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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d8ecbaa --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #55474 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55474) diff --git a/old/55474-0.txt b/old/55474-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7a0dfc3..0000000 --- a/old/55474-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6270 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and -Rubber Products, by William H. Dooley - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and Rubber Products - -Author: William H. Dooley - -Release Date: September 1, 2017 [EBook #55474] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - -A MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING - - - - -[Illustration: An Old-Fashioned Shoemaker. _Frontispiece._] - - - - - A MANUAL - OF - SHOEMAKING - AND - LEATHER AND RUBBER - PRODUCTS - - BY - WILLIAM H. DOOLEY - PRINCIPAL OF THE LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL - - _ILLUSTRATED_ - - BOSTON - LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY - 1912 - - _Copyright, 1912_, - BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY. - - _All rights reserved._ - - Published, September, 1912. - - - - -PREFACE - - -The author was asked in 1908 by the Lynn Commission on Industrial -Education to make an investigation of European shoe schools and to assist -the Commission in preparing a course of study for the proposed shoe -school in the city of Lynn. A close investigation showed that there were -several textbooks on shoemaking published in Europe, but that no general -textbook on shoemaking had been issued in this country adapted to meet -the needs of industrial, trade, and commercial schools or those who have -just entered the rubber, shoe, and leather trades. This book is written -to meet this need. Others may find it of interest. - -The author is under obligations to the following persons and firms for -information and assistance in preparing the book, and for permission -to reproduce photographs and information from their publications: Mr. -J. H. Finn, Mr. Frank L. West, Head of Shoemaking Department, Tuskegee, -Ala., Mr. Louis Fleming, Mr. F. Garrison, President of _Shoe and Leather -Gazette_, Mr. Arthur L. Evans, _The Shoeman_, Mr. Charles F. Cahill, -United Shoe Machinery Company, Hood Rubber Company, Bliss Shoe Company, -American Hide and Leather Company, Regal Shoe Company, the publishers of -_Hide and Leather_, _American Shoemaking_, _Shoe Repairing_, _Boot and -Shoe Recorder_, _The Weekly Bulletin_, and the New York Leather Belting -Company. - -In addition, the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to the -great body of foreign literature on the different subjects from which -information has been obtained. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PREFACE v - - CHAPTER - - I. FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS 1 - - II. HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT 4 - - III. PROCESSES OF TANNING 21 - - IV. THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT 77 - - V. HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE 93 - - VI. DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY 103 - - VII. MCKAY AND TURNED SHOES 144 - - VIII. OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING 162 - - IX. LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS 177 - - X. LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE 218 - - XI. RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE AND TERMS 228 - - XII. HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR 250 - - INDEX 281 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - An Old-fashioned Shoemaker _Frontispiece_ - - FACING PAGE - - Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear 2 - - Green-salted Calfskin 12 - - Tanning Process 24 - - Tanning Process, showing Rotating Drums 28 - - Sole Leather Offal 34 - - Bones and Joints of the Human Foot 78 - - The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle 78 - - A Last in Three Stages of Manufacture 98 - - A Modern Shoe Factory 104 - - A Skin Divided before Cutting 112 - - Cutting Leather 116 - - Goodyear Stitching 116 - - Stock Fitting Room 120 - - Lasting 124 - - Welting 124 - - Rough Rounding 128 - - Edge Trimming 128 - - Leveling 132 - - Heeling 132 - - Sole Scouring 136 - - Heel Shaping 136 - - Ironing 140 - - Packing 140 - - Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe 144 - - Stitching 148 - - Tacking 148 - - Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe 160 - - Side of Leather divided as to Quality 168 - - Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe 200 - - Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe 200 - - Crude Rubber 228 - - Washing and Drying 232 - - Calender Room 234 - - Cutting Room 236 - - Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe 240 - - Heel-making Department 242 - - Parts of a Rubber Boot 248 - - Insole for Hand-sewed Shoe 264 - - Hand-sewed Shoe 264 - - Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory 276 - - - - -SHOEMAKING - - - - -CHAPTER ONE - -FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS - - -Before explaining the manufacture of shoes, it is necessary to fix -definitely in our minds the names of their different parts. Examine your -shoes and note the parts that are here described. - -The bottom of the shoe is called the sole. The part above the sole is -called the upper. The top of the shoe is that part measured by the lacing -which covers the ankle and the instep. The vamp is that section which -covers the sides of the foot and the toes. The shank is that part of -the sole of the shoe between the heel and the ball. This name is often -applied to a piece of metal or other substance in that part of the sole, -intended to give support to the arch of the foot. The throat of the vamp -is that part which curves around the lower edge of the top, where the -lacing starts. - -Backstay is a term used to denote a strip of leather covering and -strengthening the back seam of the shoe. Quarter is a term used mostly in -low shoes to denote the rear part of the upper when a full vamp is not -used. Button fly is the portion of the upper containing the buttonholes -of a button shoe. Tip is the toe piece of a shoe, stitched to the vamp -and outside of it. The lace stay is a term used to denote a strip of -leather reënforcing the eyelet holes. Tongue denotes a narrow strip of -leather used on all lace shoes to protect the instep from the lacing and -weather. - -[Illustration: Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear. _Page 2._] - -Foxing is the name applied to leather of the upper that extends from the -sole to the laces in front, and to about the height of the counter in the -back, being the length of the upper. It may be in one or more pieces, and -is often cut down to the shank in circular form. If in two pieces, that -part covering the counter is called a heel fox. Overlay is a term applied -to leather attached to the upper part of the vamp of a slipper. The -breast of the heel is the inner part of the heel, that is, the section -nearest the shank. - - - - -CHAPTER TWO - -HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT - - -If we examine our shoes, we will find that the different parts are -composed of material called leather. The bottom of the shoe is of hard -leather, while the part above the sole is of a softer, more pliable -leather. This leather is nothing more than the hides of different animals -treated in such a way as to remove the fat and the hair. - -After the hides have been taken from the dead body of the animal, they -are quite heavily salted to preserve them from spoiling. In this salted -condition they are shipped to the tanneries. - -The process or series of processes by which the hides and skins of -animals are converted into leather is called tanning. The process may be -divided into three groups of subprocesses as follows:-- - -Beamhouse process, which removes the hair from the hides and prepares -them for the actual process of the tanning or conversion into leather; -tanning, which converts the raw hide into leather; and finishing, which -involves a number of operations, the objects of which are to give the -leather the color that may be desired and also to make it of uniform -thickness, and impart to it the softness and the finish that is required -for a particular purpose. - -Hides are divided roughly in the tannery, according to the size, into -three general classes:-- - -(1) Hides, skins from fully grown animals, as cows, oxen, horses, -buffaloes, walrus, etc. These are thick, heavy leather, used for shoe -soles, large machinery belting, trunks, etc., where stiffness, strength, -and wearing qualities are desired. The untanned hides weigh from -twenty-five to sixty pounds. - -(2) Kips, skins of the undersized animals of the above group, weighing -between fifteen and twenty-five pounds. - -(3) Skins from small animals, such as calves, sheep, goats, dogs, etc. -This last group gives a light, but strong and pliable leather, which may -be used for a great many purposes, such as men’s shoes and the heavier -grades of women’s shoes. - -The hides, kips, and skins are divided into various grades, according to -their weight, size, condition, and quality. - -The quality of the hides not only depends upon the kind of animal, but -also upon its fodder and mode of living. The hides of wild cattle yield a -more compact and stronger leather than those of our domesticated beasts. -Among these latter the stall-fed have better hides than the meadow-fed, -or grazing cattle. The thickness of the hide varies considerably on -different animals and on the parts of the body, the thickest part of the -bull being near the head and the middle of the back, while at the belly -the hide is thinnest. These differences are less conspicuous in sheep, -goats, and calves. As regards sheep, it would appear that their skin is -generally thinnest where their wool is longest. - -In the raw, untanned state, and with the hair still on, the hides are -termed “green” or “fresh.” Fresh, or green hides are supplied to the -tanners by the packers or the butchers, or are imported, either dry or -salted. - -Hides are obtained either from the regular packing houses or from farmers -who kill their own stock, and do not skin the animal as scientifically as -the regular packing houses, in which case they are called country hides. -There are different grades of hides and leather, and these different -grades are divided in the commercial world into the five following -grades:-- - -I. NATIVE HIDES - - Native Steers - Native Cows, heavy - Native Cows, light - Branded Cows - Butts - Colorado Steers - Texas Steers, heavy - Texas Steers, light - Texas Steers, ex-light - Native Bulls - Branded Bulls - -II. COUNTRY HIDES - - Ohio Buffs - Ohio Ex. - Southerns - -III. DRY HIDES - -(Raised on plain. Rough side suitable for soles.) - - Buenos Ayres - -IV. CALFSKINS - -(Green salted) - - Chicago City - -V. PARIS CITY CALFSKINS - - Light - Medium - Heavy - -Hides obtained from steers raised on Western farms are known as native -steer hides. - -Native cowhide (heavy) is hide weighing from fifty-five to sixty-five -pounds, obtained from cows. - -Native cowhide (light) is cowhide weighing under fifty-five pounds. - -Branded cowhide is hide obtained from cows that are branded on the face -of the hide. - -Butts is a term applied to the part of the hide remaining after cutting -off the head, shoulders, and strip of the belly. - -Colorado steer hide is from Colorado steers, which are very light. - -Texas steer hide comes in three grades, heavy, light, and extra light. -The heavy grade is very heavy because the animal is allowed to graze on -the plains. That is the reason why it is heavier than the Colorado steer -hide, which is raised on the farm. - -Bull hide is divided into two classes, the regular hide and the branded -grade. The branded grade usually is one cent a pound less than the -regular. - -Country hides are of three grades, Ohio Buffs, Ohio Ex., and Southern. -The Ohio Buffs weigh from forty to sixty pounds. The Ohio Ex. weighs from -twenty to forty pounds. Southern hides have spots without hair and other -blemishes on them, due to the sting of insects. This makes the Southern -hide inferior to the Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, and Chicago hides that have -no such blemishes. Ohio Butt hides are the best, because in Ohio they -kill a great many young calves, while in Chicago young cows (that have -calved) are killed, causing the hide to be flanky. - -The season of the year in which cattle are slaughtered has considerable -influence upon both the weight and condition of the hide. During the -winter months, by reason of the hair being longer and thicker, the hide -is heavier, ranging from seventy-five to eighty pounds, and gradually -decreasing in weight as the season becomes warmer and the coat is shed, -until in June and July it weighs from seventy down to fifty-five pounds, -the hair then being thin and short. The best hides of the year are -October hides, and short-haired hides are better for leather purposes -than long-haired ones. - -A thick hide which is to be used for upper leather is cut into sides -before the tanning process is completed. This is performed by passing -it between rollers where it comes in contact with a sharp knife-edge, -which splits it into two or more sheets. Great care must be exercised in -cutting the leather in order to have good “splits” (sheets of leather). A -split from a heavy hide is not as good as a whole of a lighter leather. - -Butts and backs are selected from the stoutest and heaviest oxhides. The -butt is formed by cutting off the head, the shoulder, and the strip of -the belly. The butt or back of oxhide forms the stoutest and heaviest -leather, such as is used for soles of boots, harness, etc. - -[Illustration: Green-Salted Calfskin. _Page 12._] - -Hides and skins are received at the tannery in one of three conditions, -viz. green-salted, dry, or dry-salted. Very few hides are received by -tanners in fresh or unsalted condition, salt being necessary to preserve -them from decay. Green-salted hides are those that have been salted in -fresh condition, tied up in bundles, and shipped to the tanner. Dry -hides are those that were taken from the carcass and dried without being -salted; these are usually stiff and hard. Dry-salted hides are hides that -were heavily salted while they were fresh, and then dried. The hides -and skins that are received from the slaughterhouses of this country -are almost invariably green-salted; those from foreign countries are -green-salted, dry, and dry-salted. - -It does not matter in what condition the hides are received or the kind -of leather into which they are to be tanned; they all require soaking in -water before any attempt is made to remove the hair or