.
+
+Butts is a term applied to the part of the hide remaining after cutting
+off the head, shoulders, and strip of the belly.
+
+Colorado steer hide is from Colorado steers, which are very light.
+
+Texas steer hide comes in three grades, heavy, light, and extra light.
+The heavy grade is very heavy because the animal is allowed to graze on
+the plains. That is the reason why it is heavier than the Colorado steer
+hide, which is raised on the farm.
+
+Bull hide is divided into two classes, the regular hide and the branded
+grade. The branded grade usually is one cent a pound less than the
+regular.
+
+Country hides are of three grades, Ohio Buffs, Ohio Ex., and Southern.
+The Ohio Buffs weigh from forty to sixty pounds. The Ohio Ex. weighs from
+twenty to forty pounds. Southern hides have spots without hair and other
+blemishes on them, due to the sting of insects. This makes the Southern
+hide inferior to the Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, and Chicago hides that have
+no such blemishes. Ohio Butt hides are the best, because in Ohio they
+kill a great many young calves, while in Chicago young cows (that have
+calved) are killed, causing the hide to be flanky.
+
+The season of the year in which cattle are slaughtered has considerable
+influence upon both the weight and condition of the hide. During the
+winter months, by reason of the hair being longer and thicker, the hide
+is heavier, ranging from seventy-five to eighty pounds, and gradually
+decreasing in weight as the season becomes warmer and the coat is shed,
+until in June and July it weighs from seventy down to fifty-five pounds,
+the hair then being thin and short. The best hides of the year are
+October hides, and short-haired hides are better for leather purposes
+than long-haired ones.
+
+A thick hide which is to be used for upper leather is cut into sides
+before the tanning process is completed. This is performed by passing
+it between rollers where it comes in contact with a sharp knife-edge,
+which splits it into two or more sheets. Great care must be exercised in
+cutting the leather in order to have good “splits” (sheets of leather). A
+split from a heavy hide is not as good as a whole of a lighter leather.
+
+Butts and backs are selected from the stoutest and heaviest oxhides. The
+butt is formed by cutting off the head, the shoulder, and the strip of
+the belly. The butt or back of oxhide forms the stoutest and heaviest
+leather, such as is used for soles of boots, harness, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Green-Salted Calfskin. _Page 12._]
+
+Hides and skins are received at the tannery in one of three conditions,
+viz. green-salted, dry, or dry-salted. Very few hides are received by
+tanners in fresh or unsalted condition, salt being necessary to preserve
+them from decay. Green-salted hides are those that have been salted in
+fresh condition, tied up in bundles, and shipped to the tanner. Dry
+hides are those that were taken from the carcass and dried without being
+salted; these are usually stiff and hard. Dry-salted hides are hides that
+were heavily salted while they were fresh, and then dried. The hides
+and skins that are received from the slaughterhouses of this country
+are almost invariably green-salted; those from foreign countries are
+green-salted, dry, and dry-salted.
+
+It does not matter in what condition the hides are received or the kind
+of leather into which they are to be tanned; they all require soaking in
+water before any attempt is made to remove the hair or to tan them. The
+object of the soaking process, as it is called, is to thoroughly soften
+the hides and to remove from them all salt, dirt, blood, etc. Ordinary
+hides are usually soaked from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Dry hides
+require much longer. The water should be changed once or twice during the
+process, since dirty water may injure the hides. Soft water is better
+than hard for this process. Where the water is hard, it is customary for
+the tanner to add a quantity of borax to it to increase its cleansing
+power and to hasten the softening of the hides.
+
+When dry hides have become soft enough to bend without cracking, they are
+put into a machine and beaten and rolled, then soaked again until they
+are soft and pliable. It is very important that all the salt and dirt are
+removed during the process of soaking, as they injure the quality of the
+leather if they are not removed before the hides are unhaired. When the
+soaking process is completed, the lumps of fat and flesh that may have
+been left on by the butcher are removed by hand or by a machine, and the
+hides are then in condition to be passed along into the next process. The
+parts that cannot be made into leather, such as tails, teats, etc., are
+trimmed off before the hides are soaked. Large hides are cut into two
+pieces or halves, called “sides,” after they have been soaked.
+
+For the purpose of taking the hair from the hides and skins, lime,
+sulphide of sodium, and red arsenic are used. Lime is sometimes used
+alone, but usually one of the other two chemicals is mixed with it. The
+lime is dissolved in hot water, a quantity of either sulphide of sodium
+or red arsenic is added to it, and the solution is then mixed with water
+in a vat, the hides being immersed in this liquor until the hair can be
+easily removed. The action of the unhairing liquor is to swell the hides,
+then to dissolve the perishable animal portion and loosen the hair so
+that it can be rubbed or pulled off.
+
+There are several different processes of unhairing the hides. Each tanner
+uses the process that will help to give the leather the qualities that it
+should have, such as softness and pliability for shoe and glove leather,
+or firmness and solidity for sole and belting leather. This is one of the
+most important in the series of tannery processes, and if the hides are
+not unhaired properly and not prepared for tanning as they should be, the
+leather will not be right when it is tanned and finished.
+
+There is also a process of unhairing, called “sweating,” which softens
+the hide and loosens the hair so that it can be scraped off. In this
+process the hides begin to decay before the hair is loose; it is
+therefore a dangerous process to use and must be carefully watched or the
+hides will be entirely spoiled. Sweating is never used for the finer,
+softer kinds of leather. It is applied chiefly to dry hides for sole,
+lace, and belt leather. It is an old-fashioned process and is not used as
+much nowadays as some years ago.
+
+The pelts of sheep are salted at the slaughterhouses and then shipped to
+the tannery. Here they are thrown into water and left to soak twenty-four
+hours to loosen the dirt and dissolve the salt. The pelts are next
+passed through machines that clean the wool, and any particles of flesh
+remaining on the inner or flesh side are removed. The pelts are then in
+condition to have the wool removed. As long as a sheepskin has the wool
+upon it, it is called a pelt; as soon as the wool has been taken off, it
+is called a skin or a “slat.”
+
+Each pelt is spread out smoothly on a table with the wool down and the
+inner or flesh side up. A mixture of lime and sulphide of sodium is
+next applied uniformly over the skin with a brush. The pelt is then
+folded up and placed in a pile with others. The solution that was
+applied penetrates the skin and loosens the wool, which, at the end
+of twenty-four hours, more or less, can be easily pulled off with the
+hands or rubbed off with a dull instrument or stick. The workman must be
+careful not to get any of the solution on to the wool, as it dissolves it
+and makes it worthless. Since the wool is valuable, the solution must be
+applied to the flesh side very carefully so that it does no injury. The
+wool that is removed from the skins is called “pulled wool.”
+
+The slat is now ready to be limed, washed, pickled, and tanned. Heavy
+skins are often split into two sheets after they have been limed. The
+part from the wool side is called a skiver, and that from the flesh side
+is called a flesher.
+
+After the skins have been limed, they are bated and washed, which makes
+them soft, clean, and white; they are then put into a solution of salt,
+sulphuric acid, and water, called “pickle,” and after a few hours they
+are taken out, drained, and tanned.
+
+Large quantities of sheepskins are sold to tanners in the pickled
+condition by those who make a business of preparing such skins and
+selling the wool. Pickled skins can be kept an indefinite length of time
+without spoiling; they can also be dried and worked out into a cheap
+white leather without any further tanning whatever. Most of such skins,
+however, are sold to tanners, who tan them into leather. Sheepskins
+contain considerable grease, which must be removed before the leather can
+be sold.
+
+For some processes of tanning, calfskins, goatskins, and cattle hides are
+also pickled the same as sheepskins; for other processes they are not
+pickled, but are thoroughly bated or delimed, washed, and cleansed. Heavy
+hides are sometimes split out of the lime; more frequently, however, they
+are not split until after they have been tanned.
+
+To capitulate, the preparatory processes may be briefly described as
+follows:--
+
+Soaking, which dissolves the salt, removes the dirt and makes the hides
+soft and comparatively clean.
+
+Liming and unhairing, which swell the hides and dissolve the perishable
+animal portion, loosen the hair, and put the hides into proper condition
+for tanning. Hides tanned without liming, even if the hair is removed by
+some chemical, do not make pliable leather, but are stiff and hard.
+
+Bating, which removes the lime from the hides.
+
+Pickling, which helps in the tanning later, and keeps the hides and
+skins from spoiling if they are not tanned at once.
+
+The lumps of fat and flesh that may be on the hides are removed by
+machinery or by placing the hide over a beam and scraping it with a
+knife. The hair, when it is loosened by the lime, is removed by a machine
+or by hand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER THREE
+
+PROCESSES OF TANNING
+
+
+The various processes of tanning may be roughly divided into two
+classes, vegetable chemical and mineral chemical. The first class is
+often spoken of in tanneries simply as the “vegetable” while the second
+is called “chemical” process. In the vegetable processes the tanning
+is accomplished by tannin, which is found in various barks and woods
+of trees and leaves of plants. In the so-called chemical processes the
+tanning is done with mineral salts and acids which produce an entirely
+different kind of leather from that procured by vegetable tanning.
+
+There is also a method of tanning, or, more properly speaking, tawing, in
+which alum and salt are used. This process makes white leather that is
+used for many purposes; it is also colored and used in the manufacture
+of fine gloves. Leather is also made by tanning skins with oil. Chamois
+skins are made in this way.
+
+The materials that are used to tan hides and skins act upon the hide
+fibers in such a way that the hides are rendered proof against decay
+and become pliable and strong. There are many vegetable tans; they are
+used for sole leather, upper leather, and colored leather for numerous
+purposes. The bark of hemlock trees is one of the principal tans. The
+woods and barks of oak, chestnut, and quebracho trees are often used.
+Palmetto roots yield a good tan. Large quantities of leather are treated
+with gambier and various other tanning materials that come from foreign
+countries. Sumac leaves, which are imported from Sicily, contain tannin
+that makes soft leather suitable for hat sweatbands, suspender trimmings,
+etc. Sumac is also obtained from the State of Virginia, but the foreign
+leaves contain more tannin and make better leather than the American.
+
+To a large extent the so-called chemical processes have supplanted the
+vegetable processes, that is, old tan bark and sumac processes; but in
+some tanneries both methods are used on different kinds of skins.
+
+In the old bark process the tan bark is ground coarse and is then treated
+in leaches with hot water until the tanning quality is drawn out. The
+liquor so obtained is used at various strengths as needed.
+
+In the newer method the tan liquor is displaced by a solution of
+potassium bichromate, which produces its results with much less
+expenditure of time.
+
+When the hides or skins are ready for the tanning process, they are put
+into a revolving drum, known as a “pinwheel,” or into a pit in which
+are revolving paddles, with a dilute solution of potassium dichromate
+or sodium dichromate, acidified with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.
+If the pinwheel is employed, it is revolved for seven hours or longer;
+after which time the liquor is drawn off and replaced by an acidified
+solution of sodium thiosulphate or bisulphite, and then the revolution
+is continued several hours longer. If the pit is used, the skins are
+removed to another drum containing the second solution, and kept at rest
+or overturned for a like period.
+
+In removing the skins from the pinwheel or vat, and in handling them
+after treatment with lime for the loosening of the hair, the hands and
+arms of the workmen are seriously injured, becoming raw if not protected
+by rubber gloves; even with gloves it is difficult to prevent injury, and
+in some establishments the workmen are relieved by the substitution of a
+single-bath process, in which the liquor is less harmful to the skin.
+
+[Illustration: Tanning Process
+
+Showing the vats, the unhairing and liming processes. _Page 24._]
+
+The hides are then removed from the pits, washed and brushed, followed
+by slow drying in the air. When partly dried, they are placed in a pile
+and covered until heating is induced. They are then dampened and rolled
+with brass rollers to give the leather solidity. Sole leather is oiled
+but little. Weight is increased by adding glucose and salt.
+
+Various rapid processes of tanning have been devised in which the hides
+are suspended in strong liquors or are tanned in large revolving drums.
+It is claimed that this hastens the process, but the product has been
+criticized as lacking substance or being brittle.
+
+Chrome tannage has been chiefly developed in this country during the
+last twenty years and is now in general use. It consists in throwing an
+insoluble chromium hydroxide or oxide on the fibers of a skin which has
+been impregnated with a soluble chromium salt--potassium bichromate.
+Other salts like basic chromium chloride, chromium chromate, and chromic
+alum are also used. The hydrochloric or sulphuric acid acts by setting
+free chromic acid.
+
+After several hours, the skin shows a uniform yellow when cut through its
+thickest part. It is then drained and the skin worked in a solution of
+sodium bisulphite and mineral acid (to free sulphur dioxide). The chromic
+acid is absorbed by the fiber and later reduced by sulphur dioxide.
+
+In the making of chrome black leather each tanner has his own method.
+Contrary to the general belief, there are many different methods of
+chrome tannage. No two tanneries employ just the same process.
+
+Tanners of chrome leather seek to produce leather suitable for the
+particular demands made upon it by the peculiarities or characteristics
+of the varying seasons. Summer shoes require a cool, light leather;
+at other times a heavier tannage is essential, with some call for a
+practically waterproof product.
+
+All leathers, whether vegetable-or chrome-tanned, must be “fat liquored.”
+That is to say, a certain amount of fatty material must be put into the
+skin in order that it may be mellow, workable, and serviceable. This is
+very essential in producing calf leather. Fat liquors usually contain oil
+and soap, which have been boiled in water and made into a thin liquor.
+The leather is put into a drum with the hot fat liquor; the drum is set
+in motion, and as it revolves the leather tumbles about in the drum and
+absorbs the oil and soap from the water. It is the fat liquor that makes
+the leather soft and strong.
+
+Leather used in shoes is divided into two classes: sole leather and upper
+leather.
+
+Sole leather is a heavy, solid, stiff leather and may be bent without
+cracking. It is the foundation of the shoe, and therefore should be of
+the best material. The hides of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for
+this purpose.
+
+The hide that is tanned for sole leather is soaked for several days in a
+weak solution (which is gradually made stronger) of oak or hemlock tan
+made from the bark. Oak-tanned hide is preferred and may be known by its
+light color. A chemical change takes place in the fiber of the hide. This
+is a high-grade tannage, and is distinguished principally by its fine
+fibers and close, compact texture.
+
+Oak sole leather, by reason of its tough character, and its close,
+fibrous texture, resists water and will wear well down before cracking.
+It is by many considered better than other leather for flexible-sole
+shoes, requiring waterproof qualities.
+
+Sole leather is divided into three classes according to the tanning--oak,
+hemlock, and union.
+
+[Illustration: Tanning Process
+
+Showing the rotating drums. _See page 24._]
+
+Oak tanning is as follows: the hides are hung in pits containing weak
+or nearly spent liquors from a previous tanning, and agitated so as to
+take up tannin evenly. Strong liquor would harden the surface so as to
+prevent thorough penetration into the interior of the hides. After ten
+or twelve days, the hides are taken out and laid away in fresh tan and
+stronger liquor. This process is repeated as often as necessary for eight
+to ten months. At the end of this time the hide has absorbed all of the
+tannin which it will take up.
+
+Hemlock tanning is similar to the oak tanning in process. The hemlock
+tan is a red shade. Hemlock produces a very hard and inflexible leather.
+It is modified by use of bleaching materials which are applied to the
+leather after being tanned. It is sold in sides without being trimmed,
+while the oak is sold in backs, with belly and head trimmed off.
+
+Hemlock leather is used extensively and almost principally for men’s
+and boys’ stiff-soled, heavy shoes, where no flexibility is required
+or expected. Its principal desirable quality is its resistance to
+trituration, or being ground to a powder, and its use in men’s and boys’
+pegged, nailed, or standard screw shoes is not in any way objectionable
+to the wearer. In fact, for this class of shoes, it is probably the best
+leather that can be used. But when hemlock is used in men’s and boys’
+Goodyear welt shoes, where a flexible bottom is expected and required,
+it generally does not give good results. It cannot satisfactorily resist
+the constant flexing to which it is subjected, and after the sole is worn
+half through, the constant bending causes it to crack crosswise. On this
+account it becomes like a sieve, and has no power of resistance in water,
+and therefore it is not at all suited to flexible-bottomed shoes.
+
+In “union-tanned” hides, both oak and hemlock are used and the result is
+a compromise in both color and quality. This tan was first used about
+fifty years ago. Twenty-five years ago the union leather tanners began to
+experiment with bleaching materials to avoid the use of oak bark, which
+was becoming scarce and high priced, and eventually developed a system of
+tanning union leather with hemlock or kindred tanning agents, excluding
+oak. The red color and the hard texture were modified by bleaching the
+leather to the desired color and texture. This produces leather which
+has not the fine, close tannage of genuine oak leather and at the same
+time lacks the compact, hard character of hemlock leather. Union leather
+produced in this manner is a sort of mongrel or hybrid leather, being
+neither oak nor hemlock. On account of its economy in cutting qualities,
+however, it is largely used in the manufacture of medium-priced shoes
+where a certain degree of flexibility is required in the sole. This is
+particularly true of women’s shoes.
+
+Union leather is sold largely in backs and trimmed the same as oak,
+though not so closely.
+
+Sole leather is also made nowadays by tanning the hides by the chrome or
+chemical process. This leather is very durable and pliable and is used
+on athletic and sporting shoes. It has a light green color and is much
+lighter in weight than the oak or hemlock leather.
+
+Many kinds of hide are used for sole leather. This country does not
+produce nearly enough hides for the demand, and great quantities are
+imported from abroad, although most of the imported hides come from South
+America. Imported hides are divided into two general classes, dry hides
+and green-salted hides.
+
+Dry hides are of two kinds, the dry “flint,” which are dried carefully
+after being taken from the animal and cured without salt. These generally
+make good leather, although if sunburnt, the leather is not strong.
+“Dry-salted hides” are salted and cured to a dry state. Dry hides of both
+kinds are used for hemlock leather only, although all hemlock leather is
+not made from dry hides.
+
+Green-salted hides are used in making oak-tanned leather as well as
+hemlock, and those used by United States tanners come largely from
+domestic points; but there is a variable amount imported each year from
+abroad, principally from Europe and South America. Green-salted hides are
+of two general classes, those branded and those free of brands.
+
+Cow and steer hides of the branded type are used by tanners of oak and
+union leather. Those not branded are used more largely for belting and
+upholstering leathers, a small part finding their way into hemlock
+leather.
+
+Sole leather remnants, strictly speaking, include such a wide variety
+of items that it is difficult to cover them all. Few people, however,
+realize the big range of usefulness of this class of stock. While not
+exactly a by-product, remnants are often classed as such. Under the
+class of sole leather remnants are included sole leather offal, such
+as heads, bellies, shoulders, shanks, shins, men’s heeling, men’s half
+heeling, men’s and women’s three-and four-piece heeling, etc. Stock that
+cannot be used in the shoe business goes into the chemical and fertilizer
+trade, among other outlets. By a special acid process of burning this
+stock, ammonia is derived from it, which goes into fertilizer; and
+another by-product is sulphuric acid for the chemical trade. The amount
+of ammonia obtained is small, being about seven per cent of ammonia to a
+ton of sole leather scrap. This is mixed with fertilizer and sold mostly
+in the Southern States, and to a small extent in the West, there being a
+law in many of the Western States against the use of fertilizer made from
+leather products, on account of its low grade.
+
+[Illustration: Sole Leather Offal
+
+Showing bellies, shoulders, etc. _Page 35._]
+
+In the disposition of offal, heads are used for taps, top lifts, and
+under lifts. Shoulders are used for outsoles and inner soles, while
+bellies are used for medium to heavy taps and counters. Lightweight
+bellies and shanks are utilized for making box toes and counters.
+
+Shanks are also used for taps and under lifts. This stock is solid and
+substantial and well suited for these purposes. The bellies, being
+flexible, are the best part of the hide obtainable for inner soles.
+
+In cutting out soles, the manufacturer accumulates a considerable
+quantity of solid or center pieces, which are used for small top lifts,
+also for “Cuban” tops, thereby using up the bulk of the small heavy scrap
+that ordinarily would be sold for pieced heeling. There is also a demand
+for similar stock from the hardware trade, where it is used for making
+mallet and tool handles, also for wagon and carriage washers. Large
+quantities of men’s and women’s heeling and half heeling go to England,
+where it is cut up by heel manufacturers into lifts and sectional lifts
+for the English trade; there being a shortage of this class of offal
+there.
+
+The shoe manufacturer, after cutting his soles and taps, is obliged to
+skive them to get the particular iron he needs. This leaves what is known
+as a “flesh sole shape,” also a “tap shape.” These skivings are pasted
+together by another class of trade and again used for inner soling and
+taps in the cheaper grades of shoes. Smaller skivings, or waste, after
+sorting out the sole and tap shapes, are sold to the leather board trade.
+This eventually comes back to the shoe trade in the shape of leather
+board and is cut into heel lifts. The waste after cutting heel lifts is
+again resold to the leather board trade and makes another round trip to
+the shoe manufacturer. This illustration, as well as many others in the
+leather remnant business, demonstrates the scientific principle that
+nothing is ever entirely lost. In regard to pieced heel lifts, these are
+made in either two, three, or four sections. This refers to what are
+known as sectional heel lifts. Scrap leather is also used for shanking
+for the European trade.
+
+Soles and taps, known as rejects, that is, those thrown out by the
+high-grade trade, are sold to manufacturers of cheaper lines. A shoe
+manufacturer cutting his own soles and buying sole leather in sides,
+after sorting out the soles suited to his own requirements, will sell
+what he cannot use to remnant dealers, who in turn re-sell them to
+shoe manufacturers requiring that particular class of stock. The scrap
+leather, or remnant dealer, thus forms a useful link in the chain of
+distribution, furnishing a market where shoe and leather manufacturers
+may dispose of their surplus products to best advantage, and providing a
+source of supply for buyers who wish any particular article to suit their
+individual needs.
+
+Upper or dressed leather is made from kips or large calfskins. It is
+tanned and finished like all other forms of leather by variations of the
+foregoing process. Thick hides are often split thin by machinery, and the
+parts retained and finished separately. The parts of the leather from the
+hair side are most valuable and are called “grain” leather; the inner
+parts or “flesh splits” are made into a variety of different kinds of
+leather by waxing, oiling, and polishing.
+
+It is finished by scouring with brushes and then rubbed with a piece of
+glass, which removes creases and wrinkles and stretches the leather. Then
+it is stuffed with a mixture of oil, soap, and tallow, which is worked
+into it by rolling. Various finishes are given to leather, such as seal
+grain, buff, glove grain, oil grain, satin calf, russet, plain shoe, etc.
+
+Upper leathers are blacked by rubbing with a mixture of lampblack and oil
+or tallow, or with a solution of copperas and logwood.
+
+No tanning process, no matter how good or thorough, can make firm,
+serviceable, wear-resisting leather out of all portions of any hide,
+because nature made some parts of every hide porous, spongy, and lacking
+in fibrous strength.
+
+Calfskins used by tanners are of several classes. American calfskins,
+taken off in the United States and Canada, are usually sold green pelted.
+Farmers raise only a small fraction of the calves born. Each cow must
+produce a calf in order to insure a maximum flow of milk. Most of the
+farmers keep cows to produce milk, hence they sell the young calves for
+veal and use their skins for high-grade calf leather.
+
+In European countries farmers fatten their calves before selling them in
+order to get a higher price for the veal. The skin is not so valuable for
+leather as the skin from younger calves, and it is used for lower-value
+leathers.
+
+Calfskin is not split. A heavier weight skin might be. It is shaved to a
+uniform thickness.
+
+Calf leather is divided into the following classes, depending upon the
+finish of the leather:--
+
+Boarded calf (made in both chrome and bark tannage).
+
+Wax calf, finished on the flesh side with a waxy, hard surface.
+
+Box calf is a proprietary name. It is boarded--rubbed with a board to
+raise the grain. It is known by minute, squarelike lines.
+
+Mat calf is a dull-finished calfskin, used more in topping.
+
+Suede calf is finished on flesh side. Most makes of suede calf are
+chromed, although there are some vegetable.
+
+Storm calf is a heavy skin, finished for winter wear. Considerable oil is
+used in finishing.
+
+French calf is finished on flesh side.
+
+Dry hides are obtained from Buenos Ayres, where the cattle are raised on
+the plains. This city exports a large quantity of hides, dry, salted,
+and cured by smoking. The hides of cows generally yield inferior grain
+leather; but South American cowhides may be worked for light sole leather.
+
+Calves’ hides are thinner, but when well tanned, curried, and dressed,
+they yield a very soft and supple leather for boots and shoes. They are
+finished with wax and oil on the flesh side, and can also be finished on
+the hair (grain of skin).
+
+Calves’ skin (green salted).
+
+Paris City calfskins. These are obtained in three grades--light, medium,
+and heavy.
+
+Light grades run from four to five, or seven to eight pounds; medium
+grades run from seven to nine pounds; heavy grades run from nine to
+twelve pounds.
+
+Patent leather may be made from colt, calf, or kid skin. Coltskin is the
+skin of young horses, or split skins of mature horses.
+
+Patent colt and kid are used for the most part in the medium fine grades,
+and patent side (cowhide) is used in the medium and cheaper grades.
+Chrome tanned are used entirely in the manufacture of patent leather.
+
+Patent leather, as it appears in shoes, may be described either as
+varnished leather, coltskin, or kid, and sometimes the French use
+calfskin. The process is largely a secret one, although there is no
+longer any patent on the principle of the same. It is made by shaving
+the skins on the flesh side or hair side to a uniform thickness. Then
+it is de-greased to put the skin in condition to receive the finish and
+protect the same from peeling off. Successive coats of liquid black
+varnish are applied, the first coats being dried and rubbed down, so as
+to work the liquid thoroughly into the fibers of the leather. The last
+coat is applied with a brush, and baked to from one hundred and twenty to
+one hundred and forty degrees Fahrenheit for thirty-six hours and then
+allowed to dry in direct sunlight for from six to ten hours, which seems
+to be essential to remove the sticky feeling. Various ingredients are
+used in making the different varnishes, the first coating consisting of
+naphtha, wood alcohol, amyl acetate, etc. The black varnishes consist of
+linseed oil and various other mixtures, heated in iron kettles. The final
+coating is a naphtha preparation resembling japanning material. The hide
+is stretched on a frame during the varnishing operations.
+
+It is almost impossible to tell the difference in quality of shiny
+leather by appearance, although in general the leather on which the
+grain shows through the varnish will prove more serviceable than that
+on which the finish is so thick as to hide the grain. Great care must
+be exercised in resewing patent leather shoes that have been exposed
+during the cold weather, as the cold has a tendency to freeze the finish.
+Patent leather, like all varnished coatings, is liable to crack. No one
+can guarantee it not to do so. The kid patent leather is more elastic
+and porous than other kinds. The serious objection to the use of patent
+leather for a shoe is its air-tightness. This makes it both unhygienic
+and uncomfortable. The kid patent leather is the only patent leather that
+has not this objection.
+
+Kid is a term applied to shoe leather made from the skins of mature
+goats. The skin of the young goat or kid is made into the thin, flexible
+leather used for kid gloves, which is too delicate for general use in
+shoes. The goats from which come the supply of leather used in this
+country for women’s and children’s fine shoes are not the common,
+domesticated kind known in this country, but are wild goats or allied
+species partially domesticated, and are found in the hill regions of
+India, the mountains of Europe, portions of South America, etc.
+
+There are about sixty-eight recognized kinds of goatskins that are
+imported from all over the world. The Brazilian, Buenos Ayres, Andean,
+Mexican, French, Russian, Indian, and Chinese are a few of the many kinds
+that are known as such. Each particular species of goat hide possesses
+its own peculiarities of texture. The thickness and grain differ
+according to the environment in which the animal has been raised. It is
+peculiar that those raised in cold climates do not have as thick skins
+as those raised in warmer climates, for the long, thick hair apparently
+takes the strength.
+
+We may wonder where all the skins come from that are made up into glazed
+kid, mat kid, and suede, at the rate of several thousand dozen every
+day. The great proportion of the skins are _goatskins_. These are almost
+all imported from abroad, where the animals are slaughtered and disposed
+of much the same as we dispose of beef and veal here. Sheepskins and
+carbarettas, the hides of animals that are a cross between sheep and
+goats, are also used.
+
+The finer grades of kid and goatskins which are tanned in large
+quantities in New England, come from the Far East.
+
+In China there are two great ports from which skins are shipped, Tientsin
+and Shanghai. Back in the interior, starting from a point about twelve
+hundred miles from the sea, collectors make their rounds twice a year.
+
+The breeder of goats kills his flock just before the collector is due,
+skins the animals on the hillside, preserves the meat for food, and with
+the kidskins, which have been partly dried, wrapped in a bundle carried
+upon the back, or upon a pack animal, the breeder makes his way to the
+station. It may be that there are a half hundred breeders awaiting the
+coming of the collector and he pays them the market price for the skins.
+
+Whenever the collector has a sufficient supply to make it profitable
+to ship, he bales the skins and then sends them over the thousand mile
+journey along the river to the seaport. From Tientsin or Shanghai they
+are taken by tramp steamers, which reach Eastern ports by way of the Suez
+Canal, and on the trip the steamers make several ports, so that it is
+from six to ten weeks before the skins reach America.
+
+Another method of importing is to have the raw material shipped across
+the Pacific and then transferred to a railroad, but the difference in
+cost to the manufacturer is so great that it is unprofitable.
+
+The China goatskins are rated as among the finest in the world and when
+tanned they make the highest-grade shoe.
+
+Then there are mocha skins, which come from Tripoli, Arabia, and Northern
+Africa. In those places the method of collection is practically the same
+as in China.
+
+The two best-known grades are the Hodieda and the Benghazi. They derive
+their designations from the exporting cities. Hodieda is located in the
+southwestern part of Arabia on the Red Sea, while Benghazi is in Barca,
+one of the provinces of Tripoli.
+
+Other goatskins are produced in India and Russia, and millions of skins
+are exported annually from Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. These skins are
+not brought direct to America, but are transshipped at Marseilles or
+London.
+
+The jobbers in Europe or India occupy rather a unique position, for
+according to their practice it is almost impossible for them to suffer
+financial losses in dealing with an American tanner. The latter, when he
+wishes to arrange for his year’s supply of raw material, negotiates with
+an agent in Boston, with whom he signs a contract for so many skins. Then
+it is necessary for the tanner to either purchase with money equal to
+the face value or secure by loans letters of credit from Boston banking
+houses which have European connections.
+
+Before the skins are exported, the jobber has his money from the European
+banking concerns and the bills of lading are forwarded to the Boston
+bankers, who turn them over to the tanners, and, when the occasion
+requires, obtain from the tanners what is known as a deed of trust.
+
+All goatskins are tanned by the same chrome tanning process, whether
+the finish is to be glazed or mat. The proportions of chemicals vary
+according to the texture of the skin, and according to the grain.
+
+The process of tanning is quicker than the tanning of heavier hides, and
+all varieties of tannage are used, the chrome methods having come into
+very general use. There are many kinds of finish given, such as glazed,
+dull, mat, patent, etc. One quality that distinguishes goat leather,
+the “kid” of shoemaking, is the fact that the fibers of the skin are
+interlaced and interlocked in all directions. The finished skins as they
+come from the tannery, by whatever process they may be put through, are
+sorted for size and quality, a number of grades being made. Instead
+of ripping straight through, like a piece of cloth, or splitting apart
+in layers, as sheepskin will do when made into leather, the kid holds
+together firmly in all directions.
+
+Glazed kid is colored after it is tanned by submerging it in the color,
+a very important process. The glossy surface is obtained by “striking”
+or burnishing on the grain side. It is made in black and colors,
+particularly tan, and is known by about as many names as there are
+manufacturers of it.
+
+Glazed kid is used in the uppers of shoes, making a fine, soft shoe that
+is particularly comfortable in warm weather, and is said to prevent cold
+feet in winter, owing to unrestricted circulation.
+
+Mat kid is a soft, dull black kid, the softness being the result of
+treatment with beeswax or olive oil. It is finished on the grain side the
+same as glazed kid, and is used principally for shoe toppings. It is very
+similar in appearance to mat calf and is often used in preference to it,
+as it is of much lighter weight, and about as strong.
+
+Suede kid is not tanned, but is subjected to a feeding process in an
+egg solution, called “tawing,” to make it soft and pliable. The skin is
+stretched and the color is applied by “brushing” (with a brush). The
+color does not permeate the skin, but is merely on the surface. Suedes
+are made from carbarettas and split sheepskins. Suedes are used very
+extensively in making slippers, and come in a great variety of colors.
+
+A castor kid is a Persian lambskin finished the same as a suede, and is
+used in making very soft, fine-appearing leather--like glove leather. The
+skin is of such a very light weight that it has to be “backed up” before
+being made into shoes.
+
+Fancy leathers are used extensively for toppings of shoes having patent
+leather vamps. Facings are selected from fancy leathers to make the
+inside of a shoe attractive and to increase its wearing quality.
+Leathers of dull or glazed finish are used in typical shoe colors.
+
+Miscellaneous kinds of kids are as follows:--
+
+    _A._ Kangaroo
+    _B._ Buckskin
+    _C._ Sheepskin
+    _D._ Chamois
+    _E._ Cordovan
+    _F._ Splits
+      _a._ Seal Grain
+      _b._ Buff
+      _c._ Oil Grain
+      _d._ Satin Calf
+    _G._ Enamel
+    _H._ Sides
+
+Kangaroo is the skin of the animal of that name.
+
+Buckskin is the skin of certain deer.
+
+Sheepskin is the skin of the familiar domestic sheep.
+
+Chamois is the skin of the animal of that name and by courtesy the
+specially treated skins of certain domestic animals.
+
+It is a simple matter to recognize a kid-skin among the various kinds of
+upper leather, because of its very light weight and pliability.
+
+During the winter, leather, in drying, is apt to become frozen,
+especially where no well-equipped drying loft is provided. Such leather
+becomes weak and limp if thawed out too rapidly. In freezing, the
+water in the hides which have been hung up to dry is forced out and
+stretches apart the hide fiber. The wetter the hides, therefore, the
+more demoralized they will be by the frost. The treatment of rushing the
+frozen leather into a warm room is inadvisable; the best method is to
+allow the hides to hang as they were and to tightly close all openings
+to the outside air. In case this is impossible, it is best to place the
+leather in a heap, in a room where the temperature will not fall below
+the freezing point, and to cover it with a cloth. In case the leather
+rolls up, it should be moistened before the roll becomes greater than
+is customary; it will thus become firmer throughout. Some upper leather
+and especially sheepskins for lining purposes are aided by freezing,
+since the leather becomes white and plump and also is of a bright color,
+though the durability is somewhat lessened.
+
+The popularity of white leather for shoes is increasing wonderfully.
+There is good reason for this. The modern white shoes have a stylish and
+fashionable appearance which has won the hearts of women of all ages and
+conditions, and when they want a thing, there is always alertness in
+supplying it. The new love for white shoes is interesting to trace. Years
+ago white leather for shoes was made principally from deerskins. But
+this leather, while attractive when new, would stretch soon after being
+worn, and take on a yellowish tinge. Besides, the price of such shoes
+was very high, and it is not surprising that they became supplanted by
+the cheaper, but attractive and useful, white canvas shoes, which became
+quick sellers during the season.
+
+It is greatly to the credit of our tanners that they have been able to
+perfect and put on the market a white leather for shoes which answers
+all requirements satisfactorily. This leather is made from cowhides; the
+white color will not fade nor turn yellow, and best of all, the leather
+can be easily cleaned and made to look good as new. Another advantage is
+that such leathers can be used in shoes that sell at popular prices.
+
+There are many common, commercial grades of upper leather.
+
+Willow calf is a fine, soft, chrome tannage of calfskin. It is sold in
+three colors, light tan, ox blood, and olive-brown. The distinguishing
+features of this leather are its durability and the fact that it always
+keeps soft and pliable. It is adapted to the highest quality of men’s and
+women’s shoes.
+
+Box calf is a storm-calf leather of highest quality. It is a waterproof,
+chrome tannage in a medium tan color, with a dull finish. This is the
+best leather obtainable for rough, outdoor wear, walking shoes, hunting
+boots, etc. It is also adapted to men’s and women’s very fine footwear.
+There is a growing demand for this kind of shoe. In the uppers of the
+best storm shoes you will always find box calf.
+
+Royal kid is a black chrome calfskin, dull finished with a smooth,
+natural grain of fine texture, soft and pliable. It is used for vamps
+and whole shoes of the highest grades for men and women, and is a very
+popular material for the fall and winter shoe. The desirable qualities
+of fine calf leather are making the demand for it grow faster than the
+supply of raw material increases.
+
+Tan royal is a tan color, chrome calf leather, smooth finish, fine grain,
+excellent cutting qualities, uniform, of medium rich tan shades. Tan calf
+leather is very attractive and the tan shoe is now a staple product.
+
+Cadet kid is a bright black, smooth-finished, chrome calfskin for men’s
+and women’s fine shoes. This tannage and finish give a remarkable
+cutting value. The stability of this stock is entirely unique and makes
+the finished shoe stand up, keeping its much desired shape through the
+different tests of manufacturing. It is said to be the best calfskin, by
+the best judges, the shoe manufacturers.
+
+Bronko patent is distinguished for its fine, coltskin-effect grain. It
+has a rich and lustrous black patent finish. The results obtained from
+bronko patent in its workings through the shoe factory and its wearing
+qualities afterward have never been equaled. Bronko is one of the finest
+results of the development of chrome patent leather.
+
+Cadet kid side is a chrome side leather that closely imitates the
+calfskin, called cadet kid. It has a bright, lustrous finish, and a
+remarkably fine grain. It is surprisingly like fine calf leather in
+appearance.
+
+Cadet calf sides are similar to cadet kid sides with the exception of a
+boarded finish. This is another black chrome, side leather which comes
+very near to a calfskin.
+
+Mat royal chrome side is a special finish, closely resembling calf, used
+for the tops of men’s and women’s medium fine shoes.
+
+Black hawk patent is a well-tanned, well-finished patent leather for
+medium-priced women’s shoes and for tipping.
+
+Colored box chrome side, boarded, is a substitute for willow calf.
+
+Black box chrome side, boarded, is a substitute for box calf in medium
+fine shoes.
+
+Kangaroo kid side is a back-tanned, dull, smooth, black leather nearly
+like calf, used in the tops of men’s shoes, and men’s and women’s whole
+shoes.
+
+Waterproof black is a high quality leather of great durability for men’s
+and boys’ heavy shoes. Waterproof brown is similar to waterproof black,
+except in color, and is a leather made for hard service.
+
+Amhide black is a soft, dry, high-grade tannage for lightweight,
+comfortable, sporting, work, and hard-wear shoes.
+
+Amhide russet is like black amhide in everything but color.
+
+Hercules storm chrome is a leather distinguished for its fine grain and
+good appearance of medium heavy weight.
+
+Boris is a heavy-weight, soft, waterproof leather for men’s medium
+quality shoes. It is finished in three colors and black.
+
+Zulu is a medium-priced leather, which makes a very fine wearing heavy
+shoe. It is made in two colors and black.
+
+Bison is a colored or black-finished leather, of a high grade, very
+comfortable and durable.
+
+Ottawa is of two colors and black finished, and is suitable for high
+quality, heavy, rough shoes.
+
+Sheboygan calf is a heavily stuffed, soft, waterproof leather. It is of
+two colors and black.
+
+Dongola calf is a black leather used for durable, medium-priced, heavy,
+outdoor shoes.
+
+Belt knife splits are sold in several tannages and finishes of the most
+improved manufacture. These splits are sorted in all weights. Uniform
+selection is maintained, and the quality in every way is of the highest
+order.
+
+Oxford calf union splits is one of the highest grades of grain-finished,
+union splits. It has an extremely soft and fine appearance.
+
+Cambridge calf union splits have a most careful and high-grade finish,
+but somewhat firmer than Oxford calf.
+
+Flesh splits are sold in two tannages. These are the highest-grade flesh
+splits that it is possible to make, and they are a long distance ahead of
+the ordinary flesh splits, their improved finish making them a modern and
+largely used substitute for satin.
+
+Ottawa black and russet splits include a variety of printed splits, used
+for shoes in combination with grain leather and for whole shoes. They
+are selected in many weights.
+
+Flexible splits for Goodyear, gem, McKay inner soles, is leather that
+offers the greatest advantages to large and small buyers. It is the
+product of six different tanneries, assorted in all the usual weights.
+Great care is taken in the manufacture of these splits to adapt them
+perfectly to the shoe manufacturer’s needs.
+
+Flexible bends are used by manufacturers of Goodyear welt shoes requiring
+a straight Goodyear or gem inner sole. They find these bends of great
+advantage on account of the small amount of waste, the strength and
+desirability of stock. They are made in six tannages.
+
+Chrome flexible splits for inner soles furnish a very strong and durable
+leather for inner soles, taps, and outer soles.
+
+Ooze gusset splits, colored, give a very low-priced leather suitable
+for gussets, bellows tongues for high-cut boots, also for the
+quarter-linings of Oxfords.
+
+Ooze vamp splits, black and colored, are strong, durable, low-priced
+leathers suitable for cheap work shoes where waterproof qualities are not
+required.
+
+Chrome-tanned embossed splits, colored, are made in a great variety of
+patterns for cheap shoes and other work where leather is required. They
+are durable and low priced.
+
+
+LEATHER FOR BELTING
+
+A native steer about four years old, killed in the month of October,
+affords the best example of a good hide for belting manufacture, that is,
+for the transmission of power from pulley to pulley. At this age and at
+this season the steer is in prime condition.
+
+On account of the great and enormous strain put upon belting, and the
+necessity for its running true upon the pulley, it should be of the
+highest grade possible, combining great strength to prevent stretching,
+and evenness of grain to insure long wear; therefore only hides of
+selected steers are serviceable, and these in turn are rejected when they
+contain any blemishes or cuts or other imperfections. After a hide is
+accepted for belting purposes, it is subjected to a generous trimming,
+the head, neck, legs, and belly being cut away, leaving only a small and
+compact section embracing from two to two and a quarter feet on each side
+of the backbone and extending about six feet along the same from the tail
+forward. This is the portion of the hide where the fibers are closely and
+firmly knit together, and where the vitality is the greatest, due to the
+close proximity of the network of nerves radiating from each side of the
+spine to all parts of the hide.
+
+The hides of the bull and cow of every breed are inferior for belting
+purposes to that of the steer. The hide of the bull is coarse and hard,
+with the neck very heavy and full of wrinkles, causing a variation in
+the thickness and run of the grain of the leather. The hide of the cow
+is thin, does not run uniform in thickness, being heavier on the hips
+than at the shoulder, and is lacking in the firmness necessary in good
+belting. The sharp angles of the hip bones of a cow also tend to form
+pockets in the hide.
+
+After the hide has been trimmed, it is subject to the process of
+“currying.” All membranes or particles of flesh adhering to the hide
+are removed by a machine which shaves the membrane, etc., off, with
+lightning rapidity. The leather is then washed and scoured by machine,
+which removes all dirt still adhering to the hide. After the leather
+is thoroughly cleaned and while in a damp state, it is placed upon the
+table, and greases, composed of pure animal oil, are worked into the
+leather on both the grain and the flesh side with brushes. This is
+carried on in the cold state. It is then put into a large revolving
+wheel containing water heated to a high degree, which causes the leather
+to swell and pores to open. The leather is then taken out and put into
+another wheel containing heavy mineral oil and heated several degrees
+greater than the water, and tumbled about in the wheel until the heavy
+oil fills the distended pores and fibers. After this, the leather is
+allowed to dry.
+
+The hides are allowed to remain for several months in the tan liquor
+until the green hide is changed into leather.
+
+After the hide has been changed into leather, it is stretched. To
+properly stretch the leather for belting purposes, it must first be cut
+so as to remove that part which shows the markings of the backbone of the
+steer.
+
+Leather is stretched by placing it in clamps, every part of the piece
+getting the same pull. (The leather is put into the clamps while damp,
+as damp leather will give the greatest amount of stretching.)
+
+When the stretching process is completed and the leather has thoroughly
+dried in stretching clamps, it is released. These pieces of leather
+are quite dry, very firm, and not very pliable. The leather is now
+moistened in order that it shall be more pliable as it passes through the
+finishing processes. After the water has soaked into the leather (called
+sammied), it becomes very soft. It is then subjected to a roller under
+heavy pressure to take all the unevenness out of the hide. It is next
+thoroughly dried, causing the fibers to shrink; then again moistened and
+put through a polishing machine, which acts on the same principle as the
+rolling jack.
+
+The sides and centers are now put through a cutting machine, which
+reduces the leather to strips of different sizes.
+
+Belts are put together by cementing the parts. Belt cement is a most
+powerful adhesive. It actually governs the strength of the belt, as the
+belt is as strong as the weakest part of the joint.
+
+
+RAWHIDE PRODUCTS
+
+Rawhide is used for a great many purposes. After the side of leather has
+been trimmed of the portions that cannot be used, it is sold to the lace
+maker. He measures the same in a machine.
+
+The trimmings from the side of the hide may be used for a mallet head
+or other tools made of leather. The most common products of the strong
+section of rawhide strings are shoe strings, belting laces, and parts of
+harnesses. It is also made into leather shoe strings that are used in the
+logging camps.
+
+When the hide is selected for the rawhide purposes, it is first passed to
+a de-hairing machine, where all the hair is removed. It is then fleshed;
+that is, all loose membrane and any flesh that may have adhered to the
+hide are removed from the flesh side. The rawhide is then placed in a
+special bath for the purpose of opening the pores, before the oils and
+greases are added to it. After this bath, it is dried thoroughly in a hot
+box and then put into wheels which mill the greases into the hide.
+
+The hide, which is made hard by this drying process, is put through
+breakers, where it is thoroughly worked into soft and pliable form.
+
+The hide is next passed to the setting-out machine, which finishes all
+forms of leather--by condensing and strengthening the fibers. Special
+oils are applied to both the grain and flesh side of the hide. It is
+finished by hand and cut into laces. This hand finishing is usually done
+in order to reject all parts that are not perfect.
+
+Haired leather is tanned by acid--a quicker method. The hide is split
+into sides and tanned with the belly stock on them, which is used for
+car straps, cowbell straps, trunk straps, and riding bridles.
+
+
+THE BY-PRODUCTS OF A LEATHER BELTING FACTORY
+
+There are a great many by-products in a leather belting factory, all of
+which are used. The finest strips are used for whip lashes, small pieces
+are used for the French heel, and the extremely small pieces are used in
+leather mats.
+
+The by-product from the belting bull, which is about fifty per cent, is
+used for shoe leather and leather straps. There is considerable leather
+taken from the belting bull for certain harness work. The belly is thick
+and porous though not tough, and is used for halters, cow bridles, and
+other parts of harness where the strain is not great.
+
+
+ROUND BELT MAKING
+
+Round belt is made from the best belting, but while the strain on round
+belting is not severe, the leather must be soft and pliable. It is
+selected from regular stock of native steer hide.
+
+
+PROPERTIES OF TANNED LEATHER
+
+Leather that has been tanned is made up of a great many little bundles of
+fibers. The coarser and stronger fibers are on the inside, and the very
+fine and smoothly laid fibers are on the outside. These fibers are so
+intertwined and so elastic that when the leather bends these bundles play
+on one another. On account of the smoothness of the surface it may be
+polished, and beautiful finishes and effects obtained on the leather.
+
+The elasticity of leather (which is due to the elasticity of its fibers)
+allows it to stretch to a great extent. The tendency to return to its
+original position is very strong at the beginning, but grows weaker if
+the strain is continued at any one point. Of course, in stretching the
+leather, there is always a corresponding drawing in another part of the
+shoe, which gives it a worn and baggy appearance.
+
+When shoes are removed from the feet, they are oftentimes damp, due
+to perspiration. The stretched or strained fibers are apt to shrink
+and return to their original position. In order to avoid this, it is
+necessary to place shoe-trees in them.
+
+When the linings of shoes are exposed to friction and excretion of
+perspiration from the feet of some people, they deteriorate. This is due
+to the fact that the acids of perspiration (acetic, formic and butyric
+acids) have become so concentrated that they act on the fibers of the
+leather. These acids exert a burning effect, causing the fibers to lose
+their elasticity so that they no longer play on one another, but become
+fastened to each other. The result is that they become hard, and any
+attempt to bend the leather tears them apart; and once the union of
+fibers is destroyed it cannot be repaired.
+
+In order to keep the fibers in such a condition (soft and flexible), they
+should be lubricated often (twice a week) with a liquid followed by a wax
+paste, usually called shoe dressing. When a brush or a piece of cloth is
+rubbed over the surface of leather containing the shoe lubricants (shoe
+polish), it produces a smooth surface called a “shine.”
+
+Compounds which shine without friction produced by brush or cloth should
+not be used, as they are simply varnishes and one coat on top of the
+other destroys the leather.
+
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR LEATHER
+
+In olden times our fathers and mothers used handmade shoes, and wore
+them till they had passed their period of usefulness. At that time the
+consumption did not equal the production of leather. Knowledge of
+conditions in the great western countries to-day will show that many of
+the big cattle-raising sections, once famed for their cattle, have been
+taken up by homesteaders and are now producing grain instead of cattle.
+But since the appearance of the machine-made shoe, different styles of
+shoes are placed on the market at different seasons, to correspond to
+the change of style of clothing, and shoes are often discarded before
+they are worn out. We have not been able thus far to utilize cast-off
+leather as the shoddy mill uses wool and silk, etc. The result is that
+the consumption of leather is above the production, therefore substitutes
+must be used.
+
+In shoe materials there is at present an astonishing diversity and
+variety. Every known leather is used from kid to cowhide, and textile
+fabrics have developed rapidly, especially in the making of women’s and
+children’s shoes. The satins, velvets, serges, and other fabrics that
+are used in the manufacture of shoes must be firm and well woven, and
+are usually supplied with a backing of firm, canvas-like fabric, to give
+strength.
+
+As to wearing quality the old saying, “There is nothing like leather,”
+still holds good; but people do not buy shoes for their wearing qualities
+alone in these days. Style and intrinsic beauty are considered, and have
+a cash value just as in any other article of apparel.
+
+Each fabric is made of two sets of threadlike yarn woven at right angles
+to each other. They are called the warp and filling (weft). The warp is
+composed of yarn running the longest way of the fabric, and filling runs
+the short way of the fabric. Since the warp is the body of the cloth, it
+is its strongest part and all fabric in shoes should be placed warpwise
+across the foot of the wearer, so as to be able to resist the great
+strain.
+
+Various attempts have been made for legislation to prohibit the treating
+of leather by chemicals or the use of substances to increase its weight.
+Complaints have been made by a number of shoe manufacturers that the
+excessive use of glucose (a form of sugar) in sole leather has resulted
+in injuring the leather and fabrics composing the uppers of shoes.
+
+Representatives of large leather firms claim that the methods of tanning
+sole leather have radically changed during the last few years, and that
+the small quantity of glucose and epsom salts that is used to-day in
+finishing sole leather is absolutely necessary to its value, and is in
+no sense an adulterant or weighting material. Shoe manufacturers, on the
+other hand, claim that in some cases larger amounts of glucose, salt,
+etc., have been added to the soft leather from the belly of the animal,
+in order to give it the desired stiffness. On account of the high price
+of leather, various attempts have been made to find a substitute for
+it. Most of these substitutes consist of strong cloth treated with some
+drying oil like linseed, the oil having previously been mixed with other
+solid substances.
+
+A prize of five thousand francs has been awarded to a Belgian inventor,
+Louis Gevaert, for his unusually superior artificial leather. The process
+consists in the more or less intimate impregnation of stout cloth with
+tannic albuminoid substances. Shoes made of this are said to possess not
+only the resistance and elasticity of natural leather, but its durability
+of wear. Moreover, they are much cheaper, costing, including manufacture,
+only four francs (about eighty cents) and being sold at about six francs
+per pair.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER FOUR
+
+THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT
+
+
+Very few people, even among those engaged in the shoe industry, know much
+of the anatomy of the foot. Yet it is evident that they ought to know
+something about it in order to furnish the foot with a proper covering.
+
+The first thing that strikes a person on looking at the human foot is its
+large proportion of bone. On pressing its top surface and that of its
+inner side, the amount of flesh will be found to be very small, indeed.
+The same is true of the inner and outer ankle. The extreme back of the
+ankle has scarcely any flesh covering. The most fleshy portions of the
+foot are its outer side, the base of the heel and the ball of the big
+toe.
+
+The reason for this disposition of flesh is to protect or cover those
+parts of the foot that support the body by coming in contact with the
+ground. They act as pads and lessen the concussion. The abundance of
+flesh on the outer side of the foot is to protect or act as a shield
+against danger. The inside of the foot is not exposed as much as the
+outside.
+
+The foot is divided into three parts, the toes, the waist and instep,
+and the heel and ankle. The largest bone of the foot is the heel bone
+(called calcaneum). It is the bone that projects backward from the
+principal joint and forms the main portion of the heel. When a person is
+flat-footed, this bone is thrust farther backward than nature intended to
+have it. The connection between it and the tarsal bones is lost.
+
+[Illustration: The Bones and Joints of the Human Foot.]
+
+[Illustration: The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle. _See page 86._]
+
+The top bone of the foot is the astragalus, and it forms the main joint
+upon which the process of walking depends. This bone has a smooth,
+circular, upper surface that connects it with the main bone of the lower
+leg. It is absolutely necessary that this bone should be in perfect
+harmony (relation) with the others in order to insure comfort and health.
+If the arches of the foot are forced out of position, up or down or
+sidewise, this joint is not permitted to do its work normally.
+
+Rheumatism is a frequent evil of an injured joint. Hence the necessity of
+absolutely normal action, unhampered by ill-fitting shoes.
+
+The principal arch of the instep is called the cuneiform or tarsal bone.
+Persons are troubled with defective insteps to quite an extent. Misshapen
+joints at this point due to shoes that do not fit and consequently
+disarrange and throw out of position the delicate, natural structure,
+work great havoc with the comfort of the foot. Nine joints cluster at
+this point.
+
+The bones of the toes are called the metatarsal bones and phalanges.
+There can be no doubt that nature intended mankind to walk in his
+bare feet, and in that event the phalanges of the foot would occupy a
+much more important part than is now the case as a result of modern
+civilization. There are nineteen bones in the foot, and the disturbance
+of one or more of these will serve to upset the entire foot by throwing
+out of relationship the general unit of work devolving upon the whole
+number of joints and bones. Each joint has its accompaniment of muscles,
+and each lack of alignment of bones and joints provokes discord and lack
+of harmony in the muscular action.
+
+Muscles are attached to bones, and by their contraction or extension the
+bones are moved. Very few movements are effected by means of a single
+muscle. The muscles of the foot in nearly all cases are in combination,
+and are so complex in their action that the best surgeons find it
+difficult to describe them satisfactorily.
+
+The chief characteristics of the foot are its spring and elasticity.
+While the foot has wonderful powers of resistance and adaptability, it
+is the shoemaker’s duty not to strain the same, but to provide for each
+action.
+
+The most sensitive part or the one part that is most susceptible of
+injury is the big toe. This is due to the fact that the tendency of
+the foot in walking is to travel toward the toe of the boot, and in a
+word to press into rather than shun danger. The shoemaker provides for
+this, first, by allowing sufficient length of sole to extend beyond the
+termination of the toe, and second, by the fit of the upper and the
+preparation of the sole. In this way, if the toe of the shoe strikes
+against a hard substance, the big toe of the foot will remain untouched.
+
+Seventy-five per cent of the people have more or less trouble with their
+feet. Some of these troubles are caused by the manufacturer putting on
+the market shoes whose lines look handsome and attractive to the eye,
+but are lacking in any other good features. Shoes that fit properly
+should have plenty of room from the large toe joint to the end of the
+toes, and also should have plenty of tread, especially at this point.
+
+A mere glance at our bare foot will show conclusively that pointed-toe
+boots are false in the theory of design. The toes of a foot when off
+duty touch each other gently. When they are called on to assist us in
+walking or in supporting our body, they spread out--although not to any
+great extent. This, then, being the action, no sensible maker of boots
+and shoes would attempt to restrain them. Box or puff-toe shoes allow the
+greatest freedom.
+
+The pointed-toe shoes, which join the vamp to the upper immediately over
+the big toe joint, exceedingly high heels, and thick waist shoes are not
+for the best interests of the foot.
+
+The evils of ill-fitting shoes are corns, bunions, and calluses.
+
+Corns are mainly due to pressure and friction. When the layers of skin
+become hardened, they form a corn, which is merely a growth of dead
+skin that has become hard in the center. This hardened spot acts like a
+foreign body to the inflamed parts.
+
+A hard corn is formed more by friction than pressure. It is produced by
+the constant rubbing of a tight or small shoe against the projecting
+parts of some prominent bony part, as the last joints on the third,
+fourth, and little toe. When this action continues, it produces
+inflammation. Rest--as relieving the feet of the friction--decreases
+this inflammation, leaving a layer of hardened flesh. Renewed action
+reproduces the same effects, leaving behind a second layer of hardened
+flesh. This continued action and reaction brings on a callus, rising
+above the surface of the skin. This increases from its base. An ordinary
+hard corn may be removed by scraping up the callous skin around its
+border, and prying out carefully with a knife. Soft corns are chiefly
+the result of pressure or friction. These corns are soft and spongy
+elevations on the parts of the skin subjected to pressure. Soft corns are
+mostly found on the inner side of the smaller toes. Those on the surface
+of joints by mechanical action will become hard.
+
+The blood corn is excessively painful. It is the result of an ordinary
+corn forcibly displacing the blood vessels surrounding it, and causing
+them to rest upon its surface.
+
+The bunion is an inflammatory swelling generally to be found on the big
+toe joint. The chief cause of bunions is known to be the wearing of boots
+or shoes of insufficient length. The foot, meeting with resistance in
+front and behind, is robbed of its natural actions, the result being
+that the big toe is forced upward, and subjected to continuous friction
+and pressure. The wearing of narrow-toe boots that prevent the outward
+expansion of the toe is another cause.
+
+The comparisons of quantities are often called ratios. The ratios of the
+different parts of the foot to the height are different in the infant
+from that of the adult period. Between these two periods the ratios are
+constantly changing.
+
+There are two series of shoe sizes on the market; the smallest size of
+shoe for infants (size No. 1) is, or was originally, four inches long;
+each added full size indicates an increase in length of one third of an
+inch (sizes 1 to 5). Children’s sizes run in two series, 5 to 8, and 8
+to 11; then they branch out into youths’ and misses’; both running 11½,
+12, 12½, 13, 13½ and back again to 1, 1½, 2, etc., in a series of sizes
+that run up into men’s and women’s. Boys’ shoes run from 2½ to 5½; men’s
+from 6 to 11 in regular runs. Larger sizes usually are made upon special
+orders. Some few manufacturers go to 12. Women’s sizes run from 2½ to 9.
+Some manufacturers do not go above size 8. The rate of sizes is sometimes
+varied from by manufacturers of special lines of shoes. A man’s No. 8
+shoe would be nearly eleven inches long. These measurements originated in
+England and are not now absolute.
+
+A system of French sizes is used which consists of a cipher system of
+markings to indicate the sizes as well as widths so that the real size
+may not be known to the customer.
+
+All feet are not alike in structure and shape. In infancy the foot is
+broad at the toes, which press forward in the direction of their length.
+The heel is small in comparison to the width of the toes, and also short
+in length, due to the undeveloped bones. But during growth, the thickness
+above the heel bones disappears, and the heel itself becomes thicker and
+assumes the beauty of perfection at maturity. This development is due
+to the growth of bones which must be well exercised and properly cared
+for during this period. The various parts of the feet and legs do not
+mature at the same rate--those at the upper part of the body increase at
+a greater rate than the lower parts. Thighs develop first, next the upper
+part of the legs, and lastly the feet.
+
+The adult foot, when properly formed, is straight from heel to toe on the
+inner side, and is wider across the joints than one inch or so farther
+back. The manner of walking has a considerable bearing on the character
+and development of the foot.
+
+There are many sorts of feet, which are due to a number of causes, such
+as habits, climate, occupation, locality, etc. As a general rule we may
+divide the feet into four classes: Bony feet--those with very little
+flesh upon them; hard feet--those that have plenty of flesh, but which
+are almost as hard as a stone; fat feet--plump, with plenty of flesh, but
+having little shape; spongy feet--those that seem to have no bones in
+them, usually found in the female sex.
+
+The characteristics of a foot are common with the body to which it is
+connected. Some people have a strong, bony frame, with strong, firm
+muscles, prominent bones and muscles, and a flesh that is hard. The
+feet of this type of person are usually long, bony, and arched, with
+a well-developed big toe joint. The heel measurements are large in
+proportion. A soft foot is prevalent among the Scotch. The feet of a
+person who is delicately shaped, with a small frame and thin, small,
+tapering muscles, are usually thin and finely formed, giving evidence of
+quickness. This kind of a foot in a man has a tendency to develop a flat
+foot.
+
+A person with a form inclined to plumpness, full of exercise and
+activity, and a good circulation, has a well-developed foot. The heel
+is round and fairly prominent, although there are no special bony
+prominences. On the other hand a person with a body of general roundness,
+but with tissues and muscles flabby, and a languid blood circulation, has
+feet that are short, soft, and flabby.
+
+We will allow that these four different kinds of feet all measure a 4
+size and D in width. One would naturally think that the same size shoe
+would fit them all, but this is not so. This size shoe will only fit one
+and that is the bony foot. The hard feet require a C½ width; the fat feet
+require a C width, and the sponge feet require a B width.
+
+The same last may, and often will possess a slight variation in some
+manner or other. The fitter of feet must know the stock, each pair, and
+be on intimate terms with the peculiarities of each last and the inside
+lines of each pair of shoes before attempting to try them upon the feet
+of the customer.
+
+Different makes of footwear are apt to be manufactured over a slightly
+varying system of measurements. One line of shoes made over a small
+measure may be longer or shorter or narrower or wider than some other
+line. The heel measurements require careful study for each line
+introduced. The peculiarities of each line must be tested by tape and
+measure, and the foot fitter must have a strong knowledge along these
+lines.
+
+We should measure the foot by the stick if necessary, and make a note
+of the size and width that will be likely to prove a fit. The height of
+the arch must be considered, and the shape of arch curve, the shape of
+the instep, and the general contour of the foot. A normal foot will show
+about a half-inch arch. The average foot will carry from an inch to an
+inch and a quarter heel, without putting a strain on any of the joints of
+the foot. Some feet vary from this by a wide margin. A foot is a trifle
+longer in walking than in repose. Allowance should be made, in using the
+measuring stick, over what the foot actually draws on the stick. In men’s
+shoes the allowance, should be from two to two and one half sizes.
+
+When a one-legged man buys a shoe, the dealer sends to the factory a shoe
+to match the one left remaining. In these days of the use of machinery
+in every process of their manufacture, shoes are made with the utmost
+exactness and precision, and it is easily possible to mate that remaining
+shoe with the greatest nicety in size, style, material, and finish.
+
+Few people have feet exactly alike; commonly the left foot is larger than
+the right, so that one shoe may fit a little more snugly than the other.
+Commonly, however, people buy shoes in regularly matched pairs, the
+difference in their feet, if it is noticeable to them at all, not being
+enough to make any other course desirable.
+
+But there are people who buy shoes of different sizes or widths, in
+which case the dealer breaks two pairs for them, giving them, to fit
+their feet, one shoe from each. In such cases the dealer matches up the
+two remaining shoes, one from each of two pairs just as he would where he
+had broken one pair to sell one shoe to a one-legged man.
+
+But a man does not have to be one-legged nor to have feet of uneven
+sizes or shapes to make him ask the dealer to break a pair of shoes for
+him. A man with two perfectly good feet came into the store where he was
+accustomed to buy and wanted one shoe. While traveling in a sleeping car,
+his shoes had been mixed up with others and he had received back one of
+his own and one of some other man’s; a fact which he had not discovered
+until he was too far away from train and station to set things right. So
+he came in to buy one shoe to match his own.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER FIVE
+
+HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE
+
+
+If you examine the shoes worn by people in a large city, you will notice
+different styles. Shoe styles that were called grotesque a few seasons
+ago are comparatively usual to-day, for the new designs in women’s
+footwear, which manufacturers are now making, are the most varied that
+ever have been put on the market. Pink and green and blue are among the
+new colors in materials for footwear.
+
+Some of the styles for the coming seasons are more lavish than have
+hitherto been seen in the women’s shoe trade of America. Coronation
+purple velvet boots look like an extravagant color for footwear, but they
+are now selling. Samples of pink, green, and blue shoes, both boots and
+pumps, are being made up, and they will soon be offered to buyers.
+
+The style of the shoe is dominated by fashion. All styles are related,
+that is, every part of our dress is influenced by the prevailing fashion,
+ideas of color, fabric, or garment outline. To illustrate: when short
+skirts are stylish, women wear mannish shoes to harmonize with them; on
+the other hand, with long skirts they must have a shoe that is neat and
+small, hence, the short vamp. When women wear white in the summer, cool
+canvas shoes spring into favor; when gray and blue dress materials are to
+be used, a variety of tan shoes are worn to harmonize, etc.
+
+After the style has been decided upon, it is necessary to work out an
+exact reproduction. An expert model maker, called a last maker, produces
+a last, a wooden model of the shoe. In order to do this, it is necessary
+to lay out certain plans or specifications for the details of the
+manufacturer of the shoe.
+
+There are certain parts of all feet that have fixed measurements. To
+illustrate: the length of the shank, that part of the sole of the foot
+between the heel and ball, in every person’s foot is always the same. The
+part of the foot back of the ball or large toe joint conforms to certain
+fixed measurements. These definite measurements form a basis by which the
+last maker originates new styles by shortening, lengthening, widening, or
+narrowing the space in front of the toes, but always retaining the true
+and fixed measurements of the back part of the last.
+
+When the last maker desires to produce a new style, he takes an old last
+and tacking pieces of leather on some parts of it (front of the toes), he
+builds it up and cuts off other parts. This patched-up last is taken to a
+special machine (lathe), where a number of duplicates are turned from a
+block of wood.
+
+The “pattern maker” is the man in the factory who makes patterns,
+consisting of heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass, in the shapes
+of the various pieces of leather required to make up the upper part of
+the shoe.
+
+The pattern maker has found by experience that the top part of the shoe
+also conforms to certain fixed measurements, and by working in sympathy
+with the last maker he need only to change the front part of the vamp to
+bring out the latter’s ideas. With these measurements as a foundation, he
+puts forth from time to time different style uppers, as buttons, lace,
+blucher, fixings, scrolls, straps, ties, pumps, etc. This is the way new
+style tops originate.
+
+After the manufacturer has approved of sample patterns, the pattern
+maker receives an order for a certain quantity of patterns to be made
+over a certain last which is submitted to him. Working on the fixed top
+measurements and the last submitted as a basis, the pattern maker draws
+plans for a model pattern. The standard size of a model pattern is size
+7 in men’s shoes and size 4 in women’s. He is also given an order for a
+certain number of widths; for instance, B, C, D, and E, and he draws out
+on paper a complete set for each width in the size 7. These four sets of
+model patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet iron by hand. But from
+these sheets any number of iron models, and any size regular cardboard
+pattern can be reproduced by a machine.
+
+Wood to be made into lasts comes to the shoe manufacturers in a rough,
+unchiseled form. The lasts are made of maple wood; hollow forms used by
+traveling salesmen and window trimmers are made of bass wood.
+
+The making of the model of the last is the most exacting operation in the
+factory. It is produced by a machine most important. The principle of
+this machine has been brought about by the pantograph; that is, it will
+turn from a rough block of wood an exact copy of the model last; or it
+will enlarge or reduce a duplicate of any other size or width, so, from a
+single model last, such as the manufacturer has decided on, any number of
+lasts can be made, and of any size or width. The machine itself consists
+of two lathes. On one is placed the model and on the other the block of
+wood. The model is held against a wheel by a spring. By adjusting this
+wheel, any desired width last can be obtained, and by adjusting a bar in
+front of the machine any length last can be produced from the block of
+wood.
+
+[Illustration: Rough Unchiseled Block of Maple.
+
+A Last after leaving Turning Lathe.
+
+A Finished Last.]
+
+The lathe, when in motion, revolves both the last and the model, the
+model being pressed against the wheel, which is really a guide for the
+revolving knife that digs into the block of wood, and regulates the depth
+that the knife is allowed to cut. In this manner the model is reproduced
+from the block which is also regulated as to size and width by the wheel
+and by the bar. This machine is so accurate that a tack driven into the
+model to locate the center of the last is reproduced by a sort of a
+wooden pimple in the block of wood when finished. The model sole pattern
+is now tried on the half-finished last to insure accuracy.
+
+Notice in the figures of lasts that the turning lathe has left stubs of
+wood on the toes and heels. These must be finished to a “templet.” The
+templet is a measure or guide used to indicate the shape any piece of
+work is to assume when finished. From the heel and toe of the model, a
+piece of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that model, and is used on
+the heeler machine as a guide to form an exact copy of the heels and
+toes of the model. This machine works very rapidly, and by the aid of
+an irregular shaped, revolving knife it quickly transforms the toes and
+heels to the desired shape. The bottoms are again tried out on a sole
+pattern and the last number, the size and the width are stamped on.
+
+We now have the last as a solid piece of maple wood and turned to the
+desired shape, size and width. Were it possible to insert and extract
+the last in this form from the half-finished shoe, no other steps
+would be necessary in last manufacture, but inasmuch as the leather is
+stretched very tightly over this last a little later, it necessitates the
+introduction of some method that will facilitate a quick removal of the
+last from the shoe. This is accomplished by cutting it in two parts and
+making a hinged heel. The fact that the slightest measurement changes
+the size of the shoe, necessitates great care in the introduction of
+the hinge as a part of the last, and in order to insure accuracy and
+uniformity in all the lasts, they are marked with templets and gigs. The
+hinge must be placed inside of the last.
+
+The finished last is so constructed that it can be readily inserted or
+withdrawn from the shoe, and the strong hinge provides the last, when
+inserted, with the same rigid qualities as though it were one piece. The
+center of the last is indicated, as before stated, by a reproduction in
+the side of the last of the tack that was placed in the model. This is
+the mark that locates the position of all the holes, and it is done by a
+“gig” in the following manner:--
+
+A gig is a piece of steel having cylinders that guide the bit of the
+boring machine in an exact perpendicular line. This gig, being placed
+on the last in the position marked by the turning machine, forms the
+accurate location of the bolt holes that hold the hinge.
+
+After the hinge is placed in the last, it goes to the ironers to have
+the bottom put on it, if it is a McKay last, and a heel plate if it is a
+welt. The bottom is again tried and the plate filled up to the same. The
+last is then ready to go to the scouring room. In this room the last goes
+through three operations, first of which is ruffing. This consists of
+scouring with a coarse grade of quartz. This operation must be carried on
+so that the sole lines and insteps are not brought into contact with the
+quartz.
+
+The second operation, medium grinding, is done with a fine grade of
+quartz, and in this operation, also, the worker keeps away from the toe.
+The third operation is done with a much finer-grade quartz, the operator
+going over the entire last. The last is now ready for polishing, and
+after that, for a heavy coat of shellac. It is polished and waxed on a
+leather wheel. Then it goes into the shipping room ready for shipment to
+the manufacturer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER SIX
+
+DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY--GOODYEAR WELT SHOES
+
+
+The principal methods of manufacturing shoes are the following:--
+
+Goodyear welt; McKay; turned; standard screw; pegged; nailed.
+
+The simplest and the clearest way of showing how the various kinds of
+shoes are made is to explain the manufacture of a Goodyear welt and
+afterwards bring out the points in which this method of shoemaking
+differs from the others.
+
+Shoes are manufactured in up-to-date factories, employing hundreds of
+operatives. The modern shoe factory of to-day is divided into six general
+departments: the sole leather department, upper leather department,
+stitching department, making department, finishing department, and the
+treeing, packing, and shipping departments.
+
+In some sections of the country, several of these departments are often
+designated by other names. The stitching department is often called the
+fitting department; the making department, the bottoming department;
+and the sole leather department, the stock-fitting department. The
+departments are popularly termed rooms for brevity.
+
+A shoe factory is designed so as to have a width of about fifty feet
+for each room, while the length is according to the number of shoes to
+be produced. A width of about fifty feet gives plenty of daylight and
+ample room in the center of each department, which is very essential in
+shoemaking.
+
+[Illustration: A Modern Shoe Factory.]
+
+Shoe factories are usually about two hundred feet long, while many are
+nearly four hundred feet. A few exceed four hundred feet, running as long
+as eight hundred feet. Some are built in the shape of hollow squares,
+while others have wings added, which give almost as much floor space as
+the original building.
+
+The average factory has usually four floors. The first floor, or
+basement, is occupied by the sole leather department. The next floor
+above includes the treeing, finishing, packing, and shipping departments,
+and also the office. The third floor is devoted entirely to the making or
+bottoming department. The top floor is divided so that the cutting and
+stitching departments have each half a floor.
+
+There are several exceedingly large factories in this country that find
+it advantageous to divide the factory into more departments, as, for
+example, the cutting room is divided so that the linings and trimmings
+are cut in a separate department. The skiving may also be done in a
+separate room. The making room will be divided so that the lasting is set
+off as a separate department on account of the many workmen and machines
+employed. In the same way there will be a division of work so that the
+packing and shipping will be set apart from the treeing. Then, again, in
+the sole leather room, the making of heels as well as the fitting of the
+bottom stock may become independent departments.
+
+The system of making women’s shoes is practically the same as that of
+men’s except that in a great many factories the method of preparing the
+bottom stock is somewhat different. Most manufacturers of women’s shoes
+do not cut sole leather, but buy outsoles, insoles, counters, and heels,
+all cut or prepared. These soles are in blocked form and large enough so
+that they can be cut or rounded by the manufacturers to fit their lasts.
+The counters, when bought, are all ready to put in the uppers, while the
+heels are ready to put on the shoes. Whenever a manufacturer of women’s
+shoes cuts his sole leather, he has the same system as that in the men’s
+factories.
+
+In women’s factories where sole leather is not cut, they do not have a
+complete sole leather department. Instead, they have what is called a
+stock-fitting department. There are independent cut sole houses, etc., in
+the trade, which supply the soles to manufacturers. The same system of
+buying supplies also applies to many other parts of the shoe, as in the
+top lift, half sole, welt, rand, etc. In the upper leather department,
+manufacturers of both men’s and women’s shoes often buy trimmings and
+other parts of the upper all prepared.
+
+A large proportion of the men’s shoe manufacturers are now buying heels
+all built, while fully nine tenths buy counters all molded. The soles and
+other parts that are needed for a shoe are put up in different qualities
+and grades, and a manufacturer can buy any grade of sole he wants, so
+that it is considered an advantage to buy some parts, instead of cutting
+them. In a side of sole leather there are twenty-five or more different
+qualities and grades of soles, and very few manufacturers, especially in
+the women’s trade, can use all of these. The greater variety of shoes a
+manufacturer turns out, the more advantageous it is for him to cut his
+own sole leather, and prepare all parts in his own factory.
+
+In this country the number of factories in the shoe trade appears to be
+growing less and the average factory larger each year. It is estimated
+that there are at present something like fifteen hundred factories in
+all. These range from the smallest product up to the largest. The average
+factory may be said to produce about twelve hundred pairs of shoes per
+day. Many turn out five thousand pairs daily, while a few manufacturers
+turn out ten thousand or more pairs. Several manufacturers and firms have
+half a dozen or more factories and have a total output of between twenty
+thousand and thirty thousand pairs of shoes a day. There is no such
+thing as a trust or monopoly of any kind in this trade, and there never
+has been up to the present time.
+
+In all factories and all classes of work, the “case” has always been
+of such a number of pairs that it can be divided by twelve in every
+instance. A case can be twelve, twenty-four, thirty-six, forty-eight,
+sixty, or seventy-two pairs, and in children’s work it is often sixty and
+seventy-two pairs. All cases of these numbers are regular cases, whereas
+any other number would be out of the ordinary. Of course, a case of shoes
+may contain any number of pairs, but the numbers given above have always
+been used in regular work.
+
+Cases of shoes may differ, but every pair of shoes in any one case must
+be made exactly alike. All shoes are made in cases, except in the matter
+of custom work or single-pair orders or samples. In making men’s heavy
+shoes, or working shoes, the regular case was formerly sixty pairs or
+thirty-six pairs, but the tendency has been of late to have a standard
+case of twenty-four pairs. In the men’s fine trade the regular case is
+twenty-four pairs, while in the women’s it is thirty-six pairs. Long
+boots for men have always been made in twelve-pair cases.
+
+Goods are sold by the samples, sent out with the traveling salesman. As
+fast as he receives an order, he sends it to the main office. Here the
+orders are subdivided and sent to the factories making the goods. For
+example, an order for seventy-five dozen men’s shoes of a certain style
+received by the main office from the traveling salesman would be sent
+to the factory in the form of a typewritten order, covering the general
+description and sizes written out in the proper form, for each case is
+made according to the specifications on the tags that are made out in the
+office. These tags specify the sole, heel, upper, kind and quality, how
+stitched, the last to be used, how bottomed finished, treed, and packed.
+Everything is marked plainly on the tags so that a buyer can have any
+shoe made just as he wants it.
+
+This order would be sent from the factory office to the cutting room,
+where a clerk would make out twenty-five long tickets.
+
+Twenty-five are made because the shoes go through the factory in lots
+of twenty-four pairs, each lot being called a job and when finished
+making a case of shoes. The long ticket is made in duplicate form, and is
+perforated so it may be tied to a lot of shoes. Both parts of the tickets
+are made out to contain the various operations with the specifications
+as to detail. The lower part is sent to the stock or sole leather room,
+while the top part remains with the uppers which are cut in the cutting
+room. While each part of the ticket is sent by a different route through
+the factory, they finally meet in the form of finished shoes.
+
+In addition to the long ticket already described, two other tickets are
+made out, the top ticket and the trimming ticket. The top ticket is sent
+to the leather bins of the factory, where the sorter knows by experience
+exactly the amount of leather required to cut the order, being careful to
+see that it is all of uniform quality and free from blemishes. He rolls
+the leather in a bundle, attaches the ticket and sends it to the cutter.
+
+In the cutting room there are three classes of cutters; cutter of
+trimmings, who cuts lace stays, top facings, back stays, tongues, etc.;
+outside cutter, who cuts quarters, vamps, tops, tips, etc.; and the
+lining cutter, who cuts cloth linings.
+
+[Illustration: A Nine and One-Half Foot Skin divided to best advantage
+before Cutting.]
+
+Skins of leather are received in the shoe factory in different shapes.
+Some are perfect, others have blemishes or imperfect spots. The skins
+that are to be used for upper stock are carefully graded by two or three
+men, as to quality of leather and weight. This is necessary in order to
+be sure that a lot of shoes made for a certain dealer will be uniform. On
+account of the leather coming in different shapes, some skins perfect,
+others having imperfect spots, the cutter must place his patterns in such
+a way that certain parts of the shoe will use up all the perfect parts,
+and others, less important, will be composed of the weaker parts of the
+skin. This explains why you sometimes find the inside top part of a shoe
+made of flanky leather, while the vamp is made of a better grade.
+
+There is a pattern for each and every size shoe, and each piece of
+leather is cut out separately on a block of wood. Nothing is wasted.
+In order to make each cutter as efficient as possible, the cutters are
+divided, so as to have a different cutter for each grade of leather. In
+this way they become better judges of leather.
+
+The lining cutters use patterns and knives on drilling. The facing is cut
+out with a knife and pattern. The side stays and the tongue are cut out
+by dies.
+
+After the leather has been cut into the desired shape, uppers, vamps, toe
+pieces, back stays, lace stays, etc., cutting at times ten pieces, and
+for some styles of shoes as many as fourteen pieces, the cutters take
+care to keep the parts for the same shoe together, matching and marking
+them so that eventually all will meet again in the shoe.
+
+Machines are used now on almost every operation, and annually several new
+machines make their appearance. The cutting of uppers up to four or five
+years ago was performed by an operator cutting the leather by running the
+knife along the side of the pattern. Now they are using a cutting machine
+and dies to cut uppers in nearly all factories. This cutting machine is
+called the “clicking machine,” and it is considered quite a labor saver
+in a department where it was the universal opinion that machines never
+could be used.
+
+It is impossible to give a list of all the operations performed and have
+it complete. But a good general idea of the system can be given and the
+name and meaning of the main operations in the several departments.
+It should be kept in mind that the methods in rooms differ, and that
+hardly any two factories put a shoe through in exactly the same manner.
+The general system and plan is the same everywhere and the machines are
+the same in all factories, but the details and minor operations are so
+numerous that there is plenty of scope for them to vary.
+
+The function of the clicking machine is to cut the upper leather into the
+desired shapes required. It consists of an iron frame, with a cutting
+board on the top of it. Above this is a large beam which can be swung to
+the right or left of any portion of the board. The skin to be cut, which
+may be of any kind, is placed on the board and a die of the design or
+shape of the leather desired is placed on it. The handle of the swinging
+beam is taken by the operator and moved over the die; then by pressure
+of the handle the beam is brought downward, pressing the die through the
+leather. As soon as this is done, the beam automatically returns to its
+full height.
+
+These dies are made in different designs and sizes to meet the different
+sizes and designs in the upper of the shoe. One die for each design and
+size. They mark the vamps for the location of the toe cap and blucher
+foxings as well as the size by means of nicks in the edge of the piece
+cut. The dies are about three-quarters of an inch in height and so light
+that they do not mar the most delicate leather.
+
+[Illustration: Cutting the Leather by Means of Pattern and Knife. _Page
+118._]
+
+[Illustration: Goodyear Stitching.
+
+A machine that sews around the edge of the welt and joins it to the sole
+exactly at the heel. _Page 119._]
+
+After the outside cutter has cut the skin into pieces to make up the
+shoe, these are tied up in separate bundles, that is, the twenty-four
+of tips in one bundle, twenty-four pairs of vamps in another. These are
+turned over to girls who stencil the sizes on the edge and match them,
+that is, see that each upper is exactly like the mate.
+
+After the different parts have been cut by the operator of the clicking
+machine or by hand, the edges of the upper leather, which shows in the
+finished shoe, must be thinned down (skived) by a “skiving machine” to a
+beveled edge. This is done in order that the edges of the leather that
+are to show in the completed shoe may be folded to give a more finished
+appearance. The machines are operated by girls; each one an expert on one
+particular piece.
+
+The order number and size of shoe are stamped on the top lining of each
+shoe. After all linings have been prepared, according to the data given
+on the instruction card attached to parts of the shoe, the parts are
+sent to the stitching department, where the stitchers on a multitude
+of machines stitch all the different parts together very rapidly and
+accurately.
+
+The toe caps are then given a series of ornamental perforations along
+the edge. This is done by either “power tip press,” or a “perforating
+machine.” The first consists of a series of dies placed in a machine by
+which the leather is perforated according to the designs desired. Each
+series of dies represents a different design.
+
+The perforating machine resembles a sewing machine, but instead of a
+series of dies, the one in this machine is made of single or combination
+dies which make one or more holes on each downward movement. The machine
+feeds automatically and does the work very accurately. The cutting
+tool is kept from becoming dull by pressing against a band of paper.
+Ornamentation on other parts of the shoes, such as the edges of vamps,
+etc., is made by this machine.
+
+Before going to the stitching room, every bundle is examined by sorters.
+The sorters are divided and subdivided; that is, one man always sorts
+tips, another vamps, etc. They examine each piece for imperfection, and
+if any is found, the piece is thrown out and a new one put in. The last
+operation is the assembling of pieces. Here each job of twenty-four pairs
+is brought together and securely tied and numbered.
+
+This stitching department is one in which female labor is generally
+employed, although in late years more men are being used to operate
+machines, especially on vamping or other heavy parts. In some parts of
+the country it is called the fitting room. The work of the department
+consists of stitching the different parts of the upper together, so
+that it is ready to put on the last. The terms used mean in most cases
+stitching the part named to the rest of the upper. There are very many
+operations in the department, several of which are named below, together
+with their meaning.
+
+The bundles of pieces which have come from the cutting room are placed
+on the table, where they are subdivided into three parts, the linings,
+the tops, the vamps and the tips.
+
+The linings for the tops of the shoes are pasted together (with the back
+strap and top bands), care being taken to join them at the marks made for
+that purpose. After being dried, they go into the hands of the machine
+operators, where they are joined together by a stitching machine, and
+the edges, etc., trimmed. The sewing machines used are very similar to
+an ordinary home sewing machine, with the exception that they are much
+larger and stronger.
+
+[Illustration: Stock Fitting Room.
+
+Where all bottom stock is prepared after being cut. _See page 120._]
+
+The lining is finished. The next step is to join the lining to the piece
+of leather making up the outside of the same shape, called the top. The
+top receives the eyelets by a machine placed in proper position. The top
+and lining can be put together by sewing them face to face. The top is
+inspected and all threads clipped off.
+
+After the shoe uppers have been properly stitched together, the eyelets
+are placed on by a “duplex eyeletting machine,” which eyelets both sides
+of the shoe at one time. The top of the eyelets are solid black knobs, so
+as not to wear brassy, while the bottom (which clinches inside the shoe)
+called the barrel, is of nickel. This finishes the shoe upper.
+
+The vamp, tongues, and tip are then put together. The edges of the
+vamps, quarters, tips, etc., are covered with a cement made of rubber
+and naphtha, which is kept in small bowls on the benches in front of
+employees. Several grades of cements are used. The cemented parts
+are allowed to dry, and the edges are then turned over by “pressing
+machines,” which gives a finished appearance. The shoe is put together
+by stitching the vamp to the quarters. This work is done by both men and
+women, and is work which demands much care.
+
+In stitching men’s uppers, the system varies in various factories as much
+as it does on women’s. Here are some of the operations, which will give
+an idea how men’s uppers go through.
+
+Extension or toe piece sewed to vamp.
+
+Leather box stitched on.
+
+Tip stitched to vamp.
+
+Vamp seamed up back.
+
+Top folded around edge.
+
+Top seamed up.
+
+Eyelet row stitched up and down.
+
+Lining seamed up.
+
+Side facing put on lining.
+
+Top facing put on lining.
+
+Lining and outside pasted together.
+
+Under trimming.
+
+Eyeletting.
+
+Hooking.
+
+Vamping.
+
+The upper is complete when it leaves the stitching room and is all ready
+to be put on the last. While the upper is being prepared, the soles,
+insoles, counters, and heels are made in other departments.
+
+When the foreman of this department has received the tags with the data
+necessary for the preparation of outsoles, insoles, counters, toe boxes,
+and heels, they are sent to the stock room, where these parts are kept.
+
+The soles are roughly cut out by means of dies, pressing down through the
+leather, in “dieing out machines.” Before the soles are cut, the leather
+is dipped in water and sufficiently dampened. After they are cut out,
+they are made to conform to the exact shape by rounding them in a machine
+called the “rounding machine.” The roughly died out piece of leather is
+held between clamps, one of which is the exact pattern of the sole. The
+machine works a little knife that darts around this pattern, cutting the
+sole exactly to conform. The outsole is now passed to a heavy rolling
+machine, where it is pressed by tons of pressure between heavy rolls.
+This takes the place of the hammering which the old-time shoemaker gave
+his leather to bring the fibers very closely together, so as to increase
+its wear.
+
+Counters and toe boxes (stiffening which is placed between the heel and
+toe cap and the vamp of shoe) are prepared in the same room with the
+heels. After they are made, they are sent to the making or bottoming
+room, where the shoe upper is awaiting them. As the counter is an
+important feature in the life of a shoe, much depends upon the quality of
+leather that goes into it.
+
+The sole is next fed to a “splitting machine,” which reduces it to an
+absolutely even thickness. The insole is made of lighter leather than the
+outsole, but has the same thickness and is cut out in the same way one at
+a time. The sizes are stamped on them and they are sorted.
+
+[Illustration: Lasting. _Page 127._]
+
+[Illustration: Welting.]
+
+If you examine a Goodyear welt shoe, you will notice no stitches in
+sight, the seam being fastened to an under portion of the insole. The
+durability of the shoe relies, to a great extent, on the quality and
+strength of the insole.
+
+The smooth-appearing insole of a welt shoe must be either pasted in
+or fastened underneath in some manner. This fastening is accomplished
+by passing the insole through a very small machine called a Goodyear
+channeler, which makes two incisions at one operation. It cuts a little
+slit along the edge of the insole, extending about one-half inch toward
+its center.
+
+The upper part of insole made by the slit on the edge is turned up on
+a lip turning machine so that it extends out at right angles from the
+insole. In other words, the channel is opened up and laid back, forming
+a ridge around the outer edge of the sole. This forms a lip or shoulder,
+against which the welt is sewed. In this way the thread used in sewing
+cannot be seen in the finished shoe. The cut made on the surface serves
+as guide for the operator of the welt sewing machine when the shoe
+reaches him.
+
+The inner and outer soles as well as the uppers are now brought into the
+lasting or gang room. The first part of lasting is called “assembling,”
+which means that many parts are brought together, such as upper, counter,
+insole, box toe, and last. The counter is placed in the upper, between
+lining and vamp, while the box toe is shellacked and put in the toe of
+the upper (provided it has not been stitched in the stitching room). The
+operator first tacks the inner sole on to a wooden last.
+
+There are very many different styles of lasts, and in cutting uppers a
+different pattern must be used for each style. Then the upper is placed
+in position on the last, and it is ready to be pulled and stretched to
+the wood and take its required shape. This is accomplished by placing the
+shoes on the “pulling over machine,” where the shoe uppers are correctly
+placed on the last by the pincers of a machine holding the leather at
+different points securely against the wood of the last. By the movements
+of levers the shoe uppers are adjusted correctly. Then the pincers draw
+the leather securely around the last and at the same time two tacks on
+each side and at the toe are driven in part way, to hold the uppers
+securely.
+
+It is now placed on the “hand method lasting machine,” where the leather
+is drawn tightly around the last. Before this operation, it is dipped in
+water to preserve its shape when formed and that it may be more easily
+formed by the machine. At each pull of the pincers a small tack, driven
+automatically part way in, holds the edge of the upper exactly in place,
+so that every part of the upper has been stretched in all directions
+equally. A special machine by means of a series of “wipers” is used to
+last the toe and heel. After the leather has been brought smoothly
+around the toe, it is held there by a little tape fastened on each side
+of the toe, which is held securely in place by the surplus leather,
+crimpled in at this point. The surplus leather crimpled in at the heel is
+forced smoothly down against the insole and held there by tacks driven
+by an ingenious hand tool. In all these lasting operations the tacks are
+only driven in part way, so they may afterwards be withdrawn and leave
+the inside perfectly smooth, except at the heel of the shoe, where they
+are driven into the iron heel of the last and clinched.
+
+[Illustration: Rough Rounding. _See page 131._]
+
+[Illustration: Edge Trimming. _See page 130._]
+
+After these operations, the surplus leather at the toe and sides of the
+shoe is removed by the “upper trimming machine,” which cuts it away by
+means of a little knife and leaves it very smooth and even. A small
+hammer operating in connection with the knife pounds the leather on the
+same parts. A pounding machine hammers the leather and counter around
+the heel so that the stiff position conforms exactly to the last.
+
+After the “lasted” shoe has been trimmed and pounded down to the shape
+of the last, it is turned over to the tack setter, who pulls out all the
+tacks except a few, called draft tacks. The insole is then wet to make it
+pliable, and is turned over to a very experienced operator, called the
+“inseamer,” who is to sew the welt on.
+
+The shoe is now ready to receive a narrow strip of prepared leather,
+that is sewed after it is wet to make it pliable, along the edge of the
+shoe, beginning where the heel is placed and ending at the same spot on
+the opposite edge. This is called the welt, and is sewed from the inside
+lip of the insole, so that the curved needle passes through the lip, the
+upper, and the welt, uniting all three securely and allowing the welt to
+protrude beyond the edge of the shoe. The thread is very stout linen, and
+is passed through a pan of hot wax before being looped into chain stitch
+that holds the shoe together.
+
+The nature of the stitch is a chain--two rows of threads on the outside
+that loop with the single thread in the inside lip of the insole. When
+the welt is finally sewed on, and the shoe put down on the bench, it
+looks like an ordinary shoe resting on a wide flange of leather. This
+flange is the welt, and to it the heavy outer sole is to be sewed fast.
+Should a single stitch break in this operation, it is passed to a
+cobbler, who repairs it by hand.
+
+Before the outer sole is put on, the edges of the uppers must be trimmed
+along the seam that holds the welt. A slip of steel called steel shank
+is laid along the insole where the hollow of the foot is, and a piece of
+leather board laid over this to give the necessary stiffness and prevent
+the shoe from doubling up. As the welt has left a hollow space along the
+ball of the foot, it is necessary to fill this up, either with a piece
+of leather, tanned felt, or other filler. Felt is not waterproof, and
+leather squeaks, hence a mixture of ground cork and rubber cement is
+used. This is heated and spread on the sole, and run over a hot roller
+until the bottom of the shoe is perfectly smooth and even. The shoes are
+placed on a rack and are ready for the outsole.
+
+Sole fastening is performed by a number of operations, in which a score
+or more of separate machines are used. The sole layers smear a rubber
+cement over this welt with a “cementing machine,” after the outsole has
+been soaked in water to make it pliable, and then place it on the shoe
+and tack a single nail in the heel. The “sole laying machine,” through
+great pressure, cements the sole on and fits it to every curve of the
+last. Then the sole is trimmed by a “rough rounding machine,” which trims
+the soles to the shape of the last. This machine also channels the outer
+sole at the same time, which is necessary for the next operation. The
+“channel opening machine” now turns up the lips of the channel and the
+sole is ready to be stitched to the welt.
+
+The outsole is now sewed by a waxed thread to the welt, by an “outsole
+lock stitch machine,” which is similar to a welt sewing machine. The
+stitch is finer and extends from the slit (channel) to the upper side of
+the welt, where it shows after the shoe has been finished.
+
+It unites the sole and welt with a tightly drawn lock stitch of
+remarkable strength. It sews through an inch of leather as easily as a
+woman would sew through a piece of cloth. The stitches are made through
+the welt and outer sole, the seam running in the channel of the outsole.
+
+[Illustration: Leveling. _See page 135._]
+
+[Illustration: Heeling. _See page 136._]
+
+The inside of the slit in which this stitch has just been made is now
+coated with cement by means of a brush. The channel lip is forced back to
+its original position after the cement has dried, by a rapidly revolving
+wheel of a “channel laying machine.” In this way the stitches are hidden.
+
+Welt shoes are stitched on in three different ways: “channeled,” which,
+when finished, leaves an invisible stitch on the bottom of the sole;
+“regular stitched aloft,” showing the stitches on both sides; and “fudge
+stitched,” in which the seam is sunk down in a groove, being almost
+invisible from the welt side.
+
+Every stitch must be of such a nature that it is independent of the one
+next to it, so that should one stitch break, the others will not work
+loose. This is accomplished by running the threads through a pan of hot
+wax just before entering the leather, which causes the waxed thread to
+solidify, becoming, as it were, a part of the leather.
+
+Notice should be taken of the difference between the way the outsole
+is stitched and the inner sole is stitched to the upper. In place of
+three threads in the chain stitch “that holds the welt to the upper
+and insole” there are but two here--an upper and a lower one. The upper
+thread extends only part way down, where it loops, twists, and locks into
+the lower thread. This is the reason why you can wear a welt sole clear
+through without its pulling loose.
+
+Shoes that are stitched aloft go through the same operations as the
+channel-stitched shoes, with the exception that the rounding machine
+contrivance of cutting is eliminated.
+
+Shoes that are to be fudge stitched are sent through the same machine
+as the regular stitched aloft, but an additional little knife point on
+the arm of the Goodyear stitcher digs a channel in the welt so that the
+stitches on that side are sunk into the leather.
+
+The outsole is nailed at the heel after the stitching on the “loose
+nailing machine,” which drives the nails through the outsole and insole
+and clinches against the steel plate of the last. The machine drives
+separate nails fed from the hopper of any desired size or length, at the
+rate of three hundred and fifty per minute.
+
+The edge of the outsole around the heel is now trimmed to conform exactly
+to the shape of the heel on the “heel seat pounding machine.”
+
+The stitches of the regular stitched shoes are separated by a series of
+indentations, giving the shoe that corrugated effect which adds so much
+to the appearance of the shoe. In the fudge-stitched work the stitches
+are entirely covered up by the indentations.
+
+Then a leveling machine, called the “automatic sole leveling machine,”
+with a pressure of about two and a half tons to each of the concave
+rollers, comes into play. The rolls move automatically back and forth and
+from side to side, doing the work that the shoemaker used to do on his
+lap with a hammer and stone, but doing it better and more quickly. It
+practically levels off the bottom of the soles.
+
+An automatic guage regulates exactly the distance from the edge of the
+last, and by the use of this machine the operator is enabled to make a
+sole conform to that of all others of a similar design and size.
+
+Heels are formed by cementing different lifts of leather. A machine
+called a “heel cutter” shapes out the lifts. The heel is then placed
+under pressure, giving it exact form and greatly increasing its wear.
+
+[Illustration: Sole Scouring. _See page 138._]
+
+[Illustration: Heel Shaping. _See page 138._]
+
+In speaking of the ends and sides of a heel, the part that rests on the
+ground is spoken of as the top, and the first piece is called the top
+lift. The part that is fastened to the shoe is spoken of as the bottom,
+while the side nearest the toes is called the breast. The wedge is a
+flat, heel-shaped piece or lift of leather that is skived to a thin edge
+at the breast. Being thicker at the back, it tips the heel forward.
+Wedges are made from thin strips of waste leather, or from sheets of
+leather board, and are cut out with a hollow die. The gouges are cut in
+the sole leather room from scraps, and are a regular heel lift, having a
+horseshoe-shaped piece of leather with an opening at the breast.
+
+The sole leather, insoles, counters, and heels, in the stock fitting
+department are “got out” by being cut into shape by a machine die.
+
+The heel is now trimmed of all rough and surplus portions of leathers to
+the exact size of top lift. A blower attached to the machine removes all
+scraps, etc.
+
+The breast of the heel, which faces the forepart of the shoe, is trimmed
+evenly across and with the desired slant by means of a peculiar-shaped
+knife which extends over the sole at shank. The edges of the heel are
+now scoured by revolving rolls with molded sandpaper to make perfectly
+smooth. Blowers attached to the machine remove all dust.
+
+There are several types of machines for fastening the heel to the shoe,
+all very rapid in operation. One of the latest is that which feeds the
+nails, and which is operated by a man and boy, who together turn off a
+great quantity of work.
+
+The nails are left protruding slightly above the heel so as to retain the
+top lift, which is now placed in position by the same operator on the
+same machine. It is pressed down over the heads of the nails securing it
+in position. The small brass or steel nails which protect and ornament
+the heel are now driven in by the “universal slugging machine.” This
+machine cuts the slugs from a coil of wire and drives them in with great
+rapidity.
+
+We have practically now a roughly formed shoe ready for the finishing
+room.
+
+Here the heel slugs are ground down, heel and sole buffed by sandpaper
+rolls on a scouring machine, wet down, stained, or blacked, as case may
+be, finished on bristle brushes, placed to dry, polished by a polishing
+machine, bottom stamped with the trademark, and passed to an operator
+whose duty it is to see that no tacks are left inside the shoes.
+Generally girls are hired to do this, as their hands are smaller and it
+is very important that no tacks are left, which might cause a great deal
+of trouble. If any are found, they are cut out with nippers or otherwise
+removed.
+
+A lining is also generally put inside the shoe, covering the whole of the
+insole in a McKay shoe, and the heel only in a Goodyear shoe. Shoes must
+also be inspected here before they are packed, to see if they are perfect
+in every way and that each shoe is a perfect mate in the pair.
+
+The shoes are now sent to the last department, called treeing, dressing,
+and packing department.
+
+This department has to do with the finishing of the uppers. The bottoms
+and edges are all finished when shoes get to this department, and nothing
+remains but to finish the uppers and pack the shoes in single-pair
+cartons and then in wooden boxes or cases.
+
+The different uppers are all finished by a different process, some being
+ironed with a hot iron, which is done to take out the wrinkles and smooth
+the uppers. Ironing was first introduced on kid shoes, but in recent
+years the hot iron has been put on nearly all kinds of stock. A shoe must
+be on a form or tree when ironed, the form or tree being the same shape
+as the last. The whole idea in ironing is the same as that followed by
+the tailor, who uses a hot iron to press and smooth out clothes. The
+operations in detail are as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: Ironing.]
+
+[Illustration: Packing.]
+
+Each shoe is treed, after having been drawn over a foot form similar to
+that on which the shoe was lasted, and any stain or dirt which may have
+been carelessly put on in former operations is cleaned off; the shoe is
+sponged with a gum prepared for either black or tan goods, rubbed down
+dull, and then rubbed to a polish. In many patent leather shoes the
+treeing is to clean off the surface, as we said before, and then to iron
+it with a hot iron, which takes out all stains, and leaves the leather
+shiny and black.
+
+The shoes finally go to hand operators, who rag the edges and heels,
+leaving them ready to be laced and put into the boxes. After lacing, the
+shoes are passed to inspectors, whose duty it is to see that they are
+perfect, to throw out all which are not, make a record of them, and pass
+the perfect shoes to the packers, who see that the sizes are right, that
+each pair is mated, and placed in paper cartons, ready to be packed in
+wooden cases for shipment. The packing of cartons into wooden cases is
+done by men who nail on the lid when each case is full, mark where goods
+are to be sent, make a record of same and load the cases into freight
+cars.
+
+There are other uppers that are treed, such as wax calf, for instance,
+and split uppers, which are used in heavy shoes. The main idea of treeing
+a shoe is to give it a smooth and finished appearance and a good “feel.”
+In the regular treeing operation they use liquid preparations, often
+called composition, and these are worked into the upper, filling it to
+some extent. French chalk is used a great deal in some uppers, and oil or
+some form of grease or gum is also used, all of which make the upper as
+it was when first put on the cutting board of the shoe factory. All work
+done in this room is intended to give leather its original luster, which
+has been lost to a certain extent in going through the different rooms
+and in being handled so much.
+
+There are still other uppers that may not be treed or ironed but merely
+cleaned and polished to give luster. Some of these may be dressed. To
+dress a shoe means to put on a liquid dressing. In some cases two coats
+of dressing are put on and in other cases one coat. A shoe can have a
+dull dressing or a bright dressing, according to how the buyer prefers to
+have his shoes look.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER SEVEN
+
+McKAY AND TURNED SHOES
+
+
+The McKay process is used very extensively in the manufacture of cheap
+shoes. Its introduction was a great improvement over the nailing and
+pegging of the soles to the uppers. It allows the two to be stitched
+together by means of a straight needle running through the entire
+thickness of upper, sole, and insole.
+
+In following the McKay process through the factory, we find it very
+similar to the Goodyear welt process, which has been explained, the main
+difference being in the methods of fastening the sole to the uppers.
+
+[Illustration: Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe.]
+
+The lasts and patterns are obtained in the same manner as described in
+the previous chapter. The order is made out in the factory office, and
+the ticket is given to the sorter, who selects the required number of
+skins, which he rolls in a bundle and turns over to the cutter. The
+cutters form the various pieces of leather and linings, which are tied
+up in bundles and sent to the stitching room. Here they pass through the
+various sewing machines, finally coming out in the form of a complete
+upper ready to be attached to the bottoms.
+
+The soles, insoles, counters, and heels for McKay shoes are all formed in
+the same room, as described in the Goodyear process.
+
+There is a difference in making ready the outsoles and insoles. It will
+be recalled that the outsole for the Goodyear welt shoe was simply a
+block of leather cut to fit the shoe and was not channeled. The outsole
+for the McKay shoe is run through a channeling machine, which cuts a
+slit around the edge of the sole, folds the leather back, and digs a
+little trench along the inside of the slit. It will also be remembered
+that the insole of the Goodyear welt shoe was channeled with two slits,
+one of which was turned back to form the breast for sewing on the welt
+strip. The insole of a McKay shoe is not channeled in any way, but is
+left plain, like the outsole of the Goodyear welt. The uppers, the soles,
+insoles, counters, and heels all having been made ready, the pieces are
+taken to the lasting room.
+
+The first process is called “assembling.” The operator takes up one of
+the uppers, inserts the last, sticks in a counter between the lining and
+the outside, puts in a “box” (a stout piece of canvas to give stability
+to the toe) at the toe, beneath the tip, puts in the insole, and then may
+pull the shoe tight on the last or give it to the operator on the pulling
+over machine to have it done. The pulling over machine is now used in
+nearly all factories, having displaced hand pulling the same as the
+lasting machines have displaced hand lasting. The assembling, pulling,
+and lasting on the machine are all parts of the regular operation of
+lasting. The hand laster had to do all three parts in former times,
+but now there are machines to do nearly everything, and at the present
+time the operation of lasting is divided into assembling, pulling over,
+and lasting on the machine. But even these machines do not do it all,
+as there is surplus upper to be cut away, toes to be pounded down, and
+filling to be put in the bottom, all of which are done on a McKay shoe
+before the sole can be laid. There are machines to do these parts, too.
+
+A trimmer (this is done by hand) now takes the shoe, trims off all the
+surplus leather, tacks in the shank (a little piece of steel to give
+rigidity to the shank of the sole), fills all up smoothly and then passes
+it to the sole layer, who puts on the outer sole and tacks it in place.
+
+The last is now pulled out of the shoe and it is ready for the McKay
+sewing machine.
+
+This machine sews right through the inner and outer sole, and at the same
+time catches the edges of the upper leather and the lining in between
+the two and draws them all snugly and firmly together. The stitches are
+made right along in the channel of the outer sole, which is deep enough
+to admit the row of stitches without raising a ridge on the outside of
+the sole, after the channel is closed up and leveled. The channel is
+next filled with cement and passed on to the leveler, which turns down
+the loosened flap of leather, presses it all out smooth, and covers the
+seam up so completely that no trace of the sewing is to be seen. This
+little folded-over flap of leather serves the double purpose of hiding
+the stitches in the sole, and at the same time protecting them from wear
+against the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Stitching.]
+
+[Illustration: Tacking.]
+
+The shoe is then ready to be heeled, and from here to the shipping door
+the McKay generally goes through the same process as a welt. After
+heeling, the McKay shoes are relasted or have followers put in to keep
+them in shape while going through. The sock lining may be put in here,
+too, before relasting, or it may not be put in till the shoes get to
+another room. The McKay lasting last must be pulled from the shoe to have
+the bottoms and heels put on and this also applies to a pegged or nailed
+shoe. But in the case of a welt shoe or a turn shoe, both stay on the
+original last until the bottoms and heels have been fastened on. The turn
+shoe being lasted inside out, must come off the last to be turned right
+side out, and it goes right on the last as soon as it can be turned. The
+different methods of fastening the bottoms constitute the main difference
+between Goodyear and turn shoes on the one hand, and McKay, pegged, and
+nailed on the other. The bottom stock must be prepared differently in
+order to fit the methods. Thus it is seen that only two departments are
+affected, namely, the sole leather and the making departments. In the
+cutting, stitching, finishing, treeing, and packing, all operations are
+practically the same on every shoe, no matter how it is bottomed. The
+patterns, however, by which shoes are cut may be different.
+
+In the finishing room all of the finishing of the bottoms and heel edges
+is done. The heels are sandpapered or scoured, and are then blacked and
+polished under hot-iron pressure. Considerable wax is used on the edge
+and is melted by the hot iron. Heel edges may also be finished on a wheel
+or roll. There are several different ways, but the object of each method
+is to give a hard, black, and highly polished surface to the edge.
+
+In finishing the bottom the top lift is scoured or buffed, and all of
+the sole and the breast of the heel also. Each is a different process,
+a different operator attending to each part. The object of scouring or
+buffing with sandpaper is to get a smooth foundation for the finish,
+which is put on next, and which may be all the same color in all parts
+of the bottom or may have one color in the shank and another in the
+forepart. The stains and blackings are used on bottoms, and these are
+brought to a high, hard gloss by means of rolls and brushes. Hot irons
+are often used on black shanks and bottoms to give added hardness and
+luster to the finish.
+
+The turned or turn shoe is a woman’s fine shoe that is made wrong side
+out, then turned right side out. The sole is fastened to the last, and
+the upper is twisted over, the wrong side out. Then the two are sewed
+together, the thread catching through a channel or shoulder cut in the
+edge of the sole. The seam does not come through to the bottom of the
+sole, nor to any part inside where it would chafe the foot.
+
+The preparation of the upper for a turn shoe is identical with that of
+a welt or McKay, with the exception that the back is cut a little longer
+and a little larger, in order to last it over the sole. The important
+difference in the make-up of a turn shoe as compared with that of a McKay
+or welt is that it has no insole, the upper being sewed directly to a
+portion of the sole itself.
+
+As the cutting of the uppers and the stitching operations of a turn shoe
+are the same as the Goodyear and McKay, and have been explained, we will
+take up the forming of the sole, which is entirely different from either
+of the other two methods.
+
+A turn shoe is put together wrong side out, and it is necessary, during
+the course of making, to turn it by rolling the sole up like a roll of
+carpet. It is evident, then, that nothing but good quality, pliable
+leather can be used satisfactorily, and great care is taken to include
+nothing but the best.
+
+The soles are cut out on the beam machines, also previously described.
+They are then channeled on the side that is next to the foot. This
+channeling is similar to that done on the welt insole. Two incisions are
+made, the inside one being the same as in the welt insoles. The outside
+one, however, is different, as the flange is cut off square instead of
+being rolled up. This leaves a channel which begins at the edge and
+surface of the sole and extends in semicircular form to the abrupt wall
+of the cut in the sole, which forms the breast against which the upper is
+to be sewed.
+
+After the soles are channeled, they are soaked until they become soft
+enough to roll up easily. They are then placed on racks and kept in a
+damp room until needed.
+
+A turn shoe is hand lasted wrong side out. First the uppers are turned
+with the lining outside, then the last is inserted and also the toe
+boxing.
+
+The sole is set straight on the last and is tacked firmly to it. The
+operator, by aid of hand pullers, draws the upper over the sole and tacks
+it securely from a point where the breast of the heel will rest to where
+the large toe will extend, and then along the same distance on the other
+side. The toe part is next lasted by machinery, a wire being fastened at
+one side and run around the edge holding the pulled-up parts of the upper
+which has been stretched tightly over the last.
+
+The shoe is next passed over to the Goodyear inseamer operator, who
+sews the upper to the sole, the needle passing down through the inside
+channel, through the sole leather, out through the square-cut channel
+and then through the upper, uniting the upper to the sole with the chain
+stitch. In fact, the bottom of a turn shoe at this time looks exactly
+like the bottom of a welt, with the exception that the turn shoe is still
+turned wrong side out. The nature of the stitch is the same--a waxed,
+threaded chain, with two rows of thread on the outside that loop with
+the single thread in the inside lip of the insole. The shoe is sewed only
+from the back of the shank to the toe, the heel part still being loose.
+
+The seam is now trimmed with an inseam trimmer, a machine with a
+revolving, jagged-edged knife that saws off the surplus portions of the
+upper, leaving it smooth and even with the sole. The tacks are all pulled
+out with a sort of a nail puller, which works rapidly and automatically.
+
+The lasts are then taken out and the shoe is turned right side out.
+This turning process is not a difficult one, but it is perhaps the most
+interesting operation that the layman will see in the entire factory. The
+operation is accomplished by means of a rigid iron bar set slantwise in a
+table. The upper is turned right side out by hand and the sole is rolled
+right side out by means of pressure on this bar.
+
+After this turning process, which twists and rolls the shoe out of
+shape, it has no semblance of its final form. The back part of the sole
+and upper are still loose, the upper being fastened from the shank to the
+toe.
+
+The turn shoe must be “second” lasted, and the inserting of the last is
+no easy matter. A contrivance called a push jack assists the operator
+greatly. He uses a flat, narrow rod to smooth out the lining, and after
+squeezing, pushing, and smoothing, the last is finally made to fit in the
+shoe. The counter is placed in at this time, the shank piece is set in
+place, and the shoe and last are placed on a jack for nailing. The back
+part upper is now stretched tightly over the heel part of the last by
+means of lasting pullers, and is tacked down, the nails going through the
+shank piece and clinching against the anvil heel seat of the last. This
+operation completes the lasting, the shoe now having a form exactly like
+the last over which it is made.
+
+Workmen now level the bottoms and form the shank by a hand method,
+preparatory to the machine leveling process. The shoe is still wet and
+is left to dry on the last twenty-four hours. Then it is run through the
+machine called the “leveler,” which, with its enormous pressure, forms
+the sole to that of the last. The shoes are now left four days on the
+lasts, to dry thoroughly, so that they may retain their shape permanently.
+
+The putting on of the heel, and the various finishing processes are
+practically the same as that of the welt, with the exception that a turn
+sole must have a sock lining.
+
+Some factories use a grain leather sock lining, which is pasted in,
+covering up the channels of the sole which hold the stitches and forming
+a smooth surface for the foot to rest upon.
+
+The difference between a McKay and a turn shoe may be told by the fact
+that the stitching on the inside of the sole is much closer to the edge
+in a turn. Another thing, in a turn shoe, the seam connecting the upper
+and the outsole can be seen.
+
+Nothing is likely to excel the turn shoe for lightness and flexibility,
+since the method of making, whereby the sole is stitched directly to the
+upper, interposes no thick or cumbersome material. Sole leather of good
+quality is used. In fact, the sole would have to be not only strong,
+but thin and light, or the shoe could not be turned in the process of
+manufacture without straining it and getting it out of shape.
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE TURN SHOE
+
+History states that prior to 1845, which marked the date of the
+introduction of shoe machinery, most of the shoes were sewed by hand,
+the lighter ones turned and the heavier ones welted. In fact, the early
+factories that began to spring up in New England about the beginning of
+the century, were merely cutting rooms and places for storing the lasts
+and stock.
+
+Here the uppers, soles, and linings were cut by hand and then given out
+to people in the vicinity, mostly farmers and fishermen, to be stitched
+together and paid for at so much a dozen. Such was the beginning of
+the shoe industry in New England. Hundreds of families added to their
+resources in this way, the women doing the lighter work and the men the
+heavier.
+
+In fishing communities, where men were away most of the time in their
+boats, their wives and daughters, who stayed at home, undertook the
+lighter grades of shoemaking--the turn process. This was the case in
+the “North Shore” towns like Lynn, Haverhill, and Marblehead, and these
+to-day, keeping to the old traditions, are the great centers for the
+finer turn-grades of shoemaking, whereas the “South Shore” towns, like
+Brockton, Whitman, Abington, Rockland, and the Weymouths, with the men
+at home all the year, came to make a specialty of shoes for men, and
+absorbed the heavier part of the growing industry.
+
+With the introduction of the Goodyear turn machine, however, the handwork
+was gradually done away with, although more handwork is done in the turn
+process than in either the McKay or welt process.
+
+
+STANDARD SCREW SHOEMAKING
+
+Many good qualities of heavy shoes are made by the standard screw method,
+which differs from the McKay method by having the outsole and insole
+fastened together with a double-threaded wire, which is screwed through
+and cut off by the machine the instant it reaches the inside of the shoe.
+
+[Illustration: Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe.]
+
+A pegged shoe is made in much the same way as the standard screw, except
+that wooden pegs are used instead of wire to fasten the sole together.
+
+The nailed method of shoemaking consists in nailing the soles together
+around the edge. It is used principally for heavy, cheap shoes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER EIGHT
+
+OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING
+
+
+The old-fashioned shoemaker formerly made shoes by hand as follows:--A
+last, which is a wooden model of a foot, was used, and pieces of leather
+were pasted here and there on it so as to build up a model conforming to
+the measurements of the foot. Then paper patterns of the upper leather
+were made from the last, and from these the upper leathers were cut out
+of tanned calfskins and sewed together.
+
+The leather for the soles was cut out of tanned ox or steer hide, the
+pieces being the insole, the outsole, and the lifts of the heel. The
+inner soles were made of softer leather. Sometimes split sole leathers
+were used for uppers. The shoemaker then softened the leather by steeping
+it in water, until it was pliable and at the same time firm, and would
+cut like cheese.
+
+The insoles were attached to the bottom of a pair of wooden lasts, and
+the wet leather fastened on with lasting tacks so as to mold it to the
+last. When it was dry, the shoemaker with pincers drew the leather out
+until it had taken the exact form of the bottom of the last. Then he
+rounded the soles by paring down the edges close to the last, and formed
+around these edges a small channel or feather cut or slit about an eighth
+of an inch in the leather.
+
+Next he pierced the insoles all around with a bent awl, which “bit” into,
+but not through, the leather, and came out at the channel or feather
+edge. The boots were then lasted by placing the uppers on the lasts,
+drawing the edges by means of pincers tightly round the edge of the
+insoles. Then they were fastened in portions with lasting tacks. Lasting
+was considered a very important operation, for unless the upper was
+drawn smoothly and equally over the last, leaving neither a crease nor
+wrinkle, the form would be a failure. A band of flexible leather about
+an inch wide, with one edge pared, was then placed in position around
+the sides of the shoes, up to the heel or seat, and the maker proceeded
+to “inseam,” by passing his awl through the holes, already made in the
+insole, catching with it the edge of the upper and the thin edge of the
+welt, and sewing all three together in one flat seam, with a waxed thread.
+
+The threads which shoemakers use are called “ends,” and are made of two
+or more strands of small flaxen threads. The shoemaker makes his own
+waxed thread as follows:--
+
+He holds the main part of the thread from the spool, in his left hand,
+holding it firmly--where he wants to break it--between the first finger
+and thumb, so that it will not turn beyond that point. Then with
+the left hand, he lays the end of the flax on the knee and rolls it
+from him. This will cause the small fibers that compose the thread to
+separate--thus enabling him to break it easily. When the fibers separate,
+he gives the thread a light, quick turn, which causes it to break. As the
+thread breaks he pulls it apart gradually, so that the fibers will taper.
+Then he places the threads together, one just behind the other, so that
+the end will have a very fine point. He rolls the end and allows it to
+turn between the fingers of the left hand. After it has been rolled and
+twisted, it is waxed by drawing the thread through a piece of wax.
+
+The fine ends are waxed to a point. A bristle is fastened on in the
+following manner: the head of the bristle is held in the left hand, and
+the portion to which the thread is to be fastened is waxed; then the
+thread and bristle are twisted together. A hole is made in the thread and
+the bristle pulled through and fastened. After the threads are fastened,
+the heads of the bristle are cut off, and the ends sandpapered.
+
+The wax thread or “end,” as it is called, should never be made longer
+than is necessary to sew a shoe. Experience shows that if a portion of an
+end left after sewing one shoe is used on the second shoe, it is never as
+strong as a new end. The thread grows weaker and weaker as it is used.
+When the thread is well waxed, it is cemented to the shoe.
+
+After the shoe is sewed, the shoemaker pares off inequalities and levels
+the bottoms, by filling up the depressed part in the center with pieces
+of tarred felt. The shoes are now ready for the outsoles. The fibers
+of the leather to be used for the soles are thoroughly condensed by
+hammering on the lapstone. Then they are fastened through the insole with
+steel tacks, their sides are pared, and a narrow channel is cut round
+their edges. Through this channel they are stitched to the welt, about
+twelve stitches of strong, waxed thread being made to the inch. The soles
+are next hammered into shape; the heel lifts are put on and attached with
+wooden pegs. Then they are sewed through the stitches of the insoles; and
+the top pieces, similar to the outsoles, are put on and nailed down to
+the lifts.
+
+The finishing operations of the shoe include smoothing the edges of the
+heel, paring, rasping, scraping, smoothing, blacking, and burnishing the
+edges of the soles, withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning out any pegs
+which may have pierced through the inner sole. There are numerous minor
+operations connected with forwarding and finishing in various materials,
+such as punching holes, inserting eyelets, etc.
+
+
+HOW SHOES ARE REPAIRED
+
+Before one can understand how shoes are repaired, it is necessary to know
+the difference between the inside and outside of a shoe.
+
+The last is divided into four parts, viz. toe, ball, shank, and heel.
+
+Diagram No. 1 shows these parts and their shapes.
+
+Diagram No. 2 shows the length of the inside of the divisions as compared
+with those of the outside. Notice the long shank and short ball.
+
+Diagram No. 3 shows the outside of the divisions and the effect they have
+upon the shape of the shoe. See short shank and long ball.
+
+Always remember that the ball of a shoe is longer on the outside, having
+a short shank. The ball is shorter on the inside, having a long shank.
+Compare outside and inside diagrams Nos. 2 and 3.
+
+[Illustration: How a Side of Leather is shaped and divided as to Quality.
+_See page 5._
+
+_Dia. 1._ _Dia. 2._ _Dia. 3._]
+
+
+SHOE REPAIRING
+
+The first operation in half soling a shoe is to cut off the old portion
+from “a” to “c” as shown on diagram No. 1. The shoe is placed in
+different positions and corrected in every way before putting on the new
+sole. It is generally better to wet the shoe in order to put it in shape.
+
+The leather is skived thin and accurate enough to make a neat,
+comfortable joint, and yet thick enough for the nails to hold.
+
+Then the filling is added before placing on the sole. The sole is trimmed
+and a guide line drawn around the edge, so that the nails may be properly
+arranged.
+
+Finishing the sole is an important part. If everything else is properly
+done, this part becomes comparatively easy. See that all nails are
+clinched. With a level bottom, smooth joints and edges, the shoe can be
+made to look like a new shoe and yet feel like an old one.
+
+On account of the heel being more directly under the body and the first
+part to strike the ground, it generally wears out first. For this reason
+in repairing a heel great care must be taken to see that good leather
+and solid work are put into it. Pull off the worn top piece and see that
+what is left is hammered down solidly. Next split a piece of solid,
+easy-cutting, scrap sole leather, so that two pieces can be made out of
+one. Put them on the shoe and fasten them on well, piece by piece, with
+tacks. See that the heel is level before putting on the top piece. (If
+necessary, a small piece may be put under the top piece.) After it is
+level, put on top piece, trim in shape, then draw guide line and nail
+down. The nails are placed thicker on the side that is worn down most, to
+protect the heel. The heel is next rasped, and smoothed with a buffer and
+sandpaper. When finished, it should set level.
+
+
+MODERN METHOD OF REPAIRING SHOES
+
+As the shoemaking industry has become more and more perfect, there has
+been an increasing interest taken in shoe repairing. A medium-priced
+shoe as it is made to-day may often be in good enough condition to be
+heeled and soled a couple of times. Hence, although in the past many shoe
+stores and departments have had their shoe repairing done by outside
+shops, the tendency to-day is for every shoe store to have its own repair
+department. This method has resulted largely from the development of
+machinery for shoe repairing, which is revolutionizing the business to
+such an extent that in a few years repairing by hand will be among the
+lost arts. With the new inventions for restoring upper leather, and the
+improvement of machinery for shoe repairing, repair departments will very
+soon be but little short of miniature factories.
+
+The machinery ordinarily used consists of the Goodyear stitcher, used
+for attaching soles to Goodyear welts by the lock-stitch method, just
+as in shoe factories making Goodyear welt shoes. Then there is a heel
+trimmer, a bottom finisher, consisting of a rapidly revolving roll
+covered with coarse and fine sandpaper, and an opera heel builder for
+forming concave heels. There are two wheels used for tan and white
+heel work, one heel being covered with a white cloth, and the other
+with a coarse brush. Adjoining these are usually the shank and heel
+finisher,--capable of smoothing and highly polishing a shank or heel in
+about a dozen seconds,--the bottom finisher, that grinds and smooths down
+the new sole, and a machine used for rubbing off dirt before the shoe is
+finished, consisting of a heavy horsehair brush. Another useful part of
+the equipment is an edge setter, which is also identical with the one
+used in factories. The shoe stitching machines and the parts used in
+finishing are all operated on one long shaft, rapidly revolved by the aid
+of a motor. It is a fact that a shoe may be actually soled and heeled in
+less than six minutes.
+
+Five or six men are usually employed in the repair department of a large
+establishment. When the customer’s shoes are brought in, one of these men
+cuts off the old sole and traces an outline of the new sole on a block of
+the very best oak leather. After these are cut out by hand in rough form,
+they are soaked in water and channeled; that is to say, a part of the
+sole is turned up in which the stitches are to be run. A second man, by
+the use of the Goodyear stitcher, joins the sole and welt together with a
+very strong and tightly drawn lock stitch. This is a large machine with a
+curved, barbed needle and awl, and a shuttle which sews through an inch
+of leather with the greatest ease and speed. There are from one hundred
+and fifty to two hundred stitches in each shoe; moreover, every one of
+them is locked with heavy wax thread, so that there is no chance of their
+ever giving away. If one stitch should break, the other stitches would
+remain intact, as they are all independent of each other. Both soles are
+stitched on in a little over half a minute without breaking a thread or
+stopping the machine.
+
+A coating of rubber cement is now placed in the edges of the outsole, and
+the lip of the channel is smoothed down so that the stitches are entirely
+hidden when looking at the bottom of the shoe. The edge trimming is done
+next with the aid of a rapidly revolving wheel, which trims the edges
+square and true in about forty seconds. After this, the shank is finished
+on a rapidly revolving wheel covered with emery cloth.
+
+Bottom finishing is the next step. This is done on a machine having
+two long cylinders, one covered with fine and the other with coarse
+sandpaper. These cylinders revolve rapidly, and the operator uses the
+coarse sandpaper for scouring the dirt and old finish off the leather,
+and the fine sandpaper for finishing the sole as smooth as that of any
+new shoe.
+
+The brushing in or smoothing is next done by the horsehair brush we have
+mentioned before. A preparation called Lewis’s rival bottom polish--a
+sort of white wax--is placed on the brush machine. The brush now smooths
+the surface of the sole, filling in all small holes with wax and leaving
+the sole absolutely perfect. Finally, the shoe is placed against a
+rapidly revolving brush which finishes the uppers with a luster that
+would make any ordinary boot-black green with envy. Another operation
+that fully completes the process is the hardening of the edges with hot
+steel, which ends in producing an edge that is as hard as iron. When it
+is polished with a black dye, it looks exactly like a new sole.
+
+A few words are necessary with regard to the heel. The old heel having
+been removed, several lifts of new leather in rough form are tacked
+on. The shoe is then taken to the heel trimmer and is formed correctly
+and then smoothed down to a brilliant surface on the finely covered
+revolving wheel. In a few seconds it is stained, smoothed, and polished.
+In less than six minutes the shoe is ready for the customer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER NINE
+
+LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS
+
+
+ASSEMBLING. Includes the following operations: tacking the insole to the
+last, putting in the box and counter of the shoe, and putting the upper
+of the shoe on the last.
+
+BACKSTAY. A term used to denote a strip of leather covering and
+strengthening the back seam of a shoe. English backstay means the strip
+of leather that meets the quarters on each side and is sewed to them,
+forming the lower part of the shoe. California backstay is a term applied
+to piping caught in the back seam.
+
+BACK STRAP. The strap by which the shoe is pulled on the foot.
+
+BAL. An abbreviation of the word “Balmoral” and means either men’s,
+women’s, or children’s front lace shoe of medium height, as distinguished
+from one that is adjusted to the ankle by buttons, buckles, rubber
+goring, etc.
+
+BALL. Refers to the ball of the foot--the fleshy part of the bottom of
+the foot, back of the toes.
+
+BEADING. Means folding in the edges of the upper leather instead of
+leaving them raw, or wheeling any impression around the sole to the heel.
+It is called seat wheeling in many shoe factory rooms.
+
+BEATING OUT. The same as leveling. It is the term used in turn-shoe work.
+
+BELLOWS TONGUE. A broad tongue sewed to the sides of the top, seen in
+waterproof and some working shoes.
+
+BELTING. The term applied to the usual back tanned cowhide, used in
+various thicknesses for machinery belts.
+
+BETWEEN SUBSTANCE. That part of the sole that holds the stitch.
+
+BLACKBALL. A mass of grease and lampblack, formerly used by shoemakers
+on edges of heels and soles; sometimes called “cobbler’s botch.”
+
+BLACKING THE EDGE. Blacking or dyeing edge of sole, welt, or that part of
+the edge which cannot be blacked so well in the making room.
+
+BLOCKING. The cutting or chopping of a sole in such a form or shape that
+it can be rounded.
+
+BLOOM. A term often applied to the grayish white deposit that gathers on
+shoes in stock. It can be wiped off readily.
+
+BLUCHER. The name of a shoe or half boot, originated by Field Marshal
+Blücher of the Prussian Army, in the time of Napoleon I. It became very
+popular and has since received occasional favor, being used with high
+tops as a sporting or hunting boot. Its distinguishing feature is the
+extension forward of the quarters to lace across the tongue, which may be
+an extension upward of the vamp.
+
+BOOT. A term used (especially abroad) to designate women’s high-cut
+shoes. In this country it applies only to high or topped footwear,
+usually made with the tops stiff and solid. It is sometimes laced, as in
+hunting boots.
+
+BOOTEE. Leather legging extending between knee and ankle, usually of
+Russian calf,--a riding boot originating with the English.
+
+BOTTOM FILLING. The filling that goes in the low space on the bottom in
+the forepart of the shoe. It is either ground cork, tarred felt, or other
+filler.
+
+BOTTOM SCOURING. Sandpapering the parts of the sole, except the heel.
+
+BOXING. A term used to designate the stiffening material placed in the
+toe of a shoe to support it and retain the shape; such as leather,
+composition of leather and paper, wire net, drilling (a cotton fabric)
+stiffened with shellac, etc.
+
+BOX CALF. A well-known proprietary leather having a grain of
+rectangularly crossed lines.
+
+BOX TOE. Used to hold up the toe of the shoe so as to retain the shape.
+It is generally of sole leather, but often made of canvas or other
+material and stiffened with shellac or gum.
+
+BREAKING THE SOLE. Molding the sole so as to fit the spring better.
+
+BROGAN. A heavy pegged or nailed work shoe, medium cut in height.
+
+BRUSHING. The final finish of the top edge, heel, and bottom, by means of
+a brush.
+
+BUCKSKIN. A soft leather, generally yellow or grayish in color. One way
+of preparing it is by treating deerskins in oil.
+
+BUFF. A split side leather, coarser than glove grain, but otherwise
+similar. It is used for cheaper grades of shoes, principally for men.
+
+BUFFING. The same as bottom scouring.
+
+CABARETTA. A tanned sheepskin of superior finish used for shoe stock.
+There are sheep with wool not far removed from hair in texture, which
+produce a skin of greater tenacity and finish than the ordinary sheep.
+
+CACK. A sole leather bottom without a heel. An infant’s shoe is called a
+cack.
+
+CALFSKINS. Skins of meat cattle of all kinds, weighing up to fifteen
+pounds, are usually included in this term. They make a strong and pliable
+leather. Calfskins were formerly finished with wax and oil on the flesh
+side, but can now be made so as to be finished on the “grain,” which is
+the hair side of the skin.
+
+CAP. A term meaning the same as tip.
+
+CARTON. A cardboard box intended for one pair of shoes.
+
+CEMENTING. This is the operation of placing cement on the outsole and the
+bottom of the welt shoe so that the outsole is held to the shoe by the
+cement.
+
+CHAMOIS. A leather made from the skins of chamois, calves, deer, goats,
+sheep, and split hides of other animals.
+
+CHANNELING. Cutting into the sole in such a way that the thread or
+stitching is away from the surface. In the outsole department it means
+preparing a place for the stitch. In insoles and turn soles, channeling
+is done so that soles are prepared to hold the stitching.
+
+CHANNEL SCREWED. A process by which the sole is fastened to the uppers.
+After a channel is cut and laid over on the outside of the outsole, the
+outsole and insole are fastened together, holding the upper and lining
+between them by means of wire screws, which are fastened in this channel.
+The skived part is then smoothed down over the heads of the screws,
+entirely covering them from sight, and preventing the screws from easily
+working up into the foot.
+
+CHANNEL STITCHED. A method of fastening soles to the uppers, either by
+McKay or welt process, in which a portion of the sole’s outer side is
+channeled into, and the stitches afterwards covered on the lower side by
+the lip of this channel.
+
+CHANNEL TURNING. Turning a lip or flap of sole leather (called channel),
+so that the stitching can be done in the proper place; or it may mean
+turning up the flap or lip of the channel, that is, the part that is to
+cover the stitch.
+
+CHECKING. A term applied to the edges of heels or soles that have
+cracked, or have been injured in process of construction.
+
+CLEANING INSIDE. Cleaning the lining.
+
+CLEANING NAILS. Scraping the blacking off the tops of the heel slugs.
+
+CLEANING SHOES. Removing dirt, wax, cement, etc., from them.
+
+CLICKING. Cutting the uppers of shoes.
+
+CLOSING. Putting two or more pieces together.
+
+CLOSING ON. Stitching the lining and outside together.
+
+COLONIAL. A name given to a woman’s low shoe, with vamp extended into a
+flaring tongue, with a large, ornamental buckle across the instep. The
+buckle and tongue are the distinctive features of the shoe, whether the
+shoe fastens with a lace or strap.
+
+COLTSKIN. Coltskin has been brought into general use in shoemaking
+within the past few years. The skin of a colt is thin enough to use like
+calfskin in its entirety, with such shaving as is given all hides in
+tanning. Coltskin makes a firm basis needed for patent leather, and has
+been much used in recent years for this purpose. Russia is the chief
+source of supply.
+
+COMBINATION LAST. One with a different width instep from the ball. It may
+be one or two widths’ difference, such as the D ball with a B instep.
+Combination lasts are generally used in fitting low insteps.
+
+COMPOSITION. A term used to denote the small scraps that accumulate
+about tanneries and factories, which are ground up and mixed with a
+paste or a kind of cement, and flattened into sheets which are used as
+insoles, and in other parts, in various grades of shoes, where wear is
+not excessive.
+
+CONGRESS GAITER. A shoe designed especially for comfort, with rubber
+goring in the sides which adjusts it to the ankle, instead of laces, and
+sometimes made with lace front to imitate a regular shoe.
+
+CORDOVAN. Originally a Spanish leather made from horsehide. The Spaniards
+were, for a great many centuries, the best leather makers. The term
+is applied to a grain leather from the best and strongest part of a
+horsehide.
+
+COUNTER. The stiffening in the back part of a shoe, often called
+stiffening, to support the outer leather and prevent the shoe from
+“running over” at the heel. It is made either of sole leather, shaved
+thin on the edge and shaped by machinery, as in the best shoes, or
+composition or paper, in cheap shoes. Metal is occasionally used on the
+outside of the shoes in heavy goods for miners and furnacemen.
+
+COUPON TAG. A tag from which a coupon is cut for every operation.
+Operatives hold part of the coupon and the holders of the coupons are
+paid for the part named.
+
+COWHIDE. Refers to hides of cattle, heavier than kips, which run up to
+twenty-five pounds each.
+
+CREASING VAMP. Making hollow grooves across the front of the vamp to add
+to its looks.
+
+CREEDMORE. A man’s heavy lace shoe, with gusset, blucher cut.
+
+CREOLE. A heavy congress work shoe. This shoe, the creedmore, and brogans
+are usually made of oil grains, kip, or split leather, sometimes pegged,
+sometimes “stitched down.”
+
+CRIMPING. Shaping any part of the upper so that it will conform to the
+last better.
+
+CUSHION SOLE. An elastic inner sole.
+
+CUT-OFF VAMP. One cut off at tip for economy when tip is to be covered by
+a cap.
+
+DIEING. Cutting soles to fit the last, outsoles, insoles, heel lifts,
+counters, or half soles, with a machine and a die.
+
+DOM PEDRO. A heavy, one-buckle shoe, with gusset or bellows tongue.
+Originally it was a patent name for certain shoes made of fine material,
+but is now applied to cheap grades.
+
+DONGOLA. A heavy, plump goatskin, tanned with a semibright finish.
+
+DRESSING. A process for giving the upper its original finish by means of
+liquid put on with sponge.
+
+EDGE SETTING. The finishing edge of the sole,--polishing it.
+
+EDGE TRIMMING. Trimming the edge of a sole smoothly to conform to last.
+
+ENAMEL. Leather that is given a shiny finish on the grain side. The
+process is similar to that of patent leather, only that patent leather is
+finished on the flesh side, or the surface of the split.
+
+EYELET. A small ring of metal, etc., placed in the holes for lacing; the
+eyelet holes are sometimes worked with thread like a buttonhole.
+
+EYELETTING. Putting on eyelets.
+
+FACING. The bleached calf or sheepskin used around the top of the shoe,
+and down the eyelet row and inside of the upper.
+
+FAIR STITCH. Term applied to the stitching that shows around the outer
+edge of the sole, to give the McKay shoe the appearance of a welt shoe.
+
+FAKING. Putting a gloss on any part of the bottom of the shoe.
+
+FINDINGS. The small parts of a shoe, such as blacking, cement, nails,
+wax, tacks, thread, etc.
+
+FLAP, LIP, AND SHOULDER. Terms used in connection with the channel or
+with the operation of sewing.
+
+FOLLOWER. Any last or form put in a shoe from which the original last has
+been pulled.
+
+FOREPART FINISHING. The staining and polishing of the forepart of the
+shoe.
+
+FORM. A term applied to a filler last. It may be of wood, papier-mâché,
+leather board, or any similar material, and is used to enhance the
+appearance of sample shoes, in salesmen’s lines or in window displays.
+
+FOXED. Having the lower part of the quarter a separate piece of leather
+or covered by an extra piece; “slipper foxed” is a term sometimes applied
+to women’s full vamp shoes.
+
+FOXING. The name applied to that part of the upper that extends from the
+sole to the laces in front, and to about the height of the counter in the
+back; being the length of the upper. It may be in one or more pieces and
+is often cut down to the shank in circular form.
+
+FRIZZING. A process to which chamois and wash leather are subjected,
+after the skins are unhaired, scraped, “fleshed,” and raised. It consists
+in rubbing the skins with pumice stone or a blunt knife till the
+appearance of the grain is entirely removed.
+
+FRONT. A term used for part of a congress toe.
+
+GAITER. A term usually applied to a separate ankle covering or to a
+congress shoe.
+
+GEMMING. The operation of making gem insoles.
+
+GEM INSOLES. An insole for welt shoes of leather.
+
+GLAZED KID. See Kid.
+
+GLOVE GRAIN. A light, soft-finished, split leather, for women’s or
+children’s shoes or topping.
+
+GOATSKIN. See Kid.
+
+GOODYEAR WELT. A term used to denote the process of attaching the sole
+to the upper of a shoe by means of a narrow strip of leather called a
+welt.
+
+GORE. A rubber elastic used in a congress shoe. It is also applied to the
+long, wedge-shaped piece of leather set in an upper to widen it.
+
+GRADING. The sorting of outsoles and half soles to get uniform weight in
+edges of finished shoes.
+
+HALF SOLE. Half of a complete sole used in forepart of bottom under
+outsole.
+
+HARNESS LEATHER. Similar to belting, and is made from hides heavier than
+kips.
+
+HEEL. Made of layers of leather or wood called liftings, and attached to
+rear part of shoe (heel seat). There are different varieties of heels.
+The French heel is an extremely high heel with a curved outline in back
+and front (breast). It is sometimes made of wood covered with leather,
+with thicknesses of sole leather, or all sole leather. The Cuban heel is
+a high, straight heel, without the curve of the French or “Louis XV”
+heel. Military heel is a straight heel not as high as the Cuban. A spring
+heel is a low heel formed by extending back the outside of the shoe to
+the heel, with a slip inserted between the outsole and heel slat. Wedge
+heel is somewhat similar to a spring heel, except that a wedge-shaped
+lift is tacked on the outside instead of a slit. Slugging heels is the
+process of affixing the made-up heel by one operation of the machine.
+
+HEEL FINISHING. Blacking and polishing the heel edge.
+
+HEEL LINING. The lining to cover heel nails inside the shoe; it is often
+known by other names.
+
+HEEL PAD. In the manufacture of shoes, is a small piece of felt, leather,
+or other substance fastened to and covering the full width of the insole
+at the point upon which the heel rests. A heel cushion is sometimes
+called a heel pad.
+
+HEEL SCOURING. Sandpapering the edge of the heel, except the front or
+breast portion.
+
+HEEL SEAT. That part of sole on which heel is fastened.
+
+HEEL SEAT NAILING. Nailing the heel part of sole.
+
+HEEL SEAT TRIMMING. Trimming the rear or heel part of sole.
+
+HEEL SHAVING. Shaving the heel, shaping it.
+
+HEMLOCK TANNED. A process of tanning leather by hemlock bark.
+
+HIDES. Distinguished from skins, in the trade. Hides refer to skins of
+animals which are over twenty-five pounds in weight. Skins refer to
+smaller animals; as skins of goats, calves, sheep.
+
+INLAY. A trimming of the upper by an insertion of the same or different
+kind of material than that of the body in which it is inlaid. It is used
+for decorative purpose on a shoe.
+
+INSEAMING. Sewing sole on turn shoe. Welting and inseaming are
+practically the same operation.
+
+INSEAM TRIMMING. Cutting off the surplus leather; term is also applied to
+pulling sole tacks.
+
+INSOLE. The first sole laid on the last, and is the foundation of all
+shoes with insoles. It is an important though invisible portion of a
+shoe. This inner sole is the part to which the upper and outsole are
+sewed or nailed in the McKay and welt shoes.
+
+INSPECTING. The examination of shoes to see that the work is perfect; it
+is sometimes called crowning.
+
+INSPECTING INSOLE. The operation of looking inside of the shoe for tacks.
+
+INSTEP. The top of the arch of the foot.
+
+IRON. A term indicating the thickness of sole leather; each unit is
+approximately one thirty-second of an inch in thickness.
+
+IRONING UPPERS. Taking wrinkles out of the uppers and smoothing the same
+with a hot iron.
+
+JULIETTE. A woman’s house slipper which is cut a little above the ankle
+in front and back, and cut down on the sides is called a Juliette.
+
+KANGAROO. The skin of the animal of that name, which makes a splendid
+leather, of firm texture. It is quite expensive, hence substitutes are on
+the market under the same name.
+
+KID. A term applied to the shoe leather made from the skins of mature
+goats.
+
+KIP. A term applied to leather made from hides weighing between fifteen
+and twenty-five pounds.
+
+LACE STAY. A strip of leather reënforcing the eyelet holes.
+
+LACE HOOK. An eyelet extended into a recurved hook, around which the lace
+is looped. It is most commonly used in men’s and boys’ shoes, although
+recently some have been invented for use in women’s shoes with curved
+ends, to avoid catching the dress.
+
+LACING. The operation of putting laces in shoes.
+
+LAST. A wooden form over which the shoe is constructed, giving the shoe
+its distinctive shape.
+
+LASTING. The process of making the uppers conform to the last in all
+respects. The operations of assembling and pulling over are parts of
+lasting.
+
+LAYING CHANNEL. Turning down the lip or flap to cover the stitching.
+
+LEVELING. Shaping the sole to the bottom of the last.
+
+LIFT. The name given to one thickness of sole leather used in the heel.
+Top lift is the bottom lift, when the shoe is right side up, and is the
+last piece put on in manufacture.
+
+LINING. The inside part of shoe, generally of cloth (dull) or sheepskin.
+
+LINING CUTTING. The operation of cutting the cloth linings.
+
+LINING-IN. The operation of putting lining inside of the shoe to cover
+insole or part of insole.
+
+LOADING LEATHER. Filling the pores of the leather with glucose to
+increase its weight.
+
+MAKING LININGS. Consists of closing up heel of lining; putting on top and
+side or eyelet stay.
+
+MATCH MARKING. An operation performed on colored uppers, except black, to
+get different parts of the upper the same shade and color, and both shoes
+in the pair alike.
+
+MAT. A term applied to a dull finish kid as distinguished from glazed.
+
+MCKAY SEWED OR MCKAY. A shoe in which the outsole is attached to the
+insole and upper by a method named for the inventor.
+
+MCKAY SEWING. Sewing through and through so that thread is seen inside
+of shoe.
+
+MIDDLE SOLE. Any sole between outsole and insole.
+
+MOCK WELT. McKay-sewed shoe with a double sole and having a leather sock
+lining. It is fair stitched to imitate a welt.
+
+MONKEY SKIN. A peculiar grained skin, and is considered in the trade as a
+fancy leather. It is often imitated.
+
+MOROCCO. A name applied to leather originally made in Morocco. It is a
+sumac-tanned goatskin, red in color, and is used in book binding. The
+name is also applied to a leather made in imitation of this, and to
+heavy, plump goatskins used for shoes.
+
+MOLDING. Shaping the sole to fit the bottom of last.
+
+MULES. The name applied to slippers with no counters or quarters.
+
+NAP. The woolly side of hide, cloth, or felt.
+
+NAUMKEAGING. Smoothing up the bottom with fine sandpaper. Sometimes the
+buffing grain.
+
+NULLIFIER. A shoe with high vamp and quarter, dropping low at the sides,
+made with a short rubber goring for summer or house wear.
+
+OAK TANNED. A process of tanning by means of a substance obtained from
+oak bark.
+
+OIL LEATHER. Leather prepared by currying hides in oil. The hides are
+moist, that the oily matter may be gradually and thoroughly absorbed.
+
+OOZE. A chrome tan calfskin treated on the flesh side in such a manner
+that the long fibers are loosened and form a nap surface; made in many
+colors.
+
+OUTSIDE CUTTING. Cutting the leather parts of the shoe, as vamp, tip,
+top, etc.
+
+OUTSIDE TAP. The tap used outside of men’s or boys’ heavy shoes.
+
+OUTSOLE. The sole next the ground, on which all wear comes.
+
+[Illustration: Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe.]
+
+OXFORD. A low-cut shoe no higher than the instep lace, button, or
+goring, made in men’s, women’s, and children’s sizes.
+
+PACKER HIDES. Hides taken off in the large slaughterhouses. They are
+rated slightly higher in price, because great care and skill are used in
+taking them off.
+
+PACKING. Placing a pair of shoes in a carton.
+
+PACS. Coverings for the feet made of good quality calfskin, similar in
+form and appearance to the Indian moccasin. They do not have sole leather
+bottoms. If properly made, they are waterproof.
+
+PANCAKE. A term applied to one of the many artificial leathers formed
+from leather scraps, shaved thin, and cemented together under heavy
+pressure.
+
+PASTED COUNTER. One that is cut from two pieces of sole leather pasted
+together. It is sometimes called a two-piece counter.
+
+PATENT LEATHER. Varnished leather.
+
+PATTERN. The model by which the pieces comprising the upper of a shoe
+are cut, applied collectively to upper as modified by the differing
+shape of these pieces.
+
+PEBBLE. A term used in the process to bring out the grain of leather and
+give it a roughened or rubbed appearance.
+
+PEGGING. Lasting out soles with pegs.
+
+PERFORATING. Making very small holes around parts of upper. It is
+performed mostly for decoration.
+
+POLISH. The name of ladies’ or misses’ front-lace shoe of higher cut than
+“bal,” and named from Poland, where it originated.
+
+PRESSING. Consists of a flat-press pressure for heels and soles, to
+prevent cracking of edges and to make parts adhere.
+
+PORPOISE. This skin is sometimes used for leather and boot laces, but
+porpoise hides are ordinarily obtained from the white whale.
+
+PULLING LASTS. Removing the lasts from shoes.
+
+PULLING OVER. Pulling upper on the last and tacking it in position.
+
+PUMP. A low-cut shoe originally having no fastenings, such as laces or
+buttons. A pump is cut lower than the instep.
+
+PUMP SOLE. An extra-light single sole, running clear through to the
+back of the heel. A pump sole in former years was distinguished by its
+flexibility and was hand turned.
+
+PUTTING ON TAP. Sticking half sole to the outsole.
+
+QUARTER. The rear part of upper when a full vamp is not used. Term is
+used mostly in women’s, and Oxfords or low shoes.
+
+RAND. Made of sole leather about as wide as a welt, but thin at one edge.
+It is tacked to the heel so as to balance the heel evenly on the sole and
+fill any open space around the edge between sole and heel.
+
+RAPID STITCHING. Sewing the sole to welt.
+
+RELASTING. Consists in putting lasts in shoes from which the original
+lasts have been removed.
+
+REPAIRING. A term applied to filling slight cracks in patent tips or
+patent leather.
+
+ROAN. Sheepskin tanned with sumac. The process is similar in its details
+to that employed for morocco leather, but lacks the graining given to the
+morocco by the grooved rollers in the finishing. It imitates ungrained
+morocco.
+
+ROLLING. The process of passing leather between rolls to make it firm and
+hard. Rolling consists in polishing the bottom on roll and brush.
+
+ROUGH ROUNDING. Rounding outsole to the shape of last, and cutting
+channel in the welt-channeled shoes.
+
+ROYALTIES. Sums paid for the use of machines to machine companies.
+
+RUSSET CALF. Russet-colored calf is made from calfskins.
+
+RUSSET GRAIN. Russet-colored grain is made from a split cowhide.
+
+SABOT. The name of a one-piece wooden shoe, carved from a block of
+basswood. A novelty to Americans, but worn by people in the rural and
+manufacturing sections of Holland, Germany, and France.
+
+SACK LINING. The lining inside the shoe and insole.
+
+SANDAL. The name of a woman’s strap slipper, or a sole worn by children.
+Originally fastened on the foot by straps.
+
+SATIN CALF. A grain split, stuffed with oil, and smooth finished.
+
+SCOURING BREAST. Sandpapering the front part of the heel.
+
+SCREW-FASTENED. A shoe having the sole attached with screws, as in cheap
+or working shoes.
+
+SEAL GRAIN. Usually a flesh split, with an artificial grain which is
+stamped or printed on the finished leather.
+
+SECOND LASTING. The same as relasting. Term used most in turn work.
+
+SHANK. The middle position of the bottom of the foot. Shank supports are
+placed in shoes to stiffen that part of the bottom. They are of steel,
+of wood, or of a combination of leather board and steel, and can be
+placed in the shoe any time before the outsole is laid.
+
+SHANK BURNISHING. Polishing a black shank with hot iron.
+
+SHANK FINISHING. Finishing the shank with blacking or in colors. The top
+lift is generally finished at the same time.
+
+SHANKING OUT. Means making the edge of the shank thinner than the other
+part of the sole, and making it smooth.
+
+SHEEPSKINS. Used largely for linings and for cheap shoes for women and
+children. It is too soft and weak in texture for heavy wear, and liable
+to split and tear.
+
+SHORT VAMP. A foreshortened vamp. The distance between the extreme tip
+and the throat of the vamp shortened for appearances.
+
+SIDES. Leather made from hides which are split into two sides down the
+back.
+
+SIDE LASTING. Lasting the side of the shoe only.
+
+SIZE. Shoes are measured by the length and width. The length is expressed
+by numbers and the widths by letters.
+
+SKINS. A term used to represent the skin covering of small animals, such
+as goats.
+
+SKIRTING. The outer parts of leather (hide), such as shanks, bellies,
+necks, etc.
+
+SKIVING. Making the sole the same thickness in all parts. Skiving means
+cutting or shaving down to a thin edge. This operation may be done in the
+cutting department or stitching department.
+
+SLIP. The name applied to spring heels or to soles. Slip is a thin piece
+of sole leather inserted above the outer sole.
+
+SLUGGING. Driving slugs in heels, on part or all of the heel.
+
+SOCK LINING. The lining for insole, inside of shoe.
+
+SOFT TIP. A term applied to a shoe on which no boxing is used under the
+tip.
+
+SOLES AND SOLE LEATHER. Name applied to pieces of leather of various
+thickness on the bottom of a shoe, usually made from heavy hides of
+leather. There are many varieties of soles: a “full-double” sole has two
+thicknesses of leather extending clear back to the heel; “half-double”
+sole is a full outer sole, with slip extending back to shank; single sole
+is self-defining; “tap” is a half sole.
+
+SOLE LAYING. Sole laying is the operation of laying the outsole.
+
+SORTING. The process of selecting and sorting soles, so that they may be
+put up in different qualities.
+
+SPEWING. Shoes in stock sometimes become coated with a grayish white,
+powdery substance, that looks like mildew. This formation on leather that
+is not fully seasoned is called spewing, and the deposit is called bloom.
+It can readily be wiped off, and does not indicate any serious defect or
+trouble with the leather. It is not a mildew or growth, but apparently
+an exudation of materials used in tanning.
+
+SPLITS. A name applied to split leather, that is, two or more parts of
+the hide.
+
+SPRING HEEL. Consists of one or more lifts used between the outsole and
+upper. It is seen mostly in children’s shoes and is often called wedge
+heel. It can also be put on outside instead of under the outsole.
+
+STAMPING. The operation of putting size and width on the inside of the
+shoe. Parts of the uppers are often stamped or marked so that the whole
+are put together properly in the stitching room.
+
+STAY. The name given to any piece of leather put in the upper to
+strengthen it or to strengthen a seam.
+
+STAMPING BOTTOMS. The operation of stamping name on bottom. It is often
+performed in finishing rooms.
+
+STAMPING CARTON. Putting the size, width, and other marks on carton.
+
+STAMPING SIZES. Stamping sizes on heel part of the sole.
+
+STANDARD-FASTENED. Nailing bottom on standard screw machine.
+
+STAYING. Putting on a stay, generally heel stay.
+
+STITCH SEPARATING. Marking between stitches so as to make them show to
+good advantage.
+
+STITCH DOWN. A term applied to a flexible shoe used in the army, in which
+the top is turned out instead of under and stitched through the sole.
+
+STITCHED ALOFT. A term used to indicate that the sewing stitches show
+on the bottom. No channel is necessary in this sole. It may be a slight
+groove. In stitching, the shoe is held bottom up, therefore the name
+“stitched aloft.”
+
+STRAIGHT LAST. One that is neither right nor left, and a shoe made over
+such a last can be worn on either foot. This term is sometimes applied to
+right and left shoes that have a barely perceptible outside swing.
+
+STRIPPING. Consists of cutting in strips wide enough to cut soles all of
+equal size in length.
+
+SUEDE. A trade term applied to kid skins, finished on the flesh side.
+
+SWING. A term applied to the curve of the outer edge of a sole.
+
+TACKING ON. Consists in laying the outsole on McKay’s lasted shoes.
+
+TACK PULLING AND TRIMMING OUT. Consist of preparing bottom for welting.
+It also makes it better for the operation.
+
+TAMPICO. A variety of goat skins coming from the province of Tampico,
+Central America.
+
+TAP. Half of a complete sole, often called half sole when used under
+outsole.
+
+TAN. Tan is a sort of brownish leather.
+
+TANNING. Tanning is the process of converting hides or skins into
+leather.
+
+TAP TRIMMING. Shaping the tap to conform to the sole.
+
+TAWING. The process of making leather by soaking hides in a solution of
+salt and alum, or by packing them down with dry salt and powdered alum.
+Used to prepare skin rugs and furs.
+
+TEMPERING. The operation of wetting the leather in water to take hardness
+out and make leather “mull,” so that it may be worked easier.
+
+TIP. The toe piece which is stitched to the vamp and outside of it. Stock
+tip is a tip of the same material as the vamp. Patent tip is a patent
+leather tip. Diamond tip refers to the shape extending back to a point.
+Imitation tip-stitching across the vamp is imitation of a tip.
+
+TIP CUTTING. Cutting the tip which goes on the toe of the vamp.
+
+TOE AND HEEL LASTING. Lasting heel and toe.
+
+TOE PIECE. A piece attached to cut-off vamp to lengthen it.
+
+TONGUE. A narrow strip of leather necessary on all laced shoes.
+
+TOP. The part of the upper above the vamp; tip of shoe.
+
+TOP CUTTING. Cutting the top only.
+
+TOP FACING. The strip of leather or band of cloth around the top of the
+shoe on the inside is called the top facing. It adds to the finish of the
+lining, and is sometimes used to advertise the name of manufacturers by a
+design of letters woven or sewed on it.
+
+TOP LIFT. The lift which is next to the ground.
+
+TOP LIFT SCOURING. Sandpapering top lift of heel to make it smooth.
+
+TOP STITCHING. Consists of stitching across the top and down the side.
+
+TREEING. Shaping the shoe, making it smooth. Produces the same effect
+as ironing, although no hot iron is used. It makes the upper plump and
+gives it a good finish and “feel.”
+
+TRIMMING CUTTING. Cutting stays, facings, and other small parts of the
+upper.
+
+TRIMMING VAMP. Cutting off hanging or surplus thread.
+
+TURNING. To turn shoe right side out. Also turning upper right side out.
+
+TURNED SHOE. A lady’s fine shoe that is made wrong side out, then turned
+right side out, which operation necessitates the use of a thin, flexible
+sole of good quality. The sole is fastened to the last, the upper is
+lasted over it wrong side out, then the two are sewed together, the
+thread catching through a channel cut in the edge of the sole. The seam
+does not come through to the bottom of the sole where it would chafe the
+foot on inside.
+
+UPPER. A term applied collectively to the upper parts of a shoe.
+
+UNGRAINED. Smooth surface.
+
+VAMP. The lower or front part of the upper of a shoe. It is the most
+important piece of the upper and should be cut from the strongest and
+cleanest part of the skin. “Cut-off” vamp is one that extends only to the
+tip, instead of being continued to the toe and lasted under with the tip.
+Whole vamp is one that extends to the heel without a seam.
+
+VAMPING. Stitching the vamp to the top.
+
+VAMP CUTTING. Cutting vamp with or without the tip.
+
+VELOUR. A finish for calf leather. It is the French name for velvet and
+is used in the shoe trade for a patent chrome-tanned calf leather. It is
+an excellent leather and has a smooth and velvety finish.
+
+VELLUM. A name for skins that are made into a variety of parchment.
+
+VENEERING. Consists in making soles, whole or part, heavier, by means of
+leather-board or other material fastened to the sole by an adhesive.
+
+VESTING. A material originally designed for making vests. As used in
+shoes, it is made with fancy-figured weave, having a backing of stiff
+buckram or rubber-treated tissue to strengthen it.
+
+VISCOLIZING. A patent method of waterproofing sole leather by the use of
+partly emulsified oils with a water-resisting tendency. Viscolized soles
+are used in hunting and sporting boots.
+
+VICI. A patent trade name for a brand of chrome-tanned kid.
+
+WASH LEATHER. An inferior quality of chamois.
+
+WELT. A narrow strip of leather that is sewed to the upper of a shoe
+with an insole leaving the edge of the welt extending outward, so that
+the outsole can be attached by sewing through both welt and outsole,
+around the outside of the shoe. The attaching of the sole and upper
+thus involves two sewings, first the insole, welt and upper, then the
+outsole to the welt. The name is applied to the shoe itself when made
+in this way to distinguish it from a turned, or McKay sewed shoe. This
+is the method used by cobblers in the production of hand-sewed shoes to
+fasten the sole and upper together. Goodyear welt is a welt in which the
+sewing is done by a machine named for the inventor. There are very few
+hand-welted shoes made.
+
+WELT BEATING. The flattening out of the welt, making it smooth.
+
+WELTING. Sewing the welt to shoe.
+
+WHITE ALUM. Bleached leather tawed with white alum.
+
+WOODEN CASE. Large box for twelve or more pairs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER TEN
+
+LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE
+
+
+The use of gloves is so old that relics of them have been found in the
+habitations of the cave dwellers. The Romans used them as decorative
+articles of dress and the Greeks to protect the hands when doing heavy
+work.
+
+The gloves of ladies and gentlemen in the days of Queen Elizabeth,
+and before and after, were most beautiful in hand workmanship and
+embellishments, but they were usually shapeless things, and in these days
+no one would wear them; they are not to be compared with the elegant
+style and artistic finish of the modern product.
+
+When the social world was restricted, so to speak, in the numbers of
+its members who could afford some of life’s luxuries, the use of the
+glove was confined largely to royalty, nobility, and the well-to-do.
+And the trade not being extensive, prices were high--being added to by
+decorative elaboration in needlework in order that the manufacturer and
+his employees might extract as much money as possible from the ultimate
+buyer. While glove making is now one of the stabilities of modern
+manufacture, it is, nevertheless, constantly changing in styles, due to
+eagerness for novelties and new fashions.
+
+Glove making of leather, in a rough, crude form, was carried on in this
+country to a very limited extent in New York State as early as 1760, by
+glove makers brought from Scotland to settle on the grants of Sir William
+Johnson, in Fulton county. But there was no general market for the home
+product until one was found in Albany in 1825. These early gloves, crude
+and clumsy, were cut with shears from leather by means of pasteboard
+patterns, and men did the cutting and women the sewing. Dies were later
+introduced, and this led to a great improvement in the character of the
+output.
+
+But a still greater step forward was taken when the sewing machine was
+introduced in 1852. This abolished handwork entirely, but still the
+industry remained largely of a domestic nature, since it could be carried
+on at home with a machine as well as in a factory. Later steam power was
+installed in factories with which to run the machines. The cutting of
+gloves, and the stitching on the backs, was done before the gloves were
+sent out to be completed in workers’ homes.
+
+As in everything wherein power can be substituted for hand labor in
+these days, the methods of glove manufacture have undergone a great
+transformation. The treating of skins in a great tub, three feet deep,
+whole dyeing and scouring, in rooms of high temperature, has been
+displaced by putting skins and colors into a cube-shaped box, which,
+revolving with an irregular motion, produces the same results more
+quickly than by the primitive way. But when color is to be applied to but
+one side the process is the same as of old,--hand use of a brush while
+the skin is stretched out on a slab.
+
+When taken from the stock on hand to be made into gloves, the first thing
+done to skins by some glove makers is to “feed” them with eggs--not eggs
+of suspicious merits, but good enough for table use. And of these nothing
+is used but the yolk. One glove maker imports from China large quantities
+of the yolks of duck eggs for his work, and his yearly consumption of
+yolks amounts to seventeen thousand.
+
+When the skins leave the dyehouse, they are rapidly dried in steam-heated
+lofts; and while stiff and rough they are, or were, worked into softness
+and smoothness over a wooden upright standard, called a stake, at the
+top of which is fitted a blunt semicircular knife. Over this the skin is
+drawn by hand, back and forth, until it becomes as pliable and delicate
+as silk. When this work was done manually it was most laborious. But now
+it has been mostly taken over by very ingenious machinery, which looks,
+in operation, as if it would tear a skin into fragments by the way it
+snaps and pulls at it, but which is adjustable to such nicety of action
+and power that the work is done exactly as it is wanted.
+
+The next operation is to pare the skins to uniformity of thickness. This
+also was handwork for a long time, done with a peculiarly shaped knife,
+but now emery-coated wheels, with rounded edges, are used by the workers,
+who, with their aid, do just as good and much faster work in drawing and
+thinning the skins with absolute precision. This completes the treatment
+of the skin.
+
+Now the function of the cutter begins, and he must be a workman of
+experience and good judgment, in that he must contend with the inconstant
+inelasticity of the skin, reducing it to uniform resistance. He must
+get so many pieces of glove size from each skin, and suit the pieces
+to particular features of the skin. When done with a skin he must have
+left, as useless, only trifling strips and shreds. The shapeliness of
+the glove which a woman draws over her hand, depends altogether upon the
+intelligence and skill of the cutter. In American factories the cutter is
+usually from some glove-making center in Europe and from a family whose
+occupation has been glove making for centuries.
+
+A punch next cuts these glove pieces into shape, forming and dividing the
+fingers, slitting the buttonholes, providing side pieces for fingers and
+thumbs, and also the fragments used for strengthening the buttonholes.
+The sewing, formerly the handiwork of women, is now done on machines
+of capacity for exceptionally fine quality of intricate stitching. The
+number of glove sizes made is sufficient to meet every likely demand.
+When sewn, and the buttons or fastenings put on, they pass beneath the
+critical eye of an inspector for scrutiny as to faults. Then they are
+finally shaped on a hot metal hand, smoothed, banded, boxed, and sent to
+the salesroom for shipment.
+
+The first and fourth fingers of a glove are completed by gussets, or
+strips, sewed only on the inner side; but the second and third fingers
+require gussets on both sides to complete the fingers. In addition to
+these, small, diamond-shaped pieces are sewed in at the roots of the
+fingers. Special care is necessary in sewing in the thumb pieces, as
+poorly made gloves usually give way at this point.
+
+Natural lined gloves are now common enough, although it is not many years
+since they were regarded as impracticable. These are made from pelts of
+various animals with the hair left on the skin to form the lining.
+
+
+AUTOMOBILE AND FURNITURE LEATHER
+
+For automobile and furniture leather only choice hides should be used.
+The kind of hides generally employed for this class of leather are French
+and Swiss, as these run full and plump on the bellies, are free from cuts
+on the flesh and are of clear grain. The hides are trimmed before placing
+them in the soaking pits, all useless parts, such as nose, shanks, etc.,
+being cut away.
+
+After remaining in soak for a day or two, the hides are hauled out,
+fleshed, and returned to the soaks for thorough softening. When
+thoroughly soaked, they are toggled and reeled into the first lime. The
+first lime must be a weak, mellow lime, or a harsh grain will show after
+the leather is tanned. The hides are reeled over into stronger limes
+every day for seven days, when they are ready for unhairing. After coming
+from the limes, the hides should go into a pit of soft water heated to
+about ninety degrees Fahrenheit and left over night before starting in
+to unhair. After unhairing, they are thrown into a vat of clean water
+and thoroughly worked out on the grain to remove short hairs and scud
+and are then ready for bating. One that has a little bacterial action
+is preferred to an acid bate. After bating, the hides are given a good
+scudding on the grain and are then ready for the tanning liquors.
+
+The liquors are made of hemlock and oak and are used very weak on the
+start. The hides are suspended for a day in a liquor not over six degrees
+specific gravity reading in strength, and the following day shifted over
+into a stronger liquor. The stock is given stronger liquors every day
+until tanned enough for splitting.
+
+The stock is struck out smoothly and brought to the machine for
+splitting. The buffing is first taken away and sold for hat bands,
+pocket-books, etc. The grains are finished and the splits are returned to
+the tanning liquors to be thoroughly tanned. As soon as the splits are
+tanned, they are washed up, drained, and then drummed in the drum in a
+sumac liquor. They are now scoured, and, after being well set out, are
+given a good oiling with cod oil.
+
+They are now tacked out on the frames and dried out. They are next taken
+from the frames and boarded by hand over the table. The splits are taken
+to the japan shop and are tacked out again and are ready for the first
+coat of daub. Two coats are applied. After each coat, the splits are well
+rubbed down, when they receive the slicker coat. The color coats are now
+applied, and after drying out, the leather is grained up and finished.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER ELEVEN
+
+RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE
+
+
+Examine the rubbers we wear during the winter and stormy weather.
+
+Rubber shoe coverings are made to protect the shoe from water and snow
+and may be in the form of either slippers or arctics. The covering is
+rendered waterproof by means of a compound rubber.
+
+Rubber is the name given to a coagulated milky juice obtained from many
+different trees, vines, and shrubs that grow on that part of the earth’s
+surface which forms a band some three or four hundred miles on either
+side of the equator.
+
+[Illustration: Crude Rubber.]
+
+Rubber is graded commercially, according to the district where it is
+found. In the order of importance it may be divided into three general
+sorts, viz., American, African, and Asiatic. The best and largest
+quantities of rubber come from Brazil, along the banks of the Amazon
+River. The countries in the northern and western part of South America,
+and the Central American States and Mexico furnish considerable rubber.
+Eastern and western Africa also produce many kinds of rubber in large
+quantities, though somewhat inferior to the Brazilian product. The
+Asiatic rubbers are unimportant in quantity, and, excepting the rubber
+obtained from cultivated trees in Ceylon, are decidedly inferior in
+quality.
+
+The fluid rubber obtained from Brazil is called Para and is used
+principally in the manufacture of rubber footwear. The method of
+gathering and coagulating the rubber juice (called latex) varies in the
+different countries. The native first clears a space under a number of
+trees and proceeds to tap the trees with a short-handled ax, having a
+small blade, by cutting gashes in the bark. A cup is fixed under each
+cut to catch the fluid as it flows out. As fast as the cups are filled,
+they are emptied into a large vessel and carried to the camp to be
+coagulated. A fire is started in a shallow hole in the ground, and palm
+nuts, which make a dense smoke, are thrown on. An earthen cover which has
+a small opening on top is placed over the fire, allowing the smoke to
+escape through the opening. A wooden paddle is first dipped in clay water
+and then into the latex and then held over the smoke. The heat coagulates
+a thin layer of rubber on the paddle. It is dipped again and again in the
+latex and smoked each time. After being dipped many times, a lump (called
+biscuit) of rubber is formed. A cut is made in the biscuit and the paddle
+removed. Then the rubber is ready for market. The world’s crop of rubber
+in 1911 was about ninety thousand tons.
+
+Few people realize the number of operations necessary to produce from the
+crude biscuit of India rubber the highly finished rubber shoe of to-day.
+Briefly stated, the various steps are washing, drying, compounding,
+calendering, cutting the various parts, making or putting these parts
+together, varnishing, vulcanizing, and packing. Each of these processes
+requires a distinct and separate department, and many of these processes
+are subdivided into minor operations.
+
+The huge stock of Para rubber, that is rubber obtained from the Amazon
+section, to be found in any of the leading rubber factories counts well
+up into the thousands of dollars. With rubber at or near $1.50 per pound,
+a stock of ten to fifty tons runs up into the five or six figures.
+
+This crude rubber, as it comes from the Amazon, contains more or less
+dirt, pebbles, and other foreign substances, which must be removed.
+
+The large cakes of crude rubber are first broken up by a cracker machine,
+consisting of two large, revolving steel cylinders, from which the
+product falls into pans or trays. It goes then to a machine known as a
+“washer” or “sheeter,” where it is run between revolving cylinders, upon
+which a continuous spray of clean water is maintained. After being rolled
+into rough sheets, it is put into a tank, from which it is taken to the
+“beater” machine, in which water runs continuously, and then it is washed
+again and “sheeted out.” It is then dried in one of two ways.
+
+(1) The older way. The sheets are hung over rods in a large room, and
+allowed to dry in the air. To facilitate the same, a fan or blower is
+often used to cause a circulation and removal of the moisture-laden air.
+This requires a period of from one to two or three months.
+
+[Illustration: Washing and Drying.]
+
+(2) The second method is called vacuum drying. This process is gradually
+being introduced, so that now probably more rubber is dried in vacuum
+than by air. The vacuum drier consists of a large iron cylinder filled
+with plates, through which steam is allowed to circulate. The rubber
+is placed on the plates and the air is exhausted from the cylinder by
+means of an air pump until very nearly twenty-six degrees of vacuum are
+obtained. By this process only from two to three hours are required to
+produce perfectly dry rubber.
+
+The making of a rubber shoe is not the simple matter which might at
+first be supposed. An ordinary rubber shoe consists of at least seven
+or eight different parts, sometimes twenty-one parts to a pair, while
+a high-button gaiter has seventeen distinct parts, and a rubber boot
+has twenty-three different pieces. There are insoles, outsoles, stays,
+piping, foxing, and a dozen other different pieces, each one of which
+is necessary to the proper construction of a rubber shoe or boot. The
+thinner sheets for the uppers are cut by hand, the deft work of the
+cutters in following the patterns outlined on the sheets being the result
+of years of practice. The sheets of rubber from which the uppers and
+soles are cut are at this stage of the work plastic and very sticky. It
+is necessary on this account to cut the various pieces one by one, and
+keep them separate. The soles and some of the heavier pieces are dried
+out by the machine, and the heels are made by a special machine, but by
+far the greater part is done by wonderfully skilled hands. All of these
+parts which go to make a shoe, or the twenty-three parts which go into
+a boot, are collected and sent to the making department, which, in most
+factories, is a large room containing several hundred operatives, each
+working by herself, and bringing the many separate parts into the fully
+finished footwear.
+
+[Illustration: Calender Room.]
+
+The sheets of rubber, after being dried, are taken to the “compound”
+room, where they are sprinkled with whiting, to prevent sticking, and
+weighed. Next they are taken into the calender room to a “mixer,” by
+means of which the rubber is combined with other substances, which
+include sulphur, litharge, whiting, lampblack, tar, resin, lime, palm
+oil, and linseed oil.
+
+There are different calendering machines. The ones called the upper
+calenders form sheets of rubber stock for the upper part of the shoe. The
+soling calenders form the stock for the sole or bottom part of the shoe;
+other calender machines are used to coat a layer of gum on one side of
+the fabrics used for lining and various strips, fillers, toe, and heel
+pieces. The gum sheets are sent to the cutting room.
+
+Generally, linings for nine pairs of shoes are cut at once. The linings
+are cut both by hand and by machine. Men who cut with dies, by hand,
+stand at the bench and use iron mallets, like those used in cutting
+heels. Inner soles, heel pieces, and linings are all cut by means of dies
+in the same manner.
+
+The edges of the several parts are spread with cement, and then the
+parts are taken to the making room and distributed. In the making
+department the boots and shoes are put together. Women make the light
+overshoes; men make the heavy ones. Rubbers are made by women, but men
+put on the outer soles.
+
+Linings are first applied smoothly to a wooden last and cemented
+together, the cement side out. The rubber parts are then stuck on and
+rolled firmly with a small hand roller. Young women become very skilled
+in this work, taking up the several parts in rapid succession, placing
+them accurately upon the last, and rolling and pounding them firmly
+together.
+
+[Illustration: Cutting Room.]
+
+Perhaps the most interesting single process is that of putting the rubber
+boot together. This work is done by men, and requires, in addition
+to accurate eyesight, rapid and very deft movements of the hand and
+considerable strength. No nails, tacks, or stitching are required. The
+natural adhesiveness of the rubber, assisted by the use of rubber
+cement, holds the parts solidly together.
+
+In the making of the shoe the last is covered with the various pieces
+which are so made as to adhere where they are placed. It is exact and
+nice work fitting all these pieces perfectly, each edge overlapping just
+so far and no farther. The lighter shoes are made by women, but the heavy
+lumbermen’s shoes, arctics, and especially the boots, are made by men,
+for this work needs strength as well as dexterity.
+
+The goods which require varnishing are put on racks and treated with a
+mixture of boiled linseed oil, naphtha, and other materials, which are
+applied with brushes, and impart a gloss to the surface.
+
+On vulcanizing boots and shoes, the shoes are placed on racks supported
+by iron cars, which are run over tracks into the vulcanizing chamber.
+This consists principally of a large room provided with a steam coil on
+the floor. The temperature rarely exceeds two hundred and sixty degrees
+Fahrenheit. In vulcanizing shoes, the heat is increased gradually from
+the beginning, about one hundred and eighty degrees Fahrenheit, otherwise
+the goods would be blistered, due to the rapid evaporation of moisture
+and other volatile constituents. They are kept in these heaters from six
+to seven hours. This causes a union of sulphur and rubber, which is not
+affected by heat or cold.
+
+They are wheeled on another truck to the packing room, where they are
+inspected, taken from the lasts, tied together in pairs, or placed in
+cartons, as the case may be. They are then sent to the shipping room to
+be packed in cases ready to be delivered to the cars waiting at a side
+track of the railroad, or sent to the storehouse until they shall be
+called for by the jobbers or retail dealers.
+
+An important branch of the rubber business is the manufacture of tennis
+shoes. This is a generic term, which is applied to all kinds of footwear
+having cloth tops and rubber soles. As the name indicates, they were
+first used in playing the game of tennis, but they have come into very
+general use as warm weather and vacation shoes, and every year shows
+an increased popularity. These shoes are made in a similar manner to
+the rubber shoes, the rubber soles being cemented to the cloth uppers
+and vulcanized the same as the rubber overshoes. Many different styles
+are made, and each year shows some improvements in the shapes, in the
+textiles which are used, in the colors and combinations of soles and
+uppers.
+
+Rubber shoes should not be expected to give satisfactory service unless
+properly fitted. If too short, too narrow, or if worn over leathers
+with extra heavy taps, or unusually thick, wide soles, strains will be
+brought upon parts not designed to stand them and the rubber will give
+way. Rubber goods, particularly boots, if too large will wrinkle and a
+continued wrinkling and bending is liable to cause cracking.
+
+Extreme heat or cold should be avoided. Rubber boots or shoes should
+never be dried by placing them near a heater of any kind. If left near
+a stove, register, or radiator, the rubber is liable to dry and crack.
+If left out of doors in winter, or in an extremely cold place, they will
+freeze. Then when the warm foot is put into them and the rubbers are
+worn, the rubber will crack.
+
+Oil, grease, milk, or blood will cause rubber to decay in a very short
+time. If spattered with any of these, the rubber should be promptly and
+thoroughly cleaned with warm water and soap.
+
+The oil in leather tops will rot rubber, so that care should be taken
+in storing and packing to prevent the leather and rubber from coming in
+contact.
+
+[Illustration: Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe.]
+
+Various heavy goods are advertised as proof against snagging. It should
+be remembered, however, that no rubber can be made strong enough to be
+absolutely proof against tearing or puncturing by extremely sharp edges,
+such as stiff stubble, sharp-edged rocks, broken glass, etc.
+
+Mud, barnyard dirt, or filth of any kind should never be allowed to dry
+on rubbers. They should be cleaned as carefully as leather boots or shoes.
+
+Exposure to strong sunlight for any length of time produces an effect on
+rubbers similar to that of putting them near a stove or radiator. Rubbers
+should not be left in the sun to dry. When not in use they should be kept
+in a cool, dark place.
+
+
+RUBBER HEELS
+
+Rubber heels are generally made for boots and shoes as follows. The
+compounded rubber is sheeted on a calender roll, on a drum, until
+several layers are obtained, thus making a sheet of about one inch in
+thickness. The heel is cut out from this sheet by means of a die and
+placed in a mold. It is there subjected to an extremely high pressure,
+generally obtained by hydraulic power. The plates of the press are heated
+with live steam. The heels are removed at the end of nine or ten minutes
+and the sheet which was formerly nearly an inch in thickness is now only
+about half an inch and has by pressure been molded into the shape of the
+heel desired, is semi or partially vulcanized, and also is imprinted upon
+the bottom with the name or other brand of the company.
+
+The cup-shaped portion of the heel is now coated with a layer of rubber
+cement, and firmly placed on the boot ready to go to the vulcanizer,
+where vulcanizing of the heel is then completed.
+
+[Illustration: Heel-making Department.]
+
+Many articles of rubber are vulcanized by the use of chloride of sulphur,
+which process is sometimes known as “cold cure.” The action of sulphur
+chloride itself is so violent that it must be diluted, and for this
+purpose carbon bisulfide is often used. In some cases, as, for example,
+the manufacture of tobacco pouches, the articles are submerged for from
+one to two minutes in the liquid, then removed and washed thoroughly. In
+another case, as in the manufacture of some kinds of rubber cloth, such
+as hospital sheeting, the coated cloth is suspended in a suitable room
+and the chloride of sulphur and carbon bisulfide mixed and evaporated
+by action of heat so that the cloth is subjected to the action of vapor
+alone. Only articles with comparatively thin walls can be successfully
+vulcanized by the cold cure, as at best the vulcanizing action of the
+chloride is only superficial.
+
+No account of vulcanization processes as employed in the manufacture of
+rubber goods is complete without the mention of “steam cure.” A great
+variety of rubber goods under the general term of mechanical sundries
+are cured by this method. This includes rubber matting, door mats, water
+bottles, druggists’ sundries, etc. This process consists in brief of
+submitting the articles to be vulcanized to the action of live steam
+for from half an hour to an hour, or until the goods are thoroughly
+vulcanized. The temperature and duration of time required depend to a
+considerable extent upon the thickness of the walls of the article. In
+order to prevent the goods from being pitted and damaged by the action of
+steam, they are wrapped with cloth or imbedded in pans of soapstone. A
+great variety of rubber tubing is cured by this method.
+
+In rubber cloth making, the crude rubber is put through the washing
+process, dried and mixed with sulphur, litharge, coloring matter, etc.,
+and then is taken to the cement room, where it is “cut” with naphtha,
+forming a thick paste or dough. This is taken to the spreading room in
+large tubs and fed into the roller machine, which is like a long table
+made of steam pipes placed horizontally in a single layer. Below one end
+is a roll of cloth, which is passed between two iron rollers on the end.
+The dough is fed in between these rollers and is spread smoothly over
+the cloth, which is rolled up and removed to a heating room, where it
+is unrolled and hung on racks, and then subjected to sufficient heat to
+cause the combination of the sulphur and rubber.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY IN THE MANUFACTURE OF RUBBER GOODS
+
+Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance in all rubber
+factories of the chemical department. During the last two or three years
+there has been an unusual development along these lines, and to-day no
+factory for the manufacture of rubber goods is complete that does not
+possess a well-equipped laboratory. Not only does this department enable
+the manufacturer to control the purity and uniformity of his compounding
+ingredients and the innumerable grades of crude rubber, but, what is of
+even greater importance, it enables him to inaugurate research work as
+applied to his particular line of manufacture. This part of laboratory
+work is already producing results not only of scientific interest, but of
+very great practical and economic value. Still another rôle of the modern
+chemical laboratory is to exercise a control over the finished material,
+so that the manager of the works may be in possession daily of reasons
+for any variation detrimental to the standard of his products.
+
+
+RUBBER TERMS
+
+ANKLE PIECE. A large piece of light sheeted gum, which goes around the
+ankle and extends about halfway up the leg.
+
+BACK STAY. A piece of frictioned sheeting similar to the side stay in
+shape and placed at the back of the heel and ankle.
+
+GUM COUNTER. A piece cut out of sheeted gum, on the under side of which
+is placed a counter form or a piece of frictioned sheeting.
+
+OUTER FILLER. A filling sole cut from rag-coated or frictioned sheeting,
+and designed to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused by bringing the
+edges of the gum vamp and counter underneath.
+
+INNER SOLE. Usually made of felt or sheeting coated on one side with
+rag stock. In lasting up, the bottom edges of the lining (which have
+previously been cemented) are pulled under and adhere to the inner sole.
+
+LEG COVER. A piece of sheeted gum rolled upon a piece of frictioned
+sheeting called the leg form.
+
+LEG LINING. The lining, usually of felt or wool netting, for the leg.
+
+PARA. A name given to rubber from Brazil.
+
+PIPING. Strips of frictioned sheeting used to join the lining together
+over the instep and up the back, and also to hold the lining up on the
+tree by passing a strip over the top.
+
+RAG COUNTER. Quarter stiff is a counter piece cut out of rag-coated or
+frictioned sheeting, which gives stiffness to the counter.
+
+SIDE STAY. A spike-shaped piece of frictioned sheeting, placed on each
+side of the ankle.
+
+RAG SOLE. A sole stiffening cut out of a sheet of rag stock, which covers
+the whole bottom. The edges are skived to make a perfect edge.
+
+TOE FILLER. A rag-stock filling sole to fill up the hollow on the bottom
+caused by attaching the lining to the inner sole.
+
+[Illustration: Parts of a Rubber Boot.]
+
+TOE LINING. The lining for the vamp, of the same material as the leg
+lining.
+
+VAMP. A piece cut out of sheeted gum.
+
+VAMP FORM. A piece of frictioned sheeting cut to the shape of the vamp,
+and put on over the toe lining.
+
+WEB STRAPS. Straps put on with the joined ends between the leg lining and
+the leg cover, and forming a loop on the inside of the boot to pull it on
+with.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER TWELVE
+
+HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR
+
+
+We find that primitive footwear, in common with all other beginnings,
+was of the crudest nature and took the form of the simple sandal. It is
+probable that man first protected his foot from the rough way by simple
+pieces of hide, which were bound to the bottom of the foot. The sandal,
+among the most primitive, is the type of footwear worn to-day. The sandal
+was simply bound to the foot by thongs of hides, which were brought
+between the toes and tied around the ankle.
+
+At about the Elizabethan period, shoemaking had really become a very
+fine art. Some foot creations were made by the Court shoemakers that
+reflected the individual taste of the monarch, and so great was the
+competition to produce something novel that very often the styles
+assumed a grotesque aspect. The toes were elongated so that sometimes
+they were carried up and fastened by cords and tassels to the tops of the
+shoes, and it finally became necessary to enact a law to prevent such
+outrageous types of footwear. The slippers of this period were of the
+extremely high-heeled variety, and small fortunes were often spent on
+their ornamentation. They were mostly of the turn-shoe type, and samples
+which are preserved show the excellent workmanship that was in vogue at
+that time.
+
+We now come to the first shoemaker in America. When the _Mayflower_
+made the second trip to America, she carried among others a shoemaker
+named Thomas Beard, who brought with him a supply of hides. Seven
+years afterwards there arrived one Phillip Kertland, a native of
+Buckinghamshire, who settled in Lynn in 1636.
+
+Kertland was the pioneer shoemaker of Lynn and for years he successfully
+worked at his craft, teaching others his methods and ways, so that
+fifteen years after his arrival, Lynn was not only supplying the
+requirements of its inhabitants, but was also sending a part of its
+products to the port of Boston. As early as 1648 we find tanning and
+shoemaking mentioned as an industry of the colony of Virginia, special
+mention being made of the fact that a planter named Matthews employed
+eight shoemakers on his premises. Legal restraint was placed on the
+cordwainer in Connecticut in 1656, and in Rhode Island in 1706, while
+in New York the business of tanning and shoemaking is known to have
+been firmly established previous to the capitulation of the Province
+to England in 1664. In 1698 the industry was carried on profitably in
+Philadelphia, and in 1721 the Colonial Legislature of Pennsylvania passed
+an act regulating the material and the prices of the boot and shoe
+industry.
+
+Prior to 1815 most of the shoes were hand sewed, a few having been copper
+nailed. The heavier shoes were welted and the lighter ones turned. This
+method of manufacture was changed, about the year 1815, by the adoption
+of the wooden shoe peg, which was invented in 1811 and soon came into
+general use. Up to this time little or no progress had been made in
+the methods of manufacture. The shoemaker sat on his bench, and with
+scarcely any other instrument than a hammer, knife, and wooden shoulder
+stick, cut, stitched, hammered, and sewed until the shoe was completed.
+Previous to the year 1845, which marked the first successful application
+of machinery to American shoemaking, this industry was in the strictest
+sense a hand process, and the young man who chose it for his vocation
+was apprenticed for seven years, during which time he was taught every
+detail of the art. He was instructed in the preparation of the insole
+and outsole, depending almost entirely upon his eye for the proper
+proportions; taught to prepare pegs and drive them, for the pegged shoe
+was the common type of footwear in the first half of the last century;
+and familiarized himself with the making of turned and welt shoes, which
+have always been considered the highest types of shoemaking, as they
+require exceptional skill of the artisan in channeling the insole and
+outsole by hand, rounding the sole, sewing the welt, and stitching the
+outsole. After having served his apprenticeship, it was the custom for
+the full-fledged shoemaker to start on what was known as “whipping the
+cat,” which meant traveling from town to town, living with a family while
+making a year’s supply of shoes for each member, then moving on to fill
+engagements previously made.
+
+The change from which has been evolved our present factory system began
+in the latter part of the 18th century, when a system of sizes had been
+drafted, and shoemakers more enterprising than their fellows gathered
+about them groups of workmen, and took upon themselves the dignity of
+manufacturers.
+
+It was soon found that the master workman could largely increase his
+income by employing other men to do the work while he directed their
+efforts, and this gradually led to a division of the labor: the shoe
+uppers, which had prior to this time been sewed by men using waxed thread
+with bristles, now were done by women, who often took the work home.
+
+One workman cut the leather, others sewed the uppers, and still others
+fastened uppers to soles, each workman handling only one part in the
+process of manufacture.
+
+We find that in the year 1795 the evolution of the factory system had
+reached a stage where in Lynn alone there were two hundred master
+workmen, employing six hundred journeymen and turning out three hundred
+thousand pairs of shoes per year. The entire shoe was then made under one
+roof, and generally from leather that was tanned on the premises.
+
+Factory buildings were not at this time of a very pretentious nature
+and did not by any means represent the amount of work undertaken by the
+proprietor; for the small ten by ten factories, which are even to-day in
+existence in some of the backyards of Lynn homes, came into existence
+at this time. Many farmers found that shoemaking was a remunerative
+occupation in the winter, and they, and perhaps their neighbors, gathered
+in these shops and took from the different factories shoes on which to
+fasten the soles, or uppers to bind, which, after completion of the work,
+were returned to the factory, where they were finished and sent to market
+packed in wooden boxes. It was in this way that the industry prospered
+and developed up to the period of the introduction of machines, which
+happened but a little over half a century ago.
+
+Up to the year 1811 absolutely no machinery was used in the making of
+shoes. This year shoe pegs were invented and a machine for making them.
+The pegged shoe became very widely worn, but it was not until 1835 that
+any machine for driving pegs was made, and even at this time the machine
+was but an indifferent success. It was a hand machine and its work was by
+no means of a reliable nature.
+
+The first machine to be widely accepted by the trade was the “rolling
+machine.” This was used for rolling the sole leather under pressure, and
+it is said that a man could perform in a minute with this machine the
+same office that he would have required half an hour to have performed
+with the old-fashioned lapstone and hammer. This was followed in 1848 by
+the most important invention, the “sewing machine,” which was perfected
+by Elias Howe, and was soon followed by a machine which sewed with waxed
+thread and made it possible to sew the uppers of shoes in a much more
+rapid, reliable, and satisfactory manner than had ever been done by hand.
+This, too, was soon followed by a machine which split the sole leather
+and by another for buffing or removing the grain.
+
+In 1855 William F. Trowbridge, who was a partner in the firm of F.
+Brigham & Company, of Feltonville, Massachusetts, then a part of
+Marlboro, conceived the idea of driving by horse power the machines then
+in use. The introduction of power became very general, so that in the
+year 1860 there were scarcely any factories which were not driven by
+either steam or water power.
+
+The year 1858 was marked by the invention by Lyman R. Blake of the
+McKay sewing machine, which probably more than any other has exerted a
+revolutionary effect on the industry.
+
+The McKay machine did not at this time sew the toe or heel; the sewing
+was started at the shank and carried forward to a point near the toe
+on one side, and the same operation repeated on the other side; but
+it seemed to possess great possibilities and created a great deal of
+interest throughout the trade. It was, of course, a very crude machine
+and very different from the McKay machine of to-day. It was set on a
+bench and the shoe to be sewed was placed over a horn, and the sewing was
+done from the channel in the outsole through the sole and insole. Colonel
+McKay immediately started to improve the machine. He employed skilled
+mechanics to work on it and attempted to introduce it in different
+factories, but encountered a great deal of opposition and criticism
+in regard to its future. It is said that he offered to dispose of the
+machine to the shoemakers of Lynn and allow them its exclusive use if
+they would pay him three hundred thousand dollars, an offer which was not
+accepted.
+
+The machine left a loop stitch and a ridge of thread on the inside of the
+shoe, but it filled the great demand that existed for sewed shoes, and
+many hundreds of millions of pairs have been made by its use.
+
+While Colonel McKay had met rebuff and discouragement in attempting to
+introduce his machine, the public necessity was such that manufacturers
+were obliged to take it up immediately; but Colonel McKay was still
+embarrassed by lack of capital to carry on his rapidly increasing
+business. It was at this time that a system of placing machines in
+factories, which system has proven to be the most potent factor in the
+upbuilding of the shoe industry, was started. This was a royalty system,
+whereby the machine or machine owner participated in the profits accruing
+from the use of the machine.
+
+It hardly seems that there can be any question as to the principle of
+royalty being one of the greatest forces in building up the successful
+industry which we have to-day; it afforded an easy means whereby machines
+could be introduced without entailing hardships on the manufacturers,
+who, had they been obliged to pay the actual worth of the machines,
+would have been entirely unable to adopt them. Instances are known where
+hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent on machines, which machines
+were abandoned without having made a single shoe.
+
+At the time of the introduction of the McKay machine, inventors were
+busy in other directions, and as a result, came the introduction of the
+“cable nailing machine.” This was provided with a cable of nails, the
+head of one being joined to the point of another; these the machines cut
+into separate nails and drove automatically. At about this time also
+was introduced the “screw machine,” which formed a screw from brass
+wire, forcing it into the leather and cutting it off automatically.
+This was the prototype of the “rapid standard screw machine,” which
+is a comparatively recent invention, and is very widely used at the
+present time as a sole fastener on the heavier class of boots and shoes.
+Very soon thereafter the attention of the trade was attracted to the
+invention of a New York mechanic for the sewing of soles. The device was
+particularly intended for the making of turn shoes and afterwards became
+famous as the “Goodyear turn shoe machine.”
+
+Closely following the Goodyear invention came the introduction of
+the first machine used in connection with heeling,--a machine which
+compressed the heel and pricked holes for the nails; this was soon
+followed by a machine which automatically drove the nails, the
+heel having previously been put in place and held by the guides on
+the machine. Other improvements in heeling machines followed with
+considerable rapidity, and a machine came into use shortly afterwards
+which not only nailed the heel, but which was also provided with a hand
+trimmer, which the operator swung round the heel, after nailing. From
+these have been evolved the heeling machines in use at the present time.
+
+One of the early uses to which the sewing machine was put was the sewing
+together of the pieces of soft and pliable leather which make the upper
+of a shoe--a simple thing, involving only a slight adjustment of the
+original machine. It is a far more complicated operation to sew the upper
+to the thick and heavy sole, and years passed by before the secret was
+discovered, and the McKay machine appeared. In the shoe sewed on the
+McKay machine, the thread ran through into the inside of the inner sole,
+leaving a rasping ridge on which the stocking of the wearer rubbed.
+The McKay shoe displaced only the coarser grades. The hand-sewed shoe
+remained the favorite of wealth and fashion, and was worn exclusively
+by those who cared for comfort and could afford the price. In sewing
+a shoe by hand, a thin and narrow strip of leather, called a welt, is
+first sewed to the insole and upper, and the heavy outsole is sewed to
+this welt, so that the stitches come outside and do not touch the foot,
+the insole being left entirely smooth. It is a delicate operation by
+hand, and many years elapsed before a machine was contrived by which it
+could be done. At last the problem was solved. The “Goodyear welting and
+stitching machines” appeared--so named for Charles Goodyear, who financed
+and perfected them, a son of the man who taught the world the use of
+rubber. These two machines are the nucleus of the Goodyear welt system,
+to which must be attributed the revolution of an industry. Although they
+are entirely distinct machines, they are inseparable, for neither can be
+used effectively without the other in making the modern Goodyear welt
+shoe.
+
+[Illustration: Insole for Hand Sewed Shoe.]
+
+[Illustration: Hand Sewed Shoe.]
+
+Much of the style of a shoe depends upon the wooden last over which the
+upper is shaped before being attached to the sole. To find a substitute
+for the human hand in fitting the shoe to the last and pulling the
+leather over its delicate lines and curves seemed for a long time
+impossible.
+
+This took place in the early seventies, when a machine was invented for
+doing this work. It created a great change in a department of shoemaking
+which, prior to this time, had been regarded as a confirmed hand process.
+This machine, as well as those which followed afterwards for a period of
+twenty years, was known as the best type of machine, by which the shoe
+upper was drawn over the last by either friction or pincers, and then
+tacked by use of a hand tool.
+
+At a comparatively recent period another machine which revolutionized all
+previous ideas in lasting was introduced. This machine is generally in
+use at the present time, and is known as the “consolidated hand method
+lasting machine.” It was fitted with pincers, which automatically drew
+the leather round the last, at the same time driving a tack which held
+it in place. This machine has been so developed that it is now used for
+the lasting of shoes of every type, from the lowest and cheapest to
+the highest grade, and it is a machine that shows wonderful mechanical
+ingenuity.
+
+The perfection of the lasting machine has been followed recently by
+the introduction of a machine which performs in a satisfactory way the
+difficult process known as “pulling over,” which consists of accurately
+centering the shoe upper on the last and securing it temporarily in
+position for the work of lasting. The new machine, which is known as the
+“hand-method pulling over machine,” is provided with pincers, which close
+automatically, gripping the shoe upper at sides and toe. It is fitted
+with adjustments by which the operator is enabled to quickly center the
+shoe upper on the last, and, on pressure of a foot lever, the machine
+automatically draws the upper closely to the last and secures it in
+position by tacks, which are also driven by the machine. The introduction
+of this machine marked a radical change in the one important shoemaking
+process that had up to this time successfully withstood all attempts at
+mechanical improvement.
+
+At about the time that lasting was first introduced, came the machines
+which were used for finishing heel and fore part. These machines were
+fitted with a tool, which was heated by gas and which practically
+duplicated the hand workman in rubbing the edges with a hot tool for the
+purpose of finishing them. From these early machines have been evolved
+the “edge-setting machines” which are in use at present.
+
+Thus, one after another, every operation has yielded to invention, until
+very recently the only remaining process was subdued when a machine for
+cutting uppers was devised. There are machines for shaping, compressing,
+and nailing heels; for attaching soles to uppers in heavy shoes by wooden
+pegs or copper screws and wires; for rounding, buffing, and polishing the
+soles; for trimming and setting the edges of the sole; for performing
+innumerable operations, some seemingly trivial, but all essential to
+perfection in comfort, durability or style; so that in shoe factories
+to-day a greater variety of intricate and expensive machines is used than
+in factories of any other kind.
+
+At the present time the genius of the American inventor has provided for
+every detail of shoemaking, even the smallest processes being performed
+by mechanical devices of some kind. This has naturally made the shoemaker
+of to-day a specialist, who very seldom knows anything of shoemaking
+apart from the particular process in the performance of shoemaking of
+which he is an adept, and from which he earns a livelihood. The American
+shoe of to-day is the standard production of the world. It is in demand
+wherever shoes are worn.
+
+In the year 1874 there had been perfected not only the machines which
+Colonel McKay and Mr. Goodyear had been instrumental in building, but
+other inventors had introduced similar machines for doing similar work.
+This brought about the most acute business competition, and finally
+resulted in many cases where one machine manufacturer alleged that the
+other machine infringed his rights of patent, and in many other cases the
+fiercest kind of litigation was established. This had a most disastrous
+effect upon shoe manufacturers, for in many cases the manufacturer was
+made to bear the brunt of the blows which contending shoe machinery
+manufacturers aimed at each other.
+
+Machines in use in factories were stopped by means of injunctions;
+damage suits were entered, and litigation was very general. During the
+year 1899, there was ushered in one of the most important events that
+ever transpired in the history of shoemaking. The most important of the
+concerns which had been making war upon each other were purchased by one
+large company and brought under one harmonious management.
+
+The United Shoe Machinery Company owes its origin to a call for a change
+in conditions menacing the industry of making shoes which could not
+be ignored. It was created by combining into one the three companies
+existing in 1899: the Goodyear Sewing Machine Company, the Consolidated &
+McKay Lasting Machine Company, and the McKay Shoe Machinery Company, each
+of which respectively made and leased machines adapted to a particular
+class of operations. The principal machines which each made did not
+interfere with the principal machines of any other. They were dependent
+links in an industrial chain. The Goodyear Sewing Machine Company
+chiefly made machines for sewing the sole to the upper in welt shoes
+and various auxiliary machines which helped to complete the shoe; The
+Consolidated & McKay Lasting Machine Company made machines for lasting
+a shoe; The McKay Shoe Machinery Company made various machines for
+attaching soles and heels by metallic fastenings, and furnished material
+for that purpose. A single manufacturer, in order to make Goodyear welt
+shoes, would be compelled to patronize all the companies, going to each
+of them for that part of his equipment which it exclusively supplied.
+Each company had its agents in factories looking after its machines.
+
+The gathering of these three companies into a single organization
+wrought an instant change. It resulted immediately in greater economy
+of administration; in relieving the manufacturer of the vexation of
+sometimes seeing his factory crippled while orders were piling up;
+in freeing him from the annoyance and expense of dealing with several
+different concerns in order to get his most important machines and keep
+them in repair.
+
+The attention which had been paid to royalty machines and which had been
+such an important factor in building up the industry in America, was
+magnified by the management of the new company. Large forces of men and
+expert machinists, as well as expert shoemakers, were maintained in the
+different districts where shoes were made, and every effort exerted to
+promote the growth of the industry.
+
+While the royalty system proved to be of great advantage to small shoe
+manufacturers, the largest manufacturers objected to paying royalty on
+machines and desired to purchase them outright. Being unable to do so,
+they placed experts at work to invent similar machines. This has resulted
+in the United Shoe Machinery Company claiming that these machines are
+infringements and causing considerable litigation.
+
+If one reviews the history of the trade during the past ten years, there
+will be little question but that one will find it has been a period of
+the greatest advancement that the trade has ever known.
+
+Within the time of those who read these words, the way to make a shoe has
+been completely changed. Methods which held their own for centuries have
+disappeared, to be replaced by processes which only recently would have
+been thought impossible, and which have brought within the reach of men
+of modest means a luxury once enjoyed exclusively by the well-to-do. The
+feet of the million are clad to-day as finely as the feet of yesterday’s
+millionaire. Shoes marked by comfort, durability, and style have driven
+to historical museums the stiff and clumsy boots and brogans which not so
+many years ago were worn by those who could not pay to have shoes sewed
+by hand.
+
+The American people spend more than three hundred million dollars every
+year in buying shoes, and average three pairs apiece, and yet few ever
+think about their shoes so long as they do not look clumsy, or wear out
+too quickly, or hurt the foot. Every one likes to buy good shoes as
+cheaply as he can, and every one likes to feel that shoe manufacturers
+are independent and successful, and that workmen get good wages, because
+these things help along prosperity; but that is all. Yet here is an
+industry in which the United States within a decade has come to lead
+the world, and there are many things about it which it would be worth
+while for every one to understand. It is worth while, for instance, to
+know that there is no important operation on a shoe which need be done
+by hand; that in the making of every good shoe no less than fifty-eight
+different machines, and sometimes twice that number, are brought into
+play; that nearly all these machines are of American invention; and
+that they have been so perfectly adjusted one to another that they work
+together almost with the precision of a watch; it is worth while to know
+something about the marvelous system under the encouragement of which
+this typical American industry has blossomed and borne fruit until it
+employs two hundred million dollars of capital and nearly two hundred
+thousand people, and turns out two hundred and fifty million pairs of
+shoes a year; and why it is that the average man you meet to-day has a
+better fitting, better wearing, and better looking shoe than the moneyed
+man of yesterday--at a fraction of the expense.
+
+This remarkable growth is distinctly American. In the United States
+the tendency among the artisan class has been to abandon the slow hand
+process. This tendency has been as strong as the tendency in Europe to
+adhere to it. Moreover, there has developed among the laboring classes
+in the United States a mobility such as is unknown elsewhere in the world.
+
+Another advantage which has contributed to the rapid development of the
+manufacture of shoes in the United States is the comparative freedom from
+inherited and overconservative ideas. This country has entered upon its
+industrial development unfettered by the old order of things, and with a
+tendency on the part of the people to seek the best and quickest way to
+accomplish every object.
+
+[Illustration: Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory.]
+
+In all of the European countries in which the manufacturing of shoes is
+an important industry, the transition from the household to the factory
+system was hampered by guilds, elaborate national and local restrictions,
+and by the national reluctance with which a people accustomed for
+generations to fixed methods of work, in which they have acquired a large
+degree of skill, abandon those methods for new ones. It was natural,
+also, that in spite of the superior advantages of machine methods, hand
+process of manufacture should still continue side by side with them, in
+the European countries, though machine work had long since usurped the
+whole field of the shoe industry in the United States.
+
+As an American goes about among the European shoe factories he is greatly
+surprised at the state of affairs. He is struck by three things which
+are very conspicuous. They are: (1) Lack of use of machinery, lack of
+all sorts of devices in order to save hand labor, which is carried out
+so extensively in the United States. (2) Lack of the division of labor,
+one factory attempting to make four or five kinds of shoes. (3) Lack of
+methods employed for handling large quantities of materials.
+
+One point that is overlooked in considering the shoe industries of the
+two countries is the great difference in organization. In most European
+factories, the manufacturer gets all the orders of different kinds, and
+then attempts to make one or two lines with one or two qualities in the
+same factory. In Switzerland one may find shoes and slippers for men,
+women, and children made under the same roof.
+
+In the United States the manufacturer makes a certain line of shoes in
+one factory, and no other kind. If he has more than one line, he has
+more than one factory, and each factory turns out a distinct shoe for a
+distinct purpose. The manufacturer has his salesmen to sell these shoes.
+
+The advantages of the American system are: (1) The managers and
+workers of a factory turning out a certain line of goods become highly
+specialized in that line, and can produce better results than the workers
+in a factory attempting to make two or three lines of goods. (2) A large
+shoe factory is laid out as a rule to do a certain kind of work, and it
+seldom changes. This practice makes possible a greater production. On the
+other hand we have something to learn from the European organization.
+American manufacturers must meet the foreign trade. In order to do
+this, the manufacturer must cater to the habits, customs, and climatic
+conditions. The European manufacturer does this.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Amhide, black, 58.
+      russet, 59.
+
+    Anatomy of the foot, 77, 80.
+
+    Ankle piece, 246.
+
+    Assembling, 126, 177.
+
+    Automobile leather, 225.
+      tanning of, 226.
+
+
+    Backs, 12.
+
+    Backstay, 2, 177, 247.
+
+    Back strap, 177.
+
+    Bal., 177.
+
+    Ball, 178.
+
+    Bating, 19.
+
+    Beading, 178.
+
+    Beamhouse process, 5.
+
+    Beating out, 178.
+
+    Bellows tongue, 178.
+
+    Belting, 62, 63, 178.
+      by-products, 69.
+      round, 69.
+
+    Belt-knife splits, 60.
+
+    Between substance, 178.
+
+    Bison, 59.
+
+    Blackball, 178.
+
+    Black box chrome side, 58.
+
+    Black hawk patent, 58.
+
+    Blacking the edge, 179.
+
+    Blocking, 179.
+
+    Bloom, 179.
+
+    Blucher, 179.
+
+    Boot, 180.
+
+    Bootee, 180.
+
+    Boris, 59.
+
+    Bottom, 1.
+      filling, 180.
+      scouring, 180.
+
+    Box calf, 55, 180.
+      toe, 181.
+
+    Boxing, 180.
+
+    Branded cowhide, 9.
+
+    Breaking the sole, 181.
+
+    Breast of the heel, 3.
+
+    Brogan, 181.
+
+    Bronko patent, 57.
+
+    Brushing, 181.
+
+    Buckskin, 181.
+
+    Buff, 181.
+
+    Buffing, 181.
+
+    Bull hides, 16.
+
+    Bunions, 84.
+
+    Button fly, 2.
+
+    Butts, 9.
+
+
+    Cable-nailing machine, invention of, 261.
+
+    Cack, 182.
+
+    Cadet kid, 56.
+      side, 57.
+
+    Calf leather, boarded, 40.
+      box, 40.
+      classes of, 40, 41.
+      cadet calf side, 57.
+      Dongola, 59.
+      dry hides, 40.
+      French, 40.
+      mat, 40.
+      Sheboygan, 59.
+      storm, 40.
+      suede, 40.
+      wax, 40.
+
+    Calf side leather, 57.
+      skins, 39, 182.
+
+    Calluses, 83.
+
+    Cambridge calf union splits, 60.
+
+    Cap, 182.
+
+    Carbarettas, 51, 181.
+
+    Carton, 182.
+
+    Cementing, 182.
+
+    Chamois, 182.
+
+    Channeling, 183.
+
+    Channel screwed, 183.
+      stitched, 183.
+      turning, 184.
+
+    Checking, 184.
+
+    Chemical tanning, 23, 24, 25.
+
+    Chrome flexible splits, 61.
+      tannage, 25, 26.
+      tanned embossed splits, 62.
+
+    Cleaning, inside, 184.
+      nails, 184.
+      shoes, 184.
+
+    Clicking, 184.
+
+    Closing, 184.
+      on, 184.
+
+    Colonial, 185.
+
+    Colorado steer hides, 9.
+
+    Colored box chrome side, 58.
+
+    Coltskin, 41, 185.
+
+    Combination last, 185.
+
+    Composition, 185.
+
+    Congress gaiter, 186.
+
+    Cordovan, 186.
+
+    Corns, 83, 84.
+
+    Counter, 124, 186.
+      pasted, 201.
+
+    Coupon tag, 187.
+
+    Cowhide, 187.
+      native, heavy and light, 7-9.
+      branded, 9.
+
+    Creasing vamp, 187.
+
+    Creedmore, 187.
+
+    Creole, 187.
+
+    Crimping, 188.
+
+    Cushion sole, 188.
+
+    Cut-off vamp, 188.
+
+
+    Dyeing, 188.
+
+    Dom Pedro, 188.
+
+    Dongola, 188.
+      calf, 59.
+
+    Dressing, 188.
+
+    Dry importation, 40, 41.
+      salted hides, 12, 32.
+
+
+    Edge setting, 188.
+      trimming, 188.
+
+    Enamel, 189.
+
+    Eyelet, 189.
+
+    Eyeletting, 189.
+
+
+    Facing, 189.
+
+    Factory system, first, 254.
+
+    Fair stitch, 189.
+
+    Faking, 189.
+
+    Fat liquored, 27.
+
+    Findings, 189.
+
+    Finishes of upper leather, 38.
+
+    Finishing of upper leather, 5.
+
+    Flap, 190.
+
+    Flesher, 18.
+
+    Flesh splits leather, 38, 60.
+
+    Flexible bends, 61.
+      splits, 61.
+
+    Follower, 190.
+
+    Foot, 77.
+      adult, 87.
+      anatomy of, 77, 78.
+      astragalus, 78.
+      calcaneum, 78.
+      characteristics of, 81.
+      cuneiform, 79.
+      flatfoot, 78.
+      measurements of, 95.
+      metatarsal, 79.
+      phalanges, 79.
+      rheumatism, 79.
+      structure of, 86.
+
+    Footwear, history of, 250.
+
+    Forepart finishing, 190.
+
+    Form, 190.
+
+    Foxed, 190.
+
+    Foxing, 2, 190.
+
+    Fresh hides, 7.
+
+    Frizzing, 191.
+
+    Front, 191.
+
+    Fudge-stitched, 133.
+
+    Fundamental shoe terms, 1.
+
+    Furniture leather, 225.
+      tanning of, 226.
+
+
+    Gaiter, 191.
+      congress, 186.
+
+    Gem insoles, 191.
+
+    Gemming, 191.
+
+    Glazed kid, 191.
+
+    Gloves, 218.
+      grain, 191.
+      tanning, 221.
+
+    Goatskin, 191.
+
+    Goodyear welt, 192.
+      difference between McKay and, 145.
+
+    Gore, 192.
+
+    Grades of leather, 7.
+
+    Grading, 192.
+
+    Grain leather, 38.
+
+    Green hides, 7.
+
+    Green salted, 12.
+
+    Gum counter, 247.
+
+
+    Half sole, 192.
+
+    Harness leather, 192.
+
+    Heel, 192.
+      breast of, 3.
+      finishing, 193.
+      lining, 193.
+      nailing, 194.
+      nailing machine, invention of, 262.
+      pad, 193.
+      scouring, 194.
+      seat, 194.
+      shaving, 194.
+      trimming, 194.
+
+    Hemlock leather, 29.
+      tanning, 29, 30, 194.
+
+    Hercules storm chrome, 59.
+
+    Hides, 4, 194.
+      bull, 10, 63.
+      classes of, 5, 6.
+      country, 10.
+      dry, 12, 32.
+      dry importation, 40, 41.
+      dry salted, 12, 32.
+      fresh, 7.
+      grades of, 7, 8, 9.
+      green, 7.
+      green salted, 12, 32.
+      imported, 32.
+      quality of, 6.
+
+
+    Inlay, 194.
+
+    Inner sole, 247.
+
+    Inseaming, 195.
+
+    Inseam trimming, 195.
+
+    Instep, 195.
+
+    Iron, 195.
+
+    Ironing uppers, 196.
+
+
+    Juliette, 196.
+
+
+    Kid, buckskin, 52.
+      buff, 52.
+      caster, 51.
+      chamois, 52.
+      characteristics of, 49.
+      Cordovan, 52.
+      dull, 49.
+      glazed, 49, 50.
+      importation of, 45.
+      kangaroo, 52, 196.
+      kangaroo kid side, 58.
+      kinds of finish, 49.
+      mat, 49, 50.
+      method of collecting, 46-48.
+      patent, 49.
+      process of tanning, 49.
+      seal grain, 52.
+      splits, 52.
+      suede, 51.
+
+    Kids, 41, 44, 196.
+
+    Kips, 5, 196.
+
+
+    Lace hook, 196.
+      stay, 2, 196.
+
+    Lacing, 197.
+
+    Lasting, 197.
+
+    Lasts, 97, 197.
+      combination, 185.
+      how made, 97.
+
+    Laying channel, 197.
+
+    Leather, 4.
+      automobile and furniture, 226.
+      belting, 62.
+      effect of cold, 53.
+      gloves, 218.
+      glove tanning, 221.
+      harness, 192.
+      hemlock, 29.
+      products, manufacture of, 218.
+      white, 54.
+
+    Leg cover, 198.
+      lining, 198.
+
+    Leveling, 197.
+
+    Lift, 197.
+
+    Lining, 197.
+
+    Lining-in, 198.
+
+    Lip, 190.
+
+    Loading leather, 198.
+
+
+    Mat royal chrome side, 58.
+
+    McKay shoe, 144, 198, 199.
+      difference between Goodyear welt and, 145.
+      difference between turned and, 152.
+
+    Middle sole, 199.
+
+    Mock welt, 199.
+
+    Molding, 199.
+
+    Monkey skin, 199.
+
+    Morocco, 199.
+
+    Mules, 199.
+
+
+    Nap, 199.
+
+    Native cowhides, 9.
+      steer hides, 9.
+
+    Naumkeaging, 199.
+
+    Nullifier, 200.
+
+
+    Oak-tanned leather, 28, 200.
+
+    Oak tanning, 28, 29.
+
+    Ohio buffs, 10.
+
+    Ooze gusset splits, 61.
+      leather, 200.
+      vamp splits, 62.
+
+    Ottawa, 59.
+      black and russet splits, 60.
+
+    Outer filler, 247.
+
+    Outside cutting, 200.
+      tap, 200.
+
+    Oxford, 200.
+      calf union splits, 60.
+
+
+    Packer hides, 201.
+
+    Packing, 201.
+
+    Pacs, 201.
+
+    Pancake, 201.
+
+    Para, 248.
+
+    Pasted leather, 201.
+
+    Patent leather, 41-43, 201.
+      black hawk, 58.
+      effect of cold on, 43.
+      objections to, 44.
+
+    Pattern, 201.
+
+    Pebble, 202.
+
+    Pegged shoemaking, 160.
+
+    Pegging, 202.
+
+    Perforating, 118.
+
+    Perforation, 202.
+
+    Pickled skins, 18.
+
+    Piping, 248.
+
+    Polish, 202.
+
+    Porpoise, 202.
+
+    Pressing, 202.
+
+    Pulling lasts, 202.
+
+    Pulling over, 202.
+      machine, 127.
+
+    Pump, 202.
+      sole, 202.
+
+
+    Quarter, 2, 203.
+
+
+    Rag counter, 248.
+
+    Rand, 203.
+
+    Rawhide products, 67.
+
+    Relasting, 203.
+
+    Remnants, 33.
+      sole leather, 33-37.
+
+    Repairing, 204.
+
+    Roan, 204.
+
+    Rolling, 204.
+      machine, invention of, 257.
+
+    Rough rounding, 204.
+
+    Royal kid, 56.
+
+    Royalties, 204.
+
+    Royalty system, invention of, 260.
+
+    Rubber, 228.
+      cloth manufacture, 244.
+      commercial grades of, 228.
+      drying, 232.
+      heels, 241.
+      shoe manufacture, 228.
+        calendering, 235.
+        cutting, 235.
+        varnishing, 237.
+        vulcanizing, 237.
+        washing, 231.
+
+    Russet calf, 204.
+      grain, 204.
+
+
+    Sabot, 204.
+
+    Sack lining, 204, 207.
+
+    Sandal, 205, 250.
+
+    Satin calf, 205.
+
+    Scouring breast, 205.
+
+    Screw fastened, 205.
+
+    Seal grain, 205.
+
+    Second lasting, 205.
+
+    Sewing machine, invention of, 257.
+
+    Shank, 1, 205.
+      burnishing, 206.
+      finishing, 206.
+
+    Shanking out, 206.
+
+    Sheboygan calf, 59.
+
+    Sheepskin, 206.
+
+    Sheep tanning, 16, 17.
+
+    Shoe, 103.
+      apprentice, 253.
+      case of, 109.
+      cutting room, 112.
+      departments of, 103.
+      dressing, 142.
+      factories, 103.
+      finishing, 138.
+      heeling, 140.
+      methods of manufacture, 103.
+      parts of, 1.
+      repairing, 167, 170.
+      sizes, 85, 207.
+      stitching, 119, 131.
+      treeing, 140.
+
+    Shoe Machinery Company, organization of, 270.
+
+    Shoemaker, first, in America, 251.
+
+    Shoemaking, 162.
+      old-fashioned, 162.
+      nail method, 161.
+      terms of, 177.
+
+    Shoe pegs, invention of, 257.
+
+    Shoulder, 196.
+
+    Sides, 206.
+
+    Side stay, 248.
+
+    Skins, 6, 207.
+
+    Skirting, 207.
+
+    Skiver, 18, 207.
+
+    Skiving machine, 117.
+
+    Slip, 207.
+
+    Slugging, 207.
+
+    Soaking process, 13, 19.
+
+    Soft tip, 207.
+
+    Sole, 11, 123, 208.
+      leather, 27, 28, 208.
+      laying, 208.
+      breaking of, 181.
+
+    Sorting, 208.
+
+    Spewing, 208.
+
+    Splits, 11, 60-62, 209.
+
+    Spring heel, 209.
+
+    Stamping, 209, 210.
+
+    Standard fastened, 210.
+      screw shoemaking, 160.
+
+    Stay, 209.
+
+    Staying, 210.
+
+    Steer hides, native, 9.
+
+    Stitch aloft, 210.
+
+    Stitch down, 210.
+      fair, 189.
+      separating, 210.
+
+    Stitching, rapid, 203.
+
+    Straight last, 210.
+
+    Stripping, 211.
+
+    Styles, how made, 93.
+
+    Suede, 211.
+
+
+    Tacking on, 211.
+
+    Tack pulling, 211.
+
+    Tampico, 211.
+
+    Tan, 211.
+      royal, 56.
+
+    Tanned leather adulterants, 75.
+      effects of perspiration, 71.
+      lubrication, 72.
+      properties, 70.
+      substitutes, 73, 74, 76.
+      weighing, 75.
+
+    Tannin, 21.
+
+    Tanning, 4, 21, 211.
+      chemical, 21.
+      hemlock, 29, 30.
+      leather for belting, 64, 65, 66.
+      oak, 28, 29.
+      processes of, 21.
+      rapid processes of, 25.
+      tawing, 21, 212.
+      Union, 30, 31.
+      vegetable, 21.
+
+    Tap, 211.
+      putting on, 202.
+      trimming, 212.
+
+    Tawing, 212.
+
+    Tempering, 212.
+
+    Tennis shoe manufacture, 239.
+
+    Texas steer hide, 9.
+
+    Tip, 2, 212.
+      cutting, 212.
+
+    Toe, and heel lasting, 212.
+      box, 181.
+      filler, 248.
+      lining, 248.
+      piece, 213.
+
+    Tongue, 2, 213.
+
+    Top, 1, 213.
+      cutting, 213.
+      facing, 213.
+      left, 213.
+      left scouring, 213.
+      left stitching, 213.
+
+    Treeing, 213.
+
+    Trimming counter, 213.
+      vamp, 213.
+
+    Turned shoe, characteristics of, 156.
+      difference between McKay and, 152.
+      history of, 158.
+
+    Turning, 214.
+      shoe, 151, 214.
+
+
+    Ungrained, 214.
+
+    Unhairing of hides, 15, 19.
+
+    Union-tanned leather, 30, 31.
+
+    Union tanning, 30, 31.
+
+    Upper, 1, 214.
+
+    Upper or dress leather, 37, 38, 55-57.
+
+
+    Vamp, 1, 214, 249.
+      creasing, 187.
+      cutting, 215.
+      form, 249.
+      short, 206.
+
+    Vamping, 215.
+
+    Vegetable tanning, 22.
+      tans, 22.
+
+    Vellum, 215.
+
+    Velour, 215.
+
+    Veneering, 215.
+
+    Vesting, 215.
+
+    Vici, 216.
+
+    Viscolizing, 216.
+
+    Vulcanizing, 243.
+      cold cure, 243.
+      steam cure, 243.
+
+
+    Wash leather, 216.
+
+    Waterproof black, 58.
+
+    Waxed threads, 164.
+
+    Web straps, 249.
+
+    Welts, 129, 216.
+      beating, 217.
+      Goodyear, 192.
+
+    Welting, 217.
+
+    White alum, 217.
+
+    Willow calf leather, 55.
+
+    Wooden case, 217.
+
+
+    Zulu, 59.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and
+Rubber Products, by William H. Dooley
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 55474 ***
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and