to tan them. The -object of the soaking process, as it is called, is to thoroughly soften -the hides and to remove from them all salt, dirt, blood, etc. Ordinary -hides are usually soaked from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Dry hides -require much longer. The water should be changed once or twice during the -process, since dirty water may injure the hides. Soft water is better -than hard for this process. Where the water is hard, it is customary for -the tanner to add a quantity of borax to it to increase its cleansing -power and to hasten the softening of the hides. - -When dry hides have become soft enough to bend without cracking, they are -put into a machine and beaten and rolled, then soaked again until they -are soft and pliable. It is very important that all the salt and dirt are -removed during the process of soaking, as they injure the quality of the -leather if they are not removed before the hides are unhaired. When the -soaking process is completed, the lumps of fat and flesh that may have -been left on by the butcher are removed by hand or by a machine, and the -hides are then in condition to be passed along into the next process. The -parts that cannot be made into leather, such as tails, teats, etc., are -trimmed off before the hides are soaked. Large hides are cut into two -pieces or halves, called “sides,” after they have been soaked. - -For the purpose of taking the hair from the hides and skins, lime, -sulphide of sodium, and red arsenic are used. Lime is sometimes used -alone, but usually one of the other two chemicals is mixed with it. The -lime is dissolved in hot water, a quantity of either sulphide of sodium -or red arsenic is added to it, and the solution is then mixed with water -in a vat, the hides being immersed in this liquor until the hair can be -easily removed. The action of the unhairing liquor is to swell the hides, -then to dissolve the perishable animal portion and loosen the hair so -that it can be rubbed or pulled off. - -There are several different processes of unhairing the hides. Each tanner -uses the process that will help to give the leather the qualities that it -should have, such as softness and pliability for shoe and glove leather, -or firmness and solidity for sole and belting leather. This is one of the -most important in the series of tannery processes, and if the hides are -not unhaired properly and not prepared for tanning as they should be, the -leather will not be right when it is tanned and finished. - -There is also a process of unhairing, called “sweating,” which softens -the hide and loosens the hair so that it can be scraped off. In this -process the hides begin to decay before the hair is loose; it is -therefore a dangerous process to use and must be carefully watched or the -hides will be entirely spoiled. Sweating is never used for the finer, -softer kinds of leather. It is applied chiefly to dry hides for sole, -lace, and belt leather. It is an old-fashioned process and is not used as -much nowadays as some years ago. - -The pelts of sheep are salted at the slaughterhouses and then shipped to -the tannery. Here they are thrown into water and left to soak twenty-four -hours to loosen the dirt and dissolve the salt. The pelts are next -passed through machines that clean the wool, and any particles of flesh -remaining on the inner or flesh side are removed. The pelts are then in -condition to have the wool removed. As long as a sheepskin has the wool -upon it, it is called a pelt; as soon as the wool has been taken off, it -is called a skin or a “slat.” - -Each pelt is spread out smoothly on a table with the wool down and the -inner or flesh side up. A mixture of lime and sulphide of sodium is -next applied uniformly over the skin with a brush. The pelt is then -folded up and placed in a pile with others. The solution that was -applied penetrates the skin and loosens the wool, which, at the end -of twenty-four hours, more or less, can be easily pulled off with the -hands or rubbed off with a dull instrument or stick. The workman must be -careful not to get any of the solution on to the wool, as it dissolves it -and makes it worthless. Since the wool is valuable, the solution must be -applied to the flesh side very carefully so that it does no injury. The -wool that is removed from the skins is called “pulled wool.” - -The slat is now ready to be limed, washed, pickled, and tanned. Heavy -skins are often split into two sheets after they have been limed. The -part from the wool side is called a skiver, and that from the flesh side -is called a flesher. - -After the skins have been limed, they are bated and washed, which makes -them soft, clean, and white; they are then put into a solution of salt, -sulphuric acid, and water, called “pickle,” and after a few hours they -are taken out, drained, and tanned. - -Large quantities of sheepskins are sold to tanners in the pickled -condition by those who make a business of preparing such skins and -selling the wool. Pickled skins can be kept an indefinite length of time -without spoiling; they can also be dried and worked out into a cheap -white leather without any further tanning whatever. Most of such skins, -however, are sold to tanners, who tan them into leather. Sheepskins -contain considerable grease, which must be removed before the leather can -be sold. - -For some processes of tanning, calfskins, goatskins, and cattle hides are -also pickled the same as sheepskins; for other processes they are not -pickled, but are thoroughly bated or delimed, washed, and cleansed. Heavy -hides are sometimes split out of the lime; more frequently, however, they -are not split until after they have been tanned. - -To capitulate, the preparatory processes may be briefly described as -follows:-- - -Soaking, which dissolves the salt, removes the dirt and makes the hides -soft and comparatively clean. - -Liming and unhairing, which swell the hides and dissolve the perishable -animal portion, loosen the hair, and put the hides into proper condition -for tanning. Hides tanned without liming, even if the hair is removed by -some chemical, do not make pliable leather, but are stiff and hard. - -Bating, which removes the lime from the hides. - -Pickling, which helps in the tanning later, and keeps the hides and -skins from spoiling if they are not tanned at once. - -The lumps of fat and flesh that may be on the hides are removed by -machinery or by placing the hide over a beam and scraping it with a -knife. The hair, when it is loosened by the lime, is removed by a machine -or by hand. - - - - -CHAPTER THREE - -PROCESSES OF TANNING - - -The various processes of tanning may be roughly divided into two -classes, vegetable chemical and mineral chemical. The first class is -often spoken of in tanneries simply as the “vegetable” while the second -is called “chemical” process. In the vegetable processes the tanning -is accomplished by tannin, which is found in various barks and woods -of trees and leaves of plants. In the so-called chemical processes the -tanning is done with mineral salts and acids which produce an entirely -different kind of leather from that procured by vegetable tanning. - -There is also a method of tanning, or, more properly speaking, tawing, in -which alum and salt are used. This process makes white leather that is -used for many purposes; it is also colored and used in the manufacture -of fine gloves. Leather is also made by tanning skins with oil. Chamois -skins are made in this way. - -The materials that are used to tan hides and skins act upon the hide -fibers in such a way that the hides are rendered proof against decay -and become pliable and strong. There are many vegetable tans; they are -used for sole leather, upper leather, and colored leather for numerous -purposes. The bark of hemlock trees is one of the principal tans. The -woods and barks of oak, chestnut, and quebracho trees are often used. -Palmetto roots yield a good tan. Large quantities of leather are treated -with gambier and various other tanning materials that come from foreign -countries. Sumac leaves, which are imported from Sicily, contain tannin -that makes soft leather suitable for hat sweatbands, suspender trimmings, -etc. Sumac is also obtained from the State of Virginia, but the foreign -leaves contain more tannin and make better leather than the American. - -To a large extent the so-called chemical processes have supplanted the -vegetable processes, that is, old tan bark and sumac processes; but in -some tanneries both methods are used on different kinds of skins. - -In the old bark process the tan bark is ground coarse and is then treated -in leaches with hot water until the tanning quality is drawn out. The -liquor so obtained is used at various strengths as needed. - -In the newer method the tan liquor is displaced by a solution of -potassium bichromate, which produces its results with much less -expenditure of time. - -When the hides or skins are ready for the tanning process, they are put -into a revolving drum, known as a “pinwheel,” or into a pit in which -are revolving paddles, with a dilute solution of potassium dichromate -or sodium dichromate, acidified with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. -If the pinwheel is employed, it is revolved for seven hours or longer; -after which time the liquor is drawn off and replaced by an acidified -solution of sodium thiosulphate or bisulphite, and then the revolution -is continued several hours longer. If the pit is used, the skins are -removed to another drum containing the second solution, and kept at rest -or overturned for a like period. - -In removing the skins from the pinwheel or vat, and in handling them -after treatment with lime for the loosening of the hair, the hands and -arms of the workmen are seriously injured, becoming raw if not protected -by rubber gloves; even with gloves it is difficult to prevent injury, and -in some establishments the workmen are relieved by the substitution of a -single-bath process, in which the liquor is less harmful to the skin. - -[Illustration: Tanning Process - -Showing the vats, the unhairing and liming processes. _Page 24._] - -The hides are then removed from the pits, washed and brushed, followed -by slow drying in the air. When partly dried, they are placed in a pile -and covered until heating is induced. They are then dampened and rolled -with brass rollers to give the leather solidity. Sole leather is oiled -but little. Weight is increased by adding glucose and salt. - -Various rapid processes of tanning have been devised in which the hides -are suspended in strong liquors or are tanned in large revolving drums. -It is claimed that this hastens the process, but the product has been -criticized as lacking substance or being brittle. - -Chrome tannage has been chiefly developed in this country during the -last twenty years and is now in general use. It consists in throwing an -insoluble chromium hydroxide or oxide on the fibers of a skin which has -been impregnated with a soluble chromium salt--potassium bichromate. -Other salts like basic chromium chloride, chromium chromate, and chromic -alum are also used. The hydrochloric or sulphuric acid acts by setting -free chromic acid. - -After several hours, the skin shows a uniform yellow when cut through its -thickest part. It is then drained and the skin worked in a solution of -sodium bisulphite and mineral acid (to free sulphur dioxide). The chromic -acid is absorbed by the fiber and later reduced by sulphur dioxide. - -In the making of chrome black leather each tanner has his own method. -Contrary to the general belief, there are many different methods of -chrome tannage. No two tanneries employ just the same process. - -Tanners of chrome leather seek to produce leather suitable for the -particular demands made upon it by the peculiarities or characteristics -of the varying seasons. Summer shoes require a cool, light leather; -at other times a heavier tannage is essential, with some call for a -practically waterproof product. - -All leathers, whether vegetable-or chrome-tanned, must be “fat liquored.” -That is to say, a certain amount of fatty material must be put into the -skin in order that it may be mellow, workable, and serviceable. This is -very essential in producing calf leather. Fat liquors usually contain oil -and soap, which have been boiled in water and made into a thin liquor. -The leather is put into a drum with the hot fat liquor; the drum is set -in motion, and as it revolves the leather tumbles about in the drum and -absorbs the oil and soap from the water. It is the fat liquor that makes -the leather soft and strong. - -Leather used in shoes is divided into two classes: sole leather and upper -leather. - -Sole leather is a heavy, solid, stiff leather and may be bent without -cracking. It is the foundation of the shoe, and therefore should be of -the best material. The hides of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for -this purpose. - -The hide that is tanned for sole leather is soaked for several days in a -weak solution (which is gradually made stronger) of oak or hemlock tan -made from the bark. Oak-tanned hide is preferred and may be known by its -light color. A chemical change takes place in the fiber of the hide. This -is a high-grade tannage, and is distinguished principally by its fine -fibers and close, compact texture. - -Oak sole leather, by reason of its tough character, and its close, -fibrous texture, resists water and will wear well down before cracking. -It is by many considered better than other leather for flexible-sole -shoes, requiring waterproof qualities. - -Sole leather is divided into three classes according to the tanning--oak, -hemlock, and union. - -[Illustration: Tanning Process - -Showing the rotating drums. _See page 24._] - -Oak tanning is as follows: the hides are hung in pits containing weak -or nearly spent liquors from a previous tanning, and agitated so as to -take up tannin evenly. Strong liquor would harden the surface so as to -prevent thorough penetration into the interior of the hides. After ten -or twelve days, the hides are taken out and laid away in fresh tan and -stronger liquor. This process is repeated as often as necessary for eight -to ten months. At the end of this time the hide has absorbed all of the -tannin which it will take up. - -Hemlock tanning is similar to the oak tanning in process. The hemlock -tan is a red shade. Hemlock produces a very hard and inflexible leather. -It is modified by use of bleaching materials which are applied to the -leather after being tanned. It is sold in sides without being trimmed, -while the oak is sold in backs, with belly and head trimmed off. - -Hemlock leather is used extensively and almost principally for men’s -and boys’ stiff-soled, heavy shoes, where no flexibility is required -or expected. Its principal desirable quality is its resistance to -trituration, or being ground to a powder, and its use in men’s and boys’ -pegged, nailed, or standard screw shoes is not in any way objectionable -to the wearer. In fact, for this class of shoes, it is probably the best -leather that can be used. But when hemlock is used in men’s and boys’ -Goodyear welt shoes, where a flexible bottom is expected and required, -it generally does not give good results. It cannot satisfactorily resist -the constant flexing to which it is subjected, and after the sole is worn -half through, the constant bending causes it to crack crosswise. On this -account it becomes like a sieve, and has no power of resistance in water, -and therefore it is not at all suited to flexible-bottomed shoes. - -In “union-tanned” hides, both oak and hemlock are used and the result is -a compromise in both color and quality. This tan was first used about -fifty years ago. Twenty-five years ago the union leather tanners began to -experiment with bleaching materials to avoid the use of oak bark, which -was becoming scarce and high priced, and eventually developed a system of -tanning union leather with hemlock or kindred tanning agents, excluding -oak. The red color and the hard texture were modified by bleaching the -leather to the desired color and texture. This produces leather which -has not the fine, close tannage of genuine oak leather and at the same -time lacks the compact, hard character of hemlock leather. Union leather -produced in this manner is a sort of mongrel or hybrid leather, being -neither oak nor hemlock. On account of its economy in cutting qualities, -however, it is largely used in the manufacture of medium-priced shoes -where a certain degree of flexibility is required in the sole. This is -particularly true of women’s shoes. - -Union leather is sold largely in backs and trimmed the same as oak, -though not so closely. - -Sole leather is also made nowadays by tanning the hides by the chrome or -chemical process. This leather is very durable and pliable and is used -on athletic and sporting shoes. It has a light green color and is much -lighter in weight than the oak or hemlock leather. - -Many kinds of hide are used for sole leather. This country does not -produce nearly enough hides for the demand, and great quantities are -imported from abroad, although most of the imported hides come from South -America. Imported hides are divided into two general classes, dry hides -and green-salted hides. - -Dry hides are of two kinds, the dry “flint,” which are dried carefully -after being taken from the animal and cured without salt. These generally -make good leather, although if sunburnt, the leather is not strong. -“Dry-salted hides” are salted and cured to a dry state. Dry hides of both -kinds are used for hemlock leather only, although all hemlock leather is -not made from dry hides. - -Green-salted hides are used in making oak-tanned leather as well as -hemlock, and those used by United States tanners come largely from -domestic points; but there is a variable amount imported each year from -abroad, principally from Europe and South America. Green-salted hides are -of two general classes, those branded and those free of brands. - -Cow and steer hides of the branded type are used by tanners of oak and -union leather. Those not branded are used more largely for belting and -upholstering leathers, a small part finding their way into hemlock -leather. - -Sole leather remnants, strictly speaking, include such a wide variety -of items that it is difficult to cover them all. Few people, however, -realize the big range of usefulness of this class of stock. While not -exactly a by-product, remnants are often classed as such. Under the -class of sole leather remnants are included sole leather offal, such -as heads, bellies, shoulders, shanks, shins, men’s heeling, men’s half -heeling, men’s and women’s three-and four-piece heeling, etc. Stock that -cannot be used in the shoe business goes into the chemical and fertilizer -trade, among other outlets. By a special acid process of burning this -stock, ammonia is derived from it, which goes into fertilizer; and -another by-product is sulphuric acid for the chemical trade. The amount -of ammonia obtained is small, being about seven per cent of ammonia to a -ton of sole leather scrap. This is mixed with fertilizer and sold mostly -in the Southern States, and to a small extent in the West, there being a -law in many of the Western States against the use of fertilizer made from -leather products, on account of its low grade. - -[Illustration: Sole Leather Offal - -Showing bellies, shoulders, etc. _Page 35._] - -In the disposition of offal, heads are used for taps, top lifts, and -under lifts. Shoulders are used for outsoles and inner soles, while -bellies are used for medium to heavy taps and counters. Lightweight -bellies and shanks are utilized for making box toes and counters. - -Shanks are also used for taps and under lifts. This stock is solid and -substantial and well suited for these purposes. The bellies, being -flexible, are the best part of the hide obtainable for inner soles. - -In cutting out soles, the manufacturer accumulates a considerable -quantity of solid or center pieces, which are used for small top lifts, -also for “Cuban” tops, thereby using up the bulk of the small heavy scrap -that ordinarily would be sold for pieced heeling. There is also a demand -for similar stock from the hardware trade, where it is used for making -mallet and tool handles, also for wagon and carriage washers. Large -quantities of men’s and women’s heeling and half heeling go to England, -where it is cut up by heel manufacturers into lifts and sectional lifts -for the English trade; there being a shortage of this class of offal -there. - -The shoe manufacturer, after cutting his soles and taps, is obliged to -skive them to get the particular iron he needs. This leaves what is known -as a “flesh sole shape,” also a “tap shape.” These skivings are pasted -together by another class of trade and again used for inner soling and -taps in the cheaper grades of shoes. Smaller skivings, or waste, after -sorting out the sole and tap shapes, are sold to the leather board trade. -This eventually comes back to the shoe trade in the shape of leather -board and is cut into heel lifts. The waste after cutting heel lifts is -again resold to the leather board trade and makes another round trip to -the shoe manufacturer. This illustration, as well as many others in the -leather remnant business, demonstrates the scientific principle that -nothing is ever entirely lost. In regard to pieced heel lifts, these are -made in either two, three, or four sections. This refers to what are -known as sectional heel lifts. Scrap leather is also used for shanking -for the European trade. - -Soles and taps, known as rejects, that is, those thrown out by the -high-grade trade, are sold to manufacturers of cheaper lines. A shoe -manufacturer cutting his own soles and buying sole leather in sides, -after sorting out the soles suited to his own requirements, will sell -what he cannot use to remnant dealers, who in turn re-sell them to -shoe manufacturers requiring that particular class of stock. The scrap -leather, or remnant dealer, thus forms a useful link in the chain of -distribution, furnishing a market where shoe and leather manufacturers -may dispose of their surplus products to best advantage, and providing a -source of supply for buyers who wish any particular article to suit their -individual needs. - -Upper or dressed leather is made from kips or large calfskins. It is -tanned and finished like all other forms of leather by variations of the -foregoing process. Thick hides are often split thin by machinery, and the -parts retained and finished separately. The parts of the leather from the -hair side are most valuable and are called “grain” leather; the inner -parts or “flesh splits” are made into a variety of different kinds of -leather by waxing, oiling, and polishing. - -It is finished by scouring with brushes and then rubbed with a piece of -glass, which removes creases and wrinkles and stretches the leather. Then -it is stuffed with a mixture of oil, soap, and tallow, which is worked -into it by rolling. Various finishes are given to leather, such as seal -grain, buff, glove grain, oil grain, satin calf, russet, plain shoe, etc. - -Upper leathers are blacked by rubbing with a mixture of lampblack and oil -or tallow, or with a solution of copperas and logwood. - -No tanning process, no matter how good or thorough, can make firm, -serviceable, wear-resisting leather out of all portions of any hide, -because nature made some parts of every hide porous, spongy, and lacking -in fibrous strength. - -Calfskins used by tanners are of several classes. American calfskins, -taken off in the United States and Canada, are usually sold green pelted. -Farmers raise only a small fraction of the calves born. Each cow must -produce a calf in order to insure a maximum flow of milk. Most of the -farmers keep cows to produce milk, hence they sell the young calves for -veal and use their skins for high-grade calf leather. - -In European countries farmers fatten their calves before selling them in -order to get a higher price for the veal. The skin is not so valuable for -leather as the skin from younger calves, and it is used for lower-value -leathers. - -Calfskin is not split. A heavier weight skin might be. It is shaved to a -uniform thickness. - -Calf leather is divided into the following classes, depending upon the -finish of the leather:-- - -Boarded calf (made in both chrome and bark tannage). - -Wax calf, finished on the flesh side with a waxy, hard surface. - -Box calf is a proprietary name. It is boarded--rubbed with a board to -raise the grain. It is known by minute, squarelike lines. - -Mat calf is a dull-finished calfskin, used more in topping. - -Suede calf is finished on flesh side. Most makes of suede calf are -chromed, although there are some vegetable. - -Storm calf is a heavy skin, finished for winter wear. Considerable oil is -used in finishing. - -French calf is finished on flesh side. - -Dry hides are obtained from Buenos Ayres, where the cattle are raised on -the plains. This city exports a large quantity of hides, dry, salted, -and cured by smoking. The hides of cows generally yield inferior grain -leather; but South American cowhides may be worked for light sole leather. - -Calves’ hides are thinner, but when well tanned, curried, and dressed, -they yield a very soft and supple leather for boots and shoes. They are -finished with wax and oil on the flesh side, and can also be finished on -the hair (grain of skin). - -Calves’ skin (green salted). - -Paris City calfskins. These are obtained in three grades--light, medium, -and heavy. - -Light grades run from four to five, or seven to eight pounds; medium -grades run from seven to nine pounds; heavy grades run from nine to -twelve pounds. - -Patent leather may be made from colt, calf, or kid skin. Coltskin is the -skin of young horses, or split skins of mature horses. - -Patent colt and kid are used for the most part in the medium fine grades, -and patent side (cowhide) is used in the medium and cheaper grades. -Chrome tanned are used entirely in the manufacture of patent leather. - -Patent leather, as it appears in shoes, may be described either as -varnished leather, coltskin, or kid, and sometimes the French use -calfskin. The process is largely a secret one, although there is no -longer any patent on the principle of the same. It is made by shaving -the skins on the flesh side or hair side to a uniform thickness. Then -it is de-greased to put the skin in condition to receive the finish and -protect the same from peeling off. Successive coats of liquid black -varnish are applied, the first coats being dried and rubbed down, so as -to work the liquid thoroughly into the fibers of the leather. The last -coat is applied with a brush, and baked to from one hundred and twenty to -one hundred and forty degrees Fahrenheit for thirty-six hours and then -allowed to dry in direct sunlight for from six to ten hours, which seems -to be essential to remove the sticky feeling. Various ingredients are -used in making the different varnishes, the first coating consisting of -naphtha, wood alcohol, amyl acetate, etc. The black varnishes consist of -linseed oil and various other mixtures, heated in iron kettles. The final -coating is a naphtha preparation resembling japanning material. The hide -is stretched on a frame during the varnishing operations. - -It is almost impossible to tell the difference in quality of shiny -leather by appearance, although in general the leather on which the -grain shows through the varnish will prove more serviceable than that -on which the finish is so thick as to hide the grain. Great care must -be exercised in resewing patent leather shoes that have been exposed -during the cold weather, as the cold has a tendency to freeze the finish. -Patent leather, like all varnished coatings, is liable to crack. No one -can guarantee it not to do so. The kid patent leather is more elastic -and porous than other kinds. The serious objection to the use of patent -leather for a shoe is its air-tightness. This makes it both unhygienic -and uncomfortable. The kid patent leather is the only patent leather that -has not this objection. - -Kid is a term applied to shoe leather made from the skins of mature -goats. The skin of the young goat or kid is made into the thin, flexible -leather used for kid gloves, which is too delicate for general use in -shoes. The goats from which come the supply of leather used in this -country for women’s and children’s fine shoes are not the common, -domesticated kind known in this country, but are wild goats or allied -species partially domesticated, and are found in the hill regions of -India, the mountains of Europe, portions of South America, etc. - -There are about sixty-eight recognized kinds of goatskins that are -imported from all over the world. The Brazilian, Buenos Ayres, Andean, -Mexican, French, Russian, Indian, and Chinese are a few of the many kinds -that are known as such. Each particular species of goat hide possesses -its own peculiarities of texture. The thickness and grain differ -according to the environment in which the animal has been raised. It is -peculiar that those raised in cold climates do not have as thick skins -as those raised in warmer climates, for the long, thick hair apparently -takes the strength. - -We may wonder where all the skins come from that are made up into glazed -kid, mat kid, and suede, at the rate of several thousand dozen every -day. The great proportion of the skins are _goatskins_. These are almost -all imported from abroad, where the animals are slaughtered and disposed -of much the same as we dispose of beef and veal here. Sheepskins and -carbarettas, the hides of animals that are a cross between sheep and -goats, are also used. - -The