-Rubber Products, by William H. Dooley

-

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-

-Title: A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and Rubber Products

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-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING ***

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-</pre>

-

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>

-

-<p class="titlepage larger">A MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus1" style="width: 520px;">

-<img src="images/illus1.jpg" width="520" height="650" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">An Old-Fashioned Shoemaker. <i>Frontispiece.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>

-

-<p class="titlepage larger">A MANUAL<br />

-<span class="smaller">OF</span><br />

-SHOEMAKING<br />

-<span class="smaller">AND</span><br />

-LEATHER AND RUBBER<br />

-PRODUCTS</p>

-

-<p class="titlepage">BY<br />

-WILLIAM H. DOOLEY<br />

-<span class="smaller">PRINCIPAL OF THE LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL</span></p>

-

-<p class="titlepage"><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></p>

-

-<p class="titlepage">BOSTON<br />

-LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY<br />

-1912</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>

-

-<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Copyright, 1912</i>,<br />

-<span class="smcap">By Little, Brown, and Company.</span></p>

-

-<p class="center smaller"><i>All rights reserved.</i></p>

-

-<p class="center smaller">Published, September, 1912.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>

-

-<p>The author was asked in 1908 by the

-Lynn Commission on Industrial Education

-to make an investigation of European shoe

-schools and to assist the Commission in

-preparing a course of study for the proposed

-shoe school in the city of Lynn. A close

-investigation showed that there were several

-textbooks on shoemaking published in

-Europe, but that no general textbook on

-shoemaking had been issued in this country

-adapted to meet the needs of industrial,

-trade, and commercial schools or those who

-have just entered the rubber, shoe, and

-leather trades. This book is written to meet

-this need. Others may find it of interest.</p>

-

-<p>The author is under obligations to the

-following persons and firms for information

-and assistance in preparing the book, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>

-for permission to reproduce photographs

-and information from their publications:

-Mr. J. H. Finn, Mr. Frank L. West, Head

-of Shoemaking Department, Tuskegee, Ala.,

-Mr. Louis Fleming, Mr. F. Garrison, President

-of <i>Shoe and Leather Gazette</i>, Mr. Arthur

-L. Evans, <i>The Shoeman</i>, Mr. Charles F.

-Cahill, United Shoe Machinery Company,

-Hood Rubber Company, Bliss Shoe Company,

-American Hide and Leather Company,

-Regal Shoe Company, the publishers

-of <i>Hide and Leather</i>, <i>American Shoemaking</i>,

-<i>Shoe Repairing</i>, <i>Boot and Shoe Recorder</i>, <i>The

-Weekly Bulletin</i>, and the New York Leather

-Belting Company.</p>

-

-<p>In addition, the author desires to acknowledge

-his indebtedness to the great

-body of foreign literature on the different

-subjects from which information has been

-obtained.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2>CONTENTS</h2>

-

-<table summary="Contents">

-  <tr>

-    <td></td>

-    <td></td>

-    <td class="tdr smaller">PAGE</td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr"></td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#PREFACE">v</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr smaller">CHAPTER</td>

-    <td></td>

-    <td></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">I.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Fundamental Shoe Terms</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_ONE">1</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">II.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Hides and their Treatment</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TWO">4</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">III.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Processes of Tanning</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_THREE">21</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">IV.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">The Anatomy of the Foot</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_FOUR">77</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">V.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">How Shoe Styles are Made</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_FIVE">93</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">VI.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Departments of a Shoe Factory</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_SIX">103</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">VII.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">McKay and Turned Shoes</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_SEVEN">144</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">VIII.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Old-fashioned Shoemaking and Repairing</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_EIGHT">162</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">IX.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Leather and Shoemaking Terms</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_NINE">177</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">X.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Leather Products Manufacture</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TEN">218</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">XI.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Rubber Shoe Manufacture and Terms</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_ELEVEN">228</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr">XII.</td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">History of Footwear</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TWELVE">250</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class="tdr"></td>

-    <td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">281</a></td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>

-

-<table summary="List of illustrations">

-  <tr>

-    <td>An Old-fashioned Shoemaker</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td></td>

-    <td class="tdr smaller"><span class="smcap">Facing Page</span></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus2">2</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Green-salted Calfskin</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus3">12</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Tanning Process</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus4">24</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Tanning Process, showing Rotating Drums</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus5">28</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Sole Leather Offal</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus6">34</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Bones and Joints of the Human Foot</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus7">78</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus8">78</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>A Last in Three Stages of Manufacture</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus9">98</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>A Modern Shoe Factory</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus10">104</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>A Skin Divided before Cutting</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus11">112</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Cutting Leather</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus12">116</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Goodyear Stitching</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus13">116</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Stock Fitting Room</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus14">120</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Lasting</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus15">124</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Welting</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus16">124</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Rough Rounding</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus17">128</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Edge Trimming</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus18">128</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Leveling</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus19">132</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span>Heeling</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus20">132</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Sole Scouring</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus21">136</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Heel Shaping</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus22">136</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Ironing</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus23">140</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Packing</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus24">140</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus25">144</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Stitching</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus26">148</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Tacking</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus27">148</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus28">160</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Side of Leather divided as to Quality</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus29">168</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus30">200</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus31">200</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Crude Rubber</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus32">228</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Washing and Drying</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus33">232</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Calender Room</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus34">234</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Cutting Room</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus35">236</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus36">240</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Heel-making Department</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus37">242</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Parts of a Rubber Boot</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus38">248</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Insole for Hand-sewed Shoe</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus39">264</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Hand-sewed Shoe</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus40">264</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td>Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory</td>

-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus41">276</a></td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>

-

-<h1>SHOEMAKING</h1>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_ONE">CHAPTER ONE<br />

-<span class="smaller">FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS</span></h2>

-

-<p>Before explaining the manufacture of

-shoes, it is necessary to fix definitely in

-our minds the names of their different parts.

-Examine your shoes and note the parts that

-are here described.</p>

-

-<p>The bottom of the shoe is called the sole.

-The part above the sole is called the upper.

-The top of the shoe is that part measured

-by the lacing which covers the ankle and

-the instep. The vamp is that section which

-covers the sides of the foot and the toes.

-The shank is that part of the sole of the shoe

-between the heel and the ball. This name

-is often applied to a piece of metal or other

-substance in that part of the sole, intended

-to give support to the arch of the foot. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>

-throat of the vamp is that part which curves

-around the lower edge of the top, where

-the lacing starts.</p>

-

-<p>Backstay is a term used to denote a strip

-of leather covering and strengthening the

-back seam of the shoe. Quarter is a term

-used mostly in low shoes to denote the rear

-part of the upper when a full vamp is not

-used. Button fly is the portion of the upper

-containing the buttonholes of a button shoe.

-Tip is the toe piece of a shoe, stitched to

-the vamp and outside of it. The lace stay

-is a term used to denote a strip of leather

-reënforcing the eyelet holes. Tongue denotes

-a narrow strip of leather used on all

-lace shoes to protect the instep from the

-lacing and weather.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus2" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus2.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear. <i><a href="#Page_2">Page 2.</a></i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>Foxing is the name applied to leather of

-the upper that extends from the sole to

-the laces in front, and to about the height

-of the counter in the back, being the length

-of the upper. It may be in one or more

-pieces, and is often cut down to the shank<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>

-in circular form. If in two pieces, that part

-covering the counter is called a heel fox.

-Overlay is a term applied to leather attached

-to the upper part of the vamp of a slipper.

-The breast of the heel is the inner part of

-the heel, that is, the section nearest the

-shank.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_TWO">CHAPTER TWO<br />

-<span class="smaller">HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT</span></h2>

-

-<p>If we examine our shoes, we will find

-that the different parts are composed of

-material called leather. The bottom of the

-shoe is of hard leather, while the part above

-the sole is of a softer, more pliable leather.

-This leather is nothing more than the hides

-of different animals treated in such a way

-as to remove the fat and the hair.</p>

-

-<p>After the hides have been taken from the

-dead body of the animal, they are quite

-heavily salted to preserve them from spoiling.

-In this salted condition they are

-shipped to the tanneries.</p>

-

-<p>The process or series of processes by

-which the hides and skins of animals are

-converted into leather is called tanning.

-The process may be divided into three

-groups of subprocesses as follows:&mdash;</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>Beamhouse process, which removes the

-hair from the hides and prepares them for

-the actual process of the tanning or conversion

-into leather; tanning, which converts

-the raw hide into leather; and finishing,

-which involves a number of operations, the

-objects of which are to give the leather the

-color that may be desired and also to make

-it of uniform thickness, and impart to it the

-softness and the finish that is required for

-a particular purpose.</p>

-

-<p>Hides are divided roughly in the tannery,

-according to the size, into three general

-classes:&mdash;</p>

-

-<p>(1) Hides, skins from fully grown animals,

-as cows, oxen, horses, buffaloes, walrus,

-etc. These are thick, heavy leather, used

-for shoe soles, large machinery belting,

-trunks, etc., where stiffness, strength, and

-wearing qualities are desired. The untanned

-hides weigh from twenty-five to

-sixty pounds.</p>

-

-<p>(2) Kips, skins of the undersized animals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>

-of the above group, weighing between

-fifteen and twenty-five pounds.</p>

-

-<p>(3) Skins from small animals, such as

-calves, sheep, goats, dogs, etc. This last

-group gives a light, but strong and pliable

-leather, which may be used for a great many

-purposes, such as men’s shoes and the

-heavier grades of women’s shoes.</p>

-

-<p>The hides, kips, and skins are divided into

-various grades, according to their weight,

-size, condition, and quality.</p>

-

-<p>The quality of the hides not only depends

-upon the kind of animal, but also upon its

-fodder and mode of living. The hides of

-wild cattle yield a more compact and stronger

-leather than those of our domesticated

-beasts. Among these latter the stall-fed have

-better hides than the meadow-fed, or grazing

-cattle. The thickness of the hide varies

-considerably on different animals and on the

-parts of the body, the thickest part of the

-bull being near the head and the middle of

-the back, while at the belly the hide is thinnest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>

-These differences are less conspicuous

-in sheep, goats, and calves. As regards

-sheep, it would appear that their skin is

-generally thinnest where their wool is longest.</p>

-

-<p>In the raw, untanned state, and with

-the hair still on, the hides are termed

-“green” or “fresh.” Fresh, or green hides

-are supplied to the tanners by the packers

-or the butchers, or are imported, either dry

-or salted.</p>

-

-<p>Hides are obtained either from the regular

-packing houses or from farmers who

-kill their own stock, and do not skin the

-animal as scientifically as the regular packing

-houses, in which case they are called

-country hides. There are different grades

-of hides and leather, and these different

-grades are divided in the commercial world

-into the five following grades:&mdash;</p>

-

-<h3>I. NATIVE HIDES</h3>

-

-<ul>

-<li>Native Steers</li>

-<li>Native Cows, heavy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></li>

-<li>Native Cows, light</li>

-<li>Branded Cows</li>

-<li>Butts</li>

-<li>Colorado Steers</li>

-<li>Texas Steers, heavy</li>

-<li>Texas Steers, light</li>

-<li>Texas Steers, ex-light</li>

-<li>Native Bulls</li>

-<li>Branded Bulls</li>

-</ul>

-

-<h3>II. COUNTRY HIDES</h3>

-

-<ul>

-<li>Ohio Buffs</li>

-<li>Ohio Ex.</li>

-<li>Southerns</li>

-</ul>

-

-<h3>III. DRY HIDES</h3>

-

-<p>(Raised on plain. Rough side suitable for soles.)</p>

-

-<ul>

-<li>Buenos Ayres</li>

-</ul>

-

-<h3>IV. CALFSKINS</h3>

-

-<p>(Green salted)</p>

-

-<ul>

-<li>Chicago City</li>

-</ul>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>

-

-<h3>V. PARIS CITY CALFSKINS</h3>

-

-<ul>

-<li>Light</li>

-<li>Medium</li>

-<li>Heavy</li>

-</ul>

-

-<p>Hides obtained from steers raised on

-Western farms are known as native steer

-hides.</p>

-

-<p>Native cowhide (heavy) is hide weighing

-from fifty-five to sixty-five pounds, obtained

-from cows.</p>

-

-<p>Native cowhide (light) is cowhide weighing

-under fifty-five pounds.</p>

-

-<p>Branded cowhide is hide obtained from

-cows that are branded on the face of the

-hide.</p>

-

-<p>Butts is a term applied to the part of the

-hide remaining after cutting off the head,

-shoulders, and strip of the belly.</p>

-

-<p>Colorado steer hide is from Colorado

-steers, which are very light.</p>

-

-<p>Texas steer hide comes in three grades,

-heavy, light, and extra light. The heavy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>

-grade is very heavy because the animal is

-allowed to graze on the plains. That is the

-reason why it is heavier than the Colorado

-steer hide, which is raised on the farm.</p>

-

-<p>Bull hide is divided into two classes, the

-regular hide and the branded grade. The

-branded grade usually is one cent a pound

-less than the regular.</p>

-

-<p>Country hides are of three grades, Ohio

-Buffs, Ohio Ex., and Southern. The Ohio

-Buffs weigh from forty to sixty pounds.

-The Ohio Ex. weighs from twenty to forty

-pounds. Southern hides have spots without

-hair and other blemishes on them, due to

-the sting of insects. This makes the

-Southern hide inferior to the Ohio, Indiana,

-Michigan, and Chicago hides that have no

-such blemishes. Ohio Butt hides are the

-best, because in Ohio they kill a great many

-young calves, while in Chicago young cows

-(that have calved) are killed, causing the

-hide to be flanky.</p>

-

-<p>The season of the year in which cattle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>

-are slaughtered has considerable influence

-upon both the weight and condition of the

-hide. During the winter months, by reason

-of the hair being longer and thicker, the hide

-is heavier, ranging from seventy-five to

-eighty pounds, and gradually decreasing

-in weight as the season becomes warmer

-and the coat is shed, until in June and

-July it weighs from seventy down to fifty-five

-pounds, the hair then being thin and

-short. The best hides of the year are

-October hides, and short-haired hides are

-better for leather purposes than long-haired

-ones.</p>

-

-<p>A thick hide which is to be used for

-upper leather is cut into sides before the

-tanning process is completed. This is

-performed by passing it between rollers

-where it comes in contact with a sharp

-knife-edge, which splits it into two or more

-sheets. Great care must be exercised in

-cutting the leather in order to have good

-“splits” (sheets of leather). A split from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>

-a heavy hide is not as good as a whole of a

-lighter leather.</p>

-

-<p>Butts and backs are selected from the

-stoutest and heaviest oxhides. The butt

-is formed by cutting off the head, the

-shoulder, and the strip of the belly. The

-butt or back of oxhide forms the stoutest

-and heaviest leather, such as is used for

-soles of boots, harness, etc.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus3" style="width: 490px;">

-<img src="images/illus3.jpg" width="490" height="650" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Green-Salted Calfskin. <i><a href="#Page_12">Page 12.</a></i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>Hides and skins are received at the

-tannery in one of three conditions, viz.

-green-salted, dry, or dry-salted. Very few

-hides are received by tanners in fresh or

-unsalted condition, salt being necessary to

-preserve them from decay. Green-salted

-hides are those that have been salted in

-fresh condition, tied up in bundles, and

-shipped to the tanner. Dry hides are those

-that were taken from the carcass and dried

-without being salted; these are usually

-stiff and hard. Dry-salted hides are hides

-that were heavily salted while they were

-fresh, and then dried. The hides and skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>

-that are received from the slaughterhouses

-of this country are almost invariably green-salted;

-those from foreign countries are

-green-salted, dry, and dry-salted.</p>

-

-<p>It does not matter in what condition the

-hides are received or the kind of leather

-into which they are to be tanned; they all

-require soaking in water before any attempt

-is made to remove the hair or to tan them.

-The object of the soaking process, as it is

-called, is to thoroughly soften the hides

-and to remove from them all salt, dirt,

-blood, etc. Ordinary hides are usually

-soaked from twenty-four to forty-eight

-hours. Dry hides require much longer.

-The water should be changed once or twice

-during the process, since dirty water may

-injure the hides. Soft water is better than

-hard for this process. Where the water is

-hard, it is customary for the tanner to add

-a quantity of borax to it to increase its

-cleansing power and to hasten the softening

-of the hides.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>When dry hides have become soft enough

-to bend without cracking, they are put

-into a machine and beaten and rolled, then

-soaked again until they are soft and pliable.

-It is very important that all the salt and

-dirt are removed during the process of

-soaking, as they injure the quality of the

-leather if they are not removed before

-the hides are unhaired. When the soaking

-process is completed, the lumps of fat and

-flesh that may have been left on by the

-butcher are removed by hand or by a

-machine, and the hides are then in condition

-to be passed along into the next process.

-The parts that cannot be made into leather,

-such as tails, teats, etc., are trimmed off

-before the hides are soaked. Large hides

-are cut into two pieces or halves, called

-“sides,” after they have been soaked.</p>

-

-<p>For the purpose of taking the hair from

-the hides and skins, lime, sulphide of

-sodium, and red arsenic are used. Lime

-is sometimes used alone, but usually one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>

-of the other two chemicals is mixed with it.

-The lime is dissolved in hot water, a quantity

-of either sulphide of sodium or red

-arsenic is added to it, and the solution is

-then mixed with water in a vat, the hides

-being immersed in this liquor until the hair

-can be easily removed. The action of the

-unhairing liquor is to swell the hides, then

-to dissolve the perishable animal portion

-and loosen the hair so that it can be rubbed

-or pulled off.</p>

-

-<p>There are several different processes of

-unhairing the hides. Each tanner uses the

-process that will help to give the leather

-the qualities that it should have, such as

-softness and pliability for shoe and glove

-leather, or firmness and solidity for sole

-and belting leather. This is one of the

-most important in the series of tannery

-processes, and if the hides are not unhaired

-properly and not prepared for tanning as

-they should be, the leather will not be right

-when it is tanned and finished.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>There is also a process of unhairing, called

-“sweating,” which softens the hide and

-loosens the hair so that it can be scraped off.

-In this process the hides begin to decay before

-the hair is loose; it is therefore a dangerous

-process to use and must be carefully watched

-or the hides will be entirely spoiled. Sweating

-is never used for the finer, softer kinds

-of leather. It is applied chiefly to dry

-hides for sole, lace, and belt leather. It is

-an old-fashioned process and is not used as

-much nowadays as some years ago.</p>

-

-<p>The pelts of sheep are salted at the

-slaughterhouses and then shipped to the

-tannery. Here they are thrown into water

-and left to soak twenty-four hours to

-loosen the dirt and dissolve the salt. The

-pelts are next passed through machines that

-clean the wool, and any particles of flesh

-remaining on the inner or flesh side are

-removed. The pelts are then in condition

-to have the wool removed. As long as a

-sheepskin has the wool upon it, it is called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>

-a pelt; as soon as the wool has been taken

-off, it is called a skin or a “slat.”</p>

-

-<p>Each pelt is spread out smoothly on a

-table with the wool down and the inner or

-flesh side up. A mixture of lime and

-sulphide of sodium is next applied uniformly

-over the skin with a brush. The pelt is

-then folded up and placed in a pile with

-others. The solution that was applied

-penetrates the skin and loosens the wool,

-which, at the end of twenty-four hours,

-more or less, can be easily pulled off with

-the hands or rubbed off with a dull instrument

-or stick. The workman must be

-careful not to get any of the solution on to

-the wool, as it dissolves it and makes it

-worthless. Since the wool is valuable, the

-solution must be applied to the flesh side

-very carefully so that it does no injury.

-The wool that is removed from the skins is

-called “pulled wool.”</p>

-

-<p>The slat is now ready to be limed, washed,

-pickled, and tanned. Heavy skins are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>

-often split into two sheets after they have

-been limed. The part from the wool side

-is called a skiver, and that from the flesh

-side is called a flesher.</p>

-

-<p>After the skins have been limed, they are

-bated and washed, which makes them soft,

-clean, and white; they are then put into a

-solution of salt, sulphuric acid, and water,

-called “pickle,” and after a few hours they

-are taken out, drained, and tanned.</p>

-

-<p>Large quantities of sheepskins are sold

-to tanners in the pickled condition by those

-who make a business of preparing such

-skins and selling the wool. Pickled skins

-can be kept an indefinite length of time

-without spoiling; they can also be dried

-and worked out into a cheap white leather

-without any further tanning whatever.

-Most of such skins, however, are sold to

-tanners, who tan them into leather. Sheepskins

-contain considerable grease, which

-must be removed before the leather can be

-sold.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>For some processes of tanning, calfskins,

-goatskins, and cattle hides are also pickled

-the same as sheepskins; for other processes

-they are not pickled, but are thoroughly

-bated or delimed, washed, and cleansed.

-Heavy hides are sometimes split out of the

-lime; more frequently, however, they are

-not split until after they have been tanned.</p>

-

-<p>To capitulate, the preparatory processes

-may be briefly described as follows:&mdash;</p>

-

-<p>Soaking, which dissolves the salt, removes

-the dirt and makes the hides soft and

-comparatively clean.</p>

-

-<p>Liming and unhairing, which swell the

-hides and dissolve the perishable animal

-portion, loosen the hair, and put the hides

-into proper condition for tanning. Hides

-tanned without liming, even if the hair is

-removed by some chemical, do not make

-pliable leather, but are stiff and hard.</p>

-

-<p>Bating, which removes the lime from the

-hides.</p>

-

-<p>Pickling, which helps in the tanning later,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>

-and keeps the hides and skins from spoiling

-if they are not tanned at once.</p>

-

-<p>The lumps of fat and flesh that may be on

-the hides are removed by machinery or by

-placing the hide over a beam and scraping it

-with a knife. The hair, when it is loosened

-by the lime, is removed by a machine or by

-hand.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_THREE">CHAPTER THREE<br />

-<span class="smaller">PROCESSES OF TANNING</span></h2>

-

-<p>The various processes of tanning may

-be roughly divided into two classes,

-vegetable chemical and mineral chemical.

-The first class is often spoken of in tanneries

-simply as the “vegetable” while the second

-is called “chemical” process. In the vegetable

-processes the tanning is accomplished

-by tannin, which is found in various barks

-and woods of trees and leaves of plants. In

-the so-called chemical processes the tanning

-is done with mineral salts and acids which

-produce an entirely different kind of leather

-from that procured by vegetable tanning.</p>

-

-<p>There is also a method of tanning, or,

-more properly speaking, tawing, in which

-alum and salt are used. This process

-makes white leather that is used for many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>

-purposes; it is also colored and used in

-the manufacture of fine gloves. Leather

-is also made by tanning skins with oil.

-Chamois skins are made in this way.</p>

-

-<p>The materials that are used to tan hides

-and skins act upon the hide fibers in such

-a way that the hides are rendered proof

-against decay and become pliable and strong.

-There are many vegetable tans; they are

-used for sole leather, upper leather, and

-colored leather for numerous purposes.

-The bark of hemlock trees is one of the

-principal tans. The woods and barks

-of oak, chestnut, and quebracho trees

-are often used. Palmetto roots yield a

-good tan. Large quantities of leather are

-treated with gambier and various other

-tanning materials that come from foreign

-countries. Sumac leaves, which are imported

-from Sicily, contain tannin that

-makes soft leather suitable for hat sweatbands,

-suspender trimmings, etc. Sumac

-is also obtained from the State of Virginia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>

-but the foreign leaves contain more tannin

-and make better leather than the

-American.</p>

-

-<p>To a large extent the so-called chemical

-processes have supplanted the vegetable

-processes, that is, old tan bark and sumac

-processes; but in some tanneries both

-methods are used on different kinds of

-skins.</p>

-

-<p>In the old bark process the tan bark is

-ground coarse and is then treated in leaches

-with hot water until the tanning quality is

-drawn out. The liquor so obtained is used

-at various strengths as needed.</p>

-

-<p>In the newer method the tan liquor is

-displaced by a solution of potassium bichromate,

-which produces its results with much

-less expenditure of time.</p>

-

-<p>When the hides or skins are ready for

-the tanning process, they are put into a

-revolving drum, known as a “pinwheel,”

-or into a pit in which are revolving paddles,

-with a dilute solution of potassium dichromate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>

-or sodium dichromate, acidified with

-hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. If the pinwheel

-is employed, it is revolved for seven

-hours or longer; after which time the

-liquor is drawn off and replaced by an

-acidified solution of sodium thiosulphate or

-bisulphite, and then the revolution is continued

-several hours longer. If the pit is

-used, the skins are removed to another

-drum containing the second solution, and

-kept at rest or overturned for a like period.</p>

-

-<p>In removing the skins from the pinwheel

-or vat, and in handling them after treatment

-with lime for the loosening of the hair, the

-hands and arms of the workmen are seriously

-injured, becoming raw if not protected by

-rubber gloves; even with gloves it is difficult

-to prevent injury, and in some establishments

-the workmen are relieved by

-the substitution of a single-bath process,

-in which the liquor is less harmful to the

-skin.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus4" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus4.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Tanning Process</p>

-<p class="caption">Showing the vats, the unhairing and liming processes. <i><a href="#Page_24">Page 24.</a></i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>The hides are then removed from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>

-pits, washed and brushed, followed by slow

-drying in the air. When partly dried, they

-are placed in a pile and covered until heating

-is induced. They are then dampened

-and rolled with brass rollers to give the

-leather solidity. Sole leather is oiled but

-little. Weight is increased by adding glucose

-and salt.</p>

-

-<p>Various rapid processes of tanning have

-been devised in which the hides are suspended

-in strong liquors or are tanned in

-large revolving drums. It is claimed that

-this hastens the process, but the product

-has been criticized as lacking substance or

-being brittle.</p>

-

-<p>Chrome tannage has been chiefly developed

-in this country during the last twenty

-years and is now in general use. It consists

-in throwing an insoluble chromium hydroxide

-or oxide on the fibers of a skin which

-has been impregnated with a soluble chromium

-salt&mdash;potassium bichromate. Other

-salts like basic chromium chloride, chromium<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>

-chromate, and chromic alum are also used.

-The hydrochloric or sulphuric acid acts

-by setting free chromic acid.</p>

-

-<p>After several hours, the skin shows a

-uniform yellow when cut through its thickest

-part. It is then drained and the skin

-worked in a solution of sodium bisulphite

-and mineral acid (to free sulphur dioxide).

-The chromic acid is absorbed by the fiber

-and later reduced by sulphur dioxide.</p>

-

-<p>In the making of chrome black leather

-each tanner has his own method. Contrary

-to the general belief, there are many different

-methods of chrome tannage. No two tanneries

-employ just the same process.</p>

-

-<p>Tanners of chrome leather seek to produce

-leather suitable for the particular

-demands made upon it by the peculiarities

-or characteristics of the varying seasons.

-Summer shoes require a cool, light leather;

-at other times a heavier tannage is essential,

-with some call for a practically waterproof

-product.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>All leathers, whether vegetable-or chrome-tanned,

-must be “fat liquored.” That is

-to say, a certain amount of fatty material

-must be put into the skin in order that it

-may be mellow, workable, and serviceable.

-This is very essential in producing calf

-leather. Fat liquors usually contain oil

-and soap, which have been boiled in water

-and made into a thin liquor. The leather

-is put into a drum with the hot fat liquor;

-the drum is set in motion, and as it revolves

-the leather tumbles about in the drum and

-absorbs the oil and soap from the water.

-It is the fat liquor that makes the leather

-soft and strong.</p>

-

-<p>Leather used in shoes is divided into two

-classes: sole leather and upper leather.</p>

-

-<p>Sole leather is a heavy, solid, stiff leather

-and may be bent without cracking. It is

-the foundation of the shoe, and therefore

-should be of the best material. The hides

-of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for

-this purpose.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The hide that is tanned for sole leather is

-soaked for several days in a weak solution

-(which is gradually made stronger) of oak or

-hemlock tan made from the bark. Oak-tanned

-hide is preferred and may be known

-by its light color. A chemical change takes

-place in the fiber of the hide. This is a

-high-grade tannage, and is distinguished

-principally by its fine fibers and close,

-compact texture.</p>

-

-<p>Oak sole leather, by reason of its tough

-character, and its close, fibrous texture,

-resists water and will wear well down

-before cracking. It is by many considered

-better than other leather for flexible-sole

-shoes, requiring waterproof qualities.</p>

-

-<p>Sole leather is divided into three classes

-according to the tanning&mdash;oak, hemlock,

-and union.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus5" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus5.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Tanning Process</p>

-<p class="caption">Showing the rotating drums. <i>See <a href="#Page_24">page 24</a>.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>Oak tanning is as follows: the hides are

-hung in pits containing weak or nearly

-spent liquors from a previous tanning, and

-agitated so as to take up tannin evenly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>

-Strong liquor would harden the surface

-so as to prevent thorough penetration into

-the interior of the hides. After ten or

-twelve days, the hides are taken out and

-laid away in fresh tan and stronger liquor.

-This process is repeated as often as necessary

-for eight to ten months. At the end of this

-time the hide has absorbed all of the tannin

-which it will take up.</p>

-

-<p>Hemlock tanning is similar to the oak

-tanning in process. The hemlock tan is a

-red shade. Hemlock produces a very hard

-and inflexible leather. It is modified by

-use of bleaching materials which are applied

-to the leather after being tanned. It is sold

-in sides without being trimmed, while the

-oak is sold in backs, with belly and head

-trimmed off.</p>

-

-<p>Hemlock leather is used extensively and

-almost principally for men’s and boys’

-stiff-soled, heavy shoes, where no flexibility

-is required or expected. Its principal desirable

-quality is its resistance to trituration,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>

-or being ground to a powder, and its use in

-men’s and boys’ pegged, nailed, or standard

-screw shoes is not in any way objectionable

-to the wearer. In fact, for this class of

-shoes, it is probably the best leather that

-can be used. But when hemlock is used

-in men’s and boys’ Goodyear welt shoes,

-where a flexible bottom is expected and

-required, it generally does not give good

-results. It cannot satisfactorily resist the

-constant flexing to which it is subjected,

-and after the sole is worn half through, the

-constant bending causes it to crack crosswise.

-On this account it becomes like a

-sieve, and has no power of resistance in

-water, and therefore it is not at all suited

-to flexible-bottomed shoes.</p>

-

-<p>In “union-tanned” hides, both oak and

-hemlock are used and the result is a compromise

-in both color and quality. This

-tan was first used about fifty years ago.

-Twenty-five years ago the union leather

-tanners began to experiment with bleaching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>

-materials to avoid the use of oak bark,

-which was becoming scarce and high priced,

-and eventually developed a system of tanning

-union leather with hemlock or kindred

-tanning agents, excluding oak. The red

-color and the hard texture were modified

-by bleaching the leather to the desired

-color and texture. This produces leather

-which has not the fine, close tannage of

-genuine oak leather and at the same time

-lacks the compact, hard character of hemlock

-leather. Union leather produced in

-this manner is a sort of mongrel or hybrid

-leather, being neither oak nor hemlock.

-On account of its economy in cutting

-qualities, however, it is largely used in the

-manufacture of medium-priced shoes where

-a certain degree of flexibility is required in

-the sole. This is particularly true of women’s

-shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Union leather is sold largely in backs and

-trimmed the same as oak, though not so

-closely.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>Sole leather is also made nowadays by

-tanning the hides by the chrome or chemical

-process. This leather is very durable

-and pliable and is used on athletic and sporting

-shoes. It has a light green color and

-is much lighter in weight than the oak or

-hemlock leather.</p>

-

-<p>Many kinds of hide are used for sole

-leather. This country does not produce

-nearly enough hides for the demand, and

-great quantities are imported from abroad,

-although most of the imported hides come

-from South America. Imported hides are

-divided into two general classes, dry hides

-and green-salted hides.</p>

-

-<p>Dry hides are of two kinds, the dry

-“flint,” which are dried carefully after

-being taken from the animal and cured

-without salt. These generally make good

-leather, although if sunburnt, the leather is

-not strong. “Dry-salted hides” are salted

-and cured to a dry state. Dry hides of

-both kinds are used for hemlock leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>

-only, although all hemlock leather is not

-made from dry hides.</p>

-

-<p>Green-salted hides are used in making

-oak-tanned leather as well as hemlock, and

-those used by United States tanners come

-largely from domestic points; but there is a

-variable amount imported each year from

-abroad, principally from Europe and South

-America. Green-salted hides are of two

-general classes, those branded and those

-free of brands.</p>

-

-<p>Cow and steer hides of the branded type

-are used by tanners of oak and union leather.

-Those not branded are used more largely for

-belting and upholstering leathers, a small

-part finding their way into hemlock leather.</p>

-

-<p>Sole leather remnants, strictly speaking,

-include such a wide variety of items that

-it is difficult to cover them all. Few people,

-however, realize the big range of usefulness

-of this class of stock. While not exactly a

-by-product, remnants are often classed as

-such. Under the class of sole leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>

-remnants are included sole leather offal,

-such as heads, bellies, shoulders, shanks,

-shins, men’s heeling, men’s half heeling,

-men’s and women’s three-and four-piece

-heeling, etc. Stock that cannot be used

-in the shoe business goes into the chemical

-and fertilizer trade, among other outlets.

-By a special acid process of burning this

-stock, ammonia is derived from it, which

-goes into fertilizer; and another by-product

-is sulphuric acid for the chemical trade.

-The amount of ammonia obtained is small,

-being about seven per cent of ammonia to

-a ton of sole leather scrap. This is mixed

-with fertilizer and sold mostly in the Southern

-States, and to a small extent in the West,

-there being a law in many of the Western

-States against the use of fertilizer made

-from leather products, on account of its

-low grade.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus6" style="width: 465px;">

-<img src="images/illus6.jpg" width="465" height="650" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Sole Leather Offal</p>

-<p class="caption">Showing bellies, shoulders, etc. <i><a href="#Page_35">Page 35.</a></i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>In the disposition of offal, heads are used

-for taps, top lifts, and under lifts. Shoulders

-are used for outsoles and inner soles, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>

-bellies are used for medium to heavy taps

-and counters. Lightweight bellies and

-shanks are utilized for making box toes

-and counters.</p>

-

-<p>Shanks are also used for taps and under

-lifts. This stock is solid and substantial

-and well suited for these purposes. The

-bellies, being flexible, are the best part of

-the hide obtainable for inner soles.</p>

-

-<p>In cutting out soles, the manufacturer

-accumulates a considerable quantity of

-solid or center pieces, which are used for

-small top lifts, also for “Cuban” tops,

-thereby using up the bulk of the small

-heavy scrap that ordinarily would be sold

-for pieced heeling. There is also a demand

-for similar stock from the hardware trade,

-where it is used for making mallet and tool

-handles, also for wagon and carriage

-washers. Large quantities of men’s and

-women’s heeling and half heeling go to

-England, where it is cut up by heel manufacturers

-into lifts and sectional lifts for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>

-the English trade; there being a shortage

-of this class of offal there.</p>

-

-<p>The shoe manufacturer, after cutting his

-soles and taps, is obliged to skive them to

-get the particular iron he needs. This

-leaves what is known as a “flesh sole

-shape,” also a “tap shape.” These skivings

-are pasted together by another class of

-trade and again used for inner soling and

-taps in the cheaper grades of shoes. Smaller

-skivings, or waste, after sorting out the sole

-and tap shapes, are sold to the leather

-board trade. This eventually comes back

-to the shoe trade in the shape of leather

-board and is cut into heel lifts. The waste

-after cutting heel lifts is again resold to

-the leather board trade and makes another

-round trip to the shoe manufacturer. This

-illustration, as well as many others in the

-leather remnant business, demonstrates the

-scientific principle that nothing is ever

-entirely lost. In regard to pieced heel lifts,

-these are made in either two, three, or four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>

-sections. This refers to what are known as

-sectional heel lifts. Scrap leather is also

-used for shanking for the European trade.</p>

-

-<p>Soles and taps, known as rejects, that is,

-those thrown out by the high-grade trade,

-are sold to manufacturers of cheaper lines.

-A shoe manufacturer cutting his own soles

-and buying sole leather in sides, after sorting

-out the soles suited to his own requirements,

-will sell what he cannot use to remnant

-dealers, who in turn re-sell them to shoe

-manufacturers requiring that particular

-class of stock. The scrap leather, or remnant

-dealer, thus forms a useful link in the

-chain of distribution, furnishing a market

-where shoe and leather manufacturers may

-dispose of their surplus products to best

-advantage, and providing a source of supply

-for buyers who wish any particular article

-to suit their individual needs.</p>

-

-<p>Upper or dressed leather is made from

-kips or large calfskins. It is tanned and

-finished like all other forms of leather by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>

-variations of the foregoing process. Thick

-hides are often split thin by machinery,

-and the parts retained and finished separately.

-The parts of the leather from the

-hair side are most valuable and are called

-“grain” leather; the inner parts or “flesh

-splits” are made into a variety of different

-kinds of leather by waxing, oiling, and

-polishing.</p>

-

-<p>It is finished by scouring with brushes and

-then rubbed with a piece of glass, which

-removes creases and wrinkles and stretches

-the leather. Then it is stuffed with a

-mixture of oil, soap, and tallow, which is

-worked into it by rolling. Various finishes

-are given to leather, such as seal grain,

-buff, glove grain, oil grain, satin calf,

-russet, plain shoe, etc.</p>

-

-<p>Upper leathers are blacked by rubbing with

-a mixture of lampblack and oil or tallow, or

-with a solution of copperas and logwood.</p>

-

-<p>No tanning process, no matter how good

-or thorough, can make firm, serviceable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>

-wear-resisting leather out of all portions

-of any hide, because nature made some

-parts of every hide porous, spongy, and

-lacking in fibrous strength.</p>

-

-<p>Calfskins used by tanners are of several

-classes. American calfskins, taken off in

-the United States and Canada, are usually

-sold green pelted. Farmers raise only a

-small fraction of the calves born. Each

-cow must produce a calf in order to insure a

-maximum flow of milk. Most of the farmers

-keep cows to produce milk, hence they

-sell the young calves for veal and use their

-skins for high-grade calf leather.</p>

-

-<p>In European countries farmers fatten

-their calves before selling them in order to

-get a higher price for the veal. The skin

-is not so valuable for leather as the skin

-from younger calves, and it is used for

-lower-value leathers.</p>

-

-<p>Calfskin is not split. A heavier weight

-skin might be. It is shaved to a uniform

-thickness.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>Calf leather is divided into the following

-classes, depending upon the finish of the

-leather:&mdash;</p>

-

-<p>Boarded calf (made in both chrome and

-bark tannage).</p>

-

-<p>Wax calf, finished on the flesh side with a

-waxy, hard surface.</p>

-

-<p>Box calf is a proprietary name. It is

-boarded&mdash;rubbed with a board to raise the

-grain. It is known by minute, squarelike

-lines.</p>

-

-<p>Mat calf is a dull-finished calfskin, used

-more in topping.</p>

-

-<p>Suede calf is finished on flesh side. Most

-makes of suede calf are chromed, although

-there are some vegetable.</p>

-

-<p>Storm calf is a heavy skin, finished for

-winter wear. Considerable oil is used in

-finishing.</p>

-

-<p>French calf is finished on flesh side.</p>

-

-<p>Dry hides are obtained from Buenos

-Ayres, where the cattle are raised on the

-plains. This city exports a large quantity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>

-hides, dry, salted, and cured by smoking.

-The hides of cows generally yield inferior

-grain leather; but South American cowhides

-may be worked for light sole leather.</p>

-

-<p>Calves’ hides are thinner, but when well

-tanned, curried, and dressed, they yield a

-very soft and supple leather for boots and

-shoes. They are finished with wax and

-oil on the flesh side, and can also be finished

-on the hair (grain of skin).</p>

-

-<p>Calves’ skin (green salted).</p>

-

-<p>Paris City calfskins. These are obtained

-in three grades&mdash;light, medium, and heavy.</p>

-

-<p>Light grades run from four to five,

-or seven to eight pounds; medium grades

-run from seven to nine pounds; heavy

-grades run from nine to twelve pounds.</p>

-

-<p>Patent leather may be made from colt,

-calf, or kid skin. Coltskin is the skin of

-young horses, or split skins of mature

-horses.</p>

-

-<p>Patent colt and kid are used for the most

-part in the medium fine grades, and patent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>

-side (cowhide) is used in the medium and

-cheaper grades. Chrome tanned are used entirely

-in the manufacture of patent leather.</p>

-

-<p>Patent leather, as it appears in shoes,

-may be described either as varnished leather,

-coltskin, or kid, and sometimes the French

-use calfskin. The process is largely a

-secret one, although there is no longer any

-patent on the principle of the same. It is

-made by shaving the skins on the flesh side

-or hair side to a uniform thickness. Then

-it is de-greased to put the skin in condition

-to receive the finish and protect the same

-from peeling off. Successive coats of liquid

-black varnish are applied, the first coats

-being dried and rubbed down, so as to work

-the liquid thoroughly into the fibers of the

-leather. The last coat is applied with a brush,

-and baked to from one hundred and twenty

-to one hundred and forty degrees Fahrenheit

-for thirty-six hours and then allowed to dry

-in direct sunlight for from six to ten hours,

-which seems to be essential to remove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>

-the sticky feeling. Various ingredients are

-used in making the different varnishes, the

-first coating consisting of naphtha, wood

-alcohol, amyl acetate, etc. The black

-varnishes consist of linseed oil and various

-other mixtures, heated in iron kettles. The

-final coating is a naphtha preparation resembling

-japanning material. The hide is

-stretched on a frame during the varnishing

-operations.</p>

-

-<p>It is almost impossible to tell the difference

-in quality of shiny leather by appearance,

-although in general the leather on which

-the grain shows through the varnish will

-prove more serviceable than that on which

-the finish is so thick as to hide the grain.

-Great care must be exercised in resewing

-patent leather shoes that have been exposed

-during the cold weather, as the cold has

-a tendency to freeze the finish. Patent

-leather, like all varnished coatings, is liable

-to crack. No one can guarantee it not to do

-so. The kid patent leather is more elastic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>

-and porous than other kinds. The serious

-objection to the use of patent leather for a

-shoe is its air-tightness. This makes it both

-unhygienic and uncomfortable. The kid

-patent leather is the only patent leather

-that has not this objection.</p>

-

-<p>Kid is a term applied to shoe leather

-made from the skins of mature goats. The

-skin of the young goat or kid is made into

-the thin, flexible leather used for kid gloves,

-which is too delicate for general use in

-shoes. The goats from which come the

-supply of leather used in this country for

-women’s and children’s fine shoes are not

-the common, domesticated kind known in

-this country, but are wild goats or allied

-species partially domesticated, and are

-found in the hill regions of India, the mountains

-of Europe, portions of South America,

-etc.</p>

-

-<p>There are about sixty-eight recognized

-kinds of goatskins that are imported from

-all over the world. The Brazilian, Buenos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>

-Ayres, Andean, Mexican, French, Russian,

-Indian, and Chinese are a few of the many

-kinds that are known as such. Each

-particular species of goat hide possesses

-its own peculiarities of texture. The thickness

-and grain differ according to the environment

-in which the animal has been

-raised. It is peculiar that those raised in

-cold climates do not have as thick skins as

-those raised in warmer climates, for the long,

-thick hair apparently takes the strength.</p>

-

-<p>We may wonder where all the skins come

-from that are made up into glazed kid,

-mat kid, and suede, at the rate of several

-thousand dozen every day. The great proportion

-of the skins are <i>goatskins</i>. These

-are almost all imported from abroad, where

-the animals are slaughtered and disposed of

-much the same as we dispose of beef and

-veal here. Sheepskins and carbarettas, the

-hides of animals that are a cross between

-sheep and goats, are also used.</p>

-

-<p>The finer grades of kid and goatskins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>

-which are tanned in large quantities in

-New England, come from the Far East.</p>

-

-<p>In China there are two great ports from

-which skins are shipped, Tientsin and

-Shanghai. Back in the interior, starting

-from a point about twelve hundred miles

-from the sea, collectors make their rounds

-twice a year.</p>

-

-<p>The breeder of goats kills his flock just

-before the collector is due, skins the animals

-on the hillside, preserves the meat for food,

-and with the kidskins, which have been

-partly dried, wrapped in a bundle carried

-upon the back, or upon a pack animal, the

-breeder makes his way to the station. It

-may be that there are a half hundred

-breeders awaiting the coming of the collector

-and he pays them the market price for the

-skins.</p>

-

-<p>Whenever the collector has a sufficient supply

-to make it profitable to ship, he bales the

-skins and then sends them over the thousand

-mile journey along the river to the seaport.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>

-From Tientsin or Shanghai they are

-taken by tramp steamers, which reach

-Eastern ports by way of the Suez Canal,

-and on the trip the steamers make several

-ports, so that it is from six to ten weeks

-before the skins reach America.</p>

-

-<p>Another method of importing is to have

-the raw material shipped across the Pacific

-and then transferred to a railroad, but the

-difference in cost to the manufacturer is so

-great that it is unprofitable.</p>

-

-<p>The China goatskins are rated as among

-the finest in the world and when tanned

-they make the highest-grade shoe.</p>

-

-<p>Then there are mocha skins, which come

-from Tripoli, Arabia, and Northern Africa.

-In those places the method of collection is

-practically the same as in China.</p>

-

-<p>The two best-known grades are the

-Hodieda and the Benghazi. They derive

-their designations from the exporting cities.

-Hodieda is located in the southwestern

-part of Arabia on the Red Sea, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>

-Benghazi is in Barca, one of the provinces

-of Tripoli.</p>

-

-<p>Other goatskins are produced in India

-and Russia, and millions of skins are exported

-annually from Bombay, Madras, and

-Calcutta. These skins are not brought

-direct to America, but are transshipped at

-Marseilles or London.</p>

-

-<p>The jobbers in Europe or India occupy

-rather a unique position, for according to

-their practice it is almost impossible for

-them to suffer financial losses in dealing

-with an American tanner. The latter, when

-he wishes to arrange for his year’s supply of

-raw material, negotiates with an agent in

-Boston, with whom he signs a contract

-for so many skins. Then it is necessary for

-the tanner to either purchase with money

-equal to the face value or secure by loans

-letters of credit from Boston banking

-houses which have European connections.</p>

-

-<p>Before the skins are exported, the jobber

-has his money from the European banking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>

-concerns and the bills of lading are forwarded

-to the Boston bankers, who turn them over

-to the tanners, and, when the occasion

-requires, obtain from the tanners what is

-known as a deed of trust.</p>

-

-<p>All goatskins are tanned by the same

-chrome tanning process, whether the finish

-is to be glazed or mat. The proportions of

-chemicals vary according to the texture of

-the skin, and according to the grain.</p>

-

-<p>The process of tanning is quicker than

-the tanning of heavier hides, and all varieties

-of tannage are used, the chrome

-methods having come into very general use.

-There are many kinds of finish given, such

-as glazed, dull, mat, patent, etc. One

-quality that distinguishes goat leather, the

-“kid” of shoemaking, is the fact that the

-fibers of the skin are interlaced and interlocked

-in all directions. The finished skins

-as they come from the tannery, by whatever

-process they may be put through, are sorted

-for size and quality, a number of grades<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>

-being made. Instead of ripping straight

-through, like a piece of cloth, or splitting

-apart in layers, as sheepskin will do when

-made into leather, the kid holds together

-firmly in all directions.</p>

-

-<p>Glazed kid is colored after it is tanned by

-submerging it in the color, a very important

-process. The glossy surface is obtained by

-“striking” or burnishing on the grain side.

-It is made in black and colors, particularly

-tan, and is known by about as many names

-as there are manufacturers of it.</p>

-

-<p>Glazed kid is used in the uppers of shoes,

-making a fine, soft shoe that is particularly

-comfortable in warm weather, and is said

-to prevent cold feet in winter, owing to

-unrestricted circulation.</p>

-

-<p>Mat kid is a soft, dull black kid, the

-softness being the result of treatment with

-beeswax or olive oil. It is finished on the

-grain side the same as glazed kid, and is

-used principally for shoe toppings. It is

-very similar in appearance to mat calf and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>

-is often used in preference to it, as it is of

-much lighter weight, and about as strong.</p>

-

-<p>Suede kid is not tanned, but is subjected

-to a feeding process in an egg solution,

-called “tawing,” to make it soft and pliable.

-The skin is stretched and the color is applied

-by “brushing” (with a brush). The color

-does not permeate the skin, but is merely

-on the surface. Suedes are made from

-carbarettas and split sheepskins. Suedes

-are used very extensively in making slippers,

-and come in a great variety of colors.</p>

-

-<p>A castor kid is a Persian lambskin finished

-the same as a suede, and is used in

-making very soft, fine-appearing leather&mdash;like

-glove leather. The skin is of such a

-very light weight that it has to be “backed

-up” before being made into shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Fancy leathers are used extensively for

-toppings of shoes having patent leather

-vamps. Facings are selected from fancy

-leathers to make the inside of a shoe attractive

-and to increase its wearing quality.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>

-Leathers of dull or glazed finish are used in

-typical shoe colors.</p>

-

-<p>Miscellaneous kinds of kids are as

-follows:&mdash;</p>

-

-<ul>

-<li><i>A.</i> Kangaroo</li>

-<li><i>B.</i> Buckskin</li>

-<li><i>C.</i> Sheepskin</li>

-<li><i>D.</i> Chamois</li>

-<li><i>E.</i> Cordovan</li>

-<li><i>F.</i> Splits</li>

-<li class="isub1"><i>a.</i> Seal Grain</li>

-<li class="isub1"><i>b.</i> Buff</li>

-<li class="isub1"><i>c.</i> Oil Grain</li>

-<li class="isub1"><i>d.</i> Satin Calf</li>

-<li><i>G.</i> Enamel</li>

-<li><i>H.</i> Sides</li>

-</ul>

-

-<p>Kangaroo is the skin of the animal of that

-name.</p>

-

-<p>Buckskin is the skin of certain deer.</p>

-

-<p>Sheepskin is the skin of the familiar domestic

-sheep.</p>

-

-<p>Chamois is the skin of the animal of that

-name and by courtesy the specially treated

-skins of certain domestic animals.</p>

-

-<p>It is a simple matter to recognize a kid-skin

-among the various kinds of upper

-leather, because of its very light weight

-and pliability.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>During the winter, leather, in drying,

-is apt to become frozen, especially where no

-well-equipped drying loft is provided. Such

-leather becomes weak and limp if thawed

-out too rapidly. In freezing, the water in

-the hides which have been hung up to dry

-is forced out and stretches apart the hide

-fiber. The wetter the hides, therefore, the

-more demoralized they will be by the frost.

-The treatment of rushing the frozen leather

-into a warm room is inadvisable; the best

-method is to allow the hides to hang as they

-were and to tightly close all openings to

-the outside air. In case this is impossible,

-it is best to place the leather in a heap, in a

-room where the temperature will not fall

-below the freezing point, and to cover it

-with a cloth. In case the leather rolls up,

-it should be moistened before the roll becomes

-greater than is customary; it will

-thus become firmer throughout. Some upper

-leather and especially sheepskins for lining

-purposes are aided by freezing, since the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>

-leather becomes white and plump and also

-is of a bright color, though the durability

-is somewhat lessened.</p>

-

-<p>The popularity of white leather for shoes

-is increasing wonderfully. There is good

-reason for this. The modern white shoes

-have a stylish and fashionable appearance

-which has won the hearts of women of all

-ages and conditions, and when they want

-a thing, there is always alertness in supplying

-it. The new love for white shoes is

-interesting to trace. Years ago white

-leather for shoes was made principally

-from deerskins. But this leather, while

-attractive when new, would stretch soon

-after being worn, and take on a yellowish

-tinge. Besides, the price of such shoes was

-very high, and it is not surprising that they

-became supplanted by the cheaper, but

-attractive and useful, white canvas shoes,

-which became quick sellers during the season.</p>

-

-<p>It is greatly to the credit of our tanners

-that they have been able to perfect and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>

-put on the market a white leather for shoes

-which answers all requirements satisfactorily.

-This leather is made from cowhides;

-the white color will not fade nor turn

-yellow, and best of all, the leather can be

-easily cleaned and made to look good as

-new. Another advantage is that such

-leathers can be used in shoes that sell at

-popular prices.</p>

-

-<p>There are many common, commercial

-grades of upper leather.</p>

-

-<p>Willow calf is a fine, soft, chrome tannage

-of calfskin. It is sold in three colors,

-light tan, ox blood, and olive-brown. The

-distinguishing features of this leather are

-its durability and the fact that it always

-keeps soft and pliable. It is adapted to the

-highest quality of men’s and women’s shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Box calf is a storm-calf leather of highest

-quality. It is a waterproof, chrome tannage

-in a medium tan color, with a dull

-finish. This is the best leather obtainable

-for rough, outdoor wear, walking shoes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>

-hunting boots, etc. It is also adapted to

-men’s and women’s very fine footwear.

-There is a growing demand for this kind

-of shoe. In the uppers of the best storm

-shoes you will always find box calf.</p>

-

-<p>Royal kid is a black chrome calfskin,

-dull finished with a smooth, natural grain

-of fine texture, soft and pliable. It is used

-for vamps and whole shoes of the highest

-grades for men and women, and is a very

-popular material for the fall and winter

-shoe. The desirable qualities of fine calf

-leather are making the demand for it

-grow faster than the supply of raw material

-increases.</p>

-

-<p>Tan royal is a tan color, chrome calf

-leather, smooth finish, fine grain, excellent

-cutting qualities, uniform, of medium

-rich tan shades. Tan calf leather is very

-attractive and the tan shoe is now a staple

-product.</p>

-

-<p>Cadet kid is a bright black, smooth-finished,

-chrome calfskin for men’s and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>

-women’s fine shoes. This tannage and

-finish give a remarkable cutting value.

-The stability of this stock is entirely unique

-and makes the finished shoe stand up,

-keeping its much desired shape through the

-different tests of manufacturing. It is said

-to be the best calfskin, by the best judges,

-the shoe manufacturers.</p>

-

-<p>Bronko patent is distinguished for its

-fine, coltskin-effect grain. It has a rich

-and lustrous black patent finish. The

-results obtained from bronko patent in its

-workings through the shoe factory and its

-wearing qualities afterward have never been

-equaled. Bronko is one of the finest results

-of the development of chrome patent

-leather.</p>

-

-<p>Cadet kid side is a chrome side leather

-that closely imitates the calfskin, called

-cadet kid. It has a bright, lustrous finish,

-and a remarkably fine grain. It is surprisingly

-like fine calf leather in appearance.</p>

-

-<p>Cadet calf sides are similar to cadet kid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>

-sides with the exception of a boarded finish.

-This is another black chrome, side leather

-which comes very near to a calfskin.</p>

-

-<p>Mat royal chrome side is a special finish,

-closely resembling calf, used for the tops

-of men’s and women’s medium fine shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Black hawk patent is a well-tanned,

-well-finished patent leather for medium-priced

-women’s shoes and for tipping.</p>

-

-<p>Colored box chrome side, boarded, is a

-substitute for willow calf.</p>

-

-<p>Black box chrome side, boarded, is a

-substitute for box calf in medium fine shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Kangaroo kid side is a back-tanned, dull,

-smooth, black leather nearly like calf, used

-in the tops of men’s shoes, and men’s and

-women’s whole shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Waterproof black is a high quality

-leather of great durability for men’s and

-boys’ heavy shoes. Waterproof brown is

-similar to waterproof black, except in color,

-and is a leather made for hard service.</p>

-

-<p>Amhide black is a soft, dry, high-grade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>

-tannage for lightweight, comfortable, sporting,

-work, and hard-wear shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Amhide russet is like black amhide in

-everything but color.</p>

-

-<p>Hercules storm chrome is a leather distinguished

-for its fine grain and good appearance

-of medium heavy weight.</p>

-

-<p>Boris is a heavy-weight, soft, waterproof

-leather for men’s medium quality shoes. It

-is finished in three colors and black.</p>

-

-<p>Zulu is a medium-priced leather, which

-makes a very fine wearing heavy shoe. It is

-made in two colors and black.</p>

-

-<p>Bison is a colored or black-finished

-leather, of a high grade, very comfortable

-and durable.</p>

-

-<p>Ottawa is of two colors and black finished,

-and is suitable for high quality, heavy,

-rough shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Sheboygan calf is a heavily stuffed, soft,

-waterproof leather. It is of two colors and

-black.</p>

-

-<p>Dongola calf is a black leather used for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>

-durable, medium-priced, heavy, outdoor

-shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Belt knife splits are sold in several tannages

-and finishes of the most improved

-manufacture. These splits are sorted in

-all weights. Uniform selection is maintained,

-and the quality in every way is of

-the highest order.</p>

-

-<p>Oxford calf union splits is one of the

-highest grades of grain-finished, union splits.

-It has an extremely soft and fine appearance.</p>

-

-<p>Cambridge calf union splits have a most

-careful and high-grade finish, but somewhat

-firmer than Oxford calf.</p>

-

-<p>Flesh splits are sold in two tannages.

-These are the highest-grade flesh splits

-that it is possible to make, and they are a

-long distance ahead of the ordinary flesh

-splits, their improved finish making them

-a modern and largely used substitute for

-satin.</p>

-

-<p>Ottawa black and russet splits include

-a variety of printed splits, used for shoes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>

-in combination with grain leather and for

-whole shoes. They are selected in many

-weights.</p>

-

-<p>Flexible splits for Goodyear, gem, McKay

-inner soles, is leather that offers the greatest

-advantages to large and small buyers. It

-is the product of six different tanneries,

-assorted in all the usual weights. Great

-care is taken in the manufacture of these

-splits to adapt them perfectly to the shoe

-manufacturer’s needs.</p>

-

-<p>Flexible bends are used by manufacturers

-of Goodyear welt shoes requiring a straight

-Goodyear or gem inner sole. They find

-these bends of great advantage on account

-of the small amount of waste, the strength

-and desirability of stock. They are made

-in six tannages.</p>

-

-<p>Chrome flexible splits for inner soles furnish

-a very strong and durable leather for

-inner soles, taps, and outer soles.</p>

-

-<p>Ooze gusset splits, colored, give a very

-low-priced leather suitable for gussets, bellows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>

-tongues for high-cut boots, also for

-the quarter-linings of Oxfords.</p>

-

-<p>Ooze vamp splits, black and colored, are

-strong, durable, low-priced leathers suitable

-for cheap work shoes where waterproof

-qualities are not required.</p>

-

-<p>Chrome-tanned embossed splits, colored,

-are made in a great variety of patterns for

-cheap shoes and other work where leather

-is required. They are durable and low

-priced.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Leather for Belting</span></h3>

-

-<p>A native steer about four years old,

-killed in the month of October, affords the

-best example of a good hide for belting

-manufacture, that is, for the transmission

-of power from pulley to pulley. At this

-age and at this season the steer is in prime

-condition.</p>

-

-<p>On account of the great and enormous

-strain put upon belting, and the necessity

-for its running true upon the pulley, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>

-should be of the highest grade possible,

-combining great strength to prevent

-stretching, and evenness of grain to insure

-long wear; therefore only hides of selected

-steers are serviceable, and these in turn

-are rejected when they contain any blemishes

-or cuts or other imperfections. After

-a hide is accepted for belting purposes, it is

-subjected to a generous trimming, the head,

-neck, legs, and belly being cut away, leaving

-only a small and compact section embracing

-from two to two and a quarter feet on

-each side of the backbone and extending

-about six feet along the same from the

-tail forward. This is the portion of the hide

-where the fibers are closely and firmly

-knit together, and where the vitality is

-the greatest, due to the close proximity of

-the network of nerves radiating from each

-side of the spine to all parts of the hide.</p>

-

-<p>The hides of the bull and cow of every

-breed are inferior for belting purposes to

-that of the steer. The hide of the bull is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>

-coarse and hard, with the neck very heavy

-and full of wrinkles, causing a variation in

-the thickness and run of the grain of the

-leather. The hide of the cow is thin, does

-not run uniform in thickness, being heavier

-on the hips than at the shoulder, and is

-lacking in the firmness necessary in good

-belting. The sharp angles of the hip bones

-of a cow also tend to form pockets in the

-hide.</p>

-

-<p>After the hide has been trimmed, it is

-subject to the process of “currying.” All

-membranes or particles of flesh adhering

-to the hide are removed by a machine which

-shaves the membrane, etc., off, with lightning

-rapidity. The leather is then washed

-and scoured by machine, which removes all

-dirt still adhering to the hide. After the

-leather is thoroughly cleaned and while in

-a damp state, it is placed upon the table,

-and greases, composed of pure animal oil,

-are worked into the leather on both the

-grain and the flesh side with brushes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>

-This is carried on in the cold state. It is

-then put into a large revolving wheel

-containing water heated to a high degree,

-which causes the leather to swell and pores

-to open. The leather is then taken out

-and put into another wheel containing

-heavy mineral oil and heated several degrees

-greater than the water, and tumbled about

-in the wheel until the heavy oil fills the

-distended pores and fibers. After this, the

-leather is allowed to dry.</p>

-

-<p>The hides are allowed to remain for

-several months in the tan liquor until the

-green hide is changed into leather.</p>

-

-<p>After the hide has been changed into

-leather, it is stretched. To properly stretch

-the leather for belting purposes, it must

-first be cut so as to remove that part which

-shows the markings of the backbone of

-the steer.</p>

-

-<p>Leather is stretched by placing it in

-clamps, every part of the piece getting the

-same pull. (The leather is put into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>

-clamps while damp, as damp leather will

-give the greatest amount of stretching.)</p>

-

-<p>When the stretching process is completed

-and the leather has thoroughly dried in

-stretching clamps, it is released. These

-pieces of leather are quite dry, very firm,

-and not very pliable. The leather is now

-moistened in order that it shall be more

-pliable as it passes through the finishing

-processes. After the water has soaked into

-the leather (called sammied), it becomes very

-soft. It is then subjected to a roller under

-heavy pressure to take all the unevenness

-out of the hide. It is next thoroughly

-dried, causing the fibers to shrink; then

-again moistened and put through a polishing

-machine, which acts on the same principle

-as the rolling jack.</p>

-

-<p>The sides and centers are now put through

-a cutting machine, which reduces the leather

-to strips of different sizes.</p>

-

-<p>Belts are put together by cementing the

-parts. Belt cement is a most powerful adhesive.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>

-It actually governs the strength of

-the belt, as the belt is as strong as the weakest

-part of the joint.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Rawhide Products</span></h3>

-

-<p>Rawhide is used for a great many purposes.

-After the side of leather has been

-trimmed of the portions that cannot be

-used, it is sold to the lace maker. He

-measures the same in a machine.</p>

-

-<p>The trimmings from the side of the hide

-may be used for a mallet head or other

-tools made of leather. The most common

-products of the strong section of rawhide

-strings are shoe strings, belting laces, and

-parts of harnesses. It is also made into

-leather shoe strings that are used in the

-logging camps.</p>

-

-<p>When the hide is selected for the rawhide

-purposes, it is first passed to a de-hairing

-machine, where all the hair is removed.

-It is then fleshed; that is, all loose membrane<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>

-and any flesh that may have adhered

-to the hide are removed from the flesh side.

-The rawhide is then placed in a special

-bath for the purpose of opening the pores,

-before the oils and greases are added to it.

-After this bath, it is dried thoroughly in a

-hot box and then put into wheels which

-mill the greases into the hide.</p>

-

-<p>The hide, which is made hard by this

-drying process, is put through breakers,

-where it is thoroughly worked into soft

-and pliable form.</p>

-

-<p>The hide is next passed to the setting-out

-machine, which finishes all forms of leather&mdash;by

-condensing and strengthening the

-fibers. Special oils are applied to both

-the grain and flesh side of the hide. It is

-finished by hand and cut into laces. This

-hand finishing is usually done in order to

-reject all parts that are not perfect.</p>

-

-<p>Haired leather is tanned by acid&mdash;a

-quicker method. The hide is split into

-sides and tanned with the belly stock on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>

-them, which is used for car straps, cowbell

-straps, trunk straps, and riding bridles.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">The By-products of a Leather Belting

-Factory</span></h3>

-

-<p>There are a great many by-products in

-a leather belting factory, all of which are

-used. The finest strips are used for whip

-lashes, small pieces are used for the French

-heel, and the extremely small pieces are

-used in leather mats.</p>

-

-<p>The by-product from the belting bull,

-which is about fifty per cent, is used for shoe

-leather and leather straps. There is considerable

-leather taken from the belting

-bull for certain harness work. The belly

-is thick and porous though not tough, and

-is used for halters, cow bridles, and other

-parts of harness where the strain is not

-great.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Round Belt Making</span></h3>

-

-<p>Round belt is made from the best belting,

-but while the strain on round belting is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>

-not severe, the leather must be soft and

-pliable. It is selected from regular stock

-of native steer hide.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Properties of Tanned Leather</span></h3>

-

-<p>Leather that has been tanned is made

-up of a great many little bundles of fibers.

-The coarser and stronger fibers are on the

-inside, and the very fine and smoothly laid

-fibers are on the outside. These fibers are

-so intertwined and so elastic that when the

-leather bends these bundles play on one

-another. On account of the smoothness

-of the surface it may be polished, and

-beautiful finishes and effects obtained on

-the leather.</p>

-

-<p>The elasticity of leather (which is due

-to the elasticity of its fibers) allows it to

-stretch to a great extent. The tendency

-to return to its original position is very

-strong at the beginning, but grows weaker

-if the strain is continued at any one point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>

-Of course, in stretching the leather, there is

-always a corresponding drawing in another

-part of the shoe, which gives it a worn and

-baggy appearance.</p>

-

-<p>When shoes are removed from the feet,

-they are oftentimes damp, due to perspiration.

-The stretched or strained fibers are

-apt to shrink and return to their original

-position. In order to avoid this, it is

-necessary to place shoe-trees in them.</p>

-

-<p>When the linings of shoes are exposed to

-friction and excretion of perspiration from

-the feet of some people, they deteriorate.

-This is due to the fact that the acids of

-perspiration (acetic, formic and butyric

-acids) have become so concentrated that

-they act on the fibers of the leather. These

-acids exert a burning effect, causing the

-fibers to lose their elasticity so that they

-no longer play on one another, but become

-fastened to each other. The result is that

-they become hard, and any attempt to

-bend the leather tears them apart; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>

-once the union of fibers is destroyed it

-cannot be repaired.</p>

-

-<p>In order to keep the fibers in such a

-condition (soft and flexible), they should be

-lubricated often (twice a week) with a liquid

-followed by a wax paste, usually called

-shoe dressing. When a brush or a piece of

-cloth is rubbed over the surface of leather

-containing the shoe lubricants (shoe polish),

-it produces a smooth surface called a

-“shine.”</p>

-

-<p>Compounds which shine without friction

-produced by brush or cloth should not be

-used, as they are simply varnishes and

-one coat on top of the other destroys the

-leather.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Substitutes for Leather</span></h3>

-

-<p>In olden times our fathers and mothers

-used handmade shoes, and wore them till

-they had passed their period of usefulness.

-At that time the consumption did not equal

-the production of leather. Knowledge of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>

-conditions in the great western countries

-to-day will show that many of the big

-cattle-raising sections, once famed for their

-cattle, have been taken up by homesteaders

-and are now producing grain instead of

-cattle. But since the appearance of the

-machine-made shoe, different styles of

-shoes are placed on the market at different

-seasons, to correspond to the change of

-style of clothing, and shoes are often

-discarded before they are worn out. We

-have not been able thus far to utilize

-cast-off leather as the shoddy mill uses

-wool and silk, etc. The result is that

-the consumption of leather is above the

-production, therefore substitutes must be

-used.</p>

-

-<p>In shoe materials there is at present an

-astonishing diversity and variety. Every

-known leather is used from kid to cowhide,

-and textile fabrics have developed rapidly,

-especially in the making of women’s and

-children’s shoes. The satins, velvets, serges,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>

-and other fabrics that are used in the

-manufacture of shoes must be firm and

-well woven, and are usually supplied with

-a backing of firm, canvas-like fabric, to

-give strength.</p>

-

-<p>As to wearing quality the old saying,

-“There is nothing like leather,” still holds

-good; but people do not buy shoes for their

-wearing qualities alone in these days. Style

-and intrinsic beauty are considered, and

-have a cash value just as in any other

-article of apparel.</p>

-

-<p>Each fabric is made of two sets of threadlike

-yarn woven at right angles to each

-other. They are called the warp and filling

-(weft). The warp is composed of yarn

-running the longest way of the fabric, and

-filling runs the short way of the fabric.

-Since the warp is the body of the cloth, it

-is its strongest part and all fabric in shoes

-should be placed warpwise across the foot

-of the wearer, so as to be able to resist the

-great strain.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>Various attempts have been made for

-legislation to prohibit the treating of leather

-by chemicals or the use of substances to

-increase its weight. Complaints have been

-made by a number of shoe manufacturers

-that the excessive use of glucose (a form

-of sugar) in sole leather has resulted in

-injuring the leather and fabrics composing

-the uppers of shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Representatives of large leather firms

-claim that the methods of tanning sole

-leather have radically changed during the

-last few years, and that the small quantity

-of glucose and epsom salts that is used

-to-day in finishing sole leather is absolutely

-necessary to its value, and is in no sense

-an adulterant or weighting material. Shoe

-manufacturers, on the other hand, claim

-that in some cases larger amounts of glucose,

-salt, etc., have been added to the soft

-leather from the belly of the animal, in

-order to give it the desired stiffness. On

-account of the high price of leather, various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>

-attempts have been made to find a substitute

-for it. Most of these substitutes consist

-of strong cloth treated with some

-drying oil like linseed, the oil having previously

-been mixed with other solid substances.</p>

-

-<p>A prize of five thousand francs has been

-awarded to a Belgian inventor, Louis

-Gevaert, for his unusually superior artificial

-leather. The process consists in the more

-or less intimate impregnation of stout cloth

-with tannic albuminoid substances. Shoes

-made of this are said to possess not only the

-resistance and elasticity of natural leather,

-but its durability of wear. Moreover, they

-are much cheaper, costing, including manufacture,

-only four francs (about eighty

-cents) and being sold at about six francs

-per pair.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_FOUR">CHAPTER FOUR<br />

-<span class="smaller">THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT</span></h2>

-

-<p>Very few people, even among those

-engaged in the shoe industry, know

-much of the anatomy of the foot. Yet

-it is evident that they ought to know something

-about it in order to furnish the foot

-with a proper covering.</p>

-

-<p>The first thing that strikes a person on

-looking at the human foot is its large proportion

-of bone. On pressing its top surface

-and that of its inner side, the amount of

-flesh will be found to be very small, indeed.

-The same is true of the inner and outer

-ankle. The extreme back of the ankle has

-scarcely any flesh covering. The most

-fleshy portions of the foot are its outer side,

-the base of the heel and the ball of the big

-toe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The reason for this disposition of flesh

-is to protect or cover those parts of the foot

-that support the body by coming in contact

-with the ground. They act as pads and

-lessen the concussion. The abundance of

-flesh on the outer side of the foot is to protect

-or act as a shield against danger. The

-inside of the foot is not exposed as much as

-the outside.</p>

-

-<p>The foot is divided into three parts,

-the toes, the waist and instep, and the heel

-and ankle. The largest bone of the foot

-is the heel bone (called calcaneum). It is

-the bone that projects backward from the

-principal joint and forms the main portion

-of the heel. When a person is flat-footed,

-this bone is thrust farther backward than

-nature intended to have it. The connection

-between it and the tarsal bones is lost.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus7" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus7.jpg" width="420" height="270" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">The Bones and Joints of the Human Foot.</p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus8" style="width: 200px;">

-<img src="images/illus8.jpg" width="200" height="350" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle. <i>See <a href="#Page_86">page 86</a>.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>The top bone of the foot is the astragalus,

-and it forms the main joint upon which

-the process of walking depends. This bone

-has a smooth, circular, upper surface that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>

-connects it with the main bone of the lower

-leg. It is absolutely necessary that this

-bone should be in perfect harmony (relation)

-with the others in order to insure

-comfort and health. If the arches of the

-foot are forced out of position, up or down

-or sidewise, this joint is not permitted to

-do its work normally.</p>

-

-<p>Rheumatism is a frequent evil of an

-injured joint. Hence the necessity of absolutely

-normal action, unhampered by ill-fitting

-shoes.</p>

-

-<p>The principal arch of the instep is called

-the cuneiform or tarsal bone. Persons are

-troubled with defective insteps to quite an

-extent. Misshapen joints at this point

-due to shoes that do not fit and consequently

-disarrange and throw out of position

-the delicate, natural structure, work great

-havoc with the comfort of the foot. Nine

-joints cluster at this point.</p>

-

-<p>The bones of the toes are called the

-metatarsal bones and phalanges. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>

-can be no doubt that nature intended

-mankind to walk in his bare feet, and in

-that event the phalanges of the foot would

-occupy a much more important part than

-is now the case as a result of modern civilization.