finer grades of kid and goatskins which are tanned in large -quantities in New England, come from the Far East. - -In China there are two great ports from which skins are shipped, Tientsin -and Shanghai. Back in the interior, starting from a point about twelve -hundred miles from the sea, collectors make their rounds twice a year. - -The breeder of goats kills his flock just before the collector is due, -skins the animals on the hillside, preserves the meat for food, and with -the kidskins, which have been partly dried, wrapped in a bundle carried -upon the back, or upon a pack animal, the breeder makes his way to the -station. It may be that there are a half hundred breeders awaiting the -coming of the collector and he pays them the market price for the skins. - -Whenever the collector has a sufficient supply to make it profitable -to ship, he bales the skins and then sends them over the thousand mile -journey along the river to the seaport. From Tientsin or Shanghai they -are taken by tramp steamers, which reach Eastern ports by way of the Suez -Canal, and on the trip the steamers make several ports, so that it is -from six to ten weeks before the skins reach America. - -Another method of importing is to have the raw material shipped across -the Pacific and then transferred to a railroad, but the difference in -cost to the manufacturer is so great that it is unprofitable. - -The China goatskins are rated as among the finest in the world and when -tanned they make the highest-grade shoe. - -Then there are mocha skins, which come from Tripoli, Arabia, and Northern -Africa. In those places the method of collection is practically the same -as in China. - -The two best-known grades are the Hodieda and the Benghazi. They derive -their designations from the exporting cities. Hodieda is located in the -southwestern part of Arabia on the Red Sea, while Benghazi is in Barca, -one of the provinces of Tripoli. - -Other goatskins are produced in India and Russia, and millions of skins -are exported annually from Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. These skins are -not brought direct to America, but are transshipped at Marseilles or -London. - -The jobbers in Europe or India occupy rather a unique position, for -according to their practice it is almost impossible for them to suffer -financial losses in dealing with an American tanner. The latter, when he -wishes to arrange for his year’s supply of raw material, negotiates with -an agent in Boston, with whom he signs a contract for so many skins. Then -it is necessary for the tanner to either purchase with money equal to -the face value or secure by loans letters of credit from Boston banking -houses which have European connections. - -Before the skins are exported, the jobber has his money from the European -banking concerns and the bills of lading are forwarded to the Boston -bankers, who turn them over to the tanners, and, when the occasion -requires, obtain from the tanners what is known as a deed of trust. - -All goatskins are tanned by the same chrome tanning process, whether -the finish is to be glazed or mat. The proportions of chemicals vary -according to the texture of the skin, and according to the grain. - -The process of tanning is quicker than the tanning of heavier hides, and -all varieties of tannage are used, the chrome methods having come into -very general use. There are many kinds of finish given, such as glazed, -dull, mat, patent, etc. One quality that distinguishes goat leather, -the “kid” of shoemaking, is the fact that the fibers of the skin are -interlaced and interlocked in all directions. The finished skins as they -come from the tannery, by whatever process they may be put through, are -sorted for size and quality, a number of grades being made. Instead -of ripping straight through, like a piece of cloth, or splitting apart -in layers, as sheepskin will do when made into leather, the kid holds -together firmly in all directions. - -Glazed kid is colored after it is tanned by submerging it in the color, -a very important process. The glossy surface is obtained by “striking” -or burnishing on the grain side. It is made in black and colors, -particularly tan, and is known by about as many names as there are -manufacturers of it. - -Glazed kid is used in the uppers of shoes, making a fine, soft shoe that -is particularly comfortable in warm weather, and is said to prevent cold -feet in winter, owing to unrestricted circulation. - -Mat kid is a soft, dull black kid, the softness being the result of -treatment with beeswax or olive oil. It is finished on the grain side the -same as glazed kid, and is used principally for shoe toppings. It is very -similar in appearance to mat calf and is often used in preference to it, -as it is of much lighter weight, and about as strong. - -Suede kid is not tanned, but is subjected to a feeding process in an -egg solution, called “tawing,” to make it soft and pliable. The skin is -stretched and the color is applied by “brushing” (with a brush). The -color does not permeate the skin, but is merely on the surface. Suedes -are made from carbarettas and split sheepskins. Suedes are used very -extensively in making slippers, and come in a great variety of colors. - -A castor kid is a Persian lambskin finished the same as a suede, and is -used in making very soft, fine-appearing leather--like glove leather. The -skin is of such a very light weight that it has to be “backed up” before -being made into shoes. - -Fancy leathers are used extensively for toppings of shoes having patent -leather vamps. Facings are selected from fancy leathers to make the -inside of a shoe attractive and to increase its wearing quality. -Leathers of dull or glazed finish are used in typical shoe colors. - -Miscellaneous kinds of kids are as follows:-- - - _A._ Kangaroo - _B._ Buckskin - _C._ Sheepskin - _D._ Chamois - _E._ Cordovan - _F._ Splits - _a._ Seal Grain - _b._ Buff - _c._ Oil Grain - _d._ Satin Calf - _G._ Enamel - _H._ Sides - -Kangaroo is the skin of the animal of that name. - -Buckskin is the skin of certain deer. - -Sheepskin is the skin of the familiar domestic sheep. - -Chamois is the skin of the animal of that name and by courtesy the -specially treated skins of certain domestic animals. - -It is a simple matter to recognize a kid-skin among the various kinds of -upper leather, because of its very light weight and pliability. - -During the winter, leather, in drying, is apt to become frozen, -especially where no well-equipped drying loft is provided. Such leather -becomes weak and limp if thawed out too rapidly. In freezing, the -water in the hides which have been hung up to dry is forced out and -stretches apart the hide fiber. The wetter the hides, therefore, the -more demoralized they will be by the frost. The treatment of rushing the -frozen leather into a warm room is inadvisable; the best method is to -allow the hides to hang as they were and to tightly close all openings -to the outside air. In case this is impossible, it is best to place the -leather in a heap, in a room where the temperature will not fall below -the freezing point, and to cover it with a cloth. In case the leather -rolls up, it should be moistened before the roll becomes greater than -is customary; it will thus become firmer throughout. Some upper leather -and especially sheepskins for lining purposes are aided by freezing, -since the leather becomes white and plump and also is of a bright color, -though the durability is somewhat lessened. - -The popularity of white leather for shoes is increasing wonderfully. -There is good reason for this. The modern white shoes have a stylish and -fashionable appearance which has won the hearts of women of all ages and -conditions, and when they want a thing, there is always alertness in -supplying it. The new love for white shoes is interesting to trace. Years -ago white leather for shoes was made principally from deerskins. But -this leather, while attractive when new, would stretch soon after being -worn, and take on a yellowish tinge. Besides, the price of such shoes -was very high, and it is not surprising that they became supplanted by -the cheaper, but attractive and useful, white canvas shoes, which became -quick sellers during the season. - -It is greatly to the credit of our tanners that they have been able to -perfect and put on the market a white leather for shoes which answers -all requirements satisfactorily. This leather is made from cowhides; the -white color will not fade nor turn yellow, and best of all, the leather -can be easily cleaned and made to look good as new. Another advantage is -that such leathers can be used in shoes that sell at popular prices. - -There are many common, commercial grades of upper leather. - -Willow calf is a fine, soft, chrome tannage of calfskin. It is sold in -three colors, light tan, ox blood, and olive-brown. The distinguishing -features of this leather are its durability and the fact that it always -keeps soft and pliable. It is adapted to the highest quality of men’s and -women’s shoes. - -Box calf is a storm-calf leather of highest quality. It is a waterproof, -chrome tannage in a medium tan color, with a dull finish. This is the -best leather obtainable for rough, outdoor wear, walking shoes, hunting -boots, etc. It is also adapted to men’s and women’s very fine footwear. -There is a growing demand for this kind of shoe. In the uppers of the -best storm shoes you will always find box calf. - -Royal kid is a black chrome calfskin, dull finished with a smooth, -natural grain of fine texture, soft and pliable. It is used for vamps -and whole shoes of the highest grades for men and women, and is a very -popular material for the fall and winter shoe. The desirable qualities -of fine calf leather are making the demand for it grow faster than the -supply of raw material increases. - -Tan royal is a tan color, chrome calf leather, smooth finish, fine grain, -excellent cutting qualities, uniform, of medium rich tan shades. Tan calf -leather is very attractive and the tan shoe is now a staple product. - -Cadet kid is a bright black, smooth-finished, chrome calfskin for men’s -and women’s fine shoes. This tannage and finish give a remarkable -cutting value. The stability of this stock is entirely unique and makes -the finished shoe stand up, keeping its much desired shape through the -different tests of manufacturing. It is said to be the best calfskin, by -the best judges, the shoe manufacturers. - -Bronko patent is distinguished for its fine, coltskin-effect grain. It -has a rich and lustrous black patent finish. The results obtained from -bronko patent in its workings through the shoe factory and its wearing -qualities afterward have never been equaled. Bronko is one of the finest -results of the development of chrome patent leather. - -Cadet kid side is a chrome side leather that closely imitates the -calfskin, called cadet kid. It has a bright, lustrous finish, and a -remarkably fine grain. It is surprisingly like fine calf leather in -appearance. - -Cadet calf sides are similar to cadet kid sides with the exception of a -boarded finish. This is another black chrome, side leather which comes -very near to a calfskin. - -Mat royal chrome side is a special finish, closely resembling calf, used -for the tops of men’s and women’s medium fine shoes. - -Black hawk patent is a well-tanned, well-finished patent leather for -medium-priced women’s shoes and for tipping. - -Colored box chrome side, boarded, is a substitute for willow calf. - -Black box chrome side, boarded, is a substitute for box calf in medium -fine shoes. - -Kangaroo kid side is a back-tanned, dull, smooth, black leather nearly -like calf, used in the tops of men’s shoes, and men’s and women’s whole -shoes. - -Waterproof black is a high quality leather of great durability for men’s -and boys’ heavy shoes. Waterproof brown is similar to waterproof black, -except in color, and is a leather made for hard service. - -Amhide black is a soft, dry, high-grade tannage for lightweight, -comfortable, sporting, work, and hard-wear shoes. - -Amhide russet is like black amhide in everything but color. - -Hercules storm chrome is a leather distinguished for its fine grain and -good appearance of medium heavy weight. - -Boris is a heavy-weight, soft, waterproof leather for men’s medium -quality shoes. It is finished in three colors and black. - -Zulu is a medium-priced leather, which makes a very fine wearing heavy -shoe. It is made in two colors and black. - -Bison is a colored or black-finished leather, of a high grade, very -comfortable and durable. - -Ottawa is of two colors and black finished, and is suitable for high -quality, heavy, rough shoes. - -Sheboygan calf is a heavily stuffed, soft, waterproof leather. It is of -two colors and black. - -Dongola calf is a black leather used for durable, medium-priced, heavy, -outdoor shoes. - -Belt knife splits are sold in several tannages and finishes of the most -improved manufacture. These splits are sorted in all weights. Uniform -selection is maintained, and the quality in every way is of the highest -order. - -Oxford calf union splits is one of the highest grades of grain-finished, -union splits. It has an extremely soft and fine appearance. - -Cambridge calf union splits have a most careful and high-grade finish, -but somewhat firmer than Oxford calf. - -Flesh splits are sold in two tannages. These are the highest-grade flesh -splits that it is possible to make, and they are a long distance ahead of -the ordinary flesh splits, their improved finish making them a modern and -largely used substitute for satin. - -Ottawa black and russet splits include a variety of printed splits, used -for shoes in combination with grain leather and for whole shoes. They -are selected in many weights. - -Flexible splits for Goodyear, gem, McKay inner soles, is leather that -offers the greatest advantages to large and small buyers. It is the -product of six different tanneries, assorted in all the usual weights. -Great care is taken in the manufacture of these splits to adapt them -perfectly to the shoe manufacturer’s needs. - -Flexible bends are used by manufacturers of Goodyear welt shoes requiring -a straight Goodyear or gem inner sole. They find these bends of great -advantage on account of the small amount of waste, the strength and -desirability of stock. They are made in six tannages. - -Chrome flexible splits for inner soles furnish a very strong and durable -leather for inner soles, taps, and outer soles. - -Ooze gusset splits, colored, give a very low-priced leather suitable -for gussets, bellows tongues for high-cut boots, also for the -quarter-linings of Oxfords. - -Ooze vamp splits, black and colored, are strong, durable, low-priced -leathers suitable for cheap work shoes where waterproof qualities are not -required. - -Chrome-tanned embossed splits, colored, are made in a great variety of -patterns for cheap shoes and other work where leather is required. They -are durable and low priced. - - -LEATHER FOR BELTING - -A native steer about four years old, killed in the month of October, -affords the best example of a good hide for belting manufacture, that is, -for the transmission of power from pulley to pulley. At this age and at -this season the steer is in prime condition. - -On account of the great and enormous strain put upon belting, and the -necessity for its running true upon the pulley, it should be of the -highest grade possible, combining great strength to prevent stretching, -and evenness of grain to insure long wear; therefore only hides of -selected steers are serviceable, and these in turn are rejected when they -contain any blemishes or cuts or other imperfections. After a hide is -accepted for belting purposes, it is subjected to a generous trimming, -the head, neck, legs, and belly being cut away, leaving only a small and -compact section embracing from two to two and a quarter feet on each side -of the backbone and extending about six feet along the same from the tail -forward. This is the portion of the hide where the fibers are closely and -firmly knit together, and where the vitality is the greatest, due to the -close proximity of the network of nerves radiating from each side of the -spine to all parts of the hide. - -The hides of the bull and cow of every breed are inferior for belting -purposes to that of the steer. The hide of the bull is coarse and hard, -with the neck very heavy and full of wrinkles, causing a variation in -the thickness and run of the grain of the leather. The hide of the cow -is thin, does not run uniform in thickness, being heavier on the hips -than at the shoulder, and is lacking in the firmness necessary in good -belting. The sharp angles of the hip bones of a cow also tend to form -pockets in the hide. - -After the hide has been trimmed, it is subject to the process of -“currying.” All membranes or particles of flesh adhering to the hide -are removed by a machine which shaves the membrane, etc., off, with -lightning rapidity. The leather is then washed and scoured by machine, -which removes all dirt still adhering to the hide. After the leather -is thoroughly cleaned and while in a damp state, it is placed upon the -table, and greases, composed of pure animal oil, are worked into the -leather on both the grain and the flesh side with brushes. This is -carried on in the cold state. It is then put into a large revolving -wheel containing water heated to a high degree, which causes the leather -to swell and pores to open. The leather is then taken out and put into -another wheel containing heavy mineral oil and heated several degrees -greater than the water, and tumbled about in the wheel until the heavy -oil fills the distended pores and fibers. After this, the leather is -allowed to dry. - -The hides are allowed to remain for several months in the tan liquor -until the green hide is changed into leather. - -After the hide has been changed into leather, it is stretched. To -properly stretch the leather for belting purposes, it must first be cut -so as to remove that part which shows the markings of the backbone of the -steer. - -Leather is stretched by placing it in clamps, every part of the piece -getting the same pull. (The leather is put into the clamps while damp, -as damp leather will give the greatest amount of stretching.) - -When the stretching process is completed and the leather has thoroughly -dried in stretching clamps, it is released. These pieces of leather -are quite dry, very firm, and not very pliable. The leather is now -moistened in order that it shall be more pliable as it passes through the -finishing processes. After the water has soaked into the leather (called -sammied), it becomes very soft. It is then subjected to a roller under -heavy pressure to take all the unevenness out of the hide. It is next -thoroughly dried, causing the fibers to shrink; then again moistened and -put through a polishing machine, which acts on the same principle as the -rolling jack. - -The sides and centers are now put through a cutting machine, which -reduces the leather to strips of different sizes. - -Belts are put together by cementing the parts. Belt cement is a most -powerful adhesive. It actually governs the strength of the belt, as the -belt is as strong as the weakest part of the joint. - - -RAWHIDE PRODUCTS - -Rawhide is used for a great many purposes. After the side of leather has -been trimmed of the portions that cannot be used, it is sold to the lace -maker. He measures the same in a machine. - -The trimmings from the side of the hide may be used for a mallet head -or other tools made of leather. The most common products of the strong -section of rawhide strings are shoe strings, belting laces, and parts of -harnesses. It is also made into leather shoe strings that are used in the -logging camps. - -When the hide is selected for the rawhide purposes, it is first passed to -a de-hairing machine, where all the hair is removed. It is then fleshed; -that is, all loose membrane and any flesh that may have adhered to the -hide are removed from the flesh side. The rawhide is then placed in a -special bath for the purpose of opening the pores, before the oils and -greases are added to it. After this bath, it is dried thoroughly in a hot -box and then put into wheels which mill the greases into the hide. - -The hide, which is made hard by this drying process, is put through -breakers, where it is thoroughly worked into soft and pliable form. - -The hide is next passed to the setting-out machine, which finishes all -forms of leather--by condensing and strengthening the fibers. Special -oils are applied to both the grain and flesh side of the hide. It is -finished by hand and cut into laces. This hand finishing is usually done -in order to reject all parts that are not perfect. - -Haired leather is tanned by acid--a quicker method. The hide is split -into sides and tanned with the belly stock on them, which is used for -car straps, cowbell straps, trunk straps, and riding bridles. - - -THE BY-PRODUCTS OF A LEATHER BELTING FACTORY - -There are a great many by-products in a leather belting factory, all of -which are used. The finest strips are used for whip lashes, small pieces -are used for the French heel, and the extremely small pieces are used in -leather mats. - -The by-product from the belting bull, which is about fifty per cent, is -used for shoe leather and leather straps. There is considerable leather -taken from the belting bull for certain harness work. The belly is thick -and porous though not tough, and is used for halters, cow bridles, and -other parts of harness where the strain is not great. - - -ROUND BELT MAKING - -Round belt is made from the best belting, but while the strain on round -belting is not severe, the leather must be soft and pliable. It is -selected from regular stock of native steer hide. - - -PROPERTIES OF TANNED LEATHER - -Leather that has been tanned is made up of a great many little bundles of -fibers. The coarser and stronger fibers are on the inside, and the very -fine and smoothly laid fibers are on the outside. These fibers are so -intertwined and so elastic that when the leather bends these bundles play -on one another. On account of the smoothness of the surface it may be -polished, and beautiful finishes and effects obtained on the leather. - -The elasticity of leather (which is due to the elasticity of its fibers) -allows it to stretch to a great extent. The tendency to return to its -original position is very strong at the beginning, but grows weaker if -the strain is continued at any one point. Of course, in stretching the -leather, there is always a corresponding drawing in another part of the -shoe, which gives it a worn and baggy appearance. - -When shoes are removed from the feet, they are oftentimes damp, due -to perspiration. The stretched or strained fibers are apt to shrink -and return to their original position. In order to avoid this, it is -necessary to place shoe-trees in them. - -When the linings of shoes are exposed to friction and excretion of -perspiration from the feet of some people, they deteriorate. This is due -to the fact that the acids of perspiration (acetic, formic and butyric -acids) have become so concentrated that they act on the fibers of the -leather. These acids exert a burning effect, causing the fibers to lose -their elasticity so that they no longer play on one another, but become -fastened to each other. The result is that they become hard, and any -attempt to bend the leather tears them apart; and once the union of -fibers is destroyed it cannot be repaired. - -In order to keep the fibers in such a condition (soft and flexible), they -should be lubricated often (twice a week) with a liquid followed by a wax -paste, usually called shoe dressing. When a brush or a piece of cloth is -rubbed over the surface of leather containing the shoe lubricants (shoe -polish), it produces a smooth surface called a “shine.” - -Compounds which shine without friction produced by brush or cloth should -not be used, as they are simply varnishes and one coat on top of the -other destroys the leather. - - -SUBSTITUTES FOR LEATHER - -In olden times our fathers and mothers used handmade shoes, and wore -them till they had passed their period of usefulness. At that time the -consumption did not equal the production of leather. Knowledge of -conditions in the great western countries to-day will show that many of -the big cattle-raising sections, once famed for their cattle, have been -taken up by homesteaders and are now producing grain instead of cattle. -But since the appearance of the machine-made shoe, different styles of -shoes are placed on the market at different seasons, to correspond to -the change of style of clothing, and shoes are often discarded before -they are worn out. We have not been able thus far to utilize cast-off -leather as the shoddy mill uses wool and silk, etc. The result is that -the consumption of leather is above the production, therefore substitutes -must be used. - -In shoe materials there is at present an astonishing diversity and -variety. Every known leather is used from kid to cowhide, and textile -fabrics have developed rapidly, especially in the making of women’s and -children’s shoes. The satins, velvets, serges, and other fabrics that -are used in the manufacture of shoes must be firm and well woven, and -are usually supplied with a backing of firm, canvas-like fabric, to give -strength. - -As to wearing quality the old saying, “There is nothing like leather,” -still holds good; but people do not buy shoes for their wearing qualities -alone in these days. Style and intrinsic beauty are considered, and have -a cash value just as in any other article of apparel. - -Each fabric is made of two sets of threadlike yarn woven at right angles -to each other. They are called the warp and filling (weft). The warp is -composed of yarn running the longest way of the fabric, and filling runs -the short way of the fabric. Since the warp is the body of the cloth, it -is its strongest part and all fabric in shoes should be placed warpwise -across the foot of the wearer, so as to be able to resist the great -strain. - -Various attempts have been made for legislation to prohibit the treating -of leather by chemicals or the use of substances to increase its weight. -Complaints have been made by a number of shoe manufacturers that the -excessive use of glucose (a form of sugar) in sole leather has resulted -in injuring the leather and fabrics composing the uppers of shoes. - -Representatives of large leather firms claim that the methods of tanning -sole leather have radically changed during the last few years, and that -the small quantity of glucose and epsom salts that is used to-day in -finishing sole leather is absolutely necessary to its value, and is in -no sense an adulterant or weighting material. Shoe manufacturers, on the -other hand, claim that in some cases larger amounts of glucose, salt, -etc., have been added to the soft leather from the belly of the animal, -in order to give it the desired stiffness. On account of the high price -of leather, various attempts have been made to find a substitute for -it. Most of these substitutes consist of strong cloth treated with some -drying oil like linseed, the oil having previously been mixed with other -solid substances. - -A prize of five thousand francs has been awarded to a Belgian inventor, -Louis Gevaert, for his unusually superior artificial leather. The process -consists in the more or less intimate impregnation of stout cloth with -tannic albuminoid substances. Shoes made of this are said to possess not -only the resistance and elasticity of natural leather, but its durability -of wear. Moreover, they are much cheaper, costing, including manufacture, -only four francs (about eighty cents) and being sold at about six francs -per pair. - - - - -CHAPTER FOUR - -THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT - - -Very few people, even among those engaged in the shoe industry, know much -of the anatomy of the foot. Yet it is evident that they ought to know -something about it in order to furnish the foot with a proper covering. - -The first thing that strikes a person on looking at the human foot is its -large proportion of bone. On pressing its top surface and that of its -inner side, the amount of flesh will be found to be very small, indeed. -The same is true of the inner and outer ankle. The extreme back of the -ankle has scarcely any flesh covering. The most fleshy portions of the -foot are its outer side, the base of the heel and the ball of the big -toe. - -The reason for this disposition of flesh is to protect or cover those -parts of the foot that support the body by coming in contact with the -ground. They act as pads and lessen the concussion. The abundance of -flesh on the outer side of the foot is to protect or act as a shield -against danger. The inside of the foot is not exposed as much as the -outside. - -The foot is divided into three parts, the toes, the waist and instep, -and the heel and ankle. The largest bone of the foot is the heel bone -(called calcaneum). It is the bone that projects backward from the -principal joint and forms the main portion of the heel. When a person is -flat-footed, this bone is thrust farther backward than nature intended to -have it. The connection between it and the tarsal bones is lost. - -[Illustration: The Bones and Joints of the Human Foot.] - -[Illustration: The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle. _See page 86._] - -The top bone of the foot is the astragalus, and it forms the main joint -upon which the process of walking depends. This bone has a smooth, -circular, upper surface that connects it with the main bone of the lower -leg. It is absolutely necessary that this bone should be in perfect -harmony (relation) with the others in order to insure comfort and health. -If the arches of the foot are forced out of position, up or down or -sidewise, this joint is not permitted to do its work normally. - -Rheumatism is a frequent evil of an injured joint. Hence the necessity of -absolutely normal action, unhampered by ill-fitting shoes. - -The principal arch of the instep is called the cuneiform or tarsal bone. -Persons are troubled with defective insteps to quite an extent. Misshapen -joints at this point due to shoes that do not fit and consequently -disarrange and throw out of position the delicate, natural structure, -work great havoc with the comfort of the foot. Nine joints cluster at -this point. - -The bones of the toes are called the metatarsal bones and phalanges. -There can be no doubt that nature intended mankind to walk in his -bare feet, and in that event the phalanges of the foot would occupy a -much more important part than is now the case as a result of modern -civilization. There are nineteen bones in the foot, and the disturbance -of one or more of these will serve to upset the entire foot by throwing -out of relationship the general unit of work devolving upon the whole -number of joints and bones. Each joint has its accompaniment of muscles, -and each lack of alignment of bones and joints provokes discord and lack -of harmony in the muscular action. - -Muscles are attached to bones, and by their contraction or extension the -bones are moved. Very few movements are effected by means of a single -muscle. The muscles of the foot in nearly all cases are in combination, -and are so complex in their action that the best surgeons find it -difficult to describe them satisfactorily. - -The chief characteristics of the foot are its spring and elasticity. -While the foot has wonderful powers of resistance and adaptability, it -is the shoemaker’s duty not to strain the same, but to provide for each -action. - -The most sensitive part or the one part that is most susceptible of -injury is the big toe. This is due to the fact that the tendency of -the foot in walking is to travel toward the toe of the boot, and in a -word to press into rather than shun danger. The shoemaker provides for -this, first, by allowing sufficient length of sole to extend beyond the -termination of the toe, and second, by the fit of the upper and the -preparation of the sole. In this way, if the toe of the shoe strikes -against a hard substance, the big toe of the foot will remain untouched. - -Seventy-five per cent of the people have more or less trouble with their -feet. Some of these troubles are caused by the manufacturer putting on -the market shoes whose lines look handsome and attractive to the eye, -but are lacking in any other good features. Shoes that fit properly -should have plenty of room from the large toe joint to the end of the -toes, and also should have plenty of tread, especially at this point. - -A mere glance at our bare foot will show conclusively that pointed-toe -boots are false in the theory of design. The toes of a foot when off -duty touch each other gently. When they are called on to assist us in -walking or in supporting our body, they spread out--although not to any -great extent. This, then, being the action, no sensible maker of boots -and shoes would attempt to restrain them. Box or puff-toe shoes allow the -greatest freedom. - -The pointed-toe shoes, which join the vamp to the upper immediately over -the big toe joint, exceedingly high heels, and thick waist shoes are not -for the best interests of the foot. - -The evils of ill-fitting shoes are corns, bunions, and calluses. - -Corns are mainly due to pressure and friction. When the layers of skin -become hardened, they form a corn, which is merely a growth of dead -skin that has become hard in the center. This hardened spot acts like a -foreign body to the inflamed parts. - -A hard corn is formed more by friction than pressure. It is produced by -the constant rubbing of a tight or small shoe against the projecting -parts of some prominent bony part, as the last joints on the third, -fourth, and little toe. When this action continues, it produces -inflammation. Rest--as relieving the feet of the friction--decreases -this inflammation, leaving a layer of hardened flesh. Renewed action -reproduces the same effects, leaving behind a second layer of hardened -flesh. This continued action and reaction brings on a callus, rising -above the surface of the skin. This increases from its base. An ordinary -hard corn may be removed by scraping up the callous skin around its -border, and prying out carefully with a knife. Soft corns are chiefly -the result of pressure or friction. These corns are soft and spongy -elevations on the parts of the skin subjected to pressure. Soft corns are -mostly found on the inner side of the smaller toes. Those on the surface -of joints by mechanical action will become hard. - -The blood corn is excessively painful. It is the result of an ordinary -corn forcibly displacing the blood vessels surrounding it, and causing -them to rest upon its surface. - -The bunion is an inflammatory swelling generally to be found on the big -toe joint. The chief cause of bunions is known to be the wearing of boots -or shoes of insufficient length. The foot, meeting with resistance in -front and behind, is robbed of its natural actions, the result being -that the big toe is forced upward, and subjected to continuous friction -and pressure. The wearing of narrow-toe boots that prevent the outward -expansion of the toe is another cause. - -The comparisons of quantities are often called ratios. The ratios of the -different parts of the foot to the height are different in the infant -from that of the adult period. Between these two periods the ratios are -constantly changing. - -There are two series of shoe sizes on the market; the smallest size of -shoe for infants (size No. 1) is, or was originally, four inches long; -each added full size indicates an increase in length of one third of an -inch (sizes 1 to 5). Children’s sizes run in two series, 5 to 8, and 8 -to 11; then they branch out into youths’ and misses’; both running 11½, -12, 12½, 13, 13½ and back again to 1, 1½, 2, etc., in a series of sizes -that run up into men’s and women’s. Boys’ shoes run from 2½ to 5½; men’s -from 6 to 11 in regular runs. Larger sizes usually are made upon special -orders. Some few manufacturers go to 12. Women’s sizes run from 2½ to 9. -Some manufacturers do not go above size 8. The rate of sizes is sometimes -varied from by manufacturers of special lines of shoes. A man’s No. 8 -shoe would be nearly eleven inches long. These measurements originated in -England and are not now absolute. - -A system of French sizes is used which consists of a cipher system of -markings to indicate the sizes as well as widths so that the real size -may not be known to the customer. - -All feet are not alike in structure and shape. In infancy the foot is -broad at the toes, which press forward in the direction of their length. -The heel is small in comparison to the width of the toes, and also short -in length, due to the undeveloped bones. But during growth, the thickness -above the heel bones disappears, and the heel itself becomes thicker and -assumes the beauty of perfection at maturity. This development is due -to the growth of bones which must be well exercised and properly cared -for during this period. The various parts of the feet and legs do not -mature at the same rate--those at the upper part of the body increase at -a greater rate than the lower parts. Thighs develop first, next the upper -part of the legs, and lastly the feet. - -The adult foot, when properly formed, is straight from heel to toe on the -inner side, and is wider across the joints than one inch or so farther -back. The manner of walking has a considerable bearing on the character -and development of the foot. - -There are many sorts of feet, which are due to a number of causes, such -as habits, climate, occupation, locality, etc. As a general rule we may -divide the feet into four classes: Bony feet--those with very little -flesh upon them; hard feet--those that have plenty of flesh, but which -are almost as hard as a stone; fat feet--plump, with plenty of flesh, but -having little shape; spongy feet--those that seem to have no bones in -them, usually found in the female sex. - -The characteristics of a foot are common with the body to which it is -connected. Some people have a strong, bony frame, with strong, firm -muscles, prominent bones and muscles, and a flesh that is hard. The -feet of this type of person are usually long, bony, and arched, with -a well-developed big toe joint. The heel measurements are large in -proportion. A soft foot is prevalent among the Scotch. The feet of a -person who is delicately shaped, with a small frame and thin, small, -tapering muscles, are usually thin and finely formed, giving evidence of -quickness. This kind of a foot in a man has a tendency to develop a flat -foot. - -A person with a form inclined to plumpness, full of exercise and -activity, and a good circulation, has a well-developed foot. The heel -is round and fairly prominent, although there are no special bony -prominences. On the other hand a person with a body of general roundness, -but with tissues and muscles flabby, and a languid blood circulation, has -feet that are short, soft, and flabby. - -We will allow that these four different kinds of feet all measure a 4 -size and D in width. One would naturally think that the same size shoe -would fit them all, but this is not so. This size shoe will only fit one -and that is the bony foot. The hard feet require a C½ width; the fat feet -require a C width, and the sponge feet require a B width. - -The same last may, and often will possess a slight variation in some -manner or other. The fitter of feet must know the stock, each pair, and -be on intimate terms with the peculiarities of each last and the inside -lines of each pair of shoes before attempting to try them upon the feet -of the customer. - -Different makes of footwear are apt to be manufactured over a slightly -varying system of measurements. One line of shoes made over a small -measure may be longer or shorter or narrower or wider than some other -line. The heel measurements require careful study for each line -introduced. The peculiarities of each line must be tested by tape and -measure, and the foot fitter must have a strong knowledge along these -lines. - -We should measure the foot by the stick if necessary, and make a note -of the size and width that will be likely to prove a fit. The height of -the arch must be considered, and the shape of arch curve, the shape of -the instep, and the general contour of the foot. A normal foot will show -about a half-inch arch. The average foot will carry from an inch to an -inch and a quarter heel, without putting a strain on any of the joints of -the foot. Some feet vary from this by a wide margin. A foot is a trifle -longer in walking than in repose. Allowance should be made, in using the -measuring stick, over what the foot actually draws on the stick. In men’s -shoes the allowance, should be from two to two and one half sizes. - -When a one-legged man buys a shoe, the dealer sends to the factory a shoe -to match the one left remaining. In these days of the use of machinery -in every process of their manufacture, shoes are made with the utmost -exactness and precision, and it is easily possible to mate that remaining -shoe with the greatest nicety in size, style, material, and finish. - -Few people have feet exactly alike; commonly the left foot is larger than -the right, so that one shoe may fit a little more snugly than the other. -Commonly, however, people buy shoes in regularly matched pairs, the -difference in their feet, if it is noticeable to them at all, not being -enough to make any other course desirable. - -But there are people who buy shoes of different sizes or widths, in -which case the dealer breaks two pairs for them, giving them, to fit -their feet, one shoe from each. In such cases the dealer matches up the -two remaining shoes, one from each of two pairs just as he would where he -had broken one pair to sell one shoe to a one-legged man. - -But a man does not have to be one-legged nor to have feet of uneven -sizes or shapes to make him ask the dealer to break a pair of shoes for -him. A man with two perfectly good feet came into the store where he was -accustomed to buy and wanted one shoe. While traveling in a sleeping car, -his shoes had been mixed up with others and he had received back one of -his own and one of some other man’s; a fact which he had not discovered -until he was too far away from train and station to set things right. So -he came in to buy one shoe to match his own. - - - - -CHAPTER FIVE - -HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE - - -If you examine the shoes worn by people in a large city, you will notice -different styles. Shoe styles that were called grotesque a few seasons -ago are comparatively usual to-day, for the new designs in women’s -footwear, which manufacturers are now making, are the most varied that -ever have been put on the market. Pink and green and blue are among the -new colors in materials for footwear. - -Some of the styles for the coming seasons are more lavish than have -hitherto been seen in the women’s shoe trade of America. Coronation -purple velvet boots look like an extravagant color for footwear, but they -are now selling. Samples of pink, green, and blue shoes, both boots and -pumps, are being made up, and they will soon be offered to buyers. - -The style of the shoe is dominated by fashion. All styles are related, -that is, every part of our dress is influenced by the prevailing fashion, -ideas of color, fabric, or garment outline. To illustrate: when short -skirts are stylish, women wear mannish shoes to harmonize with them; on -the other hand, with long skirts they must have a shoe that is neat and -small, hence, the short vamp. When women wear white in the summer, cool -canvas shoes spring into favor; when gray and blue dress materials are to -be used, a variety of tan shoes are worn to harmonize, etc. - -After the style has been decided upon, it is necessary to work out an -exact reproduction. An expert model maker, called a last maker, produces -a last, a wooden model of the shoe. In order to do this, it is necessary -to lay out certain plans or specifications for the details of the -manufacturer of the shoe. - -There are certain parts of all feet that have fixed measurements. To -illustrate: the length of the shank, that part of the sole of the foot -between the heel and ball, in every person’s foot is always the same. The -part of the foot back of the ball or large toe joint conforms to certain -fixed measurements. These definite measurements form a basis by which the -last maker originates new styles by