-There are nineteen bones in the

-foot, and the disturbance of one or more of

-these will serve to upset the entire foot by

-throwing out of relationship the general

-unit of work devolving upon the whole

-number of joints and bones. Each joint

-has its accompaniment of muscles, and

-each lack of alignment of bones and joints

-provokes discord and lack of harmony in

-the muscular action.</p>

-

-<p>Muscles are attached to bones, and by

-their contraction or extension the bones

-are moved. Very few movements are

-effected by means of a single muscle. The

-muscles of the foot in nearly all cases are

-in combination, and are so complex in their

-action that the best surgeons find it difficult

-to describe them satisfactorily.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The chief characteristics of the foot are

-its spring and elasticity. While the foot

-has wonderful powers of resistance and

-adaptability, it is the shoemaker’s duty not

-to strain the same, but to provide for each

-action.</p>

-

-<p>The most sensitive part or the one part

-that is most susceptible of injury is the

-big toe. This is due to the fact that the

-tendency of the foot in walking is to travel

-toward the toe of the boot, and in a word

-to press into rather than shun danger. The

-shoemaker provides for this, first, by allowing

-sufficient length of sole to extend beyond

-the termination of the toe, and second, by

-the fit of the upper and the preparation of

-the sole. In this way, if the toe of the

-shoe strikes against a hard substance, the

-big toe of the foot will remain untouched.</p>

-

-<p>Seventy-five per cent of the people have

-more or less trouble with their feet. Some

-of these troubles are caused by the manufacturer

-putting on the market shoes whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>

-lines look handsome and attractive to the

-eye, but are lacking in any other good

-features. Shoes that fit properly should

-have plenty of room from the large toe

-joint to the end of the toes, and also should

-have plenty of tread, especially at this

-point.</p>

-

-<p>A mere glance at our bare foot will show

-conclusively that pointed-toe boots are

-false in the theory of design. The toes of a

-foot when off duty touch each other gently.

-When they are called on to assist us in

-walking or in supporting our body, they

-spread out&mdash;although not to any great

-extent. This, then, being the action, no

-sensible maker of boots and shoes would

-attempt to restrain them. Box or puff-toe

-shoes allow the greatest freedom.</p>

-

-<p>The pointed-toe shoes, which join the

-vamp to the upper immediately over the

-big toe joint, exceedingly high heels, and

-thick waist shoes are not for the best interests

-of the foot.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The evils of ill-fitting shoes are corns,

-bunions, and calluses.</p>

-

-<p>Corns are mainly due to pressure and

-friction. When the layers of skin become

-hardened, they form a corn, which is merely

-a growth of dead skin that has become

-hard in the center. This hardened spot

-acts like a foreign body to the inflamed parts.</p>

-

-<p>A hard corn is formed more by friction

-than pressure. It is produced by the

-constant rubbing of a tight or small shoe

-against the projecting parts of some prominent

-bony part, as the last joints on the

-third, fourth, and little toe. When this

-action continues, it produces inflammation.

-Rest&mdash;as relieving the feet of the friction&mdash;decreases

-this inflammation, leaving a layer

-of hardened flesh. Renewed action reproduces

-the same effects, leaving behind a

-second layer of hardened flesh. This continued

-action and reaction brings on a

-callus, rising above the surface of the

-skin. This increases from its base. An<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>

-ordinary hard corn may be removed by

-scraping up the callous skin around its

-border, and prying out carefully with a

-knife. Soft corns are chiefly the result of

-pressure or friction. These corns are soft

-and spongy elevations on the parts of the

-skin subjected to pressure. Soft corns

-are mostly found on the inner side of the

-smaller toes. Those on the surface of

-joints by mechanical action will become

-hard.</p>

-

-<p>The blood corn is excessively painful.

-It is the result of an ordinary corn forcibly

-displacing the blood vessels surrounding it,

-and causing them to rest upon its surface.</p>

-

-<p>The bunion is an inflammatory swelling

-generally to be found on the big toe joint.

-The chief cause of bunions is known to be

-the wearing of boots or shoes of insufficient

-length. The foot, meeting with resistance

-in front and behind, is robbed of its natural

-actions, the result being that the big toe

-is forced upward, and subjected to continuous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>

-friction and pressure. The wearing

-of narrow-toe boots that prevent the outward

-expansion of the toe is another cause.</p>

-

-<p>The comparisons of quantities are often

-called ratios. The ratios of the different

-parts of the foot to the height are different

-in the infant from that of the adult period.

-Between these two periods the ratios are

-constantly changing.</p>

-

-<p>There are two series of shoe sizes on the

-market; the smallest size of shoe for

-infants (size No. 1) is, or was originally,

-four inches long; each added full size

-indicates an increase in length of one third

-of an inch (sizes 1 to 5). Children’s sizes

-run in two series, 5 to 8, and 8 to 11; then

-they branch out into youths’ and misses’;

-both running 11½, 12, 12½, 13, 13½ and back

-again to 1, 1½, 2, etc., in a series of sizes that

-run up into men’s and women’s. Boys’

-shoes run from 2½ to 5½; men’s from 6 to

-11 in regular runs. Larger sizes usually are

-made upon special orders. Some few manufacturers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>

-go to 12. Women’s sizes run

-from 2½ to 9. Some manufacturers do not

-go above size 8. The rate of sizes is sometimes

-varied from by manufacturers of

-special lines of shoes. A man’s No. 8 shoe

-would be nearly eleven inches long. These

-measurements originated in England and

-are not now absolute.</p>

-

-<p>A system of French sizes is used which

-consists of a cipher system of markings to

-indicate the sizes as well as widths so that

-the real size may not be known to the

-customer.</p>

-

-<p>All feet are not alike in structure and

-shape. In infancy the foot is broad at

-the toes, which press forward in the direction

-of their length. The heel is small in

-comparison to the width of the toes, and

-also short in length, due to the undeveloped

-bones. But during growth, the thickness

-above the heel bones disappears, and the

-heel itself becomes thicker and assumes the

-beauty of perfection at maturity. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>

-development is due to the growth of bones

-which must be well exercised and properly

-cared for during this period. The various

-parts of the feet and legs do not mature

-at the same rate&mdash;those at the upper part

-of the body increase at a greater rate than

-the lower parts. Thighs develop first, next

-the upper part of the legs, and lastly the feet.</p>

-

-<p>The adult foot, when properly formed,

-is straight from heel to toe on the inner side,

-and is wider across the joints than one inch

-or so farther back. The manner of walking

-has a considerable bearing on the character

-and development of the foot.</p>

-

-<p>There are many sorts of feet, which are

-due to a number of causes, such as habits,

-climate, occupation, locality, etc. As a

-general rule we may divide the feet into

-four classes: Bony feet&mdash;those with very

-little flesh upon them; hard feet&mdash;those

-that have plenty of flesh, but which are

-almost as hard as a stone; fat feet&mdash;plump,

-with plenty of flesh, but having<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>

-little shape; spongy feet&mdash;those that seem

-to have no bones in them, usually found

-in the female sex.</p>

-

-<p>The characteristics of a foot are common

-with the body to which it is connected.

-Some people have a strong, bony frame,

-with strong, firm muscles, prominent bones

-and muscles, and a flesh that is hard. The

-feet of this type of person are usually long,

-bony, and arched, with a well-developed big

-toe joint. The heel measurements are large

-in proportion. A soft foot is prevalent

-among the Scotch. The feet of a person

-who is delicately shaped, with a small

-frame and thin, small, tapering muscles,

-are usually thin and finely formed, giving

-evidence of quickness. This kind of a

-foot in a man has a tendency to develop a

-flat foot.</p>

-

-<p>A person with a form inclined to plumpness,

-full of exercise and activity, and a good

-circulation, has a well-developed foot.

-The heel is round and fairly prominent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>

-although there are no special bony prominences.

-On the other hand a person

-with a body of general roundness, but with

-tissues and muscles flabby, and a languid

-blood circulation, has feet that are short,

-soft, and flabby.</p>

-

-<p>We will allow that these four different

-kinds of feet all measure a 4 size and D

-in width. One would naturally think that

-the same size shoe would fit them all, but

-this is not so. This size shoe will only

-fit one and that is the bony foot. The

-hard feet require a C½ width; the fat feet

-require a C width, and the sponge feet require

-a B width.</p>

-

-<p>The same last may, and often will possess

-a slight variation in some manner or other.

-The fitter of feet must know the stock, each

-pair, and be on intimate terms with the

-peculiarities of each last and the inside

-lines of each pair of shoes before attempting

-to try them upon the feet of the customer.</p>

-

-<p>Different makes of footwear are apt to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>

-manufactured over a slightly varying system

-of measurements. One line of shoes made

-over a small measure may be longer or

-shorter or narrower or wider than some

-other line. The heel measurements require

-careful study for each line introduced.

-The peculiarities of each line must be tested

-by tape and measure, and the foot fitter

-must have a strong knowledge along these

-lines.</p>

-

-<p>We should measure the foot by the stick

-if necessary, and make a note of the size

-and width that will be likely to prove a fit.

-The height of the arch must be considered,

-and the shape of arch curve, the shape of

-the instep, and the general contour of the

-foot. A normal foot will show about a

-half-inch arch. The average foot will carry

-from an inch to an inch and a quarter heel,

-without putting a strain on any of the

-joints of the foot. Some feet vary from

-this by a wide margin. A foot is a trifle

-longer in walking than in repose. Allowance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>

-should be made, in using the measuring

-stick, over what the foot actually draws

-on the stick. In men’s shoes the allowance,

-should be from two to two and one half

-sizes.</p>

-

-<p>When a one-legged man buys a shoe, the

-dealer sends to the factory a shoe to match

-the one left remaining. In these days of

-the use of machinery in every process of

-their manufacture, shoes are made with the

-utmost exactness and precision, and it is

-easily possible to mate that remaining shoe

-with the greatest nicety in size, style, material,

-and finish.</p>

-

-<p>Few people have feet exactly alike;

-commonly the left foot is larger than the

-right, so that one shoe may fit a little

-more snugly than the other. Commonly,

-however, people buy shoes in regularly

-matched pairs, the difference in their feet,

-if it is noticeable to them at all, not being

-enough to make any other course desirable.</p>

-

-<p>But there are people who buy shoes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>

-different sizes or widths, in which case the

-dealer breaks two pairs for them, giving

-them, to fit their feet, one shoe from each.

-In such cases the dealer matches up the

-two remaining shoes, one from each of two

-pairs just as he would where he had broken

-one pair to sell one shoe to a one-legged man.</p>

-

-<p>But a man does not have to be one-legged

-nor to have feet of uneven sizes or

-shapes to make him ask the dealer to break

-a pair of shoes for him. A man with two

-perfectly good feet came into the store

-where he was accustomed to buy and wanted

-one shoe. While traveling in a sleeping

-car, his shoes had been mixed up with

-others and he had received back one of his

-own and one of some other man’s; a fact

-which he had not discovered until he was

-too far away from train and station to set

-things right. So he came in to buy one

-shoe to match his own.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_FIVE">CHAPTER FIVE<br />

-<span class="smaller">HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE</span></h2>

-

-<p>If you examine the shoes worn by

-people in a large city, you will notice

-different styles. Shoe styles that were

-called grotesque a few seasons ago are

-comparatively usual to-day, for the new

-designs in women’s footwear, which manufacturers

-are now making, are the most

-varied that ever have been put on the

-market. Pink and green and blue are

-among the new colors in materials for footwear.</p>

-

-<p>Some of the styles for the coming seasons

-are more lavish than have hitherto been

-seen in the women’s shoe trade of America.

-Coronation purple velvet boots look like

-an extravagant color for footwear, but

-they are now selling. Samples of pink,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>

-green, and blue shoes, both boots and pumps,

-are being made up, and they will soon be

-offered to buyers.</p>

-

-<p>The style of the shoe is dominated by

-fashion. All styles are related, that is,

-every part of our dress is influenced by the

-prevailing fashion, ideas of color, fabric,

-or garment outline. To illustrate: when

-short skirts are stylish, women wear mannish

-shoes to harmonize with them; on the

-other hand, with long skirts they must

-have a shoe that is neat and small, hence,

-the short vamp. When women wear white

-in the summer, cool canvas shoes spring

-into favor; when gray and blue dress

-materials are to be used, a variety of tan

-shoes are worn to harmonize, etc.</p>

-

-<p>After the style has been decided upon,

-it is necessary to work out an exact reproduction.

-An expert model maker, called a

-last maker, produces a last, a wooden model

-of the shoe. In order to do this, it is necessary

-to lay out certain plans or specifications<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>

-for the details of the manufacturer

-of the shoe.</p>

-

-<p>There are certain parts of all feet that

-have fixed measurements. To illustrate:

-the length of the shank, that part of the

-sole of the foot between the heel and ball,

-in every person’s foot is always the same.

-The part of the foot back of the ball or

-large toe joint conforms to certain fixed

-measurements. These definite measurements

-form a basis by which the last

-maker originates new styles by shortening,

-lengthening, widening, or narrowing the

-space in front of the toes, but always

-retaining the true and fixed measurements

-of the back part of the last.</p>

-

-<p>When the last maker desires to produce a

-new style, he takes an old last and tacking

-pieces of leather on some parts of it (front

-of the toes), he builds it up and cuts off

-other parts. This patched-up last is taken

-to a special machine (lathe), where a number

-of duplicates are turned from a block of wood.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The “pattern maker” is the man in the

-factory who makes patterns, consisting of

-heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass,

-in the shapes of the various pieces of leather

-required to make up the upper part of the

-shoe.</p>

-

-<p>The pattern maker has found by experience

-that the top part of the shoe also

-conforms to certain fixed measurements,

-and by working in sympathy with the

-last maker he need only to change the

-front part of the vamp to bring out the

-latter’s ideas. With these measurements

-as a foundation, he puts forth from time to

-time different style uppers, as buttons, lace,

-blucher, fixings, scrolls, straps, ties, pumps,

-etc. This is the way new style tops originate.</p>

-

-<p>After the manufacturer has approved of

-sample patterns, the pattern maker receives

-an order for a certain quantity of patterns

-to be made over a certain last which is

-submitted to him. Working on the fixed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>

-top measurements and the last submitted as

-a basis, the pattern maker draws plans for

-a model pattern. The standard size of a

-model pattern is size 7 in men’s shoes and

-size 4 in women’s. He is also given an

-order for a certain number of widths; for

-instance, B, C, D, and E, and he draws

-out on paper a complete set for each width

-in the size 7. These four sets of model

-patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet

-iron by hand. But from these sheets any

-number of iron models, and any size regular

-cardboard pattern can be reproduced by a

-machine.</p>

-

-<p>Wood to be made into lasts comes to the

-shoe manufacturers in a rough, unchiseled

-form. The lasts are made of maple wood;

-hollow forms used by traveling salesmen and

-window trimmers are made of bass wood.</p>

-

-<p>The making of the model of the last is

-the most exacting operation in the factory.

-It is produced by a machine most important.

-The principle of this machine has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>

-brought about by the pantograph; that is,

-it will turn from a rough block of wood an

-exact copy of the model last; or it will

-enlarge or reduce a duplicate of any other

-size or width, so, from a single model last,

-such as the manufacturer has decided on,

-any number of lasts can be made, and of

-any size or width. The machine itself

-consists of two lathes. On one is placed

-the model and on the other the block of

-wood. The model is held against a wheel

-by a spring. By adjusting this wheel,

-any desired width last can be obtained,

-and by adjusting a bar in front of the

-machine any length last can be produced

-from the block of wood.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus9" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus9a.jpg" width="420" height="190" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Rough Unchiseled Block of Maple.</p>

-<img src="images/illus9b.jpg" width="420" height="160" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">A Last after leaving Turning Lathe.</p>

-<img src="images/illus9c.jpg" width="420" height="160" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">A Finished Last.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>The lathe, when in motion, revolves

-both the last and the model, the model

-being pressed against the wheel, which is

-really a guide for the revolving knife that

-digs into the block of wood, and regulates

-the depth that the knife is allowed to cut.

-In this manner the model is reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>

-from the block which is also regulated as to

-size and width by the wheel and by the bar.

-This machine is so accurate that a tack

-driven into the model to locate the center

-of the last is reproduced by a sort of a

-wooden pimple in the block of wood when

-finished. The model sole pattern is now

-tried on the half-finished last to insure

-accuracy.</p>

-

-<p>Notice in the figures of lasts that the

-turning lathe has left stubs of wood on the

-toes and heels. These must be finished to

-a “templet.” The templet is a measure

-or guide used to indicate the shape any

-piece of work is to assume when finished.

-From the heel and toe of the model, a piece

-of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that

-model, and is used on the heeler machine

-as a guide to form an exact copy of the

-heels and toes of the model. This machine

-works very rapidly, and by the aid of an

-irregular shaped, revolving knife it quickly

-transforms the toes and heels to the desired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>

-shape. The bottoms are again tried out

-on a sole pattern and the last number, the

-size and the width are stamped on.</p>

-

-<p>We now have the last as a solid piece

-of maple wood and turned to the desired

-shape, size and width. Were it possible

-to insert and extract the last in this form

-from the half-finished shoe, no other steps

-would be necessary in last manufacture,

-but inasmuch as the leather is stretched

-very tightly over this last a little later, it

-necessitates the introduction of some method

-that will facilitate a quick removal of the

-last from the shoe. This is accomplished

-by cutting it in two parts and making a

-hinged heel. The fact that the slightest

-measurement changes the size of the shoe,

-necessitates great care in the introduction

-of the hinge as a part of the last, and in

-order to insure accuracy and uniformity

-in all the lasts, they are marked with

-templets and gigs. The hinge must be

-placed inside of the last.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The finished last is so constructed that

-it can be readily inserted or withdrawn

-from the shoe, and the strong hinge provides

-the last, when inserted, with the same rigid

-qualities as though it were one piece.

-The center of the last is indicated, as before

-stated, by a reproduction in the side of the

-last of the tack that was placed in the

-model. This is the mark that locates the

-position of all the holes, and it is done by a

-“gig” in the following manner:&mdash;</p>

-

-<p>A gig is a piece of steel having cylinders

-that guide the bit of the boring machine

-in an exact perpendicular line. This gig,

-being placed on the last in the position

-marked by the turning machine, forms the

-accurate location of the bolt holes that

-hold the hinge.</p>

-

-<p>After the hinge is placed in the last, it

-goes to the ironers to have the bottom put

-on it, if it is a McKay last, and a heel

-plate if it is a welt. The bottom is again

-tried and the plate filled up to the same.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>

-The last is then ready to go to the scouring

-room. In this room the last goes through

-three operations, first of which is ruffing.

-This consists of scouring with a coarse

-grade of quartz. This operation must be

-carried on so that the sole lines and insteps

-are not brought into contact with the

-quartz.</p>

-

-<p>The second operation, medium grinding,

-is done with a fine grade of quartz, and in

-this operation, also, the worker keeps away

-from the toe. The third operation is done

-with a much finer-grade quartz, the operator

-going over the entire last. The last is now

-ready for polishing, and after that, for a

-heavy coat of shellac. It is polished and

-waxed on a leather wheel. Then it goes

-into the shipping room ready for shipment

-to the manufacturer.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_SIX">CHAPTER SIX<br />

-<span class="smaller">DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY&mdash;GOODYEAR

-WELT SHOES</span></h2>

-

-<p>The principal methods of manufacturing

-shoes are the following:&mdash;</p>

-

-<p>Goodyear welt; McKay; turned; standard

-screw; pegged; nailed.</p>

-

-<p>The simplest and the clearest way of

-showing how the various kinds of shoes are

-made is to explain the manufacture of a

-Goodyear welt and afterwards bring out

-the points in which this method of shoemaking

-differs from the others.</p>

-

-<p>Shoes are manufactured in up-to-date

-factories, employing hundreds of operatives.

-The modern shoe factory of to-day is divided

-into six general departments: the sole

-leather department, upper leather department,

-stitching department, making department,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>

-finishing department, and the treeing,

-packing, and shipping departments.</p>

-

-<p>In some sections of the country, several

-of these departments are often designated

-by other names. The stitching department

-is often called the fitting department; the

-making department, the bottoming department;

-and the sole leather department,

-the stock-fitting department. The departments

-are popularly termed rooms for

-brevity.</p>

-

-<p>A shoe factory is designed so as to have

-a width of about fifty feet for each room,

-while the length is according to the number

-of shoes to be produced. A width of about

-fifty feet gives plenty of daylight and ample

-room in the center of each department,

-which is very essential in shoemaking.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus10" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus10.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">A Modern Shoe Factory.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>Shoe factories are usually about two

-hundred feet long, while many are nearly

-four hundred feet. A few exceed four hundred

-feet, running as long as eight hundred

-feet. Some are built in the shape of hollow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>

-squares, while others have wings added,

-which give almost as much floor space as

-the original building.</p>

-

-<p>The average factory has usually four

-floors. The first floor, or basement, is

-occupied by the sole leather department.

-The next floor above includes the treeing,

-finishing, packing, and shipping departments,

-and also the office. The third floor is

-devoted entirely to the making or bottoming

-department. The top floor is divided

-so that the cutting and stitching departments

-have each half a floor.</p>

-

-<p>There are several exceedingly large factories

-in this country that find it advantageous

-to divide the factory into more

-departments, as, for example, the cutting

-room is divided so that the linings and

-trimmings are cut in a separate department.

-The skiving may also be done in a separate

-room. The making room will be divided

-so that the lasting is set off as a separate

-department on account of the many workmen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>

-and machines employed. In the same

-way there will be a division of work so that

-the packing and shipping will be set apart

-from the treeing. Then, again, in the sole

-leather room, the making of heels as well

-as the fitting of the bottom stock may

-become independent departments.</p>

-

-<p>The system of making women’s shoes is

-practically the same as that of men’s

-except that in a great many factories the

-method of preparing the bottom stock is

-somewhat different. Most manufacturers

-of women’s shoes do not cut sole leather,

-but buy outsoles, insoles, counters, and

-heels, all cut or prepared. These soles are

-in blocked form and large enough so that

-they can be cut or rounded by the manufacturers

-to fit their lasts. The counters,

-when bought, are all ready to put in the

-uppers, while the heels are ready to put on

-the shoes. Whenever a manufacturer of

-women’s shoes cuts his sole leather, he has the

-same system as that in the men’s factories.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>In women’s factories where sole leather

-is not cut, they do not have a complete

-sole leather department. Instead, they

-have what is called a stock-fitting department.

-There are independent cut sole

-houses, etc., in the trade, which supply

-the soles to manufacturers. The same

-system of buying supplies also applies to

-many other parts of the shoe, as in the

-top lift, half sole, welt, rand, etc. In the

-upper leather department, manufacturers

-of both men’s and women’s shoes often

-buy trimmings and other parts of the upper

-all prepared.</p>

-

-<p>A large proportion of the men’s shoe

-manufacturers are now buying heels all built,

-while fully nine tenths buy counters all

-molded. The soles and other parts that are

-needed for a shoe are put up in different

-qualities and grades, and a manufacturer can

-buy any grade of sole he wants, so that it is

-considered an advantage to buy some parts,

-instead of cutting them. In a side of sole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>

-leather there are twenty-five or more different

-qualities and grades of soles, and

-very few manufacturers, especially in the

-women’s trade, can use all of these. The

-greater variety of shoes a manufacturer

-turns out, the more advantageous it is

-for him to cut his own sole leather, and

-prepare all parts in his own factory.</p>

-

-<p>In this country the number of factories

-in the shoe trade appears to be growing less

-and the average factory larger each year.

-It is estimated that there are at present

-something like fifteen hundred factories in

-all. These range from the smallest product

-up to the largest. The average factory may

-be said to produce about twelve hundred

-pairs of shoes per day. Many turn out

-five thousand pairs daily, while a few

-manufacturers turn out ten thousand or

-more pairs. Several manufacturers and

-firms have half a dozen or more factories

-and have a total output of between twenty

-thousand and thirty thousand pairs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>

-shoes a day. There is no such thing as a

-trust or monopoly of any kind in this trade,

-and there never has been up to the present

-time.</p>

-

-<p>In all factories and all classes of work,

-the “case” has always been of such a

-number of pairs that it can be divided by

-twelve in every instance. A case can be

-twelve, twenty-four, thirty-six, forty-eight,

-sixty, or seventy-two pairs, and in children’s

-work it is often sixty and seventy-two pairs.

-All cases of these numbers are regular

-cases, whereas any other number would be

-out of the ordinary. Of course, a case of

-shoes may contain any number of pairs,

-but the numbers given above have always

-been used in regular work.</p>

-

-<p>Cases of shoes may differ, but every

-pair of shoes in any one case must be made

-exactly alike. All shoes are made in cases,

-except in the matter of custom work or

-single-pair orders or samples. In making

-men’s heavy shoes, or working shoes, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>

-regular case was formerly sixty pairs or

-thirty-six pairs, but the tendency has been

-of late to have a standard case of twenty-four

-pairs. In the men’s fine trade the

-regular case is twenty-four pairs, while in

-the women’s it is thirty-six pairs. Long

-boots for men have always been made in

-twelve-pair cases.</p>

-

-<p>Goods are sold by the samples, sent out

-with the traveling salesman. As fast as he

-receives an order, he sends it to the main

-office. Here the orders are subdivided and

-sent to the factories making the goods.

-For example, an order for seventy-five

-dozen men’s shoes of a certain style received

-by the main office from the traveling salesman

-would be sent to the factory in the

-form of a typewritten order, covering the

-general description and sizes written out

-in the proper form, for each case is made

-according to the specifications on the tags

-that are made out in the office. These

-tags specify the sole, heel, upper, kind and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>

-quality, how stitched, the last to be used,

-how bottomed finished, treed, and packed.

-Everything is marked plainly on the tags

-so that a buyer can have any shoe made

-just as he wants it.</p>

-

-<p>This order would be sent from the factory

-office to the cutting room, where a clerk

-would make out twenty-five long tickets.</p>

-

-<p>Twenty-five are made because the shoes

-go through the factory in lots of twenty-four

-pairs, each lot being called a job and

-when finished making a case of shoes. The

-long ticket is made in duplicate form, and is

-perforated so it may be tied to a lot of shoes.

-Both parts of the tickets are made out

-to contain the various operations with the

-specifications as to detail. The lower part

-is sent to the stock or sole leather room,

-while the top part remains with the uppers

-which are cut in the cutting room. While

-each part of the ticket is sent by a different

-route through the factory, they finally

-meet in the form of finished shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>In addition to the long ticket already

-described, two other tickets are made out,

-the top ticket and the trimming ticket.

-The top ticket is sent to the leather bins

-of the factory, where the sorter knows by

-experience exactly the amount of leather

-required to cut the order, being careful to

-see that it is all of uniform quality and

-free from blemishes. He rolls the leather

-in a bundle, attaches the ticket and sends

-it to the cutter.</p>

-

-<p>In the cutting room there are three classes

-of cutters; cutter of trimmings, who cuts

-lace stays, top facings, back stays, tongues,

-etc.; outside cutter, who cuts quarters,

-vamps, tops, tips, etc.; and the lining

-cutter, who cuts cloth linings.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus11" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus11.jpg" width="420" height="400" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">A Nine and One-Half Foot Skin divided to best advantage before

-Cutting.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>Skins of leather are received in the shoe

-factory in different shapes. Some are perfect,

-others have blemishes or imperfect

-spots. The skins that are to be used for

-upper stock are carefully graded by two or

-three men, as to quality of leather and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>

-weight. This is necessary in order to be

-sure that a lot of shoes made for a certain

-dealer will be uniform. On account of the

-leather coming in different shapes, some

-skins perfect, others having imperfect spots,

-the cutter must place his patterns in such

-a way that certain parts of the shoe will use

-up all the perfect parts, and others, less

-important, will be composed of the weaker

-parts of the skin. This explains why you

-sometimes find the inside top part of a shoe

-made of flanky leather, while the vamp is

-made of a better grade.</p>

-

-<p>There is a pattern for each and every

-size shoe, and each piece of leather is cut

-out separately on a block of wood. Nothing

-is wasted. In order to make each cutter

-as efficient as possible, the cutters are divided,

-so as to have a different cutter for

-each grade of leather. In this way they

-become better judges of leather.</p>

-

-<p>The lining cutters use patterns and

-knives on drilling. The facing is cut out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>

-with a knife and pattern. The side stays

-and the tongue are cut out by dies.</p>

-

-<p>After the leather has been cut into the

-desired shape, uppers, vamps, toe pieces,

-back stays, lace stays, etc., cutting at

-times ten pieces, and for some styles of

-shoes as many as fourteen pieces, the cutters

-take care to keep the parts for the same

-shoe together, matching and marking them

-so that eventually all will meet again in

-the shoe.</p>

-

-<p>Machines are used now on almost every operation,

-and annually several new machines

-make their appearance. The cutting of

-uppers up to four or five years ago was

-performed by an operator cutting the

-leather by running the knife along the

-side of the pattern. Now they are using

-a cutting machine and dies to cut uppers in

-nearly all factories. This cutting machine

-is called the “clicking machine,” and it

-is considered quite a labor saver in a

-department where it was the universal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>

-opinion that machines never could be

-used.</p>

-

-<p>It is impossible to give a list of all the

-operations performed and have it complete.

-But a good general idea of the system can

-be given and the name and meaning of the

-main operations in the several departments.

-It should be kept in mind that the methods

-in rooms differ, and that hardly any two

-factories put a shoe through in exactly the

-same manner. The general system and

-plan is the same everywhere and the

-machines are the same in all factories, but

-the details and minor operations are so

-numerous that there is plenty of scope for

-them to vary.</p>

-

-<p>The function of the clicking machine is

-to cut the upper leather into the desired

-shapes required. It consists of an iron

-frame, with a cutting board on the top of

-it. Above this is a large beam which can

-be swung to the right or left of any portion

-of the board. The skin to be cut,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>

-which may be of any kind, is placed on

-the board and a die of the design or

-shape of the leather desired is placed on it.

-The handle of the swinging beam is

-taken by the operator and moved over the

-die; then by pressure of the handle the

-beam is brought downward, pressing the

-die through the leather. As soon as this

-is done, the beam automatically returns to

-its full height.</p>

-

-<p>These dies are made in different designs

-and sizes to meet the different sizes and

-designs in the upper of the shoe. One

-die for each design and size. They mark

-the vamps for the location of the toe cap

-and blucher foxings as well as the size by

-means of nicks in the edge of the piece cut.

-The dies are about three-quarters of an

-inch in height and so light that they do

-not mar the most delicate leather.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus12" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus12.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Cutting the Leather by Means of Pattern and Knife.

-<i><a href="#Page_118">Page 118.</a></i></p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus13" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus13.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Goodyear Stitching.</p>

-<p class="caption">A machine that sews around the edge of the welt and joins it to the sole

-exactly at the heel. <i><a href="#Page_119">Page 119.</a></i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>After the outside cutter has cut the skin

-into pieces to make up the shoe, these are

-tied up in separate bundles, that is, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>

-twenty-four of tips in one bundle, twenty-four

-pairs of vamps in another. These are

-turned over to girls who stencil the sizes

-on the edge and match them, that is, see

-that each upper is exactly like the mate.</p>

-

-<p>After the different parts have been cut

-by the operator of the clicking machine or

-by hand, the edges of the upper leather,

-which shows in the finished shoe, must be

-thinned down (skived) by a “skiving

-machine” to a beveled edge. This is

-done in order that the edges of the leather

-that are to show in the completed shoe may

-be folded to give a more finished appearance.

-The machines are operated by girls;

-each one an expert on one particular piece.</p>

-

-<p>The order number and size of shoe are

-stamped on the top lining of each shoe.

-After all linings have been prepared, according

-to the data given on the instruction

-card attached to parts of the shoe, the

-parts are sent to the stitching department,

-where the stitchers on a multitude of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>

-machines stitch all the different parts

-together very rapidly and accurately.</p>

-

-<p>The toe caps are then given a series of

-ornamental perforations along the edge.

-This is done by either “power tip press,”

-or a “perforating machine.” The first

-consists of a series of dies placed in a machine

-by which the leather is perforated according

-to the designs desired. Each series

-of dies represents a different design.</p>

-

-<p>The perforating machine resembles a

-sewing machine, but instead of a series of

-dies, the one in this machine is made of

-single or combination dies which make one

-or more holes on each downward movement.

-The machine feeds automatically and does

-the work very accurately. The cutting

-tool is kept from becoming dull by pressing

-against a band of paper. Ornamentation

-on other parts of the shoes, such as the edges

-of vamps, etc., is made by this machine.</p>

-

-<p>Before going to the stitching room, every

-bundle is examined by sorters. The sorters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>

-are divided and subdivided; that is, one

-man always sorts tips, another vamps, etc.

-They examine each piece for imperfection,

-and if any is found, the piece is thrown out

-and a new one put in. The last operation

-is the assembling of pieces. Here each

-job of twenty-four pairs is brought together

-and securely tied and numbered.</p>

-

-<p>This stitching department is one in which

-female labor is generally employed, although

-in late years more men are being used to

-operate machines, especially on vamping or

-other heavy parts. In some parts of the

-country it is called the fitting room. The

-work of the department consists of stitching

-the different parts of the upper together,

-so that it is ready to put on the last. The

-terms used mean in most cases stitching

-the part named to the rest of the upper.

-There are very many operations in the

-department, several of which are named

-below, together with their meaning.</p>

-

-<p>The bundles of pieces which have come<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>

-from the cutting room are placed on the

-table, where they are subdivided into three

-parts, the linings, the tops, the vamps and

-the tips.</p>

-

-<p>The linings for the tops of the shoes are

-pasted together (with the back strap and top

-bands), care being taken to join them at the

-marks made for that purpose. After being

-dried, they go into the hands of the machine

-operators, where they are joined together

-by a stitching machine, and the edges, etc.,

-trimmed. The sewing machines used are

-very similar to an ordinary home sewing

-machine, with the exception that they are

-much larger and stronger.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus14" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus14.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Stock Fitting Room.</p>

-<p class="caption">Where all bottom stock is prepared after being cut. <i>See <a href="#Page_120">page 120</a>.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>The lining is finished. The next step is

-to join the lining to the piece of leather

-making up the outside of the same shape,

-called the top. The top receives the eyelets

-by a machine placed in proper position.

-The top and lining can be put together by

-sewing them face to face. The top is

-inspected and all threads clipped off.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>After the shoe uppers have been properly

-stitched together, the eyelets are placed

-on by a “duplex eyeletting machine,”

-which eyelets both sides of the shoe at one

-time. The top of the eyelets are solid

-black knobs, so as not to wear brassy, while

-the bottom (which clinches inside the shoe)

-called the barrel, is of nickel. This finishes

-the shoe upper.</p>

-

-<p>The vamp, tongues, and tip are then put

-together. The edges of the vamps, quarters,

-tips, etc., are covered with a cement

-made of rubber and naphtha, which is

-kept in small bowls on the benches in front

-of employees. Several grades of cements

-are used. The cemented parts are allowed

-to dry, and the edges are then turned over

-by “pressing machines,” which gives a

-finished appearance. The shoe is put together

-by stitching the vamp to the quarters.

-This work is done by both men and

-women, and is work which demands much

-care.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>In stitching men’s uppers, the system

-varies in various factories as much as it

-does on women’s. Here are some of the

-operations, which will give an idea how

-men’s uppers go through.</p>

-

-<p>Extension or toe piece sewed to vamp.</p>

-

-<p>Leather box stitched on.</p>

-

-<p>Tip stitched to vamp.</p>

-

-<p>Vamp seamed up back.</p>

-

-<p>Top folded around edge.</p>

-

-<p>Top seamed up.</p>

-

-<p>Eyelet row stitched up and down.</p>

-

-<p>Lining seamed up.</p>

-

-<p>Side facing put on lining.</p>

-

-<p>Top facing put on lining.</p>

-

-<p>Lining and outside pasted together.</p>

-

-<p>Under trimming.</p>

-

-<p>Eyeletting.</p>

-

-<p>Hooking.</p>

-

-<p>Vamping.</p>

-

-<p>The upper is complete when it leaves the

-stitching room and is all ready to be put

-on the last. While the upper is being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>

-prepared, the soles, insoles, counters, and

-heels are made in other departments.</p>

-

-<p>When the foreman of this department

-has received the tags with the data necessary

-for the preparation of outsoles, insoles,

-counters, toe boxes, and heels, they

-are sent to the stock room, where these

-parts are kept.</p>

-

-<p>The soles are roughly cut out by means

-of dies, pressing down through the leather,

-in “dieing out machines.” Before the soles

-are cut, the leather is dipped in water and

-sufficiently dampened. After they are cut

-out, they are made to conform to the exact

-shape by rounding them in a machine

-called the “rounding machine.” The

-roughly died out piece of leather is held

-between clamps, one of which is the exact

-pattern of the sole. The machine works a

-little knife that darts around this pattern,

-cutting the sole exactly to conform. The

-outsole is now passed to a heavy rolling

-machine, where it is pressed by tons of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>

-pressure between heavy rolls. This takes

-the place of the hammering which the old-time

-shoemaker gave his leather to bring

-the fibers very closely together, so as to

-increase its wear.</p>

-

-<p>Counters and toe boxes (stiffening which

-is placed between the heel and toe cap and

-the vamp of shoe) are prepared in the same

-room with the heels. After they are made,

-they are sent to the making or bottoming

-room, where the shoe upper is awaiting

-them. As the counter is an important

-feature in the life of a shoe, much depends

-upon the quality of leather that goes into it.</p>

-

-<p>The sole is next fed to a “splitting

-machine,” which reduces it to an absolutely

-even thickness. The insole is made of

-lighter leather than the outsole, but has the

-same thickness and is cut out in the same

-way one at a time. The sizes are stamped

-on them and they are sorted.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus15" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Lasting. <i><a href="#Page_127">Page 127.</a></i></p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus16" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus16.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Welting.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>If you examine a Goodyear welt shoe,

-you will notice no stitches in sight, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>

-seam being fastened to an under portion of

-the insole. The durability of the shoe

-relies, to a great extent, on the quality and

-strength of the insole.</p>

-

-<p>The smooth-appearing insole of a welt

-shoe must be either pasted in or fastened

-underneath in some manner. This fastening

-is accomplished by passing the insole

-through a very small machine called a

-Goodyear channeler, which makes two incisions

-at one operation. It cuts a little

-slit along the edge of the insole, extending

-about one-half inch toward its center.</p>

-

-<p>The upper part of insole made by the

-slit on the edge is turned up on a lip

-turning machine so that it extends out at

-right angles from the insole. In other

-words, the channel is opened up and laid

-back, forming a ridge around the outer edge

-of the sole. This forms a lip or shoulder,

-against which the welt is sewed. In this

-way the thread used in sewing cannot be

-seen in the finished shoe. The cut made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>

-on the surface serves as guide for the

-operator of the welt sewing machine when

-the shoe reaches him.</p>

-

-<p>The inner and outer soles as well as the

-uppers are now brought into the lasting or

-gang room. The first part of lasting is

-called “assembling,” which means that

-many parts are brought together, such as

-upper, counter, insole, box toe, and last.

-The counter is placed in the upper, between

-lining and vamp, while the box toe is shellacked

-and put in the toe of the upper

-(provided it has not been stitched in the

-stitching room). The operator first tacks

-the inner sole on to a wooden last.</p>

-

-<p>There are very many different styles of

-lasts, and in cutting uppers a different

-pattern must be used for each style. Then

-the upper is placed in position on the last,

-and it is ready to be pulled and stretched

-to the wood and take its required shape.

-This is accomplished by placing the shoes

-on the “pulling over machine,” where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>

-the shoe uppers are correctly placed on the

-last by the pincers of a machine holding

-the leather at different points securely

-against the wood of the last. By the

-movements of levers the shoe uppers are

-adjusted correctly. Then the pincers draw

-the leather securely around the last and at

-the same time two tacks on each side and

-at the toe are driven in part way, to hold

-the uppers securely.</p>

-

-<p>It is now placed on the “hand method

-lasting machine,” where the leather is drawn

-tightly around the last. Before this operation,

-it is dipped in water to preserve its

-shape when formed and that it may be

-more easily formed by the machine. At

-each pull of the pincers a small tack,

-driven automatically part way in, holds the

-edge of the upper exactly in place, so that

-every part of the upper has been stretched

-in all directions equally. A special machine

-by means of a series of “wipers” is used to

-last the toe and heel. After the leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>

-has been brought smoothly around the toe,

-it is held there by a little tape fastened on

-each side of the toe, which is held securely

-in place by the surplus leather, crimpled

-in at this point. The surplus leather

-crimpled in at the heel is forced smoothly

-down against the insole and held there by

-tacks driven by an ingenious hand tool. In

-all these lasting operations the tacks are only

-driven in part way, so they may afterwards

-be withdrawn and leave the inside perfectly

-smooth, except at the heel of the shoe,

-where they are driven into the iron heel

-of the last and clinched.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus17" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus17.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Rough Rounding. <i>See <a href="#Page_131">page 131</a>.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus18" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus18.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Edge Trimming. <i>See <a href="#Page_130">page 130</a>.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>After these operations, the surplus

-leather at the toe and sides of the shoe is

-removed by the “upper trimming machine,”

-which cuts it away by means of a little

-knife and leaves it very smooth and even.

-A small hammer operating in connection

-with the knife pounds the leather on the

-same parts. A pounding machine hammers

-the leather and counter around the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>

-heel so that the stiff position conforms exactly

-to the last.</p>

-

-<p>After the “lasted” shoe has been trimmed

-and pounded down to the shape of the last,

-it is turned over to the tack setter, who

-pulls out all the tacks except a few, called

-draft tacks. The insole is then wet to

-make it pliable, and is turned over to a

-very experienced operator, called the “inseamer,”

-who is to sew the welt on.</p>

-

-<p>The shoe is now ready to receive a narrow

-strip of prepared leather, that is sewed

-after it is wet to make it pliable, along the

-edge of the shoe, beginning where the heel is

-placed and ending at the same spot on the

-opposite edge. This is called the welt, and

-is sewed from the inside lip of the insole,

-so that the curved needle passes through

-the lip, the upper, and the welt, uniting

-all three securely and allowing the welt to

-protrude beyond the edge of the shoe.

-The thread is very stout linen, and is

-passed through a pan of hot wax before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>

-being looped into chain stitch that holds

-the shoe together.</p>

-

-<p>The nature of the stitch is a chain&mdash;two

-rows of threads on the outside that

-loop with the single thread in the inside

-lip of the insole. When the welt is finally

-sewed on, and the shoe put down on the

-bench, it looks like an ordinary shoe resting

-on a wide flange of leather. This flange is

-the welt, and to it the heavy outer sole is

-to be sewed fast. Should a single stitch

-break in this operation, it is passed to a

-cobbler, who repairs it by hand.</p>

-

-<p>Before the outer sole is put on, the edges

-of the uppers must be trimmed along the

-seam that holds the welt. A slip of steel

-called steel shank is laid along the insole

-where the hollow of the foot is, and a piece

-of leather board laid over this to give the

-necessary stiffness and prevent the shoe

-from doubling up. As the welt has left a

-hollow space along the ball of the foot, it is

-necessary to fill this up, either with a piece<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>

-of leather, tanned felt, or other filler. Felt

-is not waterproof, and leather squeaks,

-hence a mixture of ground cork and rubber

-cement is used. This is heated and spread

-on the sole, and run over a hot roller until

-the bottom of the shoe is perfectly smooth

-and even. The shoes are placed on a rack

-and are ready for the outsole.</p>

-

-<p>Sole fastening is performed by a number

-of operations, in which a score or more

-of separate machines are used. The sole

-layers smear a rubber cement over this

-welt with a “cementing machine,” after the

-outsole has been soaked in water to make it

-pliable, and then place it on the shoe and

-tack a single nail in the heel. The “sole

-laying machine,” through great pressure,

-cements the sole on and fits it to every

-curve of the last. Then the sole is trimmed

-by a “rough rounding machine,” which

-trims the soles to the shape of the last.

-This machine also channels the outer sole

-at the same time, which is necessary for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>

-the next operation. The “channel opening

-machine” now turns up the lips of the

-channel and the sole is ready to be stitched

-to the welt.</p>

-

-<p>The outsole is now sewed by a waxed

-thread to the welt, by an “outsole lock stitch

-machine,” which is similar to a welt sewing

-machine. The stitch is finer and extends

-from the slit (channel) to the upper side

-of the welt, where it shows after the shoe

-has been finished.</p>

-

-<p>It unites the sole and welt with a tightly

-drawn lock stitch of remarkable strength.

-It sews through an inch of leather as easily

-as a woman would sew through a piece of

-cloth. The stitches are made through the

-welt and outer sole, the seam running in

-the channel of the outsole.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus19" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus19.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Leveling. <i>See <a href="#Page_135">page 135</a>.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus20" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus20.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Heeling. <i>See <a href="#Page_136">page 136</a>.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>The inside of the slit in which this stitch

-has just been made is now coated with

-cement by means of a brush. The channel

-lip is forced back to its original position

-after the cement has dried, by a rapidly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>

-revolving wheel of a “channel laying machine.”

-In this way the stitches are

-hidden.</p>

-

-<p>Welt shoes are stitched on in three

-different ways: “channeled,” which, when

-finished, leaves an invisible stitch on the

-bottom of the sole; “regular stitched aloft,”

-showing the stitches on both sides; and

-“fudge stitched,” in which the seam is

-sunk down in a groove, being almost

-invisible from the welt side.</p>

-

-<p>Every stitch must be of such a nature

-that it is independent of the one next to it,

-so that should one stitch break, the others

-will not work loose. This is accomplished

-by running the threads through a pan of hot

-wax just before entering the leather, which

-causes the waxed thread to solidify, becoming,

-as it were, a part of the leather.</p>

-

-<p>Notice should be taken of the difference

-between the way the outsole is stitched

-and the inner sole is stitched to the upper.

-In place of three threads in the chain stitch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>

-“that holds the welt to the upper and

-insole” there are but two here&mdash;an upper

-and a lower one. The upper thread extends

-only part way down, where it loops, twists,

-and locks into the lower thread. This is

-the reason why you can wear a welt sole

-clear through without its pulling loose.</p>

-

-<p>Shoes that are stitched aloft go through

-the same operations as the channel-stitched

-shoes, with the exception that the rounding

-machine contrivance of cutting is eliminated.</p>

-

-<p>Shoes that are to be fudge stitched are

-sent through the same machine as the regular

-stitched aloft, but an additional little

-knife point on the arm of the Goodyear

-stitcher digs a channel in the welt so that

-the stitches on that side are sunk into the

-leather.</p>

-

-<p>The outsole is nailed at the heel after

-the stitching on the “loose nailing machine,”

-which drives the nails through the outsole

-and insole and clinches against the steel

-plate of the last. The machine drives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>

-separate nails fed from the hopper of any

-desired size or length, at the rate of three

-hundred and fifty per minute.</p>

-

-<p>The edge of the outsole around the

-heel is now trimmed to conform exactly

-to the shape of the heel on the “heel seat

-pounding machine.”</p>

-

-<p>The stitches of the regular stitched shoes

-are separated by a series of indentations,

-giving the shoe that corrugated effect which

-adds so much to the appearance of the shoe.

-In the fudge-stitched work the stitches are

-entirely covered up by the indentations.</p>

-

-<p>Then a leveling machine, called the

-“automatic sole leveling machine,” with

-a pressure of about two and a half tons to

-each of the concave rollers, comes into

-play. The rolls move automatically back

-and forth and from side to side, doing the

-work that the shoemaker used to do on his

-lap with a hammer and stone, but doing it

-better and more quickly. It practically

-levels off the bottom of the soles.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>An automatic guage regulates exactly

-the distance from the edge of the last, and

-by the use of this machine the operator is

-enabled to make a sole conform to that of

-all others of a similar design and size.</p>

-

-<p>Heels are formed by cementing different

-lifts of leather. A machine called a “heel

-cutter” shapes out the lifts. The heel is

-then placed under pressure, giving it exact

-form and greatly increasing its wear.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus21" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus21.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Sole Scouring. <i>See <a href="#Page_138">page 138</a>.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus22" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus22.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Heel Shaping. <i>See <a href="#Page_138">page 138</a>.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<p>In speaking of the ends and sides of a

-heel, the part that rests on the ground is

-spoken of as the top, and the first piece is

-called the top lift. The part that is fastened

-to the shoe is spoken of as the bottom,

-while the side nearest the toes is called the

-breast. The wedge is a flat, heel-shaped

-piece or lift of leather that is skived to a

-thin edge at the breast. Being thicker at

-the back, it tips the heel forward. Wedges

-are made from thin strips of waste leather,

-or from sheets of leather board, and are cut

-out with a hollow die. The gouges are cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>

-in the sole leather room from scraps, and

-are a regular heel lift, having a horseshoe-shaped

-piece of leather with an opening at

-the breast.</p>

-

-<p>The sole leather, insoles, counters, and

-heels, in the stock fitting department are

-“got out” by being cut into shape by a

-machine die.</p>

-

-<p>The heel is now trimmed of all rough and

-surplus portions of leathers to the exact

-size of top lift. A blower attached to the

-machine removes all scraps, etc.</p>

-

-<p>The breast of the heel, which faces the

-forepart of the shoe, is trimmed evenly

-across and with the desired slant by means

-of a peculiar-shaped knife which extends

-over the sole at shank. The edges of the

-heel are now scoured by revolving rolls

-with molded sandpaper to make perfectly

-smooth. Blowers attached to the machine

-remove all dust.</p>

-

-<p>There are several types of machines for

-fastening the heel to the shoe, all very rapid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>

-in operation. One of the latest is that

-which feeds the nails, and which is operated

-by a man and boy, who together turn off a

-great quantity of work.</p>

-

-<p>The nails are left protruding slightly above

-the heel so as to retain the top lift, which is

-now placed in position by the same operator

-on the same machine. It is pressed down

-over the heads of the nails securing it in

-position. The small brass or steel nails

-which protect and ornament the heel are

-now driven in by the “universal slugging

-machine.” This machine cuts the slugs

-from a coil of wire and drives them in with

-great rapidity.</p>

-

-<p>We have practically now a roughly formed

-shoe ready for the finishing room.</p>

-

-<p>Here the heel slugs are ground down,

-heel and sole buffed by sandpaper rolls on a

-scouring machine, wet down, stained, or

-blacked, as case may be, finished on bristle

-brushes, placed to dry, polished by a

-polishing machine, bottom stamped with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>

-the trademark, and passed to an operator

-whose duty it is to see that no tacks are

-left inside the shoes. Generally girls are

-hired to do this, as their hands are smaller

-and it is very important that no tacks are

-left, which might cause a great deal of

-trouble. If any are found, they are cut out

-with nippers or otherwise removed.</p>

-

-<p>A lining is also generally put inside the

-shoe, covering the whole of the insole in

-a McKay shoe, and the heel only in a

-Goodyear shoe. Shoes must also be inspected

-here before they are packed, to

-see if they are perfect in every way and

-that each shoe is a perfect mate in the

-pair.</p>

-

-<p>The shoes are now sent to the last department,

-called treeing, dressing, and packing

-department.</p>

-

-<p>This department has to do with the

-finishing of the uppers. The bottoms and

-edges are all finished when shoes get to

-this department, and nothing remains but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>

-to finish the uppers and pack the shoes in

-single-pair cartons and then in wooden

-boxes or cases.</p>

-

-<p>The different uppers are all finished by a

-different process, some being ironed with a

-hot iron, which is done to take out the

-wrinkles and smooth the uppers. Ironing

-was first introduced on kid shoes, but in

-recent years the hot iron has been put on

-nearly all kinds of stock. A shoe must be

-on a form or tree when ironed, the form or

-tree being the same shape as the last. The

-whole idea in ironing is the same as that

-followed by the tailor, who uses a hot iron

-to press and smooth out clothes. The

-operations in detail are as follows:&mdash;</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus23" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus23.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Ironing.</p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus24" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus24.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Packing.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>Each shoe is treed, after having been

-drawn over a foot form similar to that on

-which the shoe was lasted, and any stain or

-dirt which may have been carelessly put on

-in former operations is cleaned off; the

-shoe is sponged with a gum prepared for

-either black or tan goods, rubbed down dull,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>

-and then rubbed to a polish. In many

-patent leather shoes the treeing is to clean

-off the surface, as we said before, and then

-to iron it with a hot iron, which takes out

-all stains, and leaves the leather shiny and

-black.</p>

-

-<p>The shoes finally go to hand operators,

-who rag the edges and heels, leaving them

-ready to be laced and put into the boxes.

-After lacing, the shoes are passed to inspectors,

-whose duty it is to see that they are

-perfect, to throw out all which are not,

-make a record of them, and pass the perfect

-shoes to the packers, who see that the sizes

-are right, that each pair is mated, and placed

-in paper cartons, ready to be packed in

-wooden cases for shipment. The packing of

-cartons into wooden cases is done by men

-who nail on the lid when each case is full,

-mark where goods are to be sent, make a

-record of same and load the cases into

-freight cars.</p>

-

-<p>There are other uppers that are treed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>

-such as wax calf, for instance, and split

-uppers, which are used in heavy shoes.

-The main idea of treeing a shoe is to give

-it a smooth and finished appearance and a

-good “feel.” In the regular treeing operation

-they use liquid preparations, often

-called composition, and these are worked

-into the upper, filling it to some extent.

-French chalk is used a great deal in some

-uppers, and oil or some form of grease or

-gum is also used, all of which make the

-upper as it was when first put on the cutting

-board of the shoe factory. All work done

-in this room is intended to give leather its

-original luster, which has been lost to a

-certain extent in going through the different

-rooms and in being handled so much.</p>

-

-<p>There are still other uppers that may not

-be treed or ironed but merely cleaned and

-polished to give luster. Some of these may

-be dressed. To dress a shoe means to put

-on a liquid dressing. In some cases two

-coats of dressing are put on and in other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>

-cases one coat. A shoe can have a dull

-dressing or a bright dressing, according to

-how the buyer prefers to have his shoes

-look.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_SEVEN">CHAPTER SEVEN<br />

-<span class="smaller">McKAY AND TURNED SHOES</span></h2>

-

-<p>The McKay process is used very

-extensively in the manufacture of

-cheap shoes. Its introduction was a great

-improvement over the nailing and pegging

-of the soles to the uppers. It allows

-the two to be stitched together by means

-of a straight needle running through the

-entire thickness of upper, sole, and insole.</p>

-

-<p>In following the McKay process through

-the factory, we find it very similar to the

-Goodyear welt process, which has been

-explained, the main difference being in the

-methods of fastening the sole to the uppers.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus25" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus25.jpg" width="420" height="500" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>The lasts and patterns are obtained in

-the same manner as described in the previous

-chapter. The order is made out in the

-factory office, and the ticket is given to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>

-sorter, who selects the required number of

-skins, which he rolls in a bundle and turns

-over to the cutter. The cutters form the

-various pieces of leather and linings, which

-are tied up in bundles and sent to the

-stitching room. Here they pass through

-the various sewing machines, finally coming

-out in the form of a complete upper ready

-to be attached to the bottoms.</p>

-

-<p>The soles, insoles, counters, and heels

-for McKay shoes are all formed in the same

-room, as described in the Goodyear process.</p>

-

-<p>There is a difference in making ready the

-outsoles and insoles. It will be recalled

-that the outsole for the Goodyear welt

-shoe was simply a block of leather cut to

-fit the shoe and was not channeled. The

-outsole for the McKay shoe is run through

-a channeling machine, which cuts a slit

-around the edge of the sole, folds the

-leather back, and digs a little trench along

-the inside of the slit. It will also be remembered

-that the insole of the Goodyear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>

-welt shoe was channeled with two slits, one

-of which was turned back to form the breast

-for sewing on the welt strip. The insole of

-a McKay shoe is not channeled in any way,

-but is left plain, like the outsole of the

-Goodyear welt. The uppers, the soles,

-insoles, counters, and heels all having been

-made ready, the pieces are taken to the

-lasting room.</p>

-

-<p>The first process is called “assembling.”

-The operator takes up one of the uppers,

-inserts the last, sticks in a counter between

-the lining and the outside, puts in a “box”

-(a stout piece of canvas to give stability

-to the toe) at the toe, beneath the tip, puts

-in the insole, and then may pull the shoe

-tight on the last or give it to the operator

-on the pulling over machine to have it

-done. The pulling over machine is now

-used in nearly all factories, having displaced

-hand pulling the same as the lasting

-machines have displaced hand lasting. The

-assembling, pulling, and lasting on the machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>

-are all parts of the regular operation

-of lasting. The hand laster had to do all

-three parts in former times, but now there

-are machines to do nearly everything, and

-at the present time the operation of lasting

-is divided into assembling, pulling over, and

-lasting on the machine. But even these

-machines do not do it all, as there is surplus

-upper to be cut away, toes to be pounded

-down, and filling to be put in the bottom,

-all of which are done on a McKay shoe before

-the sole can be laid. There are machines

-to do these parts, too.</p>

-

-<p>A trimmer (this is done by hand) now

-takes the shoe, trims off all the surplus

-leather, tacks in the shank (a little piece

-of steel to give rigidity to the shank of the

-sole), fills all up smoothly and then passes

-it to the sole layer, who puts on the outer

-sole and tacks it in place.</p>

-

-<p>The last is now pulled out of the shoe

-and it is ready for the McKay sewing

-machine.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>This machine sews right through the

-inner and outer sole, and at the same time

-catches the edges of the upper leather and

-the lining in between the two and draws

-them all snugly and firmly together. The

-stitches are made right along in the channel

-of the outer sole, which is deep enough to

-admit the row of stitches without raising

-a ridge on the outside of the sole, after

-the channel is closed up and leveled. The

-channel is next filled with cement and

-passed on to the leveler, which turns down

-the loosened flap of leather, presses it all

-out smooth, and covers the seam up so

-completely that no trace of the sewing is

-to be seen. This little folded-over flap of

-leather serves the double purpose of hiding

-the stitches in the sole, and at the same

-time protecting them from wear against

-the ground.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus26" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus26.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Stitching.</p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus27" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus27.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Tacking.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>The shoe is then ready to be heeled, and

-from here to the shipping door the McKay

-generally goes through the same process as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>

-a welt. After heeling, the McKay shoes are

-relasted or have followers put in to keep

-them in shape while going through. The

-sock lining may be put in here, too, before

-relasting, or it may not be put in till the

-shoes get to another room. The McKay

-lasting last must be pulled from the shoe

-to have the bottoms and heels put on and

-this also applies to a pegged or nailed shoe.

-But in the case of a welt shoe or a turn

-shoe, both stay on the original last until

-the bottoms and heels have been fastened

-on. The turn shoe being lasted inside out,

-must come off the last to be turned right

-side out, and it goes right on the last as

-soon as it can be turned. The different

-methods of fastening the bottoms constitute

-the main difference between Goodyear and

-turn shoes on the one hand, and McKay,

-pegged, and nailed on the other. The

-bottom stock must be prepared differently

-in order to fit the methods. Thus it is

-seen that only two departments are affected,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>

-namely, the sole leather and the making

-departments. In the cutting, stitching,

-finishing, treeing, and packing, all operations

-are practically the same on every shoe, no

-matter how it is bottomed. The patterns,

-however, by which shoes are cut may be

-different.</p>

-

-<p>In the finishing room all of the finishing

-of the bottoms and heel edges is done. The

-heels are sandpapered or scoured, and are

-then blacked and polished under hot-iron

-pressure. Considerable wax is used on

-the edge and is melted by the hot iron.

-Heel edges may also be finished on a wheel

-or roll. There are several different ways,

-but the object of each method is to give a

-hard, black, and highly polished surface to

-the edge.</p>

-

-<p>In finishing the bottom the top lift is

-scoured or buffed, and all of the sole and

-the breast of the heel also. Each is a

-different process, a different operator attending

-to each part. The object of scouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>

-or buffing with sandpaper is to get a smooth

-foundation for the finish, which is put on

-next, and which may be all the same color

-in all parts of the bottom or may have one

-color in the shank and another in the forepart.

-The stains and blackings are used

-on bottoms, and these are brought to a

-high, hard gloss by means of rolls and

-brushes. Hot irons are often used on black

-shanks and bottoms to give added hardness

-and luster to the finish.</p>

-

-<p>The turned or turn shoe is a woman’s

-fine shoe that is made wrong side out,

-then turned right side out. The sole is

-fastened to the last, and the upper is

-twisted over, the wrong side out. Then

-the two are sewed together, the thread

-catching through a channel or shoulder

-cut in the edge of the sole. The seam does

-not come through to the bottom of the sole,

-nor to any part inside where it would chafe

-the foot.</p>

-

-<p>The preparation of the upper for a turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>

-shoe is identical with that of a welt or

-McKay, with the exception that the back

-is cut a little longer and a little larger, in

-order to last it over the sole. The important

-difference in the make-up of a turn

-shoe as compared with that of a McKay or

-welt is that it has no insole, the upper

-being sewed directly to a portion of the

-sole itself.</p>

-

-<p>As the cutting of the uppers and the

-stitching operations of a turn shoe are the

-same as the Goodyear and McKay, and

-have been explained, we will take up the

-forming of the sole, which is entirely

-different from either of the other two

-methods.</p>

-

-<p>A turn shoe is put together wrong side out,

-and it is necessary, during the course of making,

-to turn it by rolling the sole up like a roll

-of carpet. It is evident, then, that nothing

-but good quality, pliable leather can be

-used satisfactorily, and great care is taken

-to include nothing but the best.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The soles are cut out on the beam machines,

-also previously described. They are

-then channeled on the side that is next

-to the foot. This channeling is similar to

-that done on the welt insole. Two incisions

-are made, the inside one being the

-same as in the welt insoles. The outside one,

-however, is different, as the flange is cut

-off square instead of being rolled up. This

-leaves a channel which begins at the edge

-and surface of the sole and extends in

-semicircular form to the abrupt wall of the

-cut in the sole, which forms the breast

-against which the upper is to be sewed.</p>

-

-<p>After the soles are channeled, they are

-soaked until they become soft enough to

-roll up easily. They are then placed on

-racks and kept in a damp room until needed.</p>

-

-<p>A turn shoe is hand lasted wrong side out.

-First the uppers are turned with the lining

-outside, then the last is inserted and also

-the toe boxing.</p>

-

-<p>The sole is set straight on the last and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>

-tacked firmly to it. The operator, by aid

-of hand pullers, draws the upper over the

-sole and tacks it securely from a point

-where the breast of the heel will rest to

-where the large toe will extend, and then

-along the same distance on the other side.

-The toe part is next lasted by machinery,

-a wire being fastened at one side and run

-around the edge holding the pulled-up

-parts of the upper which has been stretched

-tightly over the last.</p>

-

-<p>The shoe is next passed over to the Goodyear

-inseamer operator, who sews the upper

-to the sole, the needle passing down through

-the inside channel, through the sole leather,

-out through the square-cut channel and

-then through the upper, uniting the upper

-to the sole with the chain stitch. In fact,

-the bottom of a turn shoe at this time looks

-exactly like the bottom of a welt, with the

-exception that the turn shoe is still turned

-wrong side out. The nature of the stitch

-is the same&mdash;a waxed, threaded chain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>

-with two rows of thread on the outside that

-loop with the single thread in the inside

-lip of the insole. The shoe is sewed only

-from the back of the shank to the toe, the

-heel part still being loose.</p>

-

-<p>The seam is now trimmed with an inseam

-trimmer, a machine with a revolving, jagged-edged

-knife that saws off the surplus portions

-of the upper, leaving it smooth and even

-with the sole. The tacks are all pulled

-out with a sort of a nail puller, which works

-rapidly and automatically.</p>

-

-<p>The lasts are then taken out and the

-shoe is turned right side out. This turning

-process is not a difficult one, but it is

-perhaps the most interesting operation that

-the layman will see in the entire factory.

-The operation is accomplished by means

-of a rigid iron bar set slantwise in a table.

-The upper is turned right side out by hand

-and the sole is rolled right side out by means

-of pressure on this bar.</p>

-

-<p>After this turning process, which twists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>

-and rolls the shoe out of shape, it has no

-semblance of its final form. The back part

-of the sole and upper are still loose, the

-upper being fastened from the shank to

-the toe.</p>

-

-<p>The turn shoe must be “second” lasted,

-and the inserting of the last is no easy matter.

-A contrivance called a push jack assists

-the operator greatly. He uses a flat, narrow

-rod to smooth out the lining, and

-after squeezing, pushing, and smoothing,

-the last is finally made to fit in the shoe.

-The counter is placed in at this time, the

-shank piece is set in place, and the shoe

-and last are placed on a jack for nailing.

-The back part upper is now stretched tightly

-over the heel part of the last by means of

-lasting pullers, and is tacked down, the

-nails going through the shank piece and

-clinching against the anvil heel seat of the

-last. This operation completes the lasting,

-the shoe now having a form exactly like

-the last over which it is made.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>Workmen now level the bottoms and

-form the shank by a hand method, preparatory

-to the machine leveling process.

-The shoe is still wet and is left to dry on

-the last twenty-four hours. Then it is run

-through the machine called the “leveler,”

-which, with its enormous pressure, forms

-the sole to that of the last. The shoes are

-now left four days on the lasts, to dry

-thoroughly, so that they may retain their

-shape permanently.</p>

-

-<p>The putting on of the heel, and the

-various finishing processes are practically

-the same as that of the welt, with the

-exception that a turn sole must have a

-sock lining.</p>

-

-<p>Some factories use a grain leather sock

-lining, which is pasted in, covering up the

-channels of the sole which hold the stitches

-and forming a smooth surface for the foot

-to rest upon.</p>

-

-<p>The difference between a McKay and a

-turn shoe may be told by the fact that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>

-stitching on the inside of the sole is much

-closer to the edge in a turn. Another

-thing, in a turn shoe, the seam connecting

-the upper and the outsole can be seen.</p>

-

-<p>Nothing is likely to excel the turn shoe

-for lightness and flexibility, since the method

-of making, whereby the sole is stitched

-directly to the upper, interposes no thick

-or cumbersome material. Sole leather of

-good quality is used. In fact, the sole

-would have to be not only strong, but thin

-and light, or the shoe could not be turned

-in the process of manufacture without

-straining it and getting it out of shape.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">History of the Turn Shoe</span></h3>

-

-<p>History states that prior to 1845, which

-marked the date of the introduction of

-shoe machinery, most of the shoes were

-sewed by hand, the lighter ones turned

-and the heavier ones welted. In fact, the

-early factories that began to spring up in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>

-New England about the beginning of the

-century, were merely cutting rooms and

-places for storing the lasts and stock.</p>

-

-<p>Here the uppers, soles, and linings were

-cut by hand and then given out to people

-in the vicinity, mostly farmers and fishermen,

-to be stitched together and paid for at so

-much a dozen. Such was the beginning of

-the shoe industry in New England. Hundreds

-of families added to their resources

-in this way, the women doing the lighter

-work and the men the heavier.</p>

-

-<p>In fishing communities, where men were

-away most of the time in their boats,

-their wives and daughters, who stayed at

-home, undertook the lighter grades of

-shoemaking&mdash;the turn process. This was

-the case in the “North Shore” towns like

-Lynn, Haverhill, and Marblehead, and these

-to-day, keeping to the old traditions, are the

-great centers for the finer turn-grades of

-shoemaking, whereas the “South Shore”

-towns, like Brockton, Whitman, Abington,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>

-Rockland, and the Weymouths, with the

-men at home all the year, came to make a

-specialty of shoes for men, and absorbed

-the heavier part of the growing industry.</p>

-

-<p>With the introduction of the Goodyear

-turn machine, however, the handwork was

-gradually done away with, although more

-handwork is done in the turn process than

-in either the McKay or welt process.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Standard Screw Shoemaking</span></h3>

-

-<p>Many good qualities of heavy shoes are

-made by the standard screw method, which

-differs from the McKay method by having

-the outsole and insole fastened together

-with a double-threaded wire, which is

-screwed through and cut off by the machine

-the instant it reaches the inside of the shoe.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus28" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus28.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>A pegged shoe is made in much the same

-way as the standard screw, except that

-wooden pegs are used instead of wire to

-fasten the sole together.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The nailed method of shoemaking consists

-in nailing the soles together around the

-edge. It is used principally for heavy,

-cheap shoes.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_EIGHT">CHAPTER EIGHT<br />

-<span class="smaller">OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING</span></h2>

-

-<p>The old-fashioned shoemaker formerly

-made shoes by hand as follows:&mdash;A

-last, which is a wooden model of a

-foot, was used, and pieces of leather were

-pasted here and there on it so as to build

-up a model conforming to the measurements

-of the foot. Then paper patterns of the

-upper leather were made from the last, and

-from these the upper leathers were cut out

-of tanned calfskins and sewed together.</p>

-

-<p>The leather for the soles was cut out of

-tanned ox or steer hide, the pieces being

-the insole, the outsole, and the lifts of

-the heel. The inner soles were made of

-softer leather. Sometimes split sole leathers

-were used for uppers. The shoemaker

-then softened the leather by steeping it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>

-in water, until it was pliable and at the

-same time firm, and would cut like cheese.</p>

-

-<p>The insoles were attached to the bottom

-of a pair of wooden lasts, and the wet

-leather fastened on with lasting tacks so

-as to mold it to the last. When it was

-dry, the shoemaker with pincers drew the

-leather out until it had taken the exact

-form of the bottom of the last. Then he

-rounded the soles by paring down the edges

-close to the last, and formed around these

-edges a small channel or feather cut or slit

-about an eighth of an inch in the leather.</p>

-

-<p>Next he pierced the insoles all around

-with a bent awl, which “bit” into, but not

-through, the leather, and came out at the

-channel or feather edge. The boots were

-then lasted by placing the uppers on the

-lasts, drawing the edges by means of

-pincers tightly round the edge of the insoles.

-Then they were fastened in portions with

-lasting tacks. Lasting was considered a

-very important operation, for unless the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>

-upper was drawn smoothly and equally

-over the last, leaving neither a crease nor

-wrinkle, the form would be a failure. A

-band of flexible leather about an inch wide,

-with one edge pared, was then placed in

-position around the sides of the shoes, up

-to the heel or seat, and the maker proceeded

-to “inseam,” by passing his awl through

-the holes, already made in the insole,

-catching with it the edge of the upper and

-the thin edge of the welt, and sewing all

-three together in one flat seam, with a

-waxed thread.</p>

-

-<p>The threads which shoemakers use are

-called “ends,” and are made of two or

-more strands of small flaxen threads. The

-shoemaker makes his own waxed thread as

-follows:&mdash;</p>

-

-<p>He holds the main part of the thread

-from the spool, in his left hand, holding it

-firmly&mdash;where he wants to break it&mdash;between

-the first finger and thumb, so

-that it will not turn beyond that point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>

-Then with the left hand, he lays the end

-of the flax on the knee and rolls it from

-him. This will cause the small fibers that

-compose the thread to separate&mdash;thus

-enabling him to break it easily. When

-the fibers separate, he gives the thread a

-light, quick turn, which causes it to break.

-As the thread breaks he pulls it apart

-gradually, so that the fibers will taper.

-Then he places the threads together, one

-just behind the other, so that the end will

-have a very fine point. He rolls the end

-and allows it to turn between the fingers

-of the left hand. After it has been rolled

-and twisted, it is waxed by drawing the

-thread through a piece of wax.</p>

-

-<p>The fine ends are waxed to a point. A

-bristle is fastened on in the following

-manner: the head of the bristle is held in

-the left hand, and the portion to which the

-thread is to be fastened is waxed; then the

-thread and bristle are twisted together. A

-hole is made in the thread and the bristle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>

-pulled through and fastened. After the

-threads are fastened, the heads of the bristle

-are cut off, and the ends sandpapered.</p>

-

-<p>The wax thread or “end,” as it is called,

-should never be made longer than is necessary

-to sew a shoe. Experience shows that

-if a portion of an end left after sewing one

-shoe is used on the second shoe, it is never

-as strong as a new end. The thread grows

-weaker and weaker as it is used. When

-the thread is well waxed, it is cemented to

-the shoe.</p>

-

-<p>After the shoe is sewed, the shoemaker

-pares off inequalities and levels the bottoms,

-by filling up the depressed part in the

-center with pieces of tarred felt. The

-shoes are now ready for the outsoles.

-The fibers of the leather to be used for

-the soles are thoroughly condensed by

-hammering on the lapstone. Then they

-are fastened through the insole with steel

-tacks, their sides are pared, and a narrow

-channel is cut round their edges. Through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>

-this channel they are stitched to the welt,

-about twelve stitches of strong, waxed

-thread being made to the inch. The soles

-are next hammered into shape; the heel

-lifts are put on and attached with wooden

-pegs. Then they are sewed through the

-stitches of the insoles; and the top pieces,

-similar to the outsoles, are put on and

-nailed down to the lifts.</p>

-

-<p>The finishing operations of the shoe

-include smoothing the edges of the heel,

-paring, rasping, scraping, smoothing, blacking,

-and burnishing the edges of the

-soles, withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning

-out any pegs which may have pierced

-through the inner sole. There are numerous

-minor operations connected with forwarding

-and finishing in various materials,

-such as punching holes, inserting eyelets, etc.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">How Shoes are Repaired</span></h3>

-

-<p>Before one can understand how shoes are

-repaired, it is necessary to know the difference<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>

-between the inside and outside of a

-shoe.</p>

-

-<p>The last is divided into four parts, viz.

-toe, ball, shank, and heel.</p>

-

-<p>Diagram No. 1 shows these parts and

-their shapes.</p>

-

-<p>Diagram No. 2 shows the length of the

-inside of the divisions as compared with

-those of the outside. Notice the long

-shank and short ball.</p>

-

-<p>Diagram No. 3 shows the outside of the divisions

-and the effect they have upon the shape

-of the shoe. See short shank and long ball.</p>

-

-<p>Always remember that the ball of a shoe

-is longer on the outside, having a short

-shank. The ball is shorter on the inside,

-having a long shank. Compare outside

-and inside diagrams Nos. 2 and 3.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus29" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus29a.jpg" width="420" height="200" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">How a Side of Leather is shaped and divided as to Quality.

-<i>See <a href="#Page_5">page 5</a>.</i></p>

-

-<img src="images/illus29b.jpg" width="420" height="200" alt="" />

-<p class="caption"><i>Dia. 1.</i> <i>Dia. 2.</i> <i>Dia. 3.</i></p>

-</div>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Shoe Repairing</span></h3>

-

-<p>The first operation in half soling a shoe is

-to cut off the old portion from “a” to “c”

-as shown on diagram No. 1. The shoe is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>

-placed in different positions and corrected

-in every way before putting on the new sole.

-It is generally better to wet the shoe in

-order to put it in shape.</p>

-

-<p>The leather is skived thin and accurate

-enough to make a neat, comfortable joint,

-and yet thick enough for the nails to hold.</p>

-

-<p>Then the filling is added before placing

-on the sole. The sole is trimmed and a

-guide line drawn around the edge, so that

-the nails may be properly arranged.</p>

-

-<p>Finishing the sole is an important part.

-If everything else is properly done, this

-part becomes comparatively easy. See that

-all nails are clinched. With a level bottom,

-smooth joints and edges, the shoe can be

-made to look like a new shoe and yet feel

-like an old one.</p>

-

-<p>On account of the heel being more directly

-under the body and the first part to strike

-the ground, it generally wears out first.

-For this reason in repairing a heel great

-care must be taken to see that good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>

-leather and solid work are put into it.

-Pull off the worn top piece and see that

-what is left is hammered down solidly.

-Next split a piece of solid, easy-cutting,

-scrap sole leather, so that two pieces can

-be made out of one. Put them on the

-shoe and fasten them on well, piece by

-piece, with tacks. See that the heel is

-level before putting on the top piece.

-(If necessary, a small piece may be put

-under the top piece.) After it is level,

-put on top piece, trim in shape, then draw

-guide line and nail down. The nails are

-placed thicker on the side that is worn

-down most, to protect the heel. The heel

-is next rasped, and smoothed with a buffer

-and sandpaper. When finished, it should

-set level.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Modern Method of Repairing Shoes</span></h3>

-

-<p>As the shoemaking industry has become

-more and more perfect, there has been an

-increasing interest taken in shoe repairing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>

-A medium-priced shoe as it is made to-day

-may often be in good enough condition to

-be heeled and soled a couple of times.

-Hence, although in the past many shoe

-stores and departments have had their

-shoe repairing done by outside shops, the

-tendency to-day is for every shoe store

-to have its own repair department. This

-method has resulted largely from the

-development of machinery for shoe repairing,

-which is revolutionizing the business

-to such an extent that in a few years

-repairing by hand will be among the lost

-arts. With the new inventions for restoring

-upper leather, and the improvement of

-machinery for shoe repairing, repair departments

-will very soon be but little short

-of miniature factories.</p>

-

-<p>The machinery ordinarily used consists

-of the Goodyear stitcher, used for attaching

-soles to Goodyear welts by the lock-stitch

-method, just as in shoe factories making

-Goodyear welt shoes. Then there is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>

-heel trimmer, a bottom finisher, consisting

-of a rapidly revolving roll covered with

-coarse and fine sandpaper, and an opera

-heel builder for forming concave heels.

-There are two wheels used for tan and

-white heel work, one heel being covered

-with a white cloth, and the other with a

-coarse brush. Adjoining these are usually

-the shank and heel finisher,&mdash;capable of

-smoothing and highly polishing a shank or

-heel in about a dozen seconds,&mdash;the bottom

-finisher, that grinds and smooths down the

-new sole, and a machine used for rubbing

-off dirt before the shoe is finished, consisting

-of a heavy horsehair brush. Another useful

-part of the equipment is an edge setter,

-which is also identical with the one used in

-factories. The shoe stitching machines

-and the parts used in finishing are all

-operated on one long shaft, rapidly revolved

-by the aid of a motor. It is a fact that a

-shoe may be actually soled and heeled in

-less than six minutes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>Five or six men are usually employed in

-the repair department of a large establishment.

-When the customer’s shoes are

-brought in, one of these men cuts off the

-old sole and traces an outline of the new

-sole on a block of the very best oak leather.

-After these are cut out by hand in rough

-form, they are soaked in water and channeled;

-that is to say, a part of the sole is

-turned up in which the stitches are to be

-run. A second man, by the use of the

-Goodyear stitcher, joins the sole and welt

-together with a very strong and tightly

-drawn lock stitch. This is a large machine

-with a curved, barbed needle and awl, and

-a shuttle which sews through an inch of

-leather with the greatest ease and speed.

-There are from one hundred and fifty to

-two hundred stitches in each shoe; moreover,

-every one of them is locked with

-heavy wax thread, so that there is no chance

-of their ever giving away. If one stitch

-should break, the other stitches would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>

-remain intact, as they are all independent

-of each other. Both soles are stitched on

-in a little over half a minute without

-breaking a thread or stopping the machine.</p>

-

-<p>A coating of rubber cement is now placed

-in the edges of the outsole, and the lip of

-the channel is smoothed down so that the

-stitches are entirely hidden when looking at

-the bottom of the shoe. The edge trimming

-is done next with the aid of a rapidly revolving

-wheel, which trims the edges square

-and true in about forty seconds. After this,

-the shank is finished on a rapidly revolving

-wheel covered with emery cloth.</p>

-

-<p>Bottom finishing is the next step. This

-is done on a machine having two long

-cylinders, one covered with fine and the

-other with coarse sandpaper. These cylinders

-revolve rapidly, and the operator uses

-the coarse sandpaper for scouring the dirt

-and old finish off the leather, and the

-fine sandpaper for finishing the sole as

-smooth as that of any new shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The brushing in or smoothing is next

-done by the horsehair brush we have mentioned

-before. A preparation called Lewis’s

-rival bottom polish&mdash;a sort of white wax&mdash;is

-placed on the brush machine. The

-brush now smooths the surface of the sole,

-filling in all small holes with wax and leaving

-the sole absolutely perfect. Finally, the

-shoe is placed against a rapidly revolving

-brush which finishes the uppers with a

-luster that would make any ordinary boot-black

-green with envy. Another operation

-that fully completes the process is the

-hardening of the edges with hot steel,

-which ends in producing an edge that is as

-hard as iron. When it is polished with a

-black dye, it looks exactly like a new sole.</p>

-

-<p>A few words are necessary with regard

-to the heel. The old heel having been

-removed, several lifts of new leather in

-rough form are tacked on. The shoe is

-then taken to the heel trimmer and is

-formed correctly and then smoothed down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>

-to a brilliant surface on the finely covered

-revolving wheel. In a few seconds it is

-stained, smoothed, and polished. In less

-than six minutes the shoe is ready for the

-customer.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_NINE">CHAPTER NINE<br />

-<span class="smaller">LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS</span></h2>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Assembling.</span> Includes the following operations:

-tacking the insole to the last,

-putting in the box and counter of the shoe,

-and putting the upper of the shoe on the

-last.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Backstay.</span> A term used to denote a

-strip of leather covering and strengthening

-the back seam of a shoe. English backstay

-means the strip of leather that meets the

-quarters on each side and is sewed to them,

-forming the lower part of the shoe. California

-backstay is a term applied to piping

-caught in the back seam.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Back Strap.</span> The strap by which the

-shoe is pulled on the foot.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Bal.</span> An abbreviation of the word

-“Balmoral” and means either men’s,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>

-women’s, or children’s front lace shoe

-of medium height, as distinguished from

-one that is adjusted to the ankle by buttons,

-buckles, rubber goring, etc.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Ball.</span> Refers to the ball of the foot&mdash;the

-fleshy part of the bottom of the foot,

-back of the toes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Beading.</span> Means folding in the edges

-of the upper leather instead of leaving

-them raw, or wheeling any impression

-around the sole to the heel. It is called

-seat wheeling in many shoe factory rooms.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Beating Out.</span> The same as leveling.

-It is the term used in turn-shoe work.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Bellows Tongue.</span> A broad tongue

-sewed to the sides of the top, seen in waterproof

-and some working shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Belting.</span> The term applied to the usual

-back tanned cowhide, used in various thicknesses

-for machinery belts.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Between Substance.</span> That part of the

-sole that holds the stitch.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Blackball.</span> A mass of grease and lampblack,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>

-formerly used by shoemakers on

-edges of heels and soles; sometimes called

-“cobbler’s botch.”</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Blacking the Edge.</span> Blacking or dyeing

-edge of sole, welt, or that part of the

-edge which cannot be blacked so well in

-the making room.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Blocking.</span> The cutting or chopping

-of a sole in such a form or shape that it

-can be rounded.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Bloom.</span> A term often applied to the

-grayish white deposit that gathers on shoes

-in stock. It can be wiped off readily.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Blucher.</span> The name of a shoe or half

-boot, originated by Field Marshal Blücher

-of the Prussian Army, in the time of

-Napoleon I. It became very popular and

-has since received occasional favor, being

-used with high tops as a sporting or hunting

-boot. Its distinguishing feature is the

-extension forward of the quarters to lace

-across the tongue, which may be an extension

-upward of the vamp.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Boot.</span> A term used (especially abroad)

-to designate women’s high-cut shoes. In

-this country it applies only to high or

-topped footwear, usually made with the

-tops stiff and solid. It is sometimes laced,

-as in hunting boots.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Bootee.</span> Leather legging extending between

-knee and ankle, usually of Russian

-calf,&mdash;a riding boot originating with the

-English.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Bottom Filling.</span> The filling that goes

-in the low space on the bottom in the forepart

-of the shoe. It is either ground cork,

-tarred felt, or other filler.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Bottom Scouring.</span> Sandpapering the

-parts of the sole, except the heel.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Boxing.</span> A term used to designate the

-stiffening material placed in the toe of a

-shoe to support it and retain the shape;

-such as leather, composition of leather and

-paper, wire net, drilling (a cotton fabric)

-stiffened with shellac, etc.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Box Calf.</span> A well-known proprietary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>

-leather having a grain of rectangularly

-crossed lines.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Box Toe.</span> Used to hold up the toe of

-the shoe so as to retain the shape. It is

-generally of sole leather, but often made of

-canvas or other material and stiffened with

-shellac or gum.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Breaking the Sole.</span> Molding the sole

-so as to fit the spring better.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Brogan.</span> A heavy pegged or nailed work

-shoe, medium cut in height.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Brushing.</span> The final finish of the top

-edge, heel, and bottom, by means of a

-brush.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Buckskin.</span> A soft leather, generally

-yellow or grayish in color. One way of

-preparing it is by treating deerskins in oil.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Buff.</span> A split side leather, coarser than

-glove grain, but otherwise similar. It is

-used for cheaper grades of shoes, principally

-for men.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Buffing.</span> The same as bottom scouring.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cabaretta.</span> A tanned sheepskin of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>

-superior finish used for shoe stock. There

-are sheep with wool not far removed from

-hair in texture, which produce a skin of

-greater tenacity and finish than the ordinary

-sheep.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cack.</span> A sole leather bottom without

-a heel. An infant’s shoe is called a cack.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Calfskins.</span> Skins of meat cattle of all

-kinds, weighing up to fifteen pounds, are

-usually included in this term. They make

-a strong and pliable leather. Calfskins

-were formerly finished with wax and oil

-on the flesh side, but can now be made so

-as to be finished on the “grain,” which is

-the hair side of the skin.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cap.</span> A term meaning the same as tip.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Carton.</span> A cardboard box intended for

-one pair of shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cementing.</span> This is the operation of

-placing cement on the outsole and the

-bottom of the welt shoe so that the outsole

-is held to the shoe by the cement.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Chamois.</span> A leather made from the skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>

-of chamois, calves, deer, goats, sheep, and

-split hides of other animals.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Channeling.</span> Cutting into the sole in

-such a way that the thread or stitching is

-away from the surface. In the outsole

-department it means preparing a place for

-the stitch. In insoles and turn soles, channeling

-is done so that soles are prepared to

-hold the stitching.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Channel Screwed.</span> A process by which

-the sole is fastened to the uppers. After a

-channel is cut and laid over on the outside

-of the outsole, the outsole and insole are

-fastened together, holding the upper and

-lining between them by means of wire

-screws, which are fastened in this channel.

-The skived part is then smoothed down

-over the heads of the screws, entirely

-covering them from sight, and preventing

-the screws from easily working up into the

-foot.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Channel Stitched.</span> A method of fastening

-soles to the uppers, either by McKay<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>

-or welt process, in which a portion of the

-sole’s outer side is channeled into, and the

-stitches afterwards covered on the lower

-side by the lip of this channel.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Channel Turning.</span> Turning a lip or

-flap of sole leather (called channel), so that

-the stitching can be done in the proper

-place; or it may mean turning up the flap

-or lip of the channel, that is, the part that

-is to cover the stitch.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Checking.</span> A term applied to the edges

-of heels or soles that have cracked, or have

-been injured in process of construction.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Inside.</span> Cleaning the lining.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Nails.</span> Scraping the blacking

-off the tops of the heel slugs.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Shoes.</span> Removing dirt, wax,

-cement, etc., from them.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Clicking.</span> Cutting the uppers of shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Closing.</span> Putting two or more pieces

-together.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Closing On.</span> Stitching the lining and

-outside together.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Colonial.</span> A name given to a woman’s

-low shoe, with vamp extended into a flaring

-tongue, with a large, ornamental buckle

-across the instep. The buckle and tongue

-are the distinctive features of the shoe,

-whether the shoe fastens with a lace or

-strap.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Coltskin.</span> Coltskin has been brought

-into general use in shoemaking within the

-past few years. The skin of a colt is thin

-enough to use like calfskin in its entirety,

-with such shaving as is given all hides in

-tanning. Coltskin makes a firm basis

-needed for patent leather, and has been

-much used in recent years for this purpose.

-Russia is the chief source of supply.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Combination Last.</span> One with a different

-width instep from the ball. It may be

-one or two widths’ difference, such as the

-D ball with a B instep. Combination

-lasts are generally used in fitting low

-insteps.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Composition.</span> A term used to denote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>

-the small scraps that accumulate about

-tanneries and factories, which are ground

-up and mixed with a paste or a kind of

-cement, and flattened into sheets which

-are used as insoles, and in other parts, in

-various grades of shoes, where wear is not

-excessive.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Congress Gaiter.</span> A shoe designed

-especially for comfort, with rubber goring

-in the sides which adjusts it to the ankle,

-instead of laces, and sometimes made with

-lace front to imitate a regular shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cordovan.</span> Originally a Spanish leather

-made from horsehide. The Spaniards were,

-for a great many centuries, the best leather

-makers. The term is applied to a grain

-leather from the best and strongest part of

-a horsehide.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Counter.</span> The stiffening in the back

-part of a shoe, often called stiffening, to

-support the outer leather and prevent the

-shoe from “running over” at the heel. It

-is made either of sole leather, shaved thin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>

-on the edge and shaped by machinery, as

-in the best shoes, or composition or paper,

-in cheap shoes. Metal is occasionally used

-on the outside of the shoes in heavy goods

-for miners and furnacemen.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Coupon Tag.</span> A tag from which a

-coupon is cut for every operation. Operatives

-hold part of the coupon and the

-holders of the coupons are paid for the

-part named.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cowhide.</span> Refers to hides of cattle,

-heavier than kips, which run up to twenty-five

-pounds each.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Creasing Vamp.</span> Making hollow grooves

-across the front of the vamp to add to its

-looks.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Creedmore.</span> A man’s heavy lace shoe,

-with gusset, blucher cut.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Creole.</span> A heavy congress work shoe.

-This shoe, the creedmore, and brogans are

-usually made of oil grains, kip, or split

-leather, sometimes pegged, sometimes

-“stitched down.”</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Crimping.</span> Shaping any part of the

-upper so that it will conform to the last

-better.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cushion Sole.</span> An elastic inner sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Cut-off Vamp.</span> One cut off at tip for

-economy when tip is to be covered by a cap.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Dieing.</span> Cutting soles to fit the last,

-outsoles, insoles, heel lifts, counters, or

-half soles, with a machine and a die.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Dom Pedro.</span> A heavy, one-buckle shoe,

-with gusset or bellows tongue. Originally

-it was a patent name for certain shoes made

-of fine material, but is now applied to cheap

-grades.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Dongola.</span> A heavy, plump goatskin,

-tanned with a semibright finish.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Dressing.</span> A process for giving the

-upper its original finish by means of liquid

-put on with sponge.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Edge Setting.</span> The finishing edge of

-the sole,&mdash;polishing it.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Edge Trimming.</span> Trimming the edge of

-a sole smoothly to conform to last.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Enamel.</span> Leather that is given a shiny

-finish on the grain side. The process is

-similar to that of patent leather, only that

-patent leather is finished on the flesh side,

-or the surface of the split.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Eyelet.</span> A small ring of metal, etc.,

-placed in the holes for lacing; the eyelet

-holes are sometimes worked with thread

-like a buttonhole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Eyeletting.</span> Putting on eyelets.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Facing.</span> The bleached calf or sheepskin

-used around the top of the shoe, and

-down the eyelet row and inside of the

-upper.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Fair Stitch.</span> Term applied to the stitching

-that shows around the outer edge of

-the sole, to give the McKay shoe the appearance

-of a welt shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Faking.</span> Putting a gloss on any part

-of the bottom of the shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Findings.</span> The small parts of a shoe,

-such as blacking, cement, nails, wax, tacks,

-thread, etc.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Flap, Lip, and Shoulder.</span> Terms used

-in connection with the channel or with the

-operation of sewing.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Follower.</span> Any last or form put in a

-shoe from which the original last has been

-pulled.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Forepart Finishing.</span> The staining and

-polishing of the forepart of the shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Form.</span> A term applied to a filler last.

-It may be of wood, papier-mâché, leather

-board, or any similar material, and is

-used to enhance the appearance of sample

-shoes, in salesmen’s lines or in window

-displays.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Foxed.</span> Having the lower part of the

-quarter a separate piece of leather or

-covered by an extra piece; “slipper foxed”

-is a term sometimes applied to women’s

-full vamp shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Foxing.</span> The name applied to that part

-of the upper that extends from the sole to

-the laces in front, and to about the height

-of the counter in the back; being the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>

-length of the upper. It may be in one or

-more pieces and is often cut down to the

-shank in circular form.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Frizzing.</span> A process to which chamois

-and wash leather are subjected, after the

-skins are unhaired, scraped, “fleshed,” and

-raised. It consists in rubbing the skins

-with pumice stone or a blunt knife till the

-appearance of the grain is entirely removed.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Front.</span> A term used for part of a congress

-toe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Gaiter.</span> A term usually applied to a separate

-ankle covering or to a congress shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Gemming.</span> The operation of making gem

-insoles.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Gem Insoles.</span> An insole for welt shoes

-of leather.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Glazed Kid.</span> See Kid.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Glove Grain.</span> A light, soft-finished,

-split leather, for women’s or children’s

-shoes or topping.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Goatskin.</span> See Kid.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Goodyear Welt.</span> A term used to denote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>

-the process of attaching the sole to

-the upper of a shoe by means of a narrow

-strip of leather called a welt.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Gore.</span> A rubber elastic used in a congress

-shoe. It is also applied to the long,

-wedge-shaped piece of leather set in an

-upper to widen it.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Grading.</span> The sorting of outsoles and

-half soles to get uniform weight in edges of

-finished shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Half Sole.</span> Half of a complete sole

-used in forepart of bottom under outsole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Harness Leather.</span> Similar to belting,

-and is made from hides heavier than kips.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Heel.</span> Made of layers of leather or wood

-called liftings, and attached to rear part

-of shoe (heel seat). There are different

-varieties of heels. The French heel is an

-extremely high heel with a curved outline

-in back and front (breast). It is sometimes

-made of wood covered with leather, with

-thicknesses of sole leather, or all sole leather.

-The Cuban heel is a high, straight heel,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>

-without the curve of the French or “Louis

-XV” heel. Military heel is a straight heel

-not as high as the Cuban. A spring heel is

-a low heel formed by extending back the

-outside of the shoe to the heel, with a slip

-inserted between the outsole and heel slat.

-Wedge heel is somewhat similar to a spring

-heel, except that a wedge-shaped lift is

-tacked on the outside instead of a slit.

-Slugging heels is the process of affixing the

-made-up heel by one operation of the

-machine.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Heel Finishing.</span> Blacking and polishing

-the heel edge.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Heel Lining.</span> The lining to cover heel

-nails inside the shoe; it is often known by

-other names.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Heel Pad.</span> In the manufacture of shoes,

-is a small piece of felt, leather, or other

-substance fastened to and covering the full

-width of the insole at the point upon which

-the heel rests. A heel cushion is sometimes

-called a heel pad.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Heel Scouring.</span> Sandpapering the edge

-of the heel, except the front or breast portion.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat.</span> That part of sole on which

-heel is fastened.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat Nailing.</span> Nailing the heel

-part of sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat Trimming.</span> Trimming the

-rear or heel part of sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Heel Shaving.</span> Shaving the heel, shaping

-it.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Hemlock Tanned.</span> A process of tanning

-leather by hemlock bark.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Hides.</span> Distinguished from skins, in the

-trade. Hides refer to skins of animals

-which are over twenty-five pounds in weight.

-Skins refer to smaller animals; as skins

-of goats, calves, sheep.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Inlay.</span> A trimming of the upper by an

-insertion of the same or different kind of

-material than that of the body in which

-it is inlaid. It is used for decorative purpose

-on a shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Inseaming.</span> Sewing sole on turn shoe.

-Welting and inseaming are practically the

-same operation.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Inseam Trimming.</span> Cutting off the

-surplus leather; term is also applied to

-pulling sole tacks.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Insole.</span> The first sole laid on the last,

-and is the foundation of all shoes with

-insoles. It is an important though invisible

-portion of a shoe. This inner sole is

-the part to which the upper and outsole

-are sewed or nailed in the McKay and welt

-shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Inspecting.</span> The examination of shoes

-to see that the work is perfect; it is sometimes

-called crowning.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Inspecting Insole.</span> The operation of

-looking inside of the shoe for tacks.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Instep.</span> The top of the arch of the

-foot.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Iron.</span> A term indicating the thickness

-of sole leather; each unit is approximately

-one thirty-second of an inch in thickness.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Ironing Uppers.</span> Taking wrinkles out

-of the uppers and smoothing the same with

-a hot iron.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Juliette.</span> A woman’s house slipper which

-is cut a little above the ankle in front and

-back, and cut down on the sides is called

-a Juliette.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Kangaroo.</span> The skin of the animal of

-that name, which makes a splendid leather,

-of firm texture. It is quite expensive,

-hence substitutes are on the market under

-the same name.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Kid.</span> A term applied to the shoe leather

-made from the skins of mature goats.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Kip.</span> A term applied to leather made

-from hides weighing between fifteen and

-twenty-five pounds.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Lace Stay.</span> A strip of leather reënforcing

-the eyelet holes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Lace Hook.</span> An eyelet extended into

-a recurved hook, around which the lace is

-looped. It is most commonly used in

-men’s and boys’ shoes, although recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>

-some have been invented for use in women’s

-shoes with curved ends, to avoid catching

-the dress.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Lacing.</span> The operation of putting laces

-in shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Last.</span> A wooden form over which the

-shoe is constructed, giving the shoe its

-distinctive shape.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Lasting.</span> The process of making the

-uppers conform to the last in all respects.

-The operations of assembling and pulling

-over are parts of lasting.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Laying Channel.</span> Turning down the lip

-or flap to cover the stitching.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Leveling.</span> Shaping the sole to the

-bottom of the last.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Lift.</span> The name given to one thickness

-of sole leather used in the heel. Top lift

-is the bottom lift, when the shoe is right

-side up, and is the last piece put on in

-manufacture.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Lining.</span> The inside part of shoe, generally

-of cloth (dull) or sheepskin.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Lining Cutting.</span> The operation of cutting

-the cloth linings.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Lining-in.</span> The operation of putting

-lining inside of the shoe to cover insole

-or part of insole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Loading Leather.</span> Filling the pores of

-the leather with glucose to increase its

-weight.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Making Linings.</span> Consists of closing

-up heel of lining; putting on top and side

-or eyelet stay.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Match Marking.</span> An operation performed

-on colored uppers, except black,

-to get different parts of the upper the

-same shade and color, and both shoes in

-the pair alike.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Mat.</span> A term applied to a dull finish

-kid as distinguished from glazed.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">McKay Sewed or McKay.</span> A shoe in

-which the outsole is attached to the insole

-and upper by a method named for the

-inventor.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">McKay Sewing.</span> Sewing through and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>

-through so that thread is seen inside of

-shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Middle Sole.</span> Any sole between outsole

-and insole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Mock Welt.</span> McKay-sewed shoe with

-a double sole and having a leather sock

-lining. It is fair stitched to imitate a welt.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Monkey Skin.</span> A peculiar grained skin,

-and is considered in the trade as a fancy

-leather. It is often imitated.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Morocco.</span> A name applied to leather

-originally made in Morocco. It is a sumac-tanned

-goatskin, red in color, and is used

-in book binding. The name is also applied

-to a leather made in imitation of this, and

-to heavy, plump goatskins used for shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Molding.</span> Shaping the sole to fit the

-bottom of last.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Mules.</span> The name applied to slippers

-with no counters or quarters.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Nap.</span> The woolly side of hide, cloth, or

-felt.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Naumkeaging.</span> Smoothing up the bottom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>

-with fine sandpaper. Sometimes the buffing

-grain.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Nullifier.</span> A shoe with high vamp

-and quarter, dropping low at the sides,

-made with a short rubber goring for summer

-or house wear.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Oak Tanned.</span> A process of tanning by

-means of a substance obtained from oak bark.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Oil Leather.</span> Leather prepared by

-currying hides in oil. The hides are moist,

-that the oily matter may be gradually

-and thoroughly absorbed.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Ooze.</span> A chrome tan calfskin treated on

-the flesh side in such a manner that the

-long fibers are loosened and form a nap

-surface; made in many colors.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Outside Cutting.</span> Cutting the leather

-parts of the shoe, as vamp, tip, top, etc.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Outside Tap.</span> The tap used outside of

-men’s or boys’ heavy shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Outsole.</span> The sole next the ground,

-on which all wear comes.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus30" style="width: 330px;">

-<img src="images/illus30.jpg" width="330" height="420" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe.</p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus31" style="width: 370px;">

-<img src="images/illus31.jpg" width="370" height="420" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Oxford.</span> A low-cut shoe no higher than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>

-the instep lace, button, or goring, made in

-men’s, women’s, and children’s sizes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Packer Hides.</span> Hides taken off in the

-large slaughterhouses. They are rated

-slightly higher in price, because great care

-and skill are used in taking them off.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Packing.</span> Placing a pair of shoes in a

-carton.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pacs.</span> Coverings for the feet made of

-good quality calfskin, similar in form and

-appearance to the Indian moccasin. They

-do not have sole leather bottoms. If

-properly made, they are waterproof.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pancake.</span> A term applied to one of the

-many artificial leathers formed from leather

-scraps, shaved thin, and cemented together

-under heavy pressure.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pasted Counter.</span> One that is cut from

-two pieces of sole leather pasted together.

-It is sometimes called a two-piece counter.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Patent Leather.</span> Varnished leather.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pattern.</span> The model by which the

-pieces comprising the upper of a shoe are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>

-cut, applied collectively to upper as modified

-by the differing shape of these pieces.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pebble.</span> A term used in the process

-to bring out the grain of leather and give

-it a roughened or rubbed appearance.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pegging.</span> Lasting out soles with pegs.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Perforating.</span> Making very small holes

-around parts of upper. It is performed

-mostly for decoration.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Polish.</span> The name of ladies’ or misses’

-front-lace shoe of higher cut than “bal,”

-and named from Poland, where it originated.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pressing.</span> Consists of a flat-press pressure

-for heels and soles, to prevent cracking

-of edges and to make parts adhere.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Porpoise.</span> This skin is sometimes used

-for leather and boot laces, but porpoise

-hides are ordinarily obtained from the

-white whale.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pulling Lasts.</span> Removing the lasts from

-shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pulling Over.</span> Pulling upper on the

-last and tacking it in position.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pump.</span> A low-cut shoe originally having

-no fastenings, such as laces or buttons. A

-pump is cut lower than the instep.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Pump Sole.</span> An extra-light single sole,

-running clear through to the back of the

-heel. A pump sole in former years was

-distinguished by its flexibility and was

-hand turned.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Putting on Tap.</span> Sticking half sole to

-the outsole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Quarter.</span> The rear part of upper when

-a full vamp is not used. Term is used

-mostly in women’s, and Oxfords or low shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Rand.</span> Made of sole leather about as

-wide as a welt, but thin at one edge. It is

-tacked to the heel so as to balance the heel

-evenly on the sole and fill any open space

-around the edge between sole and heel.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Rapid Stitching.</span> Sewing the sole to

-welt.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Relasting.</span> Consists in putting lasts

-in shoes from which the original lasts have

-been removed.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Repairing.</span> A term applied to filling

-slight cracks in patent tips or patent leather.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Roan.</span> Sheepskin tanned with sumac.

-The process is similar in its details to that

-employed for morocco leather, but lacks

-the graining given to the morocco by the

-grooved rollers in the finishing. It imitates

-ungrained morocco.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Rolling.</span> The process of passing leather

-between rolls to make it firm and hard.

-Rolling consists in polishing the bottom on

-roll and brush.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Rough Rounding.</span> Rounding outsole

-to the shape of last, and cutting channel

-in the welt-channeled shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Royalties.</span> Sums paid for the use of

-machines to machine companies.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Russet Calf.</span> Russet-colored calf is

-made from calfskins.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Russet Grain.</span> Russet-colored grain is

-made from a split cowhide.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Sabot.</span> The name of a one-piece wooden

-shoe, carved from a block of basswood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>

-A novelty to Americans, but worn by people

-in the rural and manufacturing sections of

-Holland, Germany, and France.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Sack Lining.</span> The lining inside the shoe

-and insole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Sandal.</span> The name of a woman’s strap

-slipper, or a sole worn by children. Originally

-fastened on the foot by straps.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Satin Calf.</span> A grain split, stuffed with

-oil, and smooth finished.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Scouring Breast.</span> Sandpapering the

-front part of the heel.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Screw-fastened.</span> A shoe having the

-sole attached with screws, as in cheap or

-working shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Seal Grain.</span> Usually a flesh split, with

-an artificial grain which is stamped or

-printed on the finished leather.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Second Lasting.</span> The same as relasting.

-Term used most in turn work.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Shank.</span> The middle position of the bottom

-of the foot. Shank supports are placed

-in shoes to stiffen that part of the bottom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>

-They are of steel, of wood, or of a combination

-of leather board and steel, and can be

-placed in the shoe any time before the outsole

-is laid.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Shank Burnishing.</span> Polishing a black

-shank with hot iron.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Shank Finishing.</span> Finishing the shank

-with blacking or in colors. The top lift

-is generally finished at the same time.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Shanking Out.</span> Means making the edge

-of the shank thinner than the other part

-of the sole, and making it smooth.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Sheepskins.</span> Used largely for linings

-and for cheap shoes for women and children.

-It is too soft and weak in texture

-for heavy wear, and liable to split and

-tear.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Short Vamp.</span> A foreshortened vamp.

-The distance between the extreme tip and

-the throat of the vamp shortened for

-appearances.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Sides.</span> Leather made from hides which

-are split into two sides down the back.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Side Lasting.</span> Lasting the side of the

-shoe only.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Size.</span> Shoes are measured by the length

-and width. The length is expressed by

-numbers and the widths by letters.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Skins.</span> A term used to represent the

-skin covering of small animals, such as goats.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Skirting.</span> The outer parts of leather

-(hide), such as shanks, bellies, necks, etc.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Skiving.</span> Making the sole the same

-thickness in all parts. Skiving means cutting

-or shaving down to a thin edge. This

-operation may be done in the cutting department

-or stitching department.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Slip.</span> The name applied to spring heels

-or to soles. Slip is a thin piece of sole

-leather inserted above the outer sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Slugging.</span> Driving slugs in heels, on

-part or all of the heel.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Sock Lining.</span> The lining for insole,

-inside of shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Soft Tip.</span> A term applied to a shoe on

-which no boxing is used under the tip.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Soles and Sole Leather.</span> Name applied

-to pieces of leather of various thickness

-on the bottom of a shoe, usually

-made from heavy hides of leather. There

-are many varieties of soles: a “full-double”

-sole has two thicknesses of leather extending

-clear back to the heel; “half-double”

-sole is a full outer sole, with slip extending

-back to shank; single sole is self-defining;

-“tap” is a half sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Sole Laying.</span> Sole laying is the operation

-of laying the outsole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Sorting.</span> The process of selecting and

-sorting soles, so that they may be put up

-in different qualities.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Spewing.</span> Shoes in stock sometimes become

-coated with a grayish white, powdery

-substance, that looks like mildew. This

-formation on leather that is not fully

-seasoned is called spewing, and the deposit

-is called bloom. It can readily be wiped

-off, and does not indicate any serious

-defect or trouble with the leather. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>

-not a mildew or growth, but apparently

-an exudation of materials used in tanning.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Splits.</span> A name applied to split leather,

-that is, two or more parts of the hide.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Spring Heel.</span> Consists of one or more

-lifts used between the outsole and upper.

-It is seen mostly in children’s shoes and is

-often called wedge heel. It can also be

-put on outside instead of under the outsole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Stamping.</span> The operation of putting size

-and width on the inside of the shoe. Parts

-of the uppers are often stamped or marked

-so that the whole are put together properly

-in the stitching room.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Stay.</span> The name given to any piece of

-leather put in the upper to strengthen it

-or to strengthen a seam.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Bottoms.</span> The operation of

-stamping name on bottom. It is often

-performed in finishing rooms.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Carton.</span> Putting the size,

-width, and other marks on carton.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Sizes.</span> Stamping sizes on heel

-part of the sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Standard-fastened.</span> Nailing bottom on

-standard screw machine.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Staying.</span> Putting on a stay, generally

-heel stay.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Stitch Separating.</span> Marking between

-stitches so as to make them show to good

-advantage.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Stitch Down.</span> A term applied to a flexible

-shoe used in the army, in which the

-top is turned out instead of under and

-stitched through the sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Stitched Aloft.</span> A term used to indicate

-that the sewing stitches show on the

-bottom. No channel is necessary in this

-sole. It may be a slight groove. In stitching,

-the shoe is held bottom up, therefore

-the name “stitched aloft.”</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Straight Last.</span> One that is neither

-right nor left, and a shoe made over such

-a last can be worn on either foot. This

-term is sometimes applied to right and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>

-left shoes that have a barely perceptible

-outside swing.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Stripping.</span> Consists of cutting in strips

-wide enough to cut soles all of equal size

-in length.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Suede.</span> A trade term applied to kid

-skins, finished on the flesh side.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Swing.</span> A term applied to the curve of

-the outer edge of a sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tacking On.</span> Consists in laying the

-outsole on McKay’s lasted shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tack Pulling and Trimming Out.</span>

-Consist of preparing bottom for welting.

-It also makes it better for the operation.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tampico.</span> A variety of goat skins coming

-from the province of Tampico, Central

-America.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tap.</span> Half of a complete sole, often

-called half sole when used under outsole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tan.</span> Tan is a sort of brownish leather.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tanning.</span> Tanning is the process of

-converting hides or skins into leather.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tap Trimming.</span> Shaping the tap to

-conform to the sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tawing.</span> The process of making leather

-by soaking hides in a solution of salt and

-alum, or by packing them down with dry

-salt and powdered alum. Used to prepare

-skin rugs and furs.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tempering.</span> The operation of wetting

-the leather in water to take hardness out

-and make leather “mull,” so that it may

-be worked easier.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tip.</span> The toe piece which is stitched

-to the vamp and outside of it. Stock

-tip is a tip of the same material as the

-vamp. Patent tip is a patent leather tip.

-Diamond tip refers to the shape extending

-back to a point. Imitation tip-stitching

-across the vamp is imitation of

-a tip.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tip Cutting.</span> Cutting the tip which

-goes on the toe of the vamp.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Toe and Heel Lasting.</span> Lasting heel

-and toe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Toe Piece.</span> A piece attached to cut-off

-vamp to lengthen it.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Tongue.</span> A narrow strip of leather necessary

-on all laced shoes.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Top.</span> The part of the upper above the

-vamp; tip of shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Top Cutting.</span> Cutting the top only.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Top Facing.</span> The strip of leather or

-band of cloth around the top of the shoe

-on the inside is called the top facing. It

-adds to the finish of the lining, and is sometimes

-used to advertise the name of manufacturers

-by a design of letters woven or

-sewed on it.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Top Lift.</span> The lift which is next to the

-ground.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Top Lift Scouring.</span> Sandpapering top

-lift of heel to make it smooth.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Top Stitching.</span> Consists of stitching

-across the top and down the side.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Treeing.</span> Shaping the shoe, making it

-smooth. Produces the same effect as ironing,

-although no hot iron is used. It makes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>

-the upper plump and gives it a good finish

-and “feel.”</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Trimming Cutting.</span> Cutting stays, facings,

-and other small parts of the upper.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Trimming Vamp.</span> Cutting off hanging

-or surplus thread.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Turning.</span> To turn shoe right side out.

-Also turning upper right side out.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Turned Shoe.</span> A lady’s fine shoe that

-is made wrong side out, then turned right

-side out, which operation necessitates the

-use of a thin, flexible sole of good quality.

-The sole is fastened to the last, the upper

-is lasted over it wrong side out, then the

-two are sewed together, the thread catching

-through a channel cut in the edge of the

-sole. The seam does not come through to

-the bottom of the sole where it would chafe

-the foot on inside.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Upper.</span> A term applied collectively to

-the upper parts of a shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Ungrained.</span> Smooth surface.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Vamp.</span> The lower or front part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>

-upper of a shoe. It is the most important

-piece of the upper and should be

-cut from the strongest and cleanest

-part of the skin. “Cut-off” vamp is one

-that extends only to the tip, instead of

-being continued to the toe and lasted

-under with the tip. Whole vamp is one

-that extends to the heel without a seam.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Vamping.</span> Stitching the vamp to the top.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Vamp Cutting.</span> Cutting vamp with or

-without the tip.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Velour.</span> A finish for calf leather. It

-is the French name for velvet and is used

-in the shoe trade for a patent chrome-tanned

-calf leather. It is an excellent leather and

-has a smooth and velvety finish.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Vellum.</span> A name for skins that are

-made into a variety of parchment.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Veneering.</span> Consists in making soles,

-whole or part, heavier, by means of leather-board

-or other material fastened to the

-sole by an adhesive.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Vesting.</span> A material originally designed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>

-for making vests. As used in shoes, it is

-made with fancy-figured weave, having a

-backing of stiff buckram or rubber-treated

-tissue to strengthen it.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Viscolizing.</span> A patent method of waterproofing

-sole leather by the use of partly

-emulsified oils with a water-resisting tendency.

-Viscolized soles are used in hunting

-and sporting boots.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Vici.</span> A patent trade name for a brand

-of chrome-tanned kid.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Wash Leather.</span> An inferior quality of

-chamois.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Welt.</span> A narrow strip of leather that

-is sewed to the upper of a shoe with an

-insole leaving the edge of the welt extending

-outward, so that the outsole can be

-attached by sewing through both welt and

-outsole, around the outside of the shoe.

-The attaching of the sole and upper thus

-involves two sewings, first the insole, welt

-and upper, then the outsole to the welt.

-The name is applied to the shoe itself when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>

-made in this way to distinguish it from a

-turned, or McKay sewed shoe. This is the

-method used by cobblers in the production

-of hand-sewed shoes to fasten the sole and

-upper together. Goodyear welt is a welt

-in which the sewing is done by a machine

-named for the inventor. There are very

-few hand-welted shoes made.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Welt Beating.</span> The flattening out of

-the welt, making it smooth.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Welting.</span> Sewing the welt to shoe.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">White Alum.</span> Bleached leather tawed

-with white alum.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Wooden Case.</span> Large box for twelve or

-more pairs.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_TEN">CHAPTER TEN<br />

-<span class="smaller">LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE</span></h2>

-

-<p>The use of gloves is so old that relics

-of them have been found in the

-habitations of the cave dwellers. The

-Romans used them as decorative articles

-of dress and the Greeks to protect the hands

-when doing heavy work.</p>

-

-<p>The gloves of ladies and gentlemen in the

-days of Queen Elizabeth, and before and

-after, were most beautiful in hand workmanship

-and embellishments, but they

-were usually shapeless things, and in these

-days no one would wear them; they are

-not to be compared with the elegant style

-and artistic finish of the modern product.</p>

-

-<p>When the social world was restricted, so

-to speak, in the numbers of its members who

-could afford some of life’s luxuries, the use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>

-of the glove was confined largely to royalty,

-nobility, and the well-to-do. And the trade

-not being extensive, prices were high&mdash;being

-added to by decorative elaboration

-in needlework in order that the manufacturer

-and his employees might extract as

-much money as possible from the ultimate

-buyer. While glove making is now one of

-the stabilities of modern manufacture, it

-is, nevertheless, constantly changing in

-styles, due to eagerness for novelties and

-new fashions.</p>

-

-<p>Glove making of leather, in a rough,

-crude form, was carried on in this country

-to a very limited extent in New York State

-as early as 1760, by glove makers brought

-from Scotland to settle on the grants of

-Sir William Johnson, in Fulton county.

-But there was no general market for the

-home product until one was found in Albany

-in 1825. These early gloves, crude and

-clumsy, were cut with shears from leather

-by means of pasteboard patterns, and men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>

-did the cutting and women the sewing.

-Dies were later introduced, and this led to

-a great improvement in the character of

-the output.</p>

-

-<p>But a still greater step forward was taken

-when the sewing machine was introduced

-in 1852. This abolished handwork entirely,

-but still the industry remained largely of

-a domestic nature, since it could be carried

-on at home with a machine as well as in a

-factory. Later steam power was installed

-in factories with which to run the machines.

-The cutting of gloves, and the stitching

-on the backs, was done before the gloves

-were sent out to be completed in workers’

-homes.</p>

-

-<p>As in everything wherein power can be

-substituted for hand labor in these days,

-the methods of glove manufacture have

-undergone a great transformation. The

-treating of skins in a great tub, three feet

-deep, whole dyeing and scouring, in rooms

-of high temperature, has been displaced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>

-by putting skins and colors into a cube-shaped

-box, which, revolving with an irregular

-motion, produces the same results more

-quickly than by the primitive way. But

-when color is to be applied to but one side

-the process is the same as of old,&mdash;hand

-use of a brush while the skin is stretched

-out on a slab.</p>

-

-<p>When taken from the stock on hand to

-be made into gloves, the first thing done

-to skins by some glove makers is to “feed”

-them with eggs&mdash;not eggs of suspicious

-merits, but good enough for table use. And

-of these nothing is used but the yolk. One

-glove maker imports from China large

-quantities of the yolks of duck eggs for his

-work, and his yearly consumption of yolks

-amounts to seventeen thousand.</p>

-

-<p>When the skins leave the dyehouse,

-they are rapidly dried in steam-heated

-lofts; and while stiff and rough they are, or

-were, worked into softness and smoothness

-over a wooden upright standard, called a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>

-stake, at the top of which is fitted a blunt

-semicircular knife. Over this the skin is

-drawn by hand, back and forth, until it

-becomes as pliable and delicate as silk.

-When this work was done manually it was

-most laborious. But now it has been

-mostly taken over by very ingenious machinery,

-which looks, in operation, as if it would

-tear a skin into fragments by the way it

-snaps and pulls at it, but which is adjustable

-to such nicety of action and power that the

-work is done exactly as it is wanted.</p>

-

-<p>The next operation is to pare the skins

-to uniformity of thickness. This also was

-handwork for a long time, done with a

-peculiarly shaped knife, but now emery-coated

-wheels, with rounded edges, are

-used by the workers, who, with their aid,

-do just as good and much faster work in

-drawing and thinning the skins with absolute

-precision. This completes the treatment

-of the skin.</p>

-

-<p>Now the function of the cutter begins,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>

-and he must be a workman of experience

-and good judgment, in that he must contend

-with the inconstant inelasticity of the skin,

-reducing it to uniform resistance. He must

-get so many pieces of glove size from each

-skin, and suit the pieces to particular features

-of the skin. When done with a skin

-he must have left, as useless, only trifling

-strips and shreds. The shapeliness of the

-glove which a woman draws over her hand,

-depends altogether upon the intelligence

-and skill of the cutter. In American factories

-the cutter is usually from some

-glove-making center in Europe and from

-a family whose occupation has been glove

-making for centuries.</p>

-

-<p>A punch next cuts these glove pieces

-into shape, forming and dividing the fingers,

-slitting the buttonholes, providing side

-pieces for fingers and thumbs, and also

-the fragments used for strengthening the

-buttonholes. The sewing, formerly the

-handiwork of women, is now done on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>

-machines of capacity for exceptionally fine

-quality of intricate stitching. The number

-of glove sizes made is sufficient to meet

-every likely demand. When sewn, and the

-buttons or fastenings put on, they pass

-beneath the critical eye of an inspector for

-scrutiny as to faults. Then they are finally

-shaped on a hot metal hand, smoothed,

-banded, boxed, and sent to the salesroom

-for shipment.</p>

-

-<p>The first and fourth fingers of a glove are

-completed by gussets, or strips, sewed only

-on the inner side; but the second and third

-fingers require gussets on both sides to

-complete the fingers. In addition to these,

-small, diamond-shaped pieces are sewed in

-at the roots of the fingers. Special care is

-necessary in sewing in the thumb pieces,

-as poorly made gloves usually give way at

-this point.</p>

-

-<p>Natural lined gloves are now common

-enough, although it is not many years

-since they were regarded as impracticable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>

-These are made from pelts of various

-animals with the hair left on the skin to

-form the lining.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Automobile and Furniture Leather</span></h3>

-

-<p>For automobile and furniture leather

-only choice hides should be used. The

-kind of hides generally employed for this

-class of leather are French and Swiss, as

-these run full and plump on the bellies, are

-free from cuts on the flesh and are of clear

-grain. The hides are trimmed before placing

-them in the soaking pits, all useless

-parts, such as nose, shanks, etc., being cut

-away.</p>

-

-<p>After remaining in soak for a day or two,

-the hides are hauled out, fleshed, and

-returned to the soaks for thorough softening.

-When thoroughly soaked, they are toggled

-and reeled into the first lime. The first

-lime must be a weak, mellow lime, or a

-harsh grain will show after the leather is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>

-tanned. The hides are reeled over into

-stronger limes every day for seven days,

-when they are ready for unhairing. After

-coming from the limes, the hides should

-go into a pit of soft water heated to about

-ninety degrees Fahrenheit and left over

-night before starting in to unhair. After

-unhairing, they are thrown into a vat

-of clean water and thoroughly worked out

-on the grain to remove short hairs and scud

-and are then ready for bating. One that

-has a little bacterial action is preferred to

-an acid bate. After bating, the hides are

-given a good scudding on the grain and are

-then ready for the tanning liquors.</p>

-

-<p>The liquors are made of hemlock and oak

-and are used very weak on the start. The

-hides are suspended for a day in a liquor

-not over six degrees specific gravity reading

-in strength, and the following day shifted

-over into a stronger liquor. The stock is

-given stronger liquors every day until

-tanned enough for splitting.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The stock is struck out smoothly and

-brought to the machine for splitting. The

-buffing is first taken away and sold for hat

-bands, pocket-books, etc. The grains are

-finished and the splits are returned to the

-tanning liquors to be thoroughly tanned.

-As soon as the splits are tanned, they are

-washed up, drained, and then drummed

-in the drum in a sumac liquor. They are

-now scoured, and, after being well set out,

-are given a good oiling with cod oil.</p>

-

-<p>They are now tacked out on the frames

-and dried out. They are next taken from

-the frames and boarded by hand over the

-table. The splits are taken to the japan

-shop and are tacked out again and are

-ready for the first coat of daub. Two coats

-are applied. After each coat, the splits

-are well rubbed down, when they receive

-the slicker coat. The color coats are now

-applied, and after drying out, the leather

-is grained up and finished.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_ELEVEN">CHAPTER ELEVEN<br />

-<span class="smaller">RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE</span></h2>

-

-<p>Examine the rubbers we wear during

-the winter and stormy weather.</p>

-

-<p>Rubber shoe coverings are made to protect

-the shoe from water and snow and

-may be in the form of either slippers or

-arctics. The covering is rendered waterproof

-by means of a compound rubber.</p>

-

-<p>Rubber is the name given to a coagulated

-milky juice obtained from many different

-trees, vines, and shrubs that grow on that

-part of the earth’s surface which forms a

-band some three or four hundred miles on

-either side of the equator.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus32" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus32.jpg" width="650" height="530" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Crude Rubber.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>Rubber is graded commercially, according

-to the district where it is found. In the

-order of importance it may be divided into

-three general sorts, viz., American, African,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>

-and Asiatic. The best and largest quantities

-of rubber come from Brazil, along the

-banks of the Amazon River. The countries

-in the northern and western part of South

-America, and the Central American States

-and Mexico furnish considerable rubber.

-Eastern and western Africa also produce

-many kinds of rubber in large quantities,

-though somewhat inferior to the Brazilian

-product. The Asiatic rubbers are unimportant

-in quantity, and, excepting the

-rubber obtained from cultivated trees in

-Ceylon, are decidedly inferior in quality.</p>

-

-<p>The fluid rubber obtained from Brazil

-is called Para and is used principally in

-the manufacture of rubber footwear. The

-method of gathering and coagulating the

-rubber juice (called latex) varies in the

-different countries. The native first clears

-a space under a number of trees and proceeds

-to tap the trees with a short-handled

-ax, having a small blade, by cutting gashes

-in the bark. A cup is fixed under each cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>

-to catch the fluid as it flows out. As fast

-as the cups are filled, they are emptied

-into a large vessel and carried to the camp

-to be coagulated. A fire is started in a

-shallow hole in the ground, and palm nuts,

-which make a dense smoke, are thrown on.

-An earthen cover which has a small opening

-on top is placed over the fire, allowing the

-smoke to escape through the opening. A

-wooden paddle is first dipped in clay water

-and then into the latex and then held over

-the smoke. The heat coagulates a thin

-layer of rubber on the paddle. It is dipped

-again and again in the latex and smoked

-each time. After being dipped many times,

-a lump (called biscuit) of rubber is formed.

-A cut is made in the biscuit and the paddle

-removed. Then the rubber is ready for

-market. The world’s crop of rubber in

-1911 was about ninety thousand tons.</p>

-

-<p>Few people realize the number of operations

-necessary to produce from the crude

-biscuit of India rubber the highly finished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>

-rubber shoe of to-day. Briefly stated, the

-various steps are washing, drying, compounding,

-calendering, cutting the various

-parts, making or putting these parts together,

-varnishing, vulcanizing, and packing.

-Each of these processes requires a distinct

-and separate department, and many of these

-processes are subdivided into minor operations.</p>

-

-<p>The huge stock of Para rubber, that is

-rubber obtained from the Amazon section,

-to be found in any of the leading rubber

-factories counts well up into the thousands

-of dollars. With rubber at or near $1.50

-per pound, a stock of ten to fifty tons runs

-up into the five or six figures.</p>

-

-<p>This crude rubber, as it comes from the

-Amazon, contains more or less dirt, pebbles,

-and other foreign substances, which must

-be removed.</p>

-

-<p>The large cakes of crude rubber are first

-broken up by a cracker machine, consisting

-of two large, revolving steel cylinders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>

-from which the product falls into pans or

-trays. It goes then to a machine known as

-a “washer” or “sheeter,” where it is run

-between revolving cylinders, upon which a

-continuous spray of clean water is maintained.

-After being rolled into rough sheets,

-it is put into a tank, from which it is taken

-to the “beater” machine, in which water

-runs continuously, and then it is washed

-again and “sheeted out.” It is then dried

-in one of two ways.</p>

-

-<p>(1) The older way. The sheets are

-hung over rods in a large room, and allowed

-to dry in the air. To facilitate the same,

-a fan or blower is often used to cause a

-circulation and removal of the moisture-laden

-air. This requires a period of from

-one to two or three months.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus33" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus33.jpg" width="650" height="530" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Washing and Drying.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>(2) The second method is called vacuum

-drying. This process is gradually being

-introduced, so that now probably more

-rubber is dried in vacuum than by air.

-The vacuum drier consists of a large iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>

-cylinder filled with plates, through which

-steam is allowed to circulate. The rubber

-is placed on the plates and the air is exhausted

-from the cylinder by means of an

-air pump until very nearly twenty-six

-degrees of vacuum are obtained. By this

-process only from two to three hours are

-required to produce perfectly dry rubber.</p>

-

-<p>The making of a rubber shoe is not the

-simple matter which might at first be

-supposed. An ordinary rubber shoe consists

-of at least seven or eight different

-parts, sometimes twenty-one parts to a pair,

-while a high-button gaiter has seventeen

-distinct parts, and a rubber boot has twenty-three

-different pieces. There are insoles,

-outsoles, stays, piping, foxing, and a dozen

-other different pieces, each one of which is

-necessary to the proper construction of a

-rubber shoe or boot. The thinner sheets

-for the uppers are cut by hand, the deft

-work of the cutters in following the patterns

-outlined on the sheets being the result of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>

-years of practice. The sheets of rubber

-from which the uppers and soles are cut

-are at this stage of the work plastic and

-very sticky. It is necessary on this account

-to cut the various pieces one by one, and

-keep them separate. The soles and some

-of the heavier pieces are dried out by the

-machine, and the heels are made by a special

-machine, but by far the greater part is done

-by wonderfully skilled hands. All of these

-parts which go to make a shoe, or the

-twenty-three parts which go into a boot,

-are collected and sent to the making department,

-which, in most factories, is a large

-room containing several hundred operatives,

-each working by herself, and bringing the

-many separate parts into the fully finished

-footwear.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus34" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus34.jpg" width="650" height="490" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Calender Room.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>The sheets of rubber, after being dried,

-are taken to the “compound” room, where

-they are sprinkled with whiting, to prevent

-sticking, and weighed. Next they are taken

-into the calender room to a “mixer,” by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>

-means of which the rubber is combined

-with other substances, which include sulphur,

-litharge, whiting, lampblack, tar,

-resin, lime, palm oil, and linseed oil.</p>

-

-<p>There are different calendering machines.

-The ones called the upper calenders form

-sheets of rubber stock for the upper part of

-the shoe. The soling calenders form the

-stock for the sole or bottom part of the

-shoe; other calender machines are used to

-coat a layer of gum on one side of the

-fabrics used for lining and various strips,

-fillers, toe, and heel pieces. The gum

-sheets are sent to the cutting room.</p>

-

-<p>Generally, linings for nine pairs of shoes

-are cut at once. The linings are cut both

-by hand and by machine. Men who cut

-with dies, by hand, stand at the bench and

-use iron mallets, like those used in cutting

-heels. Inner soles, heel pieces, and linings

-are all cut by means of dies in the same

-manner.</p>

-

-<p>The edges of the several parts are spread<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>

-with cement, and then the parts are taken

-to the making room and distributed. In

-the making department the boots and shoes

-are put together. Women make the light

-overshoes; men make the heavy ones.

-Rubbers are made by women, but men put

-on the outer soles.</p>

-

-<p>Linings are first applied smoothly to a

-wooden last and cemented together, the

-cement side out. The rubber parts are

-then stuck on and rolled firmly with a

-small hand roller. Young women become

-very skilled in this work, taking up the

-several parts in rapid succession, placing

-them accurately upon the last, and rolling

-and pounding them firmly together.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus35" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus35.jpg" width="650" height="500" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Cutting Room.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>Perhaps the most interesting single process

-is that of putting the rubber boot

-together. This work is done by men, and

-requires, in addition to accurate eyesight,

-rapid and very deft movements of the hand

-and considerable strength. No nails, tacks,

-or stitching are required. The natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>

-adhesiveness of the rubber, assisted by the

-use of rubber cement, holds the parts

-solidly together.</p>

-

-<p>In the making of the shoe the last is

-covered with the various pieces which are

-so made as to adhere where they are placed.

-It is exact and nice work fitting all these

-pieces perfectly, each edge overlapping just

-so far and no farther. The lighter shoes

-are made by women, but the heavy lumbermen’s

-shoes, arctics, and especially the

-boots, are made by men, for this work needs

-strength as well as dexterity.</p>

-

-<p>The goods which require varnishing are

-put on racks and treated with a mixture of

-boiled linseed oil, naphtha, and other

-materials, which are applied with brushes,

-and impart a gloss to the surface.</p>

-

-<p>On vulcanizing boots and shoes, the

-shoes are placed on racks supported by

-iron cars, which are run over tracks into

-the vulcanizing chamber. This consists

-principally of a large room provided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>

-with a steam coil on the floor. The temperature

-rarely exceeds two hundred

-and sixty degrees Fahrenheit. In vulcanizing

-shoes, the heat is increased gradually

-from the beginning, about one hundred and

-eighty degrees Fahrenheit, otherwise the

-goods would be blistered, due to the rapid

-evaporation of moisture and other volatile

-constituents. They are kept in these

-heaters from six to seven hours. This

-causes a union of sulphur and rubber, which

-is not affected by heat or cold.</p>

-

-<p>They are wheeled on another truck to the

-packing room, where they are inspected,

-taken from the lasts, tied together in

-pairs, or placed in cartons, as the case may

-be. They are then sent to the shipping

-room to be packed in cases ready to be

-delivered to the cars waiting at a side track

-of the railroad, or sent to the storehouse

-until they shall be called for by the jobbers

-or retail dealers.</p>

-

-<p>An important branch of the rubber business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>

-is the manufacture of tennis shoes.

-This is a generic term, which is applied to

-all kinds of footwear having cloth tops and

-rubber soles. As the name indicates, they

-were first used in playing the game of

-tennis, but they have come into very general

-use as warm weather and vacation shoes,

-and every year shows an increased popularity.

-These shoes are made in a similar

-manner to the rubber shoes, the rubber

-soles being cemented to the cloth uppers and

-vulcanized the same as the rubber overshoes.

-Many different styles are made,

-and each year shows some improvements in

-the shapes, in the textiles which are used,

-in the colors and combinations of soles and

-uppers.</p>

-

-<p>Rubber shoes should not be expected to

-give satisfactory service unless properly

-fitted. If too short, too narrow, or if worn

-over leathers with extra heavy taps, or

-unusually thick, wide soles, strains will be

-brought upon parts not designed to stand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>

-them and the rubber will give way. Rubber

-goods, particularly boots, if too large will

-wrinkle and a continued wrinkling and

-bending is liable to cause cracking.</p>

-

-<p>Extreme heat or cold should be avoided.

-Rubber boots or shoes should never be

-dried by placing them near a heater of any

-kind. If left near a stove, register, or

-radiator, the rubber is liable to dry and

-crack. If left out of doors in winter,

-or in an extremely cold place, they will

-freeze. Then when the warm foot is put

-into them and the rubbers are worn, the

-rubber will crack.</p>

-

-<p>Oil, grease, milk, or blood will cause

-rubber to decay in a very short time. If

-spattered with any of these, the rubber

-should be promptly and thoroughly cleaned

-with warm water and soap.</p>

-

-<p>The oil in leather tops will rot rubber,

-so that care should be taken in storing and

-packing to prevent the leather and rubber

-from coming in contact.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus36" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus36.jpg" width="650" height="475" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>Various heavy goods are advertised as

-proof against snagging. It should be remembered,

-however, that no rubber can be

-made strong enough to be absolutely proof

-against tearing or puncturing by extremely

-sharp edges, such as stiff stubble, sharp-edged

-rocks, broken glass, etc.</p>

-

-<p>Mud, barnyard dirt, or filth of any kind

-should never be allowed to dry on rubbers.

-They should be cleaned as carefully as

-leather boots or shoes.</p>

-

-<p>Exposure to strong sunlight for any

-length of time produces an effect on rubbers

-similar to that of putting them near a stove

-or radiator. Rubbers should not be left

-in the sun to dry. When not in use they

-should be kept in a cool, dark place.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Rubber Heels</span></h3>

-

-<p>Rubber heels are generally made for

-boots and shoes as follows. The compounded

-rubber is sheeted on a calender<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>

-roll, on a drum, until several layers are

-obtained, thus making a sheet of about one

-inch in thickness. The heel is cut out from

-this sheet by means of a die and placed in a

-mold. It is there subjected to an extremely

-high pressure, generally obtained by hydraulic

-power. The plates of the press

-are heated with live steam. The heels are

-removed at the end of nine or ten minutes

-and the sheet which was formerly nearly an

-inch in thickness is now only about half

-an inch and has by pressure been molded

-into the shape of the heel desired, is semi or

-partially vulcanized, and also is imprinted

-upon the bottom with the name or other

-brand of the company.</p>

-

-<p>The cup-shaped portion of the heel is now

-coated with a layer of rubber cement, and

-firmly placed on the boot ready to go to

-the vulcanizer, where vulcanizing of the

-heel is then completed.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus37" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus37.jpg" width="650" height="500" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Heel-making Department.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>Many articles of rubber are vulcanized by

-the use of chloride of sulphur, which process<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>

-is sometimes known as “cold cure.” The

-action of sulphur chloride itself is so violent

-that it must be diluted, and for this purpose

-carbon bisulfide is often used. In some

-cases, as, for example, the manufacture of

-tobacco pouches, the articles are submerged

-for from one to two minutes in the liquid,

-then removed and washed thoroughly. In

-another case, as in the manufacture of some

-kinds of rubber cloth, such as hospital

-sheeting, the coated cloth is suspended in

-a suitable room and the chloride of sulphur

-and carbon bisulfide mixed and evaporated

-by action of heat so that the cloth is subjected

-to the action of vapor alone. Only

-articles with comparatively thin walls can

-be successfully vulcanized by the cold cure,

-as at best the vulcanizing action of the

-chloride is only superficial.</p>

-

-<p>No account of vulcanization processes as

-employed in the manufacture of rubber

-goods is complete without the mention of

-“steam cure.” A great variety of rubber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>

-goods under the general term of mechanical

-sundries are cured by this method. This

-includes rubber matting, door mats, water

-bottles, druggists’ sundries, etc. This process

-consists in brief of submitting the

-articles to be vulcanized to the action of

-live steam for from half an hour to an hour,

-or until the goods are thoroughly vulcanized.

-The temperature and duration of time required

-depend to a considerable extent

-upon the thickness of the walls of the

-article. In order to prevent the goods

-from being pitted and damaged by the

-action of steam, they are wrapped with

-cloth or imbedded in pans of soapstone.

-A great variety of rubber tubing is cured

-by this method.</p>

-

-<p>In rubber cloth making, the crude rubber

-is put through the washing process, dried

-and mixed with sulphur, litharge, coloring

-matter, etc., and then is taken to the cement

-room, where it is “cut” with naphtha,

-forming a thick paste or dough. This is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>

-taken to the spreading room in large tubs

-and fed into the roller machine, which is

-like a long table made of steam pipes

-placed horizontally in a single layer. Below

-one end is a roll of cloth, which is passed

-between two iron rollers on the end. The

-dough is fed in between these rollers and

-is spread smoothly over the cloth, which is

-rolled up and removed to a heating room,

-where it is unrolled and hung on racks, and

-then subjected to sufficient heat to cause

-the combination of the sulphur and rubber.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Chemistry in the Manufacture of

-Rubber Goods</span></h3>

-

-<p>Too much stress cannot be laid upon the

-importance in all rubber factories of the

-chemical department. During the last two

-or three years there has been an unusual

-development along these lines, and to-day

-no factory for the manufacture of rubber

-goods is complete that does not possess a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>

-well-equipped laboratory. Not only does

-this department enable the manufacturer

-to control the purity and uniformity of

-his compounding ingredients and the innumerable

-grades of crude rubber, but, what

-is of even greater importance, it enables

-him to inaugurate research work as applied

-to his particular line of manufacture. This

-part of laboratory work is already producing

-results not only of scientific interest, but

-of very great practical and economic value.

-Still another rôle of the modern chemical

-laboratory is to exercise a control over the

-finished material, so that the manager of

-the works may be in possession daily of

-reasons for any variation detrimental to

-the standard of his products.</p>

-

-<h3><span class="smcap">Rubber Terms</span></h3>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Ankle Piece.</span> A large piece of light

-sheeted gum, which goes around the ankle

-and extends about halfway up the leg.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Back Stay.</span> A piece of frictioned sheeting

-similar to the side stay in shape and

-placed at the back of the heel and ankle.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Gum Counter.</span> A piece cut out of

-sheeted gum, on the under side of which is

-placed a counter form or a piece of frictioned

-sheeting.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Outer Filler.</span> A filling sole cut from

-rag-coated or frictioned sheeting, and designed

-to fill up the hollow on the bottom

-caused by bringing the edges of the gum

-vamp and counter underneath.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Inner Sole.</span> Usually made of felt or

-sheeting coated on one side with rag stock.

-In lasting up, the bottom edges of the lining

-(which have previously been cemented)

-are pulled under and adhere to the inner

-sole.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Leg Cover.</span> A piece of sheeted gum

-rolled upon a piece of frictioned sheeting

-called the leg form.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Leg Lining.</span> The lining, usually of felt

-or wool netting, for the leg.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Para.</span> A name given to rubber from

-Brazil.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Piping.</span> Strips of frictioned sheeting used

-to join the lining together over the instep

-and up the back, and also to hold the

-lining up on the tree by passing a strip over

-the top.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Rag Counter.</span> Quarter stiff is a counter

-piece cut out of rag-coated or frictioned

-sheeting, which gives stiffness to the

-counter.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Side Stay.</span> A spike-shaped piece of

-frictioned sheeting, placed on each side of

-the ankle.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Rag Sole.</span> A sole stiffening cut out of

-a sheet of rag stock, which covers the whole

-bottom. The edges are skived to make a

-perfect edge.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Toe Filler.</span> A rag-stock filling sole

-to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused

-by attaching the lining to the inner sole.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus38" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus38.jpg" width="420" height="500" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Parts of a Rubber Boot.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Toe Lining.</span> The lining for the vamp,

-of the same material as the leg lining.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Vamp.</span> A piece cut out of sheeted gum.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Vamp Form.</span> A piece of frictioned sheeting

-cut to the shape of the vamp, and put

-on over the toe lining.</p>

-

-<p><span class="smcap">Web Straps.</span> Straps put on with the

-joined ends between the leg lining and the

-leg cover, and forming a loop on the inside

-of the boot to pull it on with.</p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="CHAPTER_TWELVE">CHAPTER TWELVE<br />

-<span class="smaller">HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR</span></h2>

-

-<p>We find that primitive footwear, in

-common with all other beginnings,

-was of the crudest nature and took the

-form of the simple sandal. It is probable

-that man first protected his foot from

-the rough way by simple pieces of hide,

-which were bound to the bottom of the

-foot. The sandal, among the most primitive,

-is the type of footwear worn to-day.

-The sandal was simply bound to the foot

-by thongs of hides, which were brought

-between the toes and tied around the ankle.</p>

-

-<p>At about the Elizabethan period, shoemaking

-had really become a very fine art.

-Some foot creations were made by the

-Court shoemakers that reflected the individual

-taste of the monarch, and so great

-was the competition to produce something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>

-novel that very often the styles assumed a

-grotesque aspect. The toes were elongated

-so that sometimes they were carried up and

-fastened by cords and tassels to the tops

-of the shoes, and it finally became necessary

-to enact a law to prevent such outrageous

-types of footwear. The slippers of this

-period were of the extremely high-heeled

-variety, and small fortunes were often

-spent on their ornamentation. They were

-mostly of the turn-shoe type, and samples

-which are preserved show the excellent

-workmanship that was in vogue at that

-time.</p>

-

-<p>We now come to the first shoemaker in

-America. When the <i>Mayflower</i> made the

-second trip to America, she carried among

-others a shoemaker named Thomas Beard,

-who brought with him a supply of hides.

-Seven years afterwards there arrived one

-Phillip Kertland, a native of Buckinghamshire,

-who settled in Lynn in 1636.</p>

-

-<p>Kertland was the pioneer shoemaker of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>

-Lynn and for years he successfully worked

-at his craft, teaching others his methods

-and ways, so that fifteen years after his

-arrival, Lynn was not only supplying the

-requirements of its inhabitants, but was

-also sending a part of its products to the

-port of Boston. As early as 1648 we find

-tanning and shoemaking mentioned as an

-industry of the colony of Virginia, special

-mention being made of the fact that a

-planter named Matthews employed eight

-shoemakers on his premises. Legal restraint

-was placed on the cordwainer in

-Connecticut in 1656, and in Rhode Island

-in 1706, while in New York the business of

-tanning and shoemaking is known to have

-been firmly established previous to the

-capitulation of the Province to England in

-1664. In 1698 the industry was carried

-on profitably in Philadelphia, and in 1721

-the Colonial Legislature of Pennsylvania

-passed an act regulating the material and

-the prices of the boot and shoe industry.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>Prior to 1815 most of the shoes were

-hand sewed, a few having been copper

-nailed. The heavier shoes were welted and

-the lighter ones turned. This method of

-manufacture was changed, about the year

-1815, by the adoption of the wooden shoe

-peg, which was invented in 1811 and soon

-came into general use. Up to this time

-little or no progress had been made in the

-methods of manufacture. The shoemaker

-sat on his bench, and with scarcely any

-other instrument than a hammer, knife,

-and wooden shoulder stick, cut, stitched,

-hammered, and sewed until the shoe was

-completed. Previous to the year 1845,

-which marked the first successful application

-of machinery to American shoemaking,

-this industry was in the strictest sense a

-hand process, and the young man who

-chose it for his vocation was apprenticed for

-seven years, during which time he was

-taught every detail of the art. He was

-instructed in the preparation of the insole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>

-and outsole, depending almost entirely

-upon his eye for the proper proportions;

-taught to prepare pegs and drive them,

-for the pegged shoe was the common type

-of footwear in the first half of the last

-century; and familiarized himself with the

-making of turned and welt shoes, which

-have always been considered the highest

-types of shoemaking, as they require exceptional

-skill of the artisan in channeling the

-insole and outsole by hand, rounding

-the sole, sewing the welt, and stitching

-the outsole. After having served his

-apprenticeship, it was the custom for the

-full-fledged shoemaker to start on what

-was known as “whipping the cat,” which

-meant traveling from town to town, living

-with a family while making a year’s supply

-of shoes for each member, then moving on

-to fill engagements previously made.</p>

-

-<p>The change from which has been evolved

-our present factory system began in the latter

-part of the 18th century, when a system of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>

-sizes had been drafted, and shoemakers more

-enterprising than their fellows gathered

-about them groups of workmen, and took

-upon themselves the dignity of manufacturers.</p>

-

-<p>It was soon found that the master workman

-could largely increase his income by

-employing other men to do the work while

-he directed their efforts, and this gradually

-led to a division of the labor: the shoe

-uppers, which had prior to this time been

-sewed by men using waxed thread with

-bristles, now were done by women, who

-often took the work home.</p>

-

-<p>One workman cut the leather, others

-sewed the uppers, and still others fastened

-uppers to soles, each workman handling

-only one part in the process of manufacture.</p>

-

-<p>We find that in the year 1795 the evolution

-of the factory system had reached a

-stage where in Lynn alone there were two

-hundred master workmen, employing six

-hundred journeymen and turning out three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>

-hundred thousand pairs of shoes per year.

-The entire shoe was then made under one

-roof, and generally from leather that was

-tanned on the premises.</p>

-

-<p>Factory buildings were not at this time

-of a very pretentious nature and did not

-by any means represent the amount of

-work undertaken by the proprietor; for

-the small ten by ten factories, which are

-even to-day in existence in some of the

-backyards of Lynn homes, came into

-existence at this time. Many farmers

-found that shoemaking was a remunerative

-occupation in the winter, and they, and

-perhaps their neighbors, gathered in these

-shops and took from the different factories

-shoes on which to fasten the soles, or

-uppers to bind, which, after completion of

-the work, were returned to the factory,

-where they were finished and sent to market

-packed in wooden boxes. It was in this

-way that the industry prospered and developed

-up to the period of the introduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>

-of machines, which happened but a little

-over half a century ago.</p>

-

-<p>Up to the year 1811 absolutely no

-machinery was used in the making of shoes.

-This year shoe pegs were invented and a

-machine for making them. The pegged

-shoe became very widely worn, but it was

-not until 1835 that any machine for driving

-pegs was made, and even at this time the

-machine was but an indifferent success.

-It was a hand machine and its work was

-by no means of a reliable nature.</p>

-

-<p>The first machine to be widely accepted

-by the trade was the “rolling machine.”

-This was used for rolling the sole leather

-under pressure, and it is said that a man

-could perform in a minute with this machine

-the same office that he would have required

-half an hour to have performed with the

-old-fashioned lapstone and hammer. This

-was followed in 1848 by the most important

-invention, the “sewing machine,” which

-was perfected by Elias Howe, and was soon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>

-followed by a machine which sewed with

-waxed thread and made it possible to sew

-the uppers of shoes in a much more rapid,

-reliable, and satisfactory manner than had

-ever been done by hand. This, too, was

-soon followed by a machine which split the

-sole leather and by another for buffing or

-removing the grain.</p>

-

-<p>In 1855 William F. Trowbridge, who was

-a partner in the firm of F. Brigham &amp;

-Company, of Feltonville, Massachusetts,

-then a part of Marlboro, conceived the idea

-of driving by horse power the machines then

-in use. The introduction of power became

-very general, so that in the year 1860 there

-were scarcely any factories which were not

-driven by either steam or water power.</p>

-

-<p>The year 1858 was marked by the invention

-by Lyman R. Blake of the McKay

-sewing machine, which probably more than

-any other has exerted a revolutionary effect

-on the industry.</p>

-

-<p>The McKay machine did not at this time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>

-sew the toe or heel; the sewing was started

-at the shank and carried forward to a

-point near the toe on one side, and the same

-operation repeated on the other side; but

-it seemed to possess great possibilities and

-created a great deal of interest throughout

-the trade. It was, of course, a very crude

-machine and very different from the McKay

-machine of to-day. It was set on a bench

-and the shoe to be sewed was placed over

-a horn, and the sewing was done from the

-channel in the outsole through the sole

-and insole. Colonel McKay immediately

-started to improve the machine. He employed

-skilled mechanics to work on it

-and attempted to introduce it in different

-factories, but encountered a great deal of

-opposition and criticism in regard to its

-future. It is said that he offered to dispose

-of the machine to the shoemakers of Lynn

-and allow them its exclusive use if they

-would pay him three hundred thousand

-dollars, an offer which was not accepted.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The machine left a loop stitch and a

-ridge of thread on the inside of the shoe,

-but it filled the great demand that existed

-for sewed shoes, and many hundreds of

-millions of pairs have been made by its use.</p>

-

-<p>While Colonel McKay had met rebuff

-and discouragement in attempting to introduce

-his machine, the public necessity was

-such that manufacturers were obliged to

-take it up immediately; but Colonel McKay

-was still embarrassed by lack of capital to

-carry on his rapidly increasing business.

-It was at this time that a system of placing

-machines in factories, which system has

-proven to be the most potent factor in the

-upbuilding of the shoe industry, was started.

-This was a royalty system, whereby the

-machine or machine owner participated in

-the profits accruing from the use of the

-machine.</p>

-

-<p>It hardly seems that there can be any

-question as to the principle of royalty being

-one of the greatest forces in building up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>

-the successful industry which we have

-to-day; it afforded an easy means whereby

-machines could be introduced without entailing

-hardships on the manufacturers, who,

-had they been obliged to pay the actual

-worth of the machines, would have been

-entirely unable to adopt them. Instances

-are known where hundreds of thousands

-of dollars were spent on machines, which

-machines were abandoned without having

-made a single shoe.</p>

-

-<p>At the time of the introduction of the

-McKay machine, inventors were busy in

-other directions, and as a result, came the

-introduction of the “cable nailing machine.”

-This was provided with a cable of nails, the

-head of one being joined to the point of

-another; these the machines cut into

-separate nails and drove automatically.

-At about this time also was introduced the

-“screw machine,” which formed a screw

-from brass wire, forcing it into the leather

-and cutting it off automatically. This was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>

-the prototype of the “rapid standard screw

-machine,” which is a comparatively recent

-invention, and is very widely used at the

-present time as a sole fastener on the

-heavier class of boots and shoes. Very

-soon thereafter the attention of the trade

-was attracted to the invention of a New

-York mechanic for the sewing of soles.

-The device was particularly intended for

-the making of turn shoes and afterwards

-became famous as the “Goodyear turn

-shoe machine.”</p>

-

-<p>Closely following the Goodyear invention

-came the introduction of the first machine

-used in connection with heeling,&mdash;a

-machine which compressed the heel and

-pricked holes for the nails; this was soon

-followed by a machine which automatically

-drove the nails, the heel having previously

-been put in place and held by the guides on

-the machine. Other improvements in heeling

-machines followed with considerable

-rapidity, and a machine came into use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>

-shortly afterwards which not only nailed

-the heel, but which was also provided with

-a hand trimmer, which the operator swung

-round the heel, after nailing. From these

-have been evolved the heeling machines

-in use at the present time.</p>

-

-<p>One of the early uses to which the sewing

-machine was put was the sewing together

-of the pieces of soft and pliable leather which

-make the upper of a shoe&mdash;a simple thing,

-involving only a slight adjustment of the

-original machine. It is a far more complicated

-operation to sew the upper to the

-thick and heavy sole, and years passed by

-before the secret was discovered, and the

-McKay machine appeared. In the shoe

-sewed on the McKay machine, the thread

-ran through into the inside of the inner sole,

-leaving a rasping ridge on which the stocking

-of the wearer rubbed. The McKay shoe

-displaced only the coarser grades. The

-hand-sewed shoe remained the favorite

-of wealth and fashion, and was worn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>

-exclusively by those who cared for comfort

-and could afford the price. In sewing a

-shoe by hand, a thin and narrow strip of

-leather, called a welt, is first sewed to the

-insole and upper, and the heavy outsole

-is sewed to this welt, so that the stitches

-come outside and do not touch the foot,

-the insole being left entirely smooth. It

-is a delicate operation by hand, and many

-years elapsed before a machine was contrived

-by which it could be done. At last

-the problem was solved. The “Goodyear

-welting and stitching machines” appeared&mdash;so

-named for Charles Goodyear, who

-financed and perfected them, a son of the

-man who taught the world the use of rubber.

-These two machines are the nucleus of the

-Goodyear welt system, to which must be

-attributed the revolution of an industry.

-Although they are entirely distinct machines,

-they are inseparable, for neither can be used

-effectively without the other in making the

-modern Goodyear welt shoe.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus39" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus39.jpg" width="420" height="230" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Insole for Hand Sewed Shoe.</p>

-</div>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus40" style="width: 420px;">

-<img src="images/illus40.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Hand Sewed Shoe.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>Much of the style of a shoe depends upon

-the wooden last over which the upper is

-shaped before being attached to the sole.

-To find a substitute for the human hand in

-fitting the shoe to the last and pulling the

-leather over its delicate lines and curves

-seemed for a long time impossible.</p>

-

-<p>This took place in the early seventies,

-when a machine was invented for doing this

-work. It created a great change in a department

-of shoemaking which, prior to this

-time, had been regarded as a confirmed hand

-process. This machine, as well as those

-which followed afterwards for a period of

-twenty years, was known as the best type

-of machine, by which the shoe upper was

-drawn over the last by either friction or

-pincers, and then tacked by use of a hand

-tool.</p>

-

-<p>At a comparatively recent period another

-machine which revolutionized all previous

-ideas in lasting was introduced. This

-machine is generally in use at the present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>

-time, and is known as the “consolidated

-hand method lasting machine.” It was

-fitted with pincers, which automatically

-drew the leather round the last, at the same

-time driving a tack which held it in place.

-This machine has been so developed that

-it is now used for the lasting of shoes of

-every type, from the lowest and cheapest

-to the highest grade, and it is a machine

-that shows wonderful mechanical ingenuity.</p>

-

-<p>The perfection of the lasting machine has

-been followed recently by the introduction

-of a machine which performs in a satisfactory

-way the difficult process known as

-“pulling over,” which consists of accurately

-centering the shoe upper on the last and

-securing it temporarily in position for the

-work of lasting. The new machine, which

-is known as the “hand-method pulling over

-machine,” is provided with pincers, which

-close automatically, gripping the shoe upper

-at sides and toe. It is fitted with adjustments

-by which the operator is enabled to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>

-quickly center the shoe upper on the last,

-and, on pressure of a foot lever, the machine

-automatically draws the upper closely to

-the last and secures it in position by tacks,

-which are also driven by the machine. The

-introduction of this machine marked a

-radical change in the one important shoemaking

-process that had up to this time

-successfully withstood all attempts at

-mechanical improvement.</p>

-

-<p>At about the time that lasting was first

-introduced, came the machines which were

-used for finishing heel and fore part. These

-machines were fitted with a tool, which was

-heated by gas and which practically duplicated

-the hand workman in rubbing the

-edges with a hot tool for the purpose of

-finishing them. From these early machines

-have been evolved the “edge-setting machines”

-which are in use at present.</p>

-

-<p>Thus, one after another, every operation

-has yielded to invention, until very recently

-the only remaining process was subdued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>

-when a machine for cutting uppers was

-devised. There are machines for shaping,

-compressing, and nailing heels; for attaching

-soles to uppers in heavy shoes by wooden

-pegs or copper screws and wires; for rounding,

-buffing, and polishing the soles; for

-trimming and setting the edges of the sole;

-for performing innumerable operations, some

-seemingly trivial, but all essential to perfection

-in comfort, durability or style;

-so that in shoe factories to-day a greater

-variety of intricate and expensive machines

-is used than in factories of any

-other kind.</p>

-

-<p>At the present time the genius of the

-American inventor has provided for every

-detail of shoemaking, even the smallest

-processes being performed by mechanical

-devices of some kind. This has naturally

-made the shoemaker of to-day a specialist,

-who very seldom knows anything of shoemaking

-apart from the particular process

-in the performance of shoemaking of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>

-he is an adept, and from which he earns

-a livelihood. The American shoe of to-day

-is the standard production of the world.

-It is in demand wherever shoes are worn.</p>

-

-<p>In the year 1874 there had been perfected

-not only the machines which Colonel

-McKay and Mr. Goodyear had been instrumental

-in building, but other inventors had

-introduced similar machines for doing similar

-work. This brought about the most

-acute business competition, and finally

-resulted in many cases where one machine

-manufacturer alleged that the other machine

-infringed his rights of patent, and in many

-other cases the fiercest kind of litigation

-was established. This had a most disastrous

-effect upon shoe manufacturers, for

-in many cases the manufacturer was made

-to bear the brunt of the blows which

-contending shoe machinery manufacturers

-aimed at each other.</p>

-

-<p>Machines in use in factories were stopped

-by means of injunctions; damage suits were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>

-entered, and litigation was very general.

-During the year 1899, there was ushered in

-one of the most important events that ever

-transpired in the history of shoemaking.

-The most important of the concerns which

-had been making war upon each other

-were purchased by one large company and

-brought under one harmonious management.</p>

-

-<p>The United Shoe Machinery Company

-owes its origin to a call for a change in conditions

-menacing the industry of making shoes

-which could not be ignored. It was created

-by combining into one the three companies

-existing in 1899: the Goodyear Sewing Machine

-Company, the Consolidated &amp; McKay

-Lasting Machine Company, and the McKay

-Shoe Machinery Company, each of which

-respectively made and leased machines

-adapted to a particular class of operations.

-The principal machines which each made

-did not interfere with the principal machines

-of any other. They were dependent links

-in an industrial chain. The Goodyear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>

-Sewing Machine Company chiefly made

-machines for sewing the sole to the upper in

-welt shoes and various auxiliary machines

-which helped to complete the shoe; The

-Consolidated &amp; McKay Lasting Machine

-Company made machines for lasting a

-shoe; The McKay Shoe Machinery Company

-made various machines for attaching

-soles and heels by metallic fastenings, and

-furnished material for that purpose. A

-single manufacturer, in order to make

-Goodyear welt shoes, would be compelled

-to patronize all the companies, going to

-each of them for that part of his equipment

-which it exclusively supplied. Each company

-had its agents in factories looking

-after its machines.</p>

-

-<p>The gathering of these three companies

-into a single organization wrought an instant

-change. It resulted immediately in

-greater economy of administration; in relieving

-the manufacturer of the vexation of

-sometimes seeing his factory crippled while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>

-orders were piling up; in freeing him from

-the annoyance and expense of dealing with

-several different concerns in order to get

-his most important machines and keep

-them in repair.</p>

-

-<p>The attention which had been paid to

-royalty machines and which had been such

-an important factor in building up the

-industry in America, was magnified by

-the management of the new company.

-Large forces of men and expert machinists,

-as well as expert shoemakers, were maintained

-in the different districts where shoes

-were made, and every effort exerted to

-promote the growth of the industry.</p>

-

-<p>While the royalty system proved to be

-of great advantage to small shoe manufacturers,

-the largest manufacturers objected

-to paying royalty on machines and desired

-to purchase them outright. Being unable

-to do so, they placed experts at work to

-invent similar machines. This has resulted

-in the United Shoe Machinery Company<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>

-claiming that these machines are infringements

-and causing considerable litigation.</p>

-

-<p>If one reviews the history of the trade

-during the past ten years, there will be

-little question but that one will find it has

-been a period of the greatest advancement

-that the trade has ever known.</p>

-

-<p>Within the time of those who read these

-words, the way to make a shoe has been

-completely changed. Methods which held

-their own for centuries have disappeared,

-to be replaced by processes which only recently

-would have been thought impossible,

-and which have brought within the reach

-of men of modest means a luxury once

-enjoyed exclusively by the well-to-do. The

-feet of the million are clad to-day as finely

-as the feet of yesterday’s millionaire. Shoes

-marked by comfort, durability, and style

-have driven to historical museums the stiff

-and clumsy boots and brogans which not

-so many years ago were worn by those who

-could not pay to have shoes sewed by hand.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>

-

-<p>The American people spend more than

-three hundred million dollars every year

-in buying shoes, and average three pairs

-apiece, and yet few ever think about their

-shoes so long as they do not look clumsy, or

-wear out too quickly, or hurt the foot.

-Every one likes to buy good shoes as

-cheaply as he can, and every one likes to

-feel that shoe manufacturers are independent

-and successful, and that workmen get

-good wages, because these things help along

-prosperity; but that is all. Yet here is an

-industry in which the United States within

-a decade has come to lead the world, and

-there are many things about it which it

-would be worth while for every one to understand.

-It is worth while, for instance, to

-know that there is no important operation

-on a shoe which need be done by hand;

-that in the making of every good shoe no

-less than fifty-eight different machines, and

-sometimes twice that number, are brought

-into play; that nearly all these machines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>

-are of American invention; and that they

-have been so perfectly adjusted one to another

-that they work together almost with

-the precision of a watch; it is worth while

-to know something about the marvelous

-system under the encouragement of which

-this typical American industry has blossomed

-and borne fruit until it employs

-two hundred million dollars of capital and

-nearly two hundred thousand people, and

-turns out two hundred and fifty million pairs

-of shoes a year; and why it is that the

-average man you meet to-day has a better

-fitting, better wearing, and better looking

-shoe than the moneyed man of yesterday&mdash;at

-a fraction of the expense.</p>

-

-<p>This remarkable growth is distinctly

-American. In the United States the tendency

-among the artisan class has been to

-abandon the slow hand process. This tendency

-has been as strong as the tendency

-in Europe to adhere to it. Moreover,

-there has developed among the laboring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>

-classes in the United States a mobility such

-as is unknown elsewhere in the world.</p>

-

-<p>Another advantage which has contributed

-to the rapid development of the manufacture

-of shoes in the United States is the

-comparative freedom from inherited and

-overconservative ideas. This country has

-entered upon its industrial development

-unfettered by the old order of things, and

-with a tendency on the part of the people

-to seek the best and quickest way to

-accomplish every object.</p>

-

-<div class="figcenter" id="illus41" style="width: 650px;">

-<img src="images/illus41.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />

-<p class="caption">Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory.</p>

-</div>

-

-<p>In all of the European countries in which

-the manufacturing of shoes is an important

-industry, the transition from the household

-to the factory system was hampered by

-guilds, elaborate national and local restrictions,

-and by the national reluctance with

-which a people accustomed for generations

-to fixed methods of work, in which they

-have acquired a large degree of skill, abandon

-those methods for new ones. It was

-natural, also, that in spite of the superior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>

-advantages of machine methods, hand process

-of manufacture should still continue

-side by side with them, in the European

-countries, though machine work had long

-since usurped the whole field of the shoe

-industry in the United States.</p>

-

-<p>As an American goes about among the

-European shoe factories he is greatly surprised

-at the state of affairs. He is struck

-by three things which are very conspicuous.

-They are: (1) Lack of use of machinery, lack

-of all sorts of devices in order to save hand

-labor, which is carried out so extensively in

-the United States. (2) Lack of the division

-of labor, one factory attempting to make

-four or five kinds of shoes. (3) Lack of

-methods employed for handling large quantities

-of materials.</p>

-

-<p>One point that is overlooked in considering

-the shoe industries of the two countries

-is the great difference in organization. In

-most European factories, the manufacturer

-gets all the orders of different kinds, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>

-then attempts to make one or two lines with

-one or two qualities in the same factory.

-In Switzerland one may find shoes and

-slippers for men, women, and children made

-under the same roof.</p>

-

-<p>In the United States the manufacturer

-makes a certain line of shoes in one factory,

-and no other kind. If he has more than

-one line, he has more than one factory, and

-each factory turns out a distinct shoe for

-a distinct purpose. The manufacturer has

-his salesmen to sell these shoes.</p>

-

-<p>The advantages of the American system

-are: (1) The managers and workers of a

-factory turning out a certain line of goods

-become highly specialized in that line, and

-can produce better results than the workers

-in a factory attempting to make two or

-three lines of goods. (2) A large shoe

-factory is laid out as a rule to do a certain

-kind of work, and it seldom changes. This

-practice makes possible a greater production.

-On the other hand we have something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>

-to learn from the European organization.

-American manufacturers must meet the

-foreign trade. In order to do this, the manufacturer

-must cater to the habits, customs,

-and climatic conditions. The European

-manufacturer does this.</p>

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p>

-

-<hr />

-

-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p>

-

-<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>

-

-<ul>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Amhide, black, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">russet, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Anatomy of the foot, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Ankle piece, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Assembling, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Automobile leather, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">tanning of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Backs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Backstay, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Back strap, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bal., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Ball, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bating, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Beading, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Beamhouse process, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Beating out, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bellows tongue, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Belting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">by-products, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">round, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Belt-knife splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Between substance, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bison, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Blackball, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Black box chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Black hawk patent, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Blacking the edge, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Blocking, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bloom, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Blucher, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Boot, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bootee, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Boris, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bottom, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">filling, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">scouring, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Box calf, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">toe, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Boxing, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Branded cowhide, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Breaking the sole, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Breast of the heel, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Brogan, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bronko patent, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Brushing, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Buckskin, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Buff, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Buffing, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bull hides, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Bunions, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Button fly, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Butts, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Cable-nailing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cack, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cadet kid, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">side, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Calf leather, boarded, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">box, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">classes of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">cadet calf side, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">Dongola, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">dry hides, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>French, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">mat, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">Sheboygan, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">storm, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">suede, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">wax, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Calf side leather, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">skins, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Calluses, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cambridge calf union splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cap, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Carbarettas, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Carton, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cementing, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Chamois, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Channeling, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Channel screwed, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">stitched, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">turning, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Checking, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Chemical tanning, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Chrome flexible splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">tannage, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">tanned embossed splits, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cleaning, inside, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">nails, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">shoes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Clicking, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Closing, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">on, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Colonial, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Colorado steer hides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Colored box chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Coltskin, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Combination last, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Composition, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Congress gaiter, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cordovan, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Corns, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Counter, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">pasted, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Coupon tag, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cowhide, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">native, heavy and light, <a href="#Page_7">7-9</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">branded, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Creasing vamp, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Creedmore, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Creole, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Crimping, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cushion sole, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Cut-off vamp, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Dyeing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Dom Pedro, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Dongola, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">calf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Dressing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Dry importation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">salted hides, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Edge setting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Enamel, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Eyelet, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Eyeletting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Facing, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Factory system, first, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Fair stitch, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Faking, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Fat liquored, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Findings, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Finishes of upper leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Finishing of upper leather, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Flap, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Flesher, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Flesh splits leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Flexible bends, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Follower, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Foot, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">adult, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">anatomy of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">astragalus, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">calcaneum, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">cuneiform, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">flatfoot, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">measurements of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">metatarsal, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">phalanges, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">rheumatism, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">structure of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Footwear, history of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Forepart finishing, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Form, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Foxed, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Foxing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Fresh hides, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Frizzing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Front, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Fudge-stitched, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Fundamental shoe terms, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Furniture leather, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">tanning of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Gaiter, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">congress, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Gem insoles, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Gemming, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Glazed kid, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Gloves, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">grain, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">tanning, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Goatskin, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Goodyear welt, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">difference between McKay and, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Gore, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Grades of leather, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Grading, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Grain leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Green hides, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Green salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Gum counter, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Half sole, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Harness leather, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Heel, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">breast of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">nailing, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">nailing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">pad, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">scouring, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">seat, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">shaving, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Hemlock leather, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">tanning, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Hercules storm chrome, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Hides, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">bull, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">classes of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">country, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">dry, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">dry importation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">dry salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">fresh, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">grades of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">green, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">green salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">imported, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">quality of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Inlay, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Inner sole, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>Inseaming, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Inseam trimming, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Instep, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Iron, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Ironing uppers, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Juliette, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Kid, buckskin, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">buff, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">caster, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">chamois, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">Cordovan, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">dull, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">glazed, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">importation of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">kangaroo, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">kangaroo kid side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">kinds of finish, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">mat, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">method of collecting, <a href="#Page_46">46-48</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">patent, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">process of tanning, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">seal grain, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">splits, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">suede, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Kids, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Kips, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Lace hook, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">stay, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Lacing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Lasting, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Lasts, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">combination, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">how made, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Laying channel, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Leather, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">automobile and furniture, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">belting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">effect of cold, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">gloves, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">glove tanning, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">harness, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">hemlock, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">products, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">white, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Leg cover, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Leveling, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Lift, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Lining, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Lining-in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Lip, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Loading leather, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Mat royal chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">McKay shoe, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">difference between Goodyear welt and, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">difference between turned and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Middle sole, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Mock welt, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Molding, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Monkey skin, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Morocco, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Mules, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Nap, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Native cowhides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">steer hides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Naumkeaging, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Nullifier, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Oak-tanned leather, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Oak tanning, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Ohio buffs, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>Ooze gusset splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">leather, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">vamp splits, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Ottawa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">black and russet splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Outer filler, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Outside cutting, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">tap, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Oxford, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">calf union splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Packer hides, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Packing, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pacs, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pancake, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Para, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pasted leather, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Patent leather, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">black hawk, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">effect of cold on, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">objections to, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pattern, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pebble, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pegged shoemaking, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pegging, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Perforating, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Perforation, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pickled skins, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Piping, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Polish, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Porpoise, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pressing, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pulling lasts, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pulling over, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">machine, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Pump, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">sole, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Quarter, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Rag counter, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Rand, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Rawhide products, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Relasting, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Remnants, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">sole leather, <a href="#Page_33">33-37</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Repairing, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Roan, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Rolling, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Rough rounding, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Royal kid, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Royalties, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Royalty system, invention of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Rubber, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">cloth manufacture, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">commercial grades of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">drying, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">heels, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">shoe manufacture, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub2">calendering, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub2">cutting, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub2">varnishing, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub2">vulcanizing, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub2">washing, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Russet calf, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">grain, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Sabot, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Sack lining, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Sandal, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Satin calf, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Scouring breast, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Screw fastened, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Seal grain, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Second lasting, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Sewing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Shank, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">burnishing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>Shanking out, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Sheboygan calf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Sheepskin, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Sheep tanning, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Shoe, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">apprentice, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">case of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">cutting room, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">departments of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">dressing, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">factories, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">heeling, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">methods of manufacture, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">parts of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">repairing, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">sizes, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">stitching, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">treeing, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Shoe Machinery Company, organization of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Shoemaker, first, in America, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Shoemaking, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">old-fashioned, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">nail method, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">terms of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Shoe pegs, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Shoulder, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Sides, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Side stay, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Skins, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Skirting, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Skiver, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Skiving machine, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Slip, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Slugging, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Soaking process, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Soft tip, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Sole, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">leather, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">laying, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">breaking of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Sorting, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Spewing, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Splits, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-62</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Spring heel, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Stamping, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Standard fastened, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">screw shoemaking, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Stay, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Staying, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Steer hides, native, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Stitch aloft, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Stitch down, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">fair, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">separating, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Stitching, rapid, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Straight last, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Stripping, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Styles, how made, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Suede, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Tacking on, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tack pulling, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tampico, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tan, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">royal, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tanned leather adulterants, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">effects of perspiration, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">lubrication, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">properties, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">substitutes, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">weighing, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tannin, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tanning, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">chemical, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">hemlock, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">leather for belting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>oak, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">processes of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">rapid processes of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">tawing, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">Union, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">vegetable, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tap, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">putting on, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tawing, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tempering, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tennis shoe manufacture, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Texas steer hide, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tip, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Toe, and heel lasting, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">box, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">filler, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">piece, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Tongue, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Top, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">facing, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">left, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">left scouring, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">left stitching, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Treeing, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Trimming counter, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">vamp, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Turned shoe, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">difference between McKay and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Turning, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">shoe, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Ungrained, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Unhairing of hides, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Union-tanned leather, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Union tanning, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Upper, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Upper or dress leather, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55-57</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Vamp, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">creasing, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">form, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">short, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Vamping, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Vegetable tanning, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">tans, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Vellum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Velour, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Veneering, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Vesting, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Vici, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Viscolizing, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Vulcanizing, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">cold cure, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">steam cure, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Wash leather, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Waterproof black, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Waxed threads, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Web straps, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Welts, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">beating, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>

-<li class="isub1">Goodyear, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Welting, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">White alum, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Willow calf leather, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="indx">Wooden case, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>