shortening, lengthening, widening, or -narrowing the space in front of the toes, but always retaining the true -and fixed measurements of the back part of the last. - -When the last maker desires to produce a new style, he takes an old last -and tacking pieces of leather on some parts of it (front of the toes), he -builds it up and cuts off other parts. This patched-up last is taken to a -special machine (lathe), where a number of duplicates are turned from a -block of wood. - -The “pattern maker” is the man in the factory who makes patterns, -consisting of heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass, in the shapes -of the various pieces of leather required to make up the upper part of -the shoe. - -The pattern maker has found by experience that the top part of the shoe -also conforms to certain fixed measurements, and by working in sympathy -with the last maker he need only to change the front part of the vamp to -bring out the latter’s ideas. With these measurements as a foundation, he -puts forth from time to time different style uppers, as buttons, lace, -blucher, fixings, scrolls, straps, ties, pumps, etc. This is the way new -style tops originate. - -After the manufacturer has approved of sample patterns, the pattern -maker receives an order for a certain quantity of patterns to be made -over a certain last which is submitted to him. Working on the fixed top -measurements and the last submitted as a basis, the pattern maker draws -plans for a model pattern. The standard size of a model pattern is size -7 in men’s shoes and size 4 in women’s. He is also given an order for a -certain number of widths; for instance, B, C, D, and E, and he draws out -on paper a complete set for each width in the size 7. These four sets of -model patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet iron by hand. But from -these sheets any number of iron models, and any size regular cardboard -pattern can be reproduced by a machine. - -Wood to be made into lasts comes to the shoe manufacturers in a rough, -unchiseled form. The lasts are made of maple wood; hollow forms used by -traveling salesmen and window trimmers are made of bass wood. - -The making of the model of the last is the most exacting operation in the -factory. It is produced by a machine most important. The principle of -this machine has been brought about by the pantograph; that is, it will -turn from a rough block of wood an exact copy of the model last; or it -will enlarge or reduce a duplicate of any other size or width, so, from a -single model last, such as the manufacturer has decided on, any number of -lasts can be made, and of any size or width. The machine itself consists -of two lathes. On one is placed the model and on the other the block of -wood. The model is held against a wheel by a spring. By adjusting this -wheel, any desired width last can be obtained, and by adjusting a bar in -front of the machine any length last can be produced from the block of -wood. - -[Illustration: Rough Unchiseled Block of Maple. - -A Last after leaving Turning Lathe. - -A Finished Last.] - -The lathe, when in motion, revolves both the last and the model, the -model being pressed against the wheel, which is really a guide for the -revolving knife that digs into the block of wood, and regulates the depth -that the knife is allowed to cut. In this manner the model is reproduced -from the block which is also regulated as to size and width by the wheel -and by the bar. This machine is so accurate that a tack driven into the -model to locate the center of the last is reproduced by a sort of a -wooden pimple in the block of wood when finished. The model sole pattern -is now tried on the half-finished last to insure accuracy. - -Notice in the figures of lasts that the turning lathe has left stubs of -wood on the toes and heels. These must be finished to a “templet.” The -templet is a measure or guide used to indicate the shape any piece of -work is to assume when finished. From the heel and toe of the model, a -piece of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that model, and is used on -the heeler machine as a guide to form an exact copy of the heels and -toes of the model. This machine works very rapidly, and by the aid of -an irregular shaped, revolving knife it quickly transforms the toes and -heels to the desired shape. The bottoms are again tried out on a sole -pattern and the last number, the size and the width are stamped on. - -We now have the last as a solid piece of maple wood and turned to the -desired shape, size and width. Were it possible to insert and extract -the last in this form from the half-finished shoe, no other steps -would be necessary in last manufacture, but inasmuch as the leather is -stretched very tightly over this last a little later, it necessitates the -introduction of some method that will facilitate a quick removal of the -last from the shoe. This is accomplished by cutting it in two parts and -making a hinged heel. The fact that the slightest measurement changes -the size of the shoe, necessitates great care in the introduction of -the hinge as a part of the last, and in order to insure accuracy and -uniformity in all the lasts, they are marked with templets and gigs. The -hinge must be placed inside of the last. - -The finished last is so constructed that it can be readily inserted or -withdrawn from the shoe, and the strong hinge provides the last, when -inserted, with the same rigid qualities as though it were one piece. The -center of the last is indicated, as before stated, by a reproduction in -the side of the last of the tack that was placed in the model. This is -the mark that locates the position of all the holes, and it is done by a -“gig” in the following manner:-- - -A gig is a piece of steel having cylinders that guide the bit of the -boring machine in an exact perpendicular line. This gig, being placed -on the last in the position marked by the turning machine, forms the -accurate location of the bolt holes that hold the hinge. - -After the hinge is placed in the last, it goes to the ironers to have -the bottom put on it, if it is a McKay last, and a heel plate if it is a -welt. The bottom is again tried and the plate filled up to the same. The -last is then ready to go to the scouring room. In this room the last goes -through three operations, first of which is ruffing. This consists of -scouring with a coarse grade of quartz. This operation must be carried on -so that the sole lines and insteps are not brought into contact with the -quartz. - -The second operation, medium grinding, is done with a fine grade of -quartz, and in this operation, also, the worker keeps away from the toe. -The third operation is done with a much finer-grade quartz, the operator -going over the entire last. The last is now ready for polishing, and -after that, for a heavy coat of shellac. It is polished and waxed on a -leather wheel. Then it goes into the shipping room ready for shipment to -the manufacturer. - - - - -CHAPTER SIX - -DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY--GOODYEAR WELT SHOES - - -The principal methods of manufacturing shoes are the following:-- - -Goodyear welt; McKay; turned; standard screw; pegged; nailed. - -The simplest and the clearest way of showing how the various kinds of -shoes are made is to explain the manufacture of a Goodyear welt and -afterwards bring out the points in which this method of shoemaking -differs from the others. - -Shoes are manufactured in up-to-date factories, employing hundreds of -operatives. The modern shoe factory of to-day is divided into six general -departments: the sole leather department, upper leather department, -stitching department, making department, finishing department, and the -treeing, packing, and shipping departments. - -In some sections of the country, several of these departments are often -designated by other names. The stitching department is often called the -fitting department; the making department, the bottoming department; -and the sole leather department, the stock-fitting department. The -departments are popularly termed rooms for brevity. - -A shoe factory is designed so as to have a width of about fifty feet -for each room, while the length is according to the number of shoes to -be produced. A width of about fifty feet gives plenty of daylight and -ample room in the center of each department, which is very essential in -shoemaking. - -[Illustration: A Modern Shoe Factory.] - -Shoe factories are usually about two hundred feet long, while many are -nearly four hundred feet. A few exceed four hundred feet, running as long -as eight hundred feet. Some are built in the shape of hollow squares, -while others have wings added, which give almost as much floor space as -the original building. - -The average factory has usually four floors. The first floor, or -basement, is occupied by the sole leather department. The next floor -above includes the treeing, finishing, packing, and shipping departments, -and also the office. The third floor is devoted entirely to the making or -bottoming department. The top floor is divided so that the cutting and -stitching departments have each half a floor. - -There are several exceedingly large factories in this country that find -it advantageous to divide the factory into more departments, as, for -example, the cutting room is divided so that the linings and trimmings -are cut in a separate department. The skiving may also be done in a -separate room. The making room will be divided so that the lasting is set -off as a separate department on account of the many workmen and machines -employed. In the same way there will be a division of work so that the -packing and shipping will be set apart from the treeing. Then, again, in -the sole leather room, the making of heels as well as the fitting of the -bottom stock may become independent departments. - -The system of making women’s shoes is practically the same as that of -men’s except that in a great many factories the method of preparing the -bottom stock is somewhat different. Most manufacturers of women’s shoes -do not cut sole leather, but buy outsoles, insoles, counters, and heels, -all cut or prepared. These soles are in blocked form and large enough so -that they can be cut or rounded by the manufacturers to fit their lasts. -The counters, when bought, are all ready to put in the uppers, while the -heels are ready to put on the shoes. Whenever a manufacturer of women’s -shoes cuts his sole leather, he has the same system as that in the men’s -factories. - -In women’s factories where sole leather is not cut, they do not have a -complete sole leather department. Instead, they have what is called a -stock-fitting department. There are independent cut sole houses, etc., in -the trade, which supply the soles to manufacturers. The same system of -buying supplies also applies to many other parts of the shoe, as in the -top lift, half sole, welt, rand, etc. In the upper leather department, -manufacturers of both men’s and women’s shoes often buy trimmings and -other parts of the upper all prepared. - -A large proportion of the men’s shoe manufacturers are now buying heels -all built, while fully nine tenths buy counters all molded. The soles and -other parts that are needed for a shoe are put up in different qualities -and grades, and a manufacturer can buy any grade of sole he wants, so -that it is considered an advantage to buy some parts, instead of cutting -them. In a side of sole leather there are twenty-five or more different -qualities and grades of soles, and very few manufacturers, especially in -the women’s trade, can use all of these. The greater variety of shoes a -manufacturer turns out, the more advantageous it is for him to cut his -own sole leather, and prepare all parts in his own factory. - -In this country the number of factories in the shoe trade appears to be -growing less and the average factory larger each year. It is estimated -that there are at present something like fifteen hundred factories in -all. These range from the smallest product up to the largest. The average -factory may be said to produce about twelve hundred pairs of shoes per -day. Many turn out five thousand pairs daily, while a few manufacturers -turn out ten thousand or more pairs. Several manufacturers and firms have -half a dozen or more factories and have a total output of between twenty -thousand and thirty thousand pairs of shoes a day. There is no such -thing as a trust or monopoly of any kind in this trade, and there never -has been up to the present time. - -In all factories and all classes of work, the “case” has always been -of such a number of pairs that it can be divided by twelve in every -instance. A case can be twelve, twenty-four, thirty-six, forty-eight, -sixty, or seventy-two pairs, and in children’s work it is often sixty and -seventy-two pairs. All cases of these numbers are regular cases, whereas -any other number would be out of the ordinary. Of course, a case of shoes -may contain any number of pairs, but the numbers given above have always -been used in regular work. - -Cases of shoes may differ, but every pair of shoes in any one case must -be made exactly alike. All shoes are made in cases, except in the matter -of custom work or single-pair orders or samples. In making men’s heavy -shoes, or working shoes, the regular case was formerly sixty pairs or -thirty-six pairs, but the tendency has been of late to have a standard -case of twenty-four pairs. In the men’s fine trade the regular case is -twenty-four pairs, while in the women’s it is thirty-six pairs. Long -boots for men have always been made in twelve-pair cases. - -Goods are sold by the samples, sent out with the traveling salesman. As -fast as he receives an order, he sends it to the main office. Here the -orders are subdivided and sent to the factories making the goods. For -example, an order for seventy-five dozen men’s shoes of a certain style -received by the main office from the traveling salesman would be sent -to the factory in the form of a typewritten order, covering the general -description and sizes written out in the proper form, for each case is -made according to the specifications on the tags that are made out in the -office. These tags specify the sole, heel, upper, kind and quality, how -stitched, the last to be used, how bottomed finished, treed, and packed. -Everything is marked plainly on the tags so that a buyer can have any -shoe made just as he wants it. - -This order would be sent from the factory office to the cutting room, -where a clerk would make out twenty-five long tickets. - -Twenty-five are made because the shoes go through the factory in lots -of twenty-four pairs, each lot being called a job and when finished -making a case of shoes. The long ticket is made in duplicate form, and is -perforated so it may be tied to a lot of shoes. Both parts of the tickets -are made out to contain the various operations