-

-<li class="ifrst">Zulu, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>

-

-</ul>

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-<pre>

-

-

-

-

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+  </head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 55474 ***</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger">A MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus1" style="width: 520px;">
+<img src="images/illus1.jpg" width="520" height="650" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">An Old-Fashioned Shoemaker. <i>Frontispiece.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger">A MANUAL<br />
+<span class="smaller">OF</span><br />
+SHOEMAKING<br />
+<span class="smaller">AND</span><br />
+LEATHER AND RUBBER<br />
+PRODUCTS</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">BY<br />
+WILLIAM H. DOOLEY<br />
+<span class="smaller">PRINCIPAL OF THE LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">BOSTON<br />
+LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY<br />
+1912</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Copyright, 1912</i>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">By Little, Brown, and Company.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center smaller"><i>All rights reserved.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center smaller">Published, September, 1912.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>The author was asked in 1908 by the
+Lynn Commission on Industrial Education
+to make an investigation of European shoe
+schools and to assist the Commission in
+preparing a course of study for the proposed
+shoe school in the city of Lynn. A close
+investigation showed that there were several
+textbooks on shoemaking published in
+Europe, but that no general textbook on
+shoemaking had been issued in this country
+adapted to meet the needs of industrial,
+trade, and commercial schools or those who
+have just entered the rubber, shoe, and
+leather trades. This book is written to meet
+this need. Others may find it of interest.</p>
+
+<p>The author is under obligations to the
+following persons and firms for information
+and assistance in preparing the book, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
+for permission to reproduce photographs
+and information from their publications:
+Mr. J. H. Finn, Mr. Frank L. West, Head
+of Shoemaking Department, Tuskegee, Ala.,
+Mr. Louis Fleming, Mr. F. Garrison, President
+of <i>Shoe and Leather Gazette</i>, Mr. Arthur
+L. Evans, <i>The Shoeman</i>, Mr. Charles F.
+Cahill, United Shoe Machinery Company,
+Hood Rubber Company, Bliss Shoe Company,
+American Hide and Leather Company,
+Regal Shoe Company, the publishers
+of <i>Hide and Leather</i>, <i>American Shoemaking</i>,
+<i>Shoe Repairing</i>, <i>Boot and Shoe Recorder</i>, <i>The
+Weekly Bulletin</i>, and the New York Leather
+Belting Company.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, the author desires to acknowledge
+his indebtedness to the great
+body of foreign literature on the different
+subjects from which information has been
+obtained.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table summary="Contents">
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr smaller">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#PREFACE">v</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr smaller">CHAPTER</td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Fundamental Shoe Terms</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_ONE">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Hides and their Treatment</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TWO">4</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">III.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Processes of Tanning</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_THREE">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Anatomy of the Foot</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_FOUR">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">V.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">How Shoe Styles are Made</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_FIVE">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Departments of a Shoe Factory</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_SIX">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VII.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">McKay and Turned Shoes</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_SEVEN">144</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VIII.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old-fashioned Shoemaking and Repairing</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_EIGHT">162</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IX.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Leather and Shoemaking Terms</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_NINE">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">X.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Leather Products Manufacture</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TEN">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XI.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Rubber Shoe Manufacture and Terms</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_ELEVEN">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">History of Footwear</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TWELVE">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">281</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table summary="List of illustrations">
+  <tr>
+    <td>An Old-fashioned Shoemaker</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr smaller"><span class="smcap">Facing Page</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus2">2</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Green-salted Calfskin</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus3">12</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Tanning Process</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus4">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Tanning Process, showing Rotating Drums</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus5">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Sole Leather Offal</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus6">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Bones and Joints of the Human Foot</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus7">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus8">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>A Last in Three Stages of Manufacture</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus9">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>A Modern Shoe Factory</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus10">104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>A Skin Divided before Cutting</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus11">112</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cutting Leather</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus12">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Goodyear Stitching</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus13">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Stock Fitting Room</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus14">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Lasting</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus15">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Welting</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus16">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Rough Rounding</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus17">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Edge Trimming</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus18">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Leveling</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus19">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span>Heeling</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus20">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Sole Scouring</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus21">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Heel Shaping</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus22">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Ironing</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus23">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Packing</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus24">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus25">144</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Stitching</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus26">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Tacking</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus27">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus28">160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Side of Leather divided as to Quality</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus29">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus30">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus31">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Crude Rubber</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus32">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Washing and Drying</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus33">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Calender Room</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus34">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cutting Room</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus35">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus36">240</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Heel-making Department</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus37">242</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Parts of a Rubber Boot</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus38">248</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Insole for Hand-sewed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus39">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Hand-sewed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus40">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus41">276</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>SHOEMAKING</h1>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_ONE">CHAPTER ONE<br />
+<span class="smaller">FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS</span></h2>
+
+<p>Before explaining the manufacture of
+shoes, it is necessary to fix definitely in
+our minds the names of their different parts.
+Examine your shoes and note the parts that
+are here described.</p>
+
+<p>The bottom of the shoe is called the sole.
+The part above the sole is called the upper.
+The top of the shoe is that part measured
+by the lacing which covers the ankle and
+the instep. The vamp is that section which
+covers the sides of the foot and the toes.
+The shank is that part of the sole of the shoe
+between the heel and the ball. This name
+is often applied to a piece of metal or other
+substance in that part of the sole, intended
+to give support to the arch of the foot. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+throat of the vamp is that part which curves
+around the lower edge of the top, where
+the lacing starts.</p>
+
+<p>Backstay is a term used to denote a strip
+of leather covering and strengthening the
+back seam of the shoe. Quarter is a term
+used mostly in low shoes to denote the rear
+part of the upper when a full vamp is not
+used. Button fly is the portion of the upper
+containing the buttonholes of a button shoe.
+Tip is the toe piece of a shoe, stitched to
+the vamp and outside of it. The lace stay
+is a term used to denote a strip of leather
+reënforcing the eyelet holes. Tongue denotes
+a narrow strip of leather used on all
+lace shoes to protect the instep from the
+lacing and weather.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus2" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus2.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear. <i><a href="#Page_2">Page 2.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Foxing is the name applied to leather of
+the upper that extends from the sole to
+the laces in front, and to about the height
+of the counter in the back, being the length
+of the upper. It may be in one or more
+pieces, and is often cut down to the shank<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+in circular form. If in two pieces, that part
+covering the counter is called a heel fox.
+Overlay is a term applied to leather attached
+to the upper part of the vamp of a slipper.
+The breast of the heel is the inner part of
+the heel, that is, the section nearest the
+shank.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_TWO">CHAPTER TWO<br />
+<span class="smaller">HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT</span></h2>
+
+<p>If we examine our shoes, we will find
+that the different parts are composed of
+material called leather. The bottom of the
+shoe is of hard leather, while the part above
+the sole is of a softer, more pliable leather.
+This leather is nothing more than the hides
+of different animals treated in such a way
+as to remove the fat and the hair.</p>
+
+<p>After the hides have been taken from the
+dead body of the animal, they are quite
+heavily salted to preserve them from spoiling.
+In this salted condition they are
+shipped to the tanneries.</p>
+
+<p>The process or series of processes by
+which the hides and skins of animals are
+converted into leather is called tanning.
+The process may be divided into three
+groups of subprocesses as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Beamhouse process, which removes the
+hair from the hides and prepares them for
+the actual process of the tanning or conversion
+into leather; tanning, which converts
+the raw hide into leather; and finishing,
+which involves a number of operations, the
+objects of which are to give the leather the
+color that may be desired and also to make
+it of uniform thickness, and impart to it the
+softness and the finish that is required for
+a particular purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Hides are divided roughly in the tannery,
+according to the size, into three general
+classes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) Hides, skins from fully grown animals,
+as cows, oxen, horses, buffaloes, walrus,
+etc. These are thick, heavy leather, used
+for shoe soles, large machinery belting,
+trunks, etc., where stiffness, strength, and
+wearing qualities are desired. The untanned
+hides weigh from twenty-five to
+sixty pounds.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Kips, skins of the undersized animals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+of the above group, weighing between
+fifteen and twenty-five pounds.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Skins from small animals, such as
+calves, sheep, goats, dogs, etc. This last
+group gives a light, but strong and pliable
+leather, which may be used for a great many
+purposes, such as men’s shoes and the
+heavier grades of women’s shoes.</p>
+
+<p>The hides, kips, and skins are divided into
+various grades, according to their weight,
+size, condition, and quality.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of the hides not only depends
+upon the kind of animal, but also upon its
+fodder and mode of living. The hides of
+wild cattle yield a more compact and stronger
+leather than those of our domesticated
+beasts. Among these latter the stall-fed have
+better hides than the meadow-fed, or grazing
+cattle. The thickness of the hide varies
+considerably on different animals and on the
+parts of the body, the thickest part of the
+bull being near the head and the middle of
+the back, while at the belly the hide is thinnest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+These differences are less conspicuous
+in sheep, goats, and calves. As regards
+sheep, it would appear that their skin is
+generally thinnest where their wool is longest.</p>
+
+<p>In the raw, untanned state, and with
+the hair still on, the hides are termed
+“green” or “fresh.” Fresh, or green hides
+are supplied to the tanners by the packers
+or the butchers, or are imported, either dry
+or salted.</p>
+
+<p>Hides are obtained either from the regular
+packing houses or from farmers who
+kill their own stock, and do not skin the
+animal as scientifically as the regular packing
+houses, in which case they are called
+country hides. There are different grades
+of hides and leather, and these different
+grades are divided in the commercial world
+into the five following grades:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h3>I. NATIVE HIDES</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Native Steers</li>
+<li>Native Cows, heavy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></li>
+<li>Native Cows, light</li>
+<li>Branded Cows</li>
+<li>Butts</li>
+<li>Colorado Steers</li>
+<li>Texas Steers, heavy</li>
+<li>Texas Steers, light</li>
+<li>Texas Steers, ex-light</li>
+<li>Native Bulls</li>
+<li>Branded Bulls</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>II. COUNTRY HIDES</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Ohio Buffs</li>
+<li>Ohio Ex.</li>
+<li>Southerns</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>III. DRY HIDES</h3>
+
+<p>(Raised on plain. Rough side suitable for soles.)</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Buenos Ayres</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>IV. CALFSKINS</h3>
+
+<p>(Green salted)</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Chicago City</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>V. PARIS CITY CALFSKINS</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Light</li>
+<li>Medium</li>
+<li>Heavy</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Hides obtained from steers raised on
+Western farms are known as native steer
+hides.</p>
+
+<p>Native cowhide (heavy) is hide weighing
+from fifty-five to sixty-five pounds, obtained
+from cows.</p>
+
+<p>Native cowhide (light) is cowhide weighing
+under fifty-five pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Branded cowhide is hide obtained from
+cows that are branded on the face of the
+hide.</p>
+
+<p>Butts is a term applied to the part of the
+hide remaining after cutting off the head,
+shoulders, and strip of the belly.</p>
+
+<p>Colorado steer hide is from Colorado
+steers, which are very light.</p>
+
+<p>Texas steer hide comes in three grades,
+heavy, light, and extra light. The heavy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+grade is very heavy because the animal is
+allowed to graze on the plains. That is the
+reason why it is heavier than the Colorado
+steer hide, which is raised on the farm.</p>
+
+<p>Bull hide is divided into two classes, the
+regular hide and the branded grade. The
+branded grade usually is one cent a pound
+less than the regular.</p>
+
+<p>Country hides are of three grades, Ohio
+Buffs, Ohio Ex., and Southern. The Ohio
+Buffs weigh from forty to sixty pounds.
+The Ohio Ex. weighs from twenty to forty
+pounds. Southern hides have spots without
+hair and other blemishes on them, due to
+the sting of insects. This makes the
+Southern hide inferior to the Ohio, Indiana,
+Michigan, and Chicago hides that have no
+such blemishes. Ohio Butt hides are the
+best, because in Ohio they kill a great many
+young calves, while in Chicago young cows
+(that have calved) are killed, causing the
+hide to be flanky.</p>
+
+<p>The season of the year in which cattle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+are slaughtered has considerable influence
+upon both the weight and condition of the
+hide. During the winter months, by reason
+of the hair being longer and thicker, the hide
+is heavier, ranging from seventy-five to
+eighty pounds, and gradually decreasing
+in weight as the season becomes warmer
+and the coat is shed, until in June and
+July it weighs from seventy down to fifty-five
+pounds, the hair then being thin and
+short. The best hides of the year are
+October hides, and short-haired hides are
+better for leather purposes than long-haired
+ones.</p>
+
+<p>A thick hide which is to be used for
+upper leather is cut into sides before the
+tanning process is completed. This is
+performed by passing it between rollers
+where it comes in contact with a sharp
+knife-edge, which splits it into two or more
+sheets. Great care must be exercised in
+cutting the leather in order to have good
+“splits” (sheets of leather). A split from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+a heavy hide is not as good as a whole of a
+lighter leather.</p>
+
+<p>Butts and backs are selected from the
+stoutest and heaviest oxhides. The butt
+is formed by cutting off the head, the
+shoulder, and the strip of the belly. The
+butt or back of oxhide forms the stoutest
+and heaviest leather, such as is used for
+soles of boots, harness, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus3" style="width: 490px;">
+<img src="images/illus3.jpg" width="490" height="650" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Green-Salted Calfskin. <i><a href="#Page_12">Page 12.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hides and skins are received at the
+tannery in one of three conditions, viz.
+green-salted, dry, or dry-salted. Very few
+hides are received by tanners in fresh or
+unsalted condition, salt being necessary to
+preserve them from decay. Green-salted
+hides are those that have been salted in
+fresh condition, tied up in bundles, and
+shipped to the tanner. Dry hides are those
+that were taken from the carcass and dried
+without being salted; these are usually
+stiff and hard. Dry-salted hides are hides
+that were heavily salted while they were
+fresh, and then dried. The hides and skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+that are received from the slaughterhouses
+of this country are almost invariably green-salted;
+those from foreign countries are
+green-salted, dry, and dry-salted.</p>
+
+<p>It does not matter in what condition the
+hides are received or the kind of leather
+into which they are to be tanned; they all
+require soaking in water before any attempt
+is made to remove the hair or to tan them.
+The object of the soaking process, as it is
+called, is to thoroughly soften the hides
+and to remove from them all salt, dirt,
+blood, etc. Ordinary hides are usually
+soaked from twenty-four to forty-eight
+hours. Dry hides require much longer.
+The water should be changed once or twice
+during the process, since dirty water may
+injure the hides. Soft water is better than
+hard for this process. Where the water is
+hard, it is customary for the tanner to add
+a quantity of borax to it to increase its
+cleansing power and to hasten the softening
+of the hides.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When dry hides have become soft enough
+to bend without cracking, they are put
+into a machine and beaten and rolled, then
+soaked again until they are soft and pliable.
+It is very important that all the salt and
+dirt are removed during the process of
+soaking, as they injure the quality of the
+leather if they are not removed before
+the hides are unhaired. When the soaking
+process is completed, the lumps of fat and
+flesh that may have been left on by the
+butcher are removed by hand or by a
+machine, and the hides are then in condition
+to be passed along into the next process.
+The parts that cannot be made into leather,
+such as tails, teats, etc., are trimmed off
+before the hides are soaked. Large hides
+are cut into two pieces or halves, called
+“sides,” after they have been soaked.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of taking the hair from
+the hides and skins, lime, sulphide of
+sodium, and red arsenic are used. Lime
+is sometimes used alone, but usually one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+of the other two chemicals is mixed with it.
+The lime is dissolved in hot water, a quantity
+of either sulphide of sodium or red
+arsenic is added to it, and the solution is
+then mixed with water in a vat, the hides
+being immersed in this liquor until the hair
+can be easily removed. The action of the
+unhairing liquor is to swell the hides, then
+to dissolve the perishable animal portion
+and loosen the hair so that it can be rubbed
+or pulled off.</p>
+
+<p>There are several different processes of
+unhairing the hides. Each tanner uses the
+process that will help to give the leather
+the qualities that it should have, such as
+softness and pliability for shoe and glove
+leather, or firmness and solidity for sole
+and belting leather. This is one of the
+most important in the series of tannery
+processes, and if the hides are not unhaired
+properly and not prepared for tanning as
+they should be, the leather will not be right
+when it is tanned and finished.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There is also a process of unhairing, called
+“sweating,” which softens the hide and
+loosens the hair so that it can be scraped off.
+In this process the hides begin to decay before
+the hair is loose; it is therefore a dangerous
+process to use and must be carefully watched
+or the hides will be entirely spoiled. Sweating
+is never used for the finer, softer kinds
+of leather. It is applied chiefly to dry
+hides for sole, lace, and belt leather. It is
+an old-fashioned process and is not used as
+much nowadays as some years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The pelts of sheep are salted at the
+slaughterhouses and then shipped to the
+tannery. Here they are thrown into water
+and left to soak twenty-four hours to
+loosen the dirt and dissolve the salt. The
+pelts are next passed through machines that
+clean the wool, and any particles of flesh
+remaining on the inner or flesh side are
+removed. The pelts are then in condition
+to have the wool removed. As long as a
+sheepskin has the wool upon it, it is called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+a pelt; as soon as the wool has been taken
+off, it is called a skin or a “slat.”</p>
+
+<p>Each pelt is spread out smoothly on a
+table with the wool down and the inner or
+flesh side up. A mixture of lime and
+sulphide of sodium is next applied uniformly
+over the skin with a brush. The pelt is
+then folded up and placed in a pile with
+others. The solution that was applied
+penetrates the skin and loosens the wool,
+which, at the end of twenty-four hours,
+more or less, can be easily pulled off with
+the hands or rubbed off with a dull instrument
+or stick. The workman must be
+careful not to get any of the solution on to
+the wool, as it dissolves it and makes it
+worthless. Since the wool is valuable, the
+solution must be applied to the flesh side
+very carefully so that it does no injury.
+The wool that is removed from the skins is
+called “pulled wool.”</p>
+
+<p>The slat is now ready to be limed, washed,
+pickled, and tanned. Heavy skins are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+often split into two sheets after they have
+been limed. The part from the wool side
+is called a skiver, and that from the flesh
+side is called a flesher.</p>
+
+<p>After the skins have been limed, they are
+bated and washed, which makes them soft,
+clean, and white; they are then put into a
+solution of salt, sulphuric acid, and water,
+called “pickle,” and after a few hours they
+are taken out, drained, and tanned.</p>
+
+<p>Large quantities of sheepskins are sold
+to tanners in the pickled condition by those
+who make a business of preparing such
+skins and selling the wool. Pickled skins
+can be kept an indefinite length of time
+without spoiling; they can also be dried
+and worked out into a cheap white leather
+without any further tanning whatever.
+Most of such skins, however, are sold to
+tanners, who tan them into leather. Sheepskins
+contain considerable grease, which
+must be removed before the leather can be
+sold.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For some processes of tanning, calfskins,
+goatskins, and cattle hides are also pickled
+the same as sheepskins; for other processes
+they are not pickled, but are thoroughly
+bated or delimed, washed, and cleansed.
+Heavy hides are sometimes split out of the
+lime; more frequently, however, they are
+not split until after they have been tanned.</p>
+
+<p>To capitulate, the preparatory processes
+may be briefly described as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Soaking, which dissolves the salt, removes
+the dirt and makes the hides soft and
+comparatively clean.</p>
+
+<p>Liming and unhairing, which swell the
+hides and dissolve the perishable animal
+portion, loosen the hair, and put the hides
+into proper condition for tanning. Hides
+tanned without liming, even if the hair is
+removed by some chemical, do not make
+pliable leather, but are stiff and hard.</p>
+
+<p>Bating, which removes the lime from the
+hides.</p>
+
+<p>Pickling, which helps in the tanning later,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+and keeps the hides and skins from spoiling
+if they are not tanned at once.</p>
+
+<p>The lumps of fat and flesh that may be on
+the hides are removed by machinery or by
+placing the hide over a beam and scraping it
+with a knife. The hair, when it is loosened
+by the lime, is removed by a machine or by
+hand.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_THREE">CHAPTER THREE<br />
+<span class="smaller">PROCESSES OF TANNING</span></h2>
+
+<p>The various processes of tanning may
+be roughly divided into two classes,
+vegetable chemical and mineral chemical.
+The first class is often spoken of in tanneries
+simply as the “vegetable” while the second
+is called “chemical” process. In the vegetable
+processes the tanning is accomplished
+by tannin, which is found in various barks
+and woods of trees and leaves of plants. In
+the so-called chemical processes the tanning
+is done with mineral salts and acids which
+produce an entirely different kind of leather
+from that procured by vegetable tanning.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a method of tanning, or,
+more properly speaking, tawing, in which
+alum and salt are used. This process
+makes white leather that is used for many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+purposes; it is also colored and used in
+the manufacture of fine gloves. Leather
+is also made by tanning skins with oil.
+Chamois skins are made in this way.</p>
+
+<p>The materials that are used to tan hides
+and skins act upon the hide fibers in such
+a way that the hides are rendered proof
+against decay and become pliable and strong.
+There are many vegetable tans; they are
+used for sole leather, upper leather, and
+colored leather for numerous purposes.
+The bark of hemlock trees is one of the
+principal tans. The woods and barks
+of oak, chestnut, and quebracho trees
+are often used. Palmetto roots yield a
+good tan. Large quantities of leather are
+treated with gambier and various other
+tanning materials that come from foreign
+countries. Sumac leaves, which are imported
+from Sicily, contain tannin that
+makes soft leather suitable for hat sweatbands,
+suspender trimmings, etc. Sumac
+is also obtained from the State of Virginia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+but the foreign leaves contain more tannin
+and make better leather than the
+American.</p>
+
+<p>To a large extent the so-called chemical
+processes have supplanted the vegetable
+processes, that is, old tan bark and sumac
+processes; but in some tanneries both
+methods are used on different kinds of
+skins.</p>
+
+<p>In the old bark process the tan bark is
+ground coarse and is then treated in leaches
+with hot water until the tanning quality is
+drawn out. The liquor so obtained is used
+at various strengths as needed.</p>
+
+<p>In the newer method the tan liquor is
+displaced by a solution of potassium bichromate,
+which produces its results with much
+less expenditure of time.</p>
+
+<p>When the hides or skins are ready for
+the tanning process, they are put into a
+revolving drum, known as a “pinwheel,”
+or into a pit in which are revolving paddles,
+with a dilute solution of potassium dichromate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+or sodium dichromate, acidified with
+hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. If the pinwheel
+is employed, it is revolved for seven
+hours or longer; after which time the
+liquor is drawn off and replaced by an
+acidified solution of sodium thiosulphate or
+bisulphite, and then the revolution is continued
+several hours longer. If the pit is
+used, the skins are removed to another
+drum containing the second solution, and
+kept at rest or overturned for a like period.</p>
+
+<p>In removing the skins from the pinwheel
+or vat, and in handling them after treatment
+with lime for the loosening of the hair, the
+hands and arms of the workmen are seriously
+injured, becoming raw if not protected by
+rubber gloves; even with gloves it is difficult
+to prevent injury, and in some establishments
+the workmen are relieved by
+the substitution of a single-bath process,
+in which the liquor is less harmful to the
+skin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus4" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus4.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Tanning Process</p>
+<p class="caption">Showing the vats, the unhairing and liming processes. <i><a href="#Page_24">Page 24.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hides are then removed from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+pits, washed and brushed, followed by slow
+drying in the air. When partly dried, they
+are placed in a pile and covered until heating
+is induced. They are then dampened
+and rolled with brass rollers to give the
+leather solidity. Sole leather is oiled but
+little. Weight is increased by adding glucose
+and salt.</p>
+
+<p>Various rapid processes of tanning have
+been devised in which the hides are suspended
+in strong liquors or are tanned in
+large revolving drums. It is claimed that
+this hastens the process, but the product
+has been criticized as lacking substance or
+being brittle.</p>
+
+<p>Chrome tannage has been chiefly developed
+in this country during the last twenty
+years and is now in general use. It consists
+in throwing an insoluble chromium hydroxide
+or oxide on the fibers of a skin which
+has been impregnated with a soluble chromium
+salt&mdash;potassium bichromate. Other
+salts like basic chromium chloride, chromium<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+chromate, and chromic alum are also used.
+The hydrochloric or sulphuric acid acts
+by setting free chromic acid.</p>
+
+<p>After several hours, the skin shows a
+uniform yellow when cut through its thickest
+part. It is then drained and the skin
+worked in a solution of sodium bisulphite
+and mineral acid (to free sulphur dioxide).
+The chromic acid is absorbed by the fiber
+and later reduced by sulphur dioxide.</p>
+
+<p>In the making of chrome black leather
+each tanner has his own method. Contrary
+to the general belief, there are many different
+methods of chrome tannage. No two tanneries
+employ just the same process.</p>
+
+<p>Tanners of chrome leather seek to produce
+leather suitable for the particular
+demands made upon it by the peculiarities
+or characteristics of the varying seasons.
+Summer shoes require a cool, light leather;
+at other times a heavier tannage is essential,
+with some call for a practically waterproof
+product.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All leathers, whether vegetable-or chrome-tanned,
+must be “fat liquored.” That is
+to say, a certain amount of fatty material
+must be put into the skin in order that it
+may be mellow, workable, and serviceable.
+This is very essential in producing calf
+leather. Fat liquors usually contain oil
+and soap, which have been boiled in water
+and made into a thin liquor. The leather
+is put into a drum with the hot fat liquor;
+the drum is set in motion, and as it revolves
+the leather tumbles about in the drum and
+absorbs the oil and soap from the water.
+It is the fat liquor that makes the leather
+soft and strong.</p>
+
+<p>Leather used in shoes is divided into two
+classes: sole leather and upper leather.</p>
+
+<p>Sole leather is a heavy, solid, stiff leather
+and may be bent without cracking. It is
+the foundation of the shoe, and therefore
+should be of the best material. The hides
+of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for
+this purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The hide that is tanned for sole leather is
+soaked for several days in a weak solution
+(which is gradually made stronger) of oak or
+hemlock tan made from the bark. Oak-tanned
+hide is preferred and may be known
+by its light color. A chemical change takes
+place in the fiber of the hide. This is a
+high-grade tannage, and is distinguished
+principally by its fine fibers and close,
+compact texture.</p>
+
+<p>Oak sole leather, by reason of its tough
+character, and its close, fibrous texture,
+resists water and will wear well down
+before cracking. It is by many considered
+better than other leather for flexible-sole
+shoes, requiring waterproof qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Sole leather is divided into three classes
+according to the tanning&mdash;oak, hemlock,
+and union.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus5" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus5.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Tanning Process</p>
+<p class="caption">Showing the rotating drums. <i>See <a href="#Page_24">page 24</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Oak tanning is as follows: the hides are
+hung in pits containing weak or nearly
+spent liquors from a previous tanning, and
+agitated so as to take up tannin evenly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Strong liquor would harden the surface
+so as to prevent thorough penetration into
+the interior of the hides. After ten or
+twelve days, the hides are taken out and
+laid away in fresh tan and stronger liquor.
+This process is repeated as often as necessary
+for eight to ten months. At the end of this
+time the hide has absorbed all of the tannin
+which it will take up.</p>
+
+<p>Hemlock tanning is similar to the oak
+tanning in process. The hemlock tan is a
+red shade. Hemlock produces a very hard
+and inflexible leather. It is modified by
+use of bleaching materials which are applied
+to the leather after being tanned. It is sold
+in sides without being trimmed, while the
+oak is sold in backs, with belly and head
+trimmed off.</p>
+
+<p>Hemlock leather is used extensively and
+almost principally for men’s and boys’
+stiff-soled, heavy shoes, where no flexibility
+is required or expected. Its principal desirable
+quality is its resistance to trituration,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+or being ground to a powder, and its use in
+men’s and boys’ pegged, nailed, or standard
+screw shoes is not in any way objectionable
+to the wearer. In fact, for this class of
+shoes, it is probably the best leather that
+can be used. But when hemlock is used
+in men’s and boys’ Goodyear welt shoes,
+where a flexible bottom is expected and
+required, it generally does not give good
+results. It cannot satisfactorily resist the
+constant flexing to which it is subjected,
+and after the sole is worn half through, the
+constant bending causes it to crack crosswise.
+On this account it becomes like a
+sieve, and has no power of resistance in
+water, and therefore it is not at all suited
+to flexible-bottomed shoes.</p>
+
+<p>In “union-tanned” hides, both oak and
+hemlock are used and the result is a compromise
+in both color and quality. This
+tan was first used about fifty years ago.
+Twenty-five years ago the union leather
+tanners began to experiment with bleaching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+materials to avoid the use of oak bark,
+which was becoming scarce and high priced,
+and eventually developed a system of tanning
+union leather with hemlock or kindred
+tanning agents, excluding oak. The red
+color and the hard texture were modified
+by bleaching the leather to the desired
+color and texture. This produces leather
+which has not the fine, close tannage of
+genuine oak leather and at the same time
+lacks the compact, hard character of hemlock
+leather. Union leather produced in
+this manner is a sort of mongrel or hybrid
+leather, being neither oak nor hemlock.
+On account of its economy in cutting
+qualities, however, it is largely used in the
+manufacture of medium-priced shoes where
+a certain degree of flexibility is required in
+the sole. This is particularly true of women’s
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Union leather is sold largely in backs and
+trimmed the same as oak, though not so
+closely.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sole leather is also made nowadays by
+tanning the hides by the chrome or chemical
+process. This leather is very durable
+and pliable and is used on athletic and sporting
+shoes. It has a light green color and
+is much lighter in weight than the oak or
+hemlock leather.</p>
+
+<p>Many kinds of hide are used for sole
+leather. This country does not produce
+nearly enough hides for the demand, and
+great quantities are imported from abroad,
+although most of the imported hides come
+from South America. Imported hides are
+divided into two general classes, dry hides
+and green-salted hides.</p>
+
+<p>Dry hides are of two kinds, the dry
+“flint,” which are dried carefully after
+being taken from the animal and cured
+without salt. These generally make good
+leather, although if sunburnt, the leather is
+not strong. “Dry-salted hides” are salted
+and cured to a dry state. Dry hides of
+both kinds are used for hemlock leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+only, although all hemlock leather is not
+made from dry hides.</p>
+
+<p>Green-salted hides are used in making
+oak-tanned leather as well as hemlock, and
+those used by United States tanners come
+largely from domestic points; but there is a
+variable amount imported each year from
+abroad, principally from Europe and South
+America. Green-salted hides are of two
+general classes, those branded and those
+free of brands.</p>
+
+<p>Cow and steer hides of the branded type
+are used by tanners of oak and union leather.
+Those not branded are used more largely for
+belting and upholstering leathers, a small
+part finding their way into hemlock leather.</p>
+
+<p>Sole leather remnants, strictly speaking,
+include such a wide variety of items that
+it is difficult to cover them all. Few people,
+however, realize the big range of usefulness
+of this class of stock. While not exactly a
+by-product, remnants are often classed as
+such. Under the class of sole leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+remnants are included sole leather offal,
+such as heads, bellies, shoulders, shanks,
+shins, men’s heeling, men’s half heeling,
+men’s and women’s three-and four-piece
+heeling, etc. Stock that cannot be used
+in the shoe business goes into the chemical
+and fertilizer trade, among other outlets.
+By a special acid process of burning this
+stock, ammonia is derived from it, which
+goes into fertilizer; and another by-product
+is sulphuric acid for the chemical trade.
+The amount of ammonia obtained is small,
+being about seven per cent of ammonia to
+a ton of sole leather scrap. This is mixed
+with fertilizer and sold mostly in the Southern
+States, and to a small extent in the West,
+there being a law in many of the Western
+States against the use of fertilizer made
+from leather products, on account of its
+low grade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus6" style="width: 465px;">
+<img src="images/illus6.jpg" width="465" height="650" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Sole Leather Offal</p>
+<p class="caption">Showing bellies, shoulders, etc. <i><a href="#Page_35">Page 35.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the disposition of offal, heads are used
+for taps, top lifts, and under lifts. Shoulders
+are used for outsoles and inner soles, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+bellies are used for medium to heavy taps
+and counters. Lightweight bellies and
+shanks are utilized for making box toes
+and counters.</p>
+
+<p>Shanks are also used for taps and under
+lifts. This stock is solid and substantial
+and well suited for these purposes. The
+bellies, being flexible, are the best part of
+the hide obtainable for inner soles.</p>
+
+<p>In cutting out soles, the manufacturer
+accumulates a considerable quantity of
+solid or center pieces, which are used for
+small top lifts, also for “Cuban” tops,
+thereby using up the bulk of the small
+heavy scrap that ordinarily would be sold
+for pieced heeling. There is also a demand
+for similar stock from the hardware trade,
+where it is used for making mallet and tool
+handles, also for wagon and carriage
+washers. Large quantities of men’s and
+women’s heeling and half heeling go to
+England, where it is cut up by heel manufacturers
+into lifts and sectional lifts for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+the English trade; there being a shortage
+of this class of offal there.</p>
+
+<p>The shoe manufacturer, after cutting his
+soles and taps, is obliged to skive them to
+get the particular iron he needs. This
+leaves what is known as a “flesh sole
+shape,” also a “tap shape.” These skivings
+are pasted together by another class of
+trade and again used for inner soling and
+taps in the cheaper grades of shoes. Smaller
+skivings, or waste, after sorting out the sole
+and tap shapes, are sold to the leather
+board trade. This eventually comes back
+to the shoe trade in the shape of leather
+board and is cut into heel lifts. The waste
+after cutting heel lifts is again resold to
+the leather board trade and makes another
+round trip to the shoe manufacturer. This
+illustration, as well as many others in the
+leather remnant business, demonstrates the
+scientific principle that nothing is ever
+entirely lost. In regard to pieced heel lifts,
+these are made in either two, three, or four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+sections. This refers to what are known as
+sectional heel lifts. Scrap leather is also
+used for shanking for the European trade.</p>
+
+<p>Soles and taps, known as rejects, that is,
+those thrown out by the high-grade trade,
+are sold to manufacturers of cheaper lines.
+A shoe manufacturer cutting his own soles
+and buying sole leather in sides, after sorting
+out the soles suited to his own requirements,
+will sell what he cannot use to remnant
+dealers, who in turn re-sell them to shoe
+manufacturers requiring that particular
+class of stock. The scrap leather, or remnant
+dealer, thus forms a useful link in the
+chain of distribution, furnishing a market
+where shoe and leather manufacturers may
+dispose of their surplus products to best
+advantage, and providing a source of supply
+for buyers who wish any particular article
+to suit their individual needs.</p>
+
+<p>Upper or dressed leather is made from
+kips or large calfskins. It is tanned and
+finished like all other forms of leather by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+variations of the foregoing process. Thick
+hides are often split thin by machinery,
+and the parts retained and finished separately.
+The parts of the leather from the
+hair side are most valuable and are called
+“grain” leather; the inner parts or “flesh
+splits” are made into a variety of different
+kinds of leather by waxing, oiling, and
+polishing.</p>
+
+<p>It is finished by scouring with brushes and
+then rubbed with a piece of glass, which
+removes creases and wrinkles and stretches
+the leather. Then it is stuffed with a
+mixture of oil, soap, and tallow, which is
+worked into it by rolling. Various finishes
+are given to leather, such as seal grain,
+buff, glove grain, oil grain, satin calf,
+russet, plain shoe, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Upper leathers are blacked by rubbing with
+a mixture of lampblack and oil or tallow, or
+with a solution of copperas and logwood.</p>
+
+<p>No tanning process, no matter how good
+or thorough, can make firm, serviceable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+wear-resisting leather out of all portions
+of any hide, because nature made some
+parts of every hide porous, spongy, and
+lacking in fibrous strength.</p>
+
+<p>Calfskins used by tanners are of several
+classes. American calfskins, taken off in
+the United States and Canada, are usually
+sold green pelted. Farmers raise only a
+small fraction of the calves born. Each
+cow must produce a calf in order to insure a
+maximum flow of milk. Most of the farmers
+keep cows to produce milk, hence they
+sell the young calves for veal and use their
+skins for high-grade calf leather.</p>
+
+<p>In European countries farmers fatten
+their calves before selling them in order to
+get a higher price for the veal. The skin
+is not so valuable for leather as the skin
+from younger calves, and it is used for
+lower-value leathers.</p>
+
+<p>Calfskin is not split. A heavier weight
+skin might be. It is shaved to a uniform
+thickness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Calf leather is divided into the following
+classes, depending upon the finish of the
+leather:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Boarded calf (made in both chrome and
+bark tannage).</p>
+
+<p>Wax calf, finished on the flesh side with a
+waxy, hard surface.</p>
+
+<p>Box calf is a proprietary name. It is
+boarded&mdash;rubbed with a board to raise the
+grain. It is known by minute, squarelike
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>Mat calf is a dull-finished calfskin, used
+more in topping.</p>
+
+<p>Suede calf is finished on flesh side. Most
+makes of suede calf are chromed, although
+there are some vegetable.</p>
+
+<p>Storm calf is a heavy skin, finished for
+winter wear. Considerable oil is used in
+finishing.</p>
+
+<p>French calf is finished on flesh side.</p>
+
+<p>Dry hides are obtained from Buenos
+Ayres, where the cattle are raised on the
+plains. This city exports a large quantity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+hides, dry, salted, and cured by smoking.
+The hides of cows generally yield inferior
+grain leather; but South American cowhides
+may be worked for light sole leather.</p>
+
+<p>Calves’ hides are thinner, but when well
+tanned, curried, and dressed, they yield a
+very soft and supple leather for boots and
+shoes. They are finished with wax and
+oil on the flesh side, and can also be finished
+on the hair (grain of skin).</p>
+
+<p>Calves’ skin (green salted).</p>
+
+<p>Paris City calfskins. These are obtained
+in three grades&mdash;light, medium, and heavy.</p>
+
+<p>Light grades run from four to five,
+or seven to eight pounds; medium grades
+run from seven to nine pounds; heavy
+grades run from nine to twelve pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Patent leather may be made from colt,
+calf, or kid skin. Coltskin is the skin of
+young horses, or split skins of mature
+horses.</p>
+
+<p>Patent colt and kid are used for the most
+part in the medium fine grades, and patent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+side (cowhide) is used in the medium and
+cheaper grades. Chrome tanned are used entirely
+in the manufacture of patent leather.</p>
+
+<p>Patent leather, as it appears in shoes,
+may be described either as varnished leather,
+coltskin, or kid, and sometimes the French
+use calfskin. The process is largely a
+secret one, although there is no longer any
+patent on the principle of the same. It is
+made by shaving the skins on the flesh side
+or hair side to a uniform thickness. Then
+it is de-greased to put the skin in condition
+to receive the finish and protect the same
+from peeling off. Successive coats of liquid
+black varnish are applied, the first coats
+being dried and rubbed down, so as to work
+the liquid thoroughly into the fibers of the
+leather. The last coat is applied with a brush,
+and baked to from one hundred and twenty
+to one hundred and forty degrees Fahrenheit
+for thirty-six hours and then allowed to dry
+in direct sunlight for from six to ten hours,
+which seems to be essential to remove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+the sticky feeling. Various ingredients are
+used in making the different varnishes, the
+first coating consisting of naphtha, wood
+alcohol, amyl acetate, etc. The black
+varnishes consist of linseed oil and various
+other mixtures, heated in iron kettles. The
+final coating is a naphtha preparation resembling
+japanning material. The hide is
+stretched on a frame during the varnishing
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost impossible to tell the difference
+in quality of shiny leather by appearance,
+although in general the leather on which
+the grain shows through the varnish will
+prove more serviceable than that on which
+the finish is so thick as to hide the grain.
+Great care must be exercised in resewing
+patent leather shoes that have been exposed
+during the cold weather, as the cold has
+a tendency to freeze the finish. Patent
+leather, like all varnished coatings, is liable
+to crack. No one can guarantee it not to do
+so. The kid patent leather is more elastic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+and porous than other kinds. The serious
+objection to the use of patent leather for a
+shoe is its air-tightness. This makes it both
+unhygienic and uncomfortable. The kid
+patent leather is the only patent leather
+that has not this objection.</p>
+
+<p>Kid is a term applied to shoe leather
+made from the skins of mature goats. The
+skin of the young goat or kid is made into
+the thin, flexible leather used for kid gloves,
+which is too delicate for general use in
+shoes. The goats from which come the
+supply of leather used in this country for
+women’s and children’s fine shoes are not
+the common, domesticated kind known in
+this country, but are wild goats or allied
+species partially domesticated, and are
+found in the hill regions of India, the mountains
+of Europe, portions of South America,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>There are about sixty-eight recognized
+kinds of goatskins that are imported from
+all over the world. The Brazilian, Buenos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+Ayres, Andean, Mexican, French, Russian,
+Indian, and Chinese are a few of the many
+kinds that are known as such. Each
+particular species of goat hide possesses
+its own peculiarities of texture. The thickness
+and grain differ according to the environment
+in which the animal has been
+raised. It is peculiar that those raised in
+cold climates do not have as thick skins as
+those raised in warmer climates, for the long,
+thick hair apparently takes the strength.</p>
+
+<p>We may wonder where all the skins come
+from that are made up into glazed kid,
+mat kid, and suede, at the rate of several
+thousand dozen every day. The great proportion
+of the skins are <i>goatskins</i>. These
+are almost all imported from abroad, where
+the animals are slaughtered and disposed of
+much the same as we dispose of beef and
+veal here. Sheepskins and carbarettas, the
+hides of animals that are a cross between
+sheep and goats, are also used.</p>
+
+<p>The finer grades of kid and goatskins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+which are tanned in large quantities in
+New England, come from the Far East.</p>
+
+<p>In China there are two great ports from
+which skins are shipped, Tientsin and
+Shanghai. Back in the interior, starting
+from a point about twelve hundred miles
+from the sea, collectors make their rounds
+twice a year.</p>
+
+<p>The breeder of goats kills his flock just
+before the collector is due, skins the animals
+on the hillside, preserves the meat for food,
+and with the kidskins, which have been
+partly dried, wrapped in a bundle carried
+upon the back, or upon a pack animal, the
+breeder makes his way to the station. It
+may be that there are a half hundred
+breeders awaiting the coming of the collector
+and he pays them the market price for the
+skins.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever the collector has a sufficient supply
+to make it profitable to ship, he bales the
+skins and then sends them over the thousand
+mile journey along the river to the seaport.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+From Tientsin or Shanghai they are
+taken by tramp steamers, which reach
+Eastern ports by way of the Suez Canal,
+and on the trip the steamers make several
+ports, so that it is from six to ten weeks
+before the skins reach America.</p>
+
+<p>Another method of importing is to have
+the raw material shipped across the Pacific
+and then transferred to a railroad, but the
+difference in cost to the manufacturer is so
+great that it is unprofitable.</p>
+
+<p>The China goatskins are rated as among
+the finest in the world and when tanned
+they make the highest-grade shoe.</p>
+
+<p>Then there are mocha skins, which come
+from Tripoli, Arabia, and Northern Africa.
+In those places the method of collection is
+practically the same as in China.</p>
+
+<p>The two best-known grades are the
+Hodieda and the Benghazi. They derive
+their designations from the exporting cities.
+Hodieda is located in the southwestern
+part of Arabia on the Red Sea, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+Benghazi is in Barca, one of the provinces
+of Tripoli.</p>
+
+<p>Other goatskins are produced in India
+and Russia, and millions of skins are exported
+annually from Bombay, Madras, and
+Calcutta. These skins are not brought
+direct to America, but are transshipped at
+Marseilles or London.</p>
+
+<p>The jobbers in Europe or India occupy
+rather a unique position, for according to
+their practice it is almost impossible for
+them to suffer financial losses in dealing
+with an American tanner. The latter, when
+he wishes to arrange for his year’s supply of
+raw material, negotiates with an agent in
+Boston, with whom he signs a contract
+for so many skins. Then it is necessary for
+the tanner to either purchase with money
+equal to the face value or secure by loans
+letters of credit from Boston banking
+houses which have European connections.</p>
+
+<p>Before the skins are exported, the jobber
+has his money from the European banking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+concerns and the bills of lading are forwarded
+to the Boston bankers, who turn them over
+to the tanners, and, when the occasion
+requires, obtain from the tanners what is
+known as a deed of trust.</p>
+
+<p>All goatskins are tanned by the same
+chrome tanning process, whether the finish
+is to be glazed or mat. The proportions of
+chemicals vary according to the texture of
+the skin, and according to the grain.</p>
+
+<p>The process of tanning is quicker than
+the tanning of heavier hides, and all varieties
+of tannage are used, the chrome
+methods having come into very general use.
+There are many kinds of finish given, such
+as glazed, dull, mat, patent, etc. One
+quality that distinguishes goat leather, the
+“kid” of shoemaking, is the fact that the
+fibers of the skin are interlaced and interlocked
+in all directions. The finished skins
+as they come from the tannery, by whatever
+process they may be put through, are sorted
+for size and quality, a number of grades<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+being made. Instead of ripping straight
+through, like a piece of cloth, or splitting
+apart in layers, as sheepskin will do when
+made into leather, the kid holds together
+firmly in all directions.</p>
+
+<p>Glazed kid is colored after it is tanned by
+submerging it in the color, a very important
+process. The glossy surface is obtained by
+“striking” or burnishing on the grain side.
+It is made in black and colors, particularly
+tan, and is known by about as many names
+as there are manufacturers of it.</p>
+
+<p>Glazed kid is used in the uppers of shoes,
+making a fine, soft shoe that is particularly
+comfortable in warm weather, and is said
+to prevent cold feet in winter, owing to
+unrestricted circulation.</p>
+
+<p>Mat kid is a soft, dull black kid, the
+softness being the result of treatment with
+beeswax or olive oil. It is finished on the
+grain side the same as glazed kid, and is
+used principally for shoe toppings. It is
+very similar in appearance to mat calf and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+is often used in preference to it, as it is of
+much lighter weight, and about as strong.</p>
+
+<p>Suede kid is not tanned, but is subjected
+to a feeding process in an egg solution,
+called “tawing,” to make it soft and pliable.
+The skin is stretched and the color is applied
+by “brushing” (with a brush). The color
+does not permeate the skin, but is merely
+on the surface. Suedes are made from
+carbarettas and split sheepskins. Suedes
+are used very extensively in making slippers,
+and come in a great variety of colors.</p>
+
+<p>A castor kid is a Persian lambskin finished
+the same as a suede, and is used in
+making very soft, fine-appearing leather&mdash;like
+glove leather. The skin is of such a
+very light weight that it has to be “backed
+up” before being made into shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Fancy leathers are used extensively for
+toppings of shoes having patent leather
+vamps. Facings are selected from fancy
+leathers to make the inside of a shoe attractive
+and to increase its wearing quality.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+Leathers of dull or glazed finish are used in
+typical shoe colors.</p>
+
+<p>Miscellaneous kinds of kids are as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><i>A.</i> Kangaroo</li>
+<li><i>B.</i> Buckskin</li>
+<li><i>C.</i> Sheepskin</li>
+<li><i>D.</i> Chamois</li>
+<li><i>E.</i> Cordovan</li>
+<li><i>F.</i> Splits</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>a.</i> Seal Grain</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>b.</i> Buff</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>c.</i> Oil Grain</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>d.</i> Satin Calf</li>
+<li><i>G.</i> Enamel</li>
+<li><i>H.</i> Sides</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Kangaroo is the skin of the animal of that
+name.</p>
+
+<p>Buckskin is the skin of certain deer.</p>
+
+<p>Sheepskin is the skin of the familiar domestic
+sheep.</p>
+
+<p>Chamois is the skin of the animal of that
+name and by courtesy the specially treated
+skins of certain domestic animals.</p>
+
+<p>It is a simple matter to recognize a kid-skin
+among the various kinds of upper
+leather, because of its very light weight
+and pliability.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>During the winter, leather, in drying,
+is apt to become frozen, especially where no
+well-equipped drying loft is provided. Such
+leather becomes weak and limp if thawed
+out too rapidly. In freezing, the water in
+the hides which have been hung up to dry
+is forced out and stretches apart the hide
+fiber. The wetter the hides, therefore, the
+more demoralized they will be by the frost.
+The treatment of rushing the frozen leather
+into a warm room is inadvisable; the best
+method is to allow the hides to hang as they
+were and to tightly close all openings to
+the outside air. In case this is impossible,
+it is best to place the leather in a heap, in a
+room where the temperature will not fall
+below the freezing point, and to cover it
+with a cloth. In case the leather rolls up,
+it should be moistened before the roll becomes
+greater than is customary; it will
+thus become firmer throughout. Some upper
+leather and especially sheepskins for lining
+purposes are aided by freezing, since the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+leather becomes white and plump and also
+is of a bright color, though the durability
+is somewhat lessened.</p>
+
+<p>The popularity of white leather for shoes
+is increasing wonderfully. There is good
+reason for this. The modern white shoes
+have a stylish and fashionable appearance
+which has won the hearts of women of all
+ages and conditions, and when they want
+a thing, there is always alertness in supplying
+it. The new love for white shoes is
+interesting to trace. Years ago white
+leather for shoes was made principally
+from deerskins. But this leather, while
+attractive when new, would stretch soon
+after being worn, and take on a yellowish
+tinge. Besides, the price of such shoes was
+very high, and it is not surprising that they
+became supplanted by the cheaper, but
+attractive and useful, white canvas shoes,
+which became quick sellers during the season.</p>
+
+<p>It is greatly to the credit of our tanners
+that they have been able to perfect and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+put on the market a white leather for shoes
+which answers all requirements satisfactorily.
+This leather is made from cowhides;
+the white color will not fade nor turn
+yellow, and best of all, the leather can be
+easily cleaned and made to look good as
+new. Another advantage is that such
+leathers can be used in shoes that sell at
+popular prices.</p>
+
+<p>There are many common, commercial
+grades of upper leather.</p>
+
+<p>Willow calf is a fine, soft, chrome tannage
+of calfskin. It is sold in three colors,
+light tan, ox blood, and olive-brown. The
+distinguishing features of this leather are
+its durability and the fact that it always
+keeps soft and pliable. It is adapted to the
+highest quality of men’s and women’s shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Box calf is a storm-calf leather of highest
+quality. It is a waterproof, chrome tannage
+in a medium tan color, with a dull
+finish. This is the best leather obtainable
+for rough, outdoor wear, walking shoes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+hunting boots, etc. It is also adapted to
+men’s and women’s very fine footwear.
+There is a growing demand for this kind
+of shoe. In the uppers of the best storm
+shoes you will always find box calf.</p>
+
+<p>Royal kid is a black chrome calfskin,
+dull finished with a smooth, natural grain
+of fine texture, soft and pliable. It is used
+for vamps and whole shoes of the highest
+grades for men and women, and is a very
+popular material for the fall and winter
+shoe. The desirable qualities of fine calf
+leather are making the demand for it
+grow faster than the supply of raw material
+increases.</p>
+
+<p>Tan royal is a tan color, chrome calf
+leather, smooth finish, fine grain, excellent
+cutting qualities, uniform, of medium
+rich tan shades. Tan calf leather is very
+attractive and the tan shoe is now a staple
+product.</p>
+
+<p>Cadet kid is a bright black, smooth-finished,
+chrome calfskin for men’s and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+women’s fine shoes. This tannage and
+finish give a remarkable cutting value.
+The stability of this stock is entirely unique
+and makes the finished shoe stand up,
+keeping its much desired shape through the
+different tests of manufacturing. It is said
+to be the best calfskin, by the best judges,
+the shoe manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>Bronko patent is distinguished for its
+fine, coltskin-effect grain. It has a rich
+and lustrous black patent finish. The
+results obtained from bronko patent in its
+workings through the shoe factory and its
+wearing qualities afterward have never been
+equaled. Bronko is one of the finest results
+of the development of chrome patent
+leather.</p>
+
+<p>Cadet kid side is a chrome side leather
+that closely imitates the calfskin, called
+cadet kid. It has a bright, lustrous finish,
+and a remarkably fine grain. It is surprisingly
+like fine calf leather in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Cadet calf sides are similar to cadet kid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+sides with the exception of a boarded finish.
+This is another black chrome, side leather
+which comes very near to a calfskin.</p>
+
+<p>Mat royal chrome side is a special finish,
+closely resembling calf, used for the tops
+of men’s and women’s medium fine shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Black hawk patent is a well-tanned,
+well-finished patent leather for medium-priced
+women’s shoes and for tipping.</p>
+
+<p>Colored box chrome side, boarded, is a
+substitute for willow calf.</p>
+
+<p>Black box chrome side, boarded, is a
+substitute for box calf in medium fine shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Kangaroo kid side is a back-tanned, dull,
+smooth, black leather nearly like calf, used
+in the tops of men’s shoes, and men’s and
+women’s whole shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Waterproof black is a high quality
+leather of great durability for men’s and
+boys’ heavy shoes. Waterproof brown is
+similar to waterproof black, except in color,
+and is a leather made for hard service.</p>
+
+<p>Amhide black is a soft, dry, high-grade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+tannage for lightweight, comfortable, sporting,
+work, and hard-wear shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Amhide russet is like black amhide in
+everything but color.</p>
+
+<p>Hercules storm chrome is a leather distinguished
+for its fine grain and good appearance
+of medium heavy weight.</p>
+
+<p>Boris is a heavy-weight, soft, waterproof
+leather for men’s medium quality shoes. It
+is finished in three colors and black.</p>
+
+<p>Zulu is a medium-priced leather, which
+makes a very fine wearing heavy shoe. It is
+made in two colors and black.</p>
+
+<p>Bison is a colored or black-finished
+leather, of a high grade, very comfortable
+and durable.</p>
+
+<p>Ottawa is of two colors and black finished,
+and is suitable for high quality, heavy,
+rough shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Sheboygan calf is a heavily stuffed, soft,
+waterproof leather. It is of two colors and
+black.</p>
+
+<p>Dongola calf is a black leather used for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+durable, medium-priced, heavy, outdoor
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Belt knife splits are sold in several tannages
+and finishes of the most improved
+manufacture. These splits are sorted in
+all weights. Uniform selection is maintained,
+and the quality in every way is of
+the highest order.</p>
+
+<p>Oxford calf union splits is one of the
+highest grades of grain-finished, union splits.
+It has an extremely soft and fine appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Cambridge calf union splits have a most
+careful and high-grade finish, but somewhat
+firmer than Oxford calf.</p>
+
+<p>Flesh splits are sold in two tannages.
+These are the highest-grade flesh splits
+that it is possible to make, and they are a
+long distance ahead of the ordinary flesh
+splits, their improved finish making them
+a modern and largely used substitute for
+satin.</p>
+
+<p>Ottawa black and russet splits include
+a variety of printed splits, used for shoes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+in combination with grain leather and for
+whole shoes. They are selected in many
+weights.</p>
+
+<p>Flexible splits for Goodyear, gem, McKay
+inner soles, is leather that offers the greatest
+advantages to large and small buyers. It
+is the product of six different tanneries,
+assorted in all the usual weights. Great
+care is taken in the manufacture of these
+splits to adapt them perfectly to the shoe
+manufacturer’s needs.</p>
+
+<p>Flexible bends are used by manufacturers
+of Goodyear welt shoes requiring a straight
+Goodyear or gem inner sole. They find
+these bends of great advantage on account
+of the small amount of waste, the strength
+and desirability of stock. They are made
+in six tannages.</p>
+
+<p>Chrome flexible splits for inner soles furnish
+a very strong and durable leather for
+inner soles, taps, and outer soles.</p>
+
+<p>Ooze gusset splits, colored, give a very
+low-priced leather suitable for gussets, bellows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+tongues for high-cut boots, also for
+the quarter-linings of Oxfords.</p>
+
+<p>Ooze vamp splits, black and colored, are
+strong, durable, low-priced leathers suitable
+for cheap work shoes where waterproof
+qualities are not required.</p>
+
+<p>Chrome-tanned embossed splits, colored,
+are made in a great variety of patterns for
+cheap shoes and other work where leather
+is required. They are durable and low
+priced.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Leather for Belting</span></h3>
+
+<p>A native steer about four years old,
+killed in the month of October, affords the
+best example of a good hide for belting
+manufacture, that is, for the transmission
+of power from pulley to pulley. At this
+age and at this season the steer is in prime
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the great and enormous
+strain put upon belting, and the necessity
+for its running true upon the pulley, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+should be of the highest grade possible,
+combining great strength to prevent
+stretching, and evenness of grain to insure
+long wear; therefore only hides of selected
+steers are serviceable, and these in turn
+are rejected when they contain any blemishes
+or cuts or other imperfections. After
+a hide is accepted for belting purposes, it is
+subjected to a generous trimming, the head,
+neck, legs, and belly being cut away, leaving
+only a small and compact section embracing
+from two to two and a quarter feet on
+each side of the backbone and extending
+about six feet along the same from the
+tail forward. This is the portion of the hide
+where the fibers are closely and firmly
+knit together, and where the vitality is
+the greatest, due to the close proximity of
+the network of nerves radiating from each
+side of the spine to all parts of the hide.</p>
+
+<p>The hides of the bull and cow of every
+breed are inferior for belting purposes to
+that of the steer. The hide of the bull is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+coarse and hard, with the neck very heavy
+and full of wrinkles, causing a variation in
+the thickness and run of the grain of the
+leather. The hide of the cow is thin, does
+not run uniform in thickness, being heavier
+on the hips than at the shoulder, and is
+lacking in the firmness necessary in good
+belting. The sharp angles of the hip bones
+of a cow also tend to form pockets in the
+hide.</p>
+
+<p>After the hide has been trimmed, it is
+subject to the process of “currying.” All
+membranes or particles of flesh adhering
+to the hide are removed by a machine which
+shaves the membrane, etc., off, with lightning
+rapidity. The leather is then washed
+and scoured by machine, which removes all
+dirt still adhering to the hide. After the
+leather is thoroughly cleaned and while in
+a damp state, it is placed upon the table,
+and greases, composed of pure animal oil,
+are worked into the leather on both the
+grain and the flesh side with brushes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+This is carried on in the cold state. It is
+then put into a large revolving wheel
+containing water heated to a high degree,
+which causes the leather to swell and pores
+to open. The leather is then taken out
+and put into another wheel containing
+heavy mineral oil and heated several degrees
+greater than the water, and tumbled about
+in the wheel until the heavy oil fills the
+distended pores and fibers. After this, the
+leather is allowed to dry.</p>
+
+<p>The hides are allowed to remain for
+several months in the tan liquor until the
+green hide is changed into leather.</p>
+
+<p>After the hide has been changed into
+leather, it is stretched. To properly stretch
+the leather for belting purposes, it must
+first be cut so as to remove that part which
+shows the markings of the backbone of
+the steer.</p>
+
+<p>Leather is stretched by placing it in
+clamps, every part of the piece getting the
+same pull. (The leather is put into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+clamps while damp, as damp leather will
+give the greatest amount of stretching.)</p>
+
+<p>When the stretching process is completed
+and the leather has thoroughly dried in
+stretching clamps, it is released. These
+pieces of leather are quite dry, very firm,
+and not very pliable. The leather is now
+moistened in order that it shall be more
+pliable as it passes through the finishing
+processes. After the water has soaked into
+the leather (called sammied), it becomes very
+soft. It is then subjected to a roller under
+heavy pressure to take all the unevenness
+out of the hide. It is next thoroughly
+dried, causing the fibers to shrink; then
+again moistened and put through a polishing
+machine, which acts on the same principle
+as the rolling jack.</p>
+
+<p>The sides and centers are now put through
+a cutting machine, which reduces the leather
+to strips of different sizes.</p>
+
+<p>Belts are put together by cementing the
+parts. Belt cement is a most powerful adhesive.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+It actually governs the strength of
+the belt, as the belt is as strong as the weakest
+part of the joint.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Rawhide Products</span></h3>
+
+<p>Rawhide is used for a great many purposes.
+After the side of leather has been
+trimmed of the portions that cannot be
+used, it is sold to the lace maker. He
+measures the same in a machine.</p>
+
+<p>The trimmings from the side of the hide
+may be used for a mallet head or other
+tools made of leather. The most common
+products of the strong section of rawhide
+strings are shoe strings, belting laces, and
+parts of harnesses. It is also made into
+leather shoe strings that are used in the
+logging camps.</p>
+
+<p>When the hide is selected for the rawhide
+purposes, it is first passed to a de-hairing
+machine, where all the hair is removed.
+It is then fleshed; that is, all loose membrane<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+and any flesh that may have adhered
+to the hide are removed from the flesh side.
+The rawhide is then placed in a special
+bath for the purpose of opening the pores,
+before the oils and greases are added to it.
+After this bath, it is dried thoroughly in a
+hot box and then put into wheels which
+mill the greases into the hide.</p>
+
+<p>The hide, which is made hard by this
+drying process, is put through breakers,
+where it is thoroughly worked into soft
+and pliable form.</p>
+
+<p>The hide is next passed to the setting-out
+machine, which finishes all forms of leather&mdash;by
+condensing and strengthening the
+fibers. Special oils are applied to both
+the grain and flesh side of the hide. It is
+finished by hand and cut into laces. This
+hand finishing is usually done in order to
+reject all parts that are not perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Haired leather is tanned by acid&mdash;a
+quicker method. The hide is split into
+sides and tanned with the belly stock on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+them, which is used for car straps, cowbell
+straps, trunk straps, and riding bridles.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The By-products of a Leather Belting
+Factory</span></h3>
+
+<p>There are a great many by-products in
+a leather belting factory, all of which are
+used. The finest strips are used for whip
+lashes, small pieces are used for the French
+heel, and the extremely small pieces are
+used in leather mats.</p>
+
+<p>The by-product from the belting bull,
+which is about fifty per cent, is used for shoe
+leather and leather straps. There is considerable
+leather taken from the belting
+bull for certain harness work. The belly
+is thick and porous though not tough, and
+is used for halters, cow bridles, and other
+parts of harness where the strain is not
+great.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Round Belt Making</span></h3>
+
+<p>Round belt is made from the best belting,
+but while the strain on round belting is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+not severe, the leather must be soft and
+pliable. It is selected from regular stock
+of native steer hide.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Properties of Tanned Leather</span></h3>
+
+<p>Leather that has been tanned is made
+up of a great many little bundles of fibers.
+The coarser and stronger fibers are on the
+inside, and the very fine and smoothly laid
+fibers are on the outside. These fibers are
+so intertwined and so elastic that when the
+leather bends these bundles play on one
+another. On account of the smoothness
+of the surface it may be polished, and
+beautiful finishes and effects obtained on
+the leather.</p>
+
+<p>The elasticity of leather (which is due
+to the elasticity of its fibers) allows it to
+stretch to a great extent. The tendency
+to return to its original position is very
+strong at the beginning, but grows weaker
+if the strain is continued at any one point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+Of course, in stretching the leather, there is
+always a corresponding drawing in another
+part of the shoe, which gives it a worn and
+baggy appearance.</p>
+
+<p>When shoes are removed from the feet,
+they are oftentimes damp, due to perspiration.
+The stretched or strained fibers are
+apt to shrink and return to their original
+position. In order to avoid this, it is
+necessary to place shoe-trees in them.</p>
+
+<p>When the linings of shoes are exposed to
+friction and excretion of perspiration from
+the feet of some people, they deteriorate.
+This is due to the fact that the acids of
+perspiration (acetic, formic and butyric
+acids) have become so concentrated that
+they act on the fibers of the leather. These
+acids exert a burning effect, causing the
+fibers to lose their elasticity so that they
+no longer play on one another, but become
+fastened to each other. The result is that
+they become hard, and any attempt to
+bend the leather tears them apart; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+once the union of fibers is destroyed it
+cannot be repaired.</p>
+
+<p>In order to keep the fibers in such a
+condition (soft and flexible), they should be
+lubricated often (twice a week) with a liquid
+followed by a wax paste, usually called
+shoe dressing. When a brush or a piece of
+cloth is rubbed over the surface of leather
+containing the shoe lubricants (shoe polish),
+it produces a smooth surface called a
+“shine.”</p>
+
+<p>Compounds which shine without friction
+produced by brush or cloth should not be
+used, as they are simply varnishes and
+one coat on top of the other destroys the
+leather.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Substitutes for Leather</span></h3>
+
+<p>In olden times our fathers and mothers
+used handmade shoes, and wore them till
+they had passed their period of usefulness.
+At that time the consumption did not equal
+the production of leather. Knowledge of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+conditions in the great western countries
+to-day will show that many of the big
+cattle-raising sections, once famed for their
+cattle, have been taken up by homesteaders
+and are now producing grain instead of
+cattle. But since the appearance of the
+machine-made shoe, different styles of
+shoes are placed on the market at different
+seasons, to correspond to the change of
+style of clothing, and shoes are often
+discarded before they are worn out. We
+have not been able thus far to utilize
+cast-off leather as the shoddy mill uses
+wool and silk, etc. The result is that
+the consumption of leather is above the
+production, therefore substitutes must be
+used.</p>
+
+<p>In shoe materials there is at present an
+astonishing diversity and variety. Every
+known leather is used from kid to cowhide,
+and textile fabrics have developed rapidly,
+especially in the making of women’s and
+children’s shoes. The satins, velvets, serges,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+and other fabrics that are used in the
+manufacture of shoes must be firm and
+well woven, and are usually supplied with
+a backing of firm, canvas-like fabric, to
+give strength.</p>
+
+<p>As to wearing quality the old saying,
+“There is nothing like leather,” still holds
+good; but people do not buy shoes for their
+wearing qualities alone in these days. Style
+and intrinsic beauty are considered, and
+have a cash value just as in any other
+article of apparel.</p>
+
+<p>Each fabric is made of two sets of threadlike
+yarn woven at right angles to each
+other. They are called the warp and filling
+(weft). The warp is composed of yarn
+running the longest way of the fabric, and
+filling runs the short way of the fabric.
+Since the warp is the body of the cloth, it
+is its strongest part and all fabric in shoes
+should be placed warpwise across the foot
+of the wearer, so as to be able to resist the
+great strain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Various attempts have been made for
+legislation to prohibit the treating of leather
+by chemicals or the use of substances to
+increase its weight. Complaints have been
+made by a number of shoe manufacturers
+that the excessive use of glucose (a form
+of sugar) in sole leather has resulted in
+injuring the leather and fabrics composing
+the uppers of shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Representatives of large leather firms
+claim that the methods of tanning sole
+leather have radically changed during the
+last few years, and that the small quantity
+of glucose and epsom salts that is used
+to-day in finishing sole leather is absolutely
+necessary to its value, and is in no sense
+an adulterant or weighting material. Shoe
+manufacturers, on the other hand, claim
+that in some cases larger amounts of glucose,
+salt, etc., have been added to the soft
+leather from the belly of the animal, in
+order to give it the desired stiffness. On
+account of the high price of leather, various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+attempts have been made to find a substitute
+for it. Most of these substitutes consist
+of strong cloth treated with some
+drying oil like linseed, the oil having previously
+been mixed with other solid substances.</p>
+
+<p>A prize of five thousand francs has been
+awarded to a Belgian inventor, Louis
+Gevaert, for his unusually superior artificial
+leather. The process consists in the more
+or less intimate impregnation of stout cloth
+with tannic albuminoid substances. Shoes
+made of this are said to possess not only the
+resistance and elasticity of natural leather,
+but its durability of wear. Moreover, they
+are much cheaper, costing, including manufacture,
+only four francs (about eighty
+cents) and being sold at about six francs
+per pair.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_FOUR">CHAPTER FOUR<br />
+<span class="smaller">THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT</span></h2>
+
+<p>Very few people, even among those
+engaged in the shoe industry, know
+much of the anatomy of the foot. Yet
+it is evident that they ought to know something
+about it in order to furnish the foot
+with a proper covering.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing that strikes a person on
+looking at the human foot is its large proportion
+of bone. On pressing its top surface
+and that of its inner side, the amount of
+flesh will be found to be very small, indeed.
+The same is true of the inner and outer
+ankle. The extreme back of the ankle has
+scarcely any flesh covering. The most
+fleshy portions of the foot are its outer side,
+the base of the heel and the ball of the big
+toe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The reason for this disposition of flesh
+is to protect or cover those parts of the foot
+that support the body by coming in contact
+with the ground. They act as pads and
+lessen the concussion. The abundance of
+flesh on the outer side of the foot is to protect
+or act as a shield against danger. The
+inside of the foot is not exposed as much as
+the outside.</p>
+
+<p>The foot is divided into three parts,
+the toes, the waist and instep, and the heel
+and ankle. The largest bone of the foot
+is the heel bone (called calcaneum). It is
+the bone that projects backward from the
+principal joint and forms the main portion
+of the heel. When a person is flat-footed,
+this bone is thrust farther backward than
+nature intended to have it. The connection
+between it and the tarsal bones is lost.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus7" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus7.jpg" width="420" height="270" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">The Bones and Joints of the Human Foot.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus8" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/illus8.jpg" width="200" height="350" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle. <i>See <a href="#Page_86">page 86</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The top bone of the foot is the astragalus,
+and it forms the main joint upon which
+the process of walking depends. This bone
+has a smooth, circular, upper surface that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+connects it with the main bone of the lower
+leg. It is absolutely necessary that this
+bone should be in perfect harmony (relation)
+with the others in order to insure
+comfort and health. If the arches of the
+foot are forced out of position, up or down
+or sidewise, this joint is not permitted to
+do its work normally.</p>
+
+<p>Rheumatism is a frequent evil of an
+injured joint. Hence the necessity of absolutely
+normal action, unhampered by ill-fitting
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p>The principal arch of the instep is called
+the cuneiform or tarsal bone. Persons are
+troubled with defective insteps to quite an
+extent. Misshapen joints at this point
+due to shoes that do not fit and consequently
+disarrange and throw out of position
+the delicate, natural structure, work great
+havoc with the comfort of the foot. Nine
+joints cluster at this point.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the toes are called the
+metatarsal bones and phalanges. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+can be no doubt that nature intended
+mankind to walk in his bare feet, and in
+that event the phalanges of the foot would
+occupy a much more important part than
+is now the case as a result of modern civilization.
+There are nineteen bones in the
+foot, and the disturbance of one or more of
+these will serve to upset the entire foot by
+throwing out of relationship the general
+unit of work devolving upon the whole
+number of joints and bones. Each joint
+has its accompaniment of muscles, and
+each lack of alignment of bones and joints
+provokes discord and lack of harmony in
+the muscular action.</p>
+
+<p>Muscles are attached to bones, and by
+their contraction or extension the bones
+are moved. Very few movements are
+effected by means of a single muscle. The
+muscles of the foot in nearly all cases are
+in combination, and are so complex in their
+action that the best surgeons find it difficult
+to describe them satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The chief characteristics of the foot are
+its spring and elasticity. While the foot
+has wonderful powers of resistance and
+adaptability, it is the shoemaker’s duty not
+to strain the same, but to provide for each
+action.</p>
+
+<p>The most sensitive part or the one part
+that is most susceptible of injury is the
+big toe. This is due to the fact that the
+tendency of the foot in walking is to travel
+toward the toe of the boot, and in a word
+to press into rather than shun danger. The
+shoemaker provides for this, first, by allowing
+sufficient length of sole to extend beyond
+the termination of the toe, and second, by
+the fit of the upper and the preparation of
+the sole. In this way, if the toe of the
+shoe strikes against a hard substance, the
+big toe of the foot will remain untouched.</p>
+
+<p>Seventy-five per cent of the people have
+more or less trouble with their feet. Some
+of these troubles are caused by the manufacturer
+putting on the market shoes whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+lines look handsome and attractive to the
+eye, but are lacking in any other good
+features. Shoes that fit properly should
+have plenty of room from the large toe
+joint to the end of the toes, and also should
+have plenty of tread, especially at this
+point.</p>
+
+<p>A mere glance at our bare foot will show
+conclusively that pointed-toe boots are
+false in the theory of design. The toes of a
+foot when off duty touch each other gently.
+When they are called on to assist us in
+walking or in supporting our body, they
+spread out&mdash;although not to any great
+extent. This, then, being the action, no
+sensible maker of boots and shoes would
+attempt to restrain them. Box or puff-toe
+shoes allow the greatest freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The pointed-toe shoes, which join the
+vamp to the upper immediately over the
+big toe joint, exceedingly high heels, and
+thick waist shoes are not for the best interests
+of the foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The evils of ill-fitting shoes are corns,
+bunions, and calluses.</p>
+
+<p>Corns are mainly due to pressure and
+friction. When the layers of skin become
+hardened, they form a corn, which is merely
+a growth of dead skin that has become
+hard in the center. This hardened spot
+acts like a foreign body to the inflamed parts.</p>
+
+<p>A hard corn is formed more by friction
+than pressure. It is produced by the
+constant rubbing of a tight or small shoe
+against the projecting parts of some prominent
+bony part, as the last joints on the
+third, fourth, and little toe. When this
+action continues, it produces inflammation.
+Rest&mdash;as relieving the feet of the friction&mdash;decreases
+this inflammation, leaving a layer
+of hardened flesh. Renewed action reproduces
+the same effects, leaving behind a
+second layer of hardened flesh. This continued
+action and reaction brings on a
+callus, rising above the surface of the
+skin. This increases from its base. An<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+ordinary hard corn may be removed by
+scraping up the callous skin around its
+border, and prying out carefully with a
+knife. Soft corns are chiefly the result of
+pressure or friction. These corns are soft
+and spongy elevations on the parts of the
+skin subjected to pressure. Soft corns
+are mostly found on the inner side of the
+smaller toes. Those on the surface of
+joints by mechanical action will become
+hard.</p>
+
+<p>The blood corn is excessively painful.
+It is the result of an ordinary corn forcibly
+displacing the blood vessels surrounding it,
+and causing them to rest upon its surface.</p>
+
+<p>The bunion is an inflammatory swelling
+generally to be found on the big toe joint.
+The chief cause of bunions is known to be
+the wearing of boots or shoes of insufficient
+length. The foot, meeting with resistance
+in front and behind, is robbed of its natural
+actions, the result being that the big toe
+is forced upward, and subjected to continuous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+friction and pressure. The wearing
+of narrow-toe boots that prevent the outward
+expansion of the toe is another cause.</p>
+
+<p>The comparisons of quantities are often
+called ratios. The ratios of the different
+parts of the foot to the height are different
+in the infant from that of the adult period.
+Between these two periods the ratios are
+constantly changing.</p>
+
+<p>There are two series of shoe sizes on the
+market; the smallest size of shoe for
+infants (size No. 1) is, or was originally,
+four inches long; each added full size
+indicates an increase in length of one third
+of an inch (sizes 1 to 5). Children’s sizes
+run in two series, 5 to 8, and 8 to 11; then
+they branch out into youths’ and misses’;
+both running 11½, 12, 12½, 13, 13½ and back
+again to 1, 1½, 2, etc., in a series of sizes that
+run up into men’s and women’s. Boys’
+shoes run from 2½ to 5½; men’s from 6 to
+11 in regular runs. Larger sizes usually are
+made upon special orders. Some few manufacturers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+go to 12. Women’s sizes run
+from 2½ to 9. Some manufacturers do not
+go above size 8. The rate of sizes is sometimes
+varied from by manufacturers of
+special lines of shoes. A man’s No. 8 shoe
+would be nearly eleven inches long. These
+measurements originated in England and
+are not now absolute.</p>
+
+<p>A system of French sizes is used which
+consists of a cipher system of markings to
+indicate the sizes as well as widths so that
+the real size may not be known to the
+customer.</p>
+
+<p>All feet are not alike in structure and
+shape. In infancy the foot is broad at
+the toes, which press forward in the direction
+of their length. The heel is small in
+comparison to the width of the toes, and
+also short in length, due to the undeveloped
+bones. But during growth, the thickness
+above the heel bones disappears, and the
+heel itself becomes thicker and assumes the
+beauty of perfection at maturity. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+development is due to the growth of bones
+which must be well exercised and properly
+cared for during this period. The various
+parts of the feet and legs do not mature
+at the same rate&mdash;those at the upper part
+of the body increase at a greater rate than
+the lower parts. Thighs develop first, next
+the upper part of the legs, and lastly the feet.</p>
+
+<p>The adult foot, when properly formed,
+is straight from heel to toe on the inner side,
+and is wider across the joints than one inch
+or so farther back. The manner of walking
+has a considerable bearing on the character
+and development of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>There are many sorts of feet, which are
+due to a number of causes, such as habits,
+climate, occupation, locality, etc. As a
+general rule we may divide the feet into
+four classes: Bony feet&mdash;those with very
+little flesh upon them; hard feet&mdash;those
+that have plenty of flesh, but which are
+almost as hard as a stone; fat feet&mdash;plump,
+with plenty of flesh, but having<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+little shape; spongy feet&mdash;those that seem
+to have no bones in them, usually found
+in the female sex.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of a foot are common
+with the body to which it is connected.
+Some people have a strong, bony frame,
+with strong, firm muscles, prominent bones
+and muscles, and a flesh that is hard. The
+feet of this type of person are usually long,
+bony, and arched, with a well-developed big
+toe joint. The heel measurements are large
+in proportion. A soft foot is prevalent
+among the Scotch. The feet of a person
+who is delicately shaped, with a small
+frame and thin, small, tapering muscles,
+are usually thin and finely formed, giving
+evidence of quickness. This kind of a
+foot in a man has a tendency to develop a
+flat foot.</p>
+
+<p>A person with a form inclined to plumpness,
+full of exercise and activity, and a good
+circulation, has a well-developed foot.
+The heel is round and fairly prominent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+although there are no special bony prominences.
+On the other hand a person
+with a body of general roundness, but with
+tissues and muscles flabby, and a languid
+blood circulation, has feet that are short,
+soft, and flabby.</p>
+
+<p>We will allow that these four different
+kinds of feet all measure a 4 size and D
+in width. One would naturally think that
+the same size shoe would fit them all, but
+this is not so. This size shoe will only
+fit one and that is the bony foot. The
+hard feet require a C½ width; the fat feet
+require a C width, and the sponge feet require
+a B width.</p>
+
+<p>The same last may, and often will possess
+a slight variation in some manner or other.
+The fitter of feet must know the stock, each
+pair, and be on intimate terms with the
+peculiarities of each last and the inside
+lines of each pair of shoes before attempting
+to try them upon the feet of the customer.</p>
+
+<p>Different makes of footwear are apt to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+manufactured over a slightly varying system
+of measurements. One line of shoes made
+over a small measure may be longer or
+shorter or narrower or wider than some
+other line. The heel measurements require
+careful study for each line introduced.
+The peculiarities of each line must be tested
+by tape and measure, and the foot fitter
+must have a strong knowledge along these
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>We should measure the foot by the stick
+if necessary, and make a note of the size
+and width that will be likely to prove a fit.
+The height of the arch must be considered,
+and the shape of arch curve, the shape of
+the instep, and the general contour of the
+foot. A normal foot will show about a
+half-inch arch. The average foot will carry
+from an inch to an inch and a quarter heel,
+without putting a strain on any of the
+joints of the foot. Some feet vary from
+this by a wide margin. A foot is a trifle
+longer in walking than in repose. Allowance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+should be made, in using the measuring
+stick, over what the foot actually draws
+on the stick. In men’s shoes the allowance,
+should be from two to two and one half
+sizes.</p>
+
+<p>When a one-legged man buys a shoe, the
+dealer sends to the factory a shoe to match
+the one left remaining. In these days of
+the use of machinery in every process of
+their manufacture, shoes are made with the
+utmost exactness and precision, and it is
+easily possible to mate that remaining shoe
+with the greatest nicety in size, style, material,
+and finish.</p>
+
+<p>Few people have feet exactly alike;
+commonly the left foot is larger than the
+right, so that one shoe may fit a little
+more snugly than the other. Commonly,
+however, people buy shoes in regularly
+matched pairs, the difference in their feet,
+if it is noticeable to them at all, not being
+enough to make any other course desirable.</p>
+
+<p>But there are people who buy shoes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+different sizes or widths, in which case the
+dealer breaks two pairs for them, giving
+them, to fit their feet, one shoe from each.
+In such cases the dealer matches up the
+two remaining shoes, one from each of two
+pairs just as he would where he had broken
+one pair to sell one shoe to a one-legged man.</p>
+
+<p>But a man does not have to be one-legged
+nor to have feet of uneven sizes or
+shapes to make him ask the dealer to break
+a pair of shoes for him. A man with two
+perfectly good feet came into the store
+where he was accustomed to buy and wanted
+one shoe. While traveling in a sleeping
+car, his shoes had been mixed up with
+others and he had received back one of his
+own and one of some other man’s; a fact
+which he had not discovered until he was
+too far away from train and station to set
+things right. So he came in to buy one
+shoe to match his own.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_FIVE">CHAPTER FIVE<br />
+<span class="smaller">HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE</span></h2>
+
+<p>If you examine the shoes worn by
+people in a large city, you will notice
+different styles. Shoe styles that were
+called grotesque a few seasons ago are
+comparatively usual to-day, for the new
+designs in women’s footwear, which manufacturers
+are now making, are the most
+varied that ever have been put on the
+market. Pink and green and blue are
+among the new colors in materials for footwear.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the styles for the coming seasons
+are more lavish than have hitherto been
+seen in the women’s shoe trade of America.
+Coronation purple velvet boots look like
+an extravagant color for footwear, but
+they are now selling. Samples of pink,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+green, and blue shoes, both boots and pumps,
+are being made up, and they will soon be
+offered to buyers.</p>
+
+<p>The style of the shoe is dominated by
+fashion. All styles are related, that is,
+every part of our dress is influenced by the
+prevailing fashion, ideas of color, fabric,
+or garment outline. To illustrate: when
+short skirts are stylish, women wear mannish
+shoes to harmonize with them; on the
+other hand, with long skirts they must
+have a shoe that is neat and small, hence,
+the short vamp. When women wear white
+in the summer, cool canvas shoes spring
+into favor; when gray and blue dress
+materials are to be used, a variety of tan
+shoes are worn to harmonize, etc.</p>
+
+<p>After the style has been decided upon,
+it is necessary to work out an exact reproduction.
+An expert model maker, called a
+last maker, produces a last, a wooden model
+of the shoe. In order to do this, it is necessary
+to lay out certain plans or specifications<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+for the details of the manufacturer
+of the shoe.</p>
+
+<p>There are certain parts of all feet that
+have fixed measurements. To illustrate:
+the length of the shank, that part of the
+sole of the foot between the heel and ball,
+in every person’s foot is always the same.
+The part of the foot back of the ball or
+large toe joint conforms to certain fixed
+measurements. These definite measurements
+form a basis by which the last
+maker originates new styles by shortening,
+lengthening, widening, or narrowing the
+space in front of the toes, but always
+retaining the true and fixed measurements
+of the back part of the last.</p>
+
+<p>When the last maker desires to produce a
+new style, he takes an old last and tacking
+pieces of leather on some parts of it (front
+of the toes), he builds it up and cuts off
+other parts. This patched-up last is taken
+to a special machine (lathe), where a number
+of duplicates are turned from a block of wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The “pattern maker” is the man in the
+factory who makes patterns, consisting of
+heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass,
+in the shapes of the various pieces of leather
+required to make up the upper part of the
+shoe.</p>
+
+<p>The pattern maker has found by experience
+that the top part of the shoe also
+conforms to certain fixed measurements,
+and by working in sympathy with the
+last maker he need only to change the
+front part of the vamp to bring out the
+latter’s ideas. With these measurements
+as a foundation, he puts forth from time to
+time different style uppers, as buttons, lace,
+blucher, fixings, scrolls, straps, ties, pumps,
+etc. This is the way new style tops originate.</p>
+
+<p>After the manufacturer has approved of
+sample patterns, the pattern maker receives
+an order for a certain quantity of patterns
+to be made over a certain last which is
+submitted to him. Working on the fixed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+top measurements and the last submitted as
+a basis, the pattern maker draws plans for
+a model pattern. The standard size of a
+model pattern is size 7 in men’s shoes and
+size 4 in women’s. He is also given an
+order for a certain number of widths; for
+instance, B, C, D, and E, and he draws
+out on paper a complete set for each width
+in the size 7. These four sets of model
+patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet
+iron by hand. But from these sheets any
+number of iron models, and any size regular
+cardboard pattern can be reproduced by a
+machine.</p>
+
+<p>Wood to be made into lasts comes to the
+shoe manufacturers in a rough, unchiseled
+form. The lasts are made of maple wood;
+hollow forms used by traveling salesmen and
+window trimmers are made of bass wood.</p>
+
+<p>The making of the model of the last is
+the most exacting operation in the factory.
+It is produced by a machine most important.
+The principle of this machine has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+brought about by the pantograph; that is,
+it will turn from a rough block of wood an
+exact copy of the model last; or it will
+enlarge or reduce a duplicate of any other
+size or width, so, from a single model last,
+such as the manufacturer has decided on,
+any number of lasts can be made, and of
+any size or width. The machine itself
+consists of two lathes. On one is placed
+the model and on the other the block of
+wood. The model is held against a wheel
+by a spring. By adjusting this wheel,
+any desired width last can be obtained,
+and by adjusting a bar in front of the
+machine any length last can be produced
+from the block of wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus9" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus9a.jpg" width="420" height="190" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Rough Unchiseled Block of Maple.</p>
+<img src="images/illus9b.jpg" width="420" height="160" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">A Last after leaving Turning Lathe.</p>
+<img src="images/illus9c.jpg" width="420" height="160" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">A Finished Last.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lathe, when in motion, revolves
+both the last and the model, the model
+being pressed against the wheel, which is
+really a guide for the revolving knife that
+digs into the block of wood, and regulates
+the depth that the knife is allowed to cut.
+In this manner the model is reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+from the block which is also regulated as to
+size and width by the wheel and by the bar.
+This machine is so accurate that a tack
+driven into the model to locate the center
+of the last is reproduced by a sort of a
+wooden pimple in the block of wood when
+finished. The model sole pattern is now
+tried on the half-finished last to insure
+accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Notice in the figures of lasts that the
+turning lathe has left stubs of wood on the
+toes and heels. These must be finished to
+a “templet.” The templet is a measure
+or guide used to indicate the shape any
+piece of work is to assume when finished.
+From the heel and toe of the model, a piece
+of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that
+model, and is used on the heeler machine
+as a guide to form an exact copy of the
+heels and toes of the model. This machine
+works very rapidly, and by the aid of an
+irregular shaped, revolving knife it quickly
+transforms the toes and heels to the desired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+shape. The bottoms are again tried out
+on a sole pattern and the last number, the
+size and the width are stamped on.</p>
+
+<p>We now have the last as a solid piece
+of maple wood and turned to the desired
+shape, size and width. Were it possible
+to insert and extract the last in this form
+from the half-finished shoe, no other steps
+would be necessary in last manufacture,
+but inasmuch as the leather is stretched
+very tightly over this last a little later, it
+necessitates the introduction of some method
+that will facilitate a quick removal of the
+last from the shoe. This is accomplished
+by cutting it in two parts and making a
+hinged heel. The fact that the slightest
+measurement changes the size of the shoe,
+necessitates great care in the introduction
+of the hinge as a part of the last, and in
+order to insure accuracy and uniformity
+in all the lasts, they are marked with
+templets and gigs. The hinge must be
+placed inside of the last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The finished last is so constructed that
+it can be readily inserted or withdrawn
+from the shoe, and the strong hinge provides
+the last, when inserted, with the same rigid
+qualities as though it were one piece.
+The center of the last is indicated, as before
+stated, by a reproduction in the side of the
+last of the tack that was placed in the
+model. This is the mark that locates the
+position of all the holes, and it is done by a
+“gig” in the following manner:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>A gig is a piece of steel having cylinders
+that guide the bit of the boring machine
+in an exact perpendicular line. This gig,
+being placed on the last in the position
+marked by the turning machine, forms the
+accurate location of the bolt holes that
+hold the hinge.</p>
+
+<p>After the hinge is placed in the last, it
+goes to the ironers to have the bottom put
+on it, if it is a McKay last, and a heel
+plate if it is a welt. The bottom is again
+tried and the plate filled up to the same.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+The last is then ready to go to the scouring
+room. In this room the last goes through
+three operations, first of which is ruffing.
+This consists of scouring with a coarse
+grade of quartz. This operation must be
+carried on so that the sole lines and insteps
+are not brought into contact with the
+quartz.</p>
+
+<p>The second operation, medium grinding,
+is done with a fine grade of quartz, and in
+this operation, also, the worker keeps away
+from the toe. The third operation is done
+with a much finer-grade quartz, the operator
+going over the entire last. The last is now
+ready for polishing, and after that, for a
+heavy coat of shellac. It is polished and
+waxed on a leather wheel. Then it goes
+into the shipping room ready for shipment
+to the manufacturer.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_SIX">CHAPTER SIX<br />
+<span class="smaller">DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY&mdash;GOODYEAR
+WELT SHOES</span></h2>
+
+<p>The principal methods of manufacturing
+shoes are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Goodyear welt; McKay; turned; standard
+screw; pegged; nailed.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest and the clearest way of
+showing how the various kinds of shoes are
+made is to explain the manufacture of a
+Goodyear welt and afterwards bring out
+the points in which this method of shoemaking
+differs from the others.</p>
+
+<p>Shoes are manufactured in up-to-date
+factories, employing hundreds of operatives.
+The modern shoe factory of to-day is divided
+into six general departments: the sole
+leather department, upper leather department,
+stitching department, making department,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+finishing department, and the treeing,
+packing, and shipping departments.</p>
+
+<p>In some sections of the country, several
+of these departments are often designated
+by other names. The stitching department
+is often called the fitting department; the
+making department, the bottoming department;
+and the sole leather department,
+the stock-fitting department. The departments
+are popularly termed rooms for
+brevity.</p>
+
+<p>A shoe factory is designed so as to have
+a width of about fifty feet for each room,
+while the length is according to the number
+of shoes to be produced. A width of about
+fifty feet gives plenty of daylight and ample
+room in the center of each department,
+which is very essential in shoemaking.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus10" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus10.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">A Modern Shoe Factory.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shoe factories are usually about two
+hundred feet long, while many are nearly
+four hundred feet. A few exceed four hundred
+feet, running as long as eight hundred
+feet. Some are built in the shape of hollow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+squares, while others have wings added,
+which give almost as much floor space as
+the original building.</p>
+
+<p>The average factory has usually four
+floors. The first floor, or basement, is
+occupied by the sole leather department.
+The next floor above includes the treeing,
+finishing, packing, and shipping departments,
+and also the office. The third floor is
+devoted entirely to the making or bottoming
+department. The top floor is divided
+so that the cutting and stitching departments
+have each half a floor.</p>
+
+<p>There are several exceedingly large factories
+in this country that find it advantageous
+to divide the factory into more
+departments, as, for example, the cutting
+room is divided so that the linings and
+trimmings are cut in a separate department.
+The skiving may also be done in a separate
+room. The making room will be divided
+so that the lasting is set off as a separate
+department on account of the many workmen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+and machines employed. In the same
+way there will be a division of work so that
+the packing and shipping will be set apart
+from the treeing. Then, again, in the sole
+leather room, the making of heels as well
+as the fitting of the bottom stock may
+become independent departments.</p>
+
+<p>The system of making women’s shoes is
+practically the same as that of men’s
+except that in a great many factories the
+method of preparing the bottom stock is
+somewhat different. Most manufacturers
+of women’s shoes do not cut sole leather,
+but buy outsoles, insoles, counters, and
+heels, all cut or prepared. These soles are
+in blocked form and large enough so that
+they can be cut or rounded by the manufacturers
+to fit their lasts. The counters,
+when bought, are all ready to put in the
+uppers, while the heels are ready to put on
+the shoes. Whenever a manufacturer of
+women’s shoes cuts his sole leather, he has the
+same system as that in the men’s factories.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In women’s factories where sole leather
+is not cut, they do not have a complete
+sole leather department. Instead, they
+have what is called a stock-fitting department.
+There are independent cut sole
+houses, etc., in the trade, which supply
+the soles to manufacturers. The same
+system of buying supplies also applies to
+many other parts of the shoe, as in the
+top lift, half sole, welt, rand, etc. In the
+upper leather department, manufacturers
+of both men’s and women’s shoes often
+buy trimmings and other parts of the upper
+all prepared.</p>
+
+<p>A large proportion of the men’s shoe
+manufacturers are now buying heels all built,
+while fully nine tenths buy counters all
+molded. The soles and other parts that are
+needed for a shoe are put up in different
+qualities and grades, and a manufacturer can
+buy any grade of sole he wants, so that it is
+considered an advantage to buy some parts,
+instead of cutting them. In a side of sole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+leather there are twenty-five or more different
+qualities and grades of soles, and
+very few manufacturers, especially in the
+women’s trade, can use all of these. The
+greater variety of shoes a manufacturer
+turns out, the more advantageous it is
+for him to cut his own sole leather, and
+prepare all parts in his own factory.</p>
+
+<p>In this country the number of factories
+in the shoe trade appears to be growing less
+and the average factory larger each year.
+It is estimated that there are at present
+something like fifteen hundred factories in
+all. These range from the smallest product
+up to the largest. The average factory may
+be said to produce about twelve hundred
+pairs of shoes per day. Many turn out
+five thousand pairs daily, while a few
+manufacturers turn out ten thousand or
+more pairs. Several manufacturers and
+firms have half a dozen or more factories
+and have a total output of between twenty
+thousand and thirty thousand pairs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+shoes a day. There is no such thing as a
+trust or monopoly of any kind in this trade,
+and there never has been up to the present
+time.</p>
+
+<p>In all factories and all classes of work,
+the “case” has always been of such a
+number of pairs that it can be divided by
+twelve in every instance. A case can be
+twelve, twenty-four, thirty-six, forty-eight,
+sixty, or seventy-two pairs, and in children’s
+work it is often sixty and seventy-two pairs.
+All cases of these numbers are regular
+cases, whereas any other number would be
+out of the ordinary. Of course, a case of
+shoes may contain any number of pairs,
+but the numbers given above have always
+been used in regular work.</p>
+
+<p>Cases of shoes may differ, but every
+pair of shoes in any one case must be made
+exactly alike. All shoes are made in cases,
+except in the matter of custom work or
+single-pair orders or samples. In making
+men’s heavy shoes, or working shoes, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+regular case was formerly sixty pairs or
+thirty-six pairs, but the tendency has been
+of late to have a standard case of twenty-four
+pairs. In the men’s fine trade the
+regular case is twenty-four pairs, while in
+the women’s it is thirty-six pairs. Long
+boots for men have always been made in
+twelve-pair cases.</p>
+
+<p>Goods are sold by the samples, sent out
+with the traveling salesman. As fast as he
+receives an order, he sends it to the main
+office. Here the orders are subdivided and
+sent to the factories making the goods.
+For example, an order for seventy-five
+dozen men’s shoes of a certain style received
+by the main office from the traveling salesman
+would be sent to the factory in the
+form of a typewritten order, covering the
+general description and sizes written out
+in the proper form, for each case is made
+according to the specifications on the tags
+that are made out in the office. These
+tags specify the sole, heel, upper, kind and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+quality, how stitched, the last to be used,
+how bottomed finished, treed, and packed.
+Everything is marked plainly on the tags
+so that a buyer can have any shoe made
+just as he wants it.</p>
+
+<p>This order would be sent from the factory
+office to the cutting room, where a clerk
+would make out twenty-five long tickets.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-five are made because the shoes
+go through the factory in lots of twenty-four
+pairs, each lot being called a job and
+when finished making a case of shoes. The
+long ticket is made in duplicate form, and is
+perforated so it may be tied to a lot of shoes.
+Both parts of the tickets are made out
+to contain the various operations with the
+specifications as to detail. The lower part
+is sent to the stock or sole leather room,
+while the top part remains with the uppers
+which are cut in the cutting room. While
+each part of the ticket is sent by a different
+route through the factory, they finally
+meet in the form of finished shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to the long ticket already
+described, two other tickets are made out,
+the top ticket and the trimming ticket.
+The top ticket is sent to the leather bins
+of the factory, where the sorter knows by
+experience exactly the amount of leather
+required to cut the order, being careful to
+see that it is all of uniform quality and
+free from blemishes. He rolls the leather
+in a bundle, attaches the ticket and sends
+it to the cutter.</p>
+
+<p>In the cutting room there are three classes
+of cutters; cutter of trimmings, who cuts
+lace stays, top facings, back stays, tongues,
+etc.; outside cutter, who cuts quarters,
+vamps, tops, tips, etc.; and the lining
+cutter, who cuts cloth linings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus11" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus11.jpg" width="420" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">A Nine and One-Half Foot Skin divided to best advantage before
+Cutting.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Skins of leather are received in the shoe
+factory in different shapes. Some are perfect,
+others have blemishes or imperfect
+spots. The skins that are to be used for
+upper stock are carefully graded by two or
+three men, as to quality of leather and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+weight. This is necessary in order to be
+sure that a lot of shoes made for a certain
+dealer will be uniform. On account of the
+leather coming in different shapes, some
+skins perfect, others having imperfect spots,
+the cutter must place his patterns in such
+a way that certain parts of the shoe will use
+up all the perfect parts, and others, less
+important, will be composed of the weaker
+parts of the skin. This explains why you
+sometimes find the inside top part of a shoe
+made of flanky leather, while the vamp is
+made of a better grade.</p>
+
+<p>There is a pattern for each and every
+size shoe, and each piece of leather is cut
+out separately on a block of wood. Nothing
+is wasted. In order to make each cutter
+as efficient as possible, the cutters are divided,
+so as to have a different cutter for
+each grade of leather. In this way they
+become better judges of leather.</p>
+
+<p>The lining cutters use patterns and
+knives on drilling. The facing is cut out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+with a knife and pattern. The side stays
+and the tongue are cut out by dies.</p>
+
+<p>After the leather has been cut into the
+desired shape, uppers, vamps, toe pieces,
+back stays, lace stays, etc., cutting at
+times ten pieces, and for some styles of
+shoes as many as fourteen pieces, the cutters
+take care to keep the parts for the same
+shoe together, matching and marking them
+so that eventually all will meet again in
+the shoe.</p>
+
+<p>Machines are used now on almost every operation,
+and annually several new machines
+make their appearance. The cutting of
+uppers up to four or five years ago was
+performed by an operator cutting the
+leather by running the knife along the
+side of the pattern. Now they are using
+a cutting machine and dies to cut uppers in
+nearly all factories. This cutting machine
+is called the “clicking machine,” and it
+is considered quite a labor saver in a
+department where it was the universal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+opinion that machines never could be
+used.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to give a list of all the
+operations performed and have it complete.
+But a good general idea of the system can
+be given and the name and meaning of the
+main operations in the several departments.
+It should be kept in mind that the methods
+in rooms differ, and that hardly any two
+factories put a shoe through in exactly the
+same manner. The general system and
+plan is the same everywhere and the
+machines are the same in all factories, but
+the details and minor operations are so
+numerous that there is plenty of scope for
+them to vary.</p>
+
+<p>The function of the clicking machine is
+to cut the upper leather into the desired
+shapes required. It consists of an iron
+frame, with a cutting board on the top of
+it. Above this is a large beam which can
+be swung to the right or left of any portion
+of the board. The skin to be cut,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+which may be of any kind, is placed on
+the board and a die of the design or
+shape of the leather desired is placed on it.
+The handle of the swinging beam is
+taken by the operator and moved over the
+die; then by pressure of the handle the
+beam is brought downward, pressing the
+die through the leather. As soon as this
+is done, the beam automatically returns to
+its full height.</p>
+
+<p>These dies are made in different designs
+and sizes to meet the different sizes and
+designs in the upper of the shoe. One
+die for each design and size. They mark
+the vamps for the location of the toe cap
+and blucher foxings as well as the size by
+means of nicks in the edge of the piece cut.
+The dies are about three-quarters of an
+inch in height and so light that they do
+not mar the most delicate leather.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus12" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus12.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cutting the Leather by Means of Pattern and Knife.
+<i><a href="#Page_118">Page 118.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus13" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus13.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Goodyear Stitching.</p>
+<p class="caption">A machine that sews around the edge of the welt and joins it to the sole
+exactly at the heel. <i><a href="#Page_119">Page 119.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the outside cutter has cut the skin
+into pieces to make up the shoe, these are
+tied up in separate bundles, that is, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+twenty-four of tips in one bundle, twenty-four
+pairs of vamps in another. These are
+turned over to girls who stencil the sizes
+on the edge and match them, that is, see
+that each upper is exactly like the mate.</p>
+
+<p>After the different parts have been cut
+by the operator of the clicking machine or
+by hand, the edges of the upper leather,
+which shows in the finished shoe, must be
+thinned down (skived) by a “skiving
+machine” to a beveled edge. This is
+done in order that the edges of the leather
+that are to show in the completed shoe may
+be folded to give a more finished appearance.
+The machines are operated by girls;
+each one an expert on one particular piece.</p>
+
+<p>The order number and size of shoe are
+stamped on the top lining of each shoe.
+After all linings have been prepared, according
+to the data given on the instruction
+card attached to parts of the shoe, the
+parts are sent to the stitching department,
+where the stitchers on a multitude of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+machines stitch all the different parts
+together very rapidly and accurately.</p>
+
+<p>The toe caps are then given a series of
+ornamental perforations along the edge.
+This is done by either “power tip press,”
+or a “perforating machine.” The first
+consists of a series of dies placed in a machine
+by which the leather is perforated according
+to the designs desired. Each series
+of dies represents a different design.</p>
+
+<p>The perforating machine resembles a
+sewing machine, but instead of a series of
+dies, the one in this machine is made of
+single or combination dies which make one
+or more holes on each downward movement.
+The machine feeds automatically and does
+the work very accurately. The cutting
+tool is kept from becoming dull by pressing
+against a band of paper. Ornamentation
+on other parts of the shoes, such as the edges
+of vamps, etc., is made by this machine.</p>
+
+<p>Before going to the stitching room, every
+bundle is examined by sorters. The sorters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+are divided and subdivided; that is, one
+man always sorts tips, another vamps, etc.
+They examine each piece for imperfection,
+and if any is found, the piece is thrown out
+and a new one put in. The last operation
+is the assembling of pieces. Here each
+job of twenty-four pairs is brought together
+and securely tied and numbered.</p>
+
+<p>This stitching department is one in which
+female labor is generally employed, although
+in late years more men are being used to
+operate machines, especially on vamping or
+other heavy parts. In some parts of the
+country it is called the fitting room. The
+work of the department consists of stitching
+the different parts of the upper together,
+so that it is ready to put on the last. The
+terms used mean in most cases stitching
+the part named to the rest of the upper.
+There are very many operations in the
+department, several of which are named
+below, together with their meaning.</p>
+
+<p>The bundles of pieces which have come<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+from the cutting room are placed on the
+table, where they are subdivided into three
+parts, the linings, the tops, the vamps and
+the tips.</p>
+
+<p>The linings for the tops of the shoes are
+pasted together (with the back strap and top
+bands), care being taken to join them at the
+marks made for that purpose. After being
+dried, they go into the hands of the machine
+operators, where they are joined together
+by a stitching machine, and the edges, etc.,
+trimmed. The sewing machines used are
+very similar to an ordinary home sewing
+machine, with the exception that they are
+much larger and stronger.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus14" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus14.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Stock Fitting Room.</p>
+<p class="caption">Where all bottom stock is prepared after being cut. <i>See <a href="#Page_120">page 120</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lining is finished. The next step is
+to join the lining to the piece of leather
+making up the outside of the same shape,
+called the top. The top receives the eyelets
+by a machine placed in proper position.
+The top and lining can be put together by
+sewing them face to face. The top is
+inspected and all threads clipped off.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After the shoe uppers have been properly
+stitched together, the eyelets are placed
+on by a “duplex eyeletting machine,”
+which eyelets both sides of the shoe at one
+time. The top of the eyelets are solid
+black knobs, so as not to wear brassy, while
+the bottom (which clinches inside the shoe)
+called the barrel, is of nickel. This finishes
+the shoe upper.</p>
+
+<p>The vamp, tongues, and tip are then put
+together. The edges of the vamps, quarters,
+tips, etc., are covered with a cement
+made of rubber and naphtha, which is
+kept in small bowls on the benches in front
+of employees. Several grades of cements
+are used. The cemented parts are allowed
+to dry, and the edges are then turned over
+by “pressing machines,” which gives a
+finished appearance. The shoe is put together
+by stitching the vamp to the quarters.
+This work is done by both men and
+women, and is work which demands much
+care.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In stitching men’s uppers, the system
+varies in various factories as much as it
+does on women’s. Here are some of the
+operations, which will give an idea how
+men’s uppers go through.</p>
+
+<p>Extension or toe piece sewed to vamp.</p>
+
+<p>Leather box stitched on.</p>
+
+<p>Tip stitched to vamp.</p>
+
+<p>Vamp seamed up back.</p>
+
+<p>Top folded around edge.</p>
+
+<p>Top seamed up.</p>
+
+<p>Eyelet row stitched up and down.</p>
+
+<p>Lining seamed up.</p>
+
+<p>Side facing put on lining.</p>
+
+<p>Top facing put on lining.</p>
+
+<p>Lining and outside pasted together.</p>
+
+<p>Under trimming.</p>
+
+<p>Eyeletting.</p>
+
+<p>Hooking.</p>
+
+<p>Vamping.</p>
+
+<p>The upper is complete when it leaves the
+stitching room and is all ready to be put
+on the last. While the upper is being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+prepared, the soles, insoles, counters, and
+heels are made in other departments.</p>
+
+<p>When the foreman of this department
+has received the tags with the data necessary
+for the preparation of outsoles, insoles,
+counters, toe boxes, and heels, they
+are sent to the stock room, where these
+parts are kept.</p>
+
+<p>The soles are roughly cut out by means
+of dies, pressing down through the leather,
+in “dieing out machines.” Before the soles
+are cut, the leather is dipped in water and
+sufficiently dampened. After they are cut
+out, they are made to conform to the exact
+shape by rounding them in a machine
+called the “rounding machine.” The
+roughly died out piece of leather is held
+between clamps, one of which is the exact
+pattern of the sole. The machine works a
+little knife that darts around this pattern,
+cutting the sole exactly to conform. The
+outsole is now passed to a heavy rolling
+machine, where it is pressed by tons of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+pressure between heavy rolls. This takes
+the place of the hammering which the old-time
+shoemaker gave his leather to bring
+the fibers very closely together, so as to
+increase its wear.</p>
+
+<p>Counters and toe boxes (stiffening which
+is placed between the heel and toe cap and
+the vamp of shoe) are prepared in the same
+room with the heels. After they are made,
+they are sent to the making or bottoming
+room, where the shoe upper is awaiting
+them. As the counter is an important
+feature in the life of a shoe, much depends
+upon the quality of leather that goes into it.</p>
+
+<p>The sole is next fed to a “splitting
+machine,” which reduces it to an absolutely
+even thickness. The insole is made of
+lighter leather than the outsole, but has the
+same thickness and is cut out in the same
+way one at a time. The sizes are stamped
+on them and they are sorted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus15" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Lasting. <i><a href="#Page_127">Page 127.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus16" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus16.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Welting.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you examine a Goodyear welt shoe,
+you will notice no stitches in sight, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+seam being fastened to an under portion of
+the insole. The durability of the shoe
+relies, to a great extent, on the quality and
+strength of the insole.</p>
+
+<p>The smooth-appearing insole of a welt
+shoe must be either pasted in or fastened
+underneath in some manner. This fastening
+is accomplished by passing the insole
+through a very small machine called a
+Goodyear channeler, which makes two incisions
+at one operation. It cuts a little
+slit along the edge of the insole, extending
+about one-half inch toward its center.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of insole made by the
+slit on the edge is turned up on a lip
+turning machine so that it extends out at
+right angles from the insole. In other
+words, the channel is opened up and laid
+back, forming a ridge around the outer edge
+of the sole. This forms a lip or shoulder,
+against which the welt is sewed. In this
+way the thread used in sewing cannot be
+seen in the finished shoe. The cut made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+on the surface serves as guide for the
+operator of the welt sewing machine when
+the shoe reaches him.</p>
+
+<p>The inner and outer soles as well as the
+uppers are now brought into the lasting or
+gang room. The first part of lasting is
+called “assembling,” which means that
+many parts are brought together, such as
+upper, counter, insole, box toe, and last.
+The counter is placed in the upper, between
+lining and vamp, while the box toe is shellacked
+and put in the toe of the upper
+(provided it has not been stitched in the
+stitching room). The operator first tacks
+the inner sole on to a wooden last.</p>
+
+<p>There are very many different styles of
+lasts, and in cutting uppers a different
+pattern must be used for each style. Then
+the upper is placed in position on the last,
+and it is ready to be pulled and stretched
+to the wood and take its required shape.
+This is accomplished by placing the shoes
+on the “pulling over machine,” where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+the shoe uppers are correctly placed on the
+last by the pincers of a machine holding
+the leather at different points securely
+against the wood of the last. By the
+movements of levers the shoe uppers are
+adjusted correctly. Then the pincers draw
+the leather securely around the last and at
+the same time two tacks on each side and
+at the toe are driven in part way, to hold
+the uppers securely.</p>
+
+<p>It is now placed on the “hand method
+lasting machine,” where the leather is drawn
+tightly around the last. Before this operation,
+it is dipped in water to preserve its
+shape when formed and that it may be
+more easily formed by the machine. At
+each pull of the pincers a small tack,
+driven automatically part way in, holds the
+edge of the upper exactly in place, so that
+every part of the upper has been stretched
+in all directions equally. A special machine
+by means of a series of “wipers” is used to
+last the toe and heel. After the leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+has been brought smoothly around the toe,
+it is held there by a little tape fastened on
+each side of the toe, which is held securely
+in place by the surplus leather, crimpled
+in at this point. The surplus leather
+crimpled in at the heel is forced smoothly
+down against the insole and held there by
+tacks driven by an ingenious hand tool. In
+all these lasting operations the tacks are only
+driven in part way, so they may afterwards
+be withdrawn and leave the inside perfectly
+smooth, except at the heel of the shoe,
+where they are driven into the iron heel
+of the last and clinched.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus17" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus17.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Rough Rounding. <i>See <a href="#Page_131">page 131</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus18" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus18.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Edge Trimming. <i>See <a href="#Page_130">page 130</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After these operations, the surplus
+leather at the toe and sides of the shoe is
+removed by the “upper trimming machine,”
+which cuts it away by means of a little
+knife and leaves it very smooth and even.
+A small hammer operating in connection
+with the knife pounds the leather on the
+same parts. A pounding machine hammers
+the leather and counter around the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+heel so that the stiff position conforms exactly
+to the last.</p>
+
+<p>After the “lasted” shoe has been trimmed
+and pounded down to the shape of the last,
+it is turned over to the tack setter, who
+pulls out all the tacks except a few, called
+draft tacks. The insole is then wet to
+make it pliable, and is turned over to a
+very experienced operator, called the “inseamer,”
+who is to sew the welt on.</p>
+
+<p>The shoe is now ready to receive a narrow
+strip of prepared leather, that is sewed
+after it is wet to make it pliable, along the
+edge of the shoe, beginning where the heel is
+placed and ending at the same spot on the
+opposite edge. This is called the welt, and
+is sewed from the inside lip of the insole,
+so that the curved needle passes through
+the lip, the upper, and the welt, uniting
+all three securely and allowing the welt to
+protrude beyond the edge of the shoe.
+The thread is very stout linen, and is
+passed through a pan of hot wax before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+being looped into chain stitch that holds
+the shoe together.</p>
+
+<p>The nature of the stitch is a chain&mdash;two
+rows of threads on the outside that
+loop with the single thread in the inside
+lip of the insole. When the welt is finally
+sewed on, and the shoe put down on the
+bench, it looks like an ordinary shoe resting
+on a wide flange of leather. This flange is
+the welt, and to it the heavy outer sole is
+to be sewed fast. Should a single stitch
+break in this operation, it is passed to a
+cobbler, who repairs it by hand.</p>
+
+<p>Before the outer sole is put on, the edges
+of the uppers must be trimmed along the
+seam that holds the welt. A slip of steel
+called steel shank is laid along the insole
+where the hollow of the foot is, and a piece
+of leather board laid over this to give the
+necessary stiffness and prevent the shoe
+from doubling up. As the welt has left a
+hollow space along the ball of the foot, it is
+necessary to fill this up, either with a piece<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+of leather, tanned felt, or other filler. Felt
+is not waterproof, and leather squeaks,
+hence a mixture of ground cork and rubber
+cement is used. This is heated and spread
+on the sole, and run over a hot roller until
+the bottom of the shoe is perfectly smooth
+and even. The shoes are placed on a rack
+and are ready for the outsole.</p>
+
+<p>Sole fastening is performed by a number
+of operations, in which a score or more
+of separate machines are used. The sole
+layers smear a rubber cement over this
+welt with a “cementing machine,” after the
+outsole has been soaked in water to make it
+pliable, and then place it on the shoe and
+tack a single nail in the heel. The “sole
+laying machine,” through great pressure,
+cements the sole on and fits it to every
+curve of the last. Then the sole is trimmed
+by a “rough rounding machine,” which
+trims the soles to the shape of the last.
+This machine also channels the outer sole
+at the same time, which is necessary for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+the next operation. The “channel opening
+machine” now turns up the lips of the
+channel and the sole is ready to be stitched
+to the welt.</p>
+
+<p>The outsole is now sewed by a waxed
+thread to the welt, by an “outsole lock stitch
+machine,” which is similar to a welt sewing
+machine. The stitch is finer and extends
+from the slit (channel) to the upper side
+of the welt, where it shows after the shoe
+has been finished.</p>
+
+<p>It unites the sole and welt with a tightly
+drawn lock stitch of remarkable strength.
+It sews through an inch of leather as easily
+as a woman would sew through a piece of
+cloth. The stitches are made through the
+welt and outer sole, the seam running in
+the channel of the outsole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus19" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus19.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Leveling. <i>See <a href="#Page_135">page 135</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus20" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus20.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Heeling. <i>See <a href="#Page_136">page 136</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The inside of the slit in which this stitch
+has just been made is now coated with
+cement by means of a brush. The channel
+lip is forced back to its original position
+after the cement has dried, by a rapidly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+revolving wheel of a “channel laying machine.”
+In this way the stitches are
+hidden.</p>
+
+<p>Welt shoes are stitched on in three
+different ways: “channeled,” which, when
+finished, leaves an invisible stitch on the
+bottom of the sole; “regular stitched aloft,”
+showing the stitches on both sides; and
+“fudge stitched,” in which the seam is
+sunk down in a groove, being almost
+invisible from the welt side.</p>
+
+<p>Every stitch must be of such a nature
+that it is independent of the one next to it,
+so that should one stitch break, the others
+will not work loose. This is accomplished
+by running the threads through a pan of hot
+wax just before entering the leather, which
+causes the waxed thread to solidify, becoming,
+as it were, a part of the leather.</p>
+
+<p>Notice should be taken of the difference
+between the way the outsole is stitched
+and the inner sole is stitched to the upper.
+In place of three threads in the chain stitch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+“that holds the welt to the upper and
+insole” there are but two here&mdash;an upper
+and a lower one. The upper thread extends
+only part way down, where it loops, twists,
+and locks into the lower thread. This is
+the reason why you can wear a welt sole
+clear through without its pulling loose.</p>
+
+<p>Shoes that are stitched aloft go through
+the same operations as the channel-stitched
+shoes, with the exception that the rounding
+machine contrivance of cutting is eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>Shoes that are to be fudge stitched are
+sent through the same machine as the regular
+stitched aloft, but an additional little
+knife point on the arm of the Goodyear
+stitcher digs a channel in the welt so that
+the stitches on that side are sunk into the
+leather.</p>
+
+<p>The outsole is nailed at the heel after
+the stitching on the “loose nailing machine,”
+which drives the nails through the outsole
+and insole and clinches against the steel
+plate of the last. The machine drives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+separate nails fed from the hopper of any
+desired size or length, at the rate of three
+hundred and fifty per minute.</p>
+
+<p>The edge of the outsole around the
+heel is now trimmed to conform exactly
+to the shape of the heel on the “heel seat
+pounding machine.”</p>
+
+<p>The stitches of the regular stitched shoes
+are separated by a series of indentations,
+giving the shoe that corrugated effect which
+adds so much to the appearance of the shoe.
+In the fudge-stitched work the stitches are
+entirely covered up by the indentations.</p>
+
+<p>Then a leveling machine, called the
+“automatic sole leveling machine,” with
+a pressure of about two and a half tons to
+each of the concave rollers, comes into
+play. The rolls move automatically back
+and forth and from side to side, doing the
+work that the shoemaker used to do on his
+lap with a hammer and stone, but doing it
+better and more quickly. It practically
+levels off the bottom of the soles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>An automatic guage regulates exactly
+the distance from the edge of the last, and
+by the use of this machine the operator is
+enabled to make a sole conform to that of
+all others of a similar design and size.</p>
+
+<p>Heels are formed by cementing different
+lifts of leather. A machine called a “heel
+cutter” shapes out the lifts. The heel is
+then placed under pressure, giving it exact
+form and greatly increasing its wear.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus21" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus21.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Sole Scouring. <i>See <a href="#Page_138">page 138</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus22" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus22.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Heel Shaping. <i>See <a href="#Page_138">page 138</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In speaking of the ends and sides of a
+heel, the part that rests on the ground is
+spoken of as the top, and the first piece is
+called the top lift. The part that is fastened
+to the shoe is spoken of as the bottom,
+while the side nearest the toes is called the
+breast. The wedge is a flat, heel-shaped
+piece or lift of leather that is skived to a
+thin edge at the breast. Being thicker at
+the back, it tips the heel forward. Wedges
+are made from thin strips of waste leather,
+or from sheets of leather board, and are cut
+out with a hollow die. The gouges are cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+in the sole leather room from scraps, and
+are a regular heel lift, having a horseshoe-shaped
+piece of leather with an opening at
+the breast.</p>
+
+<p>The sole leather, insoles, counters, and
+heels, in the stock fitting department are
+“got out” by being cut into shape by a
+machine die.</p>
+
+<p>The heel is now trimmed of all rough and
+surplus portions of leathers to the exact
+size of top lift. A blower attached to the
+machine removes all scraps, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The breast of the heel, which faces the
+forepart of the shoe, is trimmed evenly
+across and with the desired slant by means
+of a peculiar-shaped knife which extends
+over the sole at shank. The edges of the
+heel are now scoured by revolving rolls
+with molded sandpaper to make perfectly
+smooth. Blowers attached to the machine
+remove all dust.</p>
+
+<p>There are several types of machines for
+fastening the heel to the shoe, all very rapid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+in operation. One of the latest is that
+which feeds the nails, and which is operated
+by a man and boy, who together turn off a
+great quantity of work.</p>
+
+<p>The nails are left protruding slightly above
+the heel so as to retain the top lift, which is
+now placed in position by the same operator
+on the same machine. It is pressed down
+over the heads of the nails securing it in
+position. The small brass or steel nails
+which protect and ornament the heel are
+now driven in by the “universal slugging
+machine.” This machine cuts the slugs
+from a coil of wire and drives them in with
+great rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>We have practically now a roughly formed
+shoe ready for the finishing room.</p>
+
+<p>Here the heel slugs are ground down,
+heel and sole buffed by sandpaper rolls on a
+scouring machine, wet down, stained, or
+blacked, as case may be, finished on bristle
+brushes, placed to dry, polished by a
+polishing machine, bottom stamped with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+the trademark, and passed to an operator
+whose duty it is to see that no tacks are
+left inside the shoes. Generally girls are
+hired to do this, as their hands are smaller
+and it is very important that no tacks are
+left, which might cause a great deal of
+trouble. If any are found, they are cut out
+with nippers or otherwise removed.</p>
+
+<p>A lining is also generally put inside the
+shoe, covering the whole of the insole in
+a McKay shoe, and the heel only in a
+Goodyear shoe. Shoes must also be inspected
+here before they are packed, to
+see if they are perfect in every way and
+that each shoe is a perfect mate in the
+pair.</p>
+
+<p>The shoes are now sent to the last department,
+called treeing, dressing, and packing
+department.</p>
+
+<p>This department has to do with the
+finishing of the uppers. The bottoms and
+edges are all finished when shoes get to
+this department, and nothing remains but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+to finish the uppers and pack the shoes in
+single-pair cartons and then in wooden
+boxes or cases.</p>
+
+<p>The different uppers are all finished by a
+different process, some being ironed with a
+hot iron, which is done to take out the
+wrinkles and smooth the uppers. Ironing
+was first introduced on kid shoes, but in
+recent years the hot iron has been put on
+nearly all kinds of stock. A shoe must be
+on a form or tree when ironed, the form or
+tree being the same shape as the last. The
+whole idea in ironing is the same as that
+followed by the tailor, who uses a hot iron
+to press and smooth out clothes. The
+operations in detail are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus23" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus23.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Ironing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus24" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus24.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Packing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Each shoe is treed, after having been
+drawn over a foot form similar to that on
+which the shoe was lasted, and any stain or
+dirt which may have been carelessly put on
+in former operations is cleaned off; the
+shoe is sponged with a gum prepared for
+either black or tan goods, rubbed down dull,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+and then rubbed to a polish. In many
+patent leather shoes the treeing is to clean
+off the surface, as we said before, and then
+to iron it with a hot iron, which takes out
+all stains, and leaves the leather shiny and
+black.</p>
+
+<p>The shoes finally go to hand operators,
+who rag the edges and heels, leaving them
+ready to be laced and put into the boxes.
+After lacing, the shoes are passed to inspectors,
+whose duty it is to see that they are
+perfect, to throw out all which are not,
+make a record of them, and pass the perfect
+shoes to the packers, who see that the sizes
+are right, that each pair is mated, and placed
+in paper cartons, ready to be packed in
+wooden cases for shipment. The packing of
+cartons into wooden cases is done by men
+who nail on the lid when each case is full,
+mark where goods are to be sent, make a
+record of same and load the cases into
+freight cars.</p>
+
+<p>There are other uppers that are treed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+such as wax calf, for instance, and split
+uppers, which are used in heavy shoes.
+The main idea of treeing a shoe is to give
+it a smooth and finished appearance and a
+good “feel.” In the regular treeing operation
+they use liquid preparations, often
+called composition, and these are worked
+into the upper, filling it to some extent.
+French chalk is used a great deal in some
+uppers, and oil or some form of grease or
+gum is also used, all of which make the
+upper as it was when first put on the cutting
+board of the shoe factory. All work done
+in this room is intended to give leather its
+original luster, which has been lost to a
+certain extent in going through the different
+rooms and in being handled so much.</p>
+
+<p>There are still other uppers that may not
+be treed or ironed but merely cleaned and
+polished to give luster. Some of these may
+be dressed. To dress a shoe means to put
+on a liquid dressing. In some cases two
+coats of dressing are put on and in other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+cases one coat. A shoe can have a dull
+dressing or a bright dressing, according to
+how the buyer prefers to have his shoes
+look.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_SEVEN">CHAPTER SEVEN<br />
+<span class="smaller">McKAY AND TURNED SHOES</span></h2>
+
+<p>The McKay process is used very
+extensively in the manufacture of
+cheap shoes. Its introduction was a great
+improvement over the nailing and pegging
+of the soles to the uppers. It allows
+the two to be stitched together by means
+of a straight needle running through the
+entire thickness of upper, sole, and insole.</p>
+
+<p>In following the McKay process through
+the factory, we find it very similar to the
+Goodyear welt process, which has been
+explained, the main difference being in the
+methods of fastening the sole to the uppers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus25" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus25.jpg" width="420" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lasts and patterns are obtained in
+the same manner as described in the previous
+chapter. The order is made out in the
+factory office, and the ticket is given to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+sorter, who selects the required number of
+skins, which he rolls in a bundle and turns
+over to the cutter. The cutters form the
+various pieces of leather and linings, which
+are tied up in bundles and sent to the
+stitching room. Here they pass through
+the various sewing machines, finally coming
+out in the form of a complete upper ready
+to be attached to the bottoms.</p>
+
+<p>The soles, insoles, counters, and heels
+for McKay shoes are all formed in the same
+room, as described in the Goodyear process.</p>
+
+<p>There is a difference in making ready the
+outsoles and insoles. It will be recalled
+that the outsole for the Goodyear welt
+shoe was simply a block of leather cut to
+fit the shoe and was not channeled. The
+outsole for the McKay shoe is run through
+a channeling machine, which cuts a slit
+around the edge of the sole, folds the
+leather back, and digs a little trench along
+the inside of the slit. It will also be remembered
+that the insole of the Goodyear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+welt shoe was channeled with two slits, one
+of which was turned back to form the breast
+for sewing on the welt strip. The insole of
+a McKay shoe is not channeled in any way,
+but is left plain, like the outsole of the
+Goodyear welt. The uppers, the soles,
+insoles, counters, and heels all having been
+made ready, the pieces are taken to the
+lasting room.</p>
+
+<p>The first process is called “assembling.”
+The operator takes up one of the uppers,
+inserts the last, sticks in a counter between
+the lining and the outside, puts in a “box”
+(a stout piece of canvas to give stability
+to the toe) at the toe, beneath the tip, puts
+in the insole, and then may pull the shoe
+tight on the last or give it to the operator
+on the pulling over machine to have it
+done. The pulling over machine is now
+used in nearly all factories, having displaced
+hand pulling the same as the lasting
+machines have displaced hand lasting. The
+assembling, pulling, and lasting on the machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+are all parts of the regular operation
+of lasting. The hand laster had to do all
+three parts in former times, but now there
+are machines to do nearly everything, and
+at the present time the operation of lasting
+is divided into assembling, pulling over, and
+lasting on the machine. But even these
+machines do not do it all, as there is surplus
+upper to be cut away, toes to be pounded
+down, and filling to be put in the bottom,
+all of which are done on a McKay shoe before
+the sole can be laid. There are machines
+to do these parts, too.</p>
+
+<p>A trimmer (this is done by hand) now
+takes the shoe, trims off all the surplus
+leather, tacks in the shank (a little piece
+of steel to give rigidity to the shank of the
+sole), fills all up smoothly and then passes
+it to the sole layer, who puts on the outer
+sole and tacks it in place.</p>
+
+<p>The last is now pulled out of the shoe
+and it is ready for the McKay sewing
+machine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This machine sews right through the
+inner and outer sole, and at the same time
+catches the edges of the upper leather and
+the lining in between the two and draws
+them all snugly and firmly together. The
+stitches are made right along in the channel
+of the outer sole, which is deep enough to
+admit the row of stitches without raising
+a ridge on the outside of the sole, after
+the channel is closed up and leveled. The
+channel is next filled with cement and
+passed on to the leveler, which turns down
+the loosened flap of leather, presses it all
+out smooth, and covers the seam up so
+completely that no trace of the sewing is
+to be seen. This little folded-over flap of
+leather serves the double purpose of hiding
+the stitches in the sole, and at the same
+time protecting them from wear against
+the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus26" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus26.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Stitching.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus27" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus27.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Tacking.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The shoe is then ready to be heeled, and
+from here to the shipping door the McKay
+generally goes through the same process as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+a welt. After heeling, the McKay shoes are
+relasted or have followers put in to keep
+them in shape while going through. The
+sock lining may be put in here, too, before
+relasting, or it may not be put in till the
+shoes get to another room. The McKay
+lasting last must be pulled from the shoe
+to have the bottoms and heels put on and
+this also applies to a pegged or nailed shoe.
+But in the case of a welt shoe or a turn
+shoe, both stay on the original last until
+the bottoms and heels have been fastened
+on. The turn shoe being lasted inside out,
+must come off the last to be turned right
+side out, and it goes right on the last as
+soon as it can be turned. The different
+methods of fastening the bottoms constitute
+the main difference between Goodyear and
+turn shoes on the one hand, and McKay,
+pegged, and nailed on the other. The
+bottom stock must be prepared differently
+in order to fit the methods. Thus it is
+seen that only two departments are affected,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+namely, the sole leather and the making
+departments. In the cutting, stitching,
+finishing, treeing, and packing, all operations
+are practically the same on every shoe, no
+matter how it is bottomed. The patterns,
+however, by which shoes are cut may be
+different.</p>
+
+<p>In the finishing room all of the finishing
+of the bottoms and heel edges is done. The
+heels are sandpapered or scoured, and are
+then blacked and polished under hot-iron
+pressure. Considerable wax is used on
+the edge and is melted by the hot iron.
+Heel edges may also be finished on a wheel
+or roll. There are several different ways,
+but the object of each method is to give a
+hard, black, and highly polished surface to
+the edge.</p>
+
+<p>In finishing the bottom the top lift is
+scoured or buffed, and all of the sole and
+the breast of the heel also. Each is a
+different process, a different operator attending
+to each part. The object of scouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+or buffing with sandpaper is to get a smooth
+foundation for the finish, which is put on
+next, and which may be all the same color
+in all parts of the bottom or may have one
+color in the shank and another in the forepart.
+The stains and blackings are used
+on bottoms, and these are brought to a
+high, hard gloss by means of rolls and
+brushes. Hot irons are often used on black
+shanks and bottoms to give added hardness
+and luster to the finish.</p>
+
+<p>The turned or turn shoe is a woman’s
+fine shoe that is made wrong side out,
+then turned right side out. The sole is
+fastened to the last, and the upper is
+twisted over, the wrong side out. Then
+the two are sewed together, the thread
+catching through a channel or shoulder
+cut in the edge of the sole. The seam does
+not come through to the bottom of the sole,
+nor to any part inside where it would chafe
+the foot.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of the upper for a turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+shoe is identical with that of a welt or
+McKay, with the exception that the back
+is cut a little longer and a little larger, in
+order to last it over the sole. The important
+difference in the make-up of a turn
+shoe as compared with that of a McKay or
+welt is that it has no insole, the upper
+being sewed directly to a portion of the
+sole itself.</p>
+
+<p>As the cutting of the uppers and the
+stitching operations of a turn shoe are the
+same as the Goodyear and McKay, and
+have been explained, we will take up the
+forming of the sole, which is entirely
+different from either of the other two
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>A turn shoe is put together wrong side out,
+and it is necessary, during the course of making,
+to turn it by rolling the sole up like a roll
+of carpet. It is evident, then, that nothing
+but good quality, pliable leather can be
+used satisfactorily, and great care is taken
+to include nothing but the best.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The soles are cut out on the beam machines,
+also previously described. They are
+then channeled on the side that is next
+to the foot. This channeling is similar to
+that done on the welt insole. Two incisions
+are made, the inside one being the
+same as in the welt insoles. The outside one,
+however, is different, as the flange is cut
+off square instead of being rolled up. This
+leaves a channel which begins at the edge
+and surface of the sole and extends in
+semicircular form to the abrupt wall of the
+cut in the sole, which forms the breast
+against which the upper is to be sewed.</p>
+
+<p>After the soles are channeled, they are
+soaked until they become soft enough to
+roll up easily. They are then placed on
+racks and kept in a damp room until needed.</p>
+
+<p>A turn shoe is hand lasted wrong side out.
+First the uppers are turned with the lining
+outside, then the last is inserted and also
+the toe boxing.</p>
+
+<p>The sole is set straight on the last and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+tacked firmly to it. The operator, by aid
+of hand pullers, draws the upper over the
+sole and tacks it securely from a point
+where the breast of the heel will rest to
+where the large toe will extend, and then
+along the same distance on the other side.
+The toe part is next lasted by machinery,
+a wire being fastened at one side and run
+around the edge holding the pulled-up
+parts of the upper which has been stretched
+tightly over the last.</p>
+
+<p>The shoe is next passed over to the Goodyear
+inseamer operator, who sews the upper
+to the sole, the needle passing down through
+the inside channel, through the sole leather,
+out through the square-cut channel and
+then through the upper, uniting the upper
+to the sole with the chain stitch. In fact,
+the bottom of a turn shoe at this time looks
+exactly like the bottom of a welt, with the
+exception that the turn shoe is still turned
+wrong side out. The nature of the stitch
+is the same&mdash;a waxed, threaded chain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+with two rows of thread on the outside that
+loop with the single thread in the inside
+lip of the insole. The shoe is sewed only
+from the back of the shank to the toe, the
+heel part still being loose.</p>
+
+<p>The seam is now trimmed with an inseam
+trimmer, a machine with a revolving, jagged-edged
+knife that saws off the surplus portions
+of the upper, leaving it smooth and even
+with the sole. The tacks are all pulled
+out with a sort of a nail puller, which works
+rapidly and automatically.</p>
+
+<p>The lasts are then taken out and the
+shoe is turned right side out. This turning
+process is not a difficult one, but it is
+perhaps the most interesting operation that
+the layman will see in the entire factory.
+The operation is accomplished by means
+of a rigid iron bar set slantwise in a table.
+The upper is turned right side out by hand
+and the sole is rolled right side out by means
+of pressure on this bar.</p>
+
+<p>After this turning process, which twists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+and rolls the shoe out of shape, it has no
+semblance of its final form. The back part
+of the sole and upper are still loose, the
+upper being fastened from the shank to
+the toe.</p>
+
+<p>The turn shoe must be “second” lasted,
+and the inserting of the last is no easy matter.
+A contrivance called a push jack assists
+the operator greatly. He uses a flat, narrow
+rod to smooth out the lining, and
+after squeezing, pushing, and smoothing,
+the last is finally made to fit in the shoe.
+The counter is placed in at this time, the
+shank piece is set in place, and the shoe
+and last are placed on a jack for nailing.
+The back part upper is now stretched tightly
+over the heel part of the last by means of
+lasting pullers, and is tacked down, the
+nails going through the shank piece and
+clinching against the anvil heel seat of the
+last. This operation completes the lasting,
+the shoe now having a form exactly like
+the last over which it is made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Workmen now level the bottoms and
+form the shank by a hand method, preparatory
+to the machine leveling process.
+The shoe is still wet and is left to dry on
+the last twenty-four hours. Then it is run
+through the machine called the “leveler,”
+which, with its enormous pressure, forms
+the sole to that of the last. The shoes are
+now left four days on the lasts, to dry
+thoroughly, so that they may retain their
+shape permanently.</p>
+
+<p>The putting on of the heel, and the
+various finishing processes are practically
+the same as that of the welt, with the
+exception that a turn sole must have a
+sock lining.</p>
+
+<p>Some factories use a grain leather sock
+lining, which is pasted in, covering up the
+channels of the sole which hold the stitches
+and forming a smooth surface for the foot
+to rest upon.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between a McKay and a
+turn shoe may be told by the fact that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+stitching on the inside of the sole is much
+closer to the edge in a turn. Another
+thing, in a turn shoe, the seam connecting
+the upper and the outsole can be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is likely to excel the turn shoe
+for lightness and flexibility, since the method
+of making, whereby the sole is stitched
+directly to the upper, interposes no thick
+or cumbersome material. Sole leather of
+good quality is used. In fact, the sole
+would have to be not only strong, but thin
+and light, or the shoe could not be turned
+in the process of manufacture without
+straining it and getting it out of shape.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">History of the Turn Shoe</span></h3>
+
+<p>History states that prior to 1845, which
+marked the date of the introduction of
+shoe machinery, most of the shoes were
+sewed by hand, the lighter ones turned
+and the heavier ones welted. In fact, the
+early factories that began to spring up in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+New England about the beginning of the
+century, were merely cutting rooms and
+places for storing the lasts and stock.</p>
+
+<p>Here the uppers, soles, and linings were
+cut by hand and then given out to people
+in the vicinity, mostly farmers and fishermen,
+to be stitched together and paid for at so
+much a dozen. Such was the beginning of
+the shoe industry in New England. Hundreds
+of families added to their resources
+in this way, the women doing the lighter
+work and the men the heavier.</p>
+
+<p>In fishing communities, where men were
+away most of the time in their boats,
+their wives and daughters, who stayed at
+home, undertook the lighter grades of
+shoemaking&mdash;the turn process. This was
+the case in the “North Shore” towns like
+Lynn, Haverhill, and Marblehead, and these
+to-day, keeping to the old traditions, are the
+great centers for the finer turn-grades of
+shoemaking, whereas the “South Shore”
+towns, like Brockton, Whitman, Abington,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+Rockland, and the Weymouths, with the
+men at home all the year, came to make a
+specialty of shoes for men, and absorbed
+the heavier part of the growing industry.</p>
+
+<p>With the introduction of the Goodyear
+turn machine, however, the handwork was
+gradually done away with, although more
+handwork is done in the turn process than
+in either the McKay or welt process.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Standard Screw Shoemaking</span></h3>
+
+<p>Many good qualities of heavy shoes are
+made by the standard screw method, which
+differs from the McKay method by having
+the outsole and insole fastened together
+with a double-threaded wire, which is
+screwed through and cut off by the machine
+the instant it reaches the inside of the shoe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus28" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus28.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A pegged shoe is made in much the same
+way as the standard screw, except that
+wooden pegs are used instead of wire to
+fasten the sole together.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The nailed method of shoemaking consists
+in nailing the soles together around the
+edge. It is used principally for heavy,
+cheap shoes.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_EIGHT">CHAPTER EIGHT<br />
+<span class="smaller">OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING</span></h2>
+
+<p>The old-fashioned shoemaker formerly
+made shoes by hand as follows:&mdash;A
+last, which is a wooden model of a
+foot, was used, and pieces of leather were
+pasted here and there on it so as to build
+up a model conforming to the measurements
+of the foot. Then paper patterns of the
+upper leather were made from the last, and
+from these the upper leathers were cut out
+of tanned calfskins and sewed together.</p>
+
+<p>The leather for the soles was cut out of
+tanned ox or steer hide, the pieces being
+the insole, the outsole, and the lifts of
+the heel. The inner soles were made of
+softer leather. Sometimes split sole leathers
+were used for uppers. The shoemaker
+then softened the leather by steeping it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+in water, until it was pliable and at the
+same time firm, and would cut like cheese.</p>
+
+<p>The insoles were attached to the bottom
+of a pair of wooden lasts, and the wet
+leather fastened on with lasting tacks so
+as to mold it to the last. When it was
+dry, the shoemaker with pincers drew the
+leather out until it had taken the exact
+form of the bottom of the last. Then he
+rounded the soles by paring down the edges
+close to the last, and formed around these
+edges a small channel or feather cut or slit
+about an eighth of an inch in the leather.</p>
+
+<p>Next he pierced the insoles all around
+with a bent awl, which “bit” into, but not
+through, the leather, and came out at the
+channel or feather edge. The boots were
+then lasted by placing the uppers on the
+lasts, drawing the edges by means of
+pincers tightly round the edge of the insoles.
+Then they were fastened in portions with
+lasting tacks. Lasting was considered a
+very important operation, for unless the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+upper was drawn smoothly and equally
+over the last, leaving neither a crease nor
+wrinkle, the form would be a failure. A
+band of flexible leather about an inch wide,
+with one edge pared, was then placed in
+position around the sides of the shoes, up
+to the heel or seat, and the maker proceeded
+to “inseam,” by passing his awl through
+the holes, already made in the insole,
+catching with it the edge of the upper and
+the thin edge of the welt, and sewing all
+three together in one flat seam, with a
+waxed thread.</p>
+
+<p>The threads which shoemakers use are
+called “ends,” and are made of two or
+more strands of small flaxen threads. The
+shoemaker makes his own waxed thread as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>He holds the main part of the thread
+from the spool, in his left hand, holding it
+firmly&mdash;where he wants to break it&mdash;between
+the first finger and thumb, so
+that it will not turn beyond that point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+Then with the left hand, he lays the end
+of the flax on the knee and rolls it from
+him. This will cause the small fibers that
+compose the thread to separate&mdash;thus
+enabling him to break it easily. When
+the fibers separate, he gives the thread a
+light, quick turn, which causes it to break.
+As the thread breaks he pulls it apart
+gradually, so that the fibers will taper.
+Then he places the threads together, one
+just behind the other, so that the end will
+have a very fine point. He rolls the end
+and allows it to turn between the fingers
+of the left hand. After it has been rolled
+and twisted, it is waxed by drawing the
+thread through a piece of wax.</p>
+
+<p>The fine ends are waxed to a point. A
+bristle is fastened on in the following
+manner: the head of the bristle is held in
+the left hand, and the portion to which the
+thread is to be fastened is waxed; then the
+thread and bristle are twisted together. A
+hole is made in the thread and the bristle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+pulled through and fastened. After the
+threads are fastened, the heads of the bristle
+are cut off, and the ends sandpapered.</p>
+
+<p>The wax thread or “end,” as it is called,
+should never be made longer than is necessary
+to sew a shoe. Experience shows that
+if a portion of an end left after sewing one
+shoe is used on the second shoe, it is never
+as strong as a new end. The thread grows
+weaker and weaker as it is used. When
+the thread is well waxed, it is cemented to
+the shoe.</p>
+
+<p>After the shoe is sewed, the shoemaker
+pares off inequalities and levels the bottoms,
+by filling up the depressed part in the
+center with pieces of tarred felt. The
+shoes are now ready for the outsoles.
+The fibers of the leather to be used for
+the soles are thoroughly condensed by
+hammering on the lapstone. Then they
+are fastened through the insole with steel
+tacks, their sides are pared, and a narrow
+channel is cut round their edges. Through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+this channel they are stitched to the welt,
+about twelve stitches of strong, waxed
+thread being made to the inch. The soles
+are next hammered into shape; the heel
+lifts are put on and attached with wooden
+pegs. Then they are sewed through the
+stitches of the insoles; and the top pieces,
+similar to the outsoles, are put on and
+nailed down to the lifts.</p>
+
+<p>The finishing operations of the shoe
+include smoothing the edges of the heel,
+paring, rasping, scraping, smoothing, blacking,
+and burnishing the edges of the
+soles, withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning
+out any pegs which may have pierced
+through the inner sole. There are numerous
+minor operations connected with forwarding
+and finishing in various materials,
+such as punching holes, inserting eyelets, etc.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">How Shoes are Repaired</span></h3>
+
+<p>Before one can understand how shoes are
+repaired, it is necessary to know the difference<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+between the inside and outside of a
+shoe.</p>
+
+<p>The last is divided into four parts, viz.
+toe, ball, shank, and heel.</p>
+
+<p>Diagram No. 1 shows these parts and
+their shapes.</p>
+
+<p>Diagram No. 2 shows the length of the
+inside of the divisions as compared with
+those of the outside. Notice the long
+shank and short ball.</p>
+
+<p>Diagram No. 3 shows the outside of the divisions
+and the effect they have upon the shape
+of the shoe. See short shank and long ball.</p>
+
+<p>Always remember that the ball of a shoe
+is longer on the outside, having a short
+shank. The ball is shorter on the inside,
+having a long shank. Compare outside
+and inside diagrams Nos. 2 and 3.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus29" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus29a.jpg" width="420" height="200" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">How a Side of Leather is shaped and divided as to Quality.
+<i>See <a href="#Page_5">page 5</a>.</i></p>
+
+<img src="images/illus29b.jpg" width="420" height="200" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><i>Dia. 1.</i> <i>Dia. 2.</i> <i>Dia. 3.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Shoe Repairing</span></h3>
+
+<p>The first operation in half soling a shoe is
+to cut off the old portion from “a” to “c”
+as shown on diagram No. 1. The shoe is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+placed in different positions and corrected
+in every way before putting on the new sole.
+It is generally better to wet the shoe in
+order to put it in shape.</p>
+
+<p>The leather is skived thin and accurate
+enough to make a neat, comfortable joint,
+and yet thick enough for the nails to hold.</p>
+
+<p>Then the filling is added before placing
+on the sole. The sole is trimmed and a
+guide line drawn around the edge, so that
+the nails may be properly arranged.</p>
+
+<p>Finishing the sole is an important part.
+If everything else is properly done, this
+part becomes comparatively easy. See that
+all nails are clinched. With a level bottom,
+smooth joints and edges, the shoe can be
+made to look like a new shoe and yet feel
+like an old one.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the heel being more directly
+under the body and the first part to strike
+the ground, it generally wears out first.
+For this reason in repairing a heel great
+care must be taken to see that good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+leather and solid work are put into it.
+Pull off the worn top piece and see that
+what is left is hammered down solidly.
+Next split a piece of solid, easy-cutting,
+scrap sole leather, so that two pieces can
+be made out of one. Put them on the
+shoe and fasten them on well, piece by
+piece, with tacks. See that the heel is
+level before putting on the top piece.
+(If necessary, a small piece may be put
+under the top piece.) After it is level,
+put on top piece, trim in shape, then draw
+guide line and nail down. The nails are
+placed thicker on the side that is worn
+down most, to protect the heel. The heel
+is next rasped, and smoothed with a buffer
+and sandpaper. When finished, it should
+set level.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Modern Method of Repairing Shoes</span></h3>
+
+<p>As the shoemaking industry has become
+more and more perfect, there has been an
+increasing interest taken in shoe repairing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+A medium-priced shoe as it is made to-day
+may often be in good enough condition to
+be heeled and soled a couple of times.
+Hence, although in the past many shoe
+stores and departments have had their
+shoe repairing done by outside shops, the
+tendency to-day is for every shoe store
+to have its own repair department. This
+method has resulted largely from the
+development of machinery for shoe repairing,
+which is revolutionizing the business
+to such an extent that in a few years
+repairing by hand will be among the lost
+arts. With the new inventions for restoring
+upper leather, and the improvement of
+machinery for shoe repairing, repair departments
+will very soon be but little short
+of miniature factories.</p>
+
+<p>The machinery ordinarily used consists
+of the Goodyear stitcher, used for attaching
+soles to Goodyear welts by the lock-stitch
+method, just as in shoe factories making
+Goodyear welt shoes. Then there is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+heel trimmer, a bottom finisher, consisting
+of a rapidly revolving roll covered with
+coarse and fine sandpaper, and an opera
+heel builder for forming concave heels.
+There are two wheels used for tan and
+white heel work, one heel being covered
+with a white cloth, and the other with a
+coarse brush. Adjoining these are usually
+the shank and heel finisher,&mdash;capable of
+smoothing and highly polishing a shank or
+heel in about a dozen seconds,&mdash;the bottom
+finisher, that grinds and smooths down the
+new sole, and a machine used for rubbing
+off dirt before the shoe is finished, consisting
+of a heavy horsehair brush. Another useful
+part of the equipment is an edge setter,
+which is also identical with the one used in
+factories. The shoe stitching machines
+and the parts used in finishing are all
+operated on one long shaft, rapidly revolved
+by the aid of a motor. It is a fact that a
+shoe may be actually soled and heeled in
+less than six minutes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Five or six men are usually employed in
+the repair department of a large establishment.
+When the customer’s shoes are
+brought in, one of these men cuts off the
+old sole and traces an outline of the new
+sole on a block of the very best oak leather.
+After these are cut out by hand in rough
+form, they are soaked in water and channeled;
+that is to say, a part of the sole is
+turned up in which the stitches are to be
+run. A second man, by the use of the
+Goodyear stitcher, joins the sole and welt
+together with a very strong and tightly
+drawn lock stitch. This is a large machine
+with a curved, barbed needle and awl, and
+a shuttle which sews through an inch of
+leather with the greatest ease and speed.
+There are from one hundred and fifty to
+two hundred stitches in each shoe; moreover,
+every one of them is locked with
+heavy wax thread, so that there is no chance
+of their ever giving away. If one stitch
+should break, the other stitches would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+remain intact, as they are all independent
+of each other. Both soles are stitched on
+in a little over half a minute without
+breaking a thread or stopping the machine.</p>
+
+<p>A coating of rubber cement is now placed
+in the edges of the outsole, and the lip of
+the channel is smoothed down so that the
+stitches are entirely hidden when looking at
+the bottom of the shoe. The edge trimming
+is done next with the aid of a rapidly revolving
+wheel, which trims the edges square
+and true in about forty seconds. After this,
+the shank is finished on a rapidly revolving
+wheel covered with emery cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Bottom finishing is the next step. This
+is done on a machine having two long
+cylinders, one covered with fine and the
+other with coarse sandpaper. These cylinders
+revolve rapidly, and the operator uses
+the coarse sandpaper for scouring the dirt
+and old finish off the leather, and the
+fine sandpaper for finishing the sole as
+smooth as that of any new shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The brushing in or smoothing is next
+done by the horsehair brush we have mentioned
+before. A preparation called Lewis’s
+rival bottom polish&mdash;a sort of white wax&mdash;is
+placed on the brush machine. The
+brush now smooths the surface of the sole,
+filling in all small holes with wax and leaving
+the sole absolutely perfect. Finally, the
+shoe is placed against a rapidly revolving
+brush which finishes the uppers with a
+luster that would make any ordinary boot-black
+green with envy. Another operation
+that fully completes the process is the
+hardening of the edges with hot steel,
+which ends in producing an edge that is as
+hard as iron. When it is polished with a
+black dye, it looks exactly like a new sole.</p>
+
+<p>A few words are necessary with regard
+to the heel. The old heel having been
+removed, several lifts of new leather in
+rough form are tacked on. The shoe is
+then taken to the heel trimmer and is
+formed correctly and then smoothed down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+to a brilliant surface on the finely covered
+revolving wheel. In a few seconds it is
+stained, smoothed, and polished. In less
+than six minutes the shoe is ready for the
+customer.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_NINE">CHAPTER NINE<br />
+<span class="smaller">LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS</span></h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Assembling.</span> Includes the following operations:
+tacking the insole to the last,
+putting in the box and counter of the shoe,
+and putting the upper of the shoe on the
+last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Backstay.</span> A term used to denote a
+strip of leather covering and strengthening
+the back seam of a shoe. English backstay
+means the strip of leather that meets the
+quarters on each side and is sewed to them,
+forming the lower part of the shoe. California
+backstay is a term applied to piping
+caught in the back seam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Back Strap.</span> The strap by which the
+shoe is pulled on the foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bal.</span> An abbreviation of the word
+“Balmoral” and means either men’s,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+women’s, or children’s front lace shoe
+of medium height, as distinguished from
+one that is adjusted to the ankle by buttons,
+buckles, rubber goring, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ball.</span> Refers to the ball of the foot&mdash;the
+fleshy part of the bottom of the foot,
+back of the toes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Beading.</span> Means folding in the edges
+of the upper leather instead of leaving
+them raw, or wheeling any impression
+around the sole to the heel. It is called
+seat wheeling in many shoe factory rooms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Beating Out.</span> The same as leveling.
+It is the term used in turn-shoe work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bellows Tongue.</span> A broad tongue
+sewed to the sides of the top, seen in waterproof
+and some working shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Belting.</span> The term applied to the usual
+back tanned cowhide, used in various thicknesses
+for machinery belts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Between Substance.</span> That part of the
+sole that holds the stitch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blackball.</span> A mass of grease and lampblack,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+formerly used by shoemakers on
+edges of heels and soles; sometimes called
+“cobbler’s botch.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blacking the Edge.</span> Blacking or dyeing
+edge of sole, welt, or that part of the
+edge which cannot be blacked so well in
+the making room.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blocking.</span> The cutting or chopping
+of a sole in such a form or shape that it
+can be rounded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bloom.</span> A term often applied to the
+grayish white deposit that gathers on shoes
+in stock. It can be wiped off readily.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blucher.</span> The name of a shoe or half
+boot, originated by Field Marshal Blücher
+of the Prussian Army, in the time of
+Napoleon I. It became very popular and
+has since received occasional favor, being
+used with high tops as a sporting or hunting
+boot. Its distinguishing feature is the
+extension forward of the quarters to lace
+across the tongue, which may be an extension
+upward of the vamp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Boot.</span> A term used (especially abroad)
+to designate women’s high-cut shoes. In
+this country it applies only to high or
+topped footwear, usually made with the
+tops stiff and solid. It is sometimes laced,
+as in hunting boots.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bootee.</span> Leather legging extending between
+knee and ankle, usually of Russian
+calf,&mdash;a riding boot originating with the
+English.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bottom Filling.</span> The filling that goes
+in the low space on the bottom in the forepart
+of the shoe. It is either ground cork,
+tarred felt, or other filler.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bottom Scouring.</span> Sandpapering the
+parts of the sole, except the heel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Boxing.</span> A term used to designate the
+stiffening material placed in the toe of a
+shoe to support it and retain the shape;
+such as leather, composition of leather and
+paper, wire net, drilling (a cotton fabric)
+stiffened with shellac, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Box Calf.</span> A well-known proprietary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+leather having a grain of rectangularly
+crossed lines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Box Toe.</span> Used to hold up the toe of
+the shoe so as to retain the shape. It is
+generally of sole leather, but often made of
+canvas or other material and stiffened with
+shellac or gum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Breaking the Sole.</span> Molding the sole
+so as to fit the spring better.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brogan.</span> A heavy pegged or nailed work
+shoe, medium cut in height.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brushing.</span> The final finish of the top
+edge, heel, and bottom, by means of a
+brush.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Buckskin.</span> A soft leather, generally
+yellow or grayish in color. One way of
+preparing it is by treating deerskins in oil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Buff.</span> A split side leather, coarser than
+glove grain, but otherwise similar. It is
+used for cheaper grades of shoes, principally
+for men.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Buffing.</span> The same as bottom scouring.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cabaretta.</span> A tanned sheepskin of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+superior finish used for shoe stock. There
+are sheep with wool not far removed from
+hair in texture, which produce a skin of
+greater tenacity and finish than the ordinary
+sheep.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cack.</span> A sole leather bottom without
+a heel. An infant’s shoe is called a cack.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Calfskins.</span> Skins of meat cattle of all
+kinds, weighing up to fifteen pounds, are
+usually included in this term. They make
+a strong and pliable leather. Calfskins
+were formerly finished with wax and oil
+on the flesh side, but can now be made so
+as to be finished on the “grain,” which is
+the hair side of the skin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cap.</span> A term meaning the same as tip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Carton.</span> A cardboard box intended for
+one pair of shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cementing.</span> This is the operation of
+placing cement on the outsole and the
+bottom of the welt shoe so that the outsole
+is held to the shoe by the cement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chamois.</span> A leather made from the skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+of chamois, calves, deer, goats, sheep, and
+split hides of other animals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Channeling.</span> Cutting into the sole in
+such a way that the thread or stitching is
+away from the surface. In the outsole
+department it means preparing a place for
+the stitch. In insoles and turn soles, channeling
+is done so that soles are prepared to
+hold the stitching.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Channel Screwed.</span> A process by which
+the sole is fastened to the uppers. After a
+channel is cut and laid over on the outside
+of the outsole, the outsole and insole are
+fastened together, holding the upper and
+lining between them by means of wire
+screws, which are fastened in this channel.
+The skived part is then smoothed down
+over the heads of the screws, entirely
+covering them from sight, and preventing
+the screws from easily working up into the
+foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Channel Stitched.</span> A method of fastening
+soles to the uppers, either by McKay<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+or welt process, in which a portion of the
+sole’s outer side is channeled into, and the
+stitches afterwards covered on the lower
+side by the lip of this channel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Channel Turning.</span> Turning a lip or
+flap of sole leather (called channel), so that
+the stitching can be done in the proper
+place; or it may mean turning up the flap
+or lip of the channel, that is, the part that
+is to cover the stitch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Checking.</span> A term applied to the edges
+of heels or soles that have cracked, or have
+been injured in process of construction.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Inside.</span> Cleaning the lining.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Nails.</span> Scraping the blacking
+off the tops of the heel slugs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Shoes.</span> Removing dirt, wax,
+cement, etc., from them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Clicking.</span> Cutting the uppers of shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Closing.</span> Putting two or more pieces
+together.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Closing On.</span> Stitching the lining and
+outside together.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Colonial.</span> A name given to a woman’s
+low shoe, with vamp extended into a flaring
+tongue, with a large, ornamental buckle
+across the instep. The buckle and tongue
+are the distinctive features of the shoe,
+whether the shoe fastens with a lace or
+strap.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Coltskin.</span> Coltskin has been brought
+into general use in shoemaking within the
+past few years. The skin of a colt is thin
+enough to use like calfskin in its entirety,
+with such shaving as is given all hides in
+tanning. Coltskin makes a firm basis
+needed for patent leather, and has been
+much used in recent years for this purpose.
+Russia is the chief source of supply.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Combination Last.</span> One with a different
+width instep from the ball. It may be
+one or two widths’ difference, such as the
+D ball with a B instep. Combination
+lasts are generally used in fitting low
+insteps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Composition.</span> A term used to denote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+the small scraps that accumulate about
+tanneries and factories, which are ground
+up and mixed with a paste or a kind of
+cement, and flattened into sheets which
+are used as insoles, and in other parts, in
+various grades of shoes, where wear is not
+excessive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Congress Gaiter.</span> A shoe designed
+especially for comfort, with rubber goring
+in the sides which adjusts it to the ankle,
+instead of laces, and sometimes made with
+lace front to imitate a regular shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cordovan.</span> Originally a Spanish leather
+made from horsehide. The Spaniards were,
+for a great many centuries, the best leather
+makers. The term is applied to a grain
+leather from the best and strongest part of
+a horsehide.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Counter.</span> The stiffening in the back
+part of a shoe, often called stiffening, to
+support the outer leather and prevent the
+shoe from “running over” at the heel. It
+is made either of sole leather, shaved thin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+on the edge and shaped by machinery, as
+in the best shoes, or composition or paper,
+in cheap shoes. Metal is occasionally used
+on the outside of the shoes in heavy goods
+for miners and furnacemen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Coupon Tag.</span> A tag from which a
+coupon is cut for every operation. Operatives
+hold part of the coupon and the
+holders of the coupons are paid for the
+part named.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cowhide.</span> Refers to hides of cattle,
+heavier than kips, which run up to twenty-five
+pounds each.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Creasing Vamp.</span> Making hollow grooves
+across the front of the vamp to add to its
+looks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Creedmore.</span> A man’s heavy lace shoe,
+with gusset, blucher cut.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Creole.</span> A heavy congress work shoe.
+This shoe, the creedmore, and brogans are
+usually made of oil grains, kip, or split
+leather, sometimes pegged, sometimes
+“stitched down.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Crimping.</span> Shaping any part of the
+upper so that it will conform to the last
+better.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cushion Sole.</span> An elastic inner sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cut-off Vamp.</span> One cut off at tip for
+economy when tip is to be covered by a cap.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dieing.</span> Cutting soles to fit the last,
+outsoles, insoles, heel lifts, counters, or
+half soles, with a machine and a die.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dom Pedro.</span> A heavy, one-buckle shoe,
+with gusset or bellows tongue. Originally
+it was a patent name for certain shoes made
+of fine material, but is now applied to cheap
+grades.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dongola.</span> A heavy, plump goatskin,
+tanned with a semibright finish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dressing.</span> A process for giving the
+upper its original finish by means of liquid
+put on with sponge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Edge Setting.</span> The finishing edge of
+the sole,&mdash;polishing it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Edge Trimming.</span> Trimming the edge of
+a sole smoothly to conform to last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Enamel.</span> Leather that is given a shiny
+finish on the grain side. The process is
+similar to that of patent leather, only that
+patent leather is finished on the flesh side,
+or the surface of the split.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eyelet.</span> A small ring of metal, etc.,
+placed in the holes for lacing; the eyelet
+holes are sometimes worked with thread
+like a buttonhole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eyeletting.</span> Putting on eyelets.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Facing.</span> The bleached calf or sheepskin
+used around the top of the shoe, and
+down the eyelet row and inside of the
+upper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fair Stitch.</span> Term applied to the stitching
+that shows around the outer edge of
+the sole, to give the McKay shoe the appearance
+of a welt shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faking.</span> Putting a gloss on any part
+of the bottom of the shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Findings.</span> The small parts of a shoe,
+such as blacking, cement, nails, wax, tacks,
+thread, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Flap, Lip, and Shoulder.</span> Terms used
+in connection with the channel or with the
+operation of sewing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Follower.</span> Any last or form put in a
+shoe from which the original last has been
+pulled.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Forepart Finishing.</span> The staining and
+polishing of the forepart of the shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Form.</span> A term applied to a filler last.
+It may be of wood, papier-mâché, leather
+board, or any similar material, and is
+used to enhance the appearance of sample
+shoes, in salesmen’s lines or in window
+displays.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Foxed.</span> Having the lower part of the
+quarter a separate piece of leather or
+covered by an extra piece; “slipper foxed”
+is a term sometimes applied to women’s
+full vamp shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Foxing.</span> The name applied to that part
+of the upper that extends from the sole to
+the laces in front, and to about the height
+of the counter in the back; being the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+length of the upper. It may be in one or
+more pieces and is often cut down to the
+shank in circular form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Frizzing.</span> A process to which chamois
+and wash leather are subjected, after the
+skins are unhaired, scraped, “fleshed,” and
+raised. It consists in rubbing the skins
+with pumice stone or a blunt knife till the
+appearance of the grain is entirely removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Front.</span> A term used for part of a congress
+toe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gaiter.</span> A term usually applied to a separate
+ankle covering or to a congress shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gemming.</span> The operation of making gem
+insoles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gem Insoles.</span> An insole for welt shoes
+of leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Glazed Kid.</span> See Kid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Glove Grain.</span> A light, soft-finished,
+split leather, for women’s or children’s
+shoes or topping.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Goatskin.</span> See Kid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Goodyear Welt.</span> A term used to denote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+the process of attaching the sole to
+the upper of a shoe by means of a narrow
+strip of leather called a welt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gore.</span> A rubber elastic used in a congress
+shoe. It is also applied to the long,
+wedge-shaped piece of leather set in an
+upper to widen it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grading.</span> The sorting of outsoles and
+half soles to get uniform weight in edges of
+finished shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Half Sole.</span> Half of a complete sole
+used in forepart of bottom under outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Harness Leather.</span> Similar to belting,
+and is made from hides heavier than kips.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel.</span> Made of layers of leather or wood
+called liftings, and attached to rear part
+of shoe (heel seat). There are different
+varieties of heels. The French heel is an
+extremely high heel with a curved outline
+in back and front (breast). It is sometimes
+made of wood covered with leather, with
+thicknesses of sole leather, or all sole leather.
+The Cuban heel is a high, straight heel,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+without the curve of the French or “Louis
+XV” heel. Military heel is a straight heel
+not as high as the Cuban. A spring heel is
+a low heel formed by extending back the
+outside of the shoe to the heel, with a slip
+inserted between the outsole and heel slat.
+Wedge heel is somewhat similar to a spring
+heel, except that a wedge-shaped lift is
+tacked on the outside instead of a slit.
+Slugging heels is the process of affixing the
+made-up heel by one operation of the
+machine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Finishing.</span> Blacking and polishing
+the heel edge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Lining.</span> The lining to cover heel
+nails inside the shoe; it is often known by
+other names.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Pad.</span> In the manufacture of shoes,
+is a small piece of felt, leather, or other
+substance fastened to and covering the full
+width of the insole at the point upon which
+the heel rests. A heel cushion is sometimes
+called a heel pad.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Scouring.</span> Sandpapering the edge
+of the heel, except the front or breast portion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat.</span> That part of sole on which
+heel is fastened.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat Nailing.</span> Nailing the heel
+part of sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat Trimming.</span> Trimming the
+rear or heel part of sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Shaving.</span> Shaving the heel, shaping
+it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hemlock Tanned.</span> A process of tanning
+leather by hemlock bark.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hides.</span> Distinguished from skins, in the
+trade. Hides refer to skins of animals
+which are over twenty-five pounds in weight.
+Skins refer to smaller animals; as skins
+of goats, calves, sheep.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inlay.</span> A trimming of the upper by an
+insertion of the same or different kind of
+material than that of the body in which
+it is inlaid. It is used for decorative purpose
+on a shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inseaming.</span> Sewing sole on turn shoe.
+Welting and inseaming are practically the
+same operation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inseam Trimming.</span> Cutting off the
+surplus leather; term is also applied to
+pulling sole tacks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Insole.</span> The first sole laid on the last,
+and is the foundation of all shoes with
+insoles. It is an important though invisible
+portion of a shoe. This inner sole is
+the part to which the upper and outsole
+are sewed or nailed in the McKay and welt
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inspecting.</span> The examination of shoes
+to see that the work is perfect; it is sometimes
+called crowning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inspecting Insole.</span> The operation of
+looking inside of the shoe for tacks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Instep.</span> The top of the arch of the
+foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Iron.</span> A term indicating the thickness
+of sole leather; each unit is approximately
+one thirty-second of an inch in thickness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ironing Uppers.</span> Taking wrinkles out
+of the uppers and smoothing the same with
+a hot iron.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Juliette.</span> A woman’s house slipper which
+is cut a little above the ankle in front and
+back, and cut down on the sides is called
+a Juliette.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kangaroo.</span> The skin of the animal of
+that name, which makes a splendid leather,
+of firm texture. It is quite expensive,
+hence substitutes are on the market under
+the same name.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kid.</span> A term applied to the shoe leather
+made from the skins of mature goats.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kip.</span> A term applied to leather made
+from hides weighing between fifteen and
+twenty-five pounds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lace Stay.</span> A strip of leather reënforcing
+the eyelet holes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lace Hook.</span> An eyelet extended into
+a recurved hook, around which the lace is
+looped. It is most commonly used in
+men’s and boys’ shoes, although recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+some have been invented for use in women’s
+shoes with curved ends, to avoid catching
+the dress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lacing.</span> The operation of putting laces
+in shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Last.</span> A wooden form over which the
+shoe is constructed, giving the shoe its
+distinctive shape.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lasting.</span> The process of making the
+uppers conform to the last in all respects.
+The operations of assembling and pulling
+over are parts of lasting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Laying Channel.</span> Turning down the lip
+or flap to cover the stitching.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leveling.</span> Shaping the sole to the
+bottom of the last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lift.</span> The name given to one thickness
+of sole leather used in the heel. Top lift
+is the bottom lift, when the shoe is right
+side up, and is the last piece put on in
+manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lining.</span> The inside part of shoe, generally
+of cloth (dull) or sheepskin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lining Cutting.</span> The operation of cutting
+the cloth linings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lining-in.</span> The operation of putting
+lining inside of the shoe to cover insole
+or part of insole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Loading Leather.</span> Filling the pores of
+the leather with glucose to increase its
+weight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Making Linings.</span> Consists of closing
+up heel of lining; putting on top and side
+or eyelet stay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Match Marking.</span> An operation performed
+on colored uppers, except black,
+to get different parts of the upper the
+same shade and color, and both shoes in
+the pair alike.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mat.</span> A term applied to a dull finish
+kid as distinguished from glazed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">McKay Sewed or McKay.</span> A shoe in
+which the outsole is attached to the insole
+and upper by a method named for the
+inventor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">McKay Sewing.</span> Sewing through and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+through so that thread is seen inside of
+shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Middle Sole.</span> Any sole between outsole
+and insole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mock Welt.</span> McKay-sewed shoe with
+a double sole and having a leather sock
+lining. It is fair stitched to imitate a welt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Monkey Skin.</span> A peculiar grained skin,
+and is considered in the trade as a fancy
+leather. It is often imitated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Morocco.</span> A name applied to leather
+originally made in Morocco. It is a sumac-tanned
+goatskin, red in color, and is used
+in book binding. The name is also applied
+to a leather made in imitation of this, and
+to heavy, plump goatskins used for shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Molding.</span> Shaping the sole to fit the
+bottom of last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mules.</span> The name applied to slippers
+with no counters or quarters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nap.</span> The woolly side of hide, cloth, or
+felt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Naumkeaging.</span> Smoothing up the bottom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+with fine sandpaper. Sometimes the buffing
+grain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nullifier.</span> A shoe with high vamp
+and quarter, dropping low at the sides,
+made with a short rubber goring for summer
+or house wear.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oak Tanned.</span> A process of tanning by
+means of a substance obtained from oak bark.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oil Leather.</span> Leather prepared by
+currying hides in oil. The hides are moist,
+that the oily matter may be gradually
+and thoroughly absorbed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ooze.</span> A chrome tan calfskin treated on
+the flesh side in such a manner that the
+long fibers are loosened and form a nap
+surface; made in many colors.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Outside Cutting.</span> Cutting the leather
+parts of the shoe, as vamp, tip, top, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Outside Tap.</span> The tap used outside of
+men’s or boys’ heavy shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Outsole.</span> The sole next the ground,
+on which all wear comes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus30" style="width: 330px;">
+<img src="images/illus30.jpg" width="330" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus31" style="width: 370px;">
+<img src="images/illus31.jpg" width="370" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oxford.</span> A low-cut shoe no higher than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+the instep lace, button, or goring, made in
+men’s, women’s, and children’s sizes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Packer Hides.</span> Hides taken off in the
+large slaughterhouses. They are rated
+slightly higher in price, because great care
+and skill are used in taking them off.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Packing.</span> Placing a pair of shoes in a
+carton.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pacs.</span> Coverings for the feet made of
+good quality calfskin, similar in form and
+appearance to the Indian moccasin. They
+do not have sole leather bottoms. If
+properly made, they are waterproof.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pancake.</span> A term applied to one of the
+many artificial leathers formed from leather
+scraps, shaved thin, and cemented together
+under heavy pressure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pasted Counter.</span> One that is cut from
+two pieces of sole leather pasted together.
+It is sometimes called a two-piece counter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Patent Leather.</span> Varnished leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pattern.</span> The model by which the
+pieces comprising the upper of a shoe are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+cut, applied collectively to upper as modified
+by the differing shape of these pieces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pebble.</span> A term used in the process
+to bring out the grain of leather and give
+it a roughened or rubbed appearance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pegging.</span> Lasting out soles with pegs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Perforating.</span> Making very small holes
+around parts of upper. It is performed
+mostly for decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Polish.</span> The name of ladies’ or misses’
+front-lace shoe of higher cut than “bal,”
+and named from Poland, where it originated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pressing.</span> Consists of a flat-press pressure
+for heels and soles, to prevent cracking
+of edges and to make parts adhere.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Porpoise.</span> This skin is sometimes used
+for leather and boot laces, but porpoise
+hides are ordinarily obtained from the
+white whale.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pulling Lasts.</span> Removing the lasts from
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pulling Over.</span> Pulling upper on the
+last and tacking it in position.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pump.</span> A low-cut shoe originally having
+no fastenings, such as laces or buttons. A
+pump is cut lower than the instep.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pump Sole.</span> An extra-light single sole,
+running clear through to the back of the
+heel. A pump sole in former years was
+distinguished by its flexibility and was
+hand turned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Putting on Tap.</span> Sticking half sole to
+the outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Quarter.</span> The rear part of upper when
+a full vamp is not used. Term is used
+mostly in women’s, and Oxfords or low shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rand.</span> Made of sole leather about as
+wide as a welt, but thin at one edge. It is
+tacked to the heel so as to balance the heel
+evenly on the sole and fill any open space
+around the edge between sole and heel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rapid Stitching.</span> Sewing the sole to
+welt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Relasting.</span> Consists in putting lasts
+in shoes from which the original lasts have
+been removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Repairing.</span> A term applied to filling
+slight cracks in patent tips or patent leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Roan.</span> Sheepskin tanned with sumac.
+The process is similar in its details to that
+employed for morocco leather, but lacks
+the graining given to the morocco by the
+grooved rollers in the finishing. It imitates
+ungrained morocco.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rolling.</span> The process of passing leather
+between rolls to make it firm and hard.
+Rolling consists in polishing the bottom on
+roll and brush.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rough Rounding.</span> Rounding outsole
+to the shape of last, and cutting channel
+in the welt-channeled shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Royalties.</span> Sums paid for the use of
+machines to machine companies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Russet Calf.</span> Russet-colored calf is
+made from calfskins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Russet Grain.</span> Russet-colored grain is
+made from a split cowhide.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sabot.</span> The name of a one-piece wooden
+shoe, carved from a block of basswood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+A novelty to Americans, but worn by people
+in the rural and manufacturing sections of
+Holland, Germany, and France.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sack Lining.</span> The lining inside the shoe
+and insole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sandal.</span> The name of a woman’s strap
+slipper, or a sole worn by children. Originally
+fastened on the foot by straps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Satin Calf.</span> A grain split, stuffed with
+oil, and smooth finished.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Scouring Breast.</span> Sandpapering the
+front part of the heel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Screw-fastened.</span> A shoe having the
+sole attached with screws, as in cheap or
+working shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Seal Grain.</span> Usually a flesh split, with
+an artificial grain which is stamped or
+printed on the finished leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Second Lasting.</span> The same as relasting.
+Term used most in turn work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shank.</span> The middle position of the bottom
+of the foot. Shank supports are placed
+in shoes to stiffen that part of the bottom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+They are of steel, of wood, or of a combination
+of leather board and steel, and can be
+placed in the shoe any time before the outsole
+is laid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shank Burnishing.</span> Polishing a black
+shank with hot iron.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shank Finishing.</span> Finishing the shank
+with blacking or in colors. The top lift
+is generally finished at the same time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shanking Out.</span> Means making the edge
+of the shank thinner than the other part
+of the sole, and making it smooth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sheepskins.</span> Used largely for linings
+and for cheap shoes for women and children.
+It is too soft and weak in texture
+for heavy wear, and liable to split and
+tear.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Short Vamp.</span> A foreshortened vamp.
+The distance between the extreme tip and
+the throat of the vamp shortened for
+appearances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sides.</span> Leather made from hides which
+are split into two sides down the back.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Side Lasting.</span> Lasting the side of the
+shoe only.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Size.</span> Shoes are measured by the length
+and width. The length is expressed by
+numbers and the widths by letters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Skins.</span> A term used to represent the
+skin covering of small animals, such as goats.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Skirting.</span> The outer parts of leather
+(hide), such as shanks, bellies, necks, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Skiving.</span> Making the sole the same
+thickness in all parts. Skiving means cutting
+or shaving down to a thin edge. This
+operation may be done in the cutting department
+or stitching department.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Slip.</span> The name applied to spring heels
+or to soles. Slip is a thin piece of sole
+leather inserted above the outer sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Slugging.</span> Driving slugs in heels, on
+part or all of the heel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sock Lining.</span> The lining for insole,
+inside of shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soft Tip.</span> A term applied to a shoe on
+which no boxing is used under the tip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soles and Sole Leather.</span> Name applied
+to pieces of leather of various thickness
+on the bottom of a shoe, usually
+made from heavy hides of leather. There
+are many varieties of soles: a “full-double”
+sole has two thicknesses of leather extending
+clear back to the heel; “half-double”
+sole is a full outer sole, with slip extending
+back to shank; single sole is self-defining;
+“tap” is a half sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sole Laying.</span> Sole laying is the operation
+of laying the outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sorting.</span> The process of selecting and
+sorting soles, so that they may be put up
+in different qualities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spewing.</span> Shoes in stock sometimes become
+coated with a grayish white, powdery
+substance, that looks like mildew. This
+formation on leather that is not fully
+seasoned is called spewing, and the deposit
+is called bloom. It can readily be wiped
+off, and does not indicate any serious
+defect or trouble with the leather. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+not a mildew or growth, but apparently
+an exudation of materials used in tanning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Splits.</span> A name applied to split leather,
+that is, two or more parts of the hide.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spring Heel.</span> Consists of one or more
+lifts used between the outsole and upper.
+It is seen mostly in children’s shoes and is
+often called wedge heel. It can also be
+put on outside instead of under the outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stamping.</span> The operation of putting size
+and width on the inside of the shoe. Parts
+of the uppers are often stamped or marked
+so that the whole are put together properly
+in the stitching room.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stay.</span> The name given to any piece of
+leather put in the upper to strengthen it
+or to strengthen a seam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Bottoms.</span> The operation of
+stamping name on bottom. It is often
+performed in finishing rooms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Carton.</span> Putting the size,
+width, and other marks on carton.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Sizes.</span> Stamping sizes on heel
+part of the sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Standard-fastened.</span> Nailing bottom on
+standard screw machine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Staying.</span> Putting on a stay, generally
+heel stay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stitch Separating.</span> Marking between
+stitches so as to make them show to good
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stitch Down.</span> A term applied to a flexible
+shoe used in the army, in which the
+top is turned out instead of under and
+stitched through the sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stitched Aloft.</span> A term used to indicate
+that the sewing stitches show on the
+bottom. No channel is necessary in this
+sole. It may be a slight groove. In stitching,
+the shoe is held bottom up, therefore
+the name “stitched aloft.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Straight Last.</span> One that is neither
+right nor left, and a shoe made over such
+a last can be worn on either foot. This
+term is sometimes applied to right and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+left shoes that have a barely perceptible
+outside swing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stripping.</span> Consists of cutting in strips
+wide enough to cut soles all of equal size
+in length.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Suede.</span> A trade term applied to kid
+skins, finished on the flesh side.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Swing.</span> A term applied to the curve of
+the outer edge of a sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tacking On.</span> Consists in laying the
+outsole on McKay’s lasted shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tack Pulling and Trimming Out.</span>
+Consist of preparing bottom for welting.
+It also makes it better for the operation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tampico.</span> A variety of goat skins coming
+from the province of Tampico, Central
+America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tap.</span> Half of a complete sole, often
+called half sole when used under outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tan.</span> Tan is a sort of brownish leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tanning.</span> Tanning is the process of
+converting hides or skins into leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tap Trimming.</span> Shaping the tap to
+conform to the sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tawing.</span> The process of making leather
+by soaking hides in a solution of salt and
+alum, or by packing them down with dry
+salt and powdered alum. Used to prepare
+skin rugs and furs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tempering.</span> The operation of wetting
+the leather in water to take hardness out
+and make leather “mull,” so that it may
+be worked easier.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tip.</span> The toe piece which is stitched
+to the vamp and outside of it. Stock
+tip is a tip of the same material as the
+vamp. Patent tip is a patent leather tip.
+Diamond tip refers to the shape extending
+back to a point. Imitation tip-stitching
+across the vamp is imitation of
+a tip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tip Cutting.</span> Cutting the tip which
+goes on the toe of the vamp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Toe and Heel Lasting.</span> Lasting heel
+and toe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Toe Piece.</span> A piece attached to cut-off
+vamp to lengthen it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tongue.</span> A narrow strip of leather necessary
+on all laced shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top.</span> The part of the upper above the
+vamp; tip of shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Cutting.</span> Cutting the top only.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Facing.</span> The strip of leather or
+band of cloth around the top of the shoe
+on the inside is called the top facing. It
+adds to the finish of the lining, and is sometimes
+used to advertise the name of manufacturers
+by a design of letters woven or
+sewed on it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Lift.</span> The lift which is next to the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Lift Scouring.</span> Sandpapering top
+lift of heel to make it smooth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Stitching.</span> Consists of stitching
+across the top and down the side.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Treeing.</span> Shaping the shoe, making it
+smooth. Produces the same effect as ironing,
+although no hot iron is used. It makes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+the upper plump and gives it a good finish
+and “feel.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trimming Cutting.</span> Cutting stays, facings,
+and other small parts of the upper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trimming Vamp.</span> Cutting off hanging
+or surplus thread.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Turning.</span> To turn shoe right side out.
+Also turning upper right side out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Turned Shoe.</span> A lady’s fine shoe that
+is made wrong side out, then turned right
+side out, which operation necessitates the
+use of a thin, flexible sole of good quality.
+The sole is fastened to the last, the upper
+is lasted over it wrong side out, then the
+two are sewed together, the thread catching
+through a channel cut in the edge of the
+sole. The seam does not come through to
+the bottom of the sole where it would chafe
+the foot on inside.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Upper.</span> A term applied collectively to
+the upper parts of a shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ungrained.</span> Smooth surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamp.</span> The lower or front part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+upper of a shoe. It is the most important
+piece of the upper and should be
+cut from the strongest and cleanest
+part of the skin. “Cut-off” vamp is one
+that extends only to the tip, instead of
+being continued to the toe and lasted
+under with the tip. Whole vamp is one
+that extends to the heel without a seam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamping.</span> Stitching the vamp to the top.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamp Cutting.</span> Cutting vamp with or
+without the tip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Velour.</span> A finish for calf leather. It
+is the French name for velvet and is used
+in the shoe trade for a patent chrome-tanned
+calf leather. It is an excellent leather and
+has a smooth and velvety finish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vellum.</span> A name for skins that are
+made into a variety of parchment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Veneering.</span> Consists in making soles,
+whole or part, heavier, by means of leather-board
+or other material fastened to the
+sole by an adhesive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vesting.</span> A material originally designed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+for making vests. As used in shoes, it is
+made with fancy-figured weave, having a
+backing of stiff buckram or rubber-treated
+tissue to strengthen it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Viscolizing.</span> A patent method of waterproofing
+sole leather by the use of partly
+emulsified oils with a water-resisting tendency.
+Viscolized soles are used in hunting
+and sporting boots.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vici.</span> A patent trade name for a brand
+of chrome-tanned kid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wash Leather.</span> An inferior quality of
+chamois.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Welt.</span> A narrow strip of leather that
+is sewed to the upper of a shoe with an
+insole leaving the edge of the welt extending
+outward, so that the outsole can be
+attached by sewing through both welt and
+outsole, around the outside of the shoe.
+The attaching of the sole and upper thus
+involves two sewings, first the insole, welt
+and upper, then the outsole to the welt.
+The name is applied to the shoe itself when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+made in this way to distinguish it from a
+turned, or McKay sewed shoe. This is the
+method used by cobblers in the production
+of hand-sewed shoes to fasten the sole and
+upper together. Goodyear welt is a welt
+in which the sewing is done by a machine
+named for the inventor. There are very
+few hand-welted shoes made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Welt Beating.</span> The flattening out of
+the welt, making it smooth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Welting.</span> Sewing the welt to shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">White Alum.</span> Bleached leather tawed
+with white alum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wooden Case.</span> Large box for twelve or
+more pairs.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_TEN">CHAPTER TEN<br />
+<span class="smaller">LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE</span></h2>
+
+<p>The use of gloves is so old that relics
+of them have been found in the
+habitations of the cave dwellers. The
+Romans used them as decorative articles
+of dress and the Greeks to protect the hands
+when doing heavy work.</p>
+
+<p>The gloves of ladies and gentlemen in the
+days of Queen Elizabeth, and before and
+after, were most beautiful in hand workmanship
+and embellishments, but they
+were usually shapeless things, and in these
+days no one would wear them; they are
+not to be compared with the elegant style
+and artistic finish of the modern product.</p>
+
+<p>When the social world was restricted, so
+to speak, in the numbers of its members who
+could afford some of life’s luxuries, the use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+of the glove was confined largely to royalty,
+nobility, and the well-to-do. And the trade
+not being extensive, prices were high&mdash;being
+added to by decorative elaboration
+in needlework in order that the manufacturer
+and his employees might extract as
+much money as possible from the ultimate
+buyer. While glove making is now one of
+the stabilities of modern manufacture, it
+is, nevertheless, constantly changing in
+styles, due to eagerness for novelties and
+new fashions.</p>
+
+<p>Glove making of leather, in a rough,
+crude form, was carried on in this country
+to a very limited extent in New York State
+as early as 1760, by glove makers brought
+from Scotland to settle on the grants of
+Sir William Johnson, in Fulton county.
+But there was no general market for the
+home product until one was found in Albany
+in 1825. These early gloves, crude and
+clumsy, were cut with shears from leather
+by means of pasteboard patterns, and men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+did the cutting and women the sewing.
+Dies were later introduced, and this led to
+a great improvement in the character of
+the output.</p>
+
+<p>But a still greater step forward was taken
+when the sewing machine was introduced
+in 1852. This abolished handwork entirely,
+but still the industry remained largely of
+a domestic nature, since it could be carried
+on at home with a machine as well as in a
+factory. Later steam power was installed
+in factories with which to run the machines.
+The cutting of gloves, and the stitching
+on the backs, was done before the gloves
+were sent out to be completed in workers’
+homes.</p>
+
+<p>As in everything wherein power can be
+substituted for hand labor in these days,
+the methods of glove manufacture have
+undergone a great transformation. The
+treating of skins in a great tub, three feet
+deep, whole dyeing and scouring, in rooms
+of high temperature, has been displaced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+by putting skins and colors into a cube-shaped
+box, which, revolving with an irregular
+motion, produces the same results more
+quickly than by the primitive way. But
+when color is to be applied to but one side
+the process is the same as of old,&mdash;hand
+use of a brush while the skin is stretched
+out on a slab.</p>
+
+<p>When taken from the stock on hand to
+be made into gloves, the first thing done
+to skins by some glove makers is to “feed”
+them with eggs&mdash;not eggs of suspicious
+merits, but good enough for table use. And
+of these nothing is used but the yolk. One
+glove maker imports from China large
+quantities of the yolks of duck eggs for his
+work, and his yearly consumption of yolks
+amounts to seventeen thousand.</p>
+
+<p>When the skins leave the dyehouse,
+they are rapidly dried in steam-heated
+lofts; and while stiff and rough they are, or
+were, worked into softness and smoothness
+over a wooden upright standard, called a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+stake, at the top of which is fitted a blunt
+semicircular knife. Over this the skin is
+drawn by hand, back and forth, until it
+becomes as pliable and delicate as silk.
+When this work was done manually it was
+most laborious. But now it has been
+mostly taken over by very ingenious machinery,
+which looks, in operation, as if it would
+tear a skin into fragments by the way it
+snaps and pulls at it, but which is adjustable
+to such nicety of action and power that the
+work is done exactly as it is wanted.</p>
+
+<p>The next operation is to pare the skins
+to uniformity of thickness. This also was
+handwork for a long time, done with a
+peculiarly shaped knife, but now emery-coated
+wheels, with rounded edges, are
+used by the workers, who, with their aid,
+do just as good and much faster work in
+drawing and thinning the skins with absolute
+precision. This completes the treatment
+of the skin.</p>
+
+<p>Now the function of the cutter begins,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+and he must be a workman of experience
+and good judgment, in that he must contend
+with the inconstant inelasticity of the skin,
+reducing it to uniform resistance. He must
+get so many pieces of glove size from each
+skin, and suit the pieces to particular features
+of the skin. When done with a skin
+he must have left, as useless, only trifling
+strips and shreds. The shapeliness of the
+glove which a woman draws over her hand,
+depends altogether upon the intelligence
+and skill of the cutter. In American factories
+the cutter is usually from some
+glove-making center in Europe and from
+a family whose occupation has been glove
+making for centuries.</p>
+
+<p>A punch next cuts these glove pieces
+into shape, forming and dividing the fingers,
+slitting the buttonholes, providing side
+pieces for fingers and thumbs, and also
+the fragments used for strengthening the
+buttonholes. The sewing, formerly the
+handiwork of women, is now done on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+machines of capacity for exceptionally fine
+quality of intricate stitching. The number
+of glove sizes made is sufficient to meet
+every likely demand. When sewn, and the
+buttons or fastenings put on, they pass
+beneath the critical eye of an inspector for
+scrutiny as to faults. Then they are finally
+shaped on a hot metal hand, smoothed,
+banded, boxed, and sent to the salesroom
+for shipment.</p>
+
+<p>The first and fourth fingers of a glove are
+completed by gussets, or strips, sewed only
+on the inner side; but the second and third
+fingers require gussets on both sides to
+complete the fingers. In addition to these,
+small, diamond-shaped pieces are sewed in
+at the roots of the fingers. Special care is
+necessary in sewing in the thumb pieces,
+as poorly made gloves usually give way at
+this point.</p>
+
+<p>Natural lined gloves are now common
+enough, although it is not many years
+since they were regarded as impracticable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+These are made from pelts of various
+animals with the hair left on the skin to
+form the lining.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Automobile and Furniture Leather</span></h3>
+
+<p>For automobile and furniture leather
+only choice hides should be used. The
+kind of hides generally employed for this
+class of leather are French and Swiss, as
+these run full and plump on the bellies, are
+free from cuts on the flesh and are of clear
+grain. The hides are trimmed before placing
+them in the soaking pits, all useless
+parts, such as nose, shanks, etc., being cut
+away.</p>
+
+<p>After remaining in soak for a day or two,
+the hides are hauled out, fleshed, and
+returned to the soaks for thorough softening.
+When thoroughly soaked, they are toggled
+and reeled into the first lime. The first
+lime must be a weak, mellow lime, or a
+harsh grain will show after the leather is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+tanned. The hides are reeled over into
+stronger limes every day for seven days,
+when they are ready for unhairing. After
+coming from the limes, the hides should
+go into a pit of soft water heated to about
+ninety degrees Fahrenheit and left over
+night before starting in to unhair. After
+unhairing, they are thrown into a vat
+of clean water and thoroughly worked out
+on the grain to remove short hairs and scud
+and are then ready for bating. One that
+has a little bacterial action is preferred to
+an acid bate. After bating, the hides are
+given a good scudding on the grain and are
+then ready for the tanning liquors.</p>
+
+<p>The liquors are made of hemlock and oak
+and are used very weak on the start. The
+hides are suspended for a day in a liquor
+not over six degrees specific gravity reading
+in strength, and the following day shifted
+over into a stronger liquor. The stock is
+given stronger liquors every day until
+tanned enough for splitting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The stock is struck out smoothly and
+brought to the machine for splitting. The
+buffing is first taken away and sold for hat
+bands, pocket-books, etc. The grains are
+finished and the splits are returned to the
+tanning liquors to be thoroughly tanned.
+As soon as the splits are tanned, they are
+washed up, drained, and then drummed
+in the drum in a sumac liquor. They are
+now scoured, and, after being well set out,
+are given a good oiling with cod oil.</p>
+
+<p>They are now tacked out on the frames
+and dried out. They are next taken from
+the frames and boarded by hand over the
+table. The splits are taken to the japan
+shop and are tacked out again and are
+ready for the first coat of daub. Two coats
+are applied. After each coat, the splits
+are well rubbed down, when they receive
+the slicker coat. The color coats are now
+applied, and after drying out, the leather
+is grained up and finished.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_ELEVEN">CHAPTER ELEVEN<br />
+<span class="smaller">RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE</span></h2>
+
+<p>Examine the rubbers we wear during
+the winter and stormy weather.</p>
+
+<p>Rubber shoe coverings are made to protect
+the shoe from water and snow and
+may be in the form of either slippers or
+arctics. The covering is rendered waterproof
+by means of a compound rubber.</p>
+
+<p>Rubber is the name given to a coagulated
+milky juice obtained from many different
+trees, vines, and shrubs that grow on that
+part of the earth’s surface which forms a
+band some three or four hundred miles on
+either side of the equator.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus32" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus32.jpg" width="650" height="530" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Crude Rubber.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rubber is graded commercially, according
+to the district where it is found. In the
+order of importance it may be divided into
+three general sorts, viz., American, African,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+and Asiatic. The best and largest quantities
+of rubber come from Brazil, along the
+banks of the Amazon River. The countries
+in the northern and western part of South
+America, and the Central American States
+and Mexico furnish considerable rubber.
+Eastern and western Africa also produce
+many kinds of rubber in large quantities,
+though somewhat inferior to the Brazilian
+product. The Asiatic rubbers are unimportant
+in quantity, and, excepting the
+rubber obtained from cultivated trees in
+Ceylon, are decidedly inferior in quality.</p>
+
+<p>The fluid rubber obtained from Brazil
+is called Para and is used principally in
+the manufacture of rubber footwear. The
+method of gathering and coagulating the
+rubber juice (called latex) varies in the
+different countries. The native first clears
+a space under a number of trees and proceeds
+to tap the trees with a short-handled
+ax, having a small blade, by cutting gashes
+in the bark. A cup is fixed under each cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+to catch the fluid as it flows out. As fast
+as the cups are filled, they are emptied
+into a large vessel and carried to the camp
+to be coagulated. A fire is started in a
+shallow hole in the ground, and palm nuts,
+which make a dense smoke, are thrown on.
+An earthen cover which has a small opening
+on top is placed over the fire, allowing the
+smoke to escape through the opening. A
+wooden paddle is first dipped in clay water
+and then into the latex and then held over
+the smoke. The heat coagulates a thin
+layer of rubber on the paddle. It is dipped
+again and again in the latex and smoked
+each time. After being dipped many times,
+a lump (called biscuit) of rubber is formed.
+A cut is made in the biscuit and the paddle
+removed. Then the rubber is ready for
+market. The world’s crop of rubber in
+1911 was about ninety thousand tons.</p>
+
+<p>Few people realize the number of operations
+necessary to produce from the crude
+biscuit of India rubber the highly finished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+rubber shoe of to-day. Briefly stated, the
+various steps are washing, drying, compounding,
+calendering, cutting the various
+parts, making or putting these parts together,
+varnishing, vulcanizing, and packing.
+Each of these processes requires a distinct
+and separate department, and many of these
+processes are subdivided into minor operations.</p>
+
+<p>The huge stock of Para rubber, that is
+rubber obtained from the Amazon section,
+to be found in any of the leading rubber
+factories counts well up into the thousands
+of dollars. With rubber at or near $1.50
+per pound, a stock of ten to fifty tons runs
+up into the five or six figures.</p>
+
+<p>This crude rubber, as it comes from the
+Amazon, contains more or less dirt, pebbles,
+and other foreign substances, which must
+be removed.</p>
+
+<p>The large cakes of crude rubber are first
+broken up by a cracker machine, consisting
+of two large, revolving steel cylinders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+from which the product falls into pans or
+trays. It goes then to a machine known as
+a “washer” or “sheeter,” where it is run
+between revolving cylinders, upon which a
+continuous spray of clean water is maintained.
+After being rolled into rough sheets,
+it is put into a tank, from which it is taken
+to the “beater” machine, in which water
+runs continuously, and then it is washed
+again and “sheeted out.” It is then dried
+in one of two ways.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The older way. The sheets are
+hung over rods in a large room, and allowed
+to dry in the air. To facilitate the same,
+a fan or blower is often used to cause a
+circulation and removal of the moisture-laden
+air. This requires a period of from
+one to two or three months.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus33" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus33.jpg" width="650" height="530" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Washing and Drying.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(2) The second method is called vacuum
+drying. This process is gradually being
+introduced, so that now probably more
+rubber is dried in vacuum than by air.
+The vacuum drier consists of a large iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+cylinder filled with plates, through which
+steam is allowed to circulate. The rubber
+is placed on the plates and the air is exhausted
+from the cylinder by means of an
+air pump until very nearly twenty-six
+degrees of vacuum are obtained. By this
+process only from two to three hours are
+required to produce perfectly dry rubber.</p>
+
+<p>The making of a rubber shoe is not the
+simple matter which might at first be
+supposed. An ordinary rubber shoe consists
+of at least seven or eight different
+parts, sometimes twenty-one parts to a pair,
+while a high-button gaiter has seventeen
+distinct parts, and a rubber boot has twenty-three
+different pieces. There are insoles,
+outsoles, stays, piping, foxing, and a dozen
+other different pieces, each one of which is
+necessary to the proper construction of a
+rubber shoe or boot. The thinner sheets
+for the uppers are cut by hand, the deft
+work of the cutters in following the patterns
+outlined on the sheets being the result of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+years of practice. The sheets of rubber
+from which the uppers and soles are cut
+are at this stage of the work plastic and
+very sticky. It is necessary on this account
+to cut the various pieces one by one, and
+keep them separate. The soles and some
+of the heavier pieces are dried out by the
+machine, and the heels are made by a special
+machine, but by far the greater part is done
+by wonderfully skilled hands. All of these
+parts which go to make a shoe, or the
+twenty-three parts which go into a boot,
+are collected and sent to the making department,
+which, in most factories, is a large
+room containing several hundred operatives,
+each working by herself, and bringing the
+many separate parts into the fully finished
+footwear.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus34" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus34.jpg" width="650" height="490" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Calender Room.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sheets of rubber, after being dried,
+are taken to the “compound” room, where
+they are sprinkled with whiting, to prevent
+sticking, and weighed. Next they are taken
+into the calender room to a “mixer,” by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+means of which the rubber is combined
+with other substances, which include sulphur,
+litharge, whiting, lampblack, tar,
+resin, lime, palm oil, and linseed oil.</p>
+
+<p>There are different calendering machines.
+The ones called the upper calenders form
+sheets of rubber stock for the upper part of
+the shoe. The soling calenders form the
+stock for the sole or bottom part of the
+shoe; other calender machines are used to
+coat a layer of gum on one side of the
+fabrics used for lining and various strips,
+fillers, toe, and heel pieces. The gum
+sheets are sent to the cutting room.</p>
+
+<p>Generally, linings for nine pairs of shoes
+are cut at once. The linings are cut both
+by hand and by machine. Men who cut
+with dies, by hand, stand at the bench and
+use iron mallets, like those used in cutting
+heels. Inner soles, heel pieces, and linings
+are all cut by means of dies in the same
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>The edges of the several parts are spread<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+with cement, and then the parts are taken
+to the making room and distributed. In
+the making department the boots and shoes
+are put together. Women make the light
+overshoes; men make the heavy ones.
+Rubbers are made by women, but men put
+on the outer soles.</p>
+
+<p>Linings are first applied smoothly to a
+wooden last and cemented together, the
+cement side out. The rubber parts are
+then stuck on and rolled firmly with a
+small hand roller. Young women become
+very skilled in this work, taking up the
+several parts in rapid succession, placing
+them accurately upon the last, and rolling
+and pounding them firmly together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus35" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus35.jpg" width="650" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cutting Room.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most interesting single process
+is that of putting the rubber boot
+together. This work is done by men, and
+requires, in addition to accurate eyesight,
+rapid and very deft movements of the hand
+and considerable strength. No nails, tacks,
+or stitching are required. The natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+adhesiveness of the rubber, assisted by the
+use of rubber cement, holds the parts
+solidly together.</p>
+
+<p>In the making of the shoe the last is
+covered with the various pieces which are
+so made as to adhere where they are placed.
+It is exact and nice work fitting all these
+pieces perfectly, each edge overlapping just
+so far and no farther. The lighter shoes
+are made by women, but the heavy lumbermen’s
+shoes, arctics, and especially the
+boots, are made by men, for this work needs
+strength as well as dexterity.</p>
+
+<p>The goods which require varnishing are
+put on racks and treated with a mixture of
+boiled linseed oil, naphtha, and other
+materials, which are applied with brushes,
+and impart a gloss to the surface.</p>
+
+<p>On vulcanizing boots and shoes, the
+shoes are placed on racks supported by
+iron cars, which are run over tracks into
+the vulcanizing chamber. This consists
+principally of a large room provided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+with a steam coil on the floor. The temperature
+rarely exceeds two hundred
+and sixty degrees Fahrenheit. In vulcanizing
+shoes, the heat is increased gradually
+from the beginning, about one hundred and
+eighty degrees Fahrenheit, otherwise the
+goods would be blistered, due to the rapid
+evaporation of moisture and other volatile
+constituents. They are kept in these
+heaters from six to seven hours. This
+causes a union of sulphur and rubber, which
+is not affected by heat or cold.</p>
+
+<p>They are wheeled on another truck to the
+packing room, where they are inspected,
+taken from the lasts, tied together in
+pairs, or placed in cartons, as the case may
+be. They are then sent to the shipping
+room to be packed in cases ready to be
+delivered to the cars waiting at a side track
+of the railroad, or sent to the storehouse
+until they shall be called for by the jobbers
+or retail dealers.</p>
+
+<p>An important branch of the rubber business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+is the manufacture of tennis shoes.
+This is a generic term, which is applied to
+all kinds of footwear having cloth tops and
+rubber soles. As the name indicates, they
+were first used in playing the game of
+tennis, but they have come into very general
+use as warm weather and vacation shoes,
+and every year shows an increased popularity.
+These shoes are made in a similar
+manner to the rubber shoes, the rubber
+soles being cemented to the cloth uppers and
+vulcanized the same as the rubber overshoes.
+Many different styles are made,
+and each year shows some improvements in
+the shapes, in the textiles which are used,
+in the colors and combinations of soles and
+uppers.</p>
+
+<p>Rubber shoes should not be expected to
+give satisfactory service unless properly
+fitted. If too short, too narrow, or if worn
+over leathers with extra heavy taps, or
+unusually thick, wide soles, strains will be
+brought upon parts not designed to stand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+them and the rubber will give way. Rubber
+goods, particularly boots, if too large will
+wrinkle and a continued wrinkling and
+bending is liable to cause cracking.</p>
+
+<p>Extreme heat or cold should be avoided.
+Rubber boots or shoes should never be
+dried by placing them near a heater of any
+kind. If left near a stove, register, or
+radiator, the rubber is liable to dry and
+crack. If left out of doors in winter,
+or in an extremely cold place, they will
+freeze. Then when the warm foot is put
+into them and the rubbers are worn, the
+rubber will crack.</p>
+
+<p>Oil, grease, milk, or blood will cause
+rubber to decay in a very short time. If
+spattered with any of these, the rubber
+should be promptly and thoroughly cleaned
+with warm water and soap.</p>
+
+<p>The oil in leather tops will rot rubber,
+so that care should be taken in storing and
+packing to prevent the leather and rubber
+from coming in contact.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus36" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus36.jpg" width="650" height="475" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Various heavy goods are advertised as
+proof against snagging. It should be remembered,
+however, that no rubber can be
+made strong enough to be absolutely proof
+against tearing or puncturing by extremely
+sharp edges, such as stiff stubble, sharp-edged
+rocks, broken glass, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Mud, barnyard dirt, or filth of any kind
+should never be allowed to dry on rubbers.
+They should be cleaned as carefully as
+leather boots or shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Exposure to strong sunlight for any
+length of time produces an effect on rubbers
+similar to that of putting them near a stove
+or radiator. Rubbers should not be left
+in the sun to dry. When not in use they
+should be kept in a cool, dark place.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Rubber Heels</span></h3>
+
+<p>Rubber heels are generally made for
+boots and shoes as follows. The compounded
+rubber is sheeted on a calender<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+roll, on a drum, until several layers are
+obtained, thus making a sheet of about one
+inch in thickness. The heel is cut out from
+this sheet by means of a die and placed in a
+mold. It is there subjected to an extremely
+high pressure, generally obtained by hydraulic
+power. The plates of the press
+are heated with live steam. The heels are
+removed at the end of nine or ten minutes
+and the sheet which was formerly nearly an
+inch in thickness is now only about half
+an inch and has by pressure been molded
+into the shape of the heel desired, is semi or
+partially vulcanized, and also is imprinted
+upon the bottom with the name or other
+brand of the company.</p>
+
+<p>The cup-shaped portion of the heel is now
+coated with a layer of rubber cement, and
+firmly placed on the boot ready to go to
+the vulcanizer, where vulcanizing of the
+heel is then completed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus37" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus37.jpg" width="650" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Heel-making Department.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many articles of rubber are vulcanized by
+the use of chloride of sulphur, which process<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+is sometimes known as “cold cure.” The
+action of sulphur chloride itself is so violent
+that it must be diluted, and for this purpose
+carbon bisulfide is often used. In some
+cases, as, for example, the manufacture of
+tobacco pouches, the articles are submerged
+for from one to two minutes in the liquid,
+then removed and washed thoroughly. In
+another case, as in the manufacture of some
+kinds of rubber cloth, such as hospital
+sheeting, the coated cloth is suspended in
+a suitable room and the chloride of sulphur
+and carbon bisulfide mixed and evaporated
+by action of heat so that the cloth is subjected
+to the action of vapor alone. Only
+articles with comparatively thin walls can
+be successfully vulcanized by the cold cure,
+as at best the vulcanizing action of the
+chloride is only superficial.</p>
+
+<p>No account of vulcanization processes as
+employed in the manufacture of rubber
+goods is complete without the mention of
+“steam cure.” A great variety of rubber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+goods under the general term of mechanical
+sundries are cured by this method. This
+includes rubber matting, door mats, water
+bottles, druggists’ sundries, etc. This process
+consists in brief of submitting the
+articles to be vulcanized to the action of
+live steam for from half an hour to an hour,
+or until the goods are thoroughly vulcanized.
+The temperature and duration of time required
+depend to a considerable extent
+upon the thickness of the walls of the
+article. In order to prevent the goods
+from being pitted and damaged by the
+action of steam, they are wrapped with
+cloth or imbedded in pans of soapstone.
+A great variety of rubber tubing is cured
+by this method.</p>
+
+<p>In rubber cloth making, the crude rubber
+is put through the washing process, dried
+and mixed with sulphur, litharge, coloring
+matter, etc., and then is taken to the cement
+room, where it is “cut” with naphtha,
+forming a thick paste or dough. This is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+taken to the spreading room in large tubs
+and fed into the roller machine, which is
+like a long table made of steam pipes
+placed horizontally in a single layer. Below
+one end is a roll of cloth, which is passed
+between two iron rollers on the end. The
+dough is fed in between these rollers and
+is spread smoothly over the cloth, which is
+rolled up and removed to a heating room,
+where it is unrolled and hung on racks, and
+then subjected to sufficient heat to cause
+the combination of the sulphur and rubber.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Chemistry in the Manufacture of
+Rubber Goods</span></h3>
+
+<p>Too much stress cannot be laid upon the
+importance in all rubber factories of the
+chemical department. During the last two
+or three years there has been an unusual
+development along these lines, and to-day
+no factory for the manufacture of rubber
+goods is complete that does not possess a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+well-equipped laboratory. Not only does
+this department enable the manufacturer
+to control the purity and uniformity of
+his compounding ingredients and the innumerable
+grades of crude rubber, but, what
+is of even greater importance, it enables
+him to inaugurate research work as applied
+to his particular line of manufacture. This
+part of laboratory work is already producing
+results not only of scientific interest, but
+of very great practical and economic value.
+Still another rôle of the modern chemical
+laboratory is to exercise a control over the
+finished material, so that the manager of
+the works may be in possession daily of
+reasons for any variation detrimental to
+the standard of his products.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Rubber Terms</span></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ankle Piece.</span> A large piece of light
+sheeted gum, which goes around the ankle
+and extends about halfway up the leg.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Back Stay.</span> A piece of frictioned sheeting
+similar to the side stay in shape and
+placed at the back of the heel and ankle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gum Counter.</span> A piece cut out of
+sheeted gum, on the under side of which is
+placed a counter form or a piece of frictioned
+sheeting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Outer Filler.</span> A filling sole cut from
+rag-coated or frictioned sheeting, and designed
+to fill up the hollow on the bottom
+caused by bringing the edges of the gum
+vamp and counter underneath.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inner Sole.</span> Usually made of felt or
+sheeting coated on one side with rag stock.
+In lasting up, the bottom edges of the lining
+(which have previously been cemented)
+are pulled under and adhere to the inner
+sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leg Cover.</span> A piece of sheeted gum
+rolled upon a piece of frictioned sheeting
+called the leg form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leg Lining.</span> The lining, usually of felt
+or wool netting, for the leg.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Para.</span> A name given to rubber from
+Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Piping.</span> Strips of frictioned sheeting used
+to join the lining together over the instep
+and up the back, and also to hold the
+lining up on the tree by passing a strip over
+the top.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rag Counter.</span> Quarter stiff is a counter
+piece cut out of rag-coated or frictioned
+sheeting, which gives stiffness to the
+counter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Side Stay.</span> A spike-shaped piece of
+frictioned sheeting, placed on each side of
+the ankle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rag Sole.</span> A sole stiffening cut out of
+a sheet of rag stock, which covers the whole
+bottom. The edges are skived to make a
+perfect edge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Toe Filler.</span> A rag-stock filling sole
+to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused
+by attaching the lining to the inner sole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus38" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus38.jpg" width="420" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Parts of a Rubber Boot.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Toe Lining.</span> The lining for the vamp,
+of the same material as the leg lining.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamp.</span> A piece cut out of sheeted gum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamp Form.</span> A piece of frictioned sheeting
+cut to the shape of the vamp, and put
+on over the toe lining.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Web Straps.</span> Straps put on with the
+joined ends between the leg lining and the
+leg cover, and forming a loop on the inside
+of the boot to pull it on with.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_TWELVE">CHAPTER TWELVE<br />
+<span class="smaller">HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR</span></h2>
+
+<p>We find that primitive footwear, in
+common with all other beginnings,
+was of the crudest nature and took the
+form of the simple sandal. It is probable
+that man first protected his foot from
+the rough way by simple pieces of hide,
+which were bound to the bottom of the
+foot. The sandal, among the most primitive,
+is the type of footwear worn to-day.
+The sandal was simply bound to the foot
+by thongs of hides, which were brought
+between the toes and tied around the ankle.</p>
+
+<p>At about the Elizabethan period, shoemaking
+had really become a very fine art.
+Some foot creations were made by the
+Court shoemakers that reflected the individual
+taste of the monarch, and so great
+was the competition to produce something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+novel that very often the styles assumed a
+grotesque aspect. The toes were elongated
+so that sometimes they were carried up and
+fastened by cords and tassels to the tops
+of the shoes, and it finally became necessary
+to enact a law to prevent such outrageous
+types of footwear. The slippers of this
+period were of the extremely high-heeled
+variety, and small fortunes were often
+spent on their ornamentation. They were
+mostly of the turn-shoe type, and samples
+which are preserved show the excellent
+workmanship that was in vogue at that
+time.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the first shoemaker in
+America. When the <i>Mayflower</i> made the
+second trip to America, she carried among
+others a shoemaker named Thomas Beard,
+who brought with him a supply of hides.
+Seven years afterwards there arrived one
+Phillip Kertland, a native of Buckinghamshire,
+who settled in Lynn in 1636.</p>
+
+<p>Kertland was the pioneer shoemaker of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+Lynn and for years he successfully worked
+at his craft, teaching others his methods
+and ways, so that fifteen years after his
+arrival, Lynn was not only supplying the
+requirements of its inhabitants, but was
+also sending a part of its products to the
+port of Boston. As early as 1648 we find
+tanning and shoemaking mentioned as an
+industry of the colony of Virginia, special
+mention being made of the fact that a
+planter named Matthews employed eight
+shoemakers on his premises. Legal restraint
+was placed on the cordwainer in
+Connecticut in 1656, and in Rhode Island
+in 1706, while in New York the business of
+tanning and shoemaking is known to have
+been firmly established previous to the
+capitulation of the Province to England in
+1664. In 1698 the industry was carried
+on profitably in Philadelphia, and in 1721
+the Colonial Legislature of Pennsylvania
+passed an act regulating the material and
+the prices of the boot and shoe industry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Prior to 1815 most of the shoes were
+hand sewed, a few having been copper
+nailed. The heavier shoes were welted and
+the lighter ones turned. This method of
+manufacture was changed, about the year
+1815, by the adoption of the wooden shoe
+peg, which was invented in 1811 and soon
+came into general use. Up to this time
+little or no progress had been made in the
+methods of manufacture. The shoemaker
+sat on his bench, and with scarcely any
+other instrument than a hammer, knife,
+and wooden shoulder stick, cut, stitched,
+hammered, and sewed until the shoe was
+completed. Previous to the year 1845,
+which marked the first successful application
+of machinery to American shoemaking,
+this industry was in the strictest sense a
+hand process, and the young man who
+chose it for his vocation was apprenticed for
+seven years, during which time he was
+taught every detail of the art. He was
+instructed in the preparation of the insole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+and outsole, depending almost entirely
+upon his eye for the proper proportions;
+taught to prepare pegs and drive them,
+for the pegged shoe was the common type
+of footwear in the first half of the last
+century; and familiarized himself with the
+making of turned and welt shoes, which
+have always been considered the highest
+types of shoemaking, as they require exceptional
+skill of the artisan in channeling the
+insole and outsole by hand, rounding
+the sole, sewing the welt, and stitching
+the outsole. After having served his
+apprenticeship, it was the custom for the
+full-fledged shoemaker to start on what
+was known as “whipping the cat,” which
+meant traveling from town to town, living
+with a family while making a year’s supply
+of shoes for each member, then moving on
+to fill engagements previously made.</p>
+
+<p>The change from which has been evolved
+our present factory system began in the latter
+part of the 18th century, when a system of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+sizes had been drafted, and shoemakers more
+enterprising than their fellows gathered
+about them groups of workmen, and took
+upon themselves the dignity of manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>It was soon found that the master workman
+could largely increase his income by
+employing other men to do the work while
+he directed their efforts, and this gradually
+led to a division of the labor: the shoe
+uppers, which had prior to this time been
+sewed by men using waxed thread with
+bristles, now were done by women, who
+often took the work home.</p>
+
+<p>One workman cut the leather, others
+sewed the uppers, and still others fastened
+uppers to soles, each workman handling
+only one part in the process of manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>We find that in the year 1795 the evolution
+of the factory system had reached a
+stage where in Lynn alone there were two
+hundred master workmen, employing six
+hundred journeymen and turning out three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+hundred thousand pairs of shoes per year.
+The entire shoe was then made under one
+roof, and generally from leather that was
+tanned on the premises.</p>
+
+<p>Factory buildings were not at this time
+of a very pretentious nature and did not
+by any means represent the amount of
+work undertaken by the proprietor; for
+the small ten by ten factories, which are
+even to-day in existence in some of the
+backyards of Lynn homes, came into
+existence at this time. Many farmers
+found that shoemaking was a remunerative
+occupation in the winter, and they, and
+perhaps their neighbors, gathered in these
+shops and took from the different factories
+shoes on which to fasten the soles, or
+uppers to bind, which, after completion of
+the work, were returned to the factory,
+where they were finished and sent to market
+packed in wooden boxes. It was in this
+way that the industry prospered and developed
+up to the period of the introduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+of machines, which happened but a little
+over half a century ago.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the year 1811 absolutely no
+machinery was used in the making of shoes.
+This year shoe pegs were invented and a
+machine for making them. The pegged
+shoe became very widely worn, but it was
+not until 1835 that any machine for driving
+pegs was made, and even at this time the
+machine was but an indifferent success.
+It was a hand machine and its work was
+by no means of a reliable nature.</p>
+
+<p>The first machine to be widely accepted
+by the trade was the “rolling machine.”
+This was used for rolling the sole leather
+under pressure, and it is said that a man
+could perform in a minute with this machine
+the same office that he would have required
+half an hour to have performed with the
+old-fashioned lapstone and hammer. This
+was followed in 1848 by the most important
+invention, the “sewing machine,” which
+was perfected by Elias Howe, and was soon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+followed by a machine which sewed with
+waxed thread and made it possible to sew
+the uppers of shoes in a much more rapid,
+reliable, and satisfactory manner than had
+ever been done by hand. This, too, was
+soon followed by a machine which split the
+sole leather and by another for buffing or
+removing the grain.</p>
+
+<p>In 1855 William F. Trowbridge, who was
+a partner in the firm of F. Brigham &amp;
+Company, of Feltonville, Massachusetts,
+then a part of Marlboro, conceived the idea
+of driving by horse power the machines then
+in use. The introduction of power became
+very general, so that in the year 1860 there
+were scarcely any factories which were not
+driven by either steam or water power.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1858 was marked by the invention
+by Lyman R. Blake of the McKay
+sewing machine, which probably more than
+any other has exerted a revolutionary effect
+on the industry.</p>
+
+<p>The McKay machine did not at this time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+sew the toe or heel; the sewing was started
+at the shank and carried forward to a
+point near the toe on one side, and the same
+operation repeated on the other side; but
+it seemed to possess great possibilities and
+created a great deal of interest throughout
+the trade. It was, of course, a very crude
+machine and very different from the McKay
+machine of to-day. It was set on a bench
+and the shoe to be sewed was placed over
+a horn, and the sewing was done from the
+channel in the outsole through the sole
+and insole. Colonel McKay immediately
+started to improve the machine. He employed
+skilled mechanics to work on it
+and attempted to introduce it in different
+factories, but encountered a great deal of
+opposition and criticism in regard to its
+future. It is said that he offered to dispose
+of the machine to the shoemakers of Lynn
+and allow them its exclusive use if they
+would pay him three hundred thousand
+dollars, an offer which was not accepted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The machine left a loop stitch and a
+ridge of thread on the inside of the shoe,
+but it filled the great demand that existed
+for sewed shoes, and many hundreds of
+millions of pairs have been made by its use.</p>
+
+<p>While Colonel McKay had met rebuff
+and discouragement in attempting to introduce
+his machine, the public necessity was
+such that manufacturers were obliged to
+take it up immediately; but Colonel McKay
+was still embarrassed by lack of capital to
+carry on his rapidly increasing business.
+It was at this time that a system of placing
+machines in factories, which system has
+proven to be the most potent factor in the
+upbuilding of the shoe industry, was started.
+This was a royalty system, whereby the
+machine or machine owner participated in
+the profits accruing from the use of the
+machine.</p>
+
+<p>It hardly seems that there can be any
+question as to the principle of royalty being
+one of the greatest forces in building up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+the successful industry which we have
+to-day; it afforded an easy means whereby
+machines could be introduced without entailing
+hardships on the manufacturers, who,
+had they been obliged to pay the actual
+worth of the machines, would have been
+entirely unable to adopt them. Instances
+are known where hundreds of thousands
+of dollars were spent on machines, which
+machines were abandoned without having
+made a single shoe.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the introduction of the
+McKay machine, inventors were busy in
+other directions, and as a result, came the
+introduction of the “cable nailing machine.”
+This was provided with a cable of nails, the
+head of one being joined to the point of
+another; these the machines cut into
+separate nails and drove automatically.
+At about this time also was introduced the
+“screw machine,” which formed a screw
+from brass wire, forcing it into the leather
+and cutting it off automatically. This was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+the prototype of the “rapid standard screw
+machine,” which is a comparatively recent
+invention, and is very widely used at the
+present time as a sole fastener on the
+heavier class of boots and shoes. Very
+soon thereafter the attention of the trade
+was attracted to the invention of a New
+York mechanic for the sewing of soles.
+The device was particularly intended for
+the making of turn shoes and afterwards
+became famous as the “Goodyear turn
+shoe machine.”</p>
+
+<p>Closely following the Goodyear invention
+came the introduction of the first machine
+used in connection with heeling,&mdash;a
+machine which compressed the heel and
+pricked holes for the nails; this was soon
+followed by a machine which automatically
+drove the nails, the heel having previously
+been put in place and held by the guides on
+the machine. Other improvements in heeling
+machines followed with considerable
+rapidity, and a machine came into use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+shortly afterwards which not only nailed
+the heel, but which was also provided with
+a hand trimmer, which the operator swung
+round the heel, after nailing. From these
+have been evolved the heeling machines
+in use at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>One of the early uses to which the sewing
+machine was put was the sewing together
+of the pieces of soft and pliable leather which
+make the upper of a shoe&mdash;a simple thing,
+involving only a slight adjustment of the
+original machine. It is a far more complicated
+operation to sew the upper to the
+thick and heavy sole, and years passed by
+before the secret was discovered, and the
+McKay machine appeared. In the shoe
+sewed on the McKay machine, the thread
+ran through into the inside of the inner sole,
+leaving a rasping ridge on which the stocking
+of the wearer rubbed. The McKay shoe
+displaced only the coarser grades. The
+hand-sewed shoe remained the favorite
+of wealth and fashion, and was worn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+exclusively by those who cared for comfort
+and could afford the price. In sewing a
+shoe by hand, a thin and narrow strip of
+leather, called a welt, is first sewed to the
+insole and upper, and the heavy outsole
+is sewed to this welt, so that the stitches
+come outside and do not touch the foot,
+the insole being left entirely smooth. It
+is a delicate operation by hand, and many
+years elapsed before a machine was contrived
+by which it could be done. At last
+the problem was solved. The “Goodyear
+welting and stitching machines” appeared&mdash;so
+named for Charles Goodyear, who
+financed and perfected them, a son of the
+man who taught the world the use of rubber.
+These two machines are the nucleus of the
+Goodyear welt system, to which must be
+attributed the revolution of an industry.
+Although they are entirely distinct machines,
+they are inseparable, for neither can be used
+effectively without the other in making the
+modern Goodyear welt shoe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus39" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus39.jpg" width="420" height="230" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Insole for Hand Sewed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus40" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus40.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Hand Sewed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Much of the style of a shoe depends upon
+the wooden last over which the upper is
+shaped before being attached to the sole.
+To find a substitute for the human hand in
+fitting the shoe to the last and pulling the
+leather over its delicate lines and curves
+seemed for a long time impossible.</p>
+
+<p>This took place in the early seventies,
+when a machine was invented for doing this
+work. It created a great change in a department
+of shoemaking which, prior to this
+time, had been regarded as a confirmed hand
+process. This machine, as well as those
+which followed afterwards for a period of
+twenty years, was known as the best type
+of machine, by which the shoe upper was
+drawn over the last by either friction or
+pincers, and then tacked by use of a hand
+tool.</p>
+
+<p>At a comparatively recent period another
+machine which revolutionized all previous
+ideas in lasting was introduced. This
+machine is generally in use at the present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+time, and is known as the “consolidated
+hand method lasting machine.” It was
+fitted with pincers, which automatically
+drew the leather round the last, at the same
+time driving a tack which held it in place.
+This machine has been so developed that
+it is now used for the lasting of shoes of
+every type, from the lowest and cheapest
+to the highest grade, and it is a machine
+that shows wonderful mechanical ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>The perfection of the lasting machine has
+been followed recently by the introduction
+of a machine which performs in a satisfactory
+way the difficult process known as
+“pulling over,” which consists of accurately
+centering the shoe upper on the last and
+securing it temporarily in position for the
+work of lasting. The new machine, which
+is known as the “hand-method pulling over
+machine,” is provided with pincers, which
+close automatically, gripping the shoe upper
+at sides and toe. It is fitted with adjustments
+by which the operator is enabled to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+quickly center the shoe upper on the last,
+and, on pressure of a foot lever, the machine
+automatically draws the upper closely to
+the last and secures it in position by tacks,
+which are also driven by the machine. The
+introduction of this machine marked a
+radical change in the one important shoemaking
+process that had up to this time
+successfully withstood all attempts at
+mechanical improvement.</p>
+
+<p>At about the time that lasting was first
+introduced, came the machines which were
+used for finishing heel and fore part. These
+machines were fitted with a tool, which was
+heated by gas and which practically duplicated
+the hand workman in rubbing the
+edges with a hot tool for the purpose of
+finishing them. From these early machines
+have been evolved the “edge-setting machines”
+which are in use at present.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, one after another, every operation
+has yielded to invention, until very recently
+the only remaining process was subdued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+when a machine for cutting uppers was
+devised. There are machines for shaping,
+compressing, and nailing heels; for attaching
+soles to uppers in heavy shoes by wooden
+pegs or copper screws and wires; for rounding,
+buffing, and polishing the soles; for
+trimming and setting the edges of the sole;
+for performing innumerable operations, some
+seemingly trivial, but all essential to perfection
+in comfort, durability or style;
+so that in shoe factories to-day a greater
+variety of intricate and expensive machines
+is used than in factories of any
+other kind.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time the genius of the
+American inventor has provided for every
+detail of shoemaking, even the smallest
+processes being performed by mechanical
+devices of some kind. This has naturally
+made the shoemaker of to-day a specialist,
+who very seldom knows anything of shoemaking
+apart from the particular process
+in the performance of shoemaking of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+he is an adept, and from which he earns
+a livelihood. The American shoe of to-day
+is the standard production of the world.
+It is in demand wherever shoes are worn.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1874 there had been perfected
+not only the machines which Colonel
+McKay and Mr. Goodyear had been instrumental
+in building, but other inventors had
+introduced similar machines for doing similar
+work. This brought about the most
+acute business competition, and finally
+resulted in many cases where one machine
+manufacturer alleged that the other machine
+infringed his rights of patent, and in many
+other cases the fiercest kind of litigation
+was established. This had a most disastrous
+effect upon shoe manufacturers, for
+in many cases the manufacturer was made
+to bear the brunt of the blows which
+contending shoe machinery manufacturers
+aimed at each other.</p>
+
+<p>Machines in use in factories were stopped
+by means of injunctions; damage suits were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+entered, and litigation was very general.
+During the year 1899, there was ushered in
+one of the most important events that ever
+transpired in the history of shoemaking.
+The most important of the concerns which
+had been making war upon each other
+were purchased by one large company and
+brought under one harmonious management.</p>
+
+<p>The United Shoe Machinery Company
+owes its origin to a call for a change in conditions
+menacing the industry of making shoes
+which could not be ignored. It was created
+by combining into one the three companies
+existing in 1899: the Goodyear Sewing Machine
+Company, the Consolidated &amp; McKay
+Lasting Machine Company, and the McKay
+Shoe Machinery Company, each of which
+respectively made and leased machines
+adapted to a particular class of operations.
+The principal machines which each made
+did not interfere with the principal machines
+of any other. They were dependent links
+in an industrial chain. The Goodyear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+Sewing Machine Company chiefly made
+machines for sewing the sole to the upper in
+welt shoes and various auxiliary machines
+which helped to complete the shoe; The
+Consolidated &amp; McKay Lasting Machine
+Company made machines for lasting a
+shoe; The McKay Shoe Machinery Company
+made various machines for attaching
+soles and heels by metallic fastenings, and
+furnished material for that purpose. A
+single manufacturer, in order to make
+Goodyear welt shoes, would be compelled
+to patronize all the companies, going to
+each of them for that part of his equipment
+which it exclusively supplied. Each company
+had its agents in factories looking
+after its machines.</p>
+
+<p>The gathering of these three companies
+into a single organization wrought an instant
+change. It resulted immediately in
+greater economy of administration; in relieving
+the manufacturer of the vexation of
+sometimes seeing his factory crippled while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+orders were piling up; in freeing him from
+the annoyance and expense of dealing with
+several different concerns in order to get
+his most important machines and keep
+them in repair.</p>
+
+<p>The attention which had been paid to
+royalty machines and which had been such
+an important factor in building up the
+industry in America, was magnified by
+the management of the new company.
+Large forces of men and expert machinists,
+as well as expert shoemakers, were maintained
+in the different districts where shoes
+were made, and every effort exerted to
+promote the growth of the industry.</p>
+
+<p>While the royalty system proved to be
+of great advantage to small shoe manufacturers,
+the largest manufacturers objected
+to paying royalty on machines and desired
+to purchase them outright. Being unable
+to do so, they placed experts at work to
+invent similar machines. This has resulted
+in the United Shoe Machinery Company<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+claiming that these machines are infringements
+and causing considerable litigation.</p>
+
+<p>If one reviews the history of the trade
+during the past ten years, there will be
+little question but that one will find it has
+been a period of the greatest advancement
+that the trade has ever known.</p>
+
+<p>Within the time of those who read these
+words, the way to make a shoe has been
+completely changed. Methods which held
+their own for centuries have disappeared,
+to be replaced by processes which only recently
+would have been thought impossible,
+and which have brought within the reach
+of men of modest means a luxury once
+enjoyed exclusively by the well-to-do. The
+feet of the million are clad to-day as finely
+as the feet of yesterday’s millionaire. Shoes
+marked by comfort, durability, and style
+have driven to historical museums the stiff
+and clumsy boots and brogans which not
+so many years ago were worn by those who
+could not pay to have shoes sewed by hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The American people spend more than
+three hundred million dollars every year
+in buying shoes, and average three pairs
+apiece, and yet few ever think about their
+shoes so long as they do not look clumsy, or
+wear out too quickly, or hurt the foot.
+Every one likes to buy good shoes as
+cheaply as he can, and every one likes to
+feel that shoe manufacturers are independent
+and successful, and that workmen get
+good wages, because these things help along
+prosperity; but that is all. Yet here is an
+industry in which the United States within
+a decade has come to lead the world, and
+there are many things about it which it
+would be worth while for every one to understand.
+It is worth while, for instance, to
+know that there is no important operation
+on a shoe which need be done by hand;
+that in the making of every good shoe no
+less than fifty-eight different machines, and
+sometimes twice that number, are brought
+into play; that nearly all these machines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+are of American invention; and that they
+have been so perfectly adjusted one to another
+that they work together almost with
+the precision of a watch; it is worth while
+to know something about the marvelous
+system under the encouragement of which
+this typical American industry has blossomed
+and borne fruit until it employs
+two hundred million dollars of capital and
+nearly two hundred thousand people, and
+turns out two hundred and fifty million pairs
+of shoes a year; and why it is that the
+average man you meet to-day has a better
+fitting, better wearing, and better looking
+shoe than the moneyed man of yesterday&mdash;at
+a fraction of the expense.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable growth is distinctly
+American. In the United States the tendency
+among the artisan class has been to
+abandon the slow hand process. This tendency
+has been as strong as the tendency
+in Europe to adhere to it. Moreover,
+there has developed among the laboring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+classes in the United States a mobility such
+as is unknown elsewhere in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Another advantage which has contributed
+to the rapid development of the manufacture
+of shoes in the United States is the
+comparative freedom from inherited and
+overconservative ideas. This country has
+entered upon its industrial development
+unfettered by the old order of things, and
+with a tendency on the part of the people
+to seek the best and quickest way to
+accomplish every object.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus41" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus41.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all of the European countries in which
+the manufacturing of shoes is an important
+industry, the transition from the household
+to the factory system was hampered by
+guilds, elaborate national and local restrictions,
+and by the national reluctance with
+which a people accustomed for generations
+to fixed methods of work, in which they
+have acquired a large degree of skill, abandon
+those methods for new ones. It was
+natural, also, that in spite of the superior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+advantages of machine methods, hand process
+of manufacture should still continue
+side by side with them, in the European
+countries, though machine work had long
+since usurped the whole field of the shoe
+industry in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>As an American goes about among the
+European shoe factories he is greatly surprised
+at the state of affairs. He is struck
+by three things which are very conspicuous.
+They are: (1) Lack of use of machinery, lack
+of all sorts of devices in order to save hand
+labor, which is carried out so extensively in
+the United States. (2) Lack of the division
+of labor, one factory attempting to make
+four or five kinds of shoes. (3) Lack of
+methods employed for handling large quantities
+of materials.</p>
+
+<p>One point that is overlooked in considering
+the shoe industries of the two countries
+is the great difference in organization. In
+most European factories, the manufacturer
+gets all the orders of different kinds, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+then attempts to make one or two lines with
+one or two qualities in the same factory.
+In Switzerland one may find shoes and
+slippers for men, women, and children made
+under the same roof.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the manufacturer
+makes a certain line of shoes in one factory,
+and no other kind. If he has more than
+one line, he has more than one factory, and
+each factory turns out a distinct shoe for
+a distinct purpose. The manufacturer has
+his salesmen to sell these shoes.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of the American system
+are: (1) The managers and workers of a
+factory turning out a certain line of goods
+become highly specialized in that line, and
+can produce better results than the workers
+in a factory attempting to make two or
+three lines of goods. (2) A large shoe
+factory is laid out as a rule to do a certain
+kind of work, and it seldom changes. This
+practice makes possible a greater production.
+On the other hand we have something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+to learn from the European organization.
+American manufacturers must meet the
+foreign trade. In order to do this, the manufacturer
+must cater to the habits, customs,
+and climatic conditions. The European
+manufacturer does this.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Amhide, black, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">russet, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anatomy of the foot, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ankle piece, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Assembling, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Automobile leather, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanning of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Backs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Backstay, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Back strap, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bal., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ball, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bating, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beading, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beamhouse process, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beating out, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bellows tongue, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">by-products, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">round, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belt-knife splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Between substance, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bison, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blackball, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black box chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black hawk patent, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blacking the edge, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blocking, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bloom, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blucher, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boot, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bootee, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boris, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bottom, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">filling, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">scouring, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Box calf, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">toe, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boxing, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Branded cowhide, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breaking the sole, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breast of the heel, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brogan, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bronko patent, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brushing, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buckskin, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buff, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buffing, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bull hides, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bunions, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Button fly, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Butts, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Cable-nailing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cack, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cadet kid, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">side, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calf leather, boarded, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">box, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">classes of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cadet calf side, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dongola, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dry hides, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>French, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">mat, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sheboygan, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">storm, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">suede, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">wax, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calf side leather, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">skins, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calluses, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cambridge calf union splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cap, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carbarettas, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carton, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cementing, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chamois, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Channeling, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Channel screwed, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">stitched, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">turning, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Checking, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chemical tanning, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chrome flexible splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tannage, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanned embossed splits, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleaning, inside, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">nails, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">shoes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clicking, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Closing, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">on, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colonial, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colorado steer hides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colored box chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coltskin, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Combination last, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Composition, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress gaiter, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cordovan, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Corns, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Counter, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">pasted, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coupon tag, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cowhide, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">native, heavy and light, <a href="#Page_7">7-9</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">branded, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Creasing vamp, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Creedmore, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Creole, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crimping, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cushion sole, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cut-off vamp, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Dyeing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dom Pedro, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dongola, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">calf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dressing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dry importation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">salted hides, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Edge setting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Enamel, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eyelet, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eyeletting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Facing, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Factory system, first, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fair stitch, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Faking, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fat liquored, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Findings, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finishes of upper leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finishing of upper leather, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flap, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flesher, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flesh splits leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flexible bends, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Follower, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foot, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">adult, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">anatomy of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">astragalus, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">calcaneum, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cuneiform, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">flatfoot, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">measurements of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">metatarsal, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">phalanges, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">rheumatism, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">structure of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Footwear, history of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forepart finishing, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Form, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foxed, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foxing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fresh hides, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frizzing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Front, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fudge-stitched, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fundamental shoe terms, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Furniture leather, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanning of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Gaiter, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">congress, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gem insoles, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gemming, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glazed kid, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gloves, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">grain, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanning, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goatskin, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goodyear welt, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference between McKay and, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gore, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grades of leather, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grading, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grain leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Green hides, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Green salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gum counter, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Half sole, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harness leather, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heel, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">breast of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">nailing, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">nailing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">pad, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">scouring, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">seat, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">shaving, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hemlock leather, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanning, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hercules storm chrome, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hides, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">bull, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">classes of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">country, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dry, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dry importation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dry salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">fresh, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">grades of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">green, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">green salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">imported, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">quality of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Inlay, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inner sole, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>Inseaming, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inseam trimming, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Instep, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ironing uppers, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Juliette, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Kid, buckskin, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">buff, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">caster, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">chamois, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cordovan, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dull, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">glazed, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">importation of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">kangaroo, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">kangaroo kid side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">kinds of finish, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">mat, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">method of collecting, <a href="#Page_46">46-48</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">patent, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">process of tanning, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">seal grain, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">splits, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">suede, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kids, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kips, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Lace hook, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">stay, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lacing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lasting, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lasts, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">combination, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">how made, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laying channel, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leather, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">automobile and furniture, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">belting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">effect of cold, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">gloves, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">glove tanning, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">harness, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">hemlock, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">products, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">white, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leg cover, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leveling, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lift, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lining, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lining-in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lip, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Loading leather, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Mat royal chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">McKay shoe, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference between Goodyear welt and, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference between turned and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Middle sole, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mock welt, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Molding, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monkey skin, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morocco, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mules, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Nap, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Native cowhides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">steer hides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naumkeaging, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nullifier, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Oak-tanned leather, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oak tanning, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ohio buffs, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>Ooze gusset splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">leather, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">vamp splits, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ottawa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">black and russet splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Outer filler, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Outside cutting, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tap, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oxford, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">calf union splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Packer hides, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Packing, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pacs, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pancake, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Para, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pasted leather, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Patent leather, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">black hawk, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">effect of cold on, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">objections to, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pattern, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pebble, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pegged shoemaking, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pegging, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perforating, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perforation, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pickled skins, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piping, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polish, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porpoise, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pressing, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pulling lasts, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pulling over, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">machine, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pump, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">sole, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Quarter, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Rag counter, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rand, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rawhide products, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Relasting, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Remnants, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">sole leather, <a href="#Page_33">33-37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Repairing, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roan, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rolling, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rough rounding, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal kid, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royalties, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royalty system, invention of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rubber, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cloth manufacture, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">commercial grades of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">drying, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">heels, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">shoe manufacture, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">calendering, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">cutting, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">varnishing, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">vulcanizing, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">washing, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russet calf, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">grain, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Sabot, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sack lining, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sandal, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Satin calf, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scouring breast, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Screw fastened, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seal grain, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Second lasting, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sewing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shank, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">burnishing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>Shanking out, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheboygan calf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheepskin, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheep tanning, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoe, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">apprentice, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">case of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cutting room, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">departments of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dressing, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">factories, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">heeling, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">methods of manufacture, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">parts of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">repairing, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">sizes, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">stitching, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">treeing, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoe Machinery Company, organization of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoemaker, first, in America, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoemaking, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">old-fashioned, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">nail method, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">terms of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoe pegs, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoulder, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sides, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Side stay, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skins, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skirting, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skiver, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skiving machine, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slip, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slugging, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soaking process, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soft tip, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sole, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">leather, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">laying, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">breaking of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sorting, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spewing, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Splits, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-62</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spring heel, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stamping, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Standard fastened, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">screw shoemaking, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stay, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Staying, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steer hides, native, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stitch aloft, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stitch down, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">fair, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">separating, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stitching, rapid, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Straight last, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stripping, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Styles, how made, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suede, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Tacking on, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tack pulling, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tampico, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tan, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">royal, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanned leather adulterants, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">effects of perspiration, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">lubrication, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">properties, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">substitutes, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">weighing, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tannin, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanning, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">chemical, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">hemlock, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">leather for belting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>oak, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">processes of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">rapid processes of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tawing, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Union, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">vegetable, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tap, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">putting on, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tawing, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tempering, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tennis shoe manufacture, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Texas steer hide, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tip, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toe, and heel lasting, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">box, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">filler, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">piece, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tongue, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Top, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">facing, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">left, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">left scouring, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">left stitching, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Treeing, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trimming counter, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">vamp, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turned shoe, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference between McKay and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turning, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">shoe, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ungrained, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unhairing of hides, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Union-tanned leather, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Union tanning, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Upper, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Upper or dress leather, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55-57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Vamp, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">creasing, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">form, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">short, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vamping, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vegetable tanning, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tans, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vellum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Velour, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Veneering, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vesting, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vici, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Viscolizing, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vulcanizing, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cold cure, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">steam cure, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Wash leather, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waterproof black, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waxed threads, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Web straps, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Welts, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">beating, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Goodyear, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Welting, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">White alum, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willow calf leather, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wooden case, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Zulu, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 55474 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and
+Rubber Products, by William H. Dooley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+Title: A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and Rubber Products
+
+Author: William H. Dooley
+
+Release Date: September 1, 2017 [EBook #55474]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by deaurider and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: An Old-Fashioned Shoemaker. _Frontispiece._]
+
+
+
+
+                                A MANUAL
+                                   OF
+                               SHOEMAKING
+                                   AND
+                           LEATHER AND RUBBER
+                                PRODUCTS
+
+                                   BY
+                            WILLIAM H. DOOLEY
+                PRINCIPAL OF THE LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL
+
+                              _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+                                 BOSTON
+                       LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY
+                                  1912
+
+                           _Copyright, 1912_,
+                     BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.
+
+                         _All rights reserved._
+
+                       Published, September, 1912.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The author was asked in 1908 by the Lynn Commission on Industrial
+Education to make an investigation of European shoe schools and to assist
+the Commission in preparing a course of study for the proposed shoe
+school in the city of Lynn. A close investigation showed that there were
+several textbooks on shoemaking published in Europe, but that no general
+textbook on shoemaking had been issued in this country adapted to meet
+the needs of industrial, trade, and commercial schools or those who have
+just entered the rubber, shoe, and leather trades. This book is written
+to meet this need. Others may find it of interest.
+
+The author is under obligations to the following persons and firms for
+information and assistance in preparing the book, and for permission
+to reproduce photographs and information from their publications: Mr.
+J. H. Finn, Mr. Frank L. West, Head of Shoemaking Department, Tuskegee,
+Ala., Mr. Louis Fleming, Mr. F. Garrison, President of _Shoe and Leather
+Gazette_, Mr. Arthur L. Evans, _The Shoeman_, Mr. Charles F. Cahill,
+United Shoe Machinery Company, Hood Rubber Company, Bliss Shoe Company,
+American Hide and Leather Company, Regal Shoe Company, the publishers of
+_Hide and Leather_, _American Shoemaking_, _Shoe Repairing_, _Boot and
+Shoe Recorder_, _The Weekly Bulletin_, and the New York Leather Belting
+Company.
+
+In addition, the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to the
+great body of foreign literature on the different subjects from which
+information has been obtained.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+
+    PREFACE                                                v
+
+    CHAPTER
+
+       I. FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS                           1
+
+      II. HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT                        4
+
+     III. PROCESSES OF TANNING                            21
+
+      IV. THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT                         77
+
+       V. HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE                        93
+
+      VI. DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY                  103
+
+     VII. MCKAY AND TURNED SHOES                         144
+
+    VIII. OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING         162
+
+      IX. LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS                   177
+
+       X. LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE                   218
+
+      XI. RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE AND TERMS              228
+
+     XII. HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR                            250
+
+          INDEX                                          281
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    An Old-fashioned Shoemaker                 _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                 FACING PAGE
+
+    Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear              2
+
+    Green-salted Calfskin                                 12
+
+    Tanning Process                                       24
+
+    Tanning Process, showing Rotating Drums               28
+
+    Sole Leather Offal                                    34
+
+    Bones and Joints of the Human Foot                    78
+
+    The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle             78
+
+    A Last in Three Stages of Manufacture                 98
+
+    A Modern Shoe Factory                                104
+
+    A Skin Divided before Cutting                        112
+
+    Cutting Leather                                      116
+
+    Goodyear Stitching                                   116
+
+    Stock Fitting Room                                   120
+
+    Lasting                                              124
+
+    Welting                                              124
+
+    Rough Rounding                                       128
+
+    Edge Trimming                                        128
+
+    Leveling                                             132
+
+    Heeling                                              132
+
+    Sole Scouring                                        136
+
+    Heel Shaping                                         136
+
+    Ironing                                              140
+
+    Packing                                              140
+
+    Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe     144
+
+    Stitching                                            148
+
+    Tacking                                              148
+
+    Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe               160
+
+    Side of Leather divided as to Quality                168
+
+    Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe                    200
+
+    Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe                  200
+
+    Crude Rubber                                         228
+
+    Washing and Drying                                   232
+
+    Calender Room                                        234
+
+    Cutting Room                                         236
+
+    Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe          240
+
+    Heel-making Department                               242
+
+    Parts of a Rubber Boot                               248
+
+    Insole for Hand-sewed Shoe                           264
+
+    Hand-sewed Shoe                                      264
+
+    Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory              276
+
+
+
+
+SHOEMAKING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER ONE
+
+FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS
+
+
+Before explaining the manufacture of shoes, it is necessary to fix
+definitely in our minds the names of their different parts. Examine your
+shoes and note the parts that are here described.
+
+The bottom of the shoe is called the sole. The part above the sole is
+called the upper. The top of the shoe is that part measured by the lacing
+which covers the ankle and the instep. The vamp is that section which
+covers the sides of the foot and the toes. The shank is that part of
+the sole of the shoe between the heel and the ball. This name is often
+applied to a piece of metal or other substance in that part of the sole,
+intended to give support to the arch of the foot. The throat of the vamp
+is that part which curves around the lower edge of the top, where the
+lacing starts.
+
+Backstay is a term used to denote a strip of leather covering and
+strengthening the back seam of the shoe. Quarter is a term used mostly in
+low shoes to denote the rear part of the upper when a full vamp is not
+used. Button fly is the portion of the upper containing the buttonholes
+of a button shoe. Tip is the toe piece of a shoe, stitched to the vamp
+and outside of it. The lace stay is a term used to denote a strip of
+leather reënforcing the eyelet holes. Tongue denotes a narrow strip of
+leather used on all lace shoes to protect the instep from the lacing and
+weather.
+
+[Illustration: Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear. _Page 2._]
+
+Foxing is the name applied to leather of the upper that extends from the
+sole to the laces in front, and to about the height of the counter in the
+back, being the length of the upper. It may be in one or more pieces, and
+is often cut down to the shank in circular form. If in two pieces, that
+part covering the counter is called a heel fox. Overlay is a term applied
+to leather attached to the upper part of the vamp of a slipper. The
+breast of the heel is the inner part of the heel, that is, the section
+nearest the shank.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER TWO
+
+HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT
+
+
+If we examine our shoes, we will find that the different parts are
+composed of material called leather. The bottom of the shoe is of hard
+leather, while the part above the sole is of a softer, more pliable
+leather. This leather is nothing more than the hides of different animals
+treated in such a way as to remove the fat and the hair.
+
+After the hides have been taken from the dead body of the animal, they
+are quite heavily salted to preserve them from spoiling. In this salted
+condition they are shipped to the tanneries.
+
+The process or series of processes by which the hides and skins of
+animals are converted into leather is called tanning. The process may be
+divided into three groups of subprocesses as follows:--
+
+Beamhouse process, which removes the hair from the hides and prepares
+them for the actual process of the tanning or conversion into leather;
+tanning, which converts the raw hide into leather; and finishing, which
+involves a number of operations, the objects of which are to give the
+leather the color that may be desired and also to make it of uniform
+thickness, and impart to it the softness and the finish that is required
+for a particular purpose.
+
+Hides are divided roughly in the tannery, according to the size, into
+three general classes:--
+
+(1) Hides, skins from fully grown animals, as cows, oxen, horses,
+buffaloes, walrus, etc. These are thick, heavy leather, used for shoe
+soles, large machinery belting, trunks, etc., where stiffness, strength,
+and wearing qualities are desired. The untanned hides weigh from
+twenty-five to sixty pounds.
+
+(2) Kips, skins of the undersized animals of the above group, weighing
+between fifteen and twenty-five pounds.
+
+(3) Skins from small animals, such as calves, sheep, goats, dogs, etc.
+This last group gives a light, but strong and pliable leather, which may
+be used for a great many purposes, such as men’s shoes and the heavier
+grades of women’s shoes.
+
+The hides, kips, and skins are divided into various grades, according to
+their weight, size, condition, and quality.
+
+The quality of the hides not only depends upon the kind of animal, but
+also upon its fodder and mode of living. The hides of wild cattle yield a
+more compact and stronger leather than those of our domesticated beasts.
+Among these latter the stall-fed have better hides than the meadow-fed,
+or grazing cattle. The thickness of the hide varies considerably on
+different animals and on the parts of the body, the thickest part of the
+bull being near the head and the middle of the back, while at the belly
+the hide is thinnest. These differences are less conspicuous in sheep,
+goats, and calves. As regards sheep, it would appear that their skin is
+generally thinnest where their wool is longest.
+
+In the raw, untanned state, and with the hair still on, the hides are
+termed “green” or “fresh.” Fresh, or green hides are supplied to the
+tanners by the packers or the butchers, or are imported, either dry or
+salted.
+
+Hides are obtained either from the regular packing houses or from farmers
+who kill their own stock, and do not skin the animal as scientifically as
+the regular packing houses, in which case they are called country hides.
+There are different grades of hides and leather, and these different
+grades are divided in the commercial world into the five following
+grades:--
+
+I. NATIVE HIDES
+
+    Native Steers
+    Native Cows, heavy
+    Native Cows, light
+    Branded Cows
+    Butts
+    Colorado Steers
+    Texas Steers, heavy
+    Texas Steers, light
+    Texas Steers, ex-light
+    Native Bulls
+    Branded Bulls
+
+II. COUNTRY HIDES
+
+    Ohio Buffs
+    Ohio Ex.
+    Southerns
+
+III. DRY HIDES
+
+(Raised on plain. Rough side suitable for soles.)
+
+    Buenos Ayres
+
+IV. CALFSKINS
+
+(Green salted)
+
+    Chicago City
+
+V. PARIS CITY CALFSKINS
+
+    Light
+    Medium
+    Heavy
+
+Hides obtained from steers raised on Western farms are known as native
+steer hides.
+
+Native cowhide (heavy) is hide weighing from fifty-five to sixty-five
+pounds, obtained from cows.
+
+Native cowhide (light) is cowhide weighing under fifty-five pounds.
+
+Branded cowhide is hide obtained from cows that are branded on the face
+of the hide.
+
+Butts is a term applied to the part of the hide remaining after cutting
+off the head, shoulders, and strip of the belly.
+
+Colorado steer hide is from Colorado steers, which are very light.
+
+Texas steer hide comes in three grades, heavy, light, and extra light.
+The heavy grade is very heavy because the animal is allowed to graze on
+the plains. That is the reason why it is heavier than the Colorado steer
+hide, which is raised on the farm.
+
+Bull hide is divided into two classes, the regular hide and the branded
+grade. The branded grade usually is one cent a pound less than the
+regular.
+
+Country hides are of three grades, Ohio Buffs, Ohio Ex., and Southern.
+The Ohio Buffs weigh from forty to sixty pounds. The Ohio Ex. weighs from
+twenty to forty pounds. Southern hides have spots without hair and other
+blemishes on them, due to the sting of insects. This makes the Southern
+hide inferior to the Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, and Chicago hides that have
+no such blemishes. Ohio Butt hides are the best, because in Ohio they
+kill a great many young calves, while in Chicago young cows (that have
+calved) are killed, causing the hide to be flanky.
+
+The season of the year in which cattle are slaughtered has considerable
+influence upon both the weight and condition of the hide. During the
+winter months, by reason of the hair being longer and thicker, the hide
+is heavier, ranging from seventy-five to eighty pounds, and gradually
+decreasing in weight as the season becomes warmer and the coat is shed,
+until in June and July it weighs from seventy down to fifty-five pounds,
+the hair then being thin and short. The best hides of the year are
+October hides, and short-haired hides are better for leather purposes
+than long-haired ones.
+
+A thick hide which is to be used for upper leather is cut into sides
+before the tanning process is completed. This is performed by passing
+it between rollers where it comes in contact with a sharp knife-edge,
+which splits it into two or more sheets. Great care must be exercised in
+cutting the leather in order to have good “splits” (sheets of leather). A
+split from a heavy hide is not as good as a whole of a lighter leather.
+
+Butts and backs are selected from the stoutest and heaviest oxhides. The
+butt is formed by cutting off the head, the shoulder, and the strip of
+the belly. The butt or back of oxhide forms the stoutest and heaviest
+leather, such as is used for soles of boots, harness, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Green-Salted Calfskin. _Page 12._]
+
+Hides and skins are received at the tannery in one of three conditions,
+viz. green-salted, dry, or dry-salted. Very few hides are received by
+tanners in fresh or unsalted condition, salt being necessary to preserve
+them from decay. Green-salted hides are those that have been salted in
+fresh condition, tied up in bundles, and shipped to the tanner. Dry
+hides are those that were taken from the carcass and dried without being
+salted; these are usually stiff and hard. Dry-salted hides are hides that
+were heavily salted while they were fresh, and then dried. The hides
+and skins that are received from the slaughterhouses of this country
+are almost invariably green-salted; those from foreign countries are
+green-salted, dry, and dry-salted.
+
+It does not matter in what condition the hides are received or the kind
+of leather into which they are to be tanned; they all require soaking in
+water before any attempt is made to remove the hair or to tan them. The
+object of the soaking process, as it is called, is to thoroughly soften
+the hides and to remove from them all salt, dirt, blood, etc. Ordinary
+hides are usually soaked from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Dry hides
+require much longer. The water should be changed once or twice during the
+process, since dirty water may injure the hides. Soft water is better
+than hard for this process. Where the water is hard, it is customary for
+the tanner to add a quantity of borax to it to increase its cleansing
+power and to hasten the softening of the hides.
+
+When dry hides have become soft enough to bend without cracking, they are
+put into a machine and beaten and rolled, then soaked again until they
+are soft and pliable. It is very important that all the salt and dirt are
+removed during the process of soaking, as they injure the quality of the
+leather if they are not removed before the hides are unhaired. When the
+soaking process is completed, the lumps of fat and flesh that may have
+been left on by the butcher are removed by hand or by a machine, and the
+hides are then in condition to be passed along into the next process. The
+parts that cannot be made into leather, such as tails, teats, etc., are
+trimmed off before the hides are soaked. Large hides are cut into two
+pieces or halves, called “sides,” after they have been soaked.
+
+For the purpose of taking the hair from the hides and skins, lime,
+sulphide of sodium, and red arsenic are used. Lime is sometimes used
+alone, but usually one of the other two chemicals is mixed with it. The
+lime is dissolved in hot water, a quantity of either sulphide of sodium
+or red arsenic is added to it, and the solution is then mixed with water
+in a vat, the hides being immersed in this liquor until the hair can be
+easily removed. The action of the unhairing liquor is to swell the hides,
+then to dissolve the perishable animal portion and loosen the hair so
+that it can be rubbed or pulled off.
+
+There are several different processes of unhairing the hides. Each tanner
+uses the process that will help to give the leather the qualities that it
+should have, such as softness and pliability for shoe and glove leather,
+or firmness and solidity for sole and belting leather. This is one of the
+most important in the series of tannery processes, and if the hides are
+not unhaired properly and not prepared for tanning as they should be, the
+leather will not be right when it is tanned and finished.
+
+There is also a process of unhairing, called “sweating,” which softens
+the hide and loosens the hair so that it can be scraped off. In this
+process the hides begin to decay before the hair is loose; it is
+therefore a dangerous process to use and must be carefully watched or the
+hides will be entirely spoiled. Sweating is never used for the finer,
+softer kinds of leather. It is applied chiefly to dry hides for sole,
+lace, and belt leather. It is an old-fashioned process and is not used as
+much nowadays as some years ago.
+
+The pelts of sheep are salted at the slaughterhouses and then shipped to
+the tannery. Here they are thrown into water and left to soak twenty-four
+hours to loosen the dirt and dissolve the salt. The pelts are next
+passed through machines that clean the wool, and any particles of flesh
+remaining on the inner or flesh side are removed. The pelts are then in
+condition to have the wool removed. As long as a sheepskin has the wool
+upon it, it is called a pelt; as soon as the wool has been taken off, it
+is called a skin or a “slat.”
+
+Each pelt is spread out smoothly on a table with the wool down and the
+inner or flesh side up. A mixture of lime and sulphide of sodium is
+next applied uniformly over the skin with a brush. The pelt is then
+folded up and placed in a pile with others. The solution that was
+applied penetrates the skin and loosens the wool, which, at the end
+of twenty-four hours, more or less, can be easily pulled off with the
+hands or rubbed off with a dull instrument or stick. The workman must be
+careful not to get any of the solution on to the wool, as it dissolves it
+and makes it worthless. Since the wool is valuable, the solution must be
+applied to the flesh side very carefully so that it does no injury. The
+wool that is removed from the skins is called “pulled wool.”
+
+The slat is now ready to be limed, washed, pickled, and tanned. Heavy
+skins are often split into two sheets after they have been limed. The
+part from the wool side is called a skiver, and that from the flesh side
+is called a flesher.
+
+After the skins have been limed, they are bated and washed, which makes
+them soft, clean, and white; they are then put into a solution of salt,
+sulphuric acid, and water, called “pickle,” and after a few hours they
+are taken out, drained, and tanned.
+
+Large quantities of sheepskins are sold to tanners in the pickled
+condition by those who make a business of preparing such skins and
+selling the wool. Pickled skins can be kept an indefinite length of time
+without spoiling; they can also be dried and worked out into a cheap
+white leather without any further tanning whatever. Most of such skins,
+however, are sold to tanners, who tan them into leather. Sheepskins
+contain considerable grease, which must be removed before the leather can
+be sold.
+
+For some processes of tanning, calfskins, goatskins, and cattle hides are
+also pickled the same as sheepskins; for other processes they are not
+pickled, but are thoroughly bated or delimed, washed, and cleansed. Heavy
+hides are sometimes split out of the lime; more frequently, however, they
+are not split until after they have been tanned.
+
+To capitulate, the preparatory processes may be briefly described as
+follows:--
+
+Soaking, which dissolves the salt, removes the dirt and makes the hides
+soft and comparatively clean.
+
+Liming and unhairing, which swell the hides and dissolve the perishable
+animal portion, loosen the hair, and put the hides into proper condition
+for tanning. Hides tanned without liming, even if the hair is removed by
+some chemical, do not make pliable leather, but are stiff and hard.
+
+Bating, which removes the lime from the hides.
+
+Pickling, which helps in the tanning later, and keeps the hides and
+skins from spoiling if they are not tanned at once.
+
+The lumps of fat and flesh that may be on the hides are removed by
+machinery or by placing the hide over a beam and scraping it with a
+knife. The hair, when it is loosened by the lime, is removed by a machine
+or by hand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER THREE
+
+PROCESSES OF TANNING
+
+
+The various processes of tanning may be roughly divided into two
+classes, vegetable chemical and mineral chemical. The first class is
+often spoken of in tanneries simply as the “vegetable” while the second
+is called “chemical” process. In the vegetable processes the tanning
+is accomplished by tannin, which is found in various barks and woods
+of trees and leaves of plants. In the so-called chemical processes the
+tanning is done with mineral salts and acids which produce an entirely
+different kind of leather from that procured by vegetable tanning.
+
+There is also a method of tanning, or, more properly speaking, tawing, in
+which alum and salt are used. This process makes white leather that is
+used for many purposes; it is also colored and used in the manufacture
+of fine gloves. Leather is also made by tanning skins with oil. Chamois
+skins are made in this way.
+
+The materials that are used to tan hides and skins act upon the hide
+fibers in such a way that the hides are rendered proof against decay
+and become pliable and strong. There are many vegetable tans; they are
+used for sole leather, upper leather, and colored leather for numerous
+purposes. The bark of hemlock trees is one of the principal tans. The
+woods and barks of oak, chestnut, and quebracho trees are often used.
+Palmetto roots yield a good tan. Large quantities of leather are treated
+with gambier and various other tanning materials that come from foreign
+countries. Sumac leaves, which are imported from Sicily, contain tannin
+that makes soft leather suitable for hat sweatbands, suspender trimmings,
+etc. Sumac is also obtained from the State of Virginia, but the foreign
+leaves contain more tannin and make better leather than the American.
+
+To a large extent the so-called chemical processes have supplanted the
+vegetable processes, that is, old tan bark and sumac processes; but in
+some tanneries both methods are used on different kinds of skins.
+
+In the old bark process the tan bark is ground coarse and is then treated
+in leaches with hot water until the tanning quality is drawn out. The
+liquor so obtained is used at various strengths as needed.
+
+In the newer method the tan liquor is displaced by a solution of
+potassium bichromate, which produces its results with much less
+expenditure of time.
+
+When the hides or skins are ready for the tanning process, they are put
+into a revolving drum, known as a “pinwheel,” or into a pit in which
+are revolving paddles, with a dilute solution of potassium dichromate
+or sodium dichromate, acidified with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.
+If the pinwheel is employed, it is revolved for seven hours or longer;
+after which time the liquor is drawn off and replaced by an acidified
+solution of sodium thiosulphate or bisulphite, and then the revolution
+is continued several hours longer. If the pit is used, the skins are
+removed to another drum containing the second solution, and kept at rest
+or overturned for a like period.
+
+In removing the skins from the pinwheel or vat, and in handling them
+after treatment with lime for the loosening of the hair, the hands and
+arms of the workmen are seriously injured, becoming raw if not protected
+by rubber gloves; even with gloves it is difficult to prevent injury, and
+in some establishments the workmen are relieved by the substitution of a
+single-bath process, in which the liquor is less harmful to the skin.
+
+[Illustration: Tanning Process
+
+Showing the vats, the unhairing and liming processes. _Page 24._]
+
+The hides are then removed from the pits, washed and brushed, followed
+by slow drying in the air. When partly dried, they are placed in a pile
+and covered until heating is induced. They are then dampened and rolled
+with brass rollers to give the leather solidity. Sole leather is oiled
+but little. Weight is increased by adding glucose and salt.
+
+Various rapid processes of tanning have been devised in which the hides
+are suspended in strong liquors or are tanned in large revolving drums.
+It is claimed that this hastens the process, but the product has been
+criticized as lacking substance or being brittle.
+
+Chrome tannage has been chiefly developed in this country during the
+last twenty years and is now in general use. It consists in throwing an
+insoluble chromium hydroxide or oxide on the fibers of a skin which has
+been impregnated with a soluble chromium salt--potassium bichromate.
+Other salts like basic chromium chloride, chromium chromate, and chromic
+alum are also used. The hydrochloric or sulphuric acid acts by setting
+free chromic acid.
+
+After several hours, the skin shows a uniform yellow when cut through its
+thickest part. It is then drained and the skin worked in a solution of
+sodium bisulphite and mineral acid (to free sulphur dioxide). The chromic
+acid is absorbed by the fiber and later reduced by sulphur dioxide.
+
+In the making of chrome black leather each tanner has his own method.
+Contrary to the general belief, there are many different methods of
+chrome tannage. No two tanneries employ just the same process.
+
+Tanners of chrome leather seek to produce leather suitable for the
+particular demands made upon it by the peculiarities or characteristics
+of the varying seasons. Summer shoes require a cool, light leather;
+at other times a heavier tannage is essential, with some call for a
+practically waterproof product.
+
+All leathers, whether vegetable-or chrome-tanned, must be “fat liquored.”
+That is to say, a certain amount of fatty material must be put into the
+skin in order that it may be mellow, workable, and serviceable. This is
+very essential in producing calf leather. Fat liquors usually contain oil
+and soap, which have been boiled in water and made into a thin liquor.
+The leather is put into a drum with the hot fat liquor; the drum is set
+in motion, and as it revolves the leather tumbles about in the drum and
+absorbs the oil and soap from the water. It is the fat liquor that makes
+the leather soft and strong.
+
+Leather used in shoes is divided into two classes: sole leather and upper
+leather.
+
+Sole leather is a heavy, solid, stiff leather and may be bent without
+cracking. It is the foundation of the shoe, and therefore should be of
+the best material. The hides of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for
+this purpose.
+
+The hide that is tanned for sole leather is soaked for several days in a
+weak solution (which is gradually made stronger) of oak or hemlock tan
+made from the bark. Oak-tanned hide is preferred and may be known by its
+light color. A chemical change takes place in the fiber of the hide. This
+is a high-grade tannage, and is distinguished principally by its fine
+fibers and close, compact texture.
+
+Oak sole leather, by reason of its tough character, and its close,
+fibrous texture, resists water and will wear well down before cracking.
+It is by many considered better than other leather for flexible-sole
+shoes, requiring waterproof qualities.
+
+Sole leather is divided into three classes according to the tanning--oak,
+hemlock, and union.
+
+[Illustration: Tanning Process
+
+Showing the rotating drums. _See page 24._]
+
+Oak tanning is as follows: the hides are hung in pits containing weak
+or nearly spent liquors from a previous tanning, and agitated so as to
+take up tannin evenly. Strong liquor would harden the surface so as to
+prevent thorough penetration into the interior of the hides. After ten
+or twelve days, the hides are taken out and laid away in fresh tan and
+stronger liquor. This process is repeated as often as necessary for eight
+to ten months. At the end of this time the hide has absorbed all of the
+tannin which it will take up.
+
+Hemlock tanning is similar to the oak tanning in process. The hemlock
+tan is a red shade. Hemlock produces a very hard and inflexible leather.
+It is modified by use of bleaching materials which are applied to the
+leather after being tanned. It is sold in sides without being trimmed,
+while the oak is sold in backs, with belly and head trimmed off.
+
+Hemlock leather is used extensively and almost principally for men’s
+and boys’ stiff-soled, heavy shoes, where no flexibility is required
+or expected. Its principal desirable quality is its resistance to
+trituration, or being ground to a powder, and its use in men’s and boys’
+pegged, nailed, or standard screw shoes is not in any way objectionable
+to the wearer. In fact, for this class of shoes, it is probably the best
+leather that can be used. But when hemlock is used in men’s and boys’
+Goodyear welt shoes, where a flexible bottom is expected and required,
+it generally does not give good results. It cannot satisfactorily resist
+the constant flexing to which it is subjected, and after the sole is worn
+half through, the constant bending causes it to crack crosswise. On this
+account it becomes like a sieve, and has no power of resistance in water,
+and therefore it is not at all suited to flexible-bottomed shoes.
+
+In “union-tanned” hides, both oak and hemlock are used and the result is
+a compromise in both color and quality. This tan was first used about
+fifty years ago. Twenty-five years ago the union leather tanners began to
+experiment with bleaching materials to avoid the use of oak bark, which
+was becoming scarce and high priced, and eventually developed a system of
+tanning union leather with hemlock or kindred tanning agents, excluding
+oak. The red color and the hard texture were modified by bleaching the
+leather to the desired color and texture. This produces leather which
+has not the fine, close tannage of genuine oak leather and at the same
+time lacks the compact, hard character of hemlock leather. Union leather
+produced in this manner is a sort of mongrel or hybrid leather, being
+neither oak nor hemlock. On account of its economy in cutting qualities,
+however, it is largely used in the manufacture of medium-priced shoes
+where a certain degree of flexibility is required in the sole. This is
+particularly true of women’s shoes.
+
+Union leather is sold largely in backs and trimmed the same as oak,
+though not so closely.
+
+Sole leather is also made nowadays by tanning the hides by the chrome or
+chemical process. This leather is very durable and pliable and is used
+on athletic and sporting shoes. It has a light green color and is much
+lighter in weight than the oak or hemlock leather.
+
+Many kinds of hide are used for sole leather. This country does not
+produce nearly enough hides for the demand, and great quantities are
+imported from abroad, although most of the imported hides come from South
+America. Imported hides are divided into two general classes, dry hides
+and green-salted hides.
+
+Dry hides are of two kinds, the dry “flint,” which are dried carefully
+after being taken from the animal and cured without salt. These generally
+make good leather, although if sunburnt, the leather is not strong.
+“Dry-salted hides” are salted and cured to a dry state. Dry hides of both
+kinds are used for hemlock leather only, although all hemlock leather is
+not made from dry hides.
+
+Green-salted hides are used in making oak-tanned leather as well as
+hemlock, and those used by United States tanners come largely from
+domestic points; but there is a variable amount imported each year from
+abroad, principally from Europe and South America. Green-salted hides are
+of two general classes, those branded and those free of brands.
+
+Cow and steer hides of the branded type are used by tanners of oak and
+union leather. Those not branded are used more largely for belting and
+upholstering leathers, a small part finding their way into hemlock
+leather.
+
+Sole leather remnants, strictly speaking, include such a wide variety
+of items that it is difficult to cover them all. Few people, however,
+realize the big range of usefulness of this class of stock. While not
+exactly a by-product, remnants are often classed as such. Under the
+class of sole leather remnants are included sole leather offal, such
+as heads, bellies, shoulders, shanks, shins, men’s heeling, men’s half
+heeling, men’s and women’s three-and four-piece heeling, etc. Stock that
+cannot be used in the shoe business goes into the chemical and fertilizer
+trade, among other outlets. By a special acid process of burning this
+stock, ammonia is derived from it, which goes into fertilizer; and
+another by-product is sulphuric acid for the chemical trade. The amount
+of ammonia obtained is small, being about seven per cent of ammonia to a
+ton of sole leather scrap. This is mixed with fertilizer and sold mostly
+in the Southern States, and to a small extent in the West, there being a
+law in many of the Western States against the use of fertilizer made from
+leather products, on account of its low grade.
+
+[Illustration: Sole Leather Offal
+
+Showing bellies, shoulders, etc. _Page 35._]
+
+In the disposition of offal, heads are used for taps, top lifts, and
+under lifts. Shoulders are used for outsoles and inner soles, while
+bellies are used for medium to heavy taps and counters. Lightweight
+bellies and shanks are utilized for making box toes and counters.
+
+Shanks are also used for taps and under lifts. This stock is solid and
+substantial and well suited for these purposes. The bellies, being
+flexible, are the best part of the hide obtainable for inner soles.
+
+In cutting out soles, the manufacturer accumulates a considerable
+quantity of solid or center pieces, which are used for small top lifts,
+also for “Cuban” tops, thereby using up the bulk of the small heavy scrap
+that ordinarily would be sold for pieced heeling. There is also a demand
+for similar stock from the hardware trade, where it is used for making
+mallet and tool handles, also for wagon and carriage washers. Large
+quantities of men’s and women’s heeling and half heeling go to England,
+where it is cut up by heel manufacturers into lifts and sectional lifts
+for the English trade; there being a shortage of this class of offal
+there.
+
+The shoe manufacturer, after cutting his soles and taps, is obliged to
+skive them to get the particular iron he needs. This leaves what is known
+as a “flesh sole shape,” also a “tap shape.” These skivings are pasted
+together by another class of trade and again used for inner soling and
+taps in the cheaper grades of shoes. Smaller skivings, or waste, after
+sorting out the sole and tap shapes, are sold to the leather board trade.
+This eventually comes back to the shoe trade in the shape of leather
+board and is cut into heel lifts. The waste after cutting heel lifts is
+again resold to the leather board trade and makes another round trip to
+the shoe manufacturer. This illustration, as well as many others in the
+leather remnant business, demonstrates the scientific principle that
+nothing is ever entirely lost. In regard to pieced heel lifts, these are
+made in either two, three, or four sections. This refers to what are
+known as sectional heel lifts. Scrap leather is also used for shanking
+for the European trade.
+
+Soles and taps, known as rejects, that is, those thrown out by the
+high-grade trade, are sold to manufacturers of cheaper lines. A shoe
+manufacturer cutting his own soles and buying sole leather in sides,
+after sorting out the soles suited to his own requirements, will sell
+what he cannot use to remnant dealers, who in turn re-sell them to
+shoe manufacturers requiring that particular class of stock. The scrap
+leather, or remnant dealer, thus forms a useful link in the chain of
+distribution, furnishing a market where shoe and leather manufacturers
+may dispose of their surplus products to best advantage, and providing a
+source of supply for buyers who wish any particular article to suit their
+individual needs.
+
+Upper or dressed leather is made from kips or large calfskins. It is
+tanned and finished like all other forms of leather by variations of the
+foregoing process. Thick hides are often split thin by machinery, and the
+parts retained and finished separately. The parts of the leather from the
+hair side are most valuable and are called “grain” leather; the inner
+parts or “flesh splits” are made into a variety of different kinds of
+leather by waxing, oiling, and polishing.
+
+It is finished by scouring with brushes and then rubbed with a piece of
+glass, which removes creases and wrinkles and stretches the leather. Then
+it is stuffed with a mixture of oil, soap, and tallow, which is worked
+into it by rolling. Various finishes are given to leather, such as seal
+grain, buff, glove grain, oil grain, satin calf, russet, plain shoe, etc.
+
+Upper leathers are blacked by rubbing with a mixture of lampblack and oil
+or tallow, or with a solution of copperas and logwood.
+
+No tanning process, no matter how good or thorough, can make firm,
+serviceable, wear-resisting leather out of all portions of any hide,
+because nature made some parts of every hide porous, spongy, and lacking
+in fibrous strength.
+
+Calfskins used by tanners are of several classes. American calfskins,
+taken off in the United States and Canada, are usually sold green pelted.
+Farmers raise only a small fraction of the calves born. Each cow must
+produce a calf in order to insure a maximum flow of milk. Most of the
+farmers keep cows to produce milk, hence they sell the young calves for
+veal and use their skins for high-grade calf leather.
+
+In European countries farmers fatten their calves before selling them in
+order to get a higher price for the veal. The skin is not so valuable for
+leather as the skin from younger calves, and it is used for lower-value
+leathers.
+
+Calfskin is not split. A heavier weight skin might be. It is shaved to a
+uniform thickness.
+
+Calf leather is divided into the following classes, depending upon the
+finish of the leather:--
+
+Boarded calf (made in both chrome and bark tannage).
+
+Wax calf, finished on the flesh side with a waxy, hard surface.
+
+Box calf is a proprietary name. It is boarded--rubbed with a board to
+raise the grain. It is known by minute, squarelike lines.
+
+Mat calf is a dull-finished calfskin, used more in topping.
+
+Suede calf is finished on flesh side. Most makes of suede calf are
+chromed, although there are some vegetable.
+
+Storm calf is a heavy skin, finished for winter wear. Considerable oil is
+used in finishing.
+
+French calf is finished on flesh side.
+
+Dry hides are obtained from Buenos Ayres, where the cattle are raised on
+the plains. This city exports a large quantity of hides, dry, salted,
+and cured by smoking. The hides of cows generally yield inferior grain
+leather; but South American cowhides may be worked for light sole leather.
+
+Calves’ hides are thinner, but when well tanned, curried, and dressed,
+they yield a very soft and supple leather for boots and shoes. They are
+finished with wax and oil on the flesh side, and can also be finished on
+the hair (grain of skin).
+
+Calves’ skin (green salted).
+
+Paris City calfskins. These are obtained in three grades--light, medium,
+and heavy.
+
+Light grades run from four to five, or seven to eight pounds; medium
+grades run from seven to nine pounds; heavy grades run from nine to
+twelve pounds.
+
+Patent leather may be made from colt, calf, or kid skin. Coltskin is the
+skin of young horses, or split skins of mature horses.
+
+Patent colt and kid are used for the most part in the medium fine grades,
+and patent side (cowhide) is used in the medium and cheaper grades.
+Chrome tanned are used entirely in the manufacture of patent leather.
+
+Patent leather, as it appears in shoes, may be described either as
+varnished leather, coltskin, or kid, and sometimes the French use
+calfskin. The process is largely a secret one, although there is no
+longer any patent on the principle of the same. It is made by shaving
+the skins on the flesh side or hair side to a uniform thickness. Then
+it is de-greased to put the skin in condition to receive the finish and
+protect the same from peeling off. Successive coats of liquid black
+varnish are applied, the first coats being dried and rubbed down, so as
+to work the liquid thoroughly into the fibers of the leather. The last
+coat is applied with a brush, and baked to from one hundred and twenty to
+one hundred and forty degrees Fahrenheit for thirty-six hours and then
+allowed to dry in direct sunlight for from six to ten hours, which seems
+to be essential to remove the sticky feeling. Various ingredients are
+used in making the different varnishes, the first coating consisting of
+naphtha, wood alcohol, amyl acetate, etc. The black varnishes consist of
+linseed oil and various other mixtures, heated in iron kettles. The final
+coating is a naphtha preparation resembling japanning material. The hide
+is stretched on a frame during the varnishing operations.
+
+It is almost impossible to tell the difference in quality of shiny
+leather by appearance, although in general the leather on which the
+grain shows through the varnish will prove more serviceable than that
+on which the finish is so thick as to hide the grain. Great care must
+be exercised in resewing patent leather shoes that have been exposed
+during the cold weather, as the cold has a tendency to freeze the finish.
+Patent leather, like all varnished coatings, is liable to crack. No one
+can guarantee it not to do so. The kid patent leather is more elastic
+and porous than other kinds. The serious objection to the use of patent
+leather for a shoe is its air-tightness. This makes it both unhygienic
+and uncomfortable. The kid patent leather is the only patent leather that
+has not this objection.
+
+Kid is a term applied to shoe leather made from the skins of mature
+goats. The skin of the young goat or kid is made into the thin, flexible
+leather used for kid gloves, which is too delicate for general use in
+shoes. The goats from which come the supply of leather used in this
+country for women’s and children’s fine shoes are not the common,
+domesticated kind known in this country, but are wild goats or allied
+species partially domesticated, and are found in the hill regions of
+India, the mountains of Europe, portions of South America, etc.
+
+There are about sixty-eight recognized kinds of goatskins that are
+imported from all over the world. The Brazilian, Buenos Ayres, Andean,
+Mexican, French, Russian, Indian, and Chinese are a few of the many kinds
+that are known as such. Each particular species of goat hide possesses
+its own peculiarities of texture. The thickness and grain differ
+according to the environment in which the animal has been raised. It is
+peculiar that those raised in cold climates do not have as thick skins
+as those raised in warmer climates, for the long, thick hair apparently
+takes the strength.
+
+We may wonder where all the skins come from that are made up into glazed
+kid, mat kid, and suede, at the rate of several thousand dozen every
+day. The great proportion of the skins are _goatskins_. These are almost
+all imported from abroad, where the animals are slaughtered and disposed
+of much the same as we dispose of beef and veal here. Sheepskins and
+carbarettas, the hides of animals that are a cross between sheep and
+goats, are also used.
+
+The finer grades of kid and goatskins which are tanned in large
+quantities in New England, come from the Far East.
+
+In China there are two great ports from which skins are shipped, Tientsin
+and Shanghai. Back in the interior, starting from a point about twelve
+hundred miles from the sea, collectors make their rounds twice a year.
+
+The breeder of goats kills his flock just before the collector is due,
+skins the animals on the hillside, preserves the meat for food, and with
+the kidskins, which have been partly dried, wrapped in a bundle carried
+upon the back, or upon a pack animal, the breeder makes his way to the
+station. It may be that there are a half hundred breeders awaiting the
+coming of the collector and he pays them the market price for the skins.
+
+Whenever the collector has a sufficient supply to make it profitable
+to ship, he bales the skins and then sends them over the thousand mile
+journey along the river to the seaport. From Tientsin or Shanghai they
+are taken by tramp steamers, which reach Eastern ports by way of the Suez
+Canal, and on the trip the steamers make several ports, so that it is
+from six to ten weeks before the skins reach America.
+
+Another method of importing is to have the raw material shipped across
+the Pacific and then transferred to a railroad, but the difference in
+cost to the manufacturer is so great that it is unprofitable.
+
+The China goatskins are rated as among the finest in the world and when
+tanned they make the highest-grade shoe.
+
+Then there are mocha skins, which come from Tripoli, Arabia, and Northern
+Africa. In those places the method of collection is practically the same
+as in China.
+
+The two best-known grades are the Hodieda and the Benghazi. They derive
+their designations from the exporting cities. Hodieda is located in the
+southwestern part of Arabia on the Red Sea, while Benghazi is in Barca,
+one of the provinces of Tripoli.
+
+Other goatskins are produced in India and Russia, and millions of skins
+are exported annually from Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. These skins are
+not brought direct to America, but are transshipped at Marseilles or
+London.
+
+The jobbers in Europe or India occupy rather a unique position, for
+according to their practice it is almost impossible for them to suffer
+financial losses in dealing with an American tanner. The latter, when he
+wishes to arrange for his year’s supply of raw material, negotiates with
+an agent in Boston, with whom he signs a contract for so many skins. Then
+it is necessary for the tanner to either purchase with money equal to
+the face value or secure by loans letters of credit from Boston banking
+houses which have European connections.
+
+Before the skins are exported, the jobber has his money from the European
+banking concerns and the bills of lading are forwarded to the Boston
+bankers, who turn them over to the tanners, and, when the occasion
+requires, obtain from the tanners what is known as a deed of trust.
+
+All goatskins are tanned by the same chrome tanning process, whether
+the finish is to be glazed or mat. The proportions of chemicals vary
+according to the texture of the skin, and according to the grain.
+
+The process of tanning is quicker than the tanning of heavier hides, and
+all varieties of tannage are used, the chrome methods having come into
+very general use. There are many kinds of finish given, such as glazed,
+dull, mat, patent, etc. One quality that distinguishes goat leather,
+the “kid” of shoemaking, is the fact that the fibers of the skin are
+interlaced and interlocked in all directions. The finished skins as they
+come from the tannery, by whatever process they may be put through, are
+sorted for size and quality, a number of grades being made. Instead
+of ripping straight through, like a piece of cloth, or splitting apart
+in layers, as sheepskin will do when made into leather, the kid holds
+together firmly in all directions.
+
+Glazed kid is colored after it is tanned by submerging it in the color,
+a very important process. The glossy surface is obtained by “striking”
+or burnishing on the grain side. It is made in black and colors,
+particularly tan, and is known by about as many names as there are
+manufacturers of it.
+
+Glazed kid is used in the uppers of shoes, making a fine, soft shoe that
+is particularly comfortable in warm weather, and is said to prevent cold
+feet in winter, owing to unrestricted circulation.
+
+Mat kid is a soft, dull black kid, the softness being the result of
+treatment with beeswax or olive oil. It is finished on the grain side the
+same as glazed kid, and is used principally for shoe toppings. It is very
+similar in appearance to mat calf and is often used in preference to it,
+as it is of much lighter weight, and about as strong.
+
+Suede kid is not tanned, but is subjected to a feeding process in an
+egg solution, called “tawing,” to make it soft and pliable. The skin is
+stretched and the color is applied by “brushing” (with a brush). The
+color does not permeate the skin, but is merely on the surface. Suedes
+are made from carbarettas and split sheepskins. Suedes are used very
+extensively in making slippers, and come in a great variety of colors.
+
+A castor kid is a Persian lambskin finished the same as a suede, and is
+used in making very soft, fine-appearing leather--like glove leather. The
+skin is of such a very light weight that it has to be “backed up” before
+being made into shoes.
+
+Fancy leathers are used extensively for toppings of shoes having patent
+leather vamps. Facings are selected from fancy leathers to make the
+inside of a shoe attractive and to increase its wearing quality.
+Leathers of dull or glazed finish are used in typical shoe colors.
+
+Miscellaneous kinds of kids are as follows:--
+
+    _A._ Kangaroo
+    _B._ Buckskin
+    _C._ Sheepskin
+    _D._ Chamois
+    _E._ Cordovan
+    _F._ Splits
+      _a._ Seal Grain
+      _b._ Buff
+      _c._ Oil Grain
+      _d._ Satin Calf
+    _G._ Enamel
+    _H._ Sides
+
+Kangaroo is the skin of the animal of that name.
+
+Buckskin is the skin of certain deer.
+
+Sheepskin is the skin of the familiar domestic sheep.
+
+Chamois is the skin of the animal of that name and by courtesy the
+specially treated skins of certain domestic animals.
+
+It is a simple matter to recognize a kid-skin among the various kinds of
+upper leather, because of its very light weight and pliability.
+
+During the winter, leather, in drying, is apt to become frozen,
+especially where no well-equipped drying loft is provided. Such leather
+becomes weak and limp if thawed out too rapidly. In freezing, the
+water in the hides which have been hung up to dry is forced out and
+stretches apart the hide fiber. The wetter the hides, therefore, the
+more demoralized they will be by the frost. The treatment of rushing the
+frozen leather into a warm room is inadvisable; the best method is to
+allow the hides to hang as they were and to tightly close all openings
+to the outside air. In case this is impossible, it is best to place the
+leather in a heap, in a room where the temperature will not fall below
+the freezing point, and to cover it with a cloth. In case the leather
+rolls up, it should be moistened before the roll becomes greater than
+is customary; it will thus become firmer throughout. Some upper leather
+and especially sheepskins for lining purposes are aided by freezing,
+since the leather becomes white and plump and also is of a bright color,
+though the durability is somewhat lessened.
+
+The popularity of white leather for shoes is increasing wonderfully.
+There is good reason for this. The modern white shoes have a stylish and
+fashionable appearance which has won the hearts of women of all ages and
+conditions, and when they want a thing, there is always alertness in
+supplying it. The new love for white shoes is interesting to trace. Years
+ago white leather for shoes was made principally from deerskins. But
+this leather, while attractive when new, would stretch soon after being
+worn, and take on a yellowish tinge. Besides, the price of such shoes
+was very high, and it is not surprising that they became supplanted by
+the cheaper, but attractive and useful, white canvas shoes, which became
+quick sellers during the season.
+
+It is greatly to the credit of our tanners that they have been able to
+perfect and put on the market a white leather for shoes which answers
+all requirements satisfactorily. This leather is made from cowhides; the
+white color will not fade nor turn yellow, and best of all, the leather
+can be easily cleaned and made to look good as new. Another advantage is
+that such leathers can be used in shoes that sell at popular prices.
+
+There are many common, commercial grades of upper leather.
+
+Willow calf is a fine, soft, chrome tannage of calfskin. It is sold in
+three colors, light tan, ox blood, and olive-brown. The distinguishing
+features of this leather are its durability and the fact that it always
+keeps soft and pliable. It is adapted to the highest quality of men’s and
+women’s shoes.
+
+Box calf is a storm-calf leather of highest quality. It is a waterproof,
+chrome tannage in a medium tan color, with a dull finish. This is the
+best leather obtainable for rough, outdoor wear, walking shoes, hunting
+boots, etc. It is also adapted to men’s and women’s very fine footwear.
+There is a growing demand for this kind of shoe. In the uppers of the
+best storm shoes you will always find box calf.
+
+Royal kid is a black chrome calfskin, dull finished with a smooth,
+natural grain of fine texture, soft and pliable. It is used for vamps
+and whole shoes of the highest grades for men and women, and is a very
+popular material for the fall and winter shoe. The desirable qualities
+of fine calf leather are making the demand for it grow faster than the
+supply of raw material increases.
+
+Tan royal is a tan color, chrome calf leather, smooth finish, fine grain,
+excellent cutting qualities, uniform, of medium rich tan shades. Tan calf
+leather is very attractive and the tan shoe is now a staple product.
+
+Cadet kid is a bright black, smooth-finished, chrome calfskin for men’s
+and women’s fine shoes. This tannage and finish give a remarkable
+cutting value. The stability of this stock is entirely unique and makes
+the finished shoe stand up, keeping its much desired shape through the
+different tests of manufacturing. It is said to be the best calfskin, by
+the best judges, the shoe manufacturers.
+
+Bronko patent is distinguished for its fine, coltskin-effect grain. It
+has a rich and lustrous black patent finish. The results obtained from
+bronko patent in its workings through the shoe factory and its wearing
+qualities afterward have never been equaled. Bronko is one of the finest
+results of the development of chrome patent leather.
+
+Cadet kid side is a chrome side leather that closely imitates the
+calfskin, called cadet kid. It has a bright, lustrous finish, and a
+remarkably fine grain. It is surprisingly like fine calf leather in
+appearance.
+
+Cadet calf sides are similar to cadet kid sides with the exception of a
+boarded finish. This is another black chrome, side leather which comes
+very near to a calfskin.
+
+Mat royal chrome side is a special finish, closely resembling calf, used
+for the tops of men’s and women’s medium fine shoes.
+
+Black hawk patent is a well-tanned, well-finished patent leather for
+medium-priced women’s shoes and for tipping.
+
+Colored box chrome side, boarded, is a substitute for willow calf.
+
+Black box chrome side, boarded, is a substitute for box calf in medium
+fine shoes.
+
+Kangaroo kid side is a back-tanned, dull, smooth, black leather nearly
+like calf, used in the tops of men’s shoes, and men’s and women’s whole
+shoes.
+
+Waterproof black is a high quality leather of great durability for men’s
+and boys’ heavy shoes. Waterproof brown is similar to waterproof black,
+except in color, and is a leather made for hard service.
+
+Amhide black is a soft, dry, high-grade tannage for lightweight,
+comfortable, sporting, work, and hard-wear shoes.
+
+Amhide russet is like black amhide in everything but color.
+
+Hercules storm chrome is a leather distinguished for its fine grain and
+good appearance of medium heavy weight.
+
+Boris is a heavy-weight, soft, waterproof leather for men’s medium
+quality shoes. It is finished in three colors and black.
+
+Zulu is a medium-priced leather, which makes a very fine wearing heavy
+shoe. It is made in two colors and black.
+
+Bison is a colored or black-finished leather, of a high grade, very
+comfortable and durable.
+
+Ottawa is of two colors and black finished, and is suitable for high
+quality, heavy, rough shoes.
+
+Sheboygan calf is a heavily stuffed, soft, waterproof leather. It is of
+two colors and black.
+
+Dongola calf is a black leather used for durable, medium-priced, heavy,
+outdoor shoes.
+
+Belt knife splits are sold in several tannages and finishes of the most
+improved manufacture. These splits are sorted in all weights. Uniform
+selection is maintained, and the quality in every way is of the highest
+order.
+
+Oxford calf union splits is one of the highest grades of grain-finished,
+union splits. It has an extremely soft and fine appearance.
+
+Cambridge calf union splits have a most careful and high-grade finish,
+but somewhat firmer than Oxford calf.
+
+Flesh splits are sold in two tannages. These are the highest-grade flesh
+splits that it is possible to make, and they are a long distance ahead of
+the ordinary flesh splits, their improved finish making them a modern and
+largely used substitute for satin.
+
+Ottawa black and russet splits include a variety of printed splits, used
+for shoes in combination with grain leather and for whole shoes. They
+are selected in many weights.
+
+Flexible splits for Goodyear, gem, McKay inner soles, is leather that
+offers the greatest advantages to large and small buyers. It is the
+product of six different tanneries, assorted in all the usual weights.
+Great care is taken in the manufacture of these splits to adapt them
+perfectly to the shoe manufacturer’s needs.
+
+Flexible bends are used by manufacturers of Goodyear welt shoes requiring
+a straight Goodyear or gem inner sole. They find these bends of great
+advantage on account of the small amount of waste, the strength and
+desirability of stock. They are made in six tannages.
+
+Chrome flexible splits for inner soles furnish a very strong and durable
+leather for inner soles, taps, and outer soles.
+
+Ooze gusset splits, colored, give a very low-priced leather suitable
+for gussets, bellows tongues for high-cut boots, also for the
+quarter-linings of Oxfords.
+
+Ooze vamp splits, black and colored, are strong, durable, low-priced
+leathers suitable for cheap work shoes where waterproof qualities are not
+required.
+
+Chrome-tanned embossed splits, colored, are made in a great variety of
+patterns for cheap shoes and other work where leather is required. They
+are durable and low priced.
+
+
+LEATHER FOR BELTING
+
+A native steer about four years old, killed in the month of October,
+affords the best example of a good hide for belting manufacture, that is,
+for the transmission of power from pulley to pulley. At this age and at
+this season the steer is in prime condition.
+
+On account of the great and enormous strain put upon belting, and the
+necessity for its running true upon the pulley, it should be of the
+highest grade possible, combining great strength to prevent stretching,
+and evenness of grain to insure long wear; therefore only hides of
+selected steers are serviceable, and these in turn are rejected when they
+contain any blemishes or cuts or other imperfections. After a hide is
+accepted for belting purposes, it is subjected to a generous trimming,
+the head, neck, legs, and belly being cut away, leaving only a small and
+compact section embracing from two to two and a quarter feet on each side
+of the backbone and extending about six feet along the same from the tail
+forward. This is the portion of the hide where the fibers are closely and
+firmly knit together, and where the vitality is the greatest, due to the
+close proximity of the network of nerves radiating from each side of the
+spine to all parts of the hide.
+
+The hides of the bull and cow of every breed are inferior for belting
+purposes to that of the steer. The hide of the bull is coarse and hard,
+with the neck very heavy and full of wrinkles, causing a variation in
+the thickness and run of the grain of the leather. The hide of the cow
+is thin, does not run uniform in thickness, being heavier on the hips
+than at the shoulder, and is lacking in the firmness necessary in good
+belting. The sharp angles of the hip bones of a cow also tend to form
+pockets in the hide.
+
+After the hide has been trimmed, it is subject to the process of
+“currying.” All membranes or particles of flesh adhering to the hide
+are removed by a machine which shaves the membrane, etc., off, with
+lightning rapidity. The leather is then washed and scoured by machine,
+which removes all dirt still adhering to the hide. After the leather
+is thoroughly cleaned and while in a damp state, it is placed upon the
+table, and greases, composed of pure animal oil, are worked into the
+leather on both the grain and the flesh side with brushes. This is
+carried on in the cold state. It is then put into a large revolving
+wheel containing water heated to a high degree, which causes the leather
+to swell and pores to open. The leather is then taken out and put into
+another wheel containing heavy mineral oil and heated several degrees
+greater than the water, and tumbled about in the wheel until the heavy
+oil fills the distended pores and fibers. After this, the leather is
+allowed to dry.
+
+The hides are allowed to remain for several months in the tan liquor
+until the green hide is changed into leather.
+
+After the hide has been changed into leather, it is stretched. To
+properly stretch the leather for belting purposes, it must first be cut
+so as to remove that part which shows the markings of the backbone of the
+steer.
+
+Leather is stretched by placing it in clamps, every part of the piece
+getting the same pull. (The leather is put into the clamps while damp,
+as damp leather will give the greatest amount of stretching.)
+
+When the stretching process is completed and the leather has thoroughly
+dried in stretching clamps, it is released. These pieces of leather
+are quite dry, very firm, and not very pliable. The leather is now
+moistened in order that it shall be more pliable as it passes through the
+finishing processes. After the water has soaked into the leather (called
+sammied), it becomes very soft. It is then subjected to a roller under
+heavy pressure to take all the unevenness out of the hide. It is next
+thoroughly dried, causing the fibers to shrink; then again moistened and
+put through a polishing machine, which acts on the same principle as the
+rolling jack.
+
+The sides and centers are now put through a cutting machine, which
+reduces the leather to strips of different sizes.
+
+Belts are put together by cementing the parts. Belt cement is a most
+powerful adhesive. It actually governs the strength of the belt, as the
+belt is as strong as the weakest part of the joint.
+
+
+RAWHIDE PRODUCTS
+
+Rawhide is used for a great many purposes. After the side of leather has
+been trimmed of the portions that cannot be used, it is sold to the lace
+maker. He measures the same in a machine.
+
+The trimmings from the side of the hide may be used for a mallet head
+or other tools made of leather. The most common products of the strong
+section of rawhide strings are shoe strings, belting laces, and parts of
+harnesses. It is also made into leather shoe strings that are used in the
+logging camps.
+
+When the hide is selected for the rawhide purposes, it is first passed to
+a de-hairing machine, where all the hair is removed. It is then fleshed;
+that is, all loose membrane and any flesh that may have adhered to the
+hide are removed from the flesh side. The rawhide is then placed in a
+special bath for the purpose of opening the pores, before the oils and
+greases are added to it. After this bath, it is dried thoroughly in a hot
+box and then put into wheels which mill the greases into the hide.
+
+The hide, which is made hard by this drying process, is put through
+breakers, where it is thoroughly worked into soft and pliable form.
+
+The hide is next passed to the setting-out machine, which finishes all
+forms of leather--by condensing and strengthening the fibers. Special
+oils are applied to both the grain and flesh side of the hide. It is
+finished by hand and cut into laces. This hand finishing is usually done
+in order to reject all parts that are not perfect.
+
+Haired leather is tanned by acid--a quicker method. The hide is split
+into sides and tanned with the belly stock on them, which is used for
+car straps, cowbell straps, trunk straps, and riding bridles.
+
+
+THE BY-PRODUCTS OF A LEATHER BELTING FACTORY
+
+There are a great many by-products in a leather belting factory, all of
+which are used. The finest strips are used for whip lashes, small pieces
+are used for the French heel, and the extremely small pieces are used in
+leather mats.
+
+The by-product from the belting bull, which is about fifty per cent, is
+used for shoe leather and leather straps. There is considerable leather
+taken from the belting bull for certain harness work. The belly is thick
+and porous though not tough, and is used for halters, cow bridles, and
+other parts of harness where the strain is not great.
+
+
+ROUND BELT MAKING
+
+Round belt is made from the best belting, but while the strain on round
+belting is not severe, the leather must be soft and pliable. It is
+selected from regular stock of native steer hide.
+
+
+PROPERTIES OF TANNED LEATHER
+
+Leather that has been tanned is made up of a great many little bundles of
+fibers. The coarser and stronger fibers are on the inside, and the very
+fine and smoothly laid fibers are on the outside. These fibers are so
+intertwined and so elastic that when the leather bends these bundles play
+on one another. On account of the smoothness of the surface it may be
+polished, and beautiful finishes and effects obtained on the leather.
+
+The elasticity of leather (which is due to the elasticity of its fibers)
+allows it to stretch to a great extent. The tendency to return to its
+original position is very strong at the beginning, but grows weaker if
+the strain is continued at any one point. Of course, in stretching the
+leather, there is always a corresponding drawing in another part of the
+shoe, which gives it a worn and baggy appearance.
+
+When shoes are removed from the feet, they are oftentimes damp, due
+to perspiration. The stretched or strained fibers are apt to shrink
+and return to their original position. In order to avoid this, it is
+necessary to place shoe-trees in them.
+
+When the linings of shoes are exposed to friction and excretion of
+perspiration from the feet of some people, they deteriorate. This is due
+to the fact that the acids of perspiration (acetic, formic and butyric
+acids) have become so concentrated that they act on the fibers of the
+leather. These acids exert a burning effect, causing the fibers to lose
+their elasticity so that they no longer play on one another, but become
+fastened to each other. The result is that they become hard, and any
+attempt to bend the leather tears them apart; and once the union of
+fibers is destroyed it cannot be repaired.
+
+In order to keep the fibers in such a condition (soft and flexible), they
+should be lubricated often (twice a week) with a liquid followed by a wax
+paste, usually called shoe dressing. When a brush or a piece of cloth is
+rubbed over the surface of leather containing the shoe lubricants (shoe
+polish), it produces a smooth surface called a “shine.”
+
+Compounds which shine without friction produced by brush or cloth should
+not be used, as they are simply varnishes and one coat on top of the
+other destroys the leather.
+
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR LEATHER
+
+In olden times our fathers and mothers used handmade shoes, and wore
+them till they had passed their period of usefulness. At that time the
+consumption did not equal the production of leather. Knowledge of
+conditions in the great western countries to-day will show that many of
+the big cattle-raising sections, once famed for their cattle, have been
+taken up by homesteaders and are now producing grain instead of cattle.
+But since the appearance of the machine-made shoe, different styles of
+shoes are placed on the market at different seasons, to correspond to
+the change of style of clothing, and shoes are often discarded before
+they are worn out. We have not been able thus far to utilize cast-off
+leather as the shoddy mill uses wool and silk, etc. The result is that
+the consumption of leather is above the production, therefore substitutes
+must be used.
+
+In shoe materials there is at present an astonishing diversity and
+variety. Every known leather is used from kid to cowhide, and textile
+fabrics have developed rapidly, especially in the making of women’s and
+children’s shoes. The satins, velvets, serges, and other fabrics that
+are used in the manufacture of shoes must be firm and well woven, and
+are usually supplied with a backing of firm, canvas-like fabric, to give
+strength.
+
+As to wearing quality the old saying, “There is nothing like leather,”
+still holds good; but people do not buy shoes for their wearing qualities
+alone in these days. Style and intrinsic beauty are considered, and have
+a cash value just as in any other article of apparel.
+
+Each fabric is made of two sets of threadlike yarn woven at right angles
+to each other. They are called the warp and filling (weft). The warp is
+composed of yarn running the longest way of the fabric, and filling runs
+the short way of the fabric. Since the warp is the body of the cloth, it
+is its strongest part and all fabric in shoes should be placed warpwise
+across the foot of the wearer, so as to be able to resist the great
+strain.
+
+Various attempts have been made for legislation to prohibit the treating
+of leather by chemicals or the use of substances to increase its weight.
+Complaints have been made by a number of shoe manufacturers that the
+excessive use of glucose (a form of sugar) in sole leather has resulted
+in injuring the leather and fabrics composing the uppers of shoes.
+
+Representatives of large leather firms claim that the methods of tanning
+sole leather have radically changed during the last few years, and that
+the small quantity of glucose and epsom salts that is used to-day in
+finishing sole leather is absolutely necessary to its value, and is in
+no sense an adulterant or weighting material. Shoe manufacturers, on the
+other hand, claim that in some cases larger amounts of glucose, salt,
+etc., have been added to the soft leather from the belly of the animal,
+in order to give it the desired stiffness. On account of the high price
+of leather, various attempts have been made to find a substitute for
+it. Most of these substitutes consist of strong cloth treated with some
+drying oil like linseed, the oil having previously been mixed with other
+solid substances.
+
+A prize of five thousand francs has been awarded to a Belgian inventor,
+Louis Gevaert, for his unusually superior artificial leather. The process
+consists in the more or less intimate impregnation of stout cloth with
+tannic albuminoid substances. Shoes made of this are said to possess not
+only the resistance and elasticity of natural leather, but its durability
+of wear. Moreover, they are much cheaper, costing, including manufacture,
+only four francs (about eighty cents) and being sold at about six francs
+per pair.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER FOUR
+
+THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT
+
+
+Very few people, even among those engaged in the shoe industry, know much
+of the anatomy of the foot. Yet it is evident that they ought to know
+something about it in order to furnish the foot with a proper covering.
+
+The first thing that strikes a person on looking at the human foot is its
+large proportion of bone. On pressing its top surface and that of its
+inner side, the amount of flesh will be found to be very small, indeed.
+The same is true of the inner and outer ankle. The extreme back of the
+ankle has scarcely any flesh covering. The most fleshy portions of the
+foot are its outer side, the base of the heel and the ball of the big
+toe.
+
+The reason for this disposition of flesh is to protect or cover those
+parts of the foot that support the body by coming in contact with the
+ground. They act as pads and lessen the concussion. The abundance of
+flesh on the outer side of the foot is to protect or act as a shield
+against danger. The inside of the foot is not exposed as much as the
+outside.
+
+The foot is divided into three parts, the toes, the waist and instep,
+and the heel and ankle. The largest bone of the foot is the heel bone
+(called calcaneum). It is the bone that projects backward from the
+principal joint and forms the main portion of the heel. When a person is
+flat-footed, this bone is thrust farther backward than nature intended to
+have it. The connection between it and the tarsal bones is lost.
+
+[Illustration: The Bones and Joints of the Human Foot.]
+
+[Illustration: The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle. _See page 86._]
+
+The top bone of the foot is the astragalus, and it forms the main joint
+upon which the process of walking depends. This bone has a smooth,
+circular, upper surface that connects it with the main bone of the lower
+leg. It is absolutely necessary that this bone should be in perfect
+harmony (relation) with the others in order to insure comfort and health.
+If the arches of the foot are forced out of position, up or down or
+sidewise, this joint is not permitted to do its work normally.
+
+Rheumatism is a frequent evil of an injured joint. Hence the necessity of
+absolutely normal action, unhampered by ill-fitting shoes.
+
+The principal arch of the instep is called the cuneiform or tarsal bone.
+Persons are troubled with defective insteps to quite an extent. Misshapen
+joints at this point due to shoes that do not fit and consequently
+disarrange and throw out of position the delicate, natural structure,
+work great havoc with the comfort of the foot. Nine joints cluster at
+this point.
+
+The bones of the toes are called the metatarsal bones and phalanges.
+There can be no doubt that nature intended mankind to walk in his
+bare feet, and in that event the phalanges of the foot would occupy a
+much more important part than is now the case as a result of modern
+civilization. There are nineteen bones in the foot, and the disturbance
+of one or more of these will serve to upset the entire foot by throwing
+out of relationship the general unit of work devolving upon the whole
+number of joints and bones. Each joint has its accompaniment of muscles,
+and each lack of alignment of bones and joints provokes discord and lack
+of harmony in the muscular action.
+
+Muscles are attached to bones, and by their contraction or extension the
+bones are moved. Very few movements are effected by means of a single
+muscle. The muscles of the foot in nearly all cases are in combination,
+and are so complex in their action that the best surgeons find it
+difficult to describe them satisfactorily.
+
+The chief characteristics of the foot are its spring and elasticity.
+While the foot has wonderful powers of resistance and adaptability, it
+is the shoemaker’s duty not to strain the same, but to provide for each
+action.
+
+The most sensitive part or the one part that is most susceptible of
+injury is the big toe. This is due to the fact that the tendency of
+the foot in walking is to travel toward the toe of the boot, and in a
+word to press into rather than shun danger. The shoemaker provides for
+this, first, by allowing sufficient length of sole to extend beyond the
+termination of the toe, and second, by the fit of the upper and the
+preparation of the sole. In this way, if the toe of the shoe strikes
+against a hard substance, the big toe of the foot will remain untouched.
+
+Seventy-five per cent of the people have more or less trouble with their
+feet. Some of these troubles are caused by the manufacturer putting on
+the market shoes whose lines look handsome and attractive to the eye,
+but are lacking in any other good features. Shoes that fit properly
+should have plenty of room from the large toe joint to the end of the
+toes, and also should have plenty of tread, especially at this point.
+
+A mere glance at our bare foot will show conclusively that pointed-toe
+boots are false in the theory of design. The toes of a foot when off
+duty touch each other gently. When they are called on to assist us in
+walking or in supporting our body, they spread out--although not to any
+great extent. This, then, being the action, no sensible maker of boots
+and shoes would attempt to restrain them. Box or puff-toe shoes allow the
+greatest freedom.
+
+The pointed-toe shoes, which join the vamp to the upper immediately over
+the big toe joint, exceedingly high heels, and thick waist shoes are not
+for the best interests of the foot.
+
+The evils of ill-fitting shoes are corns, bunions, and calluses.
+
+Corns are mainly due to pressure and friction. When the layers of skin
+become hardened, they form a corn, which is merely a growth of dead
+skin that has become hard in the center. This hardened spot acts like a
+foreign body to the inflamed parts.
+
+A hard corn is formed more by friction than pressure. It is produced by
+the constant rubbing of a tight or small shoe against the projecting
+parts of some prominent bony part, as the last joints on the third,
+fourth, and little toe. When this action continues, it produces
+inflammation. Rest--as relieving the feet of the friction--decreases
+this inflammation, leaving a layer of hardened flesh. Renewed action
+reproduces the same effects, leaving behind a second layer of hardened
+flesh. This continued action and reaction brings on a callus, rising
+above the surface of the skin. This increases from its base. An ordinary
+hard corn may be removed by scraping up the callous skin around its
+border, and prying out carefully with a knife. Soft corns are chiefly
+the result of pressure or friction. These corns are soft and spongy
+elevations on the parts of the skin subjected to pressure. Soft corns are
+mostly found on the inner side of the smaller toes. Those on the surface
+of joints by mechanical action will become hard.
+
+The blood corn is excessively painful. It is the result of an ordinary
+corn forcibly displacing the blood vessels surrounding it, and causing
+them to rest upon its surface.
+
+The bunion is an inflammatory swelling generally to be found on the big
+toe joint. The chief cause of bunions is known to be the wearing of boots
+or shoes of insufficient length. The foot, meeting with resistance in
+front and behind, is robbed of its natural actions, the result being
+that the big toe is forced upward, and subjected to continuous friction
+and pressure. The wearing of narrow-toe boots that prevent the outward
+expansion of the toe is another cause.
+
+The comparisons of quantities are often called ratios. The ratios of the
+different parts of the foot to the height are different in the infant
+from that of the adult period. Between these two periods the ratios are
+constantly changing.
+
+There are two series of shoe sizes on the market; the smallest size of
+shoe for infants (size No. 1) is, or was originally, four inches long;
+each added full size indicates an increase in length of one third of an
+inch (sizes 1 to 5). Children’s sizes run in two series, 5 to 8, and 8
+to 11; then they branch out into youths’ and misses’; both running 11½,
+12, 12½, 13, 13½ and back again to 1, 1½, 2, etc., in a series of sizes
+that run up into men’s and women’s. Boys’ shoes run from 2½ to 5½; men’s
+from 6 to 11 in regular runs. Larger sizes usually are made upon special
+orders. Some few manufacturers go to 12. Women’s sizes run from 2½ to 9.
+Some manufacturers do not go above size 8. The rate of sizes is sometimes
+varied from by manufacturers of special lines of shoes. A man’s No. 8
+shoe would be nearly eleven inches long. These measurements originated in
+England and are not now absolute.
+
+A system of French sizes is used which consists of a cipher system of
+markings to indicate the sizes as well as widths so that the real size
+may not be known to the customer.
+
+All feet are not alike in structure and shape. In infancy the foot is
+broad at the toes, which press forward in the direction of their length.
+The heel is small in comparison to the width of the toes, and also short
+in length, due to the undeveloped bones. But during growth, the thickness
+above the heel bones disappears, and the heel itself becomes thicker and
+assumes the beauty of perfection at maturity. This development is due
+to the growth of bones which must be well exercised and properly cared
+for during this period. The various parts of the feet and legs do not
+mature at the same rate--those at the upper part of the body increase at
+a greater rate than the lower parts. Thighs develop first, next the upper
+part of the legs, and lastly the feet.
+
+The adult foot, when properly formed, is straight from heel to toe on the
+inner side, and is wider across the joints than one inch or so farther
+back. The manner of walking has a considerable bearing on the character
+and development of the foot.
+
+There are many sorts of feet, which are due to a number of causes, such
+as habits, climate, occupation, locality, etc. As a general rule we may
+divide the feet into four classes: Bony feet--those with very little
+flesh upon them; hard feet--those that have plenty of flesh, but which
+are almost as hard as a stone; fat feet--plump, with plenty of flesh, but
+having little shape; spongy feet--those that seem to have no bones in
+them, usually found in the female sex.
+
+The characteristics of a foot are common with the body to which it is
+connected. Some people have a strong, bony frame, with strong, firm
+muscles, prominent bones and muscles, and a flesh that is hard. The
+feet of this type of person are usually long, bony, and arched, with
+a well-developed big toe joint. The heel measurements are large in
+proportion. A soft foot is prevalent among the Scotch. The feet of a
+person who is delicately shaped, with a small frame and thin, small,
+tapering muscles, are usually thin and finely formed, giving evidence of
+quickness. This kind of a foot in a man has a tendency to develop a flat
+foot.
+
+A person with a form inclined to plumpness, full of exercise and
+activity, and a good circulation, has a well-developed foot. The heel
+is round and fairly prominent, although there are no special bony
+prominences. On the other hand a person with a body of general roundness,
+but with tissues and muscles flabby, and a languid blood circulation, has
+feet that are short, soft, and flabby.
+
+We will allow that these four different kinds of feet all measure a 4
+size and D in width. One would naturally think that the same size shoe
+would fit them all, but this is not so. This size shoe will only fit one
+and that is the bony foot. The hard feet require a C½ width; the fat feet
+require a C width, and the sponge feet require a B width.
+
+The same last may, and often will possess a slight variation in some
+manner or other. The fitter of feet must know the stock, each pair, and
+be on intimate terms with the peculiarities of each last and the inside
+lines of each pair of shoes before attempting to try them upon the feet
+of the customer.
+
+Different makes of footwear are apt to be manufactured over a slightly
+varying system of measurements. One line of shoes made over a small
+measure may be longer or shorter or narrower or wider than some other
+line. The heel measurements require careful study for each line
+introduced. The peculiarities of each line must be tested by tape and
+measure, and the foot fitter must have a strong knowledge along these
+lines.
+
+We should measure the foot by the stick if necessary, and make a note
+of the size and width that will be likely to prove a fit. The height of
+the arch must be considered, and the shape of arch curve, the shape of
+the instep, and the general contour of the foot. A normal foot will show
+about a half-inch arch. The average foot will carry from an inch to an
+inch and a quarter heel, without putting a strain on any of the joints of
+the foot. Some feet vary from this by a wide margin. A foot is a trifle
+longer in walking than in repose. Allowance should be made, in using the
+measuring stick, over what the foot actually draws on the stick. In men’s
+shoes the allowance, should be from two to two and one half sizes.
+
+When a one-legged man buys a shoe, the dealer sends to the factory a shoe
+to match the one left remaining. In these days of the use of machinery
+in every process of their manufacture, shoes are made with the utmost
+exactness and precision, and it is easily possible to mate that remaining
+shoe with the greatest nicety in size, style, material, and finish.
+
+Few people have feet exactly alike; commonly the left foot is larger than
+the right, so that one shoe may fit a little more snugly than the other.
+Commonly, however, people buy shoes in regularly matched pairs, the
+difference in their feet, if it is noticeable to them at all, not being
+enough to make any other course desirable.
+
+But there are people who buy shoes of different sizes or widths, in
+which case the dealer breaks two pairs for them, giving them, to fit
+their feet, one shoe from each. In such cases the dealer matches up the
+two remaining shoes, one from each of two pairs just as he would where he
+had broken one pair to sell one shoe to a one-legged man.
+
+But a man does not have to be one-legged nor to have feet of uneven
+sizes or shapes to make him ask the dealer to break a pair of shoes for
+him. A man with two perfectly good feet came into the store where he was
+accustomed to buy and wanted one shoe. While traveling in a sleeping car,
+his shoes had been mixed up with others and he had received back one of
+his own and one of some other man’s; a fact which he had not discovered
+until he was too far away from train and station to set things right. So
+he came in to buy one shoe to match his own.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER FIVE
+
+HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE
+
+
+If you examine the shoes worn by people in a large city, you will notice
+different styles. Shoe styles that were called grotesque a few seasons
+ago are comparatively usual to-day, for the new designs in women’s
+footwear, which manufacturers are now making, are the most varied that
+ever have been put on the market. Pink and green and blue are among the
+new colors in materials for footwear.
+
+Some of the styles for the coming seasons are more lavish than have
+hitherto been seen in the women’s shoe trade of America. Coronation
+purple velvet boots look like an extravagant color for footwear, but they
+are now selling. Samples of pink, green, and blue shoes, both boots and
+pumps, are being made up, and they will soon be offered to buyers.
+
+The style of the shoe is dominated by fashion. All styles are related,
+that is, every part of our dress is influenced by the prevailing fashion,
+ideas of color, fabric, or garment outline. To illustrate: when short
+skirts are stylish, women wear mannish shoes to harmonize with them; on
+the other hand, with long skirts they must have a shoe that is neat and
+small, hence, the short vamp. When women wear white in the summer, cool
+canvas shoes spring into favor; when gray and blue dress materials are to
+be used, a variety of tan shoes are worn to harmonize, etc.
+
+After the style has been decided upon, it is necessary to work out an
+exact reproduction. An expert model maker, called a last maker, produces
+a last, a wooden model of the shoe. In order to do this, it is necessary
+to lay out certain plans or specifications for the details of the
+manufacturer of the shoe.
+
+There are certain parts of all feet that have fixed measurements. To
+illustrate: the length of the shank, that part of the sole of the foot
+between the heel and ball, in every person’s foot is always the same. The
+part of the foot back of the ball or large toe joint conforms to certain
+fixed measurements. These definite measurements form a basis by which the
+last maker originates new styles by shortening, lengthening, widening, or
+narrowing the space in front of the toes, but always retaining the true
+and fixed measurements of the back part of the last.
+
+When the last maker desires to produce a new style, he takes an old last
+and tacking pieces of leather on some parts of it (front of the toes), he
+builds it up and cuts off other parts. This patched-up last is taken to a
+special machine (lathe), where a number of duplicates are turned from a
+block of wood.
+
+The “pattern maker” is the man in the factory who makes patterns,
+consisting of heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass, in the shapes
+of the various pieces of leather required to make up the upper part of
+the shoe.
+
+The pattern maker has found by experience that the top part of the shoe
+also conforms to certain fixed measurements, and by working in sympathy
+with the last maker he need only to change the front part of the vamp to
+bring out the latter’s ideas. With these measurements as a foundation, he
+puts forth from time to time different style uppers, as buttons, lace,
+blucher, fixings, scrolls, straps, ties, pumps, etc. This is the way new
+style tops originate.
+
+After the manufacturer has approved of sample patterns, the pattern
+maker receives an order for a certain quantity of patterns to be made
+over a certain last which is submitted to him. Working on the fixed top
+measurements and the last submitted as a basis, the pattern maker draws
+plans for a model pattern. The standard size of a model pattern is size
+7 in men’s shoes and size 4 in women’s. He is also given an order for a
+certain number of widths; for instance, B, C, D, and E, and he draws out
+on paper a complete set for each width in the size 7. These four sets of
+model patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet iron by hand. But from
+these sheets any number of iron models, and any size regular cardboard
+pattern can be reproduced by a machine.
+
+Wood to be made into lasts comes to the shoe manufacturers in a rough,
+unchiseled form. The lasts are made of maple wood; hollow forms used by
+traveling salesmen and window trimmers are made of bass wood.
+
+The making of the model of the last is the most exacting operation in the
+factory. It is produced by a machine most important. The principle of
+this machine has been brought about by the pantograph; that is, it will
+turn from a rough block of wood an exact copy of the model last; or it
+will enlarge or reduce a duplicate of any other size or width, so, from a
+single model last, such as the manufacturer has decided on, any number of
+lasts can be made, and of any size or width. The machine itself consists
+of two lathes. On one is placed the model and on the other the block of
+wood. The model is held against a wheel by a spring. By adjusting this
+wheel, any desired width last can be obtained, and by adjusting a bar in
+front of the machine any length last can be produced from the block of
+wood.
+
+[Illustration: Rough Unchiseled Block of Maple.
+
+A Last after leaving Turning Lathe.
+
+A Finished Last.]
+
+The lathe, when in motion, revolves both the last and the model, the
+model being pressed against the wheel, which is really a guide for the
+revolving knife that digs into the block of wood, and regulates the depth
+that the knife is allowed to cut. In this manner the model is reproduced
+from the block which is also regulated as to size and width by the wheel
+and by the bar. This machine is so accurate that a tack driven into the
+model to locate the center of the last is reproduced by a sort of a
+wooden pimple in the block of wood when finished. The model sole pattern
+is now tried on the half-finished last to insure accuracy.
+
+Notice in the figures of lasts that the turning lathe has left stubs of
+wood on the toes and heels. These must be finished to a “templet.” The
+templet is a measure or guide used to indicate the shape any piece of
+work is to assume when finished. From the heel and toe of the model, a
+piece of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that model, and is used on
+the heeler machine as a guide to form an exact copy of the heels and
+toes of the model. This machine works very rapidly, and by the aid of
+an irregular shaped, revolving knife it quickly transforms the toes and
+heels to the desired shape. The bottoms are again tried out on a sole
+pattern and the last number, the size and the width are stamped on.
+
+We now have the last as a solid piece of maple wood and turned to the
+desired shape, size and width. Were it possible to insert and extract
+the last in this form from the half-finished shoe, no other steps
+would be necessary in last manufacture, but inasmuch as the leather is
+stretched very tightly over this last a little later, it necessitates the
+introduction of some method that will facilitate a quick removal of the
+last from the shoe. This is accomplished by cutting it in two parts and
+making a hinged heel. The fact that the slightest measurement changes
+the size of the shoe, necessitates great care in the introduction of
+the hinge as a part of the last, and in order to insure accuracy and
+uniformity in all the lasts, they are marked with templets and gigs. The
+hinge must be placed inside of the last.
+
+The finished last is so constructed that it can be readily inserted or
+withdrawn from the shoe, and the strong hinge provides the last, when
+inserted, with the same rigid qualities as though it were one piece. The
+center of the last is indicated, as before stated, by a reproduction in
+the side of the last of the tack that was placed in the model. This is
+the mark that locates the position of all the holes, and it is done by a
+“gig” in the following manner:--
+
+A gig is a piece of steel having cylinders that guide the bit of the
+boring machine in an exact perpendicular line. This gig, being placed
+on the last in the position marked by the turning machine, forms the
+accurate location of the bolt holes that hold the hinge.
+
+After the hinge is placed in the last, it goes to the ironers to have
+the bottom put on it, if it is a McKay last, and a heel plate if it is a
+welt. The bottom is again tried and the plate filled up to the same. The
+last is then ready to go to the scouring room. In this room the last goes
+through three operations, first of which is ruffing. This consists of
+scouring with a coarse grade of quartz. This operation must be carried on
+so that the sole lines and insteps are not brought into contact with the
+quartz.
+
+The second operation, medium grinding, is done with a fine grade of
+quartz, and in this operation, also, the worker keeps away from the toe.
+The third operation is done with a much finer-grade quartz, the operator
+going over the entire last. The last is now ready for polishing, and
+after that, for a heavy coat of shellac. It is polished and waxed on a
+leather wheel. Then it goes into the shipping room ready for shipment to
+the manufacturer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER SIX
+
+DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY--GOODYEAR WELT SHOES
+
+
+The principal methods of manufacturing shoes are the following:--
+
+Goodyear welt; McKay; turned; standard screw; pegged; nailed.
+
+The simplest and the clearest way of showing how the various kinds of
+shoes are made is to explain the manufacture of a Goodyear welt and
+afterwards bring out the points in which this method of shoemaking
+differs from the others.
+
+Shoes are manufactured in up-to-date factories, employing hundreds of
+operatives. The modern shoe factory of to-day is divided into six general
+departments: the sole leather department, upper leather department,
+stitching department, making department, finishing department, and the
+treeing, packing, and shipping departments.
+
+In some sections of the country, several of these departments are often
+designated by other names. The stitching department is often called the
+fitting department; the making department, the bottoming department;
+and the sole leather department, the stock-fitting department. The
+departments are popularly termed rooms for brevity.
+
+A shoe factory is designed so as to have a width of about fifty feet
+for each room, while the length is according to the number of shoes to
+be produced. A width of about fifty feet gives plenty of daylight and
+ample room in the center of each department, which is very essential in
+shoemaking.
+
+[Illustration: A Modern Shoe Factory.]
+
+Shoe factories are usually about two hundred feet long, while many are
+nearly four hundred feet. A few exceed four hundred feet, running as long
+as eight hundred feet. Some are built in the shape of hollow squares,
+while others have wings added, which give almost as much floor space as
+the original building.
+
+The average factory has usually four floors. The first floor, or
+basement, is occupied by the sole leather department. The next floor
+above includes the treeing, finishing, packing, and shipping departments,
+and also the office. The third floor is devoted entirely to the making or
+bottoming department. The top floor is divided so that the cutting and
+stitching departments have each half a floor.
+
+There are several exceedingly large factories in this country that find
+it advantageous to divide the factory into more departments, as, for
+example, the cutting room is divided so that the linings and trimmings
+are cut in a separate department. The skiving may also be done in a
+separate room. The making room will be divided so that the lasting is set
+off as a separate department on account of the many workmen and machines
+employed. In the same way there will be a division of work so that the
+packing and shipping will be set apart from the treeing. Then, again, in
+the sole leather room, the making of heels as well as the fitting of the
+bottom stock may become independent departments.
+
+The system of making women’s shoes is practically the same as that of
+men’s except that in a great many factories the method of preparing the
+bottom stock is somewhat different. Most manufacturers of women’s shoes
+do not cut sole leather, but buy outsoles, insoles, counters, and heels,
+all cut or prepared. These soles are in blocked form and large enough so
+that they can be cut or rounded by the manufacturers to fit their lasts.
+The counters, when bought, are all ready to put in the uppers, while the
+heels are ready to put on the shoes. Whenever a manufacturer of women’s
+shoes cuts his sole leather, he has the same system as that in the men’s
+factories.
+
+In women’s factories where sole leather is not cut, they do not have a
+complete sole leather department. Instead, they have what is called a
+stock-fitting department. There are independent cut sole houses, etc., in
+the trade, which supply the soles to manufacturers. The same system of
+buying supplies also applies to many other parts of the shoe, as in the
+top lift, half sole, welt, rand, etc. In the upper leather department,
+manufacturers of both men’s and women’s shoes often buy trimmings and
+other parts of the upper all prepared.
+
+A large proportion of the men’s shoe manufacturers are now buying heels
+all built, while fully nine tenths buy counters all molded. The soles and
+other parts that are needed for a shoe are put up in different qualities
+and grades, and a manufacturer can buy any grade of sole he wants, so
+that it is considered an advantage to buy some parts, instead of cutting
+them. In a side of sole leather there are twenty-five or more different
+qualities and grades of soles, and very few manufacturers, especially in
+the women’s trade, can use all of these. The greater variety of shoes a
+manufacturer turns out, the more advantageous it is for him to cut his
+own sole leather, and prepare all parts in his own factory.
+
+In this country the number of factories in the shoe trade appears to be
+growing less and the average factory larger each year. It is estimated
+that there are at present something like fifteen hundred factories in
+all. These range from the smallest product up to the largest. The average
+factory may be said to produce about twelve hundred pairs of shoes per
+day. Many turn out five thousand pairs daily, while a few manufacturers
+turn out ten thousand or more pairs. Several manufacturers and firms have
+half a dozen or more factories and have a total output of between twenty
+thousand and thirty thousand pairs of shoes a day. There is no such
+thing as a trust or monopoly of any kind in this trade, and there never
+has been up to the present time.
+
+In all factories and all classes of work, the “case” has always been
+of such a number of pairs that it can be divided by twelve in every
+instance. A case can be twelve, twenty-four, thirty-six, forty-eight,
+sixty, or seventy-two pairs, and in children’s work it is often sixty and
+seventy-two pairs. All cases of these numbers are regular cases, whereas
+any other number would be out of the ordinary. Of course, a case of shoes
+may contain any number of pairs, but the numbers given above have always
+been used in regular work.
+
+Cases of shoes may differ, but every pair of shoes in any one case must
+be made exactly alike. All shoes are made in cases, except in the matter
+of custom work or single-pair orders or samples. In making men’s heavy
+shoes, or working shoes, the regular case was formerly sixty pairs or
+thirty-six pairs, but the tendency has been of late to have a standard
+case of twenty-four pairs. In the men’s fine trade the regular case is
+twenty-four pairs, while in the women’s it is thirty-six pairs. Long
+boots for men have always been made in twelve-pair cases.
+
+Goods are sold by the samples, sent out with the traveling salesman. As
+fast as he receives an order, he sends it to the main office. Here the
+orders are subdivided and sent to the factories making the goods. For
+example, an order for seventy-five dozen men’s shoes of a certain style
+received by the main office from the traveling salesman would be sent
+to the factory in the form of a typewritten order, covering the general
+description and sizes written out in the proper form, for each case is
+made according to the specifications on the tags that are made out in the
+office. These tags specify the sole, heel, upper, kind and quality, how
+stitched, the last to be used, how bottomed finished, treed, and packed.
+Everything is marked plainly on the tags so that a buyer can have any
+shoe made just as he wants it.
+
+This order would be sent from the factory office to the cutting room,
+where a clerk would make out twenty-five long tickets.
+
+Twenty-five are made because the shoes go through the factory in lots
+of twenty-four pairs, each lot being called a job and when finished
+making a case of shoes. The long ticket is made in duplicate form, and is
+perforated so it may be tied to a lot of shoes. Both parts of the tickets
+are made out to contain the various operations with the specifications
+as to detail. The lower part is sent to the stock or sole leather room,
+while the top part remains with the uppers which are cut in the cutting
+room. While each part of the ticket is sent by a different route through
+the factory, they finally meet in the form of finished shoes.
+
+In addition to the long ticket already described, two other tickets are
+made out, the top ticket and the trimming ticket. The top ticket is sent
+to the leather bins of the factory, where the sorter knows by experience
+exactly the amount of leather required to cut the order, being careful to
+see that it is all of uniform quality and free from blemishes. He rolls
+the leather in a bundle, attaches the ticket and sends it to the cutter.
+
+In the cutting room there are three classes of cutters; cutter of
+trimmings, who cuts lace stays, top facings, back stays, tongues, etc.;
+outside cutter, who cuts quarters, vamps, tops, tips, etc.; and the
+lining cutter, who cuts cloth linings.
+
+[Illustration: A Nine and One-Half Foot Skin divided to best advantage
+before Cutting.]
+
+Skins of leather are received in the shoe factory in different shapes.
+Some are perfect, others have blemishes or imperfect spots. The skins
+that are to be used for upper stock are carefully graded by two or three
+men, as to quality of leather and weight. This is necessary in order to
+be sure that a lot of shoes made for a certain dealer will be uniform. On
+account of the leather coming in different shapes, some skins perfect,
+others having imperfect spots, the cutter must place his patterns in such
+a way that certain parts of the shoe will use up all the perfect parts,
+and others, less important, will be composed of the weaker parts of the
+skin. This explains why you sometimes find the inside top part of a shoe
+made of flanky leather, while the vamp is made of a better grade.
+
+There is a pattern for each and every size shoe, and each piece of
+leather is cut out separately on a block of wood. Nothing is wasted.
+In order to make each cutter as efficient as possible, the cutters are
+divided, so as to have a different cutter for each grade of leather. In
+this way they become better judges of leather.
+
+The lining cutters use patterns and knives on drilling. The facing is cut
+out with a knife and pattern. The side stays and the tongue are cut out
+by dies.
+
+After the leather has been cut into the desired shape, uppers, vamps, toe
+pieces, back stays, lace stays, etc., cutting at times ten pieces, and
+for some styles of shoes as many as fourteen pieces, the cutters take
+care to keep the parts for the same shoe together, matching and marking
+them so that eventually all will meet again in the shoe.
+
+Machines are used now on almost every operation, and annually several new
+machines make their appearance. The cutting of uppers up to four or five
+years ago was performed by an operator cutting the leather by running the
+knife along the side of the pattern. Now they are using a cutting machine
+and dies to cut uppers in nearly all factories. This cutting machine is
+called the “clicking machine,” and it is considered quite a labor saver
+in a department where it was the universal opinion that machines never
+could be used.
+
+It is impossible to give a list of all the operations performed and have
+it complete. But a good general idea of the system can be given and the
+name and meaning of the main operations in the several departments.
+It should be kept in mind that the methods in rooms differ, and that
+hardly any two factories put a shoe through in exactly the same manner.
+The general system and plan is the same everywhere and the machines are
+the same in all factories, but the details and minor operations are so
+numerous that there is plenty of scope for them to vary.
+
+The function of the clicking machine is to cut the upper leather into the
+desired shapes required. It consists of an iron frame, with a cutting
+board on the top of it. Above this is a large beam which can be swung to
+the right or left of any portion of the board. The skin to be cut, which
+may be of any kind, is placed on the board and a die of the design or
+shape of the leather desired is placed on it. The handle of the swinging
+beam is taken by the operator and moved over the die; then by pressure
+of the handle the beam is brought downward, pressing the die through the
+leather. As soon as this is done, the beam automatically returns to its
+full height.
+
+These dies are made in different designs and sizes to meet the different
+sizes and designs in the upper of the shoe. One die for each design and
+size. They mark the vamps for the location of the toe cap and blucher
+foxings as well as the size by means of nicks in the edge of the piece
+cut. The dies are about three-quarters of an inch in height and so light
+that they do not mar the most delicate leather.
+
+[Illustration: Cutting the Leather by Means of Pattern and Knife. _Page
+118._]
+
+[Illustration: Goodyear Stitching.
+
+A machine that sews around the edge of the welt and joins it to the sole
+exactly at the heel. _Page 119._]
+
+After the outside cutter has cut the skin into pieces to make up the
+shoe, these are tied up in separate bundles, that is, the twenty-four
+of tips in one bundle, twenty-four pairs of vamps in another. These are
+turned over to girls who stencil the sizes on the edge and match them,
+that is, see that each upper is exactly like the mate.
+
+After the different parts have been cut by the operator of the clicking
+machine or by hand, the edges of the upper leather, which shows in the
+finished shoe, must be thinned down (skived) by a “skiving machine” to a
+beveled edge. This is done in order that the edges of the leather that
+are to show in the completed shoe may be folded to give a more finished
+appearance. The machines are operated by girls; each one an expert on one
+particular piece.
+
+The order number and size of shoe are stamped on the top lining of each
+shoe. After all linings have been prepared, according to the data given
+on the instruction card attached to parts of the shoe, the parts are
+sent to the stitching department, where the stitchers on a multitude
+of machines stitch all the different parts together very rapidly and
+accurately.
+
+The toe caps are then given a series of ornamental perforations along
+the edge. This is done by either “power tip press,” or a “perforating
+machine.” The first consists of a series of dies placed in a machine by
+which the leather is perforated according to the designs desired. Each
+series of dies represents a different design.
+
+The perforating machine resembles a sewing machine, but instead of a
+series of dies, the one in this machine is made of single or combination
+dies which make one or more holes on each downward movement. The machine
+feeds automatically and does the work very accurately. The cutting
+tool is kept from becoming dull by pressing against a band of paper.
+Ornamentation on other parts of the shoes, such as the edges of vamps,
+etc., is made by this machine.
+
+Before going to the stitching room, every bundle is examined by sorters.
+The sorters are divided and subdivided; that is, one man always sorts
+tips, another vamps, etc. They examine each piece for imperfection, and
+if any is found, the piece is thrown out and a new one put in. The last
+operation is the assembling of pieces. Here each job of twenty-four pairs
+is brought together and securely tied and numbered.
+
+This stitching department is one in which female labor is generally
+employed, although in late years more men are being used to operate
+machines, especially on vamping or other heavy parts. In some parts of
+the country it is called the fitting room. The work of the department
+consists of stitching the different parts of the upper together, so
+that it is ready to put on the last. The terms used mean in most cases
+stitching the part named to the rest of the upper. There are very many
+operations in the department, several of which are named below, together
+with their meaning.
+
+The bundles of pieces which have come from the cutting room are placed
+on the table, where they are subdivided into three parts, the linings,
+the tops, the vamps and the tips.
+
+The linings for the tops of the shoes are pasted together (with the back
+strap and top bands), care being taken to join them at the marks made for
+that purpose. After being dried, they go into the hands of the machine
+operators, where they are joined together by a stitching machine, and
+the edges, etc., trimmed. The sewing machines used are very similar to
+an ordinary home sewing machine, with the exception that they are much
+larger and stronger.
+
+[Illustration: Stock Fitting Room.
+
+Where all bottom stock is prepared after being cut. _See page 120._]
+
+The lining is finished. The next step is to join the lining to the piece
+of leather making up the outside of the same shape, called the top. The
+top receives the eyelets by a machine placed in proper position. The top
+and lining can be put together by sewing them face to face. The top is
+inspected and all threads clipped off.
+
+After the shoe uppers have been properly stitched together, the eyelets
+are placed on by a “duplex eyeletting machine,” which eyelets both sides
+of the shoe at one time. The top of the eyelets are solid black knobs, so
+as not to wear brassy, while the bottom (which clinches inside the shoe)
+called the barrel, is of nickel. This finishes the shoe upper.
+
+The vamp, tongues, and tip are then put together. The edges of the
+vamps, quarters, tips, etc., are covered with a cement made of rubber
+and naphtha, which is kept in small bowls on the benches in front of
+employees. Several grades of cements are used. The cemented parts
+are allowed to dry, and the edges are then turned over by “pressing
+machines,” which gives a finished appearance. The shoe is put together
+by stitching the vamp to the quarters. This work is done by both men and
+women, and is work which demands much care.
+
+In stitching men’s uppers, the system varies in various factories as much
+as it does on women’s. Here are some of the operations, which will give
+an idea how men’s uppers go through.
+
+Extension or toe piece sewed to vamp.
+
+Leather box stitched on.
+
+Tip stitched to vamp.
+
+Vamp seamed up back.
+
+Top folded around edge.
+
+Top seamed up.
+
+Eyelet row stitched up and down.
+
+Lining seamed up.
+
+Side facing put on lining.
+
+Top facing put on lining.
+
+Lining and outside pasted together.
+
+Under trimming.
+
+Eyeletting.
+
+Hooking.
+
+Vamping.
+
+The upper is complete when it leaves the stitching room and is all ready
+to be put on the last. While the upper is being prepared, the soles,
+insoles, counters, and heels are made in other departments.
+
+When the foreman of this department has received the tags with the data
+necessary for the preparation of outsoles, insoles, counters, toe boxes,
+and heels, they are sent to the stock room, where these parts are kept.
+
+The soles are roughly cut out by means of dies, pressing down through the
+leather, in “dieing out machines.” Before the soles are cut, the leather
+is dipped in water and sufficiently dampened. After they are cut out,
+they are made to conform to the exact shape by rounding them in a machine
+called the “rounding machine.” The roughly died out piece of leather is
+held between clamps, one of which is the exact pattern of the sole. The
+machine works a little knife that darts around this pattern, cutting the
+sole exactly to conform. The outsole is now passed to a heavy rolling
+machine, where it is pressed by tons of pressure between heavy rolls.
+This takes the place of the hammering which the old-time shoemaker gave
+his leather to bring the fibers very closely together, so as to increase
+its wear.
+
+Counters and toe boxes (stiffening which is placed between the heel and
+toe cap and the vamp of shoe) are prepared in the same room with the
+heels. After they are made, they are sent to the making or bottoming
+room, where the shoe upper is awaiting them. As the counter is an
+important feature in the life of a shoe, much depends upon the quality of
+leather that goes into it.
+
+The sole is next fed to a “splitting machine,” which reduces it to an
+absolutely even thickness. The insole is made of lighter leather than the
+outsole, but has the same thickness and is cut out in the same way one at
+a time. The sizes are stamped on them and they are sorted.
+
+[Illustration: Lasting. _Page 127._]
+
+[Illustration: Welting.]
+
+If you examine a Goodyear welt shoe, you will notice no stitches in
+sight, the seam being fastened to an under portion of the insole. The
+durability of the shoe relies, to a great extent, on the quality and
+strength of the insole.
+
+The smooth-appearing insole of a welt shoe must be either pasted in
+or fastened underneath in some manner. This fastening is accomplished
+by passing the insole through a very small machine called a Goodyear
+channeler, which makes two incisions at one operation. It cuts a little
+slit along the edge of the insole, extending about one-half inch toward
+its center.
+
+The upper part of insole made by the slit on the edge is turned up on
+a lip turning machine so that it extends out at right angles from the
+insole. In other words, the channel is opened up and laid back, forming
+a ridge around the outer edge of the sole. This forms a lip or shoulder,
+against which the welt is sewed. In this way the thread used in sewing
+cannot be seen in the finished shoe. The cut made on the surface serves
+as guide for the operator of the welt sewing machine when the shoe
+reaches him.
+
+The inner and outer soles as well as the uppers are now brought into the
+lasting or gang room. The first part of lasting is called “assembling,”
+which means that many parts are brought together, such as upper, counter,
+insole, box toe, and last. The counter is placed in the upper, between
+lining and vamp, while the box toe is shellacked and put in the toe of
+the upper (provided it has not been stitched in the stitching room). The
+operator first tacks the inner sole on to a wooden last.
+
+There are very many different styles of lasts, and in cutting uppers a
+different pattern must be used for each style. Then the upper is placed
+in position on the last, and it is ready to be pulled and stretched to
+the wood and take its required shape. This is accomplished by placing the
+shoes on the “pulling over machine,” where the shoe uppers are correctly
+placed on the last by the pincers of a machine holding the leather at
+different points securely against the wood of the last. By the movements
+of levers the shoe uppers are adjusted correctly. Then the pincers draw
+the leather securely around the last and at the same time two tacks on
+each side and at the toe are driven in part way, to hold the uppers
+securely.
+
+It is now placed on the “hand method lasting machine,” where the leather
+is drawn tightly around the last. Before this operation, it is dipped in
+water to preserve its shape when formed and that it may be more easily
+formed by the machine. At each pull of the pincers a small tack, driven
+automatically part way in, holds the edge of the upper exactly in place,
+so that every part of the upper has been stretched in all directions
+equally. A special machine by means of a series of “wipers” is used to
+last the toe and heel. After the leather has been brought smoothly
+around the toe, it is held there by a little tape fastened on each side
+of the toe, which is held securely in place by the surplus leather,
+crimpled in at this point. The surplus leather crimpled in at the heel is
+forced smoothly down against the insole and held there by tacks driven
+by an ingenious hand tool. In all these lasting operations the tacks are
+only driven in part way, so they may afterwards be withdrawn and leave
+the inside perfectly smooth, except at the heel of the shoe, where they
+are driven into the iron heel of the last and clinched.
+
+[Illustration: Rough Rounding. _See page 131._]
+
+[Illustration: Edge Trimming. _See page 130._]
+
+After these operations, the surplus leather at the toe and sides of the
+shoe is removed by the “upper trimming machine,” which cuts it away by
+means of a little knife and leaves it very smooth and even. A small
+hammer operating in connection with the knife pounds the leather on the
+same parts. A pounding machine hammers the leather and counter around
+the heel so that the stiff position conforms exactly to the last.
+
+After the “lasted” shoe has been trimmed and pounded down to the shape
+of the last, it is turned over to the tack setter, who pulls out all the
+tacks except a few, called draft tacks. The insole is then wet to make it
+pliable, and is turned over to a very experienced operator, called the
+“inseamer,” who is to sew the welt on.
+
+The shoe is now ready to receive a narrow strip of prepared leather,
+that is sewed after it is wet to make it pliable, along the edge of the
+shoe, beginning where the heel is placed and ending at the same spot on
+the opposite edge. This is called the welt, and is sewed from the inside
+lip of the insole, so that the curved needle passes through the lip, the
+upper, and the welt, uniting all three securely and allowing the welt to
+protrude beyond the edge of the shoe. The thread is very stout linen, and
+is passed through a pan of hot wax before being looped into chain stitch
+that holds the shoe together.
+
+The nature of the stitch is a chain--two rows of threads on the outside
+that loop with the single thread in the inside lip of the insole. When
+the welt is finally sewed on, and the shoe put down on the bench, it
+looks like an ordinary shoe resting on a wide flange of leather. This
+flange is the welt, and to it the heavy outer sole is to be sewed fast.
+Should a single stitch break in this operation, it is passed to a
+cobbler, who repairs it by hand.
+
+Before the outer sole is put on, the edges of the uppers must be trimmed
+along the seam that holds the welt. A slip of steel called steel shank
+is laid along the insole where the hollow of the foot is, and a piece of
+leather board laid over this to give the necessary stiffness and prevent
+the shoe from doubling up. As the welt has left a hollow space along the
+ball of the foot, it is necessary to fill this up, either with a piece
+of leather, tanned felt, or other filler. Felt is not waterproof, and
+leather squeaks, hence a mixture of ground cork and rubber cement is
+used. This is heated and spread on the sole, and run over a hot roller
+until the bottom of the shoe is perfectly smooth and even. The shoes are
+placed on a rack and are ready for the outsole.
+
+Sole fastening is performed by a number of operations, in which a score
+or more of separate machines are used. The sole layers smear a rubber
+cement over this welt with a “cementing machine,” after the outsole has
+been soaked in water to make it pliable, and then place it on the shoe
+and tack a single nail in the heel. The “sole laying machine,” through
+great pressure, cements the sole on and fits it to every curve of the
+last. Then the sole is trimmed by a “rough rounding machine,” which trims
+the soles to the shape of the last. This machine also channels the outer
+sole at the same time, which is necessary for the next operation. The
+“channel opening machine” now turns up the lips of the channel and the
+sole is ready to be stitched to the welt.
+
+The outsole is now sewed by a waxed thread to the welt, by an “outsole
+lock stitch machine,” which is similar to a welt sewing machine. The
+stitch is finer and extends from the slit (channel) to the upper side of
+the welt, where it shows after the shoe has been finished.
+
+It unites the sole and welt with a tightly drawn lock stitch of
+remarkable strength. It sews through an inch of leather as easily as a
+woman would sew through a piece of cloth. The stitches are made through
+the welt and outer sole, the seam running in the channel of the outsole.
+
+[Illustration: Leveling. _See page 135._]
+
+[Illustration: Heeling. _See page 136._]
+
+The inside of the slit in which this stitch has just been made is now
+coated with cement by means of a brush. The channel lip is forced back to
+its original position after the cement has dried, by a rapidly revolving
+wheel of a “channel laying machine.” In this way the stitches are hidden.
+
+Welt shoes are stitched on in three different ways: “channeled,” which,
+when finished, leaves an invisible stitch on the bottom of the sole;
+“regular stitched aloft,” showing the stitches on both sides; and “fudge
+stitched,” in which the seam is sunk down in a groove, being almost
+invisible from the welt side.
+
+Every stitch must be of such a nature that it is independent of the one
+next to it, so that should one stitch break, the others will not work
+loose. This is accomplished by running the threads through a pan of hot
+wax just before entering the leather, which causes the waxed thread to
+solidify, becoming, as it were, a part of the leather.
+
+Notice should be taken of the difference between the way the outsole
+is stitched and the inner sole is stitched to the upper. In place of
+three threads in the chain stitch “that holds the welt to the upper
+and insole” there are but two here--an upper and a lower one. The upper
+thread extends only part way down, where it loops, twists, and locks into
+the lower thread. This is the reason why you can wear a welt sole clear
+through without its pulling loose.
+
+Shoes that are stitched aloft go through the same operations as the
+channel-stitched shoes, with the exception that the rounding machine
+contrivance of cutting is eliminated.
+
+Shoes that are to be fudge stitched are sent through the same machine
+as the regular stitched aloft, but an additional little knife point on
+the arm of the Goodyear stitcher digs a channel in the welt so that the
+stitches on that side are sunk into the leather.
+
+The outsole is nailed at the heel after the stitching on the “loose
+nailing machine,” which drives the nails through the outsole and insole
+and clinches against the steel plate of the last. The machine drives
+separate nails fed from the hopper of any desired size or length, at the
+rate of three hundred and fifty per minute.
+
+The edge of the outsole around the heel is now trimmed to conform exactly
+to the shape of the heel on the “heel seat pounding machine.”
+
+The stitches of the regular stitched shoes are separated by a series of
+indentations, giving the shoe that corrugated effect which adds so much
+to the appearance of the shoe. In the fudge-stitched work the stitches
+are entirely covered up by the indentations.
+
+Then a leveling machine, called the “automatic sole leveling machine,”
+with a pressure of about two and a half tons to each of the concave
+rollers, comes into play. The rolls move automatically back and forth and
+from side to side, doing the work that the shoemaker used to do on his
+lap with a hammer and stone, but doing it better and more quickly. It
+practically levels off the bottom of the soles.
+
+An automatic guage regulates exactly the distance from the edge of the
+last, and by the use of this machine the operator is enabled to make a
+sole conform to that of all others of a similar design and size.
+
+Heels are formed by cementing different lifts of leather. A machine
+called a “heel cutter” shapes out the lifts. The heel is then placed
+under pressure, giving it exact form and greatly increasing its wear.
+
+[Illustration: Sole Scouring. _See page 138._]
+
+[Illustration: Heel Shaping. _See page 138._]
+
+In speaking of the ends and sides of a heel, the part that rests on the
+ground is spoken of as the top, and the first piece is called the top
+lift. The part that is fastened to the shoe is spoken of as the bottom,
+while the side nearest the toes is called the breast. The wedge is a
+flat, heel-shaped piece or lift of leather that is skived to a thin edge
+at the breast. Being thicker at the back, it tips the heel forward.
+Wedges are made from thin strips of waste leather, or from sheets of
+leather board, and are cut out with a hollow die. The gouges are cut in
+the sole leather room from scraps, and are a regular heel lift, having a
+horseshoe-shaped piece of leather with an opening at the breast.
+
+The sole leather, insoles, counters, and heels, in the stock fitting
+department are “got out” by being cut into shape by a machine die.
+
+The heel is now trimmed of all rough and surplus portions of leathers to
+the exact size of top lift. A blower attached to the machine removes all
+scraps, etc.
+
+The breast of the heel, which faces the forepart of the shoe, is trimmed
+evenly across and with the desired slant by means of a peculiar-shaped
+knife which extends over the sole at shank. The edges of the heel are
+now scoured by revolving rolls with molded sandpaper to make perfectly
+smooth. Blowers attached to the machine remove all dust.
+
+There are several types of machines for fastening the heel to the shoe,
+all very rapid in operation. One of the latest is that which feeds the
+nails, and which is operated by a man and boy, who together turn off a
+great quantity of work.
+
+The nails are left protruding slightly above the heel so as to retain the
+top lift, which is now placed in position by the same operator on the
+same machine. It is pressed down over the heads of the nails securing it
+in position. The small brass or steel nails which protect and ornament
+the heel are now driven in by the “universal slugging machine.” This
+machine cuts the slugs from a coil of wire and drives them in with great
+rapidity.
+
+We have practically now a roughly formed shoe ready for the finishing
+room.
+
+Here the heel slugs are ground down, heel and sole buffed by sandpaper
+rolls on a scouring machine, wet down, stained, or blacked, as case may
+be, finished on bristle brushes, placed to dry, polished by a polishing
+machine, bottom stamped with the trademark, and passed to an operator
+whose duty it is to see that no tacks are left inside the shoes.
+Generally girls are hired to do this, as their hands are smaller and it
+is very important that no tacks are left, which might cause a great deal
+of trouble. If any are found, they are cut out with nippers or otherwise
+removed.
+
+A lining is also generally put inside the shoe, covering the whole of the
+insole in a McKay shoe, and the heel only in a Goodyear shoe. Shoes must
+also be inspected here before they are packed, to see if they are perfect
+in every way and that each shoe is a perfect mate in the pair.
+
+The shoes are now sent to the last department, called treeing, dressing,
+and packing department.
+
+This department has to do with the finishing of the uppers. The bottoms
+and edges are all finished when shoes get to this department, and nothing
+remains but to finish the uppers and pack the shoes in single-pair
+cartons and then in wooden boxes or cases.
+
+The different uppers are all finished by a different process, some being
+ironed with a hot iron, which is done to take out the wrinkles and smooth
+the uppers. Ironing was first introduced on kid shoes, but in recent
+years the hot iron has been put on nearly all kinds of stock. A shoe must
+be on a form or tree when ironed, the form or tree being the same shape
+as the last. The whole idea in ironing is the same as that followed by