with the specifications -as to detail. The lower part is sent to the stock or sole leather room, -while the top part remains with the uppers which are cut in the cutting -room. While each part of the ticket is sent by a different route through -the factory, they finally meet in the form of finished shoes. - -In addition to the long ticket already described, two other tickets are -made out, the top ticket and the trimming ticket. The top ticket is sent -to the leather bins of the factory, where the sorter knows by experience -exactly the amount of leather required to cut the order, being careful to -see that it is all of uniform quality and free from blemishes. He rolls -the leather in a bundle, attaches the ticket and sends it to the cutter. - -In the cutting room there are three classes of cutters; cutter of -trimmings, who cuts lace stays, top facings, back stays, tongues, etc.; -outside cutter, who cuts quarters, vamps, tops, tips, etc.; and the -lining cutter, who cuts cloth linings. - -[Illustration: A Nine and One-Half Foot Skin divided to best advantage -before Cutting.] - -Skins of leather are received in the shoe factory in different shapes. -Some are perfect, others have blemishes or imperfect spots. The skins -that are to be used for upper stock are carefully graded by two or three -men, as to quality of leather and weight. This is necessary in order to -be sure that a lot of shoes made for a certain dealer will be uniform. On -account of the leather coming in different shapes, some skins perfect, -others having imperfect spots, the cutter must place his patterns in such -a way that certain parts of the shoe will use up all the perfect parts, -and others, less important, will be composed of the weaker parts of the -skin. This explains why you sometimes find the inside top part of a shoe -made of flanky leather, while the vamp is made of a better grade. - -There is a pattern for each and every size shoe, and each piece of -leather is cut out separately on a block of wood. Nothing is wasted. -In order to make each cutter as efficient as possible, the cutters are -divided, so as to have a different cutter for each grade of leather. In -this way they become better judges of leather. - -The lining cutters use patterns and knives on drilling. The facing is cut -out with a knife and pattern. The side stays and the tongue are cut out -by dies. - -After the leather has been cut into the desired shape, uppers, vamps, toe -pieces, back stays, lace stays, etc., cutting at times ten pieces, and -for some styles of shoes as many as fourteen pieces, the cutters take -care to keep the parts for the same shoe together, matching and marking -them so that eventually all will meet again in the shoe. - -Machines are used now on almost every operation, and annually several new -machines make their appearance. The cutting of uppers up to four or five -years ago was performed by an operator cutting the leather by running the -knife along the side of the pattern. Now they are using a cutting machine -and dies to cut uppers in nearly all factories. This cutting machine is -called the “clicking machine,” and it is considered quite a labor saver -in a department where it was the universal opinion that machines never -could be used. - -It is impossible to give a list of all the operations performed and have -it complete. But a good general idea of the system can be given and the -name and meaning of the main operations in the several departments. -It should be kept in mind that the methods in rooms differ, and that -hardly any two factories put a shoe through in exactly the same manner. -The general system and plan is the same everywhere and the machines are -the same in all factories, but the details and minor operations are so -numerous that there is plenty of scope for them to vary. - -The function of the clicking machine is to cut the upper leather into the -desired shapes required. It consists of an iron frame, with a cutting -board on the top of it. Above this is a large beam which can be swung to -the right or left of any portion of the board. The skin to be cut, which -may be of any kind, is placed on the board and a die of the design or -shape of the leather desired is placed on it. The handle of the swinging -beam is taken by the operator and moved over the die; then by pressure -of the handle the beam is brought downward, pressing the die through the -leather. As soon as this is done, the beam automatically returns to its -full height. - -These dies are made in different designs and sizes to meet the different -sizes and designs in the upper of the shoe. One die for each design and -size. They mark the vamps for the location of the toe cap and blucher -foxings as well as the size by means of nicks in the edge of the piece -cut. The dies are about three-quarters of an inch in height and so light -that they do not mar the most delicate leather. - -[Illustration: Cutting the Leather by Means of Pattern and Knife. _Page -118._] - -[Illustration: Goodyear Stitching. - -A machine that sews around the edge of the welt and joins it to the sole -exactly at the heel. _Page 119._] - -After the outside cutter has cut the skin into pieces to make up the -shoe, these are tied up in separate bundles, that is, the twenty-four -of tips in one bundle, twenty-four pairs of vamps in another. These are -turned over to girls who stencil the sizes on the edge and match them, -that is, see that each upper is exactly like the mate. - -After the different parts have been cut by the operator of the clicking -machine or by hand, the edges of the upper leather, which shows in the -finished shoe, must be thinned down (skived) by a “skiving machine” to a -beveled edge. This is done in order that the edges of the leather that -are to show in the completed shoe may be folded to give a more finished -appearance. The machines are operated by girls; each one an expert on one -particular piece. - -The order number and size of shoe are stamped on the top lining of each -shoe. After all linings have been prepared, according to the data given -on the instruction card attached to parts of the shoe, the parts are -sent to the stitching department, where the stitchers on a multitude -of machines stitch all the different parts together very rapidly and -accurately. - -The toe caps are then given a series of ornamental perforations along -the edge. This is done by either “power tip press,” or a “perforating -machine.” The first consists of a series of dies placed in a machine by -which the leather is perforated according to the designs desired. Each -series of dies represents a different design. - -The perforating machine resembles a sewing machine, but instead of a -series of dies, the one in this machine is made of single or combination -dies which make one or more holes on each downward movement. The machine -feeds automatically and does the work very accurately. The cutting -tool is kept from becoming dull by pressing against a band of paper. -Ornamentation on other parts of the shoes, such as the edges of vamps, -etc., is made by this machine. - -Before going to the stitching room, every bundle is examined by sorters. -The sorters are divided and subdivided; that is, one man always sorts -tips, another vamps, etc. They examine each piece for imperfection, and -if any is found, the piece is thrown out and a new one put in. The last -operation is the assembling of pieces. Here each job of twenty-four pairs -is brought together and securely tied and numbered. - -This stitching department is one in which female labor is generally -employed, although in late years more men are being used to operate -machines, especially on vamping or other heavy parts. In some parts of -the country it is called the fitting room. The work of the department -consists of stitching the different parts of the upper together, so -that it is ready to put on the last. The terms used mean in most cases -stitching the part named to the rest of the upper. There are very many -operations in the department, several of which are named below, together -with their meaning. - -The bundles of pieces which have come from the cutting room are placed -on the table, where they are subdivided into three parts, the linings, -the tops, the vamps and the tips. - -The linings for the tops of the shoes are pasted together (with the back -strap and top bands), care being taken to join them at the marks made for -that purpose. After being dried, they go into the hands of the machine -operators, where they are joined together by a stitching machine, and -the edges, etc., trimmed. The sewing machines used are very similar to -an ordinary home sewing machine, with the exception that they are much -larger and stronger. - -[Illustration: Stock Fitting Room. - -Where all bottom stock is prepared after being cut. _See page 120._] - -The lining is finished. The next step is to join the lining to the piece -of leather making up the outside of the same shape, called the top. The -top receives the eyelets by a machine placed in proper position. The top -and lining can be put together by sewing them face to face. The top is -inspected and all threads clipped off. - -After the shoe uppers have been properly stitched together, the eyelets -are placed on by a “duplex eyeletting machine,” which eyelets both sides -of the shoe at one time. The top of the eyelets are solid black knobs, so -as not to wear brassy, while the bottom (which clinches inside the shoe) -called the barrel, is of nickel. This finishes the shoe upper. - -The vamp, tongues, and tip are then put together. The edges of the -vamps, quarters, tips, etc., are covered with a cement made of rubber -and naphtha, which is kept in small bowls on the benches in front of -employees. Several grades of cements are used. The cemented parts -are allowed to dry, and the edges are then turned over by “pressing -machines,” which gives a finished appearance. The shoe is put together -by stitching the vamp to the quarters. This work is done by both men and -women, and is work which demands much care. - -In stitching men’s uppers, the system varies in various factories as much -as it does on women’s. Here are some of the operations, which will give -an idea how men’s uppers go through. - -Extension or toe piece sewed to vamp. - -Leather box stitched on. - -Tip stitched to vamp. - -Vamp seamed up back. - -Top folded around edge. - -Top seamed up. - -Eyelet row stitched up and down. - -Lining seamed up. - -Side facing put on lining. - -Top facing put on lining. - -Lining and outside pasted together. - -Under trimming. - -Eyeletting. - -Hooking. - -Vamping. - -The upper is complete when it leaves the stitching room and is all ready -to be put on the last. While the upper is being prepared, the soles, -insoles, counters, and heels are made in other departments. - -When the foreman of this department has received the tags with the data -necessary for the preparation of outsoles, insoles, counters, toe boxes, -and heels, they are sent to the stock room, where these parts are kept. - -The soles are roughly cut out by means of dies, pressing down through the -leather, in “dieing out machines.” Before the soles are cut, the leather -is dipped in water and sufficiently dampened. After they are cut out, -they are made to conform to the exact shape by rounding them in a machine -called the “rounding machine.” The roughly died out piece of leather is -held between clamps, one of which is the exact pattern of the sole. The -machine works a little knife that darts around this pattern, cutting the -sole exactly to conform. The outsole is now passed to a heavy rolling -machine, where it is pressed by tons of pressure between heavy rolls. -This takes the place of the hammering which the old-time shoemaker gave -his leather to bring the fibers very closely together, so as to increase -its wear. - -Counters and toe boxes (stiffening which is placed between the heel and -toe cap and the vamp of shoe) are prepared in the same room with the -heels. After they are made, they are sent to the making or bottoming -room, where the shoe upper is awaiting them. As the counter is an -important feature in the life of a shoe, much depends upon the quality of -leather that goes into it. - -The sole is next fed to a “splitting machine,” which reduces it to an -absolutely even thickness. The insole is made of lighter leather than the -outsole, but has the same thickness and is cut out in the same way one at -a time. The sizes are stamped on them and they are sorted. - -[Illustration: Lasting. _Page 127._] - -[Illustration: Welting.] - -If you examine a Goodyear welt shoe, you will notice no stitches in -sight, the seam being fastened to an under portion of the insole. The -durability of the shoe relies, to a great extent, on the quality and -strength of the insole. - -The smooth-appearing insole of a welt shoe must be either pasted in -or fastened underneath in some manner. This fastening is accomplished -by passing the insole through a very small machine called a Goodyear -channeler, which makes two incisions at one operation. It cuts a little -slit along the edge of the insole, extending about one-half inch toward -its center. - -The upper part of insole made by the slit on the edge is turned up on -a lip turning machine so that it extends out at right angles from the -insole. In other words, the channel is opened up and laid back, forming -a ridge around the outer edge of the sole. This forms a lip or shoulder, -against which the welt is sewed. In this way the thread used in sewing -cannot be seen in the finished shoe. The cut made on the surface serves -as guide for the operator of the welt sewing machine when the shoe -reaches him. - -The inner and outer soles as well as the uppers are now brought into the -lasting or gang room. The first part of lasting is called “assembling,” -which means that many parts are brought together, such as upper, counter, -insole, box toe, and last. The counter is placed in the upper, between -lining and vamp, while the box toe is shellacked and put in the toe of -the upper (provided it has not been stitched in the stitching room). The -operator first tacks the inner sole on to a wooden last. - -There are very many different styles of lasts, and in cutting uppers a -different pattern must be used for each style. Then the upper is placed -in position on the last, and it is ready to be pulled and stretched to -the wood and take its required shape. This is accomplished by placing the -shoes on the “pulling over machine,” where the shoe uppers are correctly -placed on the last by the pincers of a machine holding the leather at -different points securely against the wood of the last. By the movements -of levers the shoe uppers are adjusted correctly. Then the pincers draw -the leather securely around the last and at the same time two tacks on -each side and at the toe are driven in part way, to hold the uppers -securely. - -It is now