+the tailor, who uses a hot iron to press and smooth out clothes. The
+operations in detail are as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: Ironing.]
+
+[Illustration: Packing.]
+
+Each shoe is treed, after having been drawn over a foot form similar to
+that on which the shoe was lasted, and any stain or dirt which may have
+been carelessly put on in former operations is cleaned off; the shoe is
+sponged with a gum prepared for either black or tan goods, rubbed down
+dull, and then rubbed to a polish. In many patent leather shoes the
+treeing is to clean off the surface, as we said before, and then to iron
+it with a hot iron, which takes out all stains, and leaves the leather
+shiny and black.
+
+The shoes finally go to hand operators, who rag the edges and heels,
+leaving them ready to be laced and put into the boxes. After lacing, the
+shoes are passed to inspectors, whose duty it is to see that they are
+perfect, to throw out all which are not, make a record of them, and pass
+the perfect shoes to the packers, who see that the sizes are right, that
+each pair is mated, and placed in paper cartons, ready to be packed in
+wooden cases for shipment. The packing of cartons into wooden cases is
+done by men who nail on the lid when each case is full, mark where goods
+are to be sent, make a record of same and load the cases into freight
+cars.
+
+There are other uppers that are treed, such as wax calf, for instance,
+and split uppers, which are used in heavy shoes. The main idea of treeing
+a shoe is to give it a smooth and finished appearance and a good “feel.”
+In the regular treeing operation they use liquid preparations, often
+called composition, and these are worked into the upper, filling it to
+some extent. French chalk is used a great deal in some uppers, and oil or
+some form of grease or gum is also used, all of which make the upper as
+it was when first put on the cutting board of the shoe factory. All work
+done in this room is intended to give leather its original luster, which
+has been lost to a certain extent in going through the different rooms
+and in being handled so much.
+
+There are still other uppers that may not be treed or ironed but merely
+cleaned and polished to give luster. Some of these may be dressed. To
+dress a shoe means to put on a liquid dressing. In some cases two coats
+of dressing are put on and in other cases one coat. A shoe can have a
+dull dressing or a bright dressing, according to how the buyer prefers to
+have his shoes look.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER SEVEN
+
+McKAY AND TURNED SHOES
+
+
+The McKay process is used very extensively in the manufacture of cheap
+shoes. Its introduction was a great improvement over the nailing and
+pegging of the soles to the uppers. It allows the two to be stitched
+together by means of a straight needle running through the entire
+thickness of upper, sole, and insole.
+
+In following the McKay process through the factory, we find it very
+similar to the Goodyear welt process, which has been explained, the main
+difference being in the methods of fastening the sole to the uppers.
+
+[Illustration: Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe.]
+
+The lasts and patterns are obtained in the same manner as described in
+the previous chapter. The order is made out in the factory office, and
+the ticket is given to the sorter, who selects the required number of
+skins, which he rolls in a bundle and turns over to the cutter. The
+cutters form the various pieces of leather and linings, which are tied
+up in bundles and sent to the stitching room. Here they pass through the
+various sewing machines, finally coming out in the form of a complete
+upper ready to be attached to the bottoms.
+
+The soles, insoles, counters, and heels for McKay shoes are all formed in
+the same room, as described in the Goodyear process.
+
+There is a difference in making ready the outsoles and insoles. It will
+be recalled that the outsole for the Goodyear welt shoe was simply a
+block of leather cut to fit the shoe and was not channeled. The outsole
+for the McKay shoe is run through a channeling machine, which cuts a
+slit around the edge of the sole, folds the leather back, and digs a
+little trench along the inside of the slit. It will also be remembered
+that the insole of the Goodyear welt shoe was channeled with two slits,
+one of which was turned back to form the breast for sewing on the welt
+strip. The insole of a McKay shoe is not channeled in any way, but is
+left plain, like the outsole of the Goodyear welt. The uppers, the soles,
+insoles, counters, and heels all having been made ready, the pieces are
+taken to the lasting room.
+
+The first process is called “assembling.” The operator takes up one of
+the uppers, inserts the last, sticks in a counter between the lining and
+the outside, puts in a “box” (a stout piece of canvas to give stability
+to the toe) at the toe, beneath the tip, puts in the insole, and then may
+pull the shoe tight on the last or give it to the operator on the pulling
+over machine to have it done. The pulling over machine is now used in
+nearly all factories, having displaced hand pulling the same as the
+lasting machines have displaced hand lasting. The assembling, pulling,
+and lasting on the machine are all parts of the regular operation of
+lasting. The hand laster had to do all three parts in former times,
+but now there are machines to do nearly everything, and at the present
+time the operation of lasting is divided into assembling, pulling over,
+and lasting on the machine. But even these machines do not do it all,
+as there is surplus upper to be cut away, toes to be pounded down, and
+filling to be put in the bottom, all of which are done on a McKay shoe
+before the sole can be laid. There are machines to do these parts, too.
+
+A trimmer (this is done by hand) now takes the shoe, trims off all the
+surplus leather, tacks in the shank (a little piece of steel to give
+rigidity to the shank of the sole), fills all up smoothly and then passes
+it to the sole layer, who puts on the outer sole and tacks it in place.
+
+The last is now pulled out of the shoe and it is ready for the McKay
+sewing machine.
+
+This machine sews right through the inner and outer sole, and at the same
+time catches the edges of the upper leather and the lining in between
+the two and draws them all snugly and firmly together. The stitches are
+made right along in the channel of the outer sole, which is deep enough
+to admit the row of stitches without raising a ridge on the outside of
+the sole, after the channel is closed up and leveled. The channel is
+next filled with cement and passed on to the leveler, which turns down
+the loosened flap of leather, presses it all out smooth, and covers the
+seam up so completely that no trace of the sewing is to be seen. This
+little folded-over flap of leather serves the double purpose of hiding
+the stitches in the sole, and at the same time protecting them from wear
+against the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Stitching.]
+
+[Illustration: Tacking.]
+
+The shoe is then ready to be heeled, and from here to the shipping door
+the McKay generally goes through the same process as a welt. After
+heeling, the McKay shoes are relasted or have followers put in to keep
+them in shape while going through. The sock lining may be put in here,
+too, before relasting, or it may not be put in till the shoes get to
+another room. The McKay lasting last must be pulled from the shoe to have
+the bottoms and heels put on and this also applies to a pegged or nailed
+shoe. But in the case of a welt shoe or a turn shoe, both stay on the
+original last until the bottoms and heels have been fastened on. The turn
+shoe being lasted inside out, must come off the last to be turned right
+side out, and it goes right on the last as soon as it can be turned. The
+different methods of fastening the bottoms constitute the main difference
+between Goodyear and turn shoes on the one hand, and McKay, pegged, and
+nailed on the other. The bottom stock must be prepared differently in
+order to fit the methods. Thus it is seen that only two departments are
+affected, namely, the sole leather and the making departments. In the
+cutting, stitching, finishing, treeing, and packing, all operations are
+practically the same on every shoe, no matter how it is bottomed. The
+patterns, however, by which shoes are cut may be different.
+
+In the finishing room all of the finishing of the bottoms and heel edges
+is done. The heels are sandpapered or scoured, and are then blacked and
+polished under hot-iron pressure. Considerable wax is used on the edge
+and is melted by the hot iron. Heel edges may also be finished on a wheel
+or roll. There are several different ways, but the object of each method
+is to give a hard, black, and highly polished surface to the edge.
+
+In finishing the bottom the top lift is scoured or buffed, and all of
+the sole and the breast of the heel also. Each is a different process,
+a different operator attending to each part. The object of scouring or
+buffing with sandpaper is to get a smooth foundation for the finish,
+which is put on next, and which may be all the same color in all parts
+of the bottom or may have one color in the shank and another in the
+forepart. The stains and blackings are used on bottoms, and these are
+brought to a high, hard gloss by means of rolls and brushes. Hot irons
+are often used on black shanks and bottoms to give added hardness and
+luster to the finish.
+
+The turned or turn shoe is a woman’s fine shoe that is made wrong side
+out, then turned right side out. The sole is fastened to the last, and
+the upper is twisted over, the wrong side out. Then the two are sewed
+together, the thread catching through a channel or shoulder cut in the
+edge of the sole. The seam does not come through to the bottom of the
+sole, nor to any part inside where it would chafe the foot.
+
+The preparation of the upper for a turn shoe is identical with that of
+a welt or McKay, with the exception that the back is cut a little longer
+and a little larger, in order to last it over the sole. The important
+difference in the make-up of a turn shoe as compared with that of a McKay
+or welt is that it has no insole, the upper being sewed directly to a
+portion of the sole itself.
+
+As the cutting of the uppers and the stitching operations of a turn shoe
+are the same as the Goodyear and McKay, and have been explained, we will
+take up the forming of the sole, which is entirely different from either
+of the other two methods.
+
+A turn shoe is put together wrong side out, and it is necessary, during
+the course of making, to turn it by rolling the sole up like a roll of
+carpet. It is evident, then, that nothing but good quality, pliable
+leather can be used satisfactorily, and great care is taken to include
+nothing but the best.
+
+The soles are cut out on the beam machines, also previously described.
+They are then channeled on the side that is next to the foot. This
+channeling is similar to that done on the welt insole. Two incisions are
+made, the inside one being the same as in the welt insoles. The outside
+one, however, is different, as the flange is cut off square instead of
+being rolled up. This leaves a channel which begins at the edge and
+surface of the sole and extends in semicircular form to the abrupt wall
+of the cut in the sole, which forms the breast against which the upper is
+to be sewed.
+
+After the soles are channeled, they are soaked until they become soft
+enough to roll up easily. They are then placed on racks and kept in a
+damp room until needed.
+
+A turn shoe is hand lasted wrong side out. First the uppers are turned
+with the lining outside, then the last is inserted and also the toe
+boxing.
+
+The sole is set straight on the last and is tacked firmly to it. The
+operator, by aid of hand pullers, draws the upper over the sole and tacks
+it securely from a point where the breast of the heel will rest to where
+the large toe will extend, and then along the same distance on the other
+side. The toe part is next lasted by machinery, a wire being fastened at
+one side and run around the edge holding the pulled-up parts of the upper
+which has been stretched tightly over the last.
+
+The shoe is next passed over to the Goodyear inseamer operator, who
+sews the upper to the sole, the needle passing down through the inside
+channel, through the sole leather, out through the square-cut channel
+and then through the upper, uniting the upper to the sole with the chain
+stitch. In fact, the bottom of a turn shoe at this time looks exactly
+like the bottom of a welt, with the exception that the turn shoe is still
+turned wrong side out. The nature of the stitch is the same--a waxed,
+threaded chain, with two rows of thread on the outside that loop with
+the single thread in the inside lip of the insole. The shoe is sewed only
+from the back of the shank to the toe, the heel part still being loose.
+
+The seam is now trimmed with an inseam trimmer, a machine with a
+revolving, jagged-edged knife that saws off the surplus portions of the
+upper, leaving it smooth and even with the sole. The tacks are all pulled
+out with a sort of a nail puller, which works rapidly and automatically.
+
+The lasts are then taken out and the shoe is turned right side out.
+This turning process is not a difficult one, but it is perhaps the most
+interesting operation that the layman will see in the entire factory. The
+operation is accomplished by means of a rigid iron bar set slantwise in a
+table. The upper is turned right side out by hand and the sole is rolled
+right side out by means of pressure on this bar.
+
+After this turning process, which twists and rolls the shoe out of
+shape, it has no semblance of its final form. The back part of the sole
+and upper are still loose, the upper being fastened from the shank to the
+toe.
+
+The turn shoe must be “second” lasted, and the inserting of the last is
+no easy matter. A contrivance called a push jack assists the operator
+greatly. He uses a flat, narrow rod to smooth out the lining, and after
+squeezing, pushing, and smoothing, the last is finally made to fit in the
+shoe. The counter is placed in at this time, the shank piece is set in
+place, and the shoe and last are placed on a jack for nailing. The back
+part upper is now stretched tightly over the heel part of the last by
+means of lasting pullers, and is tacked down, the nails going through the
+shank piece and clinching against the anvil heel seat of the last. This
+operation completes the lasting, the shoe now having a form exactly like
+the last over which it is made.
+
+Workmen now level the bottoms and form the shank by a hand method,
+preparatory to the machine leveling process. The shoe is still wet and
+is left to dry on the last twenty-four hours. Then it is run through the
+machine called the “leveler,” which, with its enormous pressure, forms
+the sole to that of the last. The shoes are now left four days on the
+lasts, to dry thoroughly, so that they may retain their shape permanently.
+
+The putting on of the heel, and the various finishing processes are
+practically the same as that of the welt, with the exception that a turn
+sole must have a sock lining.
+
+Some factories use a grain leather sock lining, which is pasted in,
+covering up the channels of the sole which hold the stitches and forming
+a smooth surface for the foot to rest upon.
+
+The difference between a McKay and a turn shoe may be told by the fact
+that the stitching on the inside of the sole is much closer to the edge
+in a turn. Another thing, in a turn shoe, the seam connecting the upper
+and the outsole can be seen.
+
+Nothing is likely to excel the turn shoe for lightness and flexibility,
+since the method of making, whereby the sole is stitched directly to the
+upper, interposes no thick or cumbersome material. Sole leather of good
+quality is used. In fact, the sole would have to be not only strong,
+but thin and light, or the shoe could not be turned in the process of
+manufacture without straining it and getting it out of shape.
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE TURN SHOE
+
+History states that prior to 1845, which marked the date of the
+introduction of shoe machinery, most of the shoes were sewed by hand,
+the lighter ones turned and the heavier ones welted. In fact, the early
+factories that began to spring up in New England about the beginning of
+the century, were merely cutting rooms and places for storing the lasts
+and stock.
+
+Here the uppers, soles, and linings were cut by hand and then given out
+to people in the vicinity, mostly farmers and fishermen, to be stitched
+together and paid for at so much a dozen. Such was the beginning of
+the shoe industry in New England. Hundreds of families added to their
+resources in this way, the women doing the lighter work and the men the
+heavier.
+
+In fishing communities, where men were away most of the time in their
+boats, their wives and daughters, who stayed at home, undertook the
+lighter grades of shoemaking--the turn process. This was the case in
+the “North Shore” towns like Lynn, Haverhill, and Marblehead, and these
+to-day, keeping to the old traditions, are the great centers for the
+finer turn-grades of shoemaking, whereas the “South Shore” towns, like
+Brockton, Whitman, Abington, Rockland, and the Weymouths, with the men
+at home all the year, came to make a specialty of shoes for men, and
+absorbed the heavier part of the growing industry.
+
+With the introduction of the Goodyear turn machine, however, the handwork
+was gradually done away with, although more handwork is done in the turn
+process than in either the McKay or welt process.
+
+
+STANDARD SCREW SHOEMAKING
+
+Many good qualities of heavy shoes are made by the standard screw method,
+which differs from the McKay method by having the outsole and insole
+fastened together with a double-threaded wire, which is screwed through
+and cut off by the machine the instant it reaches the inside of the shoe.
+
+[Illustration: Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe.]
+
+A pegged shoe is made in much the same way as the standard screw, except
+that wooden pegs are used instead of wire to fasten the sole together.
+
+The nailed method of shoemaking consists in nailing the soles together
+around the edge. It is used principally for heavy, cheap shoes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER EIGHT
+
+OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING
+
+
+The old-fashioned shoemaker formerly made shoes by hand as follows:--A
+last, which is a wooden model of a foot, was used, and pieces of leather
+were pasted here and there on it so as to build up a model conforming to
+the measurements of the foot. Then paper patterns of the upper leather
+were made from the last, and from these the upper leathers were cut out
+of tanned calfskins and sewed together.
+
+The leather for the soles was cut out of tanned ox or steer hide, the
+pieces being the insole, the outsole, and the lifts of the heel. The
+inner soles were made of softer leather. Sometimes split sole leathers
+were used for uppers. The shoemaker then softened the leather by steeping
+it in water, until it was pliable and at the same time firm, and would
+cut like cheese.
+
+The insoles were attached to the bottom of a pair of wooden lasts, and
+the wet leather fastened on with lasting tacks so as to mold it to the
+last. When it was dry, the shoemaker with pincers drew the leather out
+until it had taken the exact form of the bottom of the last. Then he
+rounded the soles by paring down the edges close to the last, and formed
+around these edges a small channel or feather cut or slit about an eighth
+of an inch in the leather.
+
+Next he pierced the insoles all around with a bent awl, which “bit” into,
+but not through, the leather, and came out at the channel or feather
+edge. The boots were then lasted by placing the uppers on the lasts,
+drawing the edges by means of pincers tightly round the edge of the
+insoles. Then they were fastened in portions with lasting tacks. Lasting
+was considered a very important operation, for unless the upper was
+drawn smoothly and equally over the last, leaving neither a crease nor
+wrinkle, the form would be a failure. A band of flexible leather about
+an inch wide, with one edge pared, was then placed in position around
+the sides of the shoes, up to the heel or seat, and the maker proceeded
+to “inseam,” by passing his awl through the holes, already made in the
+insole, catching with it the edge of the upper and the thin edge of the
+welt, and sewing all three together in one flat seam, with a waxed thread.
+
+The threads which shoemakers use are called “ends,” and are made of two
+or more strands of small flaxen threads. The shoemaker makes his own
+waxed thread as follows:--
+
+He holds the main part of the thread from the spool, in his left hand,
+holding it firmly--where he wants to break it--between the first finger
+and thumb, so that it will not turn beyond that point. Then with
+the left hand, he lays the end of the flax on the knee and rolls it
+from him. This will cause the small fibers that compose the thread to
+separate--thus enabling him to break it easily. When the fibers separate,
+he gives the thread a light, quick turn, which causes it to break. As the
+thread breaks he pulls it apart gradually, so that the fibers will taper.
+Then he places the threads together, one just behind the other, so that
+the end will have a very fine point. He rolls the end and allows it to
+turn between the fingers of the left hand. After it has been rolled and
+twisted, it is waxed by drawing the thread through a piece of wax.
+
+The fine ends are waxed to a point. A bristle is fastened on in the
+following manner: the head of the bristle is held in the left hand, and
+the portion to which the thread is to be fastened is waxed; then the
+thread and bristle are twisted together. A hole is made in the thread and
+the bristle pulled through and fastened. After the threads are fastened,
+the heads of the bristle are cut off, and the ends sandpapered.
+
+The wax thread or “end,” as it is called, should never be made longer
+than is necessary to sew a shoe. Experience shows that if a portion of an
+end left after sewing one shoe is used on the second shoe, it is never as
+strong as a new end. The thread grows weaker and weaker as it is used.
+When the thread is well waxed, it is cemented to the shoe.
+
+After the shoe is sewed, the shoemaker pares off inequalities and levels
+the bottoms, by filling up the depressed part in the center with pieces
+of tarred felt. The shoes are now ready for the outsoles. The fibers
+of the leather to be used for the soles are thoroughly condensed by
+hammering on the lapstone. Then they are fastened through the insole with
+steel tacks, their sides are pared, and a narrow channel is cut round
+their edges. Through this channel they are stitched to the welt, about
+twelve stitches of strong, waxed thread being made to the inch. The soles
+are next hammered into shape; the heel lifts are put on and attached with
+wooden pegs. Then they are sewed through the stitches of the insoles; and
+the top pieces, similar to the outsoles, are put on and nailed down to
+the lifts.
+
+The finishing operations of the shoe include smoothing the edges of the
+heel, paring, rasping, scraping, smoothing, blacking, and burnishing the
+edges of the soles, withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning out any pegs
+which may have pierced through the inner sole. There are numerous minor
+operations connected with forwarding and finishing in various materials,
+such as punching holes, inserting eyelets, etc.
+
+
+HOW SHOES ARE REPAIRED
+
+Before one can understand how shoes are repaired, it is necessary to know
+the difference between the inside and outside of a shoe.
+
+The last is divided into four parts, viz. toe, ball, shank, and heel.
+
+Diagram No. 1 shows these parts and their shapes.
+
+Diagram No. 2 shows the length of the inside of the divisions as compared
+with those of the outside. Notice the long shank and short ball.
+
+Diagram No. 3 shows the outside of the divisions and the effect they have
+upon the shape of the shoe. See short shank and long ball.
+
+Always remember that the ball of a shoe is longer on the outside, having
+a short shank. The ball is shorter on the inside, having a long shank.
+Compare outside and inside diagrams Nos. 2 and 3.
+
+[Illustration: How a Side of Leather is shaped and divided as to Quality.
+_See page 5._
+
+_Dia. 1._ _Dia. 2._ _Dia. 3._]
+
+
+SHOE REPAIRING
+
+The first operation in half soling a shoe is to cut off the old portion
+from “a” to “c” as shown on diagram No. 1. The shoe is placed in
+different positions and corrected in every way before putting on the new
+sole. It is generally better to wet the shoe in order to put it in shape.
+
+The leather is skived thin and accurate enough to make a neat,
+comfortable joint, and yet thick enough for the nails to hold.
+
+Then the filling is added before placing on the sole. The sole is trimmed
+and a guide line drawn around the edge, so that the nails may be properly
+arranged.
+
+Finishing the sole is an important part. If everything else is properly
+done, this part becomes comparatively easy. See that all nails are
+clinched. With a level bottom, smooth joints and edges, the shoe can be
+made to look like a new shoe and yet feel like an old one.
+
+On account of the heel being more directly under the body and the first
+part to strike the ground, it generally wears out first. For this reason
+in repairing a heel great care must be taken to see that good leather
+and solid work are put into it. Pull off the worn top piece and see that
+what is left is hammered down solidly. Next split a piece of solid,
+easy-cutting, scrap sole leather, so that two pieces can be made out of
+one. Put them on the shoe and fasten them on well, piece by piece, with
+tacks. See that the heel is level before putting on the top piece. (If
+necessary, a small piece may be put under the top piece.) After it is
+level, put on top piece, trim in shape, then draw guide line and nail
+down. The nails are placed thicker on the side that is worn down most, to
+protect the heel. The heel is next rasped, and smoothed with a buffer and
+sandpaper. When finished, it should set level.
+
+
+MODERN METHOD OF REPAIRING SHOES
+
+As the shoemaking industry has become more and more perfect, there has
+been an increasing interest taken in shoe repairing. A medium-priced
+shoe as it is made to-day may often be in good enough condition to be
+heeled and soled a couple of times. Hence, although in the past many shoe
+stores and departments have had their shoe repairing done by outside
+shops, the tendency to-day is for every shoe store to have its own repair
+department. This method has resulted largely from the development of
+machinery for shoe repairing, which is revolutionizing the business to
+such an extent that in a few years repairing by hand will be among the
+lost arts. With the new inventions for restoring upper leather, and the
+improvement of machinery for shoe repairing, repair departments will very
+soon be but little short of miniature factories.
+
+The machinery ordinarily used consists of the Goodyear stitcher, used
+for attaching soles to Goodyear welts by the lock-stitch method, just
+as in shoe factories making Goodyear welt shoes. Then there is a heel
+trimmer, a bottom finisher, consisting of a rapidly revolving roll
+covered with coarse and fine sandpaper, and an opera heel builder for
+forming concave heels. There are two wheels used for tan and white
+heel work, one heel being covered with a white cloth, and the other
+with a coarse brush. Adjoining these are usually the shank and heel
+finisher,--capable of smoothing and highly polishing a shank or heel in
+about a dozen seconds,--the bottom finisher, that grinds and smooths down
+the new sole, and a machine used for rubbing off dirt before the shoe is
+finished, consisting of a heavy horsehair brush. Another useful part of
+the equipment is an edge setter, which is also identical with the one
+used in factories. The shoe stitching machines and the parts used in
+finishing are all operated on one long shaft, rapidly revolved by the aid
+of a motor. It is a fact that a shoe may be actually soled and heeled in
+less than six minutes.
+
+Five or six men are usually employed in the repair department of a large
+establishment. When the customer’s shoes are brought in, one of these men
+cuts off the old sole and traces an outline of the new sole on a block of
+the very best oak leather. After these are cut out by hand in rough form,
+they are soaked in water and channeled; that is to say, a part of the
+sole is turned up in which the stitches are to be run. A second man, by
+the use of the Goodyear stitcher, joins the sole and welt together with a
+very strong and tightly drawn lock stitch. This is a large machine with a
+curved, barbed needle and awl, and a shuttle which sews through an inch
+of leather with the greatest ease and speed. There are from one hundred
+and fifty to two hundred stitches in each shoe; moreover, every one of
+them is locked with heavy wax thread, so that there is no chance of their
+ever giving away. If one stitch should break, the other stitches would
+remain intact, as they are all independent of each other. Both soles are
+stitched on in a little over half a minute without breaking a thread or
+stopping the machine.
+
+A coating of rubber cement is now placed in the edges of the outsole, and
+the lip of the channel is smoothed down so that the stitches are entirely
+hidden when looking at the bottom of the shoe. The edge trimming is done
+next with the aid of a rapidly revolving wheel, which trims the edges
+square and true in about forty seconds. After this, the shank is finished
+on a rapidly revolving wheel covered with emery cloth.
+
+Bottom finishing is the next step. This is done on a machine having
+two long cylinders, one covered with fine and the other with coarse
+sandpaper. These cylinders revolve rapidly, and the operator uses the
+coarse sandpaper for scouring the dirt and old finish off the leather,
+and the fine sandpaper for finishing the sole as smooth as that of any
+new shoe.
+
+The brushing in or smoothing is next done by the horsehair brush we have
+mentioned before. A preparation called Lewis’s rival bottom polish--a
+sort of white wax--is placed on the brush machine. The brush now smooths
+the surface of the sole, filling in all small holes with wax and leaving
+the sole absolutely perfect. Finally, the shoe is placed against a
+rapidly revolving brush which finishes the uppers with a luster that
+would make any ordinary boot-black green with envy. Another operation
+that fully completes the process is the hardening of the edges with hot
+steel, which ends in producing an edge that is as hard as iron. When it
+is polished with a black dye, it looks exactly like a new sole.
+
+A few words are necessary with regard to the heel. The old heel having
+been removed, several lifts of new leather in rough form are tacked
+on. The shoe is then taken to the heel trimmer and is formed correctly
+and then smoothed down to a brilliant surface on the finely covered
+revolving wheel. In a few seconds it is stained, smoothed, and polished.
+In less than six minutes the shoe is ready for the customer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER NINE
+
+LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS
+
+
+ASSEMBLING. Includes the following operations: tacking the insole to the
+last, putting in the box and counter of the shoe, and putting the upper
+of the shoe on the last.
+
+BACKSTAY. A term used to denote a strip of leather covering and
+strengthening the back seam of a shoe. English backstay means the strip
+of leather that meets the quarters on each side and is sewed to them,
+forming the lower part of the shoe. California backstay is a term applied
+to piping caught in the back seam.
+
+BACK STRAP. The strap by which the shoe is pulled on the foot.
+
+BAL. An abbreviation of the word “Balmoral” and means either men’s,
+women’s, or children’s front lace shoe of medium height, as distinguished
+from one that is adjusted to the ankle by buttons, buckles, rubber
+goring, etc.
+
+BALL. Refers to the ball of the foot--the fleshy part of the bottom of
+the foot, back of the toes.
+
+BEADING. Means folding in the edges of the upper leather instead of
+leaving them raw, or wheeling any impression around the sole to the heel.
+It is called seat wheeling in many shoe factory rooms.
+
+BEATING OUT. The same as leveling. It is the term used in turn-shoe work.
+
+BELLOWS TONGUE. A broad tongue sewed to the sides of the top, seen in
+waterproof and some working shoes.
+
+BELTING. The term applied to the usual back tanned cowhide, used in
+various thicknesses for machinery belts.
+
+BETWEEN SUBSTANCE. That part of the sole that holds the stitch.
+
+BLACKBALL. A mass of grease and lampblack, formerly used by shoemakers
+on edges of heels and soles; sometimes called “cobbler’s botch.”
+
+BLACKING THE EDGE. Blacking or dyeing edge of sole, welt, or that part of
+the edge which cannot be blacked so well in the making room.
+
+BLOCKING. The cutting or chopping of a sole in such a form or shape that
+it can be rounded.
+
+BLOOM. A term often applied to the grayish white deposit that gathers on
+shoes in stock. It can be wiped off readily.
+
+BLUCHER. The name of a shoe or half boot, originated by Field Marshal
+Blücher of the Prussian Army, in the time of Napoleon I. It became very
+popular and has since received occasional favor, being used with high
+tops as a sporting or hunting boot. Its distinguishing feature is the
+extension forward of the quarters to lace across the tongue, which may be
+an extension upward of the vamp.
+
+BOOT. A term used (especially abroad) to designate women’s high-cut
+shoes. In this country it applies only to high or topped footwear,
+usually made with the tops stiff and solid. It is sometimes laced, as in
+hunting boots.
+
+BOOTEE. Leather legging extending between knee and ankle, usually of
+Russian calf,--a riding boot originating with the English.
+
+BOTTOM FILLING. The filling that goes in the low space on the bottom in
+the forepart of the shoe. It is either ground cork, tarred felt, or other
+filler.
+
+BOTTOM SCOURING. Sandpapering the parts of the sole, except the heel.
+
+BOXING. A term used to designate the stiffening material placed in the
+toe of a shoe to support it and retain the shape; such as leather,
+composition of leather and paper, wire net, drilling (a cotton fabric)
+stiffened with shellac, etc.
+
+BOX CALF. A well-known proprietary leather having a grain of
+rectangularly crossed lines.
+
+BOX TOE. Used to hold up the toe of the shoe so as to retain the shape.
+It is generally of sole leather, but often made of canvas or other
+material and stiffened with shellac or gum.
+
+BREAKING THE SOLE. Molding the sole so as to fit the spring better.
+
+BROGAN. A heavy pegged or nailed work shoe, medium cut in height.
+
+BRUSHING. The final finish of the top edge, heel, and bottom, by means of
+a brush.
+
+BUCKSKIN. A soft leather, generally yellow or grayish in color. One way
+of preparing it is by treating deerskins in oil.
+
+BUFF. A split side leather, coarser than glove grain, but otherwise
+similar. It is used for cheaper grades of shoes, principally for men.
+
+BUFFING. The same as bottom scouring.
+
+CABARETTA. A tanned sheepskin of superior finish used for shoe stock.
+There are sheep with wool not far removed from hair in texture, which
+produce a skin of greater tenacity and finish than the ordinary sheep.
+
+CACK. A sole leather bottom without a heel. An infant’s shoe is called a
+cack.
+
+CALFSKINS. Skins of meat cattle of all kinds, weighing up to fifteen
+pounds, are usually included in this term. They make a strong and pliable
+leather. Calfskins were formerly finished with wax and oil on the flesh
+side, but can now be made so as to be finished on the “grain,” which is
+the hair side of the skin.
+
+CAP. A term meaning the same as tip.
+
+CARTON. A cardboard box intended for one pair of shoes.
+
+CEMENTING. This is the operation of placing cement on the outsole and the
+bottom of the welt shoe so that the outsole is held to the shoe by the
+cement.
+
+CHAMOIS. A leather made from the skins of chamois, calves, deer, goats,
+sheep, and split hides of other animals.
+
+CHANNELING. Cutting into the sole in such a way that the thread or
+stitching is away from the surface. In the outsole department it means
+preparing a place for the stitch. In insoles and turn soles, channeling
+is done so that soles are prepared to hold the stitching.
+
+CHANNEL SCREWED. A process by which the sole is fastened to the uppers.
+After a channel is cut and laid over on the outside of the outsole, the
+outsole and insole are fastened together, holding the upper and lining
+between them by means of wire screws, which are fastened in this channel.
+The skived part is then smoothed down over the heads of the screws,
+entirely covering them from sight, and preventing the screws from easily
+working up into the foot.
+
+CHANNEL STITCHED. A method of fastening soles to the uppers, either by
+McKay or welt process, in which a portion of the sole’s outer side is
+channeled into, and the stitches afterwards covered on the lower side by
+the lip of this channel.
+
+CHANNEL TURNING. Turning a lip or flap of sole leather (called channel),
+so that the stitching can be done in the proper place; or it may mean
+turning up the flap or lip of the channel, that is, the part that is to
+cover the stitch.
+
+CHECKING. A term applied to the edges of heels or soles that have
+cracked, or have been injured in process of construction.
+
+CLEANING INSIDE. Cleaning the lining.
+
+CLEANING NAILS. Scraping the blacking off the tops of the heel slugs.
+
+CLEANING SHOES. Removing dirt, wax, cement, etc., from them.
+
+CLICKING. Cutting the uppers of shoes.
+
+CLOSING. Putting two or more pieces together.
+
+CLOSING ON. Stitching the lining and outside together.
+
+COLONIAL. A name given to a woman’s low shoe, with vamp extended into a
+flaring tongue, with a large, ornamental buckle across the instep. The
+buckle and tongue are the distinctive features of the shoe, whether the
+shoe fastens with a lace or strap.
+
+COLTSKIN. Coltskin has been brought into general use in shoemaking
+within the past few years. The skin of a colt is thin enough to use like
+calfskin in its entirety, with such shaving as is given all hides in
+tanning. Coltskin makes a firm basis needed for patent leather, and has
+been much used in recent years for this purpose. Russia is the chief
+source of supply.
+
+COMBINATION LAST. One with a different width instep from the ball. It may
+be one or two widths’ difference, such as the D ball with a B instep.
+Combination lasts are generally used in fitting low insteps.
+
+COMPOSITION. A term used to denote the small scraps that accumulate
+about tanneries and factories, which are ground up and mixed with a
+paste or a kind of cement, and flattened into sheets which are used as
+insoles, and in other parts, in various grades of shoes, where wear is
+not excessive.
+
+CONGRESS GAITER. A shoe designed especially for comfort, with rubber
+goring in the sides which adjusts it to the ankle, instead of laces, and
+sometimes made with lace front to imitate a regular shoe.
+
+CORDOVAN. Originally a Spanish leather made from horsehide. The Spaniards
+were, for a great many centuries, the best leather makers. The term
+is applied to a grain leather from the best and strongest part of a
+horsehide.
+
+COUNTER. The stiffening in the back part of a shoe, often called
+stiffening, to support the outer leather and prevent the shoe from
+“running over” at the heel. It is made either of sole leather, shaved
+thin on the edge and shaped by machinery, as in the best shoes, or
+composition or paper, in cheap shoes. Metal is occasionally used on the
+outside of the shoes in heavy goods for miners and furnacemen.
+
+COUPON TAG. A tag from which a coupon is cut for every operation.
+Operatives hold part of the coupon and the holders of the coupons are
+paid for the part named.
+
+COWHIDE. Refers to hides of cattle, heavier than kips, which run up to
+twenty-five pounds each.
+
+CREASING VAMP. Making hollow grooves across the front of the vamp to add
+to its looks.
+
+CREEDMORE. A man’s heavy lace shoe, with gusset, blucher cut.
+
+CREOLE. A heavy congress work shoe. This shoe, the creedmore, and brogans
+are usually made of oil grains, kip, or split leather, sometimes pegged,
+sometimes “stitched down.”
+
+CRIMPING. Shaping any part of the upper so that it will conform to the
+last better.
+
+CUSHION SOLE. An elastic inner sole.
+
+CUT-OFF VAMP. One cut off at tip for economy when tip is to be covered by
+a cap.
+
+DIEING. Cutting soles to fit the last, outsoles, insoles, heel lifts,
+counters, or half soles, with a machine and a die.
+
+DOM PEDRO. A heavy, one-buckle shoe, with gusset or bellows tongue.
+Originally it was a patent name for certain shoes made of fine material,
+but is now applied to cheap grades.
+
+DONGOLA. A heavy, plump goatskin, tanned with a semibright finish.
+
+DRESSING. A process for giving the upper its original finish by means of
+liquid put on with sponge.
+
+EDGE SETTING. The finishing edge of the sole,--polishing it.
+
+EDGE TRIMMING. Trimming the edge of a sole smoothly to conform to last.
+
+ENAMEL. Leather that is given a shiny finish on the grain side. The
+process is similar to that of patent leather, only that patent leather is
+finished on the flesh side, or the surface of the split.
+
+EYELET. A small ring of metal, etc., placed in the holes for lacing; the
+eyelet holes are sometimes worked with thread like a buttonhole.
+
+EYELETTING. Putting on eyelets.
+
+FACING. The bleached calf or sheepskin used around the top of the shoe,
+and down the eyelet row and inside of the upper.
+
+FAIR STITCH. Term applied to the stitching that shows around the outer
+edge of the sole, to give the McKay shoe the appearance of a welt shoe.
+
+FAKING. Putting a gloss on any part of the bottom of the shoe.
+
+FINDINGS. The small parts of a shoe, such as blacking, cement, nails,
+wax, tacks, thread, etc.
+
+FLAP, LIP, AND SHOULDER. Terms used in connection with the channel or
+with the operation of sewing.
+
+FOLLOWER. Any last or form put in a shoe from which the original last has
+been pulled.
+
+FOREPART FINISHING. The staining and polishing of the forepart of the
+shoe.
+
+FORM. A term applied to a filler last. It may be of wood, papier-mâché,
+leather board, or any similar material, and is used to enhance the
+appearance of sample shoes, in salesmen’s lines or in window displays.
+
+FOXED. Having the lower part of the quarter a separate piece of leather
+or covered by an extra piece; “slipper foxed” is a term sometimes applied
+to women’s full vamp shoes.
+
+FOXING. The name applied to that part of the upper that extends from the
+sole to the laces in front, and to about the height of the counter in the
+back; being the length of the upper. It may be in one or more pieces and
+is often cut down to the shank in circular form.
+
+FRIZZING. A process to which chamois and wash leather are subjected,
+after the skins are unhaired, scraped, “fleshed,” and raised. It consists
+in rubbing the skins with pumice stone or a blunt knife till the
+appearance of the grain is entirely removed.
+
+FRONT. A term used for part of a congress toe.
+
+GAITER. A term usually applied to a separate ankle covering or to a
+congress shoe.
+
+GEMMING. The operation of making gem insoles.
+
+GEM INSOLES. An insole for welt shoes of leather.
+
+GLAZED KID. See Kid.
+
+GLOVE GRAIN. A light, soft-finished, split leather, for women’s or
+children’s shoes or topping.
+
+GOATSKIN. See Kid.
+
+GOODYEAR WELT. A term used to denote the process of attaching the sole
+to the upper of a shoe by means of a narrow strip of leather called a
+welt.
+
+GORE. A rubber elastic used in a congress shoe. It is also applied to the
+long, wedge-shaped piece of leather set in an upper to widen it.
+
+GRADING. The sorting of outsoles and half soles to get uniform weight in
+edges of finished shoes.
+
+HALF SOLE. Half of a complete sole used in forepart of bottom under
+outsole.
+
+HARNESS LEATHER. Similar to belting, and is made from hides heavier than
+kips.
+
+HEEL. Made of layers of leather or wood called liftings, and attached to
+rear part of shoe (heel seat). There are different varieties of heels.
+The French heel is an extremely high heel with a curved outline in back
+and front (breast). It is sometimes made of wood covered with leather,
+with thicknesses of sole leather, or all sole leather. The Cuban heel is
+a high, straight heel, without the curve of the French or “Louis XV”
+heel. Military heel is a straight heel not as high as the Cuban. A spring
+heel is a low heel formed by extending back the outside of the shoe to
+the heel, with a slip inserted between the outsole and heel slat. Wedge
+heel is somewhat similar to a spring heel, except that a wedge-shaped
+lift is tacked on the outside instead of a slit. Slugging heels is the
+process of affixing the made-up heel by one operation of the machine.
+
+HEEL FINISHING. Blacking and polishing the heel edge.
+
+HEEL LINING. The lining to cover heel nails inside the shoe; it is often
+known by other names.
+
+HEEL PAD. In the manufacture of shoes, is a small piece of felt, leather,
+or other substance fastened to and covering the full width of the insole
+at the point upon which the heel rests. A heel cushion is sometimes
+called a heel pad.
+
+HEEL SCOURING. Sandpapering the edge of the heel, except the front or
+breast portion.
+
+HEEL SEAT. That part of sole on which heel is fastened.
+
+HEEL SEAT NAILING. Nailing the heel part of sole.
+
+HEEL SEAT TRIMMING. Trimming the rear or heel part of sole.
+
+HEEL SHAVING. Shaving the heel, shaping it.
+
+HEMLOCK TANNED. A process of tanning leather by hemlock bark.
+
+HIDES. Distinguished from skins, in the trade. Hides refer to skins of
+animals which are over twenty-five pounds in weight. Skins refer to
+smaller animals; as skins of goats, calves, sheep.
+
+INLAY. A trimming of the upper by an insertion of the same or different
+kind of material than that of the body in which it is inlaid. It is used
+for decorative purpose on a shoe.
+
+INSEAMING. Sewing sole on turn shoe. Welting and inseaming are
+practically the same operation.
+
+INSEAM TRIMMING. Cutting off the surplus leather; term is also applied to
+pulling sole tacks.
+
+INSOLE. The first sole laid on the last, and is the foundation of all
+shoes with insoles. It is an important though invisible portion of a
+shoe. This inner sole is the part to which the upper and outsole are
+sewed or nailed in the McKay and welt shoes.
+
+INSPECTING. The examination of shoes to see that the work is perfect; it
+is sometimes called crowning.
+
+INSPECTING INSOLE. The operation of looking inside of the shoe for tacks.
+
+INSTEP. The top of the arch of the foot.
+
+IRON. A term indicating the thickness of sole leather; each unit is
+approximately one thirty-second of an inch in thickness.
+
+IRONING UPPERS. Taking wrinkles out of the uppers and smoothing the same
+with a hot iron.
+
+JULIETTE. A woman’s house slipper which is cut a little above the ankle
+in front and back, and cut down on the sides is called a Juliette.
+
+KANGAROO. The skin of the animal of that name, which makes a splendid
+leather, of firm texture. It is quite expensive, hence substitutes are on
+the market under the same name.
+
+KID. A term applied to the shoe leather made from the skins of mature
+goats.
+
+KIP. A term applied to leather made from hides weighing between fifteen
+and twenty-five pounds.
+
+LACE STAY. A strip of leather reënforcing the eyelet holes.
+
+LACE HOOK. An eyelet extended into a recurved hook, around which the lace
+is looped. It is most commonly used in men’s and boys’ shoes, although
+recently some have been invented for use in women’s shoes with curved
+ends, to avoid catching the dress.
+
+LACING. The operation of putting laces in shoes.
+
+LAST. A wooden form over which the shoe is constructed, giving the shoe
+its distinctive shape.
+
+LASTING. The process of making the uppers conform to the last in all
+respects. The operations of assembling and pulling over are parts of
+lasting.
+
+LAYING CHANNEL. Turning down the lip or flap to cover the stitching.
+
+LEVELING. Shaping the sole to the bottom of the last.
+
+LIFT. The name given to one thickness of sole leather used in the heel.
+Top lift is the bottom lift, when the shoe is right side up, and is the
+last piece put on in manufacture.
+
+LINING. The inside part of shoe, generally of cloth (dull) or sheepskin.
+
+LINING CUTTING. The operation of cutting the cloth linings.
+
+LINING-IN. The operation of putting lining inside of the shoe to cover
+insole or part of insole.
+
+LOADING LEATHER. Filling the pores of the leather with glucose to
+increase its weight.
+
+MAKING LININGS. Consists of closing up heel of lining; putting on top and
+side or eyelet stay.
+
+MATCH MARKING. An operation performed on colored uppers, except black, to
+get different parts of the upper the same shade and color, and both shoes
+in the pair alike.
+
+MAT. A term applied to a dull finish kid as distinguished from glazed.
+
+MCKAY SEWED OR MCKAY. A shoe in which the outsole is attached to the
+insole and upper by a method named for the inventor.
+
+MCKAY SEWING. Sewing through and through so that thread is seen inside
+of shoe.
+
+MIDDLE SOLE. Any sole between outsole and insole.
+
+MOCK WELT. McKay-sewed shoe with a double sole and having a leather sock
+lining. It is fair stitched to imitate a welt.
+
+MONKEY SKIN. A peculiar grained skin, and is considered in the trade as a
+fancy leather. It is often imitated.
+
+MOROCCO. A name applied to leather originally made in Morocco. It is a
+sumac-tanned goatskin, red in color, and is used in book binding. The
+name is also applied to a leather made in imitation of this, and to
+heavy, plump goatskins used for shoes.
+
+MOLDING. Shaping the sole to fit the bottom of last.
+
+MULES. The name applied to slippers with no counters or quarters.
+
+NAP. The woolly side of hide, cloth, or felt.
+
+NAUMKEAGING. Smoothing up the bottom with fine sandpaper. Sometimes the
+buffing grain.
+
+NULLIFIER. A shoe with high vamp and quarter, dropping low at the sides,
+made with a short rubber goring for summer or house wear.
+
+OAK TANNED. A process of tanning by means of a substance obtained from
+oak bark.
+
+OIL LEATHER. Leather prepared by currying hides in oil. The hides are
+moist, that the oily matter may be gradually and thoroughly absorbed.
+
+OOZE. A chrome tan calfskin treated on the flesh side in such a manner
+that the long fibers are loosened and form a nap surface; made in many
+colors.
+
+OUTSIDE CUTTING. Cutting the leather parts of the shoe, as vamp, tip,
+top, etc.
+
+OUTSIDE TAP. The tap used outside of men’s or boys’ heavy shoes.
+
+OUTSOLE. The sole next the ground, on which all wear comes.
+
+[Illustration: Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe.]
+
+[Illustration: Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe.]
+
+OXFORD. A low-cut shoe no higher than the instep lace, button, or
+goring, made in men’s, women’s, and children’s sizes.
+
+PACKER HIDES. Hides taken off in the large slaughterhouses. They are
+rated slightly higher in price, because great care and skill are used in
+taking them off.
+
+PACKING. Placing a pair of shoes in a carton.
+
+PACS. Coverings for the feet made of good quality calfskin, similar in
+form and appearance to the Indian moccasin. They do not have sole leather
+bottoms. If properly made, they are waterproof.
+
+PANCAKE. A term applied to one of the many artificial leathers formed
+from leather scraps, shaved thin, and cemented together under heavy
+pressure.
+
+PASTED COUNTER. One that is cut from two pieces of sole leather pasted
+together. It is sometimes called a two-piece counter.
+
+PATENT LEATHER. Varnished leather.
+
+PATTERN. The model by which the pieces comprising the upper of a shoe
+are cut, applied collectively to upper as modified by the differing
+shape of these pieces.
+
+PEBBLE. A term used in the process to bring out the grain of leather and
+give it a roughened or rubbed appearance.
+
+PEGGING. Lasting out soles with pegs.
+
+PERFORATING. Making very small holes around parts of upper. It is
+performed mostly for decoration.
+
+POLISH. The name of ladies’ or misses’ front-lace shoe of higher cut than
+“bal,” and named from Poland, where it originated.
+
+PRESSING. Consists of a flat-press pressure for heels and soles, to
+prevent cracking of edges and to make parts adhere.
+
+PORPOISE. This skin is sometimes used for leather and boot laces, but
+porpoise hides are ordinarily obtained from the white whale.
+
+PULLING LASTS. Removing the lasts from shoes.
+
+PULLING OVER. Pulling upper on the last and tacking it in position.
+
+PUMP. A low-cut shoe originally having no fastenings, such as laces or
+buttons. A pump is cut lower than the instep.
+
+PUMP SOLE. An extra-light single sole, running clear through to the
+back of the heel. A pump sole in former years was distinguished by its
+flexibility and was hand turned.
+
+PUTTING ON TAP. Sticking half sole to the outsole.
+
+QUARTER. The rear part of upper when a full vamp is not used. Term is
+used mostly in women’s, and Oxfords or low shoes.
+
+RAND. Made of sole leather about as wide as a welt, but thin at one edge.
+It is tacked to the heel so as to balance the heel evenly on the sole and
+fill any open space around the edge between sole and heel.
+
+RAPID STITCHING. Sewing the sole to welt.
+
+RELASTING. Consists in putting lasts in shoes from which the original
+lasts have been removed.
+
+REPAIRING. A term applied to filling slight cracks in patent tips or
+patent leather.
+
+ROAN. Sheepskin tanned with sumac. The process is similar in its details
+to that employed for morocco leather, but lacks the graining given to the
+morocco by the grooved rollers in the finishing. It imitates ungrained
+morocco.
+
+ROLLING. The process of passing leather between rolls to make it firm and
+hard. Rolling consists in polishing the bottom on roll and brush.
+
+ROUGH ROUNDING. Rounding outsole to the shape of last, and cutting
+channel in the welt-channeled shoes.
+
+ROYALTIES. Sums paid for the use of machines to machine companies.
+
+RUSSET CALF. Russet-colored calf is made from calfskins.
+
+RUSSET GRAIN. Russet-colored grain is made from a split cowhide.
+
+SABOT. The name of a one-piece wooden shoe, carved from a block of
+basswood. A novelty to Americans, but worn by people in the rural and
+manufacturing sections of Holland, Germany, and France.
+
+SACK LINING. The lining inside the shoe and insole.
+
+SANDAL. The name of a woman’s strap slipper, or a sole worn by children.
+Originally fastened on the foot by straps.
+
+SATIN CALF. A grain split, stuffed with oil, and smooth finished.
+
+SCOURING BREAST. Sandpapering the front part of the heel.
+
+SCREW-FASTENED. A shoe having the sole attached with screws, as in cheap
+or working shoes.
+
+SEAL GRAIN. Usually a flesh split, with an artificial grain which is
+stamped or printed on the finished leather.
+
+SECOND LASTING. The same as relasting. Term used most in turn work.
+
+SHANK. The middle position of the bottom of the foot. Shank supports are
+placed in shoes to stiffen that part of the bottom. They are of steel,
+of wood, or of a combination of leather board and steel, and can be
+placed in the shoe any time before the outsole is laid.
+
+SHANK BURNISHING. Polishing a black shank with hot iron.
+
+SHANK FINISHING. Finishing the shank with blacking or in colors. The top
+lift is generally finished at the same time.
+
+SHANKING OUT. Means making the edge of the shank thinner than the other
+part of the sole, and making it smooth.
+
+SHEEPSKINS. Used largely for linings and for cheap shoes for women and
+children. It is too soft and weak in texture for heavy wear, and liable
+to split and tear.
+
+SHORT VAMP. A foreshortened vamp. The distance between the extreme tip
+and the throat of the vamp shortened for appearances.
+
+SIDES. Leather made from hides which are split into two sides down the
+back.
+
+SIDE LASTING. Lasting the side of the shoe only.
+
+SIZE. Shoes are measured by the length and width. The length is expressed
+by numbers and the widths by letters.
+
+SKINS. A term used to represent the skin covering of small animals, such
+as goats.
+
+SKIRTING. The outer parts of leather (hide), such as shanks, bellies,
+necks, etc.
+
+SKIVING. Making the sole the same thickness in all parts. Skiving means
+cutting or shaving down to a thin edge. This operation may be done in the
+cutting department or stitching department.
+
+SLIP. The name applied to spring heels or to soles. Slip is a thin piece
+of sole leather inserted above the outer sole.
+
+SLUGGING. Driving slugs in heels, on part or all of the heel.
+
+SOCK LINING. The lining for insole, inside of shoe.
+
+SOFT TIP. A term applied to a shoe on which no boxing is used under the
+tip.
+
+SOLES AND SOLE LEATHER. Name applied to pieces of leather of various
+thickness on the bottom of a shoe, usually made from heavy hides of
+leather. There are many varieties of soles: a “full-double” sole has two
+thicknesses of leather extending clear back to the heel; “half-double”
+sole is a full outer sole, with slip extending back to shank; single sole
+is self-defining; “tap” is a half sole.
+
+SOLE LAYING. Sole laying is the operation of laying the outsole.
+
+SORTING. The process of selecting and sorting soles, so that they may be
+put up in different qualities.
+
+SPEWING. Shoes in stock sometimes become coated with a grayish white,
+powdery substance, that looks like mildew. This formation on leather that
+is not fully seasoned is called spewing, and the deposit is called bloom.
+It can readily be wiped off, and does not indicate any serious defect or
+trouble with the leather. It is not a mildew or growth, but apparently
+an exudation of materials used in tanning.
+
+SPLITS. A name applied to split leather, that is, two or more parts of
+the hide.
+
+SPRING HEEL. Consists of one or more lifts used between the outsole and
+upper. It is seen mostly in children’s shoes and is often called wedge
+heel. It can also be put on outside instead of under the outsole.
+
+STAMPING. The operation of putting size and width on the inside of the
+shoe. Parts of the uppers are often stamped or marked so that the whole
+are put together properly in the stitching room.
+
+STAY. The name given to any piece of leather put in the upper to
+strengthen it or to strengthen a seam.
+
+STAMPING BOTTOMS. The operation of stamping name on bottom. It is often
+performed in finishing rooms.
+
+STAMPING CARTON. Putting the size, width, and other marks on carton.
+
+STAMPING SIZES. Stamping sizes on heel part of the sole.
+
+STANDARD-FASTENED. Nailing bottom on standard screw machine.
+
+STAYING. Putting on a stay, generally heel stay.
+
+STITCH SEPARATING. Marking between stitches so as to make them show to
+good advantage.
+
+STITCH DOWN. A term applied to a flexible shoe used in the army, in which
+the top is turned out instead of under and stitched through the sole.
+
+STITCHED ALOFT. A term used to indicate that the sewing stitches show
+on the bottom. No channel is necessary in this sole. It may be a slight
+groove. In stitching, the shoe is held bottom up, therefore the name
+“stitched aloft.”
+
+STRAIGHT LAST. One that is neither right nor left, and a shoe made over
+such a last can be worn on either foot. This term is sometimes applied to
+right and left shoes that have a barely perceptible outside swing.
+
+STRIPPING. Consists of cutting in strips wide enough to cut soles all of
+equal size in length.
+
+SUEDE. A trade term applied to kid skins, finished on the flesh side.
+
+SWING. A term applied to the curve of the outer edge of a sole.
+
+TACKING ON. Consists in laying the outsole on McKay’s lasted shoes.
+
+TACK PULLING AND TRIMMING OUT. Consist of preparing bottom for welting.
+It also makes it better for the operation.
+
+TAMPICO. A variety of goat skins coming from the province of Tampico,
+Central America.
+
+TAP. Half of a complete sole, often called half sole when used under
+outsole.
+
+TAN. Tan is a sort of brownish leather.
+
+TANNING. Tanning is the process of converting hides or skins into
+leather.
+
+TAP TRIMMING. Shaping the tap to conform to the sole.
+
+TAWING. The process of making leather by soaking hides in a solution of
+salt and alum, or by packing them down with dry salt and powdered alum.
+Used to prepare skin rugs and furs.
+
+TEMPERING. The operation of wetting the leather in water to take hardness
+out and make leather “mull,” so that it may be worked easier.
+
+TIP. The toe piece which is stitched to the vamp and outside of it. Stock
+tip is a tip of the same material as the vamp. Patent tip is a patent
+leather tip. Diamond tip refers to the shape extending back to a point.
+Imitation tip-stitching across the vamp is imitation of a tip.
+
+TIP CUTTING. Cutting the tip which goes on the toe of the vamp.
+
+TOE AND HEEL LASTING. Lasting heel and toe.
+
+TOE PIECE. A piece attached to cut-off vamp to lengthen it.
+
+TONGUE. A narrow strip of leather necessary on all laced shoes.
+
+TOP. The part of the upper above the vamp; tip of shoe.
+
+TOP CUTTING. Cutting the top only.
+
+TOP FACING. The strip of leather or band of cloth around the top of the
+shoe on the inside is called the top facing. It adds to the finish of the
+lining, and is sometimes used to advertise the name of manufacturers by a
+design of letters woven or sewed on it.
+
+TOP LIFT. The lift which is next to the ground.
+
+TOP LIFT SCOURING. Sandpapering top lift of heel to make it smooth.
+
+TOP STITCHING. Consists of stitching across the top and down the side.
+
+TREEING. Shaping the shoe, making it smooth. Produces the same effect
+as ironing, although no hot iron is used. It makes the upper plump and
+gives it a good finish and “feel.”
+
+TRIMMING CUTTING. Cutting stays, facings, and other small parts of the
+upper.
+
+TRIMMING VAMP. Cutting off hanging or surplus thread.
+
+TURNING. To turn shoe right side out. Also turning upper right side out.
+
+TURNED SHOE. A lady’s fine shoe that is made wrong side out, then turned
+right side out, which operation necessitates the use of a thin, flexible
+sole of good quality. The sole is fastened to the last, the upper is
+lasted over it wrong side out, then the two are sewed together, the
+thread catching through a channel cut in the edge of the sole. The seam
+does not come through to the bottom of the sole where it would chafe the
+foot on inside.
+
+UPPER. A term applied collectively to the upper parts of a shoe.
+
+UNGRAINED. Smooth surface.
+
+VAMP. The lower or front part of the upper of a shoe. It is the most
+important piece of the upper and should be cut from the strongest and
+cleanest part of the skin. “Cut-off” vamp is one that extends only to the
+tip, instead of being continued to the toe and lasted under with the tip.
+Whole vamp is one that extends to the heel without a seam.
+
+VAMPING. Stitching the vamp to the top.
+
+VAMP CUTTING. Cutting vamp with or without the tip.
+
+VELOUR. A finish for calf leather. It is the French name for velvet and
+is used in the shoe trade for a patent chrome-tanned calf leather. It is
+an excellent leather and has a smooth and velvety finish.
+
+VELLUM. A name for skins that are made into a variety of parchment.
+
+VENEERING. Consists in making soles, whole or part, heavier, by means of
+leather-board or other material fastened to the sole by an adhesive.
+
+VESTING. A material originally designed for making vests. As used in
+shoes, it is made with fancy-figured weave, having a backing of stiff
+buckram or rubber-treated tissue to strengthen it.
+
+VISCOLIZING. A patent method of waterproofing sole leather by the use of
+partly emulsified oils with a water-resisting tendency. Viscolized soles
+are used in hunting and sporting boots.
+
+VICI. A patent trade name for a brand of chrome-tanned kid.
+
+WASH LEATHER. An inferior quality of chamois.
+
+WELT. A narrow strip of leather that is sewed to the upper of a shoe
+with an insole leaving the edge of the welt extending outward, so that
+the outsole can be attached by sewing through both welt and outsole,
+around the outside of the shoe. The attaching of the sole and upper
+thus involves two sewings, first the insole, welt and upper, then the
+outsole to the welt. The name is applied to the shoe itself when made
+in this way to distinguish it from a turned, or McKay sewed shoe. This
+is the method used by cobblers in the production of hand-sewed shoes to
+fasten the sole and upper together. Goodyear welt is a welt in which the
+sewing is done by a machine named for the inventor. There are very few
+hand-welted shoes made.
+
+WELT BEATING. The flattening out of the welt, making it smooth.
+
+WELTING. Sewing the welt to shoe.
+
+WHITE ALUM. Bleached leather tawed with white alum.
+
+WOODEN CASE. Large box for twelve or more pairs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER TEN
+
+LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE
+
+
+The use of gloves is so old that relics of them have been found in the
+habitations of the cave dwellers. The Romans used them as decorative
+articles of dress and the Greeks to protect the hands when doing heavy
+work.
+
+The gloves of ladies and gentlemen in the days of Queen Elizabeth,
+and before and after, were most beautiful in hand workmanship and
+embellishments, but they were usually shapeless things, and in these days
+no one would wear them; they are not to be compared with the elegant
+style and artistic finish of the modern product.
+
+When the social world was restricted, so to speak, in the numbers of
+its members who could afford some of life’s luxuries, the use of the
+glove was confined largely to royalty, nobility, and the well-to-do.
+And the trade not being extensive, prices were high--being added to by
+decorative elaboration in needlework in order that the manufacturer and
+his employees might extract as much money as possible from the ultimate
+buyer. While glove making is now one of the stabilities of modern
+manufacture, it is, nevertheless, constantly changing in styles, due to
+eagerness for novelties and new fashions.
+
+Glove making of leather, in a rough, crude form, was carried on in this
+country to a very limited extent in New York State as early as 1760, by
+glove makers brought from Scotland to settle on the grants of Sir William
+Johnson, in Fulton county. But there was no general market for the home
+product until one was found in Albany in 1825. These early gloves, crude
+and clumsy, were cut with shears from leather by means of pasteboard
+patterns, and men did the cutting and women the sewing. Dies were later
+introduced, and this led to a great improvement in the character of the
+output.
+
+But a still greater step forward was taken when the sewing machine was
+introduced in 1852. This abolished handwork entirely, but still the
+industry remained largely of a domestic nature, since it could be carried
+on at home with a machine as well as in a factory. Later steam power was
+installed in factories with which to run the machines. The cutting of
+gloves, and the stitching on the backs, was done before the gloves were
+sent out to be completed in workers’ homes.
+
+As in everything wherein power can be substituted for hand labor in
+these days, the methods of glove manufacture have undergone a great
+transformation. The treating of skins in a great tub, three feet deep,
+whole dyeing and scouring, in rooms of high temperature, has been
+displaced by putting skins and colors into a cube-shaped box, which,
+revolving with an irregular motion, produces the same results more
+quickly than by the primitive way. But when color is to be applied to but
+one side the process is the same as of old,--hand use of a brush while
+the skin is stretched out on a slab.
+
+When taken from the stock on hand to be made into gloves, the first thing
+done to skins by some glove makers is to “feed” them with eggs--not eggs
+of suspicious merits, but good enough for table use. And of these nothing
+is used but the yolk. One glove maker imports from China large quantities
+of the yolks of duck eggs for his work, and his yearly consumption of
+yolks amounts to seventeen thousand.
+
+When the skins leave the dyehouse, they are rapidly dried in steam-heated
+lofts; and while stiff and rough they are, or were, worked into softness
+and smoothness over a wooden upright standard, called a stake, at the
+top of which is fitted a blunt semicircular knife. Over this the skin is
+drawn by hand, back and forth, until it becomes as pliable and delicate
+as silk. When this work was done manually it was most laborious. But now
+it has been mostly taken over by very ingenious machinery, which looks,
+in operation, as if it would tear a skin into fragments by the way it
+snaps and pulls at it, but which is adjustable to such nicety of action
+and power that the work is done exactly as it is wanted.
+
+The next operation is to pare the skins to uniformity of thickness. This
+also was handwork for a long time, done with a peculiarly shaped knife,
+but now emery-coated wheels, with rounded edges, are used by the workers,
+who, with their aid, do just as good and much faster work in drawing and
+thinning the skins with absolute precision. This completes the treatment
+of the skin.
+
+Now the function of the cutter begins, and he must be a workman of
+experience and good judgment, in that he must contend with the inconstant
+inelasticity of the skin, reducing it to uniform resistance. He must
+get so many pieces of glove size from each skin, and suit the pieces
+to particular features of the skin. When done with a skin he must have
+left, as useless, only trifling strips and shreds. The shapeliness of
+the glove which a woman draws over her hand, depends altogether upon the
+intelligence and skill of the cutter. In American factories the cutter is
+usually from some glove-making center in Europe and from a family whose
+occupation has been glove making for centuries.
+
+A punch next cuts these glove pieces into shape, forming and dividing the
+fingers, slitting the buttonholes, providing side pieces for fingers and
+thumbs, and also the fragments used for strengthening the buttonholes.
+The sewing, formerly the handiwork of women, is now done on machines
+of capacity for exceptionally fine quality of intricate stitching. The
+number of glove sizes made is sufficient to meet every likely demand.
+When sewn, and the buttons or fastenings put on, they pass beneath the
+critical eye of an inspector for scrutiny as to faults. Then they are
+finally shaped on a hot metal hand, smoothed, banded, boxed, and sent to
+the salesroom for shipment.
+
+The first and fourth fingers of a glove are completed by gussets, or
+strips, sewed only on the inner side; but the second and third fingers
+require gussets on both sides to complete the fingers. In addition to
+these, small, diamond-shaped pieces are sewed in at the roots of the
+fingers. Special care is necessary in sewing in the thumb pieces, as
+poorly made gloves usually give way at this point.
+
+Natural lined gloves are now common enough, although it is not many years
+since they were regarded as impracticable. These are made from pelts of
+various animals with the hair left on the skin to form the lining.
+
+
+AUTOMOBILE AND FURNITURE LEATHER
+
+For automobile and furniture leather only choice hides should be used.
+The kind of hides generally employed for this class of leather are French
+and Swiss, as these run full and plump on the bellies, are free from cuts
+on the flesh and are of clear grain. The hides are trimmed before placing
+them in the soaking pits, all useless parts, such as nose, shanks, etc.,
+being cut away.
+
+After remaining in soak for a day or two, the hides are hauled out,
+fleshed, and returned to the soaks for thorough softening. When
+thoroughly soaked, they are toggled and reeled into the first lime. The
+first lime must be a weak, mellow lime, or a harsh grain will show after
+the leather is tanned. The hides are reeled over into stronger limes
+every day for seven days, when they are ready for unhairing. After coming
+from the limes, the hides should go into a pit of soft water heated to
+about ninety degrees Fahrenheit and left over night before starting in
+to unhair. After unhairing, they are thrown into a vat of clean water
+and thoroughly worked out on the grain to remove short hairs and scud
+and are then ready for bating. One that has a little bacterial action
+is preferred to an acid bate. After bating, the hides are given a good
+scudding on the grain and are then ready for the tanning liquors.
+
+The liquors are made of hemlock and oak and are used very weak on the
+start. The hides are suspended for a day in a liquor not over six degrees
+specific gravity reading in strength, and the following day shifted over
+into a stronger liquor. The stock is given stronger liquors every day
+until tanned enough for splitting.
+
+The stock is struck out smoothly and brought to the machine for
+splitting. The buffing is first taken away and sold for hat bands,
+pocket-books, etc. The grains are finished and the splits are returned to
+the tanning liquors to be thoroughly tanned. As soon as the splits are
+tanned, they are washed up, drained, and then drummed in the drum in a
+sumac liquor. They are now scoured, and, after being well set out, are
+given a good oiling with cod oil.
+
+They are now tacked out on the frames and dried out. They are next taken
+from the frames and boarded by hand over the table. The splits are taken
+to the japan shop and are tacked out again and are ready for the first
+coat of daub. Two coats are applied. After each coat, the splits are well
+rubbed down, when they receive the slicker coat. The color coats are now
+applied, and after drying out, the leather is grained up and finished.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER ELEVEN
+
+RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE
+
+
+Examine the rubbers we wear during the winter and stormy weather.
+
+Rubber shoe coverings are made to protect the shoe from water and snow
+and may be in the form of either slippers or arctics. The covering is
+rendered waterproof by means of a compound rubber.
+
+Rubber is the name given to a coagulated milky juice obtained from many
+different trees, vines, and shrubs that grow on that part of the earth’s
+surface which forms a band some three or four hundred miles on either
+side of the equator.
+
+[Illustration: Crude Rubber.]
+
+Rubber is graded commercially, according to the district where it is
+found. In the order of importance it may be divided into three general
+sorts, viz., American, African, and Asiatic. The best and largest
+quantities of rubber come from Brazil, along the banks of the Amazon
+River. The countries in the northern and western part of South America,
+and the Central American States and Mexico furnish considerable rubber.
+Eastern and western Africa also produce many kinds of rubber in large
+quantities, though somewhat inferior to the Brazilian product. The
+Asiatic rubbers are unimportant in quantity, and, excepting the rubber
+obtained from cultivated trees in Ceylon, are decidedly inferior in
+quality.
+
+The fluid rubber obtained from Brazil is called Para and is used
+principally in the manufacture of rubber footwear. The method of
+gathering and coagulating the rubber juice (called latex) varies in the
+different countries. The native first clears a space under a number of
+trees and proceeds to tap the trees with a short-handled ax, having a
+small blade, by cutting gashes in the bark. A cup is fixed under each
+cut to catch the fluid as it flows out. As fast as the cups are filled,
+they are emptied into a large vessel and carried to the camp to be
+coagulated. A fire is started in a shallow hole in the ground, and palm
+nuts, which make a dense smoke, are thrown on. An earthen cover which has
+a small opening on top is placed over the fire, allowing the smoke to
+escape through the opening. A wooden paddle is first dipped in clay water
+and then into the latex and then held over the smoke. The heat coagulates
+a thin layer of rubber on the paddle. It is dipped again and again in the
+latex and smoked each time. After being dipped many times, a lump (called
+biscuit) of rubber is formed. A cut is made in the biscuit and the paddle
+removed. Then the rubber is ready for market. The world’s crop of rubber
+in 1911 was about ninety thousand tons.
+
+Few people realize the number of operations necessary to produce from the
+crude biscuit of India rubber the highly finished rubber shoe of to-day.
+Briefly stated, the various steps are washing, drying, compounding,
+calendering, cutting the various parts, making or putting these parts
+together, varnishing, vulcanizing, and packing. Each of these processes
+requires a distinct and separate department, and many of these processes
+are subdivided into minor operations.
+
+The huge stock of Para rubber, that is rubber obtained from the Amazon
+section, to be found in any of the leading rubber factories counts well
+up into the thousands of dollars. With rubber at or near $1.50 per pound,
+a stock of ten to fifty tons runs up into the five or six figures.
+
+This crude rubber, as it comes from the Amazon, contains more or less
+dirt, pebbles, and other foreign substances, which must be removed.
+
+The large cakes of crude rubber are first broken up by a cracker machine,
+consisting of two large, revolving steel cylinders, from which the
+product falls into pans or trays. It goes then to a machine known as a
+“washer” or “sheeter,” where it is run between revolving cylinders, upon
+which a continuous spray of clean water is maintained. After being rolled
+into rough sheets, it is put into a tank, from which it is taken to the
+“beater” machine, in which water runs continuously, and then it is washed
+again and “sheeted out.” It is then dried in one of two ways.
+
+(1) The older way. The sheets are hung over rods in a large room, and
+allowed to dry in the air. To facilitate the same, a fan or blower is
+often used to cause a circulation and removal of the moisture-laden air.
+This requires a period of from one to two or three months.
+
+[Illustration: Washing and Drying.]
+
+(2) The second method is called vacuum drying. This process is gradually
+being introduced, so that now probably more rubber is dried in vacuum
+than by air. The vacuum drier consists of a large iron cylinder filled
+with plates, through which steam is allowed to circulate. The rubber
+is placed on the plates and the air is exhausted from the cylinder by
+means of an air pump until very nearly twenty-six degrees of vacuum are
+obtained. By this process only from two to three hours are required to
+produce perfectly dry rubber.
+
+The making of a rubber shoe is not the simple matter which might at
+first be supposed. An ordinary rubber shoe consists of at least seven
+or eight different parts, sometimes twenty-one parts to a pair, while
+a high-button gaiter has seventeen distinct parts, and a rubber boot
+has twenty-three different pieces. There are insoles, outsoles, stays,
+piping, foxing, and a dozen other different pieces, each one of which
+is necessary to the proper construction of a rubber shoe or boot. The
+thinner sheets for the uppers are cut by hand, the deft work of the
+cutters in following the patterns outlined on the sheets being the result
+of years of practice. The sheets of rubber from which the uppers and
+soles are cut are at this stage of the work plastic and very sticky. It
+is necessary on this account to cut the various pieces one by one, and
+keep them separate. The soles and some of the heavier pieces are dried
+out by the machine, and the heels are made by a special machine, but by
+far the greater part is done by wonderfully skilled hands. All of these
+parts which go to make a shoe, or the twenty-three parts which go into
+a boot, are collected and sent to the making department, which, in most
+factories, is a large room containing several hundred operatives, each
+working by herself, and bringing the many separate parts into the fully
+finished footwear.
+
+[Illustration: Calender Room.]
+
+The sheets of rubber, after being dried, are taken to the “compound”
+room, where they are sprinkled with whiting, to prevent sticking, and
+weighed. Next they are taken into the calender room to a “mixer,” by
+means of which the rubber is combined with other substances, which
+include sulphur, litharge, whiting, lampblack, tar, resin, lime, palm
+oil, and linseed oil.
+
+There are different calendering machines. The ones called the upper
+calenders form sheets of rubber stock for the upper part of the shoe. The
+soling calenders form the stock for the sole or bottom part of the shoe;
+other calender machines are used to coat a layer of gum on one side of
+the fabrics used for lining and various strips, fillers, toe, and heel
+pieces. The gum sheets are sent to the cutting room.
+
+Generally, linings for nine pairs of shoes are cut at once. The linings
+are cut both by hand and by machine. Men who cut with dies, by hand,
+stand at the bench and use iron mallets, like those used in cutting
+heels. Inner soles, heel pieces, and linings are all cut by means of dies
+in the same manner.
+
+The edges of the several parts are spread with cement, and then the
+parts are taken to the making room and distributed. In the making
+department the boots and shoes are put together. Women make the light
+overshoes; men make the heavy ones. Rubbers are made by women, but men
+put on the outer soles.
+
+Linings are first applied smoothly to a wooden last and cemented
+together, the cement side out. The rubber parts are then stuck on and
+rolled firmly with a small hand roller. Young women become very skilled
+in this work, taking up the several parts in rapid succession, placing
+them accurately upon the last, and rolling and pounding them firmly
+together.
+
+[Illustration: Cutting Room.]
+
+Perhaps the most interesting single process is that of putting the rubber
+boot together. This work is done by men, and requires, in addition
+to accurate eyesight, rapid and very deft movements of the hand and
+considerable strength. No nails, tacks, or stitching are required. The
+natural adhesiveness of the rubber, assisted by the use of rubber
+cement, holds the parts solidly together.
+
+In the making of the shoe the last is covered with the various pieces
+which are so made as to adhere where they are placed. It is exact and
+nice work fitting all these pieces perfectly, each edge overlapping just
+so far and no farther. The lighter shoes are made by women, but the heavy
+lumbermen’s shoes, arctics, and especially the boots, are made by men,
+for this work needs strength as well as dexterity.
+
+The goods which require varnishing are put on racks and treated with a
+mixture of boiled linseed oil, naphtha, and other materials, which are
+applied with brushes, and impart a gloss to the surface.
+
+On vulcanizing boots and shoes, the shoes are placed on racks supported
+by iron cars, which are run over tracks into the vulcanizing chamber.
+This consists principally of a large room provided with a steam coil on
+the floor. The temperature rarely exceeds two hundred and sixty degrees
+Fahrenheit. In vulcanizing shoes, the heat is increased gradually from
+the beginning, about one hundred and eighty degrees Fahrenheit, otherwise
+the goods would be blistered, due to the rapid evaporation of moisture
+and other volatile constituents. They are kept in these heaters from six
+to seven hours. This causes a union of sulphur and rubber, which is not
+affected by heat or cold.
+
+They are wheeled on another truck to the packing room, where they are
+inspected, taken from the lasts, tied together in pairs, or placed in
+cartons, as the case may be. They are then sent to the shipping room to
+be packed in cases ready to be delivered to the cars waiting at a side
+track of the railroad, or sent to the storehouse until they shall be
+called for by the jobbers or retail dealers.
+
+An important branch of the rubber business is the manufacture of tennis
+shoes. This is a generic term, which is applied to all kinds of footwear
+having cloth tops and rubber soles. As the name indicates, they were
+first used in playing the game of tennis, but they have come into very
+general use as warm weather and vacation shoes, and every year shows
+an increased popularity. These shoes are made in a similar manner to
+the rubber shoes, the rubber soles being cemented to the cloth uppers
+and vulcanized the same as the rubber overshoes. Many different styles
+are made, and each year shows some improvements in the shapes, in the
+textiles which are used, in the colors and combinations of soles and
+uppers.
+
+Rubber shoes should not be expected to give satisfactory service unless
+properly fitted. If too short, too narrow, or if worn over leathers
+with extra heavy taps, or unusually thick, wide soles, strains will be
+brought upon parts not designed to stand them and the rubber will give
+way. Rubber goods, particularly boots, if too large will wrinkle and a
+continued wrinkling and bending is liable to cause cracking.
+
+Extreme heat or cold should be avoided. Rubber boots or shoes should
+never be dried by placing them near a heater of any kind. If left near
+a stove, register, or radiator, the rubber is liable to dry and crack.
+If left out of doors in winter, or in an extremely cold place, they will
+freeze. Then when the warm foot is put into them and the rubbers are
+worn, the rubber will crack.
+
+Oil, grease, milk, or blood will cause rubber to decay in a very short
+time. If spattered with any of these, the rubber should be promptly and
+thoroughly cleaned with warm water and soap.
+
+The oil in leather tops will rot rubber, so that care should be taken
+in storing and packing to prevent the leather and rubber from coming in
+contact.
+
+[Illustration: Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe.]
+
+Various heavy goods are advertised as proof against snagging. It should
+be remembered, however, that no rubber can be made strong enough to be
+absolutely proof against tearing or puncturing by extremely sharp edges,
+such as stiff stubble, sharp-edged rocks, broken glass, etc.
+
+Mud, barnyard dirt, or filth of any kind should never be allowed to dry
+on rubbers. They should be cleaned as carefully as leather boots or shoes.
+
+Exposure to strong sunlight for any length of time produces an effect on
+rubbers similar to that of putting them near a stove or radiator. Rubbers
+should not be left in the sun to dry. When not in use they should be kept
+in a cool, dark place.
+
+
+RUBBER HEELS
+
+Rubber heels are generally made for boots and shoes as follows. The
+compounded rubber is sheeted on a calender roll, on a drum, until
+several layers are obtained, thus making a sheet of about one inch in
+thickness. The heel is cut out from this sheet by means of a die and
+placed in a mold. It is there subjected to an extremely high pressure,
+generally obtained by hydraulic power. The plates of the press are heated
+with live steam. The heels are removed at the end of nine or ten minutes
+and the sheet which was formerly nearly an inch in thickness is now only
+about half an inch and has by pressure been molded into the shape of the
+heel desired, is semi or partially vulcanized, and also is imprinted upon
+the bottom with the name or other brand of the company.
+
+The cup-shaped portion of the heel is now coated with a layer of rubber
+cement, and firmly placed on the boot ready to go to the vulcanizer,
+where vulcanizing of the heel is then completed.
+
+[Illustration: Heel-making Department.]
+
+Many articles of rubber are vulcanized by the use of chloride of sulphur,
+which process is sometimes known as “cold cure.” The action of sulphur
+chloride itself is so violent that it must be diluted, and for this
+purpose carbon bisulfide is often used. In some cases, as, for example,
+the manufacture of tobacco pouches, the articles are submerged for from
+one to two minutes in the liquid, then removed and washed thoroughly. In
+another case, as in the manufacture of some kinds of rubber cloth, such
+as hospital sheeting, the coated cloth is suspended in a suitable room
+and the chloride of sulphur and carbon bisulfide mixed and evaporated
+by action of heat so that the cloth is subjected to the action of vapor
+alone. Only articles with comparatively thin walls can be successfully
+vulcanized by the cold cure, as at best the vulcanizing action of the
+chloride is only superficial.
+
+No account of vulcanization processes as employed in the manufacture of
+rubber goods is complete without the mention of “steam cure.” A great
+variety of rubber goods under the general term of mechanical sundries
+are cured by this method. This includes rubber matting, door mats, water
+bottles, druggists’ sundries, etc. This process consists in brief of
+submitting the articles to be vulcanized to the action of live steam
+for from half an hour to an hour, or until the goods are thoroughly
+vulcanized. The temperature and duration of time required depend to a
+considerable extent upon the thickness of the walls of the article. In
+order to prevent the goods from being pitted and damaged by the action of
+steam, they are wrapped with cloth or imbedded in pans of soapstone. A
+great variety of rubber tubing is cured by this method.
+
+In rubber cloth making, the crude rubber is put through the washing
+process, dried and mixed with sulphur, litharge, coloring matter, etc.,
+and then is taken to the cement room, where it is “cut” with naphtha,
+forming a thick paste or dough. This is taken to the spreading room in
+large tubs and fed into the roller machine, which is like a long table
+made of steam pipes placed horizontally in a single layer. Below one end
+is a roll of cloth, which is passed between two iron rollers on the end.
+The dough is fed in between these rollers and is spread smoothly over
+the cloth, which is rolled up and removed to a heating room, where it
+is unrolled and hung on racks, and then subjected to sufficient heat to
+cause the combination of the sulphur and rubber.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY IN THE MANUFACTURE OF RUBBER GOODS
+
+Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance in all rubber
+factories of the chemical department. During the last two or three years
+there has been an unusual development along these lines, and to-day no
+factory for the manufacture of rubber goods is complete that does not
+possess a well-equipped laboratory. Not only does this department enable
+the manufacturer to control the purity and uniformity of his compounding
+ingredients and the innumerable grades of crude rubber, but, what is of
+even greater importance, it enables him to inaugurate research work as
+applied to his particular line of manufacture. This part of laboratory
+work is already producing results not only of scientific interest, but of
+very great practical and economic value. Still another rôle of the modern
+chemical laboratory is to exercise a control over the finished material,
+so that the manager of the works may be in possession daily of reasons
+for any variation detrimental to the standard of his products.
+
+
+RUBBER TERMS
+
+ANKLE PIECE. A large piece of light sheeted gum, which goes around the
+ankle and extends about halfway up the leg.
+
+BACK STAY. A piece of frictioned sheeting similar to the side stay in
+shape and placed at the back of the heel and ankle.
+
+GUM COUNTER. A piece cut out of sheeted gum, on the under side of which
+is placed a counter form or a piece of frictioned sheeting.
+
+OUTER FILLER. A filling sole cut from rag-coated or frictioned sheeting,
+and designed to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused by bringing the
+edges of the gum vamp and counter underneath.
+
+INNER SOLE. Usually made of felt or sheeting coated on one side with
+rag stock. In lasting up, the bottom edges of the lining (which have
+previously been cemented) are pulled under and adhere to the inner sole.
+
+LEG COVER. A piece of sheeted gum rolled upon a piece of frictioned
+sheeting called the leg form.
+
+LEG LINING. The lining, usually of felt or wool netting, for the leg.
+
+PARA. A name given to rubber from Brazil.
+
+PIPING. Strips of frictioned sheeting used to join the lining together
+over the instep and up the back, and also to hold the lining up on the
+tree by passing a strip over the top.
+
+RAG COUNTER. Quarter stiff is a counter piece cut out of rag-coated or
+frictioned sheeting, which gives stiffness to the counter.
+
+SIDE STAY. A spike-shaped piece of frictioned sheeting, placed on each
+side of the ankle.
+
+RAG SOLE. A sole stiffening cut out of a sheet of rag stock, which covers
+the whole bottom. The edges are skived to make a perfect edge.
+
+TOE FILLER. A rag-stock filling sole to fill up the hollow on the bottom
+caused by attaching the lining to the inner sole.
+
+[Illustration: Parts of a Rubber Boot.]
+
+TOE LINING. The lining for the vamp, of the same material as the leg
+lining.
+
+VAMP. A piece cut out of sheeted gum.
+
+VAMP FORM. A piece of frictioned sheeting cut to the shape of the vamp,
+and put on over the toe lining.
+
+WEB STRAPS. Straps put on with the joined ends between the leg lining and
+the leg cover, and forming a loop on the inside of the boot to pull it on
+with.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER TWELVE
+
+HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR
+
+
+We find that primitive footwear, in common with all other beginnings,
+was of the crudest nature and took the form of the simple sandal. It is
+probable that man first protected his foot from the rough way by simple
+pieces of hide, which were bound to the bottom of the foot. The sandal,
+among the most primitive, is the type of footwear worn to-day. The sandal
+was simply bound to the foot by thongs of hides, which were brought
+between the toes and tied around the ankle.
+
+At about the Elizabethan period, shoemaking had really become a very
+fine art. Some foot creations were made by the Court shoemakers that
+reflected the individual taste of the monarch, and so great was the
+competition to produce something novel that very often the styles
+assumed a grotesque aspect. The toes were elongated so that sometimes
+they were carried up and fastened by cords and tassels to the tops of the
+shoes, and it finally became necessary to enact a law to prevent such
+outrageous types of footwear. The slippers of this period were of the
+extremely high-heeled variety, and small fortunes were often spent on
+their ornamentation. They were mostly of the turn-shoe type, and samples
+which are preserved show the excellent workmanship that was in vogue at
+that time.
+
+We now come to the first shoemaker in America. When the _Mayflower_
+made the second trip to America, she carried among others a shoemaker
+named Thomas Beard, who brought with him a supply of hides. Seven
+years afterwards there arrived one Phillip Kertland, a native of
+Buckinghamshire, who settled in Lynn in 1636.
+
+Kertland was the pioneer shoemaker of Lynn and for years he successfully
+worked at his craft, teaching others his methods and ways, so that
+fifteen years after his arrival, Lynn was not only supplying the
+requirements of its inhabitants, but was also sending a part of its
+products to the port of Boston. As early as 1648 we find tanning and
+shoemaking mentioned as an industry of the colony of Virginia, special
+mention being made of the fact that a planter named Matthews employed
+eight shoemakers on his premises. Legal restraint was placed on the
+cordwainer in Connecticut in 1656, and in Rhode Island in 1706, while
+in New York the business of tanning and shoemaking is known to have
+been firmly established previous to the capitulation of the Province
+to England in 1664. In 1698 the industry was carried on profitably in
+Philadelphia, and in 1721 the Colonial Legislature of Pennsylvania passed
+an act regulating the material and the prices of the boot and shoe
+industry.
+
+Prior to 1815 most of the shoes were hand sewed, a few having been copper
+nailed. The heavier shoes were welted and the lighter ones turned. This
+method of manufacture was changed, about the year 1815, by the adoption
+of the wooden shoe peg, which was invented in 1811 and soon came into
+general use. Up to this time little or no progress had been made in
+the methods of manufacture. The shoemaker sat on his bench, and with
+scarcely any other instrument than a hammer, knife, and wooden shoulder
+stick, cut, stitched, hammered, and sewed until the shoe was completed.
+Previous to the year 1845, which marked the first successful application
+of machinery to American shoemaking, this industry was in the strictest
+sense a hand process, and the young man who chose it for his vocation
+was apprenticed for seven years, during which time he was taught every
+detail of the art. He was instructed in the preparation of the insole
+and outsole, depending almost entirely upon his eye for the proper
+proportions; taught to prepare pegs and drive them, for the pegged shoe
+was the common type of footwear in the first half of the last century;
+and familiarized himself with the making of turned and welt shoes, which
+have always been considered the highest types of shoemaking, as they
+require exceptional skill of the artisan in channeling the insole and
+outsole by hand, rounding the sole, sewing the welt, and stitching the
+outsole. After having served his apprenticeship, it was the custom for
+the full-fledged shoemaker to start on what was known as “whipping the
+cat,” which meant traveling from town to town, living with a family while
+making a year’s supply of shoes for each member, then moving on to fill
+engagements previously made.
+
+The change from which has been evolved our present factory system began
+in the latter part of the 18th century, when a system of sizes had been
+drafted, and shoemakers more enterprising than their fellows gathered
+about them groups of workmen, and took upon themselves the dignity of
+manufacturers.
+
+It was soon found that the master workman could largely increase his
+income by employing other men to do the work while he directed their
+efforts, and this gradually led to a division of the labor: the shoe
+uppers, which had prior to this time been sewed by men using waxed thread
+with bristles, now were done by women, who often took the work home.
+
+One workman cut the leather, others sewed the uppers, and still others
+fastened uppers to soles, each workman handling only one part in the
+process of manufacture.
+
+We find that in the year 1795 the evolution of the factory system had
+reached a stage where in Lynn alone there were two hundred master
+workmen, employing six hundred journeymen and turning out three hundred
+thousand pairs of shoes per year. The entire shoe was then made under one
+roof, and generally from leather that was tanned on the premises.
+
+Factory buildings were not at this time of a very pretentious nature
+and did not by any means represent the amount of work undertaken by the
+proprietor; for the small ten by ten factories, which are even to-day in
+existence in some of the backyards of Lynn homes, came into existence
+at this time. Many farmers found that shoemaking was a remunerative
+occupation in the winter, and they, and perhaps their neighbors, gathered
+in these shops and took from the different factories shoes on which to
+fasten the soles, or uppers to bind, which, after completion of the work,
+were returned to the factory, where they were finished and sent to market
+packed in wooden boxes. It was in this way that the industry prospered
+and developed up to the period of the introduction of machines, which
+happened but a little over half a century ago.
+
+Up to the year 1811 absolutely no machinery was used in the making of
+shoes. This year shoe pegs were invented and a machine for making them.
+The pegged shoe became very widely worn, but it was not until 1835 that
+any machine for driving pegs was made, and even at this time the machine
+was but an indifferent success. It was a hand machine and its work was by
+no means of a reliable nature.
+
+The first machine to be widely accepted by the trade was the “rolling
+machine.” This was used for rolling the sole leather under pressure, and
+it is said that a man could perform in a minute with this machine the
+same office that he would have required half an hour to have performed
+with the old-fashioned lapstone and hammer. This was followed in 1848 by
+the most important invention, the “sewing machine,” which was perfected
+by Elias Howe, and was soon followed by a machine which sewed with waxed
+thread and made it possible to sew the uppers of shoes in a much more
+rapid, reliable, and satisfactory manner than had ever been done by hand.
+This, too, was soon followed by a machine which split the sole leather
+and by another for buffing or removing the grain.
+
+In 1855 William F. Trowbridge, who was a partner in the firm of F.
+Brigham & Company, of Feltonville, Massachusetts, then a part of
+Marlboro, conceived the idea of driving by horse power the machines then
+in use. The introduction of power became very general, so that in the
+year 1860 there were scarcely any factories which were not driven by
+either steam or water power.
+
+The year 1858 was marked by the invention by Lyman R. Blake of the
+McKay sewing machine, which probably more than any other has exerted a
+revolutionary effect on the industry.
+
+The McKay machine did not at this time sew the toe or heel; the sewing
+was started at the shank and carried forward to a point near the toe
+on one side, and the same operation repeated on the other side; but
+it seemed to possess great possibilities and created a great deal of
+interest throughout the trade. It was, of course, a very crude machine
+and very different from the McKay machine of to-day. It was set on a
+bench and the shoe to be sewed was placed over a horn, and the sewing was
+done from the channel in the outsole through the sole and insole. Colonel
+McKay immediately started to improve the machine. He employed skilled
+mechanics to work on it and attempted to introduce it in different
+factories, but encountered a great deal of opposition and criticism
+in regard to its future. It is said that he offered to dispose of the
+machine to the shoemakers of Lynn and allow them its exclusive use if
+they would pay him three hundred thousand dollars, an offer which was not
+accepted.
+
+The machine left a loop stitch and a ridge of thread on the inside of the
+shoe, but it filled the great demand that existed for sewed shoes, and
+many hundreds of millions of pairs have been made by its use.
+
+While Colonel McKay had met rebuff and discouragement in attempting to
+introduce his machine, the public necessity was such that manufacturers
+were obliged to take it up immediately; but Colonel McKay was still
+embarrassed by lack of capital to carry on his rapidly increasing
+business. It was at this time that a system of placing machines in
+factories, which system has proven to be the most potent factor in the
+upbuilding of the shoe industry, was started. This was a royalty system,
+whereby the machine or machine owner participated in the profits accruing
+from the use of the machine.
+
+It hardly seems that there can be any question as to the principle of
+royalty being one of the greatest forces in building up the successful
+industry which we have to-day; it afforded an easy means whereby machines
+could be introduced without entailing hardships on the manufacturers,
+who, had they been obliged to pay the actual worth of the machines,
+would have been entirely unable to adopt them. Instances are known where
+hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent on machines, which machines
+were abandoned without having made a single shoe.
+
+At the time of the introduction of the McKay machine, inventors were
+busy in other directions, and as a result, came the introduction of the
+“cable nailing machine.” This was provided with a cable of nails, the
+head of one being joined to the point of another; these the machines cut
+into separate nails and drove automatically. At about this time also
+was introduced the “screw machine,” which formed a screw from brass
+wire, forcing it into the leather and cutting it off automatically.
+This was the prototype of the “rapid standard screw machine,” which
+is a comparatively recent invention, and is very widely used at the
+present time as a sole fastener on the heavier class of boots and shoes.
+Very soon thereafter the attention of the trade was attracted to the
+invention of a New York mechanic for the sewing of soles. The device was
+particularly intended for the making of turn shoes and afterwards became
+famous as the “Goodyear turn shoe machine.”
+
+Closely following the Goodyear invention came the introduction of
+the first machine used in connection with heeling,--a machine which
+compressed the heel and pricked holes for the nails; this was soon
+followed by a machine which automatically drove the nails, the
+heel having previously been put in place and held by the guides on
+the machine. Other improvements in heeling machines followed with
+considerable rapidity, and a machine came into use shortly afterwards
+which not only nailed the heel, but which was also provided with a hand
+trimmer, which the operator swung round the heel, after nailing. From
+these have been evolved the heeling machines in use at the present time.
+
+One of the early uses to which the sewing machine was put was the sewing
+together of the pieces of soft and pliable leather which make the upper
+of a shoe--a simple thing, involving only a slight adjustment of the
+original machine. It is a far more complicated operation to sew the upper
+to the thick and heavy sole, and years passed by before the secret was
+discovered, and the McKay machine appeared. In the shoe sewed on the
+McKay machine, the thread ran through into the inside of the inner sole,
+leaving a rasping ridge on which the stocking of the wearer rubbed.
+The McKay shoe displaced only the coarser grades. The hand-sewed shoe
+remained the favorite of wealth and fashion, and was worn exclusively
+by those who cared for comfort and could afford the price. In sewing
+a shoe by hand, a thin and narrow strip of leather, called a welt, is
+first sewed to the insole and upper, and the heavy outsole is sewed to
+this welt, so that the stitches come outside and do not touch the foot,
+the insole being left entirely smooth. It is a delicate operation by
+hand, and many years elapsed before a machine was contrived by which it
+could be done. At last the problem was solved. The “Goodyear welting and
+stitching machines” appeared--so named for Charles Goodyear, who financed
+and perfected them, a son of the man who taught the world the use of
+rubber. These two machines are the nucleus of the Goodyear welt system,
+to which must be attributed the revolution of an industry. Although they
+are entirely distinct machines, they are inseparable, for neither can be
+used effectively without the other in making the modern Goodyear welt
+shoe.
+
+[Illustration: Insole for Hand Sewed Shoe.]
+
+[Illustration: Hand Sewed Shoe.]
+
+Much of the style of a shoe depends upon the wooden last over which the
+upper is shaped before being attached to the sole. To find a substitute
+for the human hand in fitting the shoe to the last and pulling the
+leather over its delicate lines and curves seemed for a long time
+impossible.
+
+This took place in the early seventies, when a machine was invented for
+doing this work. It created a great change in a department of shoemaking
+which, prior to this time, had been regarded as a confirmed hand process.
+This machine, as well as those which followed afterwards for a period of
+twenty years, was known as the best type of machine, by which the shoe
+upper was drawn over the last by either friction or pincers, and then
+tacked by use of a hand tool.
+
+At a comparatively recent period another machine which revolutionized all
+previous ideas in lasting was introduced. This machine is generally in
+use at the present time, and is known as the “consolidated hand method
+lasting machine.” It was fitted with pincers, which automatically drew
+the leather round the last, at the same time driving a tack which held
+it in place. This machine has been so developed that it is now used for
+the lasting of shoes of every type, from the lowest and cheapest to
+the highest grade, and it is a machine that shows wonderful mechanical
+ingenuity.
+
+The perfection of the lasting machine has been followed recently by
+the introduction of a machine which performs in a satisfactory way the
+difficult process known as “pulling over,” which consists of accurately
+centering the shoe upper on the last and securing it temporarily in
+position for the work of lasting. The new machine, which is known as the
+“hand-method pulling over machine,” is provided with pincers, which close
+automatically, gripping the shoe upper at sides and toe. It is fitted
+with adjustments by which the operator is enabled to quickly center the
+shoe upper on the last, and, on pressure of a foot lever, the machine
+automatically draws the upper closely to the last and secures it in
+position by tacks, which are also driven by the machine. The introduction
+of this machine marked a radical change in the one important shoemaking
+process that had up to this time successfully withstood all attempts at
+mechanical improvement.
+
+At about the time that lasting was first introduced, came the machines
+which were used for finishing heel and fore part. These machines were
+fitted with a tool, which was heated by gas and which practically
+duplicated the hand workman in rubbing the edges with a hot tool for the
+purpose of finishing them. From these early machines have been evolved
+the “edge-setting machines” which are in use at present.
+
+Thus, one after another, every operation has yielded to invention, until
+very recently the only remaining process was subdued when a machine for
+cutting uppers was devised. There are machines for shaping, compressing,
+and nailing heels; for attaching soles to uppers in heavy shoes by wooden
+pegs or copper screws and wires; for rounding, buffing, and polishing the
+soles; for trimming and setting the edges of the sole; for performing
+innumerable operations, some seemingly trivial, but all essential to
+perfection in comfort, durability or style; so that in shoe factories
+to-day a greater variety of intricate and expensive machines is used than
+in factories of any other kind.
+
+At the present time the genius of the American inventor has provided for
+every detail of shoemaking, even the smallest processes being performed
+by mechanical devices of some kind. This has naturally made the shoemaker
+of to-day a specialist, who very seldom knows anything of shoemaking
+apart from the particular process in the performance of shoemaking of
+which he is an adept, and from which he earns a livelihood. The American
+shoe of to-day is the standard production of the world. It is in demand
+wherever shoes are worn.
+
+In the year 1874 there had been perfected not only the machines which
+Colonel McKay and Mr. Goodyear had been instrumental in building, but
+other inventors had introduced similar machines for doing similar work.
+This brought about the most acute business competition, and finally
+resulted in many cases where one machine manufacturer alleged that the
+other machine infringed his rights of patent, and in many other cases the
+fiercest kind of litigation was established. This had a most disastrous
+effect upon shoe manufacturers, for in many cases the manufacturer was
+made to bear the brunt of the blows which contending shoe machinery
+manufacturers aimed at each other.
+
+Machines in use in factories were stopped by means of injunctions;
+damage suits were entered, and litigation was very general. During the
+year 1899, there was ushered in one of the most important events that
+ever transpired in the history of shoemaking. The most important of the
+concerns which had been making war upon each other were purchased by one
+large company and brought under one harmonious management.
+
+The United Shoe Machinery Company owes its origin to a call for a change
+in conditions menacing the industry of making shoes which could not
+be ignored. It was created by combining into one the three companies
+existing in 1899: the Goodyear Sewing Machine Company, the Consolidated &
+McKay Lasting Machine Company, and the McKay Shoe Machinery Company, each
+of which respectively made and leased machines adapted to a particular
+class of operations. The principal machines which each made did not
+interfere with the principal machines of any other. They were dependent
+links in an industrial chain. The Goodyear Sewing Machine Company
+chiefly made machines for sewing the sole to the upper in welt shoes
+and various auxiliary machines which helped to complete the shoe; The
+Consolidated & McKay Lasting Machine Company made machines for lasting
+a shoe; The McKay Shoe Machinery Company made various machines for
+attaching soles and heels by metallic fastenings, and furnished material
+for that purpose. A single manufacturer, in order to make Goodyear welt
+shoes, would be compelled to patronize all the companies, going to each
+of them for that part of his equipment which it exclusively supplied.
+Each company had its agents in factories looking after its machines.
+
+The gathering of these three companies into a single organization
+wrought an instant change. It resulted immediately in greater economy
+of administration; in relieving the manufacturer of the vexation of
+sometimes seeing his factory crippled while orders were piling up;
+in freeing him from the annoyance and expense of dealing with several
+different concerns in order to get his most important machines and keep
+them in repair.
+
+The attention which had been paid to royalty machines and which had been
+such an important factor in building up the industry in America, was
+magnified by the management of the new company. Large forces of men and
+expert machinists, as well as expert shoemakers, were maintained in the
+different districts where shoes were made, and every effort exerted to
+promote the growth of the industry.
+
+While the royalty system proved to be of great advantage to small shoe
+manufacturers, the largest manufacturers objected to paying royalty on
+machines and desired to purchase them outright. Being unable to do so,
+they placed experts at work to invent similar machines. This has resulted
+in the United Shoe Machinery Company claiming that these machines are
+infringements and causing considerable litigation.
+
+If one reviews the history of the trade during the past ten years, there
+will be little question but that one will find it has been a period of
+the greatest advancement that the trade has ever known.
+
+Within the time of those who read these words, the way to make a shoe has
+been completely changed. Methods which held their own for centuries have
+disappeared, to be replaced by processes which only recently would have
+been thought impossible, and which have brought within the reach of men
+of modest means a luxury once enjoyed exclusively by the well-to-do. The
+feet of the million are clad to-day as finely as the feet of yesterday’s
+millionaire. Shoes marked by comfort, durability, and style have driven
+to historical museums the stiff and clumsy boots and brogans which not so
+many years ago were worn by those who could not pay to have shoes sewed
+by hand.
+
+The American people spend more than three hundred million dollars every
+year in buying shoes, and average three pairs apiece, and yet few ever
+think about their shoes so long as they do not look clumsy, or wear out
+too quickly, or hurt the foot. Every one likes to buy good shoes as
+cheaply as he can, and every one likes to feel that shoe manufacturers
+are independent and successful, and that workmen get good wages, because
+these things help along prosperity; but that is all. Yet here is an
+industry in which the United States within a decade has come to lead
+the world, and there are many things about it which it would be worth
+while for every one to understand. It is worth while, for instance, to
+know that there is no important operation on a shoe which need be done
+by hand; that in the making of every good shoe no less than fifty-eight
+different machines, and sometimes twice that number, are brought into
+play; that nearly all these machines are of American invention; and
+that they have been so perfectly adjusted one to another that they work
+together almost with the precision of a watch; it is worth while to know
+something about the marvelous system under the encouragement of which
+this typical American industry has blossomed and borne fruit until it
+employs two hundred million dollars of capital and nearly two hundred
+thousand people, and turns out two hundred and fifty million pairs of
+shoes a year; and why it is that the average man you meet to-day has a
+better fitting, better wearing, and better looking shoe than the moneyed
+man of yesterday--at a fraction of the expense.
+
+This remarkable growth is distinctly American. In the United States
+the tendency among the artisan class has been to abandon the slow hand
+process. This tendency has been as strong as the tendency in Europe to
+adhere to it. Moreover, there has developed among the laboring classes
+in the United States a mobility such as is unknown elsewhere in the world.
+
+Another advantage which has contributed to the rapid development of the
+manufacture of shoes in the United States is the comparative freedom from
+inherited and overconservative ideas. This country has entered upon its
+industrial development unfettered by the old order of things, and with a
+tendency on the part of the people to seek the best and quickest way to
+accomplish every object.
+
+[Illustration: Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory.]
+
+In all of the European countries in which the manufacturing of shoes is
+an important industry, the transition from the household to the factory
+system was hampered by guilds, elaborate national and local restrictions,
+and by the national reluctance with which a people accustomed for
+generations to fixed methods of work, in which they have acquired a large
+degree of skill, abandon those methods for new ones. It was natural,
+also, that in spite of the superior advantages of machine methods, hand
+process of manufacture should still continue side by side with them, in
+the European countries, though machine work had long since usurped the
+whole field of the shoe industry in the United States.
+
+As an American goes about among the European shoe factories he is greatly
+surprised at the state of affairs. He is struck by three things which
+are very conspicuous. They are: (1) Lack of use of machinery, lack of
+all sorts of devices in order to save hand labor, which is carried out
+so extensively in the United States. (2) Lack of the division of labor,
+one factory attempting to make four or five kinds of shoes. (3) Lack of
+methods employed for handling large quantities of materials.
+
+One point that is overlooked in considering the shoe industries of the
+two countries is the great difference in organization. In most European
+factories, the manufacturer gets all the orders of different kinds, and
+then attempts to make one or two lines with one or two qualities in the
+same factory. In Switzerland one may find shoes and slippers for men,
+women, and children made under the same roof.
+
+In the United States the manufacturer makes a certain line of shoes in
+one factory, and no other kind. If he has more than one line, he has
+more than one factory, and each factory turns out a distinct shoe for a
+distinct purpose. The manufacturer has his salesmen to sell these shoes.
+
+The advantages of the American system are: (1) The managers and
+workers of a factory turning out a certain line of goods become highly
+specialized in that line, and can produce better results than the workers
+in a factory attempting to make two or three lines of goods. (2) A large
+shoe factory is laid out as a rule to do a certain kind of work, and it
+seldom changes. This practice makes possible a greater production. On the
+other hand we have something to learn from the European organization.
+American manufacturers must meet the foreign trade. In order to do
+this, the manufacturer must cater to the habits, customs, and climatic
+conditions. The European manufacturer does this.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Amhide, black, 58.
+      russet, 59.
+
+    Anatomy of the foot, 77, 80.
+
+    Ankle piece, 246.
+
+    Assembling, 126, 177.
+
+    Automobile leather, 225.
+      tanning of, 226.
+
+
+    Backs, 12.
+
+    Backstay, 2, 177, 247.
+
+    Back strap, 177.
+
+    Bal., 177.
+
+    Ball, 178.
+
+    Bating, 19.
+
+    Beading, 178.
+
+    Beamhouse process, 5.
+
+    Beating out, 178.
+
+    Bellows tongue, 178.
+
+    Belting, 62, 63, 178.
+      by-products, 69.
+      round, 69.
+
+    Belt-knife splits, 60.
+
+    Between substance, 178.
+
+    Bison, 59.
+
+    Blackball, 178.
+
+    Black box chrome side, 58.
+
+    Black hawk patent, 58.
+
+    Blacking the edge, 179.
+
+    Blocking, 179.
+
+    Bloom, 179.
+
+    Blucher, 179.
+
+    Boot, 180.
+
+    Bootee, 180.
+
+    Boris, 59.
+
+    Bottom, 1.
+      filling, 180.
+      scouring, 180.
+
+    Box calf, 55, 180.
+      toe, 181.
+
+    Boxing, 180.
+
+    Branded cowhide, 9.
+
+    Breaking the sole, 181.
+
+    Breast of the heel, 3.
+
+    Brogan, 181.
+
+    Bronko patent, 57.
+
+    Brushing, 181.
+
+    Buckskin, 181.
+
+    Buff, 181.
+
+    Buffing, 181.
+
+    Bull hides, 16.
+
+    Bunions, 84.
+
+    Button fly, 2.
+
+    Butts, 9.
+
+
+    Cable-nailing machine, invention of, 261.
+
+    Cack, 182.
+
+    Cadet kid, 56.
+      side, 57.
+
+    Calf leather, boarded, 40.
+      box, 40.
+      classes of, 40, 41.
+      cadet calf side, 57.
+      Dongola, 59.
+      dry hides, 40.
+      French, 40.
+      mat, 40.
+      Sheboygan, 59.
+      storm, 40.
+      suede, 40.
+      wax, 40.
+
+    Calf side leather, 57.
+      skins, 39, 182.
+
+    Calluses, 83.
+
+    Cambridge calf union splits, 60.
+
+    Cap, 182.
+
+    Carbarettas, 51, 181.
+
+    Carton, 182.
+
+    Cementing, 182.
+
+    Chamois, 182.
+
+    Channeling, 183.
+
+    Channel screwed, 183.
+      stitched, 183.
+      turning, 184.
+
+    Checking, 184.
+
+    Chemical tanning, 23, 24, 25.
+
+    Chrome flexible splits, 61.
+      tannage, 25, 26.
+      tanned embossed splits, 62.
+
+    Cleaning, inside, 184.
+      nails, 184.
+      shoes, 184.
+
+    Clicking, 184.
+
+    Closing, 184.
+      on, 184.
+
+    Colonial, 185.
+
+    Colorado steer hides, 9.
+
+    Colored box chrome side, 58.
+
+    Coltskin, 41, 185.
+
+    Combination last, 185.
+
+    Composition, 185.
+
+    Congress gaiter, 186.
+
+    Cordovan, 186.
+
+    Corns, 83, 84.
+
+    Counter, 124, 186.
+      pasted, 201.
+
+    Coupon tag, 187.
+
+    Cowhide, 187.
+      native, heavy and light, 7-9.
+      branded, 9.
+
+    Creasing vamp, 187.
+
+    Creedmore, 187.
+
+    Creole, 187.
+
+    Crimping, 188.
+
+    Cushion sole, 188.
+
+    Cut-off vamp, 188.
+
+
+    Dyeing, 188.
+
+    Dom Pedro, 188.
+
+    Dongola, 188.
+      calf, 59.
+
+    Dressing, 188.
+
+    Dry importation, 40, 41.
+      salted hides, 12, 32.
+
+
+    Edge setting, 188.
+      trimming, 188.
+
+    Enamel, 189.
+
+    Eyelet, 189.
+
+    Eyeletting, 189.
+
+
+    Facing, 189.
+
+    Factory system, first, 254.
+
+    Fair stitch, 189.
+
+    Faking, 189.
+
+    Fat liquored, 27.
+
+    Findings, 189.
+
+    Finishes of upper leather, 38.
+
+    Finishing of upper leather, 5.
+
+    Flap, 190.
+
+    Flesher, 18.
+
+    Flesh splits leather, 38, 60.
+
+    Flexible bends, 61.
+      splits, 61.
+
+    Follower, 190.
+
+    Foot, 77.
+      adult, 87.
+      anatomy of, 77, 78.
+      astragalus, 78.
+      calcaneum, 78.
+      characteristics of, 81.
+      cuneiform, 79.
+      flatfoot, 78.
+      measurements of, 95.
+      metatarsal, 79.
+      phalanges, 79.
+      rheumatism, 79.
+      structure of, 86.
+
+    Footwear, history of, 250.
+
+    Forepart finishing, 190.
+
+    Form, 190.
+
+    Foxed, 190.
+
+    Foxing, 2, 190.
+
+    Fresh hides, 7.
+
+    Frizzing, 191.
+
+    Front, 191.
+
+    Fudge-stitched, 133.
+
+    Fundamental shoe terms, 1.
+
+    Furniture leather, 225.
+      tanning of, 226.
+
+
+    Gaiter, 191.
+      congress, 186.
+
+    Gem insoles, 191.
+
+    Gemming, 191.
+
+    Glazed kid, 191.
+
+    Gloves, 218.
+      grain, 191.
+      tanning, 221.
+
+    Goatskin, 191.
+
+    Goodyear welt, 192.
+      difference between McKay and, 145.
+
+    Gore, 192.
+
+    Grades of leather, 7.
+
+    Grading, 192.
+
+    Grain leather, 38.
+
+    Green hides, 7.
+
+    Green salted, 12.
+
+    Gum counter, 247.
+
+
+    Half sole, 192.
+
+    Harness leather, 192.
+
+    Heel, 192.
+      breast of, 3.
+      finishing, 193.
+      lining, 193.
+      nailing, 194.
+      nailing machine, invention of, 262.
+      pad, 193.
+      scouring, 194.
+      seat, 194.
+      shaving, 194.
+      trimming, 194.
+
+    Hemlock leather, 29.
+      tanning, 29, 30, 194.
+
+    Hercules storm chrome, 59.
+
+    Hides, 4, 194.
+      bull, 10, 63.
+      classes of, 5, 6.
+      country, 10.
+      dry, 12, 32.
+      dry importation, 40, 41.
+      dry salted, 12, 32.
+      fresh, 7.
+      grades of, 7, 8, 9.
+      green, 7.
+      green salted, 12, 32.
+      imported, 32.
+      quality of, 6.
+
+
+    Inlay, 194.
+
+    Inner sole, 247.
+
+    Inseaming, 195.
+
+    Inseam trimming, 195.
+
+    Instep, 195.
+
+    Iron, 195.
+
+    Ironing uppers, 196.
+
+
+    Juliette, 196.
+
+
+    Kid, buckskin, 52.
+      buff, 52.
+      caster, 51.
+      chamois, 52.
+      characteristics of, 49.
+      Cordovan, 52.
+      dull, 49.
+      glazed, 49, 50.
+      importation of, 45.
+      kangaroo, 52, 196.
+      kangaroo kid side, 58.
+      kinds of finish, 49.
+      mat, 49, 50.
+      method of collecting, 46-48.
+      patent, 49.
+      process of tanning, 49.
+      seal grain, 52.
+      splits, 52.
+      suede, 51.
+
+    Kids, 41, 44, 196.
+
+    Kips, 5, 196.
+
+
+    Lace hook, 196.
+      stay, 2, 196.
+
+    Lacing, 197.
+
+    Lasting, 197.
+
+    Lasts, 97, 197.
+      combination, 185.
+      how made, 97.
+
+    Laying channel, 197.
+
+    Leather, 4.
+      automobile and furniture, 226.
+      belting, 62.
+      effect of cold, 53.
+      gloves, 218.
+      glove tanning, 221.
+      harness, 192.
+      hemlock, 29.
+      products, manufacture of, 218.
+      white, 54.
+
+    Leg cover, 198.
+      lining, 198.
+
+    Leveling, 197.
+
+    Lift, 197.
+
+    Lining, 197.
+
+    Lining-in, 198.
+
+    Lip, 190.
+
+    Loading leather, 198.
+
+
+    Mat royal chrome side, 58.
+
+    McKay shoe, 144, 198, 199.
+      difference between Goodyear welt and, 145.
+      difference between turned and, 152.
+
+    Middle sole, 199.
+
+    Mock welt, 199.
+
+    Molding, 199.
+
+    Monkey skin, 199.
+
+    Morocco, 199.
+
+    Mules, 199.
+
+
+    Nap, 199.
+
+    Native cowhides, 9.
+      steer hides, 9.
+
+    Naumkeaging, 199.
+
+    Nullifier, 200.
+
+
+    Oak-tanned leather, 28, 200.
+
+    Oak tanning, 28, 29.
+
+    Ohio buffs, 10.
+
+    Ooze gusset splits, 61.
+      leather, 200.
+      vamp splits, 62.
+
+    Ottawa, 59.
+      black and russet splits, 60.
+
+    Outer filler, 247.
+
+    Outside cutting, 200.
+      tap, 200.
+
+    Oxford, 200.
+      calf union splits, 60.
+
+
+    Packer hides, 201.
+
+    Packing, 201.
+
+    Pacs, 201.
+
+    Pancake, 201.
+
+    Para, 248.
+
+    Pasted leather, 201.
+
+    Patent leather, 41-43, 201.
+      black hawk, 58.
+      effect of cold on, 43.
+      objections to, 44.
+
+    Pattern, 201.
+
+    Pebble, 202.
+
+    Pegged shoemaking, 160.
+
+    Pegging, 202.
+
+    Perforating, 118.
+
+    Perforation, 202.
+
+    Pickled skins, 18.
+
+    Piping, 248.
+
+    Polish, 202.
+
+    Porpoise, 202.
+
+    Pressing, 202.
+
+    Pulling lasts, 202.
+
+    Pulling over, 202.
+      machine, 127.
+
+    Pump, 202.
+      sole, 202.
+
+
+    Quarter, 2, 203.
+
+
+    Rag counter, 248.
+
+    Rand, 203.
+
+    Rawhide products, 67.
+
+    Relasting, 203.
+
+    Remnants, 33.
+      sole leather, 33-37.
+
+    Repairing, 204.
+
+    Roan, 204.
+
+    Rolling, 204.
+      machine, invention of, 257.
+
+    Rough rounding, 204.
+
+    Royal kid, 56.
+
+    Royalties, 204.
+
+    Royalty system, invention of, 260.
+
+    Rubber, 228.
+      cloth manufacture, 244.
+      commercial grades of, 228.
+      drying, 232.
+      heels, 241.
+      shoe manufacture, 228.
+        calendering, 235.
+        cutting, 235.
+        varnishing, 237.
+        vulcanizing, 237.
+        washing, 231.
+
+    Russet calf, 204.
+      grain, 204.
+
+
+    Sabot, 204.
+
+    Sack lining, 204, 207.
+
+    Sandal, 205, 250.
+
+    Satin calf, 205.
+
+    Scouring breast, 205.
+
+    Screw fastened, 205.
+
+    Seal grain, 205.
+
+    Second lasting, 205.
+
+    Sewing machine, invention of, 257.
+
+    Shank, 1, 205.
+      burnishing, 206.
+      finishing, 206.
+
+    Shanking out, 206.
+
+    Sheboygan calf, 59.
+
+    Sheepskin, 206.
+
+    Sheep tanning, 16, 17.
+
+    Shoe, 103.
+      apprentice, 253.
+      case of, 109.
+      cutting room, 112.
+      departments of, 103.
+      dressing, 142.
+      factories, 103.
+      finishing, 138.
+      heeling, 140.
+      methods of manufacture, 103.
+      parts of, 1.
+      repairing, 167, 170.
+      sizes, 85, 207.
+      stitching, 119, 131.
+      treeing, 140.
+
+    Shoe Machinery Company, organization of, 270.
+
+    Shoemaker, first, in America, 251.
+
+    Shoemaking, 162.
+      old-fashioned, 162.
+      nail method, 161.
+      terms of, 177.
+
+    Shoe pegs, invention of, 257.
+
+    Shoulder, 196.
+
+    Sides, 206.
+
+    Side stay, 248.
+
+    Skins, 6, 207.
+
+    Skirting, 207.
+
+    Skiver, 18, 207.
+
+    Skiving machine, 117.
+
+    Slip, 207.
+
+    Slugging, 207.
+
+    Soaking process, 13, 19.
+
+    Soft tip, 207.
+
+    Sole, 11, 123, 208.
+      leather, 27, 28, 208.
+      laying, 208.
+      breaking of, 181.
+
+    Sorting, 208.
+
+    Spewing, 208.
+
+    Splits, 11, 60-62, 209.
+
+    Spring heel, 209.
+
+    Stamping, 209, 210.
+
+    Standard fastened, 210.
+      screw shoemaking, 160.
+
+    Stay, 209.
+
+    Staying, 210.
+
+    Steer hides, native, 9.
+
+    Stitch aloft, 210.
+
+    Stitch down, 210.
+      fair, 189.
+      separating, 210.
+
+    Stitching, rapid, 203.
+
+    Straight last, 210.
+
+    Stripping, 211.
+
+    Styles, how made, 93.
+
+    Suede, 211.
+
+
+    Tacking on, 211.
+
+    Tack pulling, 211.
+
+    Tampico, 211.
+
+    Tan, 211.
+      royal, 56.
+
+    Tanned leather adulterants, 75.
+      effects of perspiration, 71.
+      lubrication, 72.
+      properties, 70.
+      substitutes, 73, 74, 76.
+      weighing, 75.
+
+    Tannin, 21.
+
+    Tanning, 4, 21, 211.
+      chemical, 21.
+      hemlock, 29, 30.
+      leather for belting, 64, 65, 66.
+      oak, 28, 29.
+      processes of, 21.
+      rapid processes of, 25.
+      tawing, 21, 212.
+      Union, 30, 31.
+      vegetable, 21.
+
+    Tap, 211.
+      putting on, 202.
+      trimming, 212.
+
+    Tawing, 212.
+
+    Tempering, 212.
+
+    Tennis shoe manufacture, 239.
+
+    Texas steer hide, 9.
+
+    Tip, 2, 212.
+      cutting, 212.
+
+    Toe, and heel lasting, 212.
+      box, 181.
+      filler, 248.
+      lining, 248.
+      piece, 213.
+
+    Tongue, 2, 213.
+
+    Top, 1, 213.
+      cutting, 213.
+      facing, 213.
+      left, 213.
+      left scouring, 213.
+      left stitching, 213.
+
+    Treeing, 213.
+
+    Trimming counter, 213.
+      vamp, 213.
+
+    Turned shoe, characteristics of, 156.
+      difference between McKay and, 152.
+      history of, 158.
+
+    Turning, 214.
+      shoe, 151, 214.
+
+
+    Ungrained, 214.
+
+    Unhairing of hides, 15, 19.
+
+    Union-tanned leather, 30, 31.
+
+    Union tanning, 30, 31.
+
+    Upper, 1, 214.
+
+    Upper or dress leather, 37, 38, 55-57.
+
+
+    Vamp, 1, 214, 249.
+      creasing, 187.
+      cutting, 215.
+      form, 249.
+      short, 206.
+
+    Vamping, 215.
+
+    Vegetable tanning, 22.
+      tans, 22.
+
+    Vellum, 215.
+
+    Velour, 215.
+
+    Veneering, 215.
+
+    Vesting, 215.
+
+    Vici, 216.
+
+    Viscolizing, 216.
+
+    Vulcanizing, 243.
+      cold cure, 243.
+      steam cure, 243.
+
+
+    Wash leather, 216.
+
+    Waterproof black, 58.
+
+    Waxed threads, 164.
+
+    Web straps, 249.
+
+    Welts, 129, 216.
+      beating, 217.
+      Goodyear, 192.
+
+    Welting, 217.
+
+    White alum, 217.
+
+    Willow calf leather, 55.
+
+    Wooden case, 217.
+
+
+    Zulu, 59.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and
+Rubber Products, by William H. Dooley
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING ***
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and
+Rubber Products, by William H. Dooley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+Title: A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and Rubber Products
+
+Author: William H. Dooley
+
+Release Date: September 1, 2017 [EBook #55474]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by deaurider and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger">A MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus1" style="width: 520px;">
+<img src="images/illus1.jpg" width="520" height="650" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">An Old-Fashioned Shoemaker. <i>Frontispiece.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger">A MANUAL<br />
+<span class="smaller">OF</span><br />
+SHOEMAKING<br />
+<span class="smaller">AND</span><br />
+LEATHER AND RUBBER<br />
+PRODUCTS</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">BY<br />
+WILLIAM H. DOOLEY<br />
+<span class="smaller">PRINCIPAL OF THE LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">BOSTON<br />
+LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY<br />
+1912</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Copyright, 1912</i>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">By Little, Brown, and Company.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center smaller"><i>All rights reserved.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center smaller">Published, September, 1912.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>The author was asked in 1908 by the
+Lynn Commission on Industrial Education
+to make an investigation of European shoe
+schools and to assist the Commission in
+preparing a course of study for the proposed
+shoe school in the city of Lynn. A close
+investigation showed that there were several
+textbooks on shoemaking published in
+Europe, but that no general textbook on
+shoemaking had been issued in this country
+adapted to meet the needs of industrial,
+trade, and commercial schools or those who
+have just entered the rubber, shoe, and
+leather trades. This book is written to meet
+this need. Others may find it of interest.</p>
+
+<p>The author is under obligations to the
+following persons and firms for information
+and assistance in preparing the book, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
+for permission to reproduce photographs
+and information from their publications:
+Mr. J. H. Finn, Mr. Frank L. West, Head
+of Shoemaking Department, Tuskegee, Ala.,
+Mr. Louis Fleming, Mr. F. Garrison, President
+of <i>Shoe and Leather Gazette</i>, Mr. Arthur
+L. Evans, <i>The Shoeman</i>, Mr. Charles F.
+Cahill, United Shoe Machinery Company,
+Hood Rubber Company, Bliss Shoe Company,
+American Hide and Leather Company,
+Regal Shoe Company, the publishers
+of <i>Hide and Leather</i>, <i>American Shoemaking</i>,
+<i>Shoe Repairing</i>, <i>Boot and Shoe Recorder</i>, <i>The
+Weekly Bulletin</i>, and the New York Leather
+Belting Company.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, the author desires to acknowledge
+his indebtedness to the great
+body of foreign literature on the different
+subjects from which information has been
+obtained.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table summary="Contents">
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr smaller">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#PREFACE">v</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr smaller">CHAPTER</td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Fundamental Shoe Terms</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_ONE">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Hides and their Treatment</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TWO">4</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">III.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Processes of Tanning</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_THREE">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">The Anatomy of the Foot</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_FOUR">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">V.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">How Shoe Styles are Made</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_FIVE">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Departments of a Shoe Factory</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_SIX">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VII.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">McKay and Turned Shoes</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_SEVEN">144</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VIII.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Old-fashioned Shoemaking and Repairing</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_EIGHT">162</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IX.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Leather and Shoemaking Terms</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_NINE">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">X.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Leather Products Manufacture</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TEN">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XI.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Rubber Shoe Manufacture and Terms</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_ELEVEN">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">History of Footwear</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TWELVE">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">281</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table summary="List of illustrations">
+  <tr>
+    <td>An Old-fashioned Shoemaker</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr smaller"><span class="smcap">Facing Page</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus2">2</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Green-salted Calfskin</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus3">12</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Tanning Process</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus4">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Tanning Process, showing Rotating Drums</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus5">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Sole Leather Offal</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus6">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Bones and Joints of the Human Foot</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus7">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus8">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>A Last in Three Stages of Manufacture</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus9">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>A Modern Shoe Factory</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus10">104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>A Skin Divided before Cutting</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus11">112</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cutting Leather</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus12">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Goodyear Stitching</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus13">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Stock Fitting Room</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus14">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Lasting</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus15">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Welting</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus16">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Rough Rounding</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus17">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Edge Trimming</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus18">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Leveling</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus19">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span>Heeling</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus20">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Sole Scouring</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus21">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Heel Shaping</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus22">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Ironing</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus23">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Packing</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus24">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus25">144</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Stitching</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus26">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Tacking</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus27">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus28">160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Side of Leather divided as to Quality</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus29">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus30">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus31">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Crude Rubber</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus32">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Washing and Drying</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus33">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Calender Room</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus34">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cutting Room</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus35">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus36">240</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Heel-making Department</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus37">242</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Parts of a Rubber Boot</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus38">248</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Insole for Hand-sewed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus39">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Hand-sewed Shoe</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus40">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus41">276</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>SHOEMAKING</h1>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_ONE">CHAPTER ONE<br />
+<span class="smaller">FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS</span></h2>
+
+<p>Before explaining the manufacture of
+shoes, it is necessary to fix definitely in
+our minds the names of their different parts.
+Examine your shoes and note the parts that
+are here described.</p>
+
+<p>The bottom of the shoe is called the sole.
+The part above the sole is called the upper.
+The top of the shoe is that part measured
+by the lacing which covers the ankle and
+the instep. The vamp is that section which
+covers the sides of the foot and the toes.
+The shank is that part of the sole of the shoe
+between the heel and the ball. This name
+is often applied to a piece of metal or other
+substance in that part of the sole, intended
+to give support to the arch of the foot. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+throat of the vamp is that part which curves
+around the lower edge of the top, where
+the lacing starts.</p>
+
+<p>Backstay is a term used to denote a strip
+of leather covering and strengthening the
+back seam of the shoe. Quarter is a term
+used mostly in low shoes to denote the rear
+part of the upper when a full vamp is not
+used. Button fly is the portion of the upper
+containing the buttonholes of a button shoe.
+Tip is the toe piece of a shoe, stitched to
+the vamp and outside of it. The lace stay
+is a term used to denote a strip of leather
+reënforcing the eyelet holes. Tongue denotes
+a narrow strip of leather used on all
+lace shoes to protect the instep from the
+lacing and weather.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus2" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus2.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear. <i><a href="#Page_2">Page 2.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Foxing is the name applied to leather of
+the upper that extends from the sole to
+the laces in front, and to about the height
+of the counter in the back, being the length
+of the upper. It may be in one or more
+pieces, and is often cut down to the shank<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+in circular form. If in two pieces, that part
+covering the counter is called a heel fox.
+Overlay is a term applied to leather attached
+to the upper part of the vamp of a slipper.
+The breast of the heel is the inner part of
+the heel, that is, the section nearest the
+shank.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_TWO">CHAPTER TWO<br />
+<span class="smaller">HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT</span></h2>
+
+<p>If we examine our shoes, we will find
+that the different parts are composed of
+material called leather. The bottom of the
+shoe is of hard leather, while the part above
+the sole is of a softer, more pliable leather.
+This leather is nothing more than the hides
+of different animals treated in such a way
+as to remove the fat and the hair.</p>
+
+<p>After the hides have been taken from the
+dead body of the animal, they are quite
+heavily salted to preserve them from spoiling.
+In this salted condition they are
+shipped to the tanneries.</p>
+
+<p>The process or series of processes by
+which the hides and skins of animals are
+converted into leather is called tanning.
+The process may be divided into three
+groups of subprocesses as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Beamhouse process, which removes the
+hair from the hides and prepares them for
+the actual process of the tanning or conversion
+into leather; tanning, which converts
+the raw hide into leather; and finishing,
+which involves a number of operations, the
+objects of which are to give the leather the
+color that may be desired and also to make
+it of uniform thickness, and impart to it the
+softness and the finish that is required for
+a particular purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Hides are divided roughly in the tannery,
+according to the size, into three general
+classes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) Hides, skins from fully grown animals,
+as cows, oxen, horses, buffaloes, walrus,
+etc. These are thick, heavy leather, used
+for shoe soles, large machinery belting,
+trunks, etc., where stiffness, strength, and
+wearing qualities are desired. The untanned
+hides weigh from twenty-five to
+sixty pounds.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Kips, skins of the undersized animals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+of the above group, weighing between
+fifteen and twenty-five pounds.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Skins from small animals, such as
+calves, sheep, goats, dogs, etc. This last
+group gives a light, but strong and pliable
+leather, which may be used for a great many
+purposes, such as men’s shoes and the
+heavier grades of women’s shoes.</p>
+
+<p>The hides, kips, and skins are divided into
+various grades, according to their weight,
+size, condition, and quality.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of the hides not only depends
+upon the kind of animal, but also upon its
+fodder and mode of living. The hides of
+wild cattle yield a more compact and stronger
+leather than those of our domesticated
+beasts. Among these latter the stall-fed have
+better hides than the meadow-fed, or grazing
+cattle. The thickness of the hide varies
+considerably on different animals and on the
+parts of the body, the thickest part of the
+bull being near the head and the middle of
+the back, while at the belly the hide is thinnest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+These differences are less conspicuous
+in sheep, goats, and calves. As regards
+sheep, it would appear that their skin is
+generally thinnest where their wool is longest.</p>
+
+<p>In the raw, untanned state, and with
+the hair still on, the hides are termed
+“green” or “fresh.” Fresh, or green hides
+are supplied to the tanners by the packers
+or the butchers, or are imported, either dry
+or salted.</p>
+
+<p>Hides are obtained either from the regular
+packing houses or from farmers who
+kill their own stock, and do not skin the
+animal as scientifically as the regular packing
+houses, in which case they are called
+country hides. There are different grades
+of hides and leather, and these different
+grades are divided in the commercial world
+into the five following grades:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h3>I. NATIVE HIDES</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Native Steers</li>
+<li>Native Cows, heavy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></li>
+<li>Native Cows, light</li>
+<li>Branded Cows</li>
+<li>Butts</li>
+<li>Colorado Steers</li>
+<li>Texas Steers, heavy</li>
+<li>Texas Steers, light</li>
+<li>Texas Steers, ex-light</li>
+<li>Native Bulls</li>
+<li>Branded Bulls</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>II. COUNTRY HIDES</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Ohio Buffs</li>
+<li>Ohio Ex.</li>
+<li>Southerns</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>III. DRY HIDES</h3>
+
+<p>(Raised on plain. Rough side suitable for soles.)</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Buenos Ayres</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>IV. CALFSKINS</h3>
+
+<p>(Green salted)</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Chicago City</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>V. PARIS CITY CALFSKINS</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Light</li>
+<li>Medium</li>
+<li>Heavy</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Hides obtained from steers raised on
+Western farms are known as native steer
+hides.</p>
+
+<p>Native cowhide (heavy) is hide weighing
+from fifty-five to sixty-five pounds, obtained
+from cows.</p>
+
+<p>Native cowhide (light) is cowhide weighing
+under fifty-five pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Branded cowhide is hide obtained from
+cows that are branded on the face of the
+hide.</p>
+
+<p>Butts is a term applied to the part of the
+hide remaining after cutting off the head,
+shoulders, and strip of the belly.</p>
+
+<p>Colorado steer hide is from Colorado
+steers, which are very light.</p>
+
+<p>Texas steer hide comes in three grades,
+heavy, light, and extra light. The heavy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+grade is very heavy because the animal is
+allowed to graze on the plains. That is the
+reason why it is heavier than the Colorado
+steer hide, which is raised on the farm.</p>
+
+<p>Bull hide is divided into two classes, the
+regular hide and the branded grade. The
+branded grade usually is one cent a pound
+less than the regular.</p>
+
+<p>Country hides are of three grades, Ohio
+Buffs, Ohio Ex., and Southern. The Ohio
+Buffs weigh from forty to sixty pounds.
+The Ohio Ex. weighs from twenty to forty
+pounds. Southern hides have spots without
+hair and other blemishes on them, due to
+the sting of insects. This makes the
+Southern hide inferior to the Ohio, Indiana,
+Michigan, and Chicago hides that have no
+such blemishes. Ohio Butt hides are the
+best, because in Ohio they kill a great many
+young calves, while in Chicago young cows
+(that have calved) are killed, causing the
+hide to be flanky.</p>
+
+<p>The season of the year in which cattle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+are slaughtered has considerable influence
+upon both the weight and condition of the
+hide. During the winter months, by reason
+of the hair being longer and thicker, the hide
+is heavier, ranging from seventy-five to
+eighty pounds, and gradually decreasing
+in weight as the season becomes warmer
+and the coat is shed, until in June and
+July it weighs from seventy down to fifty-five
+pounds, the hair then being thin and
+short. The best hides of the year are
+October hides, and short-haired hides are
+better for leather purposes than long-haired
+ones.</p>
+
+<p>A thick hide which is to be used for
+upper leather is cut into sides before the
+tanning process is completed. This is
+performed by passing it between rollers
+where it comes in contact with a sharp
+knife-edge, which splits it into two or more
+sheets. Great care must be exercised in
+cutting the leather in order to have good
+“splits” (sheets of leather). A split from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+a heavy hide is not as good as a whole of a
+lighter leather.</p>
+
+<p>Butts and backs are selected from the
+stoutest and heaviest oxhides. The butt
+is formed by cutting off the head, the
+shoulder, and the strip of the belly. The
+butt or back of oxhide forms the stoutest
+and heaviest leather, such as is used for
+soles of boots, harness, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus3" style="width: 490px;">
+<img src="images/illus3.jpg" width="490" height="650" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Green-Salted Calfskin. <i><a href="#Page_12">Page 12.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hides and skins are received at the
+tannery in one of three conditions, viz.
+green-salted, dry, or dry-salted. Very few
+hides are received by tanners in fresh or
+unsalted condition, salt being necessary to
+preserve them from decay. Green-salted
+hides are those that have been salted in
+fresh condition, tied up in bundles, and
+shipped to the tanner. Dry hides are those
+that were taken from the carcass and dried
+without being salted; these are usually
+stiff and hard. Dry-salted hides are hides
+that were heavily salted while they were
+fresh, and then dried. The hides and skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+that are received from the slaughterhouses
+of this country are almost invariably green-salted;
+those from foreign countries are
+green-salted, dry, and dry-salted.</p>
+
+<p>It does not matter in what condition the
+hides are received or the kind of leather
+into which they are to be tanned; they all
+require soaking in water before any attempt
+is made to remove the hair or to tan them.
+The object of the soaking process, as it is
+called, is to thoroughly soften the hides
+and to remove from them all salt, dirt,
+blood, etc. Ordinary hides are usually
+soaked from twenty-four to forty-eight
+hours. Dry hides require much longer.
+The water should be changed once or twice
+during the process, since dirty water may
+injure the hides. Soft water is better than
+hard for this process. Where the water is
+hard, it is customary for the tanner to add
+a quantity of borax to it to increase its
+cleansing power and to hasten the softening
+of the hides.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When dry hides have become soft enough
+to bend without cracking, they are put
+into a machine and beaten and rolled, then
+soaked again until they are soft and pliable.
+It is very important that all the salt and
+dirt are removed during the process of
+soaking, as they injure the quality of the
+leather if they are not removed before
+the hides are unhaired. When the soaking
+process is completed, the lumps of fat and
+flesh that may have been left on by the
+butcher are removed by hand or by a
+machine, and the hides are then in condition
+to be passed along into the next process.
+The parts that cannot be made into leather,
+such as tails, teats, etc., are trimmed off
+before the hides are soaked. Large hides
+are cut into two pieces or halves, called
+“sides,” after they have been soaked.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of taking the hair from
+the hides and skins, lime, sulphide of
+sodium, and red arsenic are used. Lime
+is sometimes used alone, but usually one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+of the other two chemicals is mixed with it.
+The lime is dissolved in hot water, a quantity
+of either sulphide of sodium or red
+arsenic is added to it, and the solution is
+then mixed with water in a vat, the hides
+being immersed in this liquor until the hair
+can be easily removed. The action of the
+unhairing liquor is to swell the hides, then
+to dissolve the perishable animal portion
+and loosen the hair so that it can be rubbed
+or pulled off.</p>
+
+<p>There are several different processes of
+unhairing the hides. Each tanner uses the
+process that will help to give the leather
+the qualities that it should have, such as
+softness and pliability for shoe and glove
+leather, or firmness and solidity for sole
+and belting leather. This is one of the
+most important in the series of tannery
+processes, and if the hides are not unhaired
+properly and not prepared for tanning as
+they should be, the leather will not be right
+when it is tanned and finished.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There is also a process of unhairing, called
+“sweating,” which softens the hide and
+loosens the hair so that it can be scraped off.
+In this process the hides begin to decay before
+the hair is loose; it is therefore a dangerous
+process to use and must be carefully watched
+or the hides will be entirely spoiled. Sweating
+is never used for the finer, softer kinds
+of leather. It is applied chiefly to dry
+hides for sole, lace, and belt leather. It is
+an old-fashioned process and is not used as
+much nowadays as some years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The pelts of sheep are salted at the
+slaughterhouses and then shipped to the
+tannery. Here they are thrown into water
+and left to soak twenty-four hours to
+loosen the dirt and dissolve the salt. The
+pelts are next passed through machines that
+clean the wool, and any particles of flesh
+remaining on the inner or flesh side are
+removed. The pelts are then in condition
+to have the wool removed. As long as a
+sheepskin has the wool upon it, it is called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+a pelt; as soon as the wool has been taken
+off, it is called a skin or a “slat.”</p>
+
+<p>Each pelt is spread out smoothly on a
+table with the wool down and the inner or
+flesh side up. A mixture of lime and
+sulphide of sodium is next applied uniformly
+over the skin with a brush. The pelt is
+then folded up and placed in a pile with
+others. The solution that was applied
+penetrates the skin and loosens the wool,
+which, at the end of twenty-four hours,
+more or less, can be easily pulled off with
+the hands or rubbed off with a dull instrument
+or stick. The workman must be
+careful not to get any of the solution on to
+the wool, as it dissolves it and makes it
+worthless. Since the wool is valuable, the
+solution must be applied to the flesh side
+very carefully so that it does no injury.
+The wool that is removed from the skins is
+called “pulled wool.”</p>
+
+<p>The slat is now ready to be limed, washed,
+pickled, and tanned. Heavy skins are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+often split into two sheets after they have
+been limed. The part from the wool side
+is called a skiver, and that from the flesh
+side is called a flesher.</p>
+
+<p>After the skins have been limed, they are
+bated and washed, which makes them soft,
+clean, and white; they are then put into a
+solution of salt, sulphuric acid, and water,
+called “pickle,” and after a few hours they
+are taken out, drained, and tanned.</p>
+
+<p>Large quantities of sheepskins are sold
+to tanners in the pickled condition by those
+who make a business of preparing such
+skins and selling the wool. Pickled skins
+can be kept an indefinite length of time
+without spoiling; they can also be dried
+and worked out into a cheap white leather
+without any further tanning whatever.
+Most of such skins, however, are sold to
+tanners, who tan them into leather. Sheepskins
+contain considerable grease, which
+must be removed before the leather can be
+sold.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For some processes of tanning, calfskins,
+goatskins, and cattle hides are also pickled
+the same as sheepskins; for other processes
+they are not pickled, but are thoroughly
+bated or delimed, washed, and cleansed.
+Heavy hides are sometimes split out of the
+lime; more frequently, however, they are
+not split until after they have been tanned.</p>
+
+<p>To capitulate, the preparatory processes
+may be briefly described as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Soaking, which dissolves the salt, removes
+the dirt and makes the hides soft and
+comparatively clean.</p>
+
+<p>Liming and unhairing, which swell the
+hides and dissolve the perishable animal
+portion, loosen the hair, and put the hides
+into proper condition for tanning. Hides
+tanned without liming, even if the hair is
+removed by some chemical, do not make
+pliable leather, but are stiff and hard.</p>
+
+<p>Bating, which removes the lime from the
+hides.</p>
+
+<p>Pickling, which helps in the tanning later,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+and keeps the hides and skins from spoiling
+if they are not tanned at once.</p>
+
+<p>The lumps of fat and flesh that may be on
+the hides are removed by machinery or by
+placing the hide over a beam and scraping it
+with a knife. The hair, when it is loosened
+by the lime, is removed by a machine or by
+hand.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_THREE">CHAPTER THREE<br />
+<span class="smaller">PROCESSES OF TANNING</span></h2>
+
+<p>The various processes of tanning may
+be roughly divided into two classes,
+vegetable chemical and mineral chemical.
+The first class is often spoken of in tanneries
+simply as the “vegetable” while the second
+is called “chemical” process. In the vegetable
+processes the tanning is accomplished
+by tannin, which is found in various barks
+and woods of trees and leaves of plants. In
+the so-called chemical processes the tanning
+is done with mineral salts and acids which
+produce an entirely different kind of leather
+from that procured by vegetable tanning.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a method of tanning, or,
+more properly speaking, tawing, in which
+alum and salt are used. This process
+makes white leather that is used for many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+purposes; it is also colored and used in
+the manufacture of fine gloves. Leather
+is also made by tanning skins with oil.
+Chamois skins are made in this way.</p>
+
+<p>The materials that are used to tan hides
+and skins act upon the hide fibers in such
+a way that the hides are rendered proof
+against decay and become pliable and strong.
+There are many vegetable tans; they are
+used for sole leather, upper leather, and
+colored leather for numerous purposes.
+The bark of hemlock trees is one of the
+principal tans. The woods and barks
+of oak, chestnut, and quebracho trees
+are often used. Palmetto roots yield a
+good tan. Large quantities of leather are
+treated with gambier and various other
+tanning materials that come from foreign
+countries. Sumac leaves, which are imported
+from Sicily, contain tannin that
+makes soft leather suitable for hat sweatbands,
+suspender trimmings, etc. Sumac
+is also obtained from the State of Virginia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+but the foreign leaves contain more tannin
+and make better leather than the
+American.</p>
+
+<p>To a large extent the so-called chemical
+processes have supplanted the vegetable
+processes, that is, old tan bark and sumac
+processes; but in some tanneries both
+methods are used on different kinds of
+skins.</p>
+
+<p>In the old bark process the tan bark is
+ground coarse and is then treated in leaches
+with hot water until the tanning quality is
+drawn out. The liquor so obtained is used
+at various strengths as needed.</p>
+
+<p>In the newer method the tan liquor is
+displaced by a solution of potassium bichromate,
+which produces its results with much
+less expenditure of time.</p>
+
+<p>When the hides or skins are ready for
+the tanning process, they are put into a
+revolving drum, known as a “pinwheel,”
+or into a pit in which are revolving paddles,
+with a dilute solution of potassium dichromate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+or sodium dichromate, acidified with
+hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. If the pinwheel
+is employed, it is revolved for seven
+hours or longer; after which time the
+liquor is drawn off and replaced by an
+acidified solution of sodium thiosulphate or
+bisulphite, and then the revolution is continued
+several hours longer. If the pit is
+used, the skins are removed to another
+drum containing the second solution, and
+kept at rest or overturned for a like period.</p>
+
+<p>In removing the skins from the pinwheel
+or vat, and in handling them after treatment
+with lime for the loosening of the hair, the
+hands and arms of the workmen are seriously
+injured, becoming raw if not protected by
+rubber gloves; even with gloves it is difficult
+to prevent injury, and in some establishments
+the workmen are relieved by
+the substitution of a single-bath process,
+in which the liquor is less harmful to the
+skin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus4" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus4.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Tanning Process</p>
+<p class="caption">Showing the vats, the unhairing and liming processes. <i><a href="#Page_24">Page 24.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hides are then removed from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+pits, washed and brushed, followed by slow
+drying in the air. When partly dried, they
+are placed in a pile and covered until heating
+is induced. They are then dampened
+and rolled with brass rollers to give the
+leather solidity. Sole leather is oiled but
+little. Weight is increased by adding glucose
+and salt.</p>
+
+<p>Various rapid processes of tanning have
+been devised in which the hides are suspended
+in strong liquors or are tanned in
+large revolving drums. It is claimed that
+this hastens the process, but the product
+has been criticized as lacking substance or
+being brittle.</p>
+
+<p>Chrome tannage has been chiefly developed
+in this country during the last twenty
+years and is now in general use. It consists
+in throwing an insoluble chromium hydroxide
+or oxide on the fibers of a skin which
+has been impregnated with a soluble chromium
+salt&mdash;potassium bichromate. Other
+salts like basic chromium chloride, chromium<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+chromate, and chromic alum are also used.
+The hydrochloric or sulphuric acid acts
+by setting free chromic acid.</p>
+
+<p>After several hours, the skin shows a
+uniform yellow when cut through its thickest
+part. It is then drained and the skin
+worked in a solution of sodium bisulphite
+and mineral acid (to free sulphur dioxide).
+The chromic acid is absorbed by the fiber
+and later reduced by sulphur dioxide.</p>
+
+<p>In the making of chrome black leather
+each tanner has his own method. Contrary
+to the general belief, there are many different
+methods of chrome tannage. No two tanneries
+employ just the same process.</p>
+
+<p>Tanners of chrome leather seek to produce
+leather suitable for the particular
+demands made upon it by the peculiarities
+or characteristics of the varying seasons.
+Summer shoes require a cool, light leather;
+at other times a heavier tannage is essential,
+with some call for a practically waterproof
+product.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All leathers, whether vegetable-or chrome-tanned,
+must be “fat liquored.” That is
+to say, a certain amount of fatty material
+must be put into the skin in order that it
+may be mellow, workable, and serviceable.
+This is very essential in producing calf
+leather. Fat liquors usually contain oil
+and soap, which have been boiled in water
+and made into a thin liquor. The leather
+is put into a drum with the hot fat liquor;
+the drum is set in motion, and as it revolves
+the leather tumbles about in the drum and
+absorbs the oil and soap from the water.
+It is the fat liquor that makes the leather
+soft and strong.</p>
+
+<p>Leather used in shoes is divided into two
+classes: sole leather and upper leather.</p>
+
+<p>Sole leather is a heavy, solid, stiff leather
+and may be bent without cracking. It is
+the foundation of the shoe, and therefore
+should be of the best material. The hides
+of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for
+this purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The hide that is tanned for sole leather is
+soaked for several days in a weak solution
+(which is gradually made stronger) of oak or
+hemlock tan made from the bark. Oak-tanned
+hide is preferred and may be known
+by its light color. A chemical change takes
+place in the fiber of the hide. This is a
+high-grade tannage, and is distinguished
+principally by its fine fibers and close,
+compact texture.</p>
+
+<p>Oak sole leather, by reason of its tough
+character, and its close, fibrous texture,
+resists water and will wear well down
+before cracking. It is by many considered
+better than other leather for flexible-sole
+shoes, requiring waterproof qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Sole leather is divided into three classes
+according to the tanning&mdash;oak, hemlock,
+and union.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus5" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus5.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Tanning Process</p>
+<p class="caption">Showing the rotating drums. <i>See <a href="#Page_24">page 24</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Oak tanning is as follows: the hides are
+hung in pits containing weak or nearly
+spent liquors from a previous tanning, and
+agitated so as to take up tannin evenly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Strong liquor would harden the surface
+so as to prevent thorough penetration into
+the interior of the hides. After ten or
+twelve days, the hides are taken out and
+laid away in fresh tan and stronger liquor.
+This process is repeated as often as necessary
+for eight to ten months. At the end of this
+time the hide has absorbed all of the tannin
+which it will take up.</p>
+
+<p>Hemlock tanning is similar to the oak
+tanning in process. The hemlock tan is a
+red shade. Hemlock produces a very hard
+and inflexible leather. It is modified by
+use of bleaching materials which are applied
+to the leather after being tanned. It is sold
+in sides without being trimmed, while the
+oak is sold in backs, with belly and head
+trimmed off.</p>
+
+<p>Hemlock leather is used extensively and
+almost principally for men’s and boys’
+stiff-soled, heavy shoes, where no flexibility
+is required or expected. Its principal desirable
+quality is its resistance to trituration,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+or being ground to a powder, and its use in
+men’s and boys’ pegged, nailed, or standard
+screw shoes is not in any way objectionable
+to the wearer. In fact, for this class of
+shoes, it is probably the best leather that
+can be used. But when hemlock is used
+in men’s and boys’ Goodyear welt shoes,
+where a flexible bottom is expected and
+required, it generally does not give good
+results. It cannot satisfactorily resist the
+constant flexing to which it is subjected,
+and after the sole is worn half through, the
+constant bending causes it to crack crosswise.
+On this account it becomes like a
+sieve, and has no power of resistance in
+water, and therefore it is not at all suited
+to flexible-bottomed shoes.</p>
+
+<p>In “union-tanned” hides, both oak and
+hemlock are used and the result is a compromise
+in both color and quality. This
+tan was first used about fifty years ago.
+Twenty-five years ago the union leather
+tanners began to experiment with bleaching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+materials to avoid the use of oak bark,
+which was becoming scarce and high priced,
+and eventually developed a system of tanning
+union leather with hemlock or kindred
+tanning agents, excluding oak. The red
+color and the hard texture were modified
+by bleaching the leather to the desired
+color and texture. This produces leather
+which has not the fine, close tannage of
+genuine oak leather and at the same time
+lacks the compact, hard character of hemlock
+leather. Union leather produced in
+this manner is a sort of mongrel or hybrid
+leather, being neither oak nor hemlock.
+On account of its economy in cutting
+qualities, however, it is largely used in the
+manufacture of medium-priced shoes where
+a certain degree of flexibility is required in
+the sole. This is particularly true of women’s
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Union leather is sold largely in backs and
+trimmed the same as oak, though not so
+closely.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sole leather is also made nowadays by
+tanning the hides by the chrome or chemical
+process. This leather is very durable
+and pliable and is used on athletic and sporting
+shoes. It has a light green color and
+is much lighter in weight than the oak or
+hemlock leather.</p>
+
+<p>Many kinds of hide are used for sole
+leather. This country does not produce
+nearly enough hides for the demand, and
+great quantities are imported from abroad,
+although most of the imported hides come
+from South America. Imported hides are
+divided into two general classes, dry hides
+and green-salted hides.</p>
+
+<p>Dry hides are of two kinds, the dry
+“flint,” which are dried carefully after
+being taken from the animal and cured
+without salt. These generally make good
+leather, although if sunburnt, the leather is
+not strong. “Dry-salted hides” are salted
+and cured to a dry state. Dry hides of
+both kinds are used for hemlock leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+only, although all hemlock leather is not
+made from dry hides.</p>
+
+<p>Green-salted hides are used in making
+oak-tanned leather as well as hemlock, and
+those used by United States tanners come
+largely from domestic points; but there is a
+variable amount imported each year from
+abroad, principally from Europe and South
+America. Green-salted hides are of two
+general classes, those branded and those
+free of brands.</p>
+
+<p>Cow and steer hides of the branded type
+are used by tanners of oak and union leather.
+Those not branded are used more largely for
+belting and upholstering leathers, a small
+part finding their way into hemlock leather.</p>
+
+<p>Sole leather remnants, strictly speaking,
+include such a wide variety of items that
+it is difficult to cover them all. Few people,
+however, realize the big range of usefulness
+of this class of stock. While not exactly a
+by-product, remnants are often classed as
+such. Under the class of sole leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+remnants are included sole leather offal,
+such as heads, bellies, shoulders, shanks,
+shins, men’s heeling, men’s half heeling,
+men’s and women’s three-and four-piece
+heeling, etc. Stock that cannot be used
+in the shoe business goes into the chemical
+and fertilizer trade, among other outlets.
+By a special acid process of burning this
+stock, ammonia is derived from it, which
+goes into fertilizer; and another by-product
+is sulphuric acid for the chemical trade.
+The amount of ammonia obtained is small,
+being about seven per cent of ammonia to
+a ton of sole leather scrap. This is mixed
+with fertilizer and sold mostly in the Southern
+States, and to a small extent in the West,
+there being a law in many of the Western
+States against the use of fertilizer made
+from leather products, on account of its
+low grade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus6" style="width: 465px;">
+<img src="images/illus6.jpg" width="465" height="650" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Sole Leather Offal</p>
+<p class="caption">Showing bellies, shoulders, etc. <i><a href="#Page_35">Page 35.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the disposition of offal, heads are used
+for taps, top lifts, and under lifts. Shoulders
+are used for outsoles and inner soles, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+bellies are used for medium to heavy taps
+and counters. Lightweight bellies and
+shanks are utilized for making box toes
+and counters.</p>
+
+<p>Shanks are also used for taps and under
+lifts. This stock is solid and substantial
+and well suited for these purposes. The
+bellies, being flexible, are the best part of
+the hide obtainable for inner soles.</p>
+
+<p>In cutting out soles, the manufacturer
+accumulates a considerable quantity of
+solid or center pieces, which are used for
+small top lifts, also for “Cuban” tops,
+thereby using up the bulk of the small
+heavy scrap that ordinarily would be sold
+for pieced heeling. There is also a demand
+for similar stock from the hardware trade,
+where it is used for making mallet and tool
+handles, also for wagon and carriage
+washers. Large quantities of men’s and
+women’s heeling and half heeling go to
+England, where it is cut up by heel manufacturers
+into lifts and sectional lifts for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+the English trade; there being a shortage
+of this class of offal there.</p>
+
+<p>The shoe manufacturer, after cutting his
+soles and taps, is obliged to skive them to
+get the particular iron he needs. This
+leaves what is known as a “flesh sole
+shape,” also a “tap shape.” These skivings
+are pasted together by another class of
+trade and again used for inner soling and
+taps in the cheaper grades of shoes. Smaller
+skivings, or waste, after sorting out the sole
+and tap shapes, are sold to the leather
+board trade. This eventually comes back
+to the shoe trade in the shape of leather
+board and is cut into heel lifts. The waste
+after cutting heel lifts is again resold to
+the leather board trade and makes another
+round trip to the shoe manufacturer. This
+illustration, as well as many others in the
+leather remnant business, demonstrates the
+scientific principle that nothing is ever
+entirely lost. In regard to pieced heel lifts,
+these are made in either two, three, or four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+sections. This refers to what are known as
+sectional heel lifts. Scrap leather is also
+used for shanking for the European trade.</p>
+
+<p>Soles and taps, known as rejects, that is,
+those thrown out by the high-grade trade,
+are sold to manufacturers of cheaper lines.
+A shoe manufacturer cutting his own soles
+and buying sole leather in sides, after sorting
+out the soles suited to his own requirements,
+will sell what he cannot use to remnant
+dealers, who in turn re-sell them to shoe
+manufacturers requiring that particular
+class of stock. The scrap leather, or remnant
+dealer, thus forms a useful link in the
+chain of distribution, furnishing a market
+where shoe and leather manufacturers may
+dispose of their surplus products to best
+advantage, and providing a source of supply
+for buyers who wish any particular article
+to suit their individual needs.</p>
+
+<p>Upper or dressed leather is made from
+kips or large calfskins. It is tanned and
+finished like all other forms of leather by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+variations of the foregoing process. Thick
+hides are often split thin by machinery,
+and the parts retained and finished separately.
+The parts of the leather from the
+hair side are most valuable and are called
+“grain” leather; the inner parts or “flesh
+splits” are made into a variety of different
+kinds of leather by waxing, oiling, and
+polishing.</p>
+
+<p>It is finished by scouring with brushes and
+then rubbed with a piece of glass, which
+removes creases and wrinkles and stretches
+the leather. Then it is stuffed with a
+mixture of oil, soap, and tallow, which is
+worked into it by rolling. Various finishes
+are given to leather, such as seal grain,
+buff, glove grain, oil grain, satin calf,
+russet, plain shoe, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Upper leathers are blacked by rubbing with
+a mixture of lampblack and oil or tallow, or
+with a solution of copperas and logwood.</p>
+
+<p>No tanning process, no matter how good
+or thorough, can make firm, serviceable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+wear-resisting leather out of all portions
+of any hide, because nature made some
+parts of every hide porous, spongy, and
+lacking in fibrous strength.</p>
+
+<p>Calfskins used by tanners are of several
+classes. American calfskins, taken off in
+the United States and Canada, are usually
+sold green pelted. Farmers raise only a
+small fraction of the calves born. Each
+cow must produce a calf in order to insure a
+maximum flow of milk. Most of the farmers
+keep cows to produce milk, hence they
+sell the young calves for veal and use their
+skins for high-grade calf leather.</p>
+
+<p>In European countries farmers fatten
+their calves before selling them in order to
+get a higher price for the veal. The skin
+is not so valuable for leather as the skin
+from younger calves, and it is used for
+lower-value leathers.</p>
+
+<p>Calfskin is not split. A heavier weight
+skin might be. It is shaved to a uniform
+thickness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Calf leather is divided into the following
+classes, depending upon the finish of the
+leather:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Boarded calf (made in both chrome and
+bark tannage).</p>
+
+<p>Wax calf, finished on the flesh side with a
+waxy, hard surface.</p>
+
+<p>Box calf is a proprietary name. It is
+boarded&mdash;rubbed with a board to raise the
+grain. It is known by minute, squarelike
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>Mat calf is a dull-finished calfskin, used
+more in topping.</p>
+
+<p>Suede calf is finished on flesh side. Most
+makes of suede calf are chromed, although
+there are some vegetable.</p>
+
+<p>Storm calf is a heavy skin, finished for
+winter wear. Considerable oil is used in
+finishing.</p>
+
+<p>French calf is finished on flesh side.</p>
+
+<p>Dry hides are obtained from Buenos
+Ayres, where the cattle are raised on the
+plains. This city exports a large quantity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+hides, dry, salted, and cured by smoking.
+The hides of cows generally yield inferior
+grain leather; but South American cowhides
+may be worked for light sole leather.</p>
+
+<p>Calves’ hides are thinner, but when well
+tanned, curried, and dressed, they yield a
+very soft and supple leather for boots and
+shoes. They are finished with wax and
+oil on the flesh side, and can also be finished
+on the hair (grain of skin).</p>
+
+<p>Calves’ skin (green salted).</p>
+
+<p>Paris City calfskins. These are obtained
+in three grades&mdash;light, medium, and heavy.</p>
+
+<p>Light grades run from four to five,
+or seven to eight pounds; medium grades
+run from seven to nine pounds; heavy
+grades run from nine to twelve pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Patent leather may be made from colt,
+calf, or kid skin. Coltskin is the skin of
+young horses, or split skins of mature
+horses.</p>
+
+<p>Patent colt and kid are used for the most
+part in the medium fine grades, and patent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+side (cowhide) is used in the medium and
+cheaper grades. Chrome tanned are used entirely
+in the manufacture of patent leather.</p>
+
+<p>Patent leather, as it appears in shoes,
+may be described either as varnished leather,
+coltskin, or kid, and sometimes the French
+use calfskin. The process is largely a
+secret one, although there is no longer any
+patent on the principle of the same. It is
+made by shaving the skins on the flesh side
+or hair side to a uniform thickness. Then
+it is de-greased to put the skin in condition
+to receive the finish and protect the same
+from peeling off. Successive coats of liquid
+black varnish are applied, the first coats
+being dried and rubbed down, so as to work
+the liquid thoroughly into the fibers of the
+leather. The last coat is applied with a brush,
+and baked to from one hundred and twenty
+to one hundred and forty degrees Fahrenheit
+for thirty-six hours and then allowed to dry
+in direct sunlight for from six to ten hours,
+which seems to be essential to remove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+the sticky feeling. Various ingredients are
+used in making the different varnishes, the
+first coating consisting of naphtha, wood
+alcohol, amyl acetate, etc. The black
+varnishes consist of linseed oil and various
+other mixtures, heated in iron kettles. The
+final coating is a naphtha preparation resembling
+japanning material. The hide is
+stretched on a frame during the varnishing
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost impossible to tell the difference
+in quality of shiny leather by appearance,
+although in general the leather on which
+the grain shows through the varnish will
+prove more serviceable than that on which
+the finish is so thick as to hide the grain.
+Great care must be exercised in resewing
+patent leather shoes that have been exposed
+during the cold weather, as the cold has
+a tendency to freeze the finish. Patent
+leather, like all varnished coatings, is liable
+to crack. No one can guarantee it not to do
+so. The kid patent leather is more elastic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+and porous than other kinds. The serious
+objection to the use of patent leather for a
+shoe is its air-tightness. This makes it both
+unhygienic and uncomfortable. The kid
+patent leather is the only patent leather
+that has not this objection.</p>
+
+<p>Kid is a term applied to shoe leather
+made from the skins of mature goats. The
+skin of the young goat or kid is made into
+the thin, flexible leather used for kid gloves,
+which is too delicate for general use in
+shoes. The goats from which come the
+supply of leather used in this country for
+women’s and children’s fine shoes are not
+the common, domesticated kind known in
+this country, but are wild goats or allied
+species partially domesticated, and are
+found in the hill regions of India, the mountains
+of Europe, portions of South America,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>There are about sixty-eight recognized
+kinds of goatskins that are imported from
+all over the world. The Brazilian, Buenos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+Ayres, Andean, Mexican, French, Russian,
+Indian, and Chinese are a few of the many
+kinds that are known as such. Each
+particular species of goat hide possesses
+its own peculiarities of texture. The thickness
+and grain differ according to the environment
+in which the animal has been
+raised. It is peculiar that those raised in
+cold climates do not have as thick skins as
+those raised in warmer climates, for the long,
+thick hair apparently takes the strength.</p>
+
+<p>We may wonder where all the skins come
+from that are made up into glazed kid,
+mat kid, and suede, at the rate of several
+thousand dozen every day. The great proportion
+of the skins are <i>goatskins</i>. These
+are almost all imported from abroad, where
+the animals are slaughtered and disposed of
+much the same as we dispose of beef and
+veal here. Sheepskins and carbarettas, the
+hides of animals that are a cross between
+sheep and goats, are also used.</p>
+
+<p>The finer grades of kid and goatskins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+which are tanned in large quantities in
+New England, come from the Far East.</p>
+
+<p>In China there are two great ports from
+which skins are shipped, Tientsin and
+Shanghai. Back in the interior, starting
+from a point about twelve hundred miles
+from the sea, collectors make their rounds
+twice a year.</p>
+
+<p>The breeder of goats kills his flock just
+before the collector is due, skins the animals
+on the hillside, preserves the meat for food,
+and with the kidskins, which have been
+partly dried, wrapped in a bundle carried
+upon the back, or upon a pack animal, the
+breeder makes his way to the station. It
+may be that there are a half hundred
+breeders awaiting the coming of the collector
+and he pays them the market price for the
+skins.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever the collector has a sufficient supply
+to make it profitable to ship, he bales the
+skins and then sends them over the thousand
+mile journey along the river to the seaport.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+From Tientsin or Shanghai they are
+taken by tramp steamers, which reach
+Eastern ports by way of the Suez Canal,
+and on the trip the steamers make several
+ports, so that it is from six to ten weeks
+before the skins reach America.</p>
+
+<p>Another method of importing is to have
+the raw material shipped across the Pacific
+and then transferred to a railroad, but the
+difference in cost to the manufacturer is so
+great that it is unprofitable.</p>
+
+<p>The China goatskins are rated as among
+the finest in the world and when tanned
+they make the highest-grade shoe.</p>
+
+<p>Then there are mocha skins, which come
+from Tripoli, Arabia, and Northern Africa.
+In those places the method of collection is
+practically the same as in China.</p>
+
+<p>The two best-known grades are the
+Hodieda and the Benghazi. They derive
+their designations from the exporting cities.
+Hodieda is located in the southwestern
+part of Arabia on the Red Sea, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+Benghazi is in Barca, one of the provinces
+of Tripoli.</p>
+
+<p>Other goatskins are produced in India
+and Russia, and millions of skins are exported
+annually from Bombay, Madras, and
+Calcutta. These skins are not brought
+direct to America, but are transshipped at
+Marseilles or London.</p>
+
+<p>The jobbers in Europe or India occupy
+rather a unique position, for according to
+their practice it is almost impossible for
+them to suffer financial losses in dealing
+with an American tanner. The latter, when
+he wishes to arrange for his year’s supply of
+raw material, negotiates with an agent in
+Boston, with whom he signs a contract
+for so many skins. Then it is necessary for
+the tanner to either purchase with money
+equal to the face value or secure by loans
+letters of credit from Boston banking
+houses which have European connections.</p>
+
+<p>Before the skins are exported, the jobber
+has his money from the European banking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+concerns and the bills of lading are forwarded
+to the Boston bankers, who turn them over
+to the tanners, and, when the occasion
+requires, obtain from the tanners what is
+known as a deed of trust.</p>
+
+<p>All goatskins are tanned by the same
+chrome tanning process, whether the finish
+is to be glazed or mat. The proportions of
+chemicals vary according to the texture of
+the skin, and according to the grain.</p>
+
+<p>The process of tanning is quicker than
+the tanning of heavier hides, and all varieties
+of tannage are used, the chrome
+methods having come into very general use.
+There are many kinds of finish given, such
+as glazed, dull, mat, patent, etc. One
+quality that distinguishes goat leather, the
+“kid” of shoemaking, is the fact that the
+fibers of the skin are interlaced and interlocked
+in all directions. The finished skins
+as they come from the tannery, by whatever
+process they may be put through, are sorted
+for size and quality, a number of grades<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+being made. Instead of ripping straight
+through, like a piece of cloth, or splitting
+apart in layers, as sheepskin will do when
+made into leather, the kid holds together
+firmly in all directions.</p>
+
+<p>Glazed kid is colored after it is tanned by
+submerging it in the color, a very important
+process. The glossy surface is obtained by
+“striking” or burnishing on the grain side.
+It is made in black and colors, particularly
+tan, and is known by about as many names
+as there are manufacturers of it.</p>
+
+<p>Glazed kid is used in the uppers of shoes,
+making a fine, soft shoe that is particularly
+comfortable in warm weather, and is said
+to prevent cold feet in winter, owing to
+unrestricted circulation.</p>
+
+<p>Mat kid is a soft, dull black kid, the
+softness being the result of treatment with
+beeswax or olive oil. It is finished on the
+grain side the same as glazed kid, and is
+used principally for shoe toppings. It is
+very similar in appearance to mat calf and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+is often used in preference to it, as it is of
+much lighter weight, and about as strong.</p>
+
+<p>Suede kid is not tanned, but is subjected
+to a feeding process in an egg solution,
+called “tawing,” to make it soft and pliable.
+The skin is stretched and the color is applied
+by “brushing” (with a brush). The color
+does not permeate the skin, but is merely
+on the surface. Suedes are made from
+carbarettas and split sheepskins. Suedes
+are used very extensively in making slippers,
+and come in a great variety of colors.</p>
+
+<p>A castor kid is a Persian lambskin finished
+the same as a suede, and is used in
+making very soft, fine-appearing leather&mdash;like
+glove leather. The skin is of such a
+very light weight that it has to be “backed
+up” before being made into shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Fancy leathers are used extensively for
+toppings of shoes having patent leather
+vamps. Facings are selected from fancy
+leathers to make the inside of a shoe attractive
+and to increase its wearing quality.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+Leathers of dull or glazed finish are used in
+typical shoe colors.</p>
+
+<p>Miscellaneous kinds of kids are as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><i>A.</i> Kangaroo</li>
+<li><i>B.</i> Buckskin</li>
+<li><i>C.</i> Sheepskin</li>
+<li><i>D.</i> Chamois</li>
+<li><i>E.</i> Cordovan</li>
+<li><i>F.</i> Splits</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>a.</i> Seal Grain</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>b.</i> Buff</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>c.</i> Oil Grain</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>d.</i> Satin Calf</li>
+<li><i>G.</i> Enamel</li>
+<li><i>H.</i> Sides</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Kangaroo is the skin of the animal of that
+name.</p>
+
+<p>Buckskin is the skin of certain deer.</p>
+
+<p>Sheepskin is the skin of the familiar domestic
+sheep.</p>
+
+<p>Chamois is the skin of the animal of that
+name and by courtesy the specially treated
+skins of certain domestic animals.</p>
+
+<p>It is a simple matter to recognize a kid-skin
+among the various kinds of upper
+leather, because of its very light weight
+and pliability.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>During the winter, leather, in drying,
+is apt to become frozen, especially where no
+well-equipped drying loft is provided. Such
+leather becomes weak and limp if thawed
+out too rapidly. In freezing, the water in
+the hides which have been hung up to dry
+is forced out and stretches apart the hide
+fiber. The wetter the hides, therefore, the
+more demoralized they will be by the frost.
+The treatment of rushing the frozen leather
+into a warm room is inadvisable; the best
+method is to allow the hides to hang as they
+were and to tightly close all openings to
+the outside air. In case this is impossible,
+it is best to place the leather in a heap, in a
+room where the temperature will not fall
+below the freezing point, and to cover it
+with a cloth. In case the leather rolls up,
+it should be moistened before the roll becomes
+greater than is customary; it will
+thus become firmer throughout. Some upper
+leather and especially sheepskins for lining
+purposes are aided by freezing, since the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+leather becomes white and plump and also
+is of a bright color, though the durability
+is somewhat lessened.</p>
+
+<p>The popularity of white leather for shoes
+is increasing wonderfully. There is good
+reason for this. The modern white shoes
+have a stylish and fashionable appearance
+which has won the hearts of women of all
+ages and conditions, and when they want
+a thing, there is always alertness in supplying
+it. The new love for white shoes is
+interesting to trace. Years ago white
+leather for shoes was made principally
+from deerskins. But this leather, while
+attractive when new, would stretch soon
+after being worn, and take on a yellowish
+tinge. Besides, the price of such shoes was
+very high, and it is not surprising that they
+became supplanted by the cheaper, but
+attractive and useful, white canvas shoes,
+which became quick sellers during the season.</p>
+
+<p>It is greatly to the credit of our tanners
+that they have been able to perfect and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+put on the market a white leather for shoes
+which answers all requirements satisfactorily.
+This leather is made from cowhides;
+the white color will not fade nor turn
+yellow, and best of all, the leather can be
+easily cleaned and made to look good as
+new. Another advantage is that such
+leathers can be used in shoes that sell at
+popular prices.</p>
+
+<p>There are many common, commercial
+grades of upper leather.</p>
+
+<p>Willow calf is a fine, soft, chrome tannage
+of calfskin. It is sold in three colors,
+light tan, ox blood, and olive-brown. The
+distinguishing features of this leather are
+its durability and the fact that it always
+keeps soft and pliable. It is adapted to the
+highest quality of men’s and women’s shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Box calf is a storm-calf leather of highest
+quality. It is a waterproof, chrome tannage
+in a medium tan color, with a dull
+finish. This is the best leather obtainable
+for rough, outdoor wear, walking shoes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+hunting boots, etc. It is also adapted to
+men’s and women’s very fine footwear.
+There is a growing demand for this kind
+of shoe. In the uppers of the best storm
+shoes you will always find box calf.</p>
+
+<p>Royal kid is a black chrome calfskin,
+dull finished with a smooth, natural grain
+of fine texture, soft and pliable. It is used
+for vamps and whole shoes of the highest
+grades for men and women, and is a very
+popular material for the fall and winter
+shoe. The desirable qualities of fine calf
+leather are making the demand for it
+grow faster than the supply of raw material
+increases.</p>
+
+<p>Tan royal is a tan color, chrome calf
+leather, smooth finish, fine grain, excellent
+cutting qualities, uniform, of medium
+rich tan shades. Tan calf leather is very
+attractive and the tan shoe is now a staple
+product.</p>
+
+<p>Cadet kid is a bright black, smooth-finished,
+chrome calfskin for men’s and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+women’s fine shoes. This tannage and
+finish give a remarkable cutting value.
+The stability of this stock is entirely unique
+and makes the finished shoe stand up,
+keeping its much desired shape through the
+different tests of manufacturing. It is said
+to be the best calfskin, by the best judges,
+the shoe manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>Bronko patent is distinguished for its
+fine, coltskin-effect grain. It has a rich
+and lustrous black patent finish. The
+results obtained from bronko patent in its
+workings through the shoe factory and its
+wearing qualities afterward have never been
+equaled. Bronko is one of the finest results
+of the development of chrome patent
+leather.</p>
+
+<p>Cadet kid side is a chrome side leather
+that closely imitates the calfskin, called
+cadet kid. It has a bright, lustrous finish,
+and a remarkably fine grain. It is surprisingly
+like fine calf leather in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Cadet calf sides are similar to cadet kid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+sides with the exception of a boarded finish.
+This is another black chrome, side leather
+which comes very near to a calfskin.</p>
+
+<p>Mat royal chrome side is a special finish,
+closely resembling calf, used for the tops
+of men’s and women’s medium fine shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Black hawk patent is a well-tanned,
+well-finished patent leather for medium-priced
+women’s shoes and for tipping.</p>
+
+<p>Colored box chrome side, boarded, is a
+substitute for willow calf.</p>
+
+<p>Black box chrome side, boarded, is a
+substitute for box calf in medium fine shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Kangaroo kid side is a back-tanned, dull,
+smooth, black leather nearly like calf, used
+in the tops of men’s shoes, and men’s and
+women’s whole shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Waterproof black is a high quality
+leather of great durability for men’s and
+boys’ heavy shoes. Waterproof brown is
+similar to waterproof black, except in color,
+and is a leather made for hard service.</p>
+
+<p>Amhide black is a soft, dry, high-grade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+tannage for lightweight, comfortable, sporting,
+work, and hard-wear shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Amhide russet is like black amhide in
+everything but color.</p>
+
+<p>Hercules storm chrome is a leather distinguished
+for its fine grain and good appearance
+of medium heavy weight.</p>
+
+<p>Boris is a heavy-weight, soft, waterproof
+leather for men’s medium quality shoes. It
+is finished in three colors and black.</p>
+
+<p>Zulu is a medium-priced leather, which
+makes a very fine wearing heavy shoe. It is
+made in two colors and black.</p>
+
+<p>Bison is a colored or black-finished
+leather, of a high grade, very comfortable
+and durable.</p>
+
+<p>Ottawa is of two colors and black finished,
+and is suitable for high quality, heavy,
+rough shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Sheboygan calf is a heavily stuffed, soft,
+waterproof leather. It is of two colors and
+black.</p>
+
+<p>Dongola calf is a black leather used for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+durable, medium-priced, heavy, outdoor
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Belt knife splits are sold in several tannages
+and finishes of the most improved
+manufacture. These splits are sorted in
+all weights. Uniform selection is maintained,
+and the quality in every way is of
+the highest order.</p>
+
+<p>Oxford calf union splits is one of the
+highest grades of grain-finished, union splits.
+It has an extremely soft and fine appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Cambridge calf union splits have a most
+careful and high-grade finish, but somewhat
+firmer than Oxford calf.</p>
+
+<p>Flesh splits are sold in two tannages.
+These are the highest-grade flesh splits
+that it is possible to make, and they are a
+long distance ahead of the ordinary flesh
+splits, their improved finish making them
+a modern and largely used substitute for
+satin.</p>
+
+<p>Ottawa black and russet splits include
+a variety of printed splits, used for shoes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+in combination with grain leather and for
+whole shoes. They are selected in many
+weights.</p>
+
+<p>Flexible splits for Goodyear, gem, McKay
+inner soles, is leather that offers the greatest
+advantages to large and small buyers. It
+is the product of six different tanneries,
+assorted in all the usual weights. Great
+care is taken in the manufacture of these
+splits to adapt them perfectly to the shoe
+manufacturer’s needs.</p>
+
+<p>Flexible bends are used by manufacturers
+of Goodyear welt shoes requiring a straight
+Goodyear or gem inner sole. They find
+these bends of great advantage on account
+of the small amount of waste, the strength
+and desirability of stock. They are made
+in six tannages.</p>
+
+<p>Chrome flexible splits for inner soles furnish
+a very strong and durable leather for
+inner soles, taps, and outer soles.</p>
+
+<p>Ooze gusset splits, colored, give a very
+low-priced leather suitable for gussets, bellows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+tongues for high-cut boots, also for
+the quarter-linings of Oxfords.</p>
+
+<p>Ooze vamp splits, black and colored, are
+strong, durable, low-priced leathers suitable
+for cheap work shoes where waterproof
+qualities are not required.</p>
+
+<p>Chrome-tanned embossed splits, colored,
+are made in a great variety of patterns for
+cheap shoes and other work where leather
+is required. They are durable and low
+priced.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Leather for Belting</span></h3>
+
+<p>A native steer about four years old,
+killed in the month of October, affords the
+best example of a good hide for belting
+manufacture, that is, for the transmission
+of power from pulley to pulley. At this
+age and at this season the steer is in prime
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the great and enormous
+strain put upon belting, and the necessity
+for its running true upon the pulley, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+should be of the highest grade possible,
+combining great strength to prevent
+stretching, and evenness of grain to insure
+long wear; therefore only hides of selected
+steers are serviceable, and these in turn
+are rejected when they contain any blemishes
+or cuts or other imperfections. After
+a hide is accepted for belting purposes, it is
+subjected to a generous trimming, the head,
+neck, legs, and belly being cut away, leaving
+only a small and compact section embracing
+from two to two and a quarter feet on
+each side of the backbone and extending
+about six feet along the same from the
+tail forward. This is the portion of the hide
+where the fibers are closely and firmly
+knit together, and where the vitality is
+the greatest, due to the close proximity of
+the network of nerves radiating from each
+side of the spine to all parts of the hide.</p>
+
+<p>The hides of the bull and cow of every
+breed are inferior for belting purposes to
+that of the steer. The hide of the bull is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+coarse and hard, with the neck very heavy
+and full of wrinkles, causing a variation in
+the thickness and run of the grain of the
+leather. The hide of the cow is thin, does
+not run uniform in thickness, being heavier
+on the hips than at the shoulder, and is
+lacking in the firmness necessary in good
+belting. The sharp angles of the hip bones
+of a cow also tend to form pockets in the
+hide.</p>
+
+<p>After the hide has been trimmed, it is
+subject to the process of “currying.” All
+membranes or particles of flesh adhering
+to the hide are removed by a machine which
+shaves the membrane, etc., off, with lightning
+rapidity. The leather is then washed
+and scoured by machine, which removes all
+dirt still adhering to the hide. After the
+leather is thoroughly cleaned and while in
+a damp state, it is placed upon the table,
+and greases, composed of pure animal oil,
+are worked into the leather on both the
+grain and the flesh side with brushes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+This is carried on in the cold state. It is
+then put into a large revolving wheel
+containing water heated to a high degree,
+which causes the leather to swell and pores
+to open. The leather is then taken out
+and put into another wheel containing
+heavy mineral oil and heated several degrees
+greater than the water, and tumbled about
+in the wheel until the heavy oil fills the
+distended pores and fibers. After this, the
+leather is allowed to dry.</p>
+
+<p>The hides are allowed to remain for
+several months in the tan liquor until the
+green hide is changed into leather.</p>
+
+<p>After the hide has been changed into
+leather, it is stretched. To properly stretch
+the leather for belting purposes, it must
+first be cut so as to remove that part which
+shows the markings of the backbone of
+the steer.</p>
+
+<p>Leather is stretched by placing it in
+clamps, every part of the piece getting the
+same pull. (The leather is put into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+clamps while damp, as damp leather will
+give the greatest amount of stretching.)</p>
+
+<p>When the stretching process is completed
+and the leather has thoroughly dried in
+stretching clamps, it is released. These
+pieces of leather are quite dry, very firm,
+and not very pliable. The leather is now
+moistened in order that it shall be more
+pliable as it passes through the finishing
+processes. After the water has soaked into
+the leather (called sammied), it becomes very
+soft. It is then subjected to a roller under
+heavy pressure to take all the unevenness
+out of the hide. It is next thoroughly
+dried, causing the fibers to shrink; then
+again moistened and put through a polishing
+machine, which acts on the same principle
+as the rolling jack.</p>
+
+<p>The sides and centers are now put through
+a cutting machine, which reduces the leather
+to strips of different sizes.</p>
+
+<p>Belts are put together by cementing the
+parts. Belt cement is a most powerful adhesive.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+It actually governs the strength of
+the belt, as the belt is as strong as the weakest
+part of the joint.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Rawhide Products</span></h3>
+
+<p>Rawhide is used for a great many purposes.
+After the side of leather has been
+trimmed of the portions that cannot be
+used, it is sold to the lace maker. He
+measures the same in a machine.</p>
+
+<p>The trimmings from the side of the hide
+may be used for a mallet head or other
+tools made of leather. The most common
+products of the strong section of rawhide
+strings are shoe strings, belting laces, and
+parts of harnesses. It is also made into
+leather shoe strings that are used in the
+logging camps.</p>
+
+<p>When the hide is selected for the rawhide
+purposes, it is first passed to a de-hairing
+machine, where all the hair is removed.
+It is then fleshed; that is, all loose membrane<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+and any flesh that may have adhered
+to the hide are removed from the flesh side.
+The rawhide is then placed in a special
+bath for the purpose of opening the pores,
+before the oils and greases are added to it.
+After this bath, it is dried thoroughly in a
+hot box and then put into wheels which
+mill the greases into the hide.</p>
+
+<p>The hide, which is made hard by this
+drying process, is put through breakers,
+where it is thoroughly worked into soft
+and pliable form.</p>
+
+<p>The hide is next passed to the setting-out
+machine, which finishes all forms of leather&mdash;by
+condensing and strengthening the
+fibers. Special oils are applied to both
+the grain and flesh side of the hide. It is
+finished by hand and cut into laces. This
+hand finishing is usually done in order to
+reject all parts that are not perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Haired leather is tanned by acid&mdash;a
+quicker method. The hide is split into
+sides and tanned with the belly stock on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+them, which is used for car straps, cowbell
+straps, trunk straps, and riding bridles.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The By-products of a Leather Belting
+Factory</span></h3>
+
+<p>There are a great many by-products in
+a leather belting factory, all of which are
+used. The finest strips are used for whip
+lashes, small pieces are used for the French
+heel, and the extremely small pieces are
+used in leather mats.</p>
+
+<p>The by-product from the belting bull,
+which is about fifty per cent, is used for shoe
+leather and leather straps. There is considerable
+leather taken from the belting
+bull for certain harness work. The belly
+is thick and porous though not tough, and
+is used for halters, cow bridles, and other
+parts of harness where the strain is not
+great.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Round Belt Making</span></h3>
+
+<p>Round belt is made from the best belting,
+but while the strain on round belting is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+not severe, the leather must be soft and
+pliable. It is selected from regular stock
+of native steer hide.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Properties of Tanned Leather</span></h3>
+
+<p>Leather that has been tanned is made
+up of a great many little bundles of fibers.
+The coarser and stronger fibers are on the
+inside, and the very fine and smoothly laid
+fibers are on the outside. These fibers are
+so intertwined and so elastic that when the
+leather bends these bundles play on one
+another. On account of the smoothness
+of the surface it may be polished, and
+beautiful finishes and effects obtained on
+the leather.</p>
+
+<p>The elasticity of leather (which is due
+to the elasticity of its fibers) allows it to
+stretch to a great extent. The tendency
+to return to its original position is very
+strong at the beginning, but grows weaker
+if the strain is continued at any one point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+Of course, in stretching the leather, there is
+always a corresponding drawing in another
+part of the shoe, which gives it a worn and
+baggy appearance.</p>
+
+<p>When shoes are removed from the feet,
+they are oftentimes damp, due to perspiration.
+The stretched or strained fibers are
+apt to shrink and return to their original
+position. In order to avoid this, it is
+necessary to place shoe-trees in them.</p>
+
+<p>When the linings of shoes are exposed to
+friction and excretion of perspiration from
+the feet of some people, they deteriorate.
+This is due to the fact that the acids of
+perspiration (acetic, formic and butyric
+acids) have become so concentrated that
+they act on the fibers of the leather. These
+acids exert a burning effect, causing the
+fibers to lose their elasticity so that they
+no longer play on one another, but become
+fastened to each other. The result is that
+they become hard, and any attempt to
+bend the leather tears them apart; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+once the union of fibers is destroyed it
+cannot be repaired.</p>
+
+<p>In order to keep the fibers in such a
+condition (soft and flexible), they should be
+lubricated often (twice a week) with a liquid
+followed by a wax paste, usually called
+shoe dressing. When a brush or a piece of
+cloth is rubbed over the surface of leather
+containing the shoe lubricants (shoe polish),
+it produces a smooth surface called a
+“shine.”</p>
+
+<p>Compounds which shine without friction
+produced by brush or cloth should not be
+used, as they are simply varnishes and
+one coat on top of the other destroys the
+leather.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Substitutes for Leather</span></h3>
+
+<p>In olden times our fathers and mothers
+used handmade shoes, and wore them till
+they had passed their period of usefulness.
+At that time the consumption did not equal
+the production of leather. Knowledge of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+conditions in the great western countries
+to-day will show that many of the big
+cattle-raising sections, once famed for their
+cattle, have been taken up by homesteaders
+and are now producing grain instead of
+cattle. But since the appearance of the
+machine-made shoe, different styles of
+shoes are placed on the market at different
+seasons, to correspond to the change of
+style of clothing, and shoes are often
+discarded before they are worn out. We
+have not been able thus far to utilize
+cast-off leather as the shoddy mill uses
+wool and silk, etc. The result is that
+the consumption of leather is above the
+production, therefore substitutes must be
+used.</p>
+
+<p>In shoe materials there is at present an
+astonishing diversity and variety. Every
+known leather is used from kid to cowhide,
+and textile fabrics have developed rapidly,
+especially in the making of women’s and
+children’s shoes. The satins, velvets, serges,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+and other fabrics that are used in the
+manufacture of shoes must be firm and
+well woven, and are usually supplied with
+a backing of firm, canvas-like fabric, to
+give strength.</p>
+
+<p>As to wearing quality the old saying,
+“There is nothing like leather,” still holds
+good; but people do not buy shoes for their
+wearing qualities alone in these days. Style
+and intrinsic beauty are considered, and
+have a cash value just as in any other
+article of apparel.</p>
+
+<p>Each fabric is made of two sets of threadlike
+yarn woven at right angles to each
+other. They are called the warp and filling
+(weft). The warp is composed of yarn
+running the longest way of the fabric, and
+filling runs the short way of the fabric.
+Since the warp is the body of the cloth, it
+is its strongest part and all fabric in shoes
+should be placed warpwise across the foot
+of the wearer, so as to be able to resist the
+great strain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Various attempts have been made for
+legislation to prohibit the treating of leather
+by chemicals or the use of substances to
+increase its weight. Complaints have been
+made by a number of shoe manufacturers
+that the excessive use of glucose (a form
+of sugar) in sole leather has resulted in
+injuring the leather and fabrics composing
+the uppers of shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Representatives of large leather firms
+claim that the methods of tanning sole
+leather have radically changed during the
+last few years, and that the small quantity
+of glucose and epsom salts that is used
+to-day in finishing sole leather is absolutely
+necessary to its value, and is in no sense
+an adulterant or weighting material. Shoe
+manufacturers, on the other hand, claim
+that in some cases larger amounts of glucose,
+salt, etc., have been added to the soft
+leather from the belly of the animal, in
+order to give it the desired stiffness. On
+account of the high price of leather, various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+attempts have been made to find a substitute
+for it. Most of these substitutes consist
+of strong cloth treated with some
+drying oil like linseed, the oil having previously
+been mixed with other solid substances.</p>
+
+<p>A prize of five thousand francs has been
+awarded to a Belgian inventor, Louis
+Gevaert, for his unusually superior artificial
+leather. The process consists in the more
+or less intimate impregnation of stout cloth
+with tannic albuminoid substances. Shoes
+made of this are said to possess not only the
+resistance and elasticity of natural leather,
+but its durability of wear. Moreover, they
+are much cheaper, costing, including manufacture,
+only four francs (about eighty
+cents) and being sold at about six francs
+per pair.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_FOUR">CHAPTER FOUR<br />
+<span class="smaller">THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT</span></h2>
+
+<p>Very few people, even among those
+engaged in the shoe industry, know
+much of the anatomy of the foot. Yet
+it is evident that they ought to know something
+about it in order to furnish the foot
+with a proper covering.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing that strikes a person on
+looking at the human foot is its large proportion
+of bone. On pressing its top surface
+and that of its inner side, the amount of
+flesh will be found to be very small, indeed.
+The same is true of the inner and outer
+ankle. The extreme back of the ankle has
+scarcely any flesh covering. The most
+fleshy portions of the foot are its outer side,
+the base of the heel and the ball of the big
+toe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The reason for this disposition of flesh
+is to protect or cover those parts of the foot
+that support the body by coming in contact
+with the ground. They act as pads and
+lessen the concussion. The abundance of
+flesh on the outer side of the foot is to protect
+or act as a shield against danger. The
+inside of the foot is not exposed as much as
+the outside.</p>
+
+<p>The foot is divided into three parts,
+the toes, the waist and instep, and the heel
+and ankle. The largest bone of the foot
+is the heel bone (called calcaneum). It is
+the bone that projects backward from the
+principal joint and forms the main portion
+of the heel. When a person is flat-footed,
+this bone is thrust farther backward than
+nature intended to have it. The connection
+between it and the tarsal bones is lost.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus7" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus7.jpg" width="420" height="270" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">The Bones and Joints of the Human Foot.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus8" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/illus8.jpg" width="200" height="350" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle. <i>See <a href="#Page_86">page 86</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The top bone of the foot is the astragalus,
+and it forms the main joint upon which
+the process of walking depends. This bone
+has a smooth, circular, upper surface that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+connects it with the main bone of the lower
+leg. It is absolutely necessary that this
+bone should be in perfect harmony (relation)
+with the others in order to insure
+comfort and health. If the arches of the
+foot are forced out of position, up or down
+or sidewise, this joint is not permitted to
+do its work normally.</p>
+
+<p>Rheumatism is a frequent evil of an
+injured joint. Hence the necessity of absolutely
+normal action, unhampered by ill-fitting
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p>The principal arch of the instep is called
+the cuneiform or tarsal bone. Persons are
+troubled with defective insteps to quite an
+extent. Misshapen joints at this point
+due to shoes that do not fit and consequently
+disarrange and throw out of position
+the delicate, natural structure, work great
+havoc with the comfort of the foot. Nine
+joints cluster at this point.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the toes are called the
+metatarsal bones and phalanges. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+can be no doubt that nature intended
+mankind to walk in his bare feet, and in
+that event the phalanges of the foot would
+occupy a much more important part than
+is now the case as a result of modern civilization.
+There are nineteen bones in the
+foot, and the disturbance of one or more of
+these will serve to upset the entire foot by
+throwing out of relationship the general
+unit of work devolving upon the whole
+number of joints and bones. Each joint
+has its accompaniment of muscles, and
+each lack of alignment of bones and joints
+provokes discord and lack of harmony in
+the muscular action.</p>
+
+<p>Muscles are attached to bones, and by
+their contraction or extension the bones
+are moved. Very few movements are
+effected by means of a single muscle. The
+muscles of the foot in nearly all cases are
+in combination, and are so complex in their
+action that the best surgeons find it difficult
+to describe them satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The chief characteristics of the foot are
+its spring and elasticity. While the foot
+has wonderful powers of resistance and
+adaptability, it is the shoemaker’s duty not
+to strain the same, but to provide for each
+action.</p>
+
+<p>The most sensitive part or the one part
+that is most susceptible of injury is the
+big toe. This is due to the fact that the
+tendency of the foot in walking is to travel
+toward the toe of the boot, and in a word
+to press into rather than shun danger. The
+shoemaker provides for this, first, by allowing
+sufficient length of sole to extend beyond
+the termination of the toe, and second, by
+the fit of the upper and the preparation of
+the sole. In this way, if the toe of the
+shoe strikes against a hard substance, the
+big toe of the foot will remain untouched.</p>
+
+<p>Seventy-five per cent of the people have
+more or less trouble with their feet. Some
+of these troubles are caused by the manufacturer
+putting on the market shoes whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+lines look handsome and attractive to the
+eye, but are lacking in any other good
+features. Shoes that fit properly should
+have plenty of room from the large toe
+joint to the end of the toes, and also should
+have plenty of tread, especially at this
+point.</p>
+
+<p>A mere glance at our bare foot will show
+conclusively that pointed-toe boots are
+false in the theory of design. The toes of a
+foot when off duty touch each other gently.
+When they are called on to assist us in
+walking or in supporting our body, they
+spread out&mdash;although not to any great
+extent. This, then, being the action, no
+sensible maker of boots and shoes would
+attempt to restrain them. Box or puff-toe
+shoes allow the greatest freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The pointed-toe shoes, which join the
+vamp to the upper immediately over the
+big toe joint, exceedingly high heels, and
+thick waist shoes are not for the best interests
+of the foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The evils of ill-fitting shoes are corns,
+bunions, and calluses.</p>
+
+<p>Corns are mainly due to pressure and
+friction. When the layers of skin become
+hardened, they form a corn, which is merely
+a growth of dead skin that has become
+hard in the center. This hardened spot
+acts like a foreign body to the inflamed parts.</p>
+
+<p>A hard corn is formed more by friction
+than pressure. It is produced by the
+constant rubbing of a tight or small shoe
+against the projecting parts of some prominent
+bony part, as the last joints on the
+third, fourth, and little toe. When this
+action continues, it produces inflammation.
+Rest&mdash;as relieving the feet of the friction&mdash;decreases
+this inflammation, leaving a layer
+of hardened flesh. Renewed action reproduces
+the same effects, leaving behind a
+second layer of hardened flesh. This continued
+action and reaction brings on a
+callus, rising above the surface of the
+skin. This increases from its base. An<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+ordinary hard corn may be removed by
+scraping up the callous skin around its
+border, and prying out carefully with a
+knife. Soft corns are chiefly the result of
+pressure or friction. These corns are soft
+and spongy elevations on the parts of the
+skin subjected to pressure. Soft corns
+are mostly found on the inner side of the
+smaller toes. Those on the surface of
+joints by mechanical action will become
+hard.</p>
+
+<p>The blood corn is excessively painful.
+It is the result of an ordinary corn forcibly
+displacing the blood vessels surrounding it,
+and causing them to rest upon its surface.</p>
+
+<p>The bunion is an inflammatory swelling
+generally to be found on the big toe joint.
+The chief cause of bunions is known to be
+the wearing of boots or shoes of insufficient
+length. The foot, meeting with resistance
+in front and behind, is robbed of its natural
+actions, the result being that the big toe
+is forced upward, and subjected to continuous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+friction and pressure. The wearing
+of narrow-toe boots that prevent the outward
+expansion of the toe is another cause.</p>
+
+<p>The comparisons of quantities are often
+called ratios. The ratios of the different
+parts of the foot to the height are different
+in the infant from that of the adult period.
+Between these two periods the ratios are
+constantly changing.</p>
+
+<p>There are two series of shoe sizes on the
+market; the smallest size of shoe for
+infants (size No. 1) is, or was originally,
+four inches long; each added full size
+indicates an increase in length of one third
+of an inch (sizes 1 to 5). Children’s sizes
+run in two series, 5 to 8, and 8 to 11; then
+they branch out into youths’ and misses’;
+both running 11½, 12, 12½, 13, 13½ and back
+again to 1, 1½, 2, etc., in a series of sizes that
+run up into men’s and women’s. Boys’
+shoes run from 2½ to 5½; men’s from 6 to
+11 in regular runs. Larger sizes usually are
+made upon special orders. Some few manufacturers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+go to 12. Women’s sizes run
+from 2½ to 9. Some manufacturers do not
+go above size 8. The rate of sizes is sometimes
+varied from by manufacturers of
+special lines of shoes. A man’s No. 8 shoe
+would be nearly eleven inches long. These
+measurements originated in England and
+are not now absolute.</p>
+
+<p>A system of French sizes is used which
+consists of a cipher system of markings to
+indicate the sizes as well as widths so that
+the real size may not be known to the
+customer.</p>
+
+<p>All feet are not alike in structure and
+shape. In infancy the foot is broad at
+the toes, which press forward in the direction
+of their length. The heel is small in
+comparison to the width of the toes, and
+also short in length, due to the undeveloped
+bones. But during growth, the thickness
+above the heel bones disappears, and the
+heel itself becomes thicker and assumes the
+beauty of perfection at maturity. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+development is due to the growth of bones
+which must be well exercised and properly
+cared for during this period. The various
+parts of the feet and legs do not mature
+at the same rate&mdash;those at the upper part
+of the body increase at a greater rate than
+the lower parts. Thighs develop first, next
+the upper part of the legs, and lastly the feet.</p>
+
+<p>The adult foot, when properly formed,
+is straight from heel to toe on the inner side,
+and is wider across the joints than one inch
+or so farther back. The manner of walking
+has a considerable bearing on the character
+and development of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>There are many sorts of feet, which are
+due to a number of causes, such as habits,
+climate, occupation, locality, etc. As a
+general rule we may divide the feet into
+four classes: Bony feet&mdash;those with very
+little flesh upon them; hard feet&mdash;those
+that have plenty of flesh, but which are
+almost as hard as a stone; fat feet&mdash;plump,
+with plenty of flesh, but having<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+little shape; spongy feet&mdash;those that seem
+to have no bones in them, usually found
+in the female sex.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of a foot are common
+with the body to which it is connected.
+Some people have a strong, bony frame,
+with strong, firm muscles, prominent bones
+and muscles, and a flesh that is hard. The
+feet of this type of person are usually long,
+bony, and arched, with a well-developed big
+toe joint. The heel measurements are large
+in proportion. A soft foot is prevalent
+among the Scotch. The feet of a person
+who is delicately shaped, with a small
+frame and thin, small, tapering muscles,
+are usually thin and finely formed, giving
+evidence of quickness. This kind of a
+foot in a man has a tendency to develop a
+flat foot.</p>
+
+<p>A person with a form inclined to plumpness,
+full of exercise and activity, and a good
+circulation, has a well-developed foot.
+The heel is round and fairly prominent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+although there are no special bony prominences.
+On the other hand a person
+with a body of general roundness, but with
+tissues and muscles flabby, and a languid
+blood circulation, has feet that are short,
+soft, and flabby.</p>
+
+<p>We will allow that these four different
+kinds of feet all measure a 4 size and D
+in width. One would naturally think that
+the same size shoe would fit them all, but
+this is not so. This size shoe will only
+fit one and that is the bony foot. The
+hard feet require a C½ width; the fat feet
+require a C width, and the sponge feet require
+a B width.</p>
+
+<p>The same last may, and often will possess
+a slight variation in some manner or other.
+The fitter of feet must know the stock, each
+pair, and be on intimate terms with the
+peculiarities of each last and the inside
+lines of each pair of shoes before attempting
+to try them upon the feet of the customer.</p>
+
+<p>Different makes of footwear are apt to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+manufactured over a slightly varying system
+of measurements. One line of shoes made
+over a small measure may be longer or
+shorter or narrower or wider than some
+other line. The heel measurements require
+careful study for each line introduced.
+The peculiarities of each line must be tested
+by tape and measure, and the foot fitter
+must have a strong knowledge along these
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>We should measure the foot by the stick
+if necessary, and make a note of the size
+and width that will be likely to prove a fit.
+The height of the arch must be considered,
+and the shape of arch curve, the shape of
+the instep, and the general contour of the
+foot. A normal foot will show about a
+half-inch arch. The average foot will carry
+from an inch to an inch and a quarter heel,
+without putting a strain on any of the
+joints of the foot. Some feet vary from
+this by a wide margin. A foot is a trifle
+longer in walking than in repose. Allowance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+should be made, in using the measuring
+stick, over what the foot actually draws
+on the stick. In men’s shoes the allowance,
+should be from two to two and one half
+sizes.</p>
+
+<p>When a one-legged man buys a shoe, the
+dealer sends to the factory a shoe to match
+the one left remaining. In these days of
+the use of machinery in every process of
+their manufacture, shoes are made with the
+utmost exactness and precision, and it is
+easily possible to mate that remaining shoe
+with the greatest nicety in size, style, material,
+and finish.</p>
+
+<p>Few people have feet exactly alike;
+commonly the left foot is larger than the
+right, so that one shoe may fit a little
+more snugly than the other. Commonly,
+however, people buy shoes in regularly
+matched pairs, the difference in their feet,
+if it is noticeable to them at all, not being
+enough to make any other course desirable.</p>
+
+<p>But there are people who buy shoes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+different sizes or widths, in which case the
+dealer breaks two pairs for them, giving
+them, to fit their feet, one shoe from each.
+In such cases the dealer matches up the
+two remaining shoes, one from each of two
+pairs just as he would where he had broken
+one pair to sell one shoe to a one-legged man.</p>
+
+<p>But a man does not have to be one-legged
+nor to have feet of uneven sizes or
+shapes to make him ask the dealer to break
+a pair of shoes for him. A man with two
+perfectly good feet came into the store
+where he was accustomed to buy and wanted
+one shoe. While traveling in a sleeping
+car, his shoes had been mixed up with
+others and he had received back one of his
+own and one of some other man’s; a fact
+which he had not discovered until he was
+too far away from train and station to set
+things right. So he came in to buy one
+shoe to match his own.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_FIVE">CHAPTER FIVE<br />
+<span class="smaller">HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE</span></h2>
+
+<p>If you examine the shoes worn by
+people in a large city, you will notice
+different styles. Shoe styles that were
+called grotesque a few seasons ago are
+comparatively usual to-day, for the new
+designs in women’s footwear, which manufacturers
+are now making, are the most
+varied that ever have been put on the
+market. Pink and green and blue are
+among the new colors in materials for footwear.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the styles for the coming seasons
+are more lavish than have hitherto been
+seen in the women’s shoe trade of America.
+Coronation purple velvet boots look like
+an extravagant color for footwear, but
+they are now selling. Samples of pink,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+green, and blue shoes, both boots and pumps,
+are being made up, and they will soon be
+offered to buyers.</p>
+
+<p>The style of the shoe is dominated by
+fashion. All styles are related, that is,
+every part of our dress is influenced by the
+prevailing fashion, ideas of color, fabric,
+or garment outline. To illustrate: when
+short skirts are stylish, women wear mannish
+shoes to harmonize with them; on the
+other hand, with long skirts they must
+have a shoe that is neat and small, hence,
+the short vamp. When women wear white
+in the summer, cool canvas shoes spring
+into favor; when gray and blue dress
+materials are to be used, a variety of tan
+shoes are worn to harmonize, etc.</p>
+
+<p>After the style has been decided upon,
+it is necessary to work out an exact reproduction.
+An expert model maker, called a
+last maker, produces a last, a wooden model
+of the shoe. In order to do this, it is necessary
+to lay out certain plans or specifications<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+for the details of the manufacturer
+of the shoe.</p>
+
+<p>There are certain parts of all feet that
+have fixed measurements. To illustrate:
+the length of the shank, that part of the
+sole of the foot between the heel and ball,
+in every person’s foot is always the same.
+The part of the foot back of the ball or
+large toe joint conforms to certain fixed
+measurements. These definite measurements
+form a basis by which the last
+maker originates new styles by shortening,
+lengthening, widening, or narrowing the
+space in front of the toes, but always
+retaining the true and fixed measurements
+of the back part of the last.</p>
+
+<p>When the last maker desires to produce a
+new style, he takes an old last and tacking
+pieces of leather on some parts of it (front
+of the toes), he builds it up and cuts off
+other parts. This patched-up last is taken
+to a special machine (lathe), where a number
+of duplicates are turned from a block of wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The “pattern maker” is the man in the
+factory who makes patterns, consisting of
+heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass,
+in the shapes of the various pieces of leather
+required to make up the upper part of the
+shoe.</p>
+
+<p>The pattern maker has found by experience
+that the top part of the shoe also
+conforms to certain fixed measurements,
+and by working in sympathy with the
+last maker he need only to change the
+front part of the vamp to bring out the
+latter’s ideas. With these measurements
+as a foundation, he puts forth from time to
+time different style uppers, as buttons, lace,
+blucher, fixings, scrolls, straps, ties, pumps,
+etc. This is the way new style tops originate.</p>
+
+<p>After the manufacturer has approved of
+sample patterns, the pattern maker receives
+an order for a certain quantity of patterns
+to be made over a certain last which is
+submitted to him. Working on the fixed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+top measurements and the last submitted as
+a basis, the pattern maker draws plans for
+a model pattern. The standard size of a
+model pattern is size 7 in men’s shoes and
+size 4 in women’s. He is also given an
+order for a certain number of widths; for
+instance, B, C, D, and E, and he draws
+out on paper a complete set for each width
+in the size 7. These four sets of model
+patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet
+iron by hand. But from these sheets any
+number of iron models, and any size regular
+cardboard pattern can be reproduced by a
+machine.</p>
+
+<p>Wood to be made into lasts comes to the
+shoe manufacturers in a rough, unchiseled
+form. The lasts are made of maple wood;
+hollow forms used by traveling salesmen and
+window trimmers are made of bass wood.</p>
+
+<p>The making of the model of the last is
+the most exacting operation in the factory.
+It is produced by a machine most important.
+The principle of this machine has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+brought about by the pantograph; that is,
+it will turn from a rough block of wood an
+exact copy of the model last; or it will
+enlarge or reduce a duplicate of any other
+size or width, so, from a single model last,
+such as the manufacturer has decided on,
+any number of lasts can be made, and of
+any size or width. The machine itself
+consists of two lathes. On one is placed
+the model and on the other the block of
+wood. The model is held against a wheel
+by a spring. By adjusting this wheel,
+any desired width last can be obtained,
+and by adjusting a bar in front of the
+machine any length last can be produced
+from the block of wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus9" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus9a.jpg" width="420" height="190" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Rough Unchiseled Block of Maple.</p>
+<img src="images/illus9b.jpg" width="420" height="160" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">A Last after leaving Turning Lathe.</p>
+<img src="images/illus9c.jpg" width="420" height="160" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">A Finished Last.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lathe, when in motion, revolves
+both the last and the model, the model
+being pressed against the wheel, which is
+really a guide for the revolving knife that
+digs into the block of wood, and regulates
+the depth that the knife is allowed to cut.
+In this manner the model is reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+from the block which is also regulated as to
+size and width by the wheel and by the bar.
+This machine is so accurate that a tack
+driven into the model to locate the center
+of the last is reproduced by a sort of a
+wooden pimple in the block of wood when
+finished. The model sole pattern is now
+tried on the half-finished last to insure
+accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>Notice in the figures of lasts that the
+turning lathe has left stubs of wood on the
+toes and heels. These must be finished to
+a “templet.” The templet is a measure
+or guide used to indicate the shape any
+piece of work is to assume when finished.
+From the heel and toe of the model, a piece
+of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that
+model, and is used on the heeler machine
+as a guide to form an exact copy of the
+heels and toes of the model. This machine
+works very rapidly, and by the aid of an
+irregular shaped, revolving knife it quickly
+transforms the toes and heels to the desired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+shape. The bottoms are again tried out
+on a sole pattern and the last number, the
+size and the width are stamped on.</p>
+
+<p>We now have the last as a solid piece
+of maple wood and turned to the desired
+shape, size and width. Were it possible
+to insert and extract the last in this form
+from the half-finished shoe, no other steps
+would be necessary in last manufacture,
+but inasmuch as the leather is stretched
+very tightly over this last a little later, it
+necessitates the introduction of some method
+that will facilitate a quick removal of the
+last from the shoe. This is accomplished
+by cutting it in two parts and making a
+hinged heel. The fact that the slightest
+measurement changes the size of the shoe,
+necessitates great care in the introduction
+of the hinge as a part of the last, and in
+order to insure accuracy and uniformity
+in all the lasts, they are marked with
+templets and gigs. The hinge must be
+placed inside of the last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The finished last is so constructed that
+it can be readily inserted or withdrawn
+from the shoe, and the strong hinge provides
+the last, when inserted, with the same rigid
+qualities as though it were one piece.
+The center of the last is indicated, as before
+stated, by a reproduction in the side of the
+last of the tack that was placed in the
+model. This is the mark that locates the
+position of all the holes, and it is done by a
+“gig” in the following manner:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>A gig is a piece of steel having cylinders
+that guide the bit of the boring machine
+in an exact perpendicular line. This gig,
+being placed on the last in the position
+marked by the turning machine, forms the
+accurate location of the bolt holes that
+hold the hinge.</p>
+
+<p>After the hinge is placed in the last, it
+goes to the ironers to have the bottom put
+on it, if it is a McKay last, and a heel
+plate if it is a welt. The bottom is again
+tried and the plate filled up to the same.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+The last is then ready to go to the scouring
+room. In this room the last goes through
+three operations, first of which is ruffing.
+This consists of scouring with a coarse
+grade of quartz. This operation must be
+carried on so that the sole lines and insteps
+are not brought into contact with the
+quartz.</p>
+
+<p>The second operation, medium grinding,
+is done with a fine grade of quartz, and in
+this operation, also, the worker keeps away
+from the toe. The third operation is done
+with a much finer-grade quartz, the operator
+going over the entire last. The last is now
+ready for polishing, and after that, for a
+heavy coat of shellac. It is polished and
+waxed on a leather wheel. Then it goes
+into the shipping room ready for shipment
+to the manufacturer.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_SIX">CHAPTER SIX<br />
+<span class="smaller">DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY&mdash;GOODYEAR
+WELT SHOES</span></h2>
+
+<p>The principal methods of manufacturing
+shoes are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Goodyear welt; McKay; turned; standard
+screw; pegged; nailed.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest and the clearest way of
+showing how the various kinds of shoes are
+made is to explain the manufacture of a
+Goodyear welt and afterwards bring out
+the points in which this method of shoemaking
+differs from the others.</p>
+
+<p>Shoes are manufactured in up-to-date
+factories, employing hundreds of operatives.
+The modern shoe factory of to-day is divided
+into six general departments: the sole
+leather department, upper leather department,
+stitching department, making department,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+finishing department, and the treeing,
+packing, and shipping departments.</p>
+
+<p>In some sections of the country, several
+of these departments are often designated
+by other names. The stitching department
+is often called the fitting department; the
+making department, the bottoming department;
+and the sole leather department,
+the stock-fitting department. The departments
+are popularly termed rooms for
+brevity.</p>
+
+<p>A shoe factory is designed so as to have
+a width of about fifty feet for each room,
+while the length is according to the number
+of shoes to be produced. A width of about
+fifty feet gives plenty of daylight and ample
+room in the center of each department,
+which is very essential in shoemaking.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus10" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus10.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">A Modern Shoe Factory.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shoe factories are usually about two
+hundred feet long, while many are nearly
+four hundred feet. A few exceed four hundred
+feet, running as long as eight hundred
+feet. Some are built in the shape of hollow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+squares, while others have wings added,
+which give almost as much floor space as
+the original building.</p>
+
+<p>The average factory has usually four
+floors. The first floor, or basement, is
+occupied by the sole leather department.
+The next floor above includes the treeing,
+finishing, packing, and shipping departments,
+and also the office. The third floor is
+devoted entirely to the making or bottoming
+department. The top floor is divided
+so that the cutting and stitching departments
+have each half a floor.</p>
+
+<p>There are several exceedingly large factories
+in this country that find it advantageous
+to divide the factory into more
+departments, as, for example, the cutting
+room is divided so that the linings and
+trimmings are cut in a separate department.
+The skiving may also be done in a separate
+room. The making room will be divided
+so that the lasting is set off as a separate
+department on account of the many workmen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+and machines employed. In the same
+way there will be a division of work so that
+the packing and shipping will be set apart
+from the treeing. Then, again, in the sole
+leather room, the making of heels as well
+as the fitting of the bottom stock may
+become independent departments.</p>
+
+<p>The system of making women’s shoes is
+practically the same as that of men’s
+except that in a great many factories the
+method of preparing the bottom stock is
+somewhat different. Most manufacturers
+of women’s shoes do not cut sole leather,
+but buy outsoles, insoles, counters, and
+heels, all cut or prepared. These soles are
+in blocked form and large enough so that
+they can be cut or rounded by the manufacturers
+to fit their lasts. The counters,
+when bought, are all ready to put in the
+uppers, while the heels are ready to put on
+the shoes. Whenever a manufacturer of
+women’s shoes cuts his sole leather, he has the
+same system as that in the men’s factories.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In women’s factories where sole leather
+is not cut, they do not have a complete
+sole leather department. Instead, they
+have what is called a stock-fitting department.
+There are independent cut sole
+houses, etc., in the trade, which supply
+the soles to manufacturers. The same
+system of buying supplies also applies to
+many other parts of the shoe, as in the
+top lift, half sole, welt, rand, etc. In the
+upper leather department, manufacturers
+of both men’s and women’s shoes often
+buy trimmings and other parts of the upper
+all prepared.</p>
+
+<p>A large proportion of the men’s shoe
+manufacturers are now buying heels all built,
+while fully nine tenths buy counters all
+molded. The soles and other parts that are
+needed for a shoe are put up in different
+qualities and grades, and a manufacturer can
+buy any grade of sole he wants, so that it is
+considered an advantage to buy some parts,
+instead of cutting them. In a side of sole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+leather there are twenty-five or more different
+qualities and grades of soles, and
+very few manufacturers, especially in the
+women’s trade, can use all of these. The
+greater variety of shoes a manufacturer
+turns out, the more advantageous it is
+for him to cut his own sole leather, and
+prepare all parts in his own factory.</p>
+
+<p>In this country the number of factories
+in the shoe trade appears to be growing less
+and the average factory larger each year.
+It is estimated that there are at present
+something like fifteen hundred factories in
+all. These range from the smallest product
+up to the largest. The average factory may
+be said to produce about twelve hundred
+pairs of shoes per day. Many turn out
+five thousand pairs daily, while a few
+manufacturers turn out ten thousand or
+more pairs. Several manufacturers and
+firms have half a dozen or more factories
+and have a total output of between twenty
+thousand and thirty thousand pairs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+shoes a day. There is no such thing as a
+trust or monopoly of any kind in this trade,
+and there never has been up to the present
+time.</p>
+
+<p>In all factories and all classes of work,
+the “case” has always been of such a
+number of pairs that it can be divided by
+twelve in every instance. A case can be
+twelve, twenty-four, thirty-six, forty-eight,
+sixty, or seventy-two pairs, and in children’s
+work it is often sixty and seventy-two pairs.
+All cases of these numbers are regular
+cases, whereas any other number would be
+out of the ordinary. Of course, a case of
+shoes may contain any number of pairs,
+but the numbers given above have always
+been used in regular work.</p>
+
+<p>Cases of shoes may differ, but every
+pair of shoes in any one case must be made
+exactly alike. All shoes are made in cases,
+except in the matter of custom work or
+single-pair orders or samples. In making
+men’s heavy shoes, or working shoes, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+regular case was formerly sixty pairs or
+thirty-six pairs, but the tendency has been
+of late to have a standard case of twenty-four
+pairs. In the men’s fine trade the
+regular case is twenty-four pairs, while in
+the women’s it is thirty-six pairs. Long
+boots for men have always been made in
+twelve-pair cases.</p>
+
+<p>Goods are sold by the samples, sent out
+with the traveling salesman. As fast as he
+receives an order, he sends it to the main
+office. Here the orders are subdivided and
+sent to the factories making the goods.
+For example, an order for seventy-five
+dozen men’s shoes of a certain style received
+by the main office from the traveling salesman
+would be sent to the factory in the
+form of a typewritten order, covering the
+general description and sizes written out
+in the proper form, for each case is made
+according to the specifications on the tags
+that are made out in the office. These
+tags specify the sole, heel, upper, kind and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+quality, how stitched, the last to be used,
+how bottomed finished, treed, and packed.
+Everything is marked plainly on the tags
+so that a buyer can have any shoe made
+just as he wants it.</p>
+
+<p>This order would be sent from the factory
+office to the cutting room, where a clerk
+would make out twenty-five long tickets.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-five are made because the shoes
+go through the factory in lots of twenty-four
+pairs, each lot being called a job and
+when finished making a case of shoes. The
+long ticket is made in duplicate form, and is
+perforated so it may be tied to a lot of shoes.
+Both parts of the tickets are made out
+to contain the various operations with the
+specifications as to detail. The lower part
+is sent to the stock or sole leather room,
+while the top part remains with the uppers
+which are cut in the cutting room. While
+each part of the ticket is sent by a different
+route through the factory, they finally
+meet in the form of finished shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to the long ticket already
+described, two other tickets are made out,
+the top ticket and the trimming ticket.
+The top ticket is sent to the leather bins
+of the factory, where the sorter knows by
+experience exactly the amount of leather
+required to cut the order, being careful to
+see that it is all of uniform quality and
+free from blemishes. He rolls the leather
+in a bundle, attaches the ticket and sends
+it to the cutter.</p>
+
+<p>In the cutting room there are three classes
+of cutters; cutter of trimmings, who cuts
+lace stays, top facings, back stays, tongues,
+etc.; outside cutter, who cuts quarters,
+vamps, tops, tips, etc.; and the lining
+cutter, who cuts cloth linings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus11" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus11.jpg" width="420" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">A Nine and One-Half Foot Skin divided to best advantage before
+Cutting.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Skins of leather are received in the shoe
+factory in different shapes. Some are perfect,
+others have blemishes or imperfect
+spots. The skins that are to be used for
+upper stock are carefully graded by two or
+three men, as to quality of leather and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+weight. This is necessary in order to be
+sure that a lot of shoes made for a certain
+dealer will be uniform. On account of the
+leather coming in different shapes, some
+skins perfect, others having imperfect spots,
+the cutter must place his patterns in such
+a way that certain parts of the shoe will use
+up all the perfect parts, and others, less
+important, will be composed of the weaker
+parts of the skin. This explains why you
+sometimes find the inside top part of a shoe
+made of flanky leather, while the vamp is
+made of a better grade.</p>
+
+<p>There is a pattern for each and every
+size shoe, and each piece of leather is cut
+out separately on a block of wood. Nothing
+is wasted. In order to make each cutter
+as efficient as possible, the cutters are divided,
+so as to have a different cutter for
+each grade of leather. In this way they
+become better judges of leather.</p>
+
+<p>The lining cutters use patterns and
+knives on drilling. The facing is cut out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+with a knife and pattern. The side stays
+and the tongue are cut out by dies.</p>
+
+<p>After the leather has been cut into the
+desired shape, uppers, vamps, toe pieces,
+back stays, lace stays, etc., cutting at
+times ten pieces, and for some styles of
+shoes as many as fourteen pieces, the cutters
+take care to keep the parts for the same
+shoe together, matching and marking them
+so that eventually all will meet again in
+the shoe.</p>
+
+<p>Machines are used now on almost every operation,
+and annually several new machines
+make their appearance. The cutting of
+uppers up to four or five years ago was
+performed by an operator cutting the
+leather by running the knife along the
+side of the pattern. Now they are using
+a cutting machine and dies to cut uppers in
+nearly all factories. This cutting machine
+is called the “clicking machine,” and it
+is considered quite a labor saver in a
+department where it was the universal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+opinion that machines never could be
+used.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to give a list of all the
+operations performed and have it complete.
+But a good general idea of the system can
+be given and the name and meaning of the
+main operations in the several departments.
+It should be kept in mind that the methods
+in rooms differ, and that hardly any two
+factories put a shoe through in exactly the
+same manner. The general system and
+plan is the same everywhere and the
+machines are the same in all factories, but
+the details and minor operations are so
+numerous that there is plenty of scope for
+them to vary.</p>
+
+<p>The function of the clicking machine is
+to cut the upper leather into the desired
+shapes required. It consists of an iron
+frame, with a cutting board on the top of
+it. Above this is a large beam which can
+be swung to the right or left of any portion
+of the board. The skin to be cut,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+which may be of any kind, is placed on
+the board and a die of the design or
+shape of the leather desired is placed on it.
+The handle of the swinging beam is
+taken by the operator and moved over the
+die; then by pressure of the handle the
+beam is brought downward, pressing the
+die through the leather. As soon as this
+is done, the beam automatically returns to
+its full height.</p>
+
+<p>These dies are made in different designs
+and sizes to meet the different sizes and
+designs in the upper of the shoe. One
+die for each design and size. They mark
+the vamps for the location of the toe cap
+and blucher foxings as well as the size by
+means of nicks in the edge of the piece cut.
+The dies are about three-quarters of an
+inch in height and so light that they do
+not mar the most delicate leather.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus12" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus12.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cutting the Leather by Means of Pattern and Knife.
+<i><a href="#Page_118">Page 118.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus13" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus13.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Goodyear Stitching.</p>
+<p class="caption">A machine that sews around the edge of the welt and joins it to the sole
+exactly at the heel. <i><a href="#Page_119">Page 119.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the outside cutter has cut the skin
+into pieces to make up the shoe, these are
+tied up in separate bundles, that is, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+twenty-four of tips in one bundle, twenty-four
+pairs of vamps in another. These are
+turned over to girls who stencil the sizes
+on the edge and match them, that is, see
+that each upper is exactly like the mate.</p>
+
+<p>After the different parts have been cut
+by the operator of the clicking machine or
+by hand, the edges of the upper leather,
+which shows in the finished shoe, must be
+thinned down (skived) by a “skiving
+machine” to a beveled edge. This is
+done in order that the edges of the leather
+that are to show in the completed shoe may
+be folded to give a more finished appearance.
+The machines are operated by girls;
+each one an expert on one particular piece.</p>
+
+<p>The order number and size of shoe are
+stamped on the top lining of each shoe.
+After all linings have been prepared, according
+to the data given on the instruction
+card attached to parts of the shoe, the
+parts are sent to the stitching department,
+where the stitchers on a multitude of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+machines stitch all the different parts
+together very rapidly and accurately.</p>
+
+<p>The toe caps are then given a series of
+ornamental perforations along the edge.
+This is done by either “power tip press,”
+or a “perforating machine.” The first
+consists of a series of dies placed in a machine
+by which the leather is perforated according
+to the designs desired. Each series
+of dies represents a different design.</p>
+
+<p>The perforating machine resembles a
+sewing machine, but instead of a series of
+dies, the one in this machine is made of
+single or combination dies which make one
+or more holes on each downward movement.
+The machine feeds automatically and does
+the work very accurately. The cutting
+tool is kept from becoming dull by pressing
+against a band of paper. Ornamentation
+on other parts of the shoes, such as the edges
+of vamps, etc., is made by this machine.</p>
+
+<p>Before going to the stitching room, every
+bundle is examined by sorters. The sorters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+are divided and subdivided; that is, one
+man always sorts tips, another vamps, etc.
+They examine each piece for imperfection,
+and if any is found, the piece is thrown out
+and a new one put in. The last operation
+is the assembling of pieces. Here each
+job of twenty-four pairs is brought together
+and securely tied and numbered.</p>
+
+<p>This stitching department is one in which
+female labor is generally employed, although
+in late years more men are being used to
+operate machines, especially on vamping or
+other heavy parts. In some parts of the
+country it is called the fitting room. The
+work of the department consists of stitching
+the different parts of the upper together,
+so that it is ready to put on the last. The
+terms used mean in most cases stitching
+the part named to the rest of the upper.
+There are very many operations in the
+department, several of which are named
+below, together with their meaning.</p>
+
+<p>The bundles of pieces which have come<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+from the cutting room are placed on the
+table, where they are subdivided into three
+parts, the linings, the tops, the vamps and
+the tips.</p>
+
+<p>The linings for the tops of the shoes are
+pasted together (with the back strap and top
+bands), care being taken to join them at the
+marks made for that purpose. After being
+dried, they go into the hands of the machine
+operators, where they are joined together
+by a stitching machine, and the edges, etc.,
+trimmed. The sewing machines used are
+very similar to an ordinary home sewing
+machine, with the exception that they are
+much larger and stronger.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus14" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus14.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Stock Fitting Room.</p>
+<p class="caption">Where all bottom stock is prepared after being cut. <i>See <a href="#Page_120">page 120</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lining is finished. The next step is
+to join the lining to the piece of leather
+making up the outside of the same shape,
+called the top. The top receives the eyelets
+by a machine placed in proper position.
+The top and lining can be put together by
+sewing them face to face. The top is
+inspected and all threads clipped off.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After the shoe uppers have been properly
+stitched together, the eyelets are placed
+on by a “duplex eyeletting machine,”
+which eyelets both sides of the shoe at one
+time. The top of the eyelets are solid
+black knobs, so as not to wear brassy, while
+the bottom (which clinches inside the shoe)
+called the barrel, is of nickel. This finishes
+the shoe upper.</p>
+
+<p>The vamp, tongues, and tip are then put
+together. The edges of the vamps, quarters,
+tips, etc., are covered with a cement
+made of rubber and naphtha, which is
+kept in small bowls on the benches in front
+of employees. Several grades of cements
+are used. The cemented parts are allowed
+to dry, and the edges are then turned over
+by “pressing machines,” which gives a
+finished appearance. The shoe is put together
+by stitching the vamp to the quarters.
+This work is done by both men and
+women, and is work which demands much
+care.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In stitching men’s uppers, the system
+varies in various factories as much as it
+does on women’s. Here are some of the
+operations, which will give an idea how
+men’s uppers go through.</p>
+
+<p>Extension or toe piece sewed to vamp.</p>
+
+<p>Leather box stitched on.</p>
+
+<p>Tip stitched to vamp.</p>
+
+<p>Vamp seamed up back.</p>
+
+<p>Top folded around edge.</p>
+
+<p>Top seamed up.</p>
+
+<p>Eyelet row stitched up and down.</p>
+
+<p>Lining seamed up.</p>
+
+<p>Side facing put on lining.</p>
+
+<p>Top facing put on lining.</p>
+
+<p>Lining and outside pasted together.</p>
+
+<p>Under trimming.</p>
+
+<p>Eyeletting.</p>
+
+<p>Hooking.</p>
+
+<p>Vamping.</p>
+
+<p>The upper is complete when it leaves the
+stitching room and is all ready to be put
+on the last. While the upper is being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+prepared, the soles, insoles, counters, and
+heels are made in other departments.</p>
+
+<p>When the foreman of this department
+has received the tags with the data necessary
+for the preparation of outsoles, insoles,
+counters, toe boxes, and heels, they
+are sent to the stock room, where these
+parts are kept.</p>
+
+<p>The soles are roughly cut out by means
+of dies, pressing down through the leather,
+in “dieing out machines.” Before the soles
+are cut, the leather is dipped in water and
+sufficiently dampened. After they are cut
+out, they are made to conform to the exact
+shape by rounding them in a machine
+called the “rounding machine.” The
+roughly died out piece of leather is held
+between clamps, one of which is the exact
+pattern of the sole. The machine works a
+little knife that darts around this pattern,
+cutting the sole exactly to conform. The
+outsole is now passed to a heavy rolling
+machine, where it is pressed by tons of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+pressure between heavy rolls. This takes
+the place of the hammering which the old-time
+shoemaker gave his leather to bring
+the fibers very closely together, so as to
+increase its wear.</p>
+
+<p>Counters and toe boxes (stiffening which
+is placed between the heel and toe cap and
+the vamp of shoe) are prepared in the same
+room with the heels. After they are made,
+they are sent to the making or bottoming
+room, where the shoe upper is awaiting
+them. As the counter is an important
+feature in the life of a shoe, much depends
+upon the quality of leather that goes into it.</p>
+
+<p>The sole is next fed to a “splitting
+machine,” which reduces it to an absolutely
+even thickness. The insole is made of
+lighter leather than the outsole, but has the
+same thickness and is cut out in the same
+way one at a time. The sizes are stamped
+on them and they are sorted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus15" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Lasting. <i><a href="#Page_127">Page 127.</a></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus16" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus16.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Welting.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you examine a Goodyear welt shoe,
+you will notice no stitches in sight, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+seam being fastened to an under portion of
+the insole. The durability of the shoe
+relies, to a great extent, on the quality and
+strength of the insole.</p>
+
+<p>The smooth-appearing insole of a welt
+shoe must be either pasted in or fastened
+underneath in some manner. This fastening
+is accomplished by passing the insole
+through a very small machine called a
+Goodyear channeler, which makes two incisions
+at one operation. It cuts a little
+slit along the edge of the insole, extending
+about one-half inch toward its center.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of insole made by the
+slit on the edge is turned up on a lip
+turning machine so that it extends out at
+right angles from the insole. In other
+words, the channel is opened up and laid
+back, forming a ridge around the outer edge
+of the sole. This forms a lip or shoulder,
+against which the welt is sewed. In this
+way the thread used in sewing cannot be
+seen in the finished shoe. The cut made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+on the surface serves as guide for the
+operator of the welt sewing machine when
+the shoe reaches him.</p>
+
+<p>The inner and outer soles as well as the
+uppers are now brought into the lasting or
+gang room. The first part of lasting is
+called “assembling,” which means that
+many parts are brought together, such as
+upper, counter, insole, box toe, and last.
+The counter is placed in the upper, between
+lining and vamp, while the box toe is shellacked
+and put in the toe of the upper
+(provided it has not been stitched in the
+stitching room). The operator first tacks
+the inner sole on to a wooden last.</p>
+
+<p>There are very many different styles of
+lasts, and in cutting uppers a different
+pattern must be used for each style. Then
+the upper is placed in position on the last,
+and it is ready to be pulled and stretched
+to the wood and take its required shape.
+This is accomplished by placing the shoes
+on the “pulling over machine,” where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+the shoe uppers are correctly placed on the
+last by the pincers of a machine holding
+the leather at different points securely
+against the wood of the last. By the
+movements of levers the shoe uppers are
+adjusted correctly. Then the pincers draw
+the leather securely around the last and at
+the same time two tacks on each side and
+at the toe are driven in part way, to hold
+the uppers securely.</p>
+
+<p>It is now placed on the “hand method
+lasting machine,” where the leather is drawn
+tightly around the last. Before this operation,
+it is dipped in water to preserve its
+shape when formed and that it may be
+more easily formed by the machine. At
+each pull of the pincers a small tack,
+driven automatically part way in, holds the
+edge of the upper exactly in place, so that
+every part of the upper has been stretched
+in all directions equally. A special machine
+by means of a series of “wipers” is used to
+last the toe and heel. After the leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+has been brought smoothly around the toe,
+it is held there by a little tape fastened on
+each side of the toe, which is held securely
+in place by the surplus leather, crimpled
+in at this point. The surplus leather
+crimpled in at the heel is forced smoothly
+down against the insole and held there by
+tacks driven by an ingenious hand tool. In
+all these lasting operations the tacks are only
+driven in part way, so they may afterwards
+be withdrawn and leave the inside perfectly
+smooth, except at the heel of the shoe,
+where they are driven into the iron heel
+of the last and clinched.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus17" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus17.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Rough Rounding. <i>See <a href="#Page_131">page 131</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus18" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus18.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Edge Trimming. <i>See <a href="#Page_130">page 130</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After these operations, the surplus
+leather at the toe and sides of the shoe is
+removed by the “upper trimming machine,”
+which cuts it away by means of a little
+knife and leaves it very smooth and even.
+A small hammer operating in connection
+with the knife pounds the leather on the
+same parts. A pounding machine hammers
+the leather and counter around the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+heel so that the stiff position conforms exactly
+to the last.</p>
+
+<p>After the “lasted” shoe has been trimmed
+and pounded down to the shape of the last,
+it is turned over to the tack setter, who
+pulls out all the tacks except a few, called
+draft tacks. The insole is then wet to
+make it pliable, and is turned over to a
+very experienced operator, called the “inseamer,”
+who is to sew the welt on.</p>
+
+<p>The shoe is now ready to receive a narrow
+strip of prepared leather, that is sewed
+after it is wet to make it pliable, along the
+edge of the shoe, beginning where the heel is
+placed and ending at the same spot on the
+opposite edge. This is called the welt, and
+is sewed from the inside lip of the insole,
+so that the curved needle passes through
+the lip, the upper, and the welt, uniting
+all three securely and allowing the welt to
+protrude beyond the edge of the shoe.
+The thread is very stout linen, and is
+passed through a pan of hot wax before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+being looped into chain stitch that holds
+the shoe together.</p>
+
+<p>The nature of the stitch is a chain&mdash;two
+rows of threads on the outside that
+loop with the single thread in the inside
+lip of the insole. When the welt is finally
+sewed on, and the shoe put down on the
+bench, it looks like an ordinary shoe resting
+on a wide flange of leather. This flange is
+the welt, and to it the heavy outer sole is
+to be sewed fast. Should a single stitch
+break in this operation, it is passed to a
+cobbler, who repairs it by hand.</p>
+
+<p>Before the outer sole is put on, the edges
+of the uppers must be trimmed along the
+seam that holds the welt. A slip of steel
+called steel shank is laid along the insole
+where the hollow of the foot is, and a piece
+of leather board laid over this to give the
+necessary stiffness and prevent the shoe
+from doubling up. As the welt has left a
+hollow space along the ball of the foot, it is
+necessary to fill this up, either with a piece<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+of leather, tanned felt, or other filler. Felt
+is not waterproof, and leather squeaks,
+hence a mixture of ground cork and rubber
+cement is used. This is heated and spread
+on the sole, and run over a hot roller until
+the bottom of the shoe is perfectly smooth
+and even. The shoes are placed on a rack
+and are ready for the outsole.</p>
+
+<p>Sole fastening is performed by a number
+of operations, in which a score or more
+of separate machines are used. The sole
+layers smear a rubber cement over this
+welt with a “cementing machine,” after the
+outsole has been soaked in water to make it
+pliable, and then place it on the shoe and
+tack a single nail in the heel. The “sole
+laying machine,” through great pressure,
+cements the sole on and fits it to every
+curve of the last. Then the sole is trimmed
+by a “rough rounding machine,” which
+trims the soles to the shape of the last.
+This machine also channels the outer sole
+at the same time, which is necessary for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+the next operation. The “channel opening
+machine” now turns up the lips of the
+channel and the sole is ready to be stitched
+to the welt.</p>
+
+<p>The outsole is now sewed by a waxed
+thread to the welt, by an “outsole lock stitch
+machine,” which is similar to a welt sewing
+machine. The stitch is finer and extends
+from the slit (channel) to the upper side
+of the welt, where it shows after the shoe
+has been finished.</p>
+
+<p>It unites the sole and welt with a tightly
+drawn lock stitch of remarkable strength.
+It sews through an inch of leather as easily
+as a woman would sew through a piece of
+cloth. The stitches are made through the
+welt and outer sole, the seam running in
+the channel of the outsole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus19" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus19.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Leveling. <i>See <a href="#Page_135">page 135</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus20" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus20.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Heeling. <i>See <a href="#Page_136">page 136</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The inside of the slit in which this stitch
+has just been made is now coated with
+cement by means of a brush. The channel
+lip is forced back to its original position
+after the cement has dried, by a rapidly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+revolving wheel of a “channel laying machine.”
+In this way the stitches are
+hidden.</p>
+
+<p>Welt shoes are stitched on in three
+different ways: “channeled,” which, when
+finished, leaves an invisible stitch on the
+bottom of the sole; “regular stitched aloft,”
+showing the stitches on both sides; and
+“fudge stitched,” in which the seam is
+sunk down in a groove, being almost
+invisible from the welt side.</p>
+
+<p>Every stitch must be of such a nature
+that it is independent of the one next to it,
+so that should one stitch break, the others
+will not work loose. This is accomplished
+by running the threads through a pan of hot
+wax just before entering the leather, which
+causes the waxed thread to solidify, becoming,
+as it were, a part of the leather.</p>
+
+<p>Notice should be taken of the difference
+between the way the outsole is stitched
+and the inner sole is stitched to the upper.
+In place of three threads in the chain stitch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+“that holds the welt to the upper and
+insole” there are but two here&mdash;an upper
+and a lower one. The upper thread extends
+only part way down, where it loops, twists,
+and locks into the lower thread. This is
+the reason why you can wear a welt sole
+clear through without its pulling loose.</p>
+
+<p>Shoes that are stitched aloft go through
+the same operations as the channel-stitched
+shoes, with the exception that the rounding
+machine contrivance of cutting is eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>Shoes that are to be fudge stitched are
+sent through the same machine as the regular
+stitched aloft, but an additional little
+knife point on the arm of the Goodyear
+stitcher digs a channel in the welt so that
+the stitches on that side are sunk into the
+leather.</p>
+
+<p>The outsole is nailed at the heel after
+the stitching on the “loose nailing machine,”
+which drives the nails through the outsole
+and insole and clinches against the steel
+plate of the last. The machine drives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+separate nails fed from the hopper of any
+desired size or length, at the rate of three
+hundred and fifty per minute.</p>
+
+<p>The edge of the outsole around the
+heel is now trimmed to conform exactly
+to the shape of the heel on the “heel seat
+pounding machine.”</p>
+
+<p>The stitches of the regular stitched shoes
+are separated by a series of indentations,
+giving the shoe that corrugated effect which
+adds so much to the appearance of the shoe.
+In the fudge-stitched work the stitches are
+entirely covered up by the indentations.</p>
+
+<p>Then a leveling machine, called the
+“automatic sole leveling machine,” with
+a pressure of about two and a half tons to
+each of the concave rollers, comes into
+play. The rolls move automatically back
+and forth and from side to side, doing the
+work that the shoemaker used to do on his
+lap with a hammer and stone, but doing it
+better and more quickly. It practically
+levels off the bottom of the soles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>An automatic guage regulates exactly
+the distance from the edge of the last, and
+by the use of this machine the operator is
+enabled to make a sole conform to that of
+all others of a similar design and size.</p>
+
+<p>Heels are formed by cementing different
+lifts of leather. A machine called a “heel
+cutter” shapes out the lifts. The heel is
+then placed under pressure, giving it exact
+form and greatly increasing its wear.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus21" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus21.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Sole Scouring. <i>See <a href="#Page_138">page 138</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus22" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus22.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Heel Shaping. <i>See <a href="#Page_138">page 138</a>.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In speaking of the ends and sides of a
+heel, the part that rests on the ground is
+spoken of as the top, and the first piece is
+called the top lift. The part that is fastened
+to the shoe is spoken of as the bottom,
+while the side nearest the toes is called the
+breast. The wedge is a flat, heel-shaped
+piece or lift of leather that is skived to a
+thin edge at the breast. Being thicker at
+the back, it tips the heel forward. Wedges
+are made from thin strips of waste leather,
+or from sheets of leather board, and are cut
+out with a hollow die. The gouges are cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+in the sole leather room from scraps, and
+are a regular heel lift, having a horseshoe-shaped
+piece of leather with an opening at
+the breast.</p>
+
+<p>The sole leather, insoles, counters, and
+heels, in the stock fitting department are
+“got out” by being cut into shape by a
+machine die.</p>
+
+<p>The heel is now trimmed of all rough and
+surplus portions of leathers to the exact
+size of top lift. A blower attached to the
+machine removes all scraps, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The breast of the heel, which faces the
+forepart of the shoe, is trimmed evenly
+across and with the desired slant by means
+of a peculiar-shaped knife which extends
+over the sole at shank. The edges of the
+heel are now scoured by revolving rolls
+with molded sandpaper to make perfectly
+smooth. Blowers attached to the machine
+remove all dust.</p>
+
+<p>There are several types of machines for
+fastening the heel to the shoe, all very rapid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+in operation. One of the latest is that
+which feeds the nails, and which is operated
+by a man and boy, who together turn off a
+great quantity of work.</p>
+
+<p>The nails are left protruding slightly above
+the heel so as to retain the top lift, which is
+now placed in position by the same operator
+on the same machine. It is pressed down
+over the heads of the nails securing it in
+position. The small brass or steel nails
+which protect and ornament the heel are
+now driven in by the “universal slugging
+machine.” This machine cuts the slugs
+from a coil of wire and drives them in with
+great rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>We have practically now a roughly formed
+shoe ready for the finishing room.</p>
+
+<p>Here the heel slugs are ground down,
+heel and sole buffed by sandpaper rolls on a
+scouring machine, wet down, stained, or
+blacked, as case may be, finished on bristle
+brushes, placed to dry, polished by a
+polishing machine, bottom stamped with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+the trademark, and passed to an operator
+whose duty it is to see that no tacks are
+left inside the shoes. Generally girls are
+hired to do this, as their hands are smaller
+and it is very important that no tacks are
+left, which might cause a great deal of
+trouble. If any are found, they are cut out
+with nippers or otherwise removed.</p>
+
+<p>A lining is also generally put inside the
+shoe, covering the whole of the insole in
+a McKay shoe, and the heel only in a
+Goodyear shoe. Shoes must also be inspected
+here before they are packed, to
+see if they are perfect in every way and
+that each shoe is a perfect mate in the
+pair.</p>
+
+<p>The shoes are now sent to the last department,
+called treeing, dressing, and packing
+department.</p>
+
+<p>This department has to do with the
+finishing of the uppers. The bottoms and
+edges are all finished when shoes get to
+this department, and nothing remains but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+to finish the uppers and pack the shoes in
+single-pair cartons and then in wooden
+boxes or cases.</p>
+
+<p>The different uppers are all finished by a
+different process, some being ironed with a
+hot iron, which is done to take out the
+wrinkles and smooth the uppers. Ironing
+was first introduced on kid shoes, but in
+recent years the hot iron has been put on
+nearly all kinds of stock. A shoe must be
+on a form or tree when ironed, the form or
+tree being the same shape as the last. The
+whole idea in ironing is the same as that
+followed by the tailor, who uses a hot iron
+to press and smooth out clothes. The
+operations in detail are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus23" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus23.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Ironing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus24" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus24.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Packing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Each shoe is treed, after having been
+drawn over a foot form similar to that on
+which the shoe was lasted, and any stain or
+dirt which may have been carelessly put on
+in former operations is cleaned off; the
+shoe is sponged with a gum prepared for
+either black or tan goods, rubbed down dull,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+and then rubbed to a polish. In many
+patent leather shoes the treeing is to clean
+off the surface, as we said before, and then
+to iron it with a hot iron, which takes out
+all stains, and leaves the leather shiny and
+black.</p>
+
+<p>The shoes finally go to hand operators,
+who rag the edges and heels, leaving them
+ready to be laced and put into the boxes.
+After lacing, the shoes are passed to inspectors,
+whose duty it is to see that they are
+perfect, to throw out all which are not,
+make a record of them, and pass the perfect
+shoes to the packers, who see that the sizes
+are right, that each pair is mated, and placed
+in paper cartons, ready to be packed in
+wooden cases for shipment. The packing of
+cartons into wooden cases is done by men
+who nail on the lid when each case is full,
+mark where goods are to be sent, make a
+record of same and load the cases into
+freight cars.</p>
+
+<p>There are other uppers that are treed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+such as wax calf, for instance, and split
+uppers, which are used in heavy shoes.
+The main idea of treeing a shoe is to give
+it a smooth and finished appearance and a
+good “feel.” In the regular treeing operation
+they use liquid preparations, often
+called composition, and these are worked
+into the upper, filling it to some extent.
+French chalk is used a great deal in some
+uppers, and oil or some form of grease or
+gum is also used, all of which make the
+upper as it was when first put on the cutting
+board of the shoe factory. All work done
+in this room is intended to give leather its
+original luster, which has been lost to a
+certain extent in going through the different
+rooms and in being handled so much.</p>
+
+<p>There are still other uppers that may not
+be treed or ironed but merely cleaned and
+polished to give luster. Some of these may
+be dressed. To dress a shoe means to put
+on a liquid dressing. In some cases two
+coats of dressing are put on and in other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+cases one coat. A shoe can have a dull
+dressing or a bright dressing, according to
+how the buyer prefers to have his shoes
+look.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_SEVEN">CHAPTER SEVEN<br />
+<span class="smaller">McKAY AND TURNED SHOES</span></h2>
+
+<p>The McKay process is used very
+extensively in the manufacture of
+cheap shoes. Its introduction was a great
+improvement over the nailing and pegging
+of the soles to the uppers. It allows
+the two to be stitched together by means
+of a straight needle running through the
+entire thickness of upper, sole, and insole.</p>
+
+<p>In following the McKay process through
+the factory, we find it very similar to the
+Goodyear welt process, which has been
+explained, the main difference being in the
+methods of fastening the sole to the uppers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus25" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus25.jpg" width="420" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lasts and patterns are obtained in
+the same manner as described in the previous
+chapter. The order is made out in the
+factory office, and the ticket is given to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+sorter, who selects the required number of
+skins, which he rolls in a bundle and turns
+over to the cutter. The cutters form the
+various pieces of leather and linings, which
+are tied up in bundles and sent to the
+stitching room. Here they pass through
+the various sewing machines, finally coming
+out in the form of a complete upper ready
+to be attached to the bottoms.</p>
+
+<p>The soles, insoles, counters, and heels
+for McKay shoes are all formed in the same
+room, as described in the Goodyear process.</p>
+
+<p>There is a difference in making ready the
+outsoles and insoles. It will be recalled
+that the outsole for the Goodyear welt
+shoe was simply a block of leather cut to
+fit the shoe and was not channeled. The
+outsole for the McKay shoe is run through
+a channeling machine, which cuts a slit
+around the edge of the sole, folds the
+leather back, and digs a little trench along
+the inside of the slit. It will also be remembered
+that the insole of the Goodyear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+welt shoe was channeled with two slits, one
+of which was turned back to form the breast
+for sewing on the welt strip. The insole of
+a McKay shoe is not channeled in any way,
+but is left plain, like the outsole of the
+Goodyear welt. The uppers, the soles,
+insoles, counters, and heels all having been
+made ready, the pieces are taken to the
+lasting room.</p>
+
+<p>The first process is called “assembling.”
+The operator takes up one of the uppers,
+inserts the last, sticks in a counter between
+the lining and the outside, puts in a “box”
+(a stout piece of canvas to give stability
+to the toe) at the toe, beneath the tip, puts
+in the insole, and then may pull the shoe
+tight on the last or give it to the operator
+on the pulling over machine to have it
+done. The pulling over machine is now
+used in nearly all factories, having displaced
+hand pulling the same as the lasting
+machines have displaced hand lasting. The
+assembling, pulling, and lasting on the machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+are all parts of the regular operation
+of lasting. The hand laster had to do all
+three parts in former times, but now there
+are machines to do nearly everything, and
+at the present time the operation of lasting
+is divided into assembling, pulling over, and
+lasting on the machine. But even these
+machines do not do it all, as there is surplus
+upper to be cut away, toes to be pounded
+down, and filling to be put in the bottom,
+all of which are done on a McKay shoe before
+the sole can be laid. There are machines
+to do these parts, too.</p>
+
+<p>A trimmer (this is done by hand) now
+takes the shoe, trims off all the surplus
+leather, tacks in the shank (a little piece
+of steel to give rigidity to the shank of the
+sole), fills all up smoothly and then passes
+it to the sole layer, who puts on the outer
+sole and tacks it in place.</p>
+
+<p>The last is now pulled out of the shoe
+and it is ready for the McKay sewing
+machine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This machine sews right through the
+inner and outer sole, and at the same time
+catches the edges of the upper leather and
+the lining in between the two and draws
+them all snugly and firmly together. The
+stitches are made right along in the channel
+of the outer sole, which is deep enough to
+admit the row of stitches without raising
+a ridge on the outside of the sole, after
+the channel is closed up and leveled. The
+channel is next filled with cement and
+passed on to the leveler, which turns down
+the loosened flap of leather, presses it all
+out smooth, and covers the seam up so
+completely that no trace of the sewing is
+to be seen. This little folded-over flap of
+leather serves the double purpose of hiding
+the stitches in the sole, and at the same
+time protecting them from wear against
+the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus26" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus26.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Stitching.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus27" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus27.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Tacking.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The shoe is then ready to be heeled, and
+from here to the shipping door the McKay
+generally goes through the same process as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+a welt. After heeling, the McKay shoes are
+relasted or have followers put in to keep
+them in shape while going through. The
+sock lining may be put in here, too, before
+relasting, or it may not be put in till the
+shoes get to another room. The McKay
+lasting last must be pulled from the shoe
+to have the bottoms and heels put on and
+this also applies to a pegged or nailed shoe.
+But in the case of a welt shoe or a turn
+shoe, both stay on the original last until
+the bottoms and heels have been fastened
+on. The turn shoe being lasted inside out,
+must come off the last to be turned right
+side out, and it goes right on the last as
+soon as it can be turned. The different
+methods of fastening the bottoms constitute
+the main difference between Goodyear and
+turn shoes on the one hand, and McKay,
+pegged, and nailed on the other. The
+bottom stock must be prepared differently
+in order to fit the methods. Thus it is
+seen that only two departments are affected,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+namely, the sole leather and the making
+departments. In the cutting, stitching,
+finishing, treeing, and packing, all operations
+are practically the same on every shoe, no
+matter how it is bottomed. The patterns,
+however, by which shoes are cut may be
+different.</p>
+
+<p>In the finishing room all of the finishing
+of the bottoms and heel edges is done. The
+heels are sandpapered or scoured, and are
+then blacked and polished under hot-iron
+pressure. Considerable wax is used on
+the edge and is melted by the hot iron.
+Heel edges may also be finished on a wheel
+or roll. There are several different ways,
+but the object of each method is to give a
+hard, black, and highly polished surface to
+the edge.</p>
+
+<p>In finishing the bottom the top lift is
+scoured or buffed, and all of the sole and
+the breast of the heel also. Each is a
+different process, a different operator attending
+to each part. The object of scouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+or buffing with sandpaper is to get a smooth
+foundation for the finish, which is put on
+next, and which may be all the same color
+in all parts of the bottom or may have one
+color in the shank and another in the forepart.
+The stains and blackings are used
+on bottoms, and these are brought to a
+high, hard gloss by means of rolls and
+brushes. Hot irons are often used on black
+shanks and bottoms to give added hardness
+and luster to the finish.</p>
+
+<p>The turned or turn shoe is a woman’s
+fine shoe that is made wrong side out,
+then turned right side out. The sole is
+fastened to the last, and the upper is
+twisted over, the wrong side out. Then
+the two are sewed together, the thread
+catching through a channel or shoulder
+cut in the edge of the sole. The seam does
+not come through to the bottom of the sole,
+nor to any part inside where it would chafe
+the foot.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of the upper for a turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+shoe is identical with that of a welt or
+McKay, with the exception that the back
+is cut a little longer and a little larger, in
+order to last it over the sole. The important
+difference in the make-up of a turn
+shoe as compared with that of a McKay or
+welt is that it has no insole, the upper
+being sewed directly to a portion of the
+sole itself.</p>
+
+<p>As the cutting of the uppers and the
+stitching operations of a turn shoe are the
+same as the Goodyear and McKay, and
+have been explained, we will take up the
+forming of the sole, which is entirely
+different from either of the other two
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>A turn shoe is put together wrong side out,
+and it is necessary, during the course of making,
+to turn it by rolling the sole up like a roll
+of carpet. It is evident, then, that nothing
+but good quality, pliable leather can be
+used satisfactorily, and great care is taken
+to include nothing but the best.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The soles are cut out on the beam machines,
+also previously described. They are
+then channeled on the side that is next
+to the foot. This channeling is similar to
+that done on the welt insole. Two incisions
+are made, the inside one being the
+same as in the welt insoles. The outside one,
+however, is different, as the flange is cut
+off square instead of being rolled up. This
+leaves a channel which begins at the edge
+and surface of the sole and extends in
+semicircular form to the abrupt wall of the
+cut in the sole, which forms the breast
+against which the upper is to be sewed.</p>
+
+<p>After the soles are channeled, they are
+soaked until they become soft enough to
+roll up easily. They are then placed on
+racks and kept in a damp room until needed.</p>
+
+<p>A turn shoe is hand lasted wrong side out.
+First the uppers are turned with the lining
+outside, then the last is inserted and also
+the toe boxing.</p>
+
+<p>The sole is set straight on the last and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+tacked firmly to it. The operator, by aid
+of hand pullers, draws the upper over the
+sole and tacks it securely from a point
+where the breast of the heel will rest to
+where the large toe will extend, and then
+along the same distance on the other side.
+The toe part is next lasted by machinery,
+a wire being fastened at one side and run
+around the edge holding the pulled-up
+parts of the upper which has been stretched
+tightly over the last.</p>
+
+<p>The shoe is next passed over to the Goodyear
+inseamer operator, who sews the upper
+to the sole, the needle passing down through
+the inside channel, through the sole leather,
+out through the square-cut channel and
+then through the upper, uniting the upper
+to the sole with the chain stitch. In fact,
+the bottom of a turn shoe at this time looks
+exactly like the bottom of a welt, with the
+exception that the turn shoe is still turned
+wrong side out. The nature of the stitch
+is the same&mdash;a waxed, threaded chain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+with two rows of thread on the outside that
+loop with the single thread in the inside
+lip of the insole. The shoe is sewed only
+from the back of the shank to the toe, the
+heel part still being loose.</p>
+
+<p>The seam is now trimmed with an inseam
+trimmer, a machine with a revolving, jagged-edged
+knife that saws off the surplus portions
+of the upper, leaving it smooth and even
+with the sole. The tacks are all pulled
+out with a sort of a nail puller, which works
+rapidly and automatically.</p>
+
+<p>The lasts are then taken out and the
+shoe is turned right side out. This turning
+process is not a difficult one, but it is
+perhaps the most interesting operation that
+the layman will see in the entire factory.
+The operation is accomplished by means
+of a rigid iron bar set slantwise in a table.
+The upper is turned right side out by hand
+and the sole is rolled right side out by means
+of pressure on this bar.</p>
+
+<p>After this turning process, which twists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+and rolls the shoe out of shape, it has no
+semblance of its final form. The back part
+of the sole and upper are still loose, the
+upper being fastened from the shank to
+the toe.</p>
+
+<p>The turn shoe must be “second” lasted,
+and the inserting of the last is no easy matter.
+A contrivance called a push jack assists
+the operator greatly. He uses a flat, narrow
+rod to smooth out the lining, and
+after squeezing, pushing, and smoothing,
+the last is finally made to fit in the shoe.
+The counter is placed in at this time, the
+shank piece is set in place, and the shoe
+and last are placed on a jack for nailing.
+The back part upper is now stretched tightly
+over the heel part of the last by means of
+lasting pullers, and is tacked down, the
+nails going through the shank piece and
+clinching against the anvil heel seat of the
+last. This operation completes the lasting,
+the shoe now having a form exactly like
+the last over which it is made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Workmen now level the bottoms and
+form the shank by a hand method, preparatory
+to the machine leveling process.
+The shoe is still wet and is left to dry on
+the last twenty-four hours. Then it is run
+through the machine called the “leveler,”
+which, with its enormous pressure, forms
+the sole to that of the last. The shoes are
+now left four days on the lasts, to dry
+thoroughly, so that they may retain their
+shape permanently.</p>
+
+<p>The putting on of the heel, and the
+various finishing processes are practically
+the same as that of the welt, with the
+exception that a turn sole must have a
+sock lining.</p>
+
+<p>Some factories use a grain leather sock
+lining, which is pasted in, covering up the
+channels of the sole which hold the stitches
+and forming a smooth surface for the foot
+to rest upon.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between a McKay and a
+turn shoe may be told by the fact that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+stitching on the inside of the sole is much
+closer to the edge in a turn. Another
+thing, in a turn shoe, the seam connecting
+the upper and the outsole can be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is likely to excel the turn shoe
+for lightness and flexibility, since the method
+of making, whereby the sole is stitched
+directly to the upper, interposes no thick
+or cumbersome material. Sole leather of
+good quality is used. In fact, the sole
+would have to be not only strong, but thin
+and light, or the shoe could not be turned
+in the process of manufacture without
+straining it and getting it out of shape.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">History of the Turn Shoe</span></h3>
+
+<p>History states that prior to 1845, which
+marked the date of the introduction of
+shoe machinery, most of the shoes were
+sewed by hand, the lighter ones turned
+and the heavier ones welted. In fact, the
+early factories that began to spring up in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+New England about the beginning of the
+century, were merely cutting rooms and
+places for storing the lasts and stock.</p>
+
+<p>Here the uppers, soles, and linings were
+cut by hand and then given out to people
+in the vicinity, mostly farmers and fishermen,
+to be stitched together and paid for at so
+much a dozen. Such was the beginning of
+the shoe industry in New England. Hundreds
+of families added to their resources
+in this way, the women doing the lighter
+work and the men the heavier.</p>
+
+<p>In fishing communities, where men were
+away most of the time in their boats,
+their wives and daughters, who stayed at
+home, undertook the lighter grades of
+shoemaking&mdash;the turn process. This was
+the case in the “North Shore” towns like
+Lynn, Haverhill, and Marblehead, and these
+to-day, keeping to the old traditions, are the
+great centers for the finer turn-grades of
+shoemaking, whereas the “South Shore”
+towns, like Brockton, Whitman, Abington,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+Rockland, and the Weymouths, with the
+men at home all the year, came to make a
+specialty of shoes for men, and absorbed
+the heavier part of the growing industry.</p>
+
+<p>With the introduction of the Goodyear
+turn machine, however, the handwork was
+gradually done away with, although more
+handwork is done in the turn process than
+in either the McKay or welt process.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Standard Screw Shoemaking</span></h3>
+
+<p>Many good qualities of heavy shoes are
+made by the standard screw method, which
+differs from the McKay method by having
+the outsole and insole fastened together
+with a double-threaded wire, which is
+screwed through and cut off by the machine
+the instant it reaches the inside of the shoe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus28" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus28.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A pegged shoe is made in much the same
+way as the standard screw, except that
+wooden pegs are used instead of wire to
+fasten the sole together.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The nailed method of shoemaking consists
+in nailing the soles together around the
+edge. It is used principally for heavy,
+cheap shoes.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_EIGHT">CHAPTER EIGHT<br />
+<span class="smaller">OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING</span></h2>
+
+<p>The old-fashioned shoemaker formerly
+made shoes by hand as follows:&mdash;A
+last, which is a wooden model of a
+foot, was used, and pieces of leather were
+pasted here and there on it so as to build
+up a model conforming to the measurements
+of the foot. Then paper patterns of the
+upper leather were made from the last, and
+from these the upper leathers were cut out
+of tanned calfskins and sewed together.</p>
+
+<p>The leather for the soles was cut out of
+tanned ox or steer hide, the pieces being
+the insole, the outsole, and the lifts of
+the heel. The inner soles were made of
+softer leather. Sometimes split sole leathers
+were used for uppers. The shoemaker
+then softened the leather by steeping it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+in water, until it was pliable and at the
+same time firm, and would cut like cheese.</p>
+
+<p>The insoles were attached to the bottom
+of a pair of wooden lasts, and the wet
+leather fastened on with lasting tacks so
+as to mold it to the last. When it was
+dry, the shoemaker with pincers drew the
+leather out until it had taken the exact
+form of the bottom of the last. Then he
+rounded the soles by paring down the edges
+close to the last, and formed around these
+edges a small channel or feather cut or slit
+about an eighth of an inch in the leather.</p>
+
+<p>Next he pierced the insoles all around
+with a bent awl, which “bit” into, but not
+through, the leather, and came out at the
+channel or feather edge. The boots were
+then lasted by placing the uppers on the
+lasts, drawing the edges by means of
+pincers tightly round the edge of the insoles.
+Then they were fastened in portions with
+lasting tacks. Lasting was considered a
+very important operation, for unless the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+upper was drawn smoothly and equally
+over the last, leaving neither a crease nor
+wrinkle, the form would be a failure. A
+band of flexible leather about an inch wide,
+with one edge pared, was then placed in
+position around the sides of the shoes, up
+to the heel or seat, and the maker proceeded
+to “inseam,” by passing his awl through
+the holes, already made in the insole,
+catching with it the edge of the upper and
+the thin edge of the welt, and sewing all
+three together in one flat seam, with a
+waxed thread.</p>
+
+<p>The threads which shoemakers use are
+called “ends,” and are made of two or
+more strands of small flaxen threads. The
+shoemaker makes his own waxed thread as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>He holds the main part of the thread
+from the spool, in his left hand, holding it
+firmly&mdash;where he wants to break it&mdash;between
+the first finger and thumb, so
+that it will not turn beyond that point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+Then with the left hand, he lays the end
+of the flax on the knee and rolls it from
+him. This will cause the small fibers that
+compose the thread to separate&mdash;thus
+enabling him to break it easily. When
+the fibers separate, he gives the thread a
+light, quick turn, which causes it to break.
+As the thread breaks he pulls it apart
+gradually, so that the fibers will taper.
+Then he places the threads together, one
+just behind the other, so that the end will
+have a very fine point. He rolls the end
+and allows it to turn between the fingers
+of the left hand. After it has been rolled
+and twisted, it is waxed by drawing the
+thread through a piece of wax.</p>
+
+<p>The fine ends are waxed to a point. A
+bristle is fastened on in the following
+manner: the head of the bristle is held in
+the left hand, and the portion to which the
+thread is to be fastened is waxed; then the
+thread and bristle are twisted together. A
+hole is made in the thread and the bristle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+pulled through and fastened. After the
+threads are fastened, the heads of the bristle
+are cut off, and the ends sandpapered.</p>
+
+<p>The wax thread or “end,” as it is called,
+should never be made longer than is necessary
+to sew a shoe. Experience shows that
+if a portion of an end left after sewing one
+shoe is used on the second shoe, it is never
+as strong as a new end. The thread grows
+weaker and weaker as it is used. When
+the thread is well waxed, it is cemented to
+the shoe.</p>
+
+<p>After the shoe is sewed, the shoemaker
+pares off inequalities and levels the bottoms,
+by filling up the depressed part in the
+center with pieces of tarred felt. The
+shoes are now ready for the outsoles.
+The fibers of the leather to be used for
+the soles are thoroughly condensed by
+hammering on the lapstone. Then they
+are fastened through the insole with steel
+tacks, their sides are pared, and a narrow
+channel is cut round their edges. Through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+this channel they are stitched to the welt,
+about twelve stitches of strong, waxed
+thread being made to the inch. The soles
+are next hammered into shape; the heel
+lifts are put on and attached with wooden
+pegs. Then they are sewed through the
+stitches of the insoles; and the top pieces,
+similar to the outsoles, are put on and
+nailed down to the lifts.</p>
+
+<p>The finishing operations of the shoe
+include smoothing the edges of the heel,
+paring, rasping, scraping, smoothing, blacking,
+and burnishing the edges of the
+soles, withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning
+out any pegs which may have pierced
+through the inner sole. There are numerous
+minor operations connected with forwarding
+and finishing in various materials,
+such as punching holes, inserting eyelets, etc.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">How Shoes are Repaired</span></h3>
+
+<p>Before one can understand how shoes are
+repaired, it is necessary to know the difference<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+between the inside and outside of a
+shoe.</p>
+
+<p>The last is divided into four parts, viz.
+toe, ball, shank, and heel.</p>
+
+<p>Diagram No. 1 shows these parts and
+their shapes.</p>
+
+<p>Diagram No. 2 shows the length of the
+inside of the divisions as compared with
+those of the outside. Notice the long
+shank and short ball.</p>
+
+<p>Diagram No. 3 shows the outside of the divisions
+and the effect they have upon the shape
+of the shoe. See short shank and long ball.</p>
+
+<p>Always remember that the ball of a shoe
+is longer on the outside, having a short
+shank. The ball is shorter on the inside,
+having a long shank. Compare outside
+and inside diagrams Nos. 2 and 3.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus29" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus29a.jpg" width="420" height="200" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">How a Side of Leather is shaped and divided as to Quality.
+<i>See <a href="#Page_5">page 5</a>.</i></p>
+
+<img src="images/illus29b.jpg" width="420" height="200" alt="" />
+<p class="caption"><i>Dia. 1.</i> <i>Dia. 2.</i> <i>Dia. 3.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Shoe Repairing</span></h3>
+
+<p>The first operation in half soling a shoe is
+to cut off the old portion from “a” to “c”
+as shown on diagram No. 1. The shoe is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+placed in different positions and corrected
+in every way before putting on the new sole.
+It is generally better to wet the shoe in
+order to put it in shape.</p>
+
+<p>The leather is skived thin and accurate
+enough to make a neat, comfortable joint,
+and yet thick enough for the nails to hold.</p>
+
+<p>Then the filling is added before placing
+on the sole. The sole is trimmed and a
+guide line drawn around the edge, so that
+the nails may be properly arranged.</p>
+
+<p>Finishing the sole is an important part.
+If everything else is properly done, this
+part becomes comparatively easy. See that
+all nails are clinched. With a level bottom,
+smooth joints and edges, the shoe can be
+made to look like a new shoe and yet feel
+like an old one.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the heel being more directly
+under the body and the first part to strike
+the ground, it generally wears out first.
+For this reason in repairing a heel great
+care must be taken to see that good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+leather and solid work are put into it.
+Pull off the worn top piece and see that
+what is left is hammered down solidly.
+Next split a piece of solid, easy-cutting,
+scrap sole leather, so that two pieces can
+be made out of one. Put them on the
+shoe and fasten them on well, piece by
+piece, with tacks. See that the heel is
+level before putting on the top piece.
+(If necessary, a small piece may be put
+under the top piece.) After it is level,
+put on top piece, trim in shape, then draw
+guide line and nail down. The nails are
+placed thicker on the side that is worn
+down most, to protect the heel. The heel
+is next rasped, and smoothed with a buffer
+and sandpaper. When finished, it should
+set level.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Modern Method of Repairing Shoes</span></h3>
+
+<p>As the shoemaking industry has become
+more and more perfect, there has been an
+increasing interest taken in shoe repairing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+A medium-priced shoe as it is made to-day
+may often be in good enough condition to
+be heeled and soled a couple of times.
+Hence, although in the past many shoe
+stores and departments have had their
+shoe repairing done by outside shops, the
+tendency to-day is for every shoe store
+to have its own repair department. This
+method has resulted largely from the
+development of machinery for shoe repairing,
+which is revolutionizing the business
+to such an extent that in a few years
+repairing by hand will be among the lost
+arts. With the new inventions for restoring
+upper leather, and the improvement of
+machinery for shoe repairing, repair departments
+will very soon be but little short
+of miniature factories.</p>
+
+<p>The machinery ordinarily used consists
+of the Goodyear stitcher, used for attaching
+soles to Goodyear welts by the lock-stitch
+method, just as in shoe factories making
+Goodyear welt shoes. Then there is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+heel trimmer, a bottom finisher, consisting
+of a rapidly revolving roll covered with
+coarse and fine sandpaper, and an opera
+heel builder for forming concave heels.
+There are two wheels used for tan and
+white heel work, one heel being covered
+with a white cloth, and the other with a
+coarse brush. Adjoining these are usually
+the shank and heel finisher,&mdash;capable of
+smoothing and highly polishing a shank or
+heel in about a dozen seconds,&mdash;the bottom
+finisher, that grinds and smooths down the
+new sole, and a machine used for rubbing
+off dirt before the shoe is finished, consisting
+of a heavy horsehair brush. Another useful
+part of the equipment is an edge setter,
+which is also identical with the one used in
+factories. The shoe stitching machines
+and the parts used in finishing are all
+operated on one long shaft, rapidly revolved
+by the aid of a motor. It is a fact that a
+shoe may be actually soled and heeled in
+less than six minutes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Five or six men are usually employed in
+the repair department of a large establishment.
+When the customer’s shoes are
+brought in, one of these men cuts off the
+old sole and traces an outline of the new
+sole on a block of the very best oak leather.
+After these are cut out by hand in rough
+form, they are soaked in water and channeled;
+that is to say, a part of the sole is
+turned up in which the stitches are to be
+run. A second man, by the use of the
+Goodyear stitcher, joins the sole and welt
+together with a very strong and tightly
+drawn lock stitch. This is a large machine
+with a curved, barbed needle and awl, and
+a shuttle which sews through an inch of
+leather with the greatest ease and speed.
+There are from one hundred and fifty to
+two hundred stitches in each shoe; moreover,
+every one of them is locked with
+heavy wax thread, so that there is no chance
+of their ever giving away. If one stitch
+should break, the other stitches would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+remain intact, as they are all independent
+of each other. Both soles are stitched on
+in a little over half a minute without
+breaking a thread or stopping the machine.</p>
+
+<p>A coating of rubber cement is now placed
+in the edges of the outsole, and the lip of
+the channel is smoothed down so that the
+stitches are entirely hidden when looking at
+the bottom of the shoe. The edge trimming
+is done next with the aid of a rapidly revolving
+wheel, which trims the edges square
+and true in about forty seconds. After this,
+the shank is finished on a rapidly revolving
+wheel covered with emery cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Bottom finishing is the next step. This
+is done on a machine having two long
+cylinders, one covered with fine and the
+other with coarse sandpaper. These cylinders
+revolve rapidly, and the operator uses
+the coarse sandpaper for scouring the dirt
+and old finish off the leather, and the
+fine sandpaper for finishing the sole as
+smooth as that of any new shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The brushing in or smoothing is next
+done by the horsehair brush we have mentioned
+before. A preparation called Lewis’s
+rival bottom polish&mdash;a sort of white wax&mdash;is
+placed on the brush machine. The
+brush now smooths the surface of the sole,
+filling in all small holes with wax and leaving
+the sole absolutely perfect. Finally, the
+shoe is placed against a rapidly revolving
+brush which finishes the uppers with a
+luster that would make any ordinary boot-black
+green with envy. Another operation
+that fully completes the process is the
+hardening of the edges with hot steel,
+which ends in producing an edge that is as
+hard as iron. When it is polished with a
+black dye, it looks exactly like a new sole.</p>
+
+<p>A few words are necessary with regard
+to the heel. The old heel having been
+removed, several lifts of new leather in
+rough form are tacked on. The shoe is
+then taken to the heel trimmer and is
+formed correctly and then smoothed down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+to a brilliant surface on the finely covered
+revolving wheel. In a few seconds it is
+stained, smoothed, and polished. In less
+than six minutes the shoe is ready for the
+customer.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_NINE">CHAPTER NINE<br />
+<span class="smaller">LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS</span></h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Assembling.</span> Includes the following operations:
+tacking the insole to the last,
+putting in the box and counter of the shoe,
+and putting the upper of the shoe on the
+last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Backstay.</span> A term used to denote a
+strip of leather covering and strengthening
+the back seam of a shoe. English backstay
+means the strip of leather that meets the
+quarters on each side and is sewed to them,
+forming the lower part of the shoe. California
+backstay is a term applied to piping
+caught in the back seam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Back Strap.</span> The strap by which the
+shoe is pulled on the foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bal.</span> An abbreviation of the word
+“Balmoral” and means either men’s,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+women’s, or children’s front lace shoe
+of medium height, as distinguished from
+one that is adjusted to the ankle by buttons,
+buckles, rubber goring, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ball.</span> Refers to the ball of the foot&mdash;the
+fleshy part of the bottom of the foot,
+back of the toes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Beading.</span> Means folding in the edges
+of the upper leather instead of leaving
+them raw, or wheeling any impression
+around the sole to the heel. It is called
+seat wheeling in many shoe factory rooms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Beating Out.</span> The same as leveling.
+It is the term used in turn-shoe work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bellows Tongue.</span> A broad tongue
+sewed to the sides of the top, seen in waterproof
+and some working shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Belting.</span> The term applied to the usual
+back tanned cowhide, used in various thicknesses
+for machinery belts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Between Substance.</span> That part of the
+sole that holds the stitch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blackball.</span> A mass of grease and lampblack,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+formerly used by shoemakers on
+edges of heels and soles; sometimes called
+“cobbler’s botch.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blacking the Edge.</span> Blacking or dyeing
+edge of sole, welt, or that part of the
+edge which cannot be blacked so well in
+the making room.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blocking.</span> The cutting or chopping
+of a sole in such a form or shape that it
+can be rounded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bloom.</span> A term often applied to the
+grayish white deposit that gathers on shoes
+in stock. It can be wiped off readily.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blucher.</span> The name of a shoe or half
+boot, originated by Field Marshal Blücher
+of the Prussian Army, in the time of
+Napoleon I. It became very popular and
+has since received occasional favor, being
+used with high tops as a sporting or hunting
+boot. Its distinguishing feature is the
+extension forward of the quarters to lace
+across the tongue, which may be an extension
+upward of the vamp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Boot.</span> A term used (especially abroad)
+to designate women’s high-cut shoes. In
+this country it applies only to high or
+topped footwear, usually made with the
+tops stiff and solid. It is sometimes laced,
+as in hunting boots.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bootee.</span> Leather legging extending between
+knee and ankle, usually of Russian
+calf,&mdash;a riding boot originating with the
+English.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bottom Filling.</span> The filling that goes
+in the low space on the bottom in the forepart
+of the shoe. It is either ground cork,
+tarred felt, or other filler.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bottom Scouring.</span> Sandpapering the
+parts of the sole, except the heel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Boxing.</span> A term used to designate the
+stiffening material placed in the toe of a
+shoe to support it and retain the shape;
+such as leather, composition of leather and
+paper, wire net, drilling (a cotton fabric)
+stiffened with shellac, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Box Calf.</span> A well-known proprietary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+leather having a grain of rectangularly
+crossed lines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Box Toe.</span> Used to hold up the toe of
+the shoe so as to retain the shape. It is
+generally of sole leather, but often made of
+canvas or other material and stiffened with
+shellac or gum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Breaking the Sole.</span> Molding the sole
+so as to fit the spring better.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brogan.</span> A heavy pegged or nailed work
+shoe, medium cut in height.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brushing.</span> The final finish of the top
+edge, heel, and bottom, by means of a
+brush.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Buckskin.</span> A soft leather, generally
+yellow or grayish in color. One way of
+preparing it is by treating deerskins in oil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Buff.</span> A split side leather, coarser than
+glove grain, but otherwise similar. It is
+used for cheaper grades of shoes, principally
+for men.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Buffing.</span> The same as bottom scouring.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cabaretta.</span> A tanned sheepskin of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+superior finish used for shoe stock. There
+are sheep with wool not far removed from
+hair in texture, which produce a skin of
+greater tenacity and finish than the ordinary
+sheep.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cack.</span> A sole leather bottom without
+a heel. An infant’s shoe is called a cack.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Calfskins.</span> Skins of meat cattle of all
+kinds, weighing up to fifteen pounds, are
+usually included in this term. They make
+a strong and pliable leather. Calfskins
+were formerly finished with wax and oil
+on the flesh side, but can now be made so
+as to be finished on the “grain,” which is
+the hair side of the skin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cap.</span> A term meaning the same as tip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Carton.</span> A cardboard box intended for
+one pair of shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cementing.</span> This is the operation of
+placing cement on the outsole and the
+bottom of the welt shoe so that the outsole
+is held to the shoe by the cement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chamois.</span> A leather made from the skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+of chamois, calves, deer, goats, sheep, and
+split hides of other animals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Channeling.</span> Cutting into the sole in
+such a way that the thread or stitching is
+away from the surface. In the outsole
+department it means preparing a place for
+the stitch. In insoles and turn soles, channeling
+is done so that soles are prepared to
+hold the stitching.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Channel Screwed.</span> A process by which
+the sole is fastened to the uppers. After a
+channel is cut and laid over on the outside
+of the outsole, the outsole and insole are
+fastened together, holding the upper and
+lining between them by means of wire
+screws, which are fastened in this channel.
+The skived part is then smoothed down
+over the heads of the screws, entirely
+covering them from sight, and preventing
+the screws from easily working up into the
+foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Channel Stitched.</span> A method of fastening
+soles to the uppers, either by McKay<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+or welt process, in which a portion of the
+sole’s outer side is channeled into, and the
+stitches afterwards covered on the lower
+side by the lip of this channel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Channel Turning.</span> Turning a lip or
+flap of sole leather (called channel), so that
+the stitching can be done in the proper
+place; or it may mean turning up the flap
+or lip of the channel, that is, the part that
+is to cover the stitch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Checking.</span> A term applied to the edges
+of heels or soles that have cracked, or have
+been injured in process of construction.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Inside.</span> Cleaning the lining.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Nails.</span> Scraping the blacking
+off the tops of the heel slugs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Shoes.</span> Removing dirt, wax,
+cement, etc., from them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Clicking.</span> Cutting the uppers of shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Closing.</span> Putting two or more pieces
+together.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Closing On.</span> Stitching the lining and
+outside together.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Colonial.</span> A name given to a woman’s
+low shoe, with vamp extended into a flaring
+tongue, with a large, ornamental buckle
+across the instep. The buckle and tongue
+are the distinctive features of the shoe,
+whether the shoe fastens with a lace or
+strap.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Coltskin.</span> Coltskin has been brought
+into general use in shoemaking within the
+past few years. The skin of a colt is thin
+enough to use like calfskin in its entirety,
+with such shaving as is given all hides in
+tanning. Coltskin makes a firm basis
+needed for patent leather, and has been
+much used in recent years for this purpose.
+Russia is the chief source of supply.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Combination Last.</span> One with a different
+width instep from the ball. It may be
+one or two widths’ difference, such as the
+D ball with a B instep. Combination
+lasts are generally used in fitting low
+insteps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Composition.</span> A term used to denote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+the small scraps that accumulate about
+tanneries and factories, which are ground
+up and mixed with a paste or a kind of
+cement, and flattened into sheets which
+are used as insoles, and in other parts, in
+various grades of shoes, where wear is not
+excessive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Congress Gaiter.</span> A shoe designed
+especially for comfort, with rubber goring
+in the sides which adjusts it to the ankle,
+instead of laces, and sometimes made with
+lace front to imitate a regular shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cordovan.</span> Originally a Spanish leather
+made from horsehide. The Spaniards were,
+for a great many centuries, the best leather
+makers. The term is applied to a grain
+leather from the best and strongest part of
+a horsehide.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Counter.</span> The stiffening in the back
+part of a shoe, often called stiffening, to
+support the outer leather and prevent the
+shoe from “running over” at the heel. It
+is made either of sole leather, shaved thin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+on the edge and shaped by machinery, as
+in the best shoes, or composition or paper,
+in cheap shoes. Metal is occasionally used
+on the outside of the shoes in heavy goods
+for miners and furnacemen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Coupon Tag.</span> A tag from which a
+coupon is cut for every operation. Operatives
+hold part of the coupon and the
+holders of the coupons are paid for the
+part named.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cowhide.</span> Refers to hides of cattle,
+heavier than kips, which run up to twenty-five
+pounds each.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Creasing Vamp.</span> Making hollow grooves
+across the front of the vamp to add to its
+looks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Creedmore.</span> A man’s heavy lace shoe,
+with gusset, blucher cut.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Creole.</span> A heavy congress work shoe.
+This shoe, the creedmore, and brogans are
+usually made of oil grains, kip, or split
+leather, sometimes pegged, sometimes
+“stitched down.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Crimping.</span> Shaping any part of the
+upper so that it will conform to the last
+better.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cushion Sole.</span> An elastic inner sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cut-off Vamp.</span> One cut off at tip for
+economy when tip is to be covered by a cap.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dieing.</span> Cutting soles to fit the last,
+outsoles, insoles, heel lifts, counters, or
+half soles, with a machine and a die.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dom Pedro.</span> A heavy, one-buckle shoe,
+with gusset or bellows tongue. Originally
+it was a patent name for certain shoes made
+of fine material, but is now applied to cheap
+grades.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dongola.</span> A heavy, plump goatskin,
+tanned with a semibright finish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dressing.</span> A process for giving the
+upper its original finish by means of liquid
+put on with sponge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Edge Setting.</span> The finishing edge of
+the sole,&mdash;polishing it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Edge Trimming.</span> Trimming the edge of
+a sole smoothly to conform to last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Enamel.</span> Leather that is given a shiny
+finish on the grain side. The process is
+similar to that of patent leather, only that
+patent leather is finished on the flesh side,
+or the surface of the split.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eyelet.</span> A small ring of metal, etc.,
+placed in the holes for lacing; the eyelet
+holes are sometimes worked with thread
+like a buttonhole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eyeletting.</span> Putting on eyelets.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Facing.</span> The bleached calf or sheepskin
+used around the top of the shoe, and
+down the eyelet row and inside of the
+upper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fair Stitch.</span> Term applied to the stitching
+that shows around the outer edge of
+the sole, to give the McKay shoe the appearance
+of a welt shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Faking.</span> Putting a gloss on any part
+of the bottom of the shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Findings.</span> The small parts of a shoe,
+such as blacking, cement, nails, wax, tacks,
+thread, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Flap, Lip, and Shoulder.</span> Terms used
+in connection with the channel or with the
+operation of sewing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Follower.</span> Any last or form put in a
+shoe from which the original last has been
+pulled.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Forepart Finishing.</span> The staining and
+polishing of the forepart of the shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Form.</span> A term applied to a filler last.
+It may be of wood, papier-mâché, leather
+board, or any similar material, and is
+used to enhance the appearance of sample
+shoes, in salesmen’s lines or in window
+displays.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Foxed.</span> Having the lower part of the
+quarter a separate piece of leather or
+covered by an extra piece; “slipper foxed”
+is a term sometimes applied to women’s
+full vamp shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Foxing.</span> The name applied to that part
+of the upper that extends from the sole to
+the laces in front, and to about the height
+of the counter in the back; being the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+length of the upper. It may be in one or
+more pieces and is often cut down to the
+shank in circular form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Frizzing.</span> A process to which chamois
+and wash leather are subjected, after the
+skins are unhaired, scraped, “fleshed,” and
+raised. It consists in rubbing the skins
+with pumice stone or a blunt knife till the
+appearance of the grain is entirely removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Front.</span> A term used for part of a congress
+toe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gaiter.</span> A term usually applied to a separate
+ankle covering or to a congress shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gemming.</span> The operation of making gem
+insoles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gem Insoles.</span> An insole for welt shoes
+of leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Glazed Kid.</span> See Kid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Glove Grain.</span> A light, soft-finished,
+split leather, for women’s or children’s
+shoes or topping.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Goatskin.</span> See Kid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Goodyear Welt.</span> A term used to denote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+the process of attaching the sole to
+the upper of a shoe by means of a narrow
+strip of leather called a welt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gore.</span> A rubber elastic used in a congress
+shoe. It is also applied to the long,
+wedge-shaped piece of leather set in an
+upper to widen it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grading.</span> The sorting of outsoles and
+half soles to get uniform weight in edges of
+finished shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Half Sole.</span> Half of a complete sole
+used in forepart of bottom under outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Harness Leather.</span> Similar to belting,
+and is made from hides heavier than kips.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel.</span> Made of layers of leather or wood
+called liftings, and attached to rear part
+of shoe (heel seat). There are different
+varieties of heels. The French heel is an
+extremely high heel with a curved outline
+in back and front (breast). It is sometimes
+made of wood covered with leather, with
+thicknesses of sole leather, or all sole leather.
+The Cuban heel is a high, straight heel,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+without the curve of the French or “Louis
+XV” heel. Military heel is a straight heel
+not as high as the Cuban. A spring heel is
+a low heel formed by extending back the
+outside of the shoe to the heel, with a slip
+inserted between the outsole and heel slat.
+Wedge heel is somewhat similar to a spring
+heel, except that a wedge-shaped lift is
+tacked on the outside instead of a slit.
+Slugging heels is the process of affixing the
+made-up heel by one operation of the
+machine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Finishing.</span> Blacking and polishing
+the heel edge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Lining.</span> The lining to cover heel
+nails inside the shoe; it is often known by
+other names.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Pad.</span> In the manufacture of shoes,
+is a small piece of felt, leather, or other
+substance fastened to and covering the full
+width of the insole at the point upon which
+the heel rests. A heel cushion is sometimes
+called a heel pad.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Scouring.</span> Sandpapering the edge
+of the heel, except the front or breast portion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat.</span> That part of sole on which
+heel is fastened.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat Nailing.</span> Nailing the heel
+part of sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat Trimming.</span> Trimming the
+rear or heel part of sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heel Shaving.</span> Shaving the heel, shaping
+it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hemlock Tanned.</span> A process of tanning
+leather by hemlock bark.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hides.</span> Distinguished from skins, in the
+trade. Hides refer to skins of animals
+which are over twenty-five pounds in weight.
+Skins refer to smaller animals; as skins
+of goats, calves, sheep.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inlay.</span> A trimming of the upper by an
+insertion of the same or different kind of
+material than that of the body in which
+it is inlaid. It is used for decorative purpose
+on a shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inseaming.</span> Sewing sole on turn shoe.
+Welting and inseaming are practically the
+same operation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inseam Trimming.</span> Cutting off the
+surplus leather; term is also applied to
+pulling sole tacks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Insole.</span> The first sole laid on the last,
+and is the foundation of all shoes with
+insoles. It is an important though invisible
+portion of a shoe. This inner sole is
+the part to which the upper and outsole
+are sewed or nailed in the McKay and welt
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inspecting.</span> The examination of shoes
+to see that the work is perfect; it is sometimes
+called crowning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inspecting Insole.</span> The operation of
+looking inside of the shoe for tacks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Instep.</span> The top of the arch of the
+foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Iron.</span> A term indicating the thickness
+of sole leather; each unit is approximately
+one thirty-second of an inch in thickness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ironing Uppers.</span> Taking wrinkles out
+of the uppers and smoothing the same with
+a hot iron.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Juliette.</span> A woman’s house slipper which
+is cut a little above the ankle in front and
+back, and cut down on the sides is called
+a Juliette.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kangaroo.</span> The skin of the animal of
+that name, which makes a splendid leather,
+of firm texture. It is quite expensive,
+hence substitutes are on the market under
+the same name.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kid.</span> A term applied to the shoe leather
+made from the skins of mature goats.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kip.</span> A term applied to leather made
+from hides weighing between fifteen and
+twenty-five pounds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lace Stay.</span> A strip of leather reënforcing
+the eyelet holes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lace Hook.</span> An eyelet extended into
+a recurved hook, around which the lace is
+looped. It is most commonly used in
+men’s and boys’ shoes, although recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+some have been invented for use in women’s
+shoes with curved ends, to avoid catching
+the dress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lacing.</span> The operation of putting laces
+in shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Last.</span> A wooden form over which the
+shoe is constructed, giving the shoe its
+distinctive shape.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lasting.</span> The process of making the
+uppers conform to the last in all respects.
+The operations of assembling and pulling
+over are parts of lasting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Laying Channel.</span> Turning down the lip
+or flap to cover the stitching.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leveling.</span> Shaping the sole to the
+bottom of the last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lift.</span> The name given to one thickness
+of sole leather used in the heel. Top lift
+is the bottom lift, when the shoe is right
+side up, and is the last piece put on in
+manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lining.</span> The inside part of shoe, generally
+of cloth (dull) or sheepskin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lining Cutting.</span> The operation of cutting
+the cloth linings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lining-in.</span> The operation of putting
+lining inside of the shoe to cover insole
+or part of insole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Loading Leather.</span> Filling the pores of
+the leather with glucose to increase its
+weight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Making Linings.</span> Consists of closing
+up heel of lining; putting on top and side
+or eyelet stay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Match Marking.</span> An operation performed
+on colored uppers, except black,
+to get different parts of the upper the
+same shade and color, and both shoes in
+the pair alike.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mat.</span> A term applied to a dull finish
+kid as distinguished from glazed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">McKay Sewed or McKay.</span> A shoe in
+which the outsole is attached to the insole
+and upper by a method named for the
+inventor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">McKay Sewing.</span> Sewing through and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+through so that thread is seen inside of
+shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Middle Sole.</span> Any sole between outsole
+and insole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mock Welt.</span> McKay-sewed shoe with
+a double sole and having a leather sock
+lining. It is fair stitched to imitate a welt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Monkey Skin.</span> A peculiar grained skin,
+and is considered in the trade as a fancy
+leather. It is often imitated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Morocco.</span> A name applied to leather
+originally made in Morocco. It is a sumac-tanned
+goatskin, red in color, and is used
+in book binding. The name is also applied
+to a leather made in imitation of this, and
+to heavy, plump goatskins used for shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Molding.</span> Shaping the sole to fit the
+bottom of last.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mules.</span> The name applied to slippers
+with no counters or quarters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nap.</span> The woolly side of hide, cloth, or
+felt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Naumkeaging.</span> Smoothing up the bottom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+with fine sandpaper. Sometimes the buffing
+grain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nullifier.</span> A shoe with high vamp
+and quarter, dropping low at the sides,
+made with a short rubber goring for summer
+or house wear.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oak Tanned.</span> A process of tanning by
+means of a substance obtained from oak bark.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oil Leather.</span> Leather prepared by
+currying hides in oil. The hides are moist,
+that the oily matter may be gradually
+and thoroughly absorbed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ooze.</span> A chrome tan calfskin treated on
+the flesh side in such a manner that the
+long fibers are loosened and form a nap
+surface; made in many colors.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Outside Cutting.</span> Cutting the leather
+parts of the shoe, as vamp, tip, top, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Outside Tap.</span> The tap used outside of
+men’s or boys’ heavy shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Outsole.</span> The sole next the ground,
+on which all wear comes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus30" style="width: 330px;">
+<img src="images/illus30.jpg" width="330" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus31" style="width: 370px;">
+<img src="images/illus31.jpg" width="370" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oxford.</span> A low-cut shoe no higher than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+the instep lace, button, or goring, made in
+men’s, women’s, and children’s sizes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Packer Hides.</span> Hides taken off in the
+large slaughterhouses. They are rated
+slightly higher in price, because great care
+and skill are used in taking them off.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Packing.</span> Placing a pair of shoes in a
+carton.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pacs.</span> Coverings for the feet made of
+good quality calfskin, similar in form and
+appearance to the Indian moccasin. They
+do not have sole leather bottoms. If
+properly made, they are waterproof.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pancake.</span> A term applied to one of the
+many artificial leathers formed from leather
+scraps, shaved thin, and cemented together
+under heavy pressure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pasted Counter.</span> One that is cut from
+two pieces of sole leather pasted together.
+It is sometimes called a two-piece counter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Patent Leather.</span> Varnished leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pattern.</span> The model by which the
+pieces comprising the upper of a shoe are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+cut, applied collectively to upper as modified
+by the differing shape of these pieces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pebble.</span> A term used in the process
+to bring out the grain of leather and give
+it a roughened or rubbed appearance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pegging.</span> Lasting out soles with pegs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Perforating.</span> Making very small holes
+around parts of upper. It is performed
+mostly for decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Polish.</span> The name of ladies’ or misses’
+front-lace shoe of higher cut than “bal,”
+and named from Poland, where it originated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pressing.</span> Consists of a flat-press pressure
+for heels and soles, to prevent cracking
+of edges and to make parts adhere.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Porpoise.</span> This skin is sometimes used
+for leather and boot laces, but porpoise
+hides are ordinarily obtained from the
+white whale.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pulling Lasts.</span> Removing the lasts from
+shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pulling Over.</span> Pulling upper on the
+last and tacking it in position.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pump.</span> A low-cut shoe originally having
+no fastenings, such as laces or buttons. A
+pump is cut lower than the instep.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pump Sole.</span> An extra-light single sole,
+running clear through to the back of the
+heel. A pump sole in former years was
+distinguished by its flexibility and was
+hand turned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Putting on Tap.</span> Sticking half sole to
+the outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Quarter.</span> The rear part of upper when
+a full vamp is not used. Term is used
+mostly in women’s, and Oxfords or low shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rand.</span> Made of sole leather about as
+wide as a welt, but thin at one edge. It is
+tacked to the heel so as to balance the heel
+evenly on the sole and fill any open space
+around the edge between sole and heel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rapid Stitching.</span> Sewing the sole to
+welt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Relasting.</span> Consists in putting lasts
+in shoes from which the original lasts have
+been removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Repairing.</span> A term applied to filling
+slight cracks in patent tips or patent leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Roan.</span> Sheepskin tanned with sumac.
+The process is similar in its details to that
+employed for morocco leather, but lacks
+the graining given to the morocco by the
+grooved rollers in the finishing. It imitates
+ungrained morocco.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rolling.</span> The process of passing leather
+between rolls to make it firm and hard.
+Rolling consists in polishing the bottom on
+roll and brush.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rough Rounding.</span> Rounding outsole
+to the shape of last, and cutting channel
+in the welt-channeled shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Royalties.</span> Sums paid for the use of
+machines to machine companies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Russet Calf.</span> Russet-colored calf is
+made from calfskins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Russet Grain.</span> Russet-colored grain is
+made from a split cowhide.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sabot.</span> The name of a one-piece wooden
+shoe, carved from a block of basswood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+A novelty to Americans, but worn by people
+in the rural and manufacturing sections of
+Holland, Germany, and France.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sack Lining.</span> The lining inside the shoe
+and insole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sandal.</span> The name of a woman’s strap
+slipper, or a sole worn by children. Originally
+fastened on the foot by straps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Satin Calf.</span> A grain split, stuffed with
+oil, and smooth finished.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Scouring Breast.</span> Sandpapering the
+front part of the heel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Screw-fastened.</span> A shoe having the
+sole attached with screws, as in cheap or
+working shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Seal Grain.</span> Usually a flesh split, with
+an artificial grain which is stamped or
+printed on the finished leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Second Lasting.</span> The same as relasting.
+Term used most in turn work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shank.</span> The middle position of the bottom
+of the foot. Shank supports are placed
+in shoes to stiffen that part of the bottom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+They are of steel, of wood, or of a combination
+of leather board and steel, and can be
+placed in the shoe any time before the outsole
+is laid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shank Burnishing.</span> Polishing a black
+shank with hot iron.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shank Finishing.</span> Finishing the shank
+with blacking or in colors. The top lift
+is generally finished at the same time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shanking Out.</span> Means making the edge
+of the shank thinner than the other part
+of the sole, and making it smooth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sheepskins.</span> Used largely for linings
+and for cheap shoes for women and children.
+It is too soft and weak in texture
+for heavy wear, and liable to split and
+tear.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Short Vamp.</span> A foreshortened vamp.
+The distance between the extreme tip and
+the throat of the vamp shortened for
+appearances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sides.</span> Leather made from hides which
+are split into two sides down the back.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Side Lasting.</span> Lasting the side of the
+shoe only.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Size.</span> Shoes are measured by the length
+and width. The length is expressed by
+numbers and the widths by letters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Skins.</span> A term used to represent the
+skin covering of small animals, such as goats.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Skirting.</span> The outer parts of leather
+(hide), such as shanks, bellies, necks, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Skiving.</span> Making the sole the same
+thickness in all parts. Skiving means cutting
+or shaving down to a thin edge. This
+operation may be done in the cutting department
+or stitching department.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Slip.</span> The name applied to spring heels
+or to soles. Slip is a thin piece of sole
+leather inserted above the outer sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Slugging.</span> Driving slugs in heels, on
+part or all of the heel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sock Lining.</span> The lining for insole,
+inside of shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soft Tip.</span> A term applied to a shoe on
+which no boxing is used under the tip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soles and Sole Leather.</span> Name applied
+to pieces of leather of various thickness
+on the bottom of a shoe, usually
+made from heavy hides of leather. There
+are many varieties of soles: a “full-double”
+sole has two thicknesses of leather extending
+clear back to the heel; “half-double”
+sole is a full outer sole, with slip extending
+back to shank; single sole is self-defining;
+“tap” is a half sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sole Laying.</span> Sole laying is the operation
+of laying the outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sorting.</span> The process of selecting and
+sorting soles, so that they may be put up
+in different qualities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spewing.</span> Shoes in stock sometimes become
+coated with a grayish white, powdery
+substance, that looks like mildew. This
+formation on leather that is not fully
+seasoned is called spewing, and the deposit
+is called bloom. It can readily be wiped
+off, and does not indicate any serious
+defect or trouble with the leather. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+not a mildew or growth, but apparently
+an exudation of materials used in tanning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Splits.</span> A name applied to split leather,
+that is, two or more parts of the hide.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spring Heel.</span> Consists of one or more
+lifts used between the outsole and upper.
+It is seen mostly in children’s shoes and is
+often called wedge heel. It can also be
+put on outside instead of under the outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stamping.</span> The operation of putting size
+and width on the inside of the shoe. Parts
+of the uppers are often stamped or marked
+so that the whole are put together properly
+in the stitching room.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stay.</span> The name given to any piece of
+leather put in the upper to strengthen it
+or to strengthen a seam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Bottoms.</span> The operation of
+stamping name on bottom. It is often
+performed in finishing rooms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Carton.</span> Putting the size,
+width, and other marks on carton.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Sizes.</span> Stamping sizes on heel
+part of the sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Standard-fastened.</span> Nailing bottom on
+standard screw machine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Staying.</span> Putting on a stay, generally
+heel stay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stitch Separating.</span> Marking between
+stitches so as to make them show to good
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stitch Down.</span> A term applied to a flexible
+shoe used in the army, in which the
+top is turned out instead of under and
+stitched through the sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stitched Aloft.</span> A term used to indicate
+that the sewing stitches show on the
+bottom. No channel is necessary in this
+sole. It may be a slight groove. In stitching,
+the shoe is held bottom up, therefore
+the name “stitched aloft.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Straight Last.</span> One that is neither
+right nor left, and a shoe made over such
+a last can be worn on either foot. This
+term is sometimes applied to right and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+left shoes that have a barely perceptible
+outside swing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stripping.</span> Consists of cutting in strips
+wide enough to cut soles all of equal size
+in length.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Suede.</span> A trade term applied to kid
+skins, finished on the flesh side.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Swing.</span> A term applied to the curve of
+the outer edge of a sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tacking On.</span> Consists in laying the
+outsole on McKay’s lasted shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tack Pulling and Trimming Out.</span>
+Consist of preparing bottom for welting.
+It also makes it better for the operation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tampico.</span> A variety of goat skins coming
+from the province of Tampico, Central
+America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tap.</span> Half of a complete sole, often
+called half sole when used under outsole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tan.</span> Tan is a sort of brownish leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tanning.</span> Tanning is the process of
+converting hides or skins into leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tap Trimming.</span> Shaping the tap to
+conform to the sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tawing.</span> The process of making leather
+by soaking hides in a solution of salt and
+alum, or by packing them down with dry
+salt and powdered alum. Used to prepare
+skin rugs and furs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tempering.</span> The operation of wetting
+the leather in water to take hardness out
+and make leather “mull,” so that it may
+be worked easier.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tip.</span> The toe piece which is stitched
+to the vamp and outside of it. Stock
+tip is a tip of the same material as the
+vamp. Patent tip is a patent leather tip.
+Diamond tip refers to the shape extending
+back to a point. Imitation tip-stitching
+across the vamp is imitation of
+a tip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tip Cutting.</span> Cutting the tip which
+goes on the toe of the vamp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Toe and Heel Lasting.</span> Lasting heel
+and toe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Toe Piece.</span> A piece attached to cut-off
+vamp to lengthen it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tongue.</span> A narrow strip of leather necessary
+on all laced shoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top.</span> The part of the upper above the
+vamp; tip of shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Cutting.</span> Cutting the top only.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Facing.</span> The strip of leather or
+band of cloth around the top of the shoe
+on the inside is called the top facing. It
+adds to the finish of the lining, and is sometimes
+used to advertise the name of manufacturers
+by a design of letters woven or
+sewed on it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Lift.</span> The lift which is next to the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Lift Scouring.</span> Sandpapering top
+lift of heel to make it smooth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Top Stitching.</span> Consists of stitching
+across the top and down the side.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Treeing.</span> Shaping the shoe, making it
+smooth. Produces the same effect as ironing,
+although no hot iron is used. It makes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+the upper plump and gives it a good finish
+and “feel.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trimming Cutting.</span> Cutting stays, facings,
+and other small parts of the upper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trimming Vamp.</span> Cutting off hanging
+or surplus thread.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Turning.</span> To turn shoe right side out.
+Also turning upper right side out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Turned Shoe.</span> A lady’s fine shoe that
+is made wrong side out, then turned right
+side out, which operation necessitates the
+use of a thin, flexible sole of good quality.
+The sole is fastened to the last, the upper
+is lasted over it wrong side out, then the
+two are sewed together, the thread catching
+through a channel cut in the edge of the
+sole. The seam does not come through to
+the bottom of the sole where it would chafe
+the foot on inside.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Upper.</span> A term applied collectively to
+the upper parts of a shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ungrained.</span> Smooth surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamp.</span> The lower or front part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+upper of a shoe. It is the most important
+piece of the upper and should be
+cut from the strongest and cleanest
+part of the skin. “Cut-off” vamp is one
+that extends only to the tip, instead of
+being continued to the toe and lasted
+under with the tip. Whole vamp is one
+that extends to the heel without a seam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamping.</span> Stitching the vamp to the top.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamp Cutting.</span> Cutting vamp with or
+without the tip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Velour.</span> A finish for calf leather. It
+is the French name for velvet and is used
+in the shoe trade for a patent chrome-tanned
+calf leather. It is an excellent leather and
+has a smooth and velvety finish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vellum.</span> A name for skins that are
+made into a variety of parchment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Veneering.</span> Consists in making soles,
+whole or part, heavier, by means of leather-board
+or other material fastened to the
+sole by an adhesive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vesting.</span> A material originally designed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+for making vests. As used in shoes, it is
+made with fancy-figured weave, having a
+backing of stiff buckram or rubber-treated
+tissue to strengthen it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Viscolizing.</span> A patent method of waterproofing
+sole leather by the use of partly
+emulsified oils with a water-resisting tendency.
+Viscolized soles are used in hunting
+and sporting boots.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vici.</span> A patent trade name for a brand
+of chrome-tanned kid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wash Leather.</span> An inferior quality of
+chamois.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Welt.</span> A narrow strip of leather that
+is sewed to the upper of a shoe with an
+insole leaving the edge of the welt extending
+outward, so that the outsole can be
+attached by sewing through both welt and
+outsole, around the outside of the shoe.
+The attaching of the sole and upper thus
+involves two sewings, first the insole, welt
+and upper, then the outsole to the welt.
+The name is applied to the shoe itself when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+made in this way to distinguish it from a
+turned, or McKay sewed shoe. This is the
+method used by cobblers in the production
+of hand-sewed shoes to fasten the sole and
+upper together. Goodyear welt is a welt
+in which the sewing is done by a machine
+named for the inventor. There are very
+few hand-welted shoes made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Welt Beating.</span> The flattening out of
+the welt, making it smooth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Welting.</span> Sewing the welt to shoe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">White Alum.</span> Bleached leather tawed
+with white alum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wooden Case.</span> Large box for twelve or
+more pairs.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_TEN">CHAPTER TEN<br />
+<span class="smaller">LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE</span></h2>
+
+<p>The use of gloves is so old that relics
+of them have been found in the
+habitations of the cave dwellers. The
+Romans used them as decorative articles
+of dress and the Greeks to protect the hands
+when doing heavy work.</p>
+
+<p>The gloves of ladies and gentlemen in the
+days of Queen Elizabeth, and before and
+after, were most beautiful in hand workmanship
+and embellishments, but they
+were usually shapeless things, and in these
+days no one would wear them; they are
+not to be compared with the elegant style
+and artistic finish of the modern product.</p>
+
+<p>When the social world was restricted, so
+to speak, in the numbers of its members who
+could afford some of life’s luxuries, the use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+of the glove was confined largely to royalty,
+nobility, and the well-to-do. And the trade
+not being extensive, prices were high&mdash;being
+added to by decorative elaboration
+in needlework in order that the manufacturer
+and his employees might extract as
+much money as possible from the ultimate
+buyer. While glove making is now one of
+the stabilities of modern manufacture, it
+is, nevertheless, constantly changing in
+styles, due to eagerness for novelties and
+new fashions.</p>
+
+<p>Glove making of leather, in a rough,
+crude form, was carried on in this country
+to a very limited extent in New York State
+as early as 1760, by glove makers brought
+from Scotland to settle on the grants of
+Sir William Johnson, in Fulton county.
+But there was no general market for the
+home product until one was found in Albany
+in 1825. These early gloves, crude and
+clumsy, were cut with shears from leather
+by means of pasteboard patterns, and men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+did the cutting and women the sewing.
+Dies were later introduced, and this led to
+a great improvement in the character of
+the output.</p>
+
+<p>But a still greater step forward was taken
+when the sewing machine was introduced
+in 1852. This abolished handwork entirely,
+but still the industry remained largely of
+a domestic nature, since it could be carried
+on at home with a machine as well as in a
+factory. Later steam power was installed
+in factories with which to run the machines.
+The cutting of gloves, and the stitching
+on the backs, was done before the gloves
+were sent out to be completed in workers’
+homes.</p>
+
+<p>As in everything wherein power can be
+substituted for hand labor in these days,
+the methods of glove manufacture have
+undergone a great transformation. The
+treating of skins in a great tub, three feet
+deep, whole dyeing and scouring, in rooms
+of high temperature, has been displaced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+by putting skins and colors into a cube-shaped
+box, which, revolving with an irregular
+motion, produces the same results more
+quickly than by the primitive way. But
+when color is to be applied to but one side
+the process is the same as of old,&mdash;hand
+use of a brush while the skin is stretched
+out on a slab.</p>
+
+<p>When taken from the stock on hand to
+be made into gloves, the first thing done
+to skins by some glove makers is to “feed”
+them with eggs&mdash;not eggs of suspicious
+merits, but good enough for table use. And
+of these nothing is used but the yolk. One
+glove maker imports from China large
+quantities of the yolks of duck eggs for his
+work, and his yearly consumption of yolks
+amounts to seventeen thousand.</p>
+
+<p>When the skins leave the dyehouse,
+they are rapidly dried in steam-heated
+lofts; and while stiff and rough they are, or
+were, worked into softness and smoothness
+over a wooden upright standard, called a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+stake, at the top of which is fitted a blunt
+semicircular knife. Over this the skin is
+drawn by hand, back and forth, until it
+becomes as pliable and delicate as silk.
+When this work was done manually it was
+most laborious. But now it has been
+mostly taken over by very ingenious machinery,
+which looks, in operation, as if it would
+tear a skin into fragments by the way it
+snaps and pulls at it, but which is adjustable
+to such nicety of action and power that the
+work is done exactly as it is wanted.</p>
+
+<p>The next operation is to pare the skins
+to uniformity of thickness. This also was
+handwork for a long time, done with a
+peculiarly shaped knife, but now emery-coated
+wheels, with rounded edges, are
+used by the workers, who, with their aid,
+do just as good and much faster work in
+drawing and thinning the skins with absolute
+precision. This completes the treatment
+of the skin.</p>
+
+<p>Now the function of the cutter begins,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+and he must be a workman of experience
+and good judgment, in that he must contend
+with the inconstant inelasticity of the skin,
+reducing it to uniform resistance. He must
+get so many pieces of glove size from each
+skin, and suit the pieces to particular features
+of the skin. When done with a skin
+he must have left, as useless, only trifling
+strips and shreds. The shapeliness of the
+glove which a woman draws over her hand,
+depends altogether upon the intelligence
+and skill of the cutter. In American factories
+the cutter is usually from some
+glove-making center in Europe and from
+a family whose occupation has been glove
+making for centuries.</p>
+
+<p>A punch next cuts these glove pieces
+into shape, forming and dividing the fingers,
+slitting the buttonholes, providing side
+pieces for fingers and thumbs, and also
+the fragments used for strengthening the
+buttonholes. The sewing, formerly the
+handiwork of women, is now done on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+machines of capacity for exceptionally fine
+quality of intricate stitching. The number
+of glove sizes made is sufficient to meet
+every likely demand. When sewn, and the
+buttons or fastenings put on, they pass
+beneath the critical eye of an inspector for
+scrutiny as to faults. Then they are finally
+shaped on a hot metal hand, smoothed,
+banded, boxed, and sent to the salesroom
+for shipment.</p>
+
+<p>The first and fourth fingers of a glove are
+completed by gussets, or strips, sewed only
+on the inner side; but the second and third
+fingers require gussets on both sides to
+complete the fingers. In addition to these,
+small, diamond-shaped pieces are sewed in
+at the roots of the fingers. Special care is
+necessary in sewing in the thumb pieces,
+as poorly made gloves usually give way at
+this point.</p>
+
+<p>Natural lined gloves are now common
+enough, although it is not many years
+since they were regarded as impracticable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+These are made from pelts of various
+animals with the hair left on the skin to
+form the lining.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Automobile and Furniture Leather</span></h3>
+
+<p>For automobile and furniture leather
+only choice hides should be used. The
+kind of hides generally employed for this
+class of leather are French and Swiss, as
+these run full and plump on the bellies, are
+free from cuts on the flesh and are of clear
+grain. The hides are trimmed before placing
+them in the soaking pits, all useless
+parts, such as nose, shanks, etc., being cut
+away.</p>
+
+<p>After remaining in soak for a day or two,
+the hides are hauled out, fleshed, and
+returned to the soaks for thorough softening.
+When thoroughly soaked, they are toggled
+and reeled into the first lime. The first
+lime must be a weak, mellow lime, or a
+harsh grain will show after the leather is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+tanned. The hides are reeled over into
+stronger limes every day for seven days,
+when they are ready for unhairing. After
+coming from the limes, the hides should
+go into a pit of soft water heated to about
+ninety degrees Fahrenheit and left over
+night before starting in to unhair. After
+unhairing, they are thrown into a vat
+of clean water and thoroughly worked out
+on the grain to remove short hairs and scud
+and are then ready for bating. One that
+has a little bacterial action is preferred to
+an acid bate. After bating, the hides are
+given a good scudding on the grain and are
+then ready for the tanning liquors.</p>
+
+<p>The liquors are made of hemlock and oak
+and are used very weak on the start. The
+hides are suspended for a day in a liquor
+not over six degrees specific gravity reading
+in strength, and the following day shifted
+over into a stronger liquor. The stock is
+given stronger liquors every day until
+tanned enough for splitting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The stock is struck out smoothly and
+brought to the machine for splitting. The
+buffing is first taken away and sold for hat
+bands, pocket-books, etc. The grains are
+finished and the splits are returned to the
+tanning liquors to be thoroughly tanned.
+As soon as the splits are tanned, they are
+washed up, drained, and then drummed
+in the drum in a sumac liquor. They are
+now scoured, and, after being well set out,
+are given a good oiling with cod oil.</p>
+
+<p>They are now tacked out on the frames
+and dried out. They are next taken from
+the frames and boarded by hand over the
+table. The splits are taken to the japan
+shop and are tacked out again and are
+ready for the first coat of daub. Two coats
+are applied. After each coat, the splits
+are well rubbed down, when they receive
+the slicker coat. The color coats are now
+applied, and after drying out, the leather
+is grained up and finished.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_ELEVEN">CHAPTER ELEVEN<br />
+<span class="smaller">RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE</span></h2>
+
+<p>Examine the rubbers we wear during
+the winter and stormy weather.</p>
+
+<p>Rubber shoe coverings are made to protect
+the shoe from water and snow and
+may be in the form of either slippers or
+arctics. The covering is rendered waterproof
+by means of a compound rubber.</p>
+
+<p>Rubber is the name given to a coagulated
+milky juice obtained from many different
+trees, vines, and shrubs that grow on that
+part of the earth’s surface which forms a
+band some three or four hundred miles on
+either side of the equator.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus32" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus32.jpg" width="650" height="530" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Crude Rubber.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rubber is graded commercially, according
+to the district where it is found. In the
+order of importance it may be divided into
+three general sorts, viz., American, African,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+and Asiatic. The best and largest quantities
+of rubber come from Brazil, along the
+banks of the Amazon River. The countries
+in the northern and western part of South
+America, and the Central American States
+and Mexico furnish considerable rubber.
+Eastern and western Africa also produce
+many kinds of rubber in large quantities,
+though somewhat inferior to the Brazilian
+product. The Asiatic rubbers are unimportant
+in quantity, and, excepting the
+rubber obtained from cultivated trees in
+Ceylon, are decidedly inferior in quality.</p>
+
+<p>The fluid rubber obtained from Brazil
+is called Para and is used principally in
+the manufacture of rubber footwear. The
+method of gathering and coagulating the
+rubber juice (called latex) varies in the
+different countries. The native first clears
+a space under a number of trees and proceeds
+to tap the trees with a short-handled
+ax, having a small blade, by cutting gashes
+in the bark. A cup is fixed under each cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+to catch the fluid as it flows out. As fast
+as the cups are filled, they are emptied
+into a large vessel and carried to the camp
+to be coagulated. A fire is started in a
+shallow hole in the ground, and palm nuts,
+which make a dense smoke, are thrown on.
+An earthen cover which has a small opening
+on top is placed over the fire, allowing the
+smoke to escape through the opening. A
+wooden paddle is first dipped in clay water
+and then into the latex and then held over
+the smoke. The heat coagulates a thin
+layer of rubber on the paddle. It is dipped
+again and again in the latex and smoked
+each time. After being dipped many times,
+a lump (called biscuit) of rubber is formed.
+A cut is made in the biscuit and the paddle
+removed. Then the rubber is ready for
+market. The world’s crop of rubber in
+1911 was about ninety thousand tons.</p>
+
+<p>Few people realize the number of operations
+necessary to produce from the crude
+biscuit of India rubber the highly finished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+rubber shoe of to-day. Briefly stated, the
+various steps are washing, drying, compounding,
+calendering, cutting the various
+parts, making or putting these parts together,
+varnishing, vulcanizing, and packing.
+Each of these processes requires a distinct
+and separate department, and many of these
+processes are subdivided into minor operations.</p>
+
+<p>The huge stock of Para rubber, that is
+rubber obtained from the Amazon section,
+to be found in any of the leading rubber
+factories counts well up into the thousands
+of dollars. With rubber at or near $1.50
+per pound, a stock of ten to fifty tons runs
+up into the five or six figures.</p>
+
+<p>This crude rubber, as it comes from the
+Amazon, contains more or less dirt, pebbles,
+and other foreign substances, which must
+be removed.</p>
+
+<p>The large cakes of crude rubber are first
+broken up by a cracker machine, consisting
+of two large, revolving steel cylinders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+from which the product falls into pans or
+trays. It goes then to a machine known as
+a “washer” or “sheeter,” where it is run
+between revolving cylinders, upon which a
+continuous spray of clean water is maintained.
+After being rolled into rough sheets,
+it is put into a tank, from which it is taken
+to the “beater” machine, in which water
+runs continuously, and then it is washed
+again and “sheeted out.” It is then dried
+in one of two ways.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The older way. The sheets are
+hung over rods in a large room, and allowed
+to dry in the air. To facilitate the same,
+a fan or blower is often used to cause a
+circulation and removal of the moisture-laden
+air. This requires a period of from
+one to two or three months.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus33" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus33.jpg" width="650" height="530" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Washing and Drying.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(2) The second method is called vacuum
+drying. This process is gradually being
+introduced, so that now probably more
+rubber is dried in vacuum than by air.
+The vacuum drier consists of a large iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+cylinder filled with plates, through which
+steam is allowed to circulate. The rubber
+is placed on the plates and the air is exhausted
+from the cylinder by means of an
+air pump until very nearly twenty-six
+degrees of vacuum are obtained. By this
+process only from two to three hours are
+required to produce perfectly dry rubber.</p>
+
+<p>The making of a rubber shoe is not the
+simple matter which might at first be
+supposed. An ordinary rubber shoe consists
+of at least seven or eight different
+parts, sometimes twenty-one parts to a pair,
+while a high-button gaiter has seventeen
+distinct parts, and a rubber boot has twenty-three
+different pieces. There are insoles,
+outsoles, stays, piping, foxing, and a dozen
+other different pieces, each one of which is
+necessary to the proper construction of a
+rubber shoe or boot. The thinner sheets
+for the uppers are cut by hand, the deft
+work of the cutters in following the patterns
+outlined on the sheets being the result of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+years of practice. The sheets of rubber
+from which the uppers and soles are cut
+are at this stage of the work plastic and
+very sticky. It is necessary on this account
+to cut the various pieces one by one, and
+keep them separate. The soles and some
+of the heavier pieces are dried out by the
+machine, and the heels are made by a special
+machine, but by far the greater part is done
+by wonderfully skilled hands. All of these
+parts which go to make a shoe, or the
+twenty-three parts which go into a boot,
+are collected and sent to the making department,
+which, in most factories, is a large
+room containing several hundred operatives,
+each working by herself, and bringing the
+many separate parts into the fully finished
+footwear.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus34" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus34.jpg" width="650" height="490" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Calender Room.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sheets of rubber, after being dried,
+are taken to the “compound” room, where
+they are sprinkled with whiting, to prevent
+sticking, and weighed. Next they are taken
+into the calender room to a “mixer,” by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+means of which the rubber is combined
+with other substances, which include sulphur,
+litharge, whiting, lampblack, tar,
+resin, lime, palm oil, and linseed oil.</p>
+
+<p>There are different calendering machines.
+The ones called the upper calenders form
+sheets of rubber stock for the upper part of
+the shoe. The soling calenders form the
+stock for the sole or bottom part of the
+shoe; other calender machines are used to
+coat a layer of gum on one side of the
+fabrics used for lining and various strips,
+fillers, toe, and heel pieces. The gum
+sheets are sent to the cutting room.</p>
+
+<p>Generally, linings for nine pairs of shoes
+are cut at once. The linings are cut both
+by hand and by machine. Men who cut
+with dies, by hand, stand at the bench and
+use iron mallets, like those used in cutting
+heels. Inner soles, heel pieces, and linings
+are all cut by means of dies in the same
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>The edges of the several parts are spread<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+with cement, and then the parts are taken
+to the making room and distributed. In
+the making department the boots and shoes
+are put together. Women make the light
+overshoes; men make the heavy ones.
+Rubbers are made by women, but men put
+on the outer soles.</p>
+
+<p>Linings are first applied smoothly to a
+wooden last and cemented together, the
+cement side out. The rubber parts are
+then stuck on and rolled firmly with a
+small hand roller. Young women become
+very skilled in this work, taking up the
+several parts in rapid succession, placing
+them accurately upon the last, and rolling
+and pounding them firmly together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus35" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus35.jpg" width="650" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Cutting Room.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most interesting single process
+is that of putting the rubber boot
+together. This work is done by men, and
+requires, in addition to accurate eyesight,
+rapid and very deft movements of the hand
+and considerable strength. No nails, tacks,
+or stitching are required. The natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+adhesiveness of the rubber, assisted by the
+use of rubber cement, holds the parts
+solidly together.</p>
+
+<p>In the making of the shoe the last is
+covered with the various pieces which are
+so made as to adhere where they are placed.
+It is exact and nice work fitting all these
+pieces perfectly, each edge overlapping just
+so far and no farther. The lighter shoes
+are made by women, but the heavy lumbermen’s
+shoes, arctics, and especially the
+boots, are made by men, for this work needs
+strength as well as dexterity.</p>
+
+<p>The goods which require varnishing are
+put on racks and treated with a mixture of
+boiled linseed oil, naphtha, and other
+materials, which are applied with brushes,
+and impart a gloss to the surface.</p>
+
+<p>On vulcanizing boots and shoes, the
+shoes are placed on racks supported by
+iron cars, which are run over tracks into
+the vulcanizing chamber. This consists
+principally of a large room provided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+with a steam coil on the floor. The temperature
+rarely exceeds two hundred
+and sixty degrees Fahrenheit. In vulcanizing
+shoes, the heat is increased gradually
+from the beginning, about one hundred and
+eighty degrees Fahrenheit, otherwise the
+goods would be blistered, due to the rapid
+evaporation of moisture and other volatile
+constituents. They are kept in these
+heaters from six to seven hours. This
+causes a union of sulphur and rubber, which
+is not affected by heat or cold.</p>
+
+<p>They are wheeled on another truck to the
+packing room, where they are inspected,
+taken from the lasts, tied together in
+pairs, or placed in cartons, as the case may
+be. They are then sent to the shipping
+room to be packed in cases ready to be
+delivered to the cars waiting at a side track
+of the railroad, or sent to the storehouse
+until they shall be called for by the jobbers
+or retail dealers.</p>
+
+<p>An important branch of the rubber business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+is the manufacture of tennis shoes.
+This is a generic term, which is applied to
+all kinds of footwear having cloth tops and
+rubber soles. As the name indicates, they
+were first used in playing the game of
+tennis, but they have come into very general
+use as warm weather and vacation shoes,
+and every year shows an increased popularity.
+These shoes are made in a similar
+manner to the rubber shoes, the rubber
+soles being cemented to the cloth uppers and
+vulcanized the same as the rubber overshoes.
+Many different styles are made,
+and each year shows some improvements in
+the shapes, in the textiles which are used,
+in the colors and combinations of soles and
+uppers.</p>
+
+<p>Rubber shoes should not be expected to
+give satisfactory service unless properly
+fitted. If too short, too narrow, or if worn
+over leathers with extra heavy taps, or
+unusually thick, wide soles, strains will be
+brought upon parts not designed to stand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+them and the rubber will give way. Rubber
+goods, particularly boots, if too large will
+wrinkle and a continued wrinkling and
+bending is liable to cause cracking.</p>
+
+<p>Extreme heat or cold should be avoided.
+Rubber boots or shoes should never be
+dried by placing them near a heater of any
+kind. If left near a stove, register, or
+radiator, the rubber is liable to dry and
+crack. If left out of doors in winter,
+or in an extremely cold place, they will
+freeze. Then when the warm foot is put
+into them and the rubbers are worn, the
+rubber will crack.</p>
+
+<p>Oil, grease, milk, or blood will cause
+rubber to decay in a very short time. If
+spattered with any of these, the rubber
+should be promptly and thoroughly cleaned
+with warm water and soap.</p>
+
+<p>The oil in leather tops will rot rubber,
+so that care should be taken in storing and
+packing to prevent the leather and rubber
+from coming in contact.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus36" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus36.jpg" width="650" height="475" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Various heavy goods are advertised as
+proof against snagging. It should be remembered,
+however, that no rubber can be
+made strong enough to be absolutely proof
+against tearing or puncturing by extremely
+sharp edges, such as stiff stubble, sharp-edged
+rocks, broken glass, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Mud, barnyard dirt, or filth of any kind
+should never be allowed to dry on rubbers.
+They should be cleaned as carefully as
+leather boots or shoes.</p>
+
+<p>Exposure to strong sunlight for any
+length of time produces an effect on rubbers
+similar to that of putting them near a stove
+or radiator. Rubbers should not be left
+in the sun to dry. When not in use they
+should be kept in a cool, dark place.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Rubber Heels</span></h3>
+
+<p>Rubber heels are generally made for
+boots and shoes as follows. The compounded
+rubber is sheeted on a calender<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+roll, on a drum, until several layers are
+obtained, thus making a sheet of about one
+inch in thickness. The heel is cut out from
+this sheet by means of a die and placed in a
+mold. It is there subjected to an extremely
+high pressure, generally obtained by hydraulic
+power. The plates of the press
+are heated with live steam. The heels are
+removed at the end of nine or ten minutes
+and the sheet which was formerly nearly an
+inch in thickness is now only about half
+an inch and has by pressure been molded
+into the shape of the heel desired, is semi or
+partially vulcanized, and also is imprinted
+upon the bottom with the name or other
+brand of the company.</p>
+
+<p>The cup-shaped portion of the heel is now
+coated with a layer of rubber cement, and
+firmly placed on the boot ready to go to
+the vulcanizer, where vulcanizing of the
+heel is then completed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus37" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus37.jpg" width="650" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Heel-making Department.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many articles of rubber are vulcanized by
+the use of chloride of sulphur, which process<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+is sometimes known as “cold cure.” The
+action of sulphur chloride itself is so violent
+that it must be diluted, and for this purpose
+carbon bisulfide is often used. In some
+cases, as, for example, the manufacture of
+tobacco pouches, the articles are submerged
+for from one to two minutes in the liquid,
+then removed and washed thoroughly. In
+another case, as in the manufacture of some
+kinds of rubber cloth, such as hospital
+sheeting, the coated cloth is suspended in
+a suitable room and the chloride of sulphur
+and carbon bisulfide mixed and evaporated
+by action of heat so that the cloth is subjected
+to the action of vapor alone. Only
+articles with comparatively thin walls can
+be successfully vulcanized by the cold cure,
+as at best the vulcanizing action of the
+chloride is only superficial.</p>
+
+<p>No account of vulcanization processes as
+employed in the manufacture of rubber
+goods is complete without the mention of
+“steam cure.” A great variety of rubber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+goods under the general term of mechanical
+sundries are cured by this method. This
+includes rubber matting, door mats, water
+bottles, druggists’ sundries, etc. This process
+consists in brief of submitting the
+articles to be vulcanized to the action of
+live steam for from half an hour to an hour,
+or until the goods are thoroughly vulcanized.
+The temperature and duration of time required
+depend to a considerable extent
+upon the thickness of the walls of the
+article. In order to prevent the goods
+from being pitted and damaged by the
+action of steam, they are wrapped with
+cloth or imbedded in pans of soapstone.
+A great variety of rubber tubing is cured
+by this method.</p>
+
+<p>In rubber cloth making, the crude rubber
+is put through the washing process, dried
+and mixed with sulphur, litharge, coloring
+matter, etc., and then is taken to the cement
+room, where it is “cut” with naphtha,
+forming a thick paste or dough. This is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+taken to the spreading room in large tubs
+and fed into the roller machine, which is
+like a long table made of steam pipes
+placed horizontally in a single layer. Below
+one end is a roll of cloth, which is passed
+between two iron rollers on the end. The
+dough is fed in between these rollers and
+is spread smoothly over the cloth, which is
+rolled up and removed to a heating room,
+where it is unrolled and hung on racks, and
+then subjected to sufficient heat to cause
+the combination of the sulphur and rubber.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Chemistry in the Manufacture of
+Rubber Goods</span></h3>
+
+<p>Too much stress cannot be laid upon the
+importance in all rubber factories of the
+chemical department. During the last two
+or three years there has been an unusual
+development along these lines, and to-day
+no factory for the manufacture of rubber
+goods is complete that does not possess a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+well-equipped laboratory. Not only does
+this department enable the manufacturer
+to control the purity and uniformity of
+his compounding ingredients and the innumerable
+grades of crude rubber, but, what
+is of even greater importance, it enables
+him to inaugurate research work as applied
+to his particular line of manufacture. This
+part of laboratory work is already producing
+results not only of scientific interest, but
+of very great practical and economic value.
+Still another rôle of the modern chemical
+laboratory is to exercise a control over the
+finished material, so that the manager of
+the works may be in possession daily of
+reasons for any variation detrimental to
+the standard of his products.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Rubber Terms</span></h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ankle Piece.</span> A large piece of light
+sheeted gum, which goes around the ankle
+and extends about halfway up the leg.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Back Stay.</span> A piece of frictioned sheeting
+similar to the side stay in shape and
+placed at the back of the heel and ankle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gum Counter.</span> A piece cut out of
+sheeted gum, on the under side of which is
+placed a counter form or a piece of frictioned
+sheeting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Outer Filler.</span> A filling sole cut from
+rag-coated or frictioned sheeting, and designed
+to fill up the hollow on the bottom
+caused by bringing the edges of the gum
+vamp and counter underneath.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inner Sole.</span> Usually made of felt or
+sheeting coated on one side with rag stock.
+In lasting up, the bottom edges of the lining
+(which have previously been cemented)
+are pulled under and adhere to the inner
+sole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leg Cover.</span> A piece of sheeted gum
+rolled upon a piece of frictioned sheeting
+called the leg form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leg Lining.</span> The lining, usually of felt
+or wool netting, for the leg.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Para.</span> A name given to rubber from
+Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Piping.</span> Strips of frictioned sheeting used
+to join the lining together over the instep
+and up the back, and also to hold the
+lining up on the tree by passing a strip over
+the top.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rag Counter.</span> Quarter stiff is a counter
+piece cut out of rag-coated or frictioned
+sheeting, which gives stiffness to the
+counter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Side Stay.</span> A spike-shaped piece of
+frictioned sheeting, placed on each side of
+the ankle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rag Sole.</span> A sole stiffening cut out of
+a sheet of rag stock, which covers the whole
+bottom. The edges are skived to make a
+perfect edge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Toe Filler.</span> A rag-stock filling sole
+to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused
+by attaching the lining to the inner sole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus38" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus38.jpg" width="420" height="500" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Parts of a Rubber Boot.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Toe Lining.</span> The lining for the vamp,
+of the same material as the leg lining.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamp.</span> A piece cut out of sheeted gum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vamp Form.</span> A piece of frictioned sheeting
+cut to the shape of the vamp, and put
+on over the toe lining.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Web Straps.</span> Straps put on with the
+joined ends between the leg lining and the
+leg cover, and forming a loop on the inside
+of the boot to pull it on with.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="CHAPTER_TWELVE">CHAPTER TWELVE<br />
+<span class="smaller">HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR</span></h2>
+
+<p>We find that primitive footwear, in
+common with all other beginnings,
+was of the crudest nature and took the
+form of the simple sandal. It is probable
+that man first protected his foot from
+the rough way by simple pieces of hide,
+which were bound to the bottom of the
+foot. The sandal, among the most primitive,
+is the type of footwear worn to-day.
+The sandal was simply bound to the foot
+by thongs of hides, which were brought
+between the toes and tied around the ankle.</p>
+
+<p>At about the Elizabethan period, shoemaking
+had really become a very fine art.
+Some foot creations were made by the
+Court shoemakers that reflected the individual
+taste of the monarch, and so great
+was the competition to produce something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+novel that very often the styles assumed a
+grotesque aspect. The toes were elongated
+so that sometimes they were carried up and
+fastened by cords and tassels to the tops
+of the shoes, and it finally became necessary
+to enact a law to prevent such outrageous
+types of footwear. The slippers of this
+period were of the extremely high-heeled
+variety, and small fortunes were often
+spent on their ornamentation. They were
+mostly of the turn-shoe type, and samples
+which are preserved show the excellent
+workmanship that was in vogue at that
+time.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the first shoemaker in
+America. When the <i>Mayflower</i> made the
+second trip to America, she carried among
+others a shoemaker named Thomas Beard,
+who brought with him a supply of hides.
+Seven years afterwards there arrived one
+Phillip Kertland, a native of Buckinghamshire,
+who settled in Lynn in 1636.</p>
+
+<p>Kertland was the pioneer shoemaker of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+Lynn and for years he successfully worked
+at his craft, teaching others his methods
+and ways, so that fifteen years after his
+arrival, Lynn was not only supplying the
+requirements of its inhabitants, but was
+also sending a part of its products to the
+port of Boston. As early as 1648 we find
+tanning and shoemaking mentioned as an
+industry of the colony of Virginia, special
+mention being made of the fact that a
+planter named Matthews employed eight
+shoemakers on his premises. Legal restraint
+was placed on the cordwainer in
+Connecticut in 1656, and in Rhode Island
+in 1706, while in New York the business of
+tanning and shoemaking is known to have
+been firmly established previous to the
+capitulation of the Province to England in
+1664. In 1698 the industry was carried
+on profitably in Philadelphia, and in 1721
+the Colonial Legislature of Pennsylvania
+passed an act regulating the material and
+the prices of the boot and shoe industry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Prior to 1815 most of the shoes were
+hand sewed, a few having been copper
+nailed. The heavier shoes were welted and
+the lighter ones turned. This method of
+manufacture was changed, about the year
+1815, by the adoption of the wooden shoe
+peg, which was invented in 1811 and soon
+came into general use. Up to this time
+little or no progress had been made in the
+methods of manufacture. The shoemaker
+sat on his bench, and with scarcely any
+other instrument than a hammer, knife,
+and wooden shoulder stick, cut, stitched,
+hammered, and sewed until the shoe was
+completed. Previous to the year 1845,
+which marked the first successful application
+of machinery to American shoemaking,
+this industry was in the strictest sense a
+hand process, and the young man who
+chose it for his vocation was apprenticed for
+seven years, during which time he was
+taught every detail of the art. He was
+instructed in the preparation of the insole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+and outsole, depending almost entirely
+upon his eye for the proper proportions;
+taught to prepare pegs and drive them,
+for the pegged shoe was the common type
+of footwear in the first half of the last
+century; and familiarized himself with the
+making of turned and welt shoes, which
+have always been considered the highest
+types of shoemaking, as they require exceptional
+skill of the artisan in channeling the
+insole and outsole by hand, rounding
+the sole, sewing the welt, and stitching
+the outsole. After having served his
+apprenticeship, it was the custom for the
+full-fledged shoemaker to start on what
+was known as “whipping the cat,” which
+meant traveling from town to town, living
+with a family while making a year’s supply
+of shoes for each member, then moving on
+to fill engagements previously made.</p>
+
+<p>The change from which has been evolved
+our present factory system began in the latter
+part of the 18th century, when a system of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+sizes had been drafted, and shoemakers more
+enterprising than their fellows gathered
+about them groups of workmen, and took
+upon themselves the dignity of manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>It was soon found that the master workman
+could largely increase his income by
+employing other men to do the work while
+he directed their efforts, and this gradually
+led to a division of the labor: the shoe
+uppers, which had prior to this time been
+sewed by men using waxed thread with
+bristles, now were done by women, who
+often took the work home.</p>
+
+<p>One workman cut the leather, others
+sewed the uppers, and still others fastened
+uppers to soles, each workman handling
+only one part in the process of manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>We find that in the year 1795 the evolution
+of the factory system had reached a
+stage where in Lynn alone there were two
+hundred master workmen, employing six
+hundred journeymen and turning out three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+hundred thousand pairs of shoes per year.
+The entire shoe was then made under one
+roof, and generally from leather that was
+tanned on the premises.</p>
+
+<p>Factory buildings were not at this time
+of a very pretentious nature and did not
+by any means represent the amount of
+work undertaken by the proprietor; for
+the small ten by ten factories, which are
+even to-day in existence in some of the
+backyards of Lynn homes, came into
+existence at this time. Many farmers
+found that shoemaking was a remunerative
+occupation in the winter, and they, and
+perhaps their neighbors, gathered in these
+shops and took from the different factories
+shoes on which to fasten the soles, or
+uppers to bind, which, after completion of
+the work, were returned to the factory,
+where they were finished and sent to market
+packed in wooden boxes. It was in this
+way that the industry prospered and developed
+up to the period of the introduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+of machines, which happened but a little
+over half a century ago.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the year 1811 absolutely no
+machinery was used in the making of shoes.
+This year shoe pegs were invented and a
+machine for making them. The pegged
+shoe became very widely worn, but it was
+not until 1835 that any machine for driving
+pegs was made, and even at this time the
+machine was but an indifferent success.
+It was a hand machine and its work was
+by no means of a reliable nature.</p>
+
+<p>The first machine to be widely accepted
+by the trade was the “rolling machine.”
+This was used for rolling the sole leather
+under pressure, and it is said that a man
+could perform in a minute with this machine
+the same office that he would have required
+half an hour to have performed with the
+old-fashioned lapstone and hammer. This
+was followed in 1848 by the most important
+invention, the “sewing machine,” which
+was perfected by Elias Howe, and was soon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+followed by a machine which sewed with
+waxed thread and made it possible to sew
+the uppers of shoes in a much more rapid,
+reliable, and satisfactory manner than had
+ever been done by hand. This, too, was
+soon followed by a machine which split the
+sole leather and by another for buffing or
+removing the grain.</p>
+
+<p>In 1855 William F. Trowbridge, who was
+a partner in the firm of F. Brigham &amp;
+Company, of Feltonville, Massachusetts,
+then a part of Marlboro, conceived the idea
+of driving by horse power the machines then
+in use. The introduction of power became
+very general, so that in the year 1860 there
+were scarcely any factories which were not
+driven by either steam or water power.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1858 was marked by the invention
+by Lyman R. Blake of the McKay
+sewing machine, which probably more than
+any other has exerted a revolutionary effect
+on the industry.</p>
+
+<p>The McKay machine did not at this time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+sew the toe or heel; the sewing was started
+at the shank and carried forward to a
+point near the toe on one side, and the same
+operation repeated on the other side; but
+it seemed to possess great possibilities and
+created a great deal of interest throughout
+the trade. It was, of course, a very crude
+machine and very different from the McKay
+machine of to-day. It was set on a bench
+and the shoe to be sewed was placed over
+a horn, and the sewing was done from the
+channel in the outsole through the sole
+and insole. Colonel McKay immediately
+started to improve the machine. He employed
+skilled mechanics to work on it
+and attempted to introduce it in different
+factories, but encountered a great deal of
+opposition and criticism in regard to its
+future. It is said that he offered to dispose
+of the machine to the shoemakers of Lynn
+and allow them its exclusive use if they
+would pay him three hundred thousand
+dollars, an offer which was not accepted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The machine left a loop stitch and a
+ridge of thread on the inside of the shoe,
+but it filled the great demand that existed
+for sewed shoes, and many hundreds of
+millions of pairs have been made by its use.</p>
+
+<p>While Colonel McKay had met rebuff
+and discouragement in attempting to introduce
+his machine, the public necessity was
+such that manufacturers were obliged to
+take it up immediately; but Colonel McKay
+was still embarrassed by lack of capital to
+carry on his rapidly increasing business.
+It was at this time that a system of placing
+machines in factories, which system has
+proven to be the most potent factor in the
+upbuilding of the shoe industry, was started.
+This was a royalty system, whereby the
+machine or machine owner participated in
+the profits accruing from the use of the
+machine.</p>
+
+<p>It hardly seems that there can be any
+question as to the principle of royalty being
+one of the greatest forces in building up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+the successful industry which we have
+to-day; it afforded an easy means whereby
+machines could be introduced without entailing
+hardships on the manufacturers, who,
+had they been obliged to pay the actual
+worth of the machines, would have been
+entirely unable to adopt them. Instances
+are known where hundreds of thousands
+of dollars were spent on machines, which
+machines were abandoned without having
+made a single shoe.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the introduction of the
+McKay machine, inventors were busy in
+other directions, and as a result, came the
+introduction of the “cable nailing machine.”
+This was provided with a cable of nails, the
+head of one being joined to the point of
+another; these the machines cut into
+separate nails and drove automatically.
+At about this time also was introduced the
+“screw machine,” which formed a screw
+from brass wire, forcing it into the leather
+and cutting it off automatically. This was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+the prototype of the “rapid standard screw
+machine,” which is a comparatively recent
+invention, and is very widely used at the
+present time as a sole fastener on the
+heavier class of boots and shoes. Very
+soon thereafter the attention of the trade
+was attracted to the invention of a New
+York mechanic for the sewing of soles.
+The device was particularly intended for
+the making of turn shoes and afterwards
+became famous as the “Goodyear turn
+shoe machine.”</p>
+
+<p>Closely following the Goodyear invention
+came the introduction of the first machine
+used in connection with heeling,&mdash;a
+machine which compressed the heel and
+pricked holes for the nails; this was soon
+followed by a machine which automatically
+drove the nails, the heel having previously
+been put in place and held by the guides on
+the machine. Other improvements in heeling
+machines followed with considerable
+rapidity, and a machine came into use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+shortly afterwards which not only nailed
+the heel, but which was also provided with
+a hand trimmer, which the operator swung
+round the heel, after nailing. From these
+have been evolved the heeling machines
+in use at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>One of the early uses to which the sewing
+machine was put was the sewing together
+of the pieces of soft and pliable leather which
+make the upper of a shoe&mdash;a simple thing,
+involving only a slight adjustment of the
+original machine. It is a far more complicated
+operation to sew the upper to the
+thick and heavy sole, and years passed by
+before the secret was discovered, and the
+McKay machine appeared. In the shoe
+sewed on the McKay machine, the thread
+ran through into the inside of the inner sole,
+leaving a rasping ridge on which the stocking
+of the wearer rubbed. The McKay shoe
+displaced only the coarser grades. The
+hand-sewed shoe remained the favorite
+of wealth and fashion, and was worn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+exclusively by those who cared for comfort
+and could afford the price. In sewing a
+shoe by hand, a thin and narrow strip of
+leather, called a welt, is first sewed to the
+insole and upper, and the heavy outsole
+is sewed to this welt, so that the stitches
+come outside and do not touch the foot,
+the insole being left entirely smooth. It
+is a delicate operation by hand, and many
+years elapsed before a machine was contrived
+by which it could be done. At last
+the problem was solved. The “Goodyear
+welting and stitching machines” appeared&mdash;so
+named for Charles Goodyear, who
+financed and perfected them, a son of the
+man who taught the world the use of rubber.
+These two machines are the nucleus of the
+Goodyear welt system, to which must be
+attributed the revolution of an industry.
+Although they are entirely distinct machines,
+they are inseparable, for neither can be used
+effectively without the other in making the
+modern Goodyear welt shoe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus39" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus39.jpg" width="420" height="230" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Insole for Hand Sewed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus40" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/illus40.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Hand Sewed Shoe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Much of the style of a shoe depends upon
+the wooden last over which the upper is
+shaped before being attached to the sole.
+To find a substitute for the human hand in
+fitting the shoe to the last and pulling the
+leather over its delicate lines and curves
+seemed for a long time impossible.</p>
+
+<p>This took place in the early seventies,
+when a machine was invented for doing this
+work. It created a great change in a department
+of shoemaking which, prior to this
+time, had been regarded as a confirmed hand
+process. This machine, as well as those
+which followed afterwards for a period of
+twenty years, was known as the best type
+of machine, by which the shoe upper was
+drawn over the last by either friction or
+pincers, and then tacked by use of a hand
+tool.</p>
+
+<p>At a comparatively recent period another
+machine which revolutionized all previous
+ideas in lasting was introduced. This
+machine is generally in use at the present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+time, and is known as the “consolidated
+hand method lasting machine.” It was
+fitted with pincers, which automatically
+drew the leather round the last, at the same
+time driving a tack which held it in place.
+This machine has been so developed that
+it is now used for the lasting of shoes of
+every type, from the lowest and cheapest
+to the highest grade, and it is a machine
+that shows wonderful mechanical ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>The perfection of the lasting machine has
+been followed recently by the introduction
+of a machine which performs in a satisfactory
+way the difficult process known as
+“pulling over,” which consists of accurately
+centering the shoe upper on the last and
+securing it temporarily in position for the
+work of lasting. The new machine, which
+is known as the “hand-method pulling over
+machine,” is provided with pincers, which
+close automatically, gripping the shoe upper
+at sides and toe. It is fitted with adjustments
+by which the operator is enabled to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+quickly center the shoe upper on the last,
+and, on pressure of a foot lever, the machine
+automatically draws the upper closely to
+the last and secures it in position by tacks,
+which are also driven by the machine. The
+introduction of this machine marked a
+radical change in the one important shoemaking
+process that had up to this time
+successfully withstood all attempts at
+mechanical improvement.</p>
+
+<p>At about the time that lasting was first
+introduced, came the machines which were
+used for finishing heel and fore part. These
+machines were fitted with a tool, which was
+heated by gas and which practically duplicated
+the hand workman in rubbing the
+edges with a hot tool for the purpose of
+finishing them. From these early machines
+have been evolved the “edge-setting machines”
+which are in use at present.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, one after another, every operation
+has yielded to invention, until very recently
+the only remaining process was subdued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+when a machine for cutting uppers was
+devised. There are machines for shaping,
+compressing, and nailing heels; for attaching
+soles to uppers in heavy shoes by wooden
+pegs or copper screws and wires; for rounding,
+buffing, and polishing the soles; for
+trimming and setting the edges of the sole;
+for performing innumerable operations, some
+seemingly trivial, but all essential to perfection
+in comfort, durability or style;
+so that in shoe factories to-day a greater
+variety of intricate and expensive machines
+is used than in factories of any
+other kind.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time the genius of the
+American inventor has provided for every
+detail of shoemaking, even the smallest
+processes being performed by mechanical
+devices of some kind. This has naturally
+made the shoemaker of to-day a specialist,
+who very seldom knows anything of shoemaking
+apart from the particular process
+in the performance of shoemaking of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+he is an adept, and from which he earns
+a livelihood. The American shoe of to-day
+is the standard production of the world.
+It is in demand wherever shoes are worn.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1874 there had been perfected
+not only the machines which Colonel
+McKay and Mr. Goodyear had been instrumental
+in building, but other inventors had
+introduced similar machines for doing similar
+work. This brought about the most
+acute business competition, and finally
+resulted in many cases where one machine
+manufacturer alleged that the other machine
+infringed his rights of patent, and in many
+other cases the fiercest kind of litigation
+was established. This had a most disastrous
+effect upon shoe manufacturers, for
+in many cases the manufacturer was made
+to bear the brunt of the blows which
+contending shoe machinery manufacturers
+aimed at each other.</p>
+
+<p>Machines in use in factories were stopped
+by means of injunctions; damage suits were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+entered, and litigation was very general.
+During the year 1899, there was ushered in
+one of the most important events that ever
+transpired in the history of shoemaking.
+The most important of the concerns which
+had been making war upon each other
+were purchased by one large company and
+brought under one harmonious management.</p>
+
+<p>The United Shoe Machinery Company
+owes its origin to a call for a change in conditions
+menacing the industry of making shoes
+which could not be ignored. It was created
+by combining into one the three companies
+existing in 1899: the Goodyear Sewing Machine
+Company, the Consolidated &amp; McKay
+Lasting Machine Company, and the McKay
+Shoe Machinery Company, each of which
+respectively made and leased machines
+adapted to a particular class of operations.
+The principal machines which each made
+did not interfere with the principal machines
+of any other. They were dependent links
+in an industrial chain. The Goodyear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+Sewing Machine Company chiefly made
+machines for sewing the sole to the upper in
+welt shoes and various auxiliary machines
+which helped to complete the shoe; The
+Consolidated &amp; McKay Lasting Machine
+Company made machines for lasting a
+shoe; The McKay Shoe Machinery Company
+made various machines for attaching
+soles and heels by metallic fastenings, and
+furnished material for that purpose. A
+single manufacturer, in order to make
+Goodyear welt shoes, would be compelled
+to patronize all the companies, going to
+each of them for that part of his equipment
+which it exclusively supplied. Each company
+had its agents in factories looking
+after its machines.</p>
+
+<p>The gathering of these three companies
+into a single organization wrought an instant
+change. It resulted immediately in
+greater economy of administration; in relieving
+the manufacturer of the vexation of
+sometimes seeing his factory crippled while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+orders were piling up; in freeing him from
+the annoyance and expense of dealing with
+several different concerns in order to get
+his most important machines and keep
+them in repair.</p>
+
+<p>The attention which had been paid to
+royalty machines and which had been such
+an important factor in building up the
+industry in America, was magnified by
+the management of the new company.
+Large forces of men and expert machinists,
+as well as expert shoemakers, were maintained
+in the different districts where shoes
+were made, and every effort exerted to
+promote the growth of the industry.</p>
+
+<p>While the royalty system proved to be
+of great advantage to small shoe manufacturers,
+the largest manufacturers objected
+to paying royalty on machines and desired
+to purchase them outright. Being unable
+to do so, they placed experts at work to
+invent similar machines. This has resulted
+in the United Shoe Machinery Company<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+claiming that these machines are infringements
+and causing considerable litigation.</p>
+
+<p>If one reviews the history of the trade
+during the past ten years, there will be
+little question but that one will find it has
+been a period of the greatest advancement
+that the trade has ever known.</p>
+
+<p>Within the time of those who read these
+words, the way to make a shoe has been
+completely changed. Methods which held
+their own for centuries have disappeared,
+to be replaced by processes which only recently
+would have been thought impossible,
+and which have brought within the reach
+of men of modest means a luxury once
+enjoyed exclusively by the well-to-do. The
+feet of the million are clad to-day as finely
+as the feet of yesterday’s millionaire. Shoes
+marked by comfort, durability, and style
+have driven to historical museums the stiff
+and clumsy boots and brogans which not
+so many years ago were worn by those who
+could not pay to have shoes sewed by hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The American people spend more than
+three hundred million dollars every year
+in buying shoes, and average three pairs
+apiece, and yet few ever think about their
+shoes so long as they do not look clumsy, or
+wear out too quickly, or hurt the foot.
+Every one likes to buy good shoes as
+cheaply as he can, and every one likes to
+feel that shoe manufacturers are independent
+and successful, and that workmen get
+good wages, because these things help along
+prosperity; but that is all. Yet here is an
+industry in which the United States within
+a decade has come to lead the world, and
+there are many things about it which it
+would be worth while for every one to understand.
+It is worth while, for instance, to
+know that there is no important operation
+on a shoe which need be done by hand;
+that in the making of every good shoe no
+less than fifty-eight different machines, and
+sometimes twice that number, are brought
+into play; that nearly all these machines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+are of American invention; and that they
+have been so perfectly adjusted one to another
+that they work together almost with
+the precision of a watch; it is worth while
+to know something about the marvelous
+system under the encouragement of which
+this typical American industry has blossomed
+and borne fruit until it employs
+two hundred million dollars of capital and
+nearly two hundred thousand people, and
+turns out two hundred and fifty million pairs
+of shoes a year; and why it is that the
+average man you meet to-day has a better
+fitting, better wearing, and better looking
+shoe than the moneyed man of yesterday&mdash;at
+a fraction of the expense.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable growth is distinctly
+American. In the United States the tendency
+among the artisan class has been to
+abandon the slow hand process. This tendency
+has been as strong as the tendency
+in Europe to adhere to it. Moreover,
+there has developed among the laboring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+classes in the United States a mobility such
+as is unknown elsewhere in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Another advantage which has contributed
+to the rapid development of the manufacture
+of shoes in the United States is the
+comparative freedom from inherited and
+overconservative ideas. This country has
+entered upon its industrial development
+unfettered by the old order of things, and
+with a tendency on the part of the people
+to seek the best and quickest way to
+accomplish every object.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="illus41" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus41.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all of the European countries in which
+the manufacturing of shoes is an important
+industry, the transition from the household
+to the factory system was hampered by
+guilds, elaborate national and local restrictions,
+and by the national reluctance with
+which a people accustomed for generations
+to fixed methods of work, in which they
+have acquired a large degree of skill, abandon
+those methods for new ones. It was
+natural, also, that in spite of the superior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+advantages of machine methods, hand process
+of manufacture should still continue
+side by side with them, in the European
+countries, though machine work had long
+since usurped the whole field of the shoe
+industry in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>As an American goes about among the
+European shoe factories he is greatly surprised
+at the state of affairs. He is struck
+by three things which are very conspicuous.
+They are: (1) Lack of use of machinery, lack
+of all sorts of devices in order to save hand
+labor, which is carried out so extensively in
+the United States. (2) Lack of the division
+of labor, one factory attempting to make
+four or five kinds of shoes. (3) Lack of
+methods employed for handling large quantities
+of materials.</p>
+
+<p>One point that is overlooked in considering
+the shoe industries of the two countries
+is the great difference in organization. In
+most European factories, the manufacturer
+gets all the orders of different kinds, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+then attempts to make one or two lines with
+one or two qualities in the same factory.
+In Switzerland one may find shoes and
+slippers for men, women, and children made
+under the same roof.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the manufacturer
+makes a certain line of shoes in one factory,
+and no other kind. If he has more than
+one line, he has more than one factory, and
+each factory turns out a distinct shoe for
+a distinct purpose. The manufacturer has
+his salesmen to sell these shoes.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of the American system
+are: (1) The managers and workers of a
+factory turning out a certain line of goods
+become highly specialized in that line, and
+can produce better results than the workers
+in a factory attempting to make two or
+three lines of goods. (2) A large shoe
+factory is laid out as a rule to do a certain
+kind of work, and it seldom changes. This
+practice makes possible a greater production.
+On the other hand we have something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+to learn from the European organization.
+American manufacturers must meet the
+foreign trade. In order to do this, the manufacturer
+must cater to the habits, customs,
+and climatic conditions. The European
+manufacturer does this.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Amhide, black, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">russet, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anatomy of the foot, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ankle piece, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Assembling, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Automobile leather, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanning of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Backs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Backstay, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Back strap, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bal., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ball, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bating, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beading, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beamhouse process, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beating out, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bellows tongue, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">by-products, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">round, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belt-knife splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Between substance, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bison, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blackball, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black box chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black hawk patent, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blacking the edge, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blocking, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bloom, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blucher, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boot, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bootee, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boris, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bottom, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">filling, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">scouring, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Box calf, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">toe, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boxing, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Branded cowhide, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breaking the sole, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breast of the heel, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brogan, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bronko patent, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brushing, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buckskin, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buff, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buffing, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bull hides, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bunions, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Button fly, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Butts, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Cable-nailing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cack, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cadet kid, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">side, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calf leather, boarded, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">box, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">classes of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cadet calf side, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dongola, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dry hides, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>French, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">mat, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sheboygan, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">storm, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">suede, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">wax, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calf side leather, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">skins, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calluses, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cambridge calf union splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cap, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carbarettas, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carton, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cementing, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chamois, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Channeling, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Channel screwed, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">stitched, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">turning, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Checking, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chemical tanning, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chrome flexible splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tannage, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanned embossed splits, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleaning, inside, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">nails, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">shoes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clicking, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Closing, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">on, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colonial, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colorado steer hides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colored box chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coltskin, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Combination last, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Composition, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congress gaiter, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cordovan, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Corns, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Counter, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">pasted, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coupon tag, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cowhide, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">native, heavy and light, <a href="#Page_7">7-9</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">branded, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Creasing vamp, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Creedmore, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Creole, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crimping, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cushion sole, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cut-off vamp, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Dyeing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dom Pedro, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dongola, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">calf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dressing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dry importation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">salted hides, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Edge setting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Enamel, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eyelet, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eyeletting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Facing, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Factory system, first, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fair stitch, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Faking, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fat liquored, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Findings, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finishes of upper leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finishing of upper leather, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flap, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flesher, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flesh splits leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flexible bends, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Follower, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foot, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">adult, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">anatomy of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">astragalus, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">calcaneum, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cuneiform, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">flatfoot, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">measurements of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">metatarsal, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">phalanges, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">rheumatism, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">structure of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Footwear, history of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forepart finishing, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Form, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foxed, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foxing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fresh hides, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frizzing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Front, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fudge-stitched, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fundamental shoe terms, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Furniture leather, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanning of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Gaiter, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">congress, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gem insoles, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gemming, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glazed kid, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gloves, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">grain, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanning, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goatskin, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goodyear welt, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference between McKay and, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gore, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grades of leather, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grading, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grain leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Green hides, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Green salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gum counter, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Half sole, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harness leather, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heel, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">breast of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">nailing, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">nailing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">pad, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">scouring, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">seat, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">shaving, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hemlock leather, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tanning, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hercules storm chrome, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hides, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">bull, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">classes of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">country, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dry, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dry importation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dry salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">fresh, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">grades of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">green, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">green salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">imported, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">quality of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Inlay, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inner sole, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>Inseaming, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inseam trimming, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Instep, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ironing uppers, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Juliette, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Kid, buckskin, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">buff, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">caster, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">chamois, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cordovan, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dull, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">glazed, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">importation of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">kangaroo, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">kangaroo kid side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">kinds of finish, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">mat, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">method of collecting, <a href="#Page_46">46-48</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">patent, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">process of tanning, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">seal grain, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">splits, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">suede, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kids, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kips, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Lace hook, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">stay, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lacing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lasting, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lasts, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">combination, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">how made, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laying channel, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leather, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">automobile and furniture, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">belting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">effect of cold, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">gloves, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">glove tanning, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">harness, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">hemlock, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">products, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">white, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leg cover, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leveling, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lift, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lining, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lining-in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lip, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Loading leather, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Mat royal chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">McKay shoe, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference between Goodyear welt and, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference between turned and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Middle sole, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mock welt, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Molding, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monkey skin, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morocco, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mules, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Nap, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Native cowhides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">steer hides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naumkeaging, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nullifier, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Oak-tanned leather, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oak tanning, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ohio buffs, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>Ooze gusset splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">leather, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">vamp splits, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ottawa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">black and russet splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Outer filler, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Outside cutting, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tap, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oxford, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">calf union splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Packer hides, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Packing, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pacs, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pancake, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Para, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pasted leather, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Patent leather, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">black hawk, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">effect of cold on, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">objections to, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pattern, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pebble, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pegged shoemaking, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pegging, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perforating, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perforation, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pickled skins, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piping, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polish, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porpoise, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pressing, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pulling lasts, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pulling over, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">machine, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pump, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">sole, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Quarter, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Rag counter, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rand, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rawhide products, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Relasting, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Remnants, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">sole leather, <a href="#Page_33">33-37</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Repairing, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roan, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rolling, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rough rounding, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal kid, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royalties, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royalty system, invention of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rubber, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cloth manufacture, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">commercial grades of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">drying, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">heels, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">shoe manufacture, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">calendering, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">cutting, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">varnishing, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">vulcanizing, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub2">washing, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russet calf, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">grain, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Sabot, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sack lining, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sandal, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Satin calf, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scouring breast, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Screw fastened, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seal grain, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Second lasting, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sewing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shank, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">burnishing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>Shanking out, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheboygan calf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheepskin, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheep tanning, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoe, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">apprentice, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">case of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cutting room, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">departments of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">dressing, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">factories, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">heeling, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">methods of manufacture, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">parts of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">repairing, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">sizes, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">stitching, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">treeing, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoe Machinery Company, organization of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoemaker, first, in America, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoemaking, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">old-fashioned, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">nail method, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">terms of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoe pegs, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoulder, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sides, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Side stay, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skins, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skirting, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skiver, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skiving machine, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slip, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slugging, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soaking process, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soft tip, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sole, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">leather, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">laying, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">breaking of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sorting, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spewing, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Splits, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-62</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spring heel, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stamping, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Standard fastened, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">screw shoemaking, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stay, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Staying, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steer hides, native, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stitch aloft, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stitch down, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">fair, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">separating, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stitching, rapid, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Straight last, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stripping, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Styles, how made, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suede, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Tacking on, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tack pulling, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tampico, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tan, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">royal, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanned leather adulterants, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">effects of perspiration, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">lubrication, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">properties, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">substitutes, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">weighing, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tannin, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanning, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">chemical, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">hemlock, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">leather for belting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>oak, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">processes of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">rapid processes of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tawing, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Union, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">vegetable, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tap, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">putting on, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tawing, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tempering, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tennis shoe manufacture, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Texas steer hide, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tip, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toe, and heel lasting, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">box, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">filler, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">piece, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tongue, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Top, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">facing, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">left, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">left scouring, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">left stitching, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Treeing, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trimming counter, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">vamp, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turned shoe, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference between McKay and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turning, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">shoe, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ungrained, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unhairing of hides, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Union-tanned leather, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Union tanning, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Upper, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Upper or dress leather, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55-57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Vamp, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">creasing, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">form, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">short, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vamping, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vegetable tanning, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">tans, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vellum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Velour, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Veneering, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vesting, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vici, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Viscolizing, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vulcanizing, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">cold cure, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">steam cure, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Wash leather, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waterproof black, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waxed threads, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Web straps, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Welts, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">beating, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Goodyear, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Welting, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">White alum, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willow calf leather, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wooden case, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Zulu, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and
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+</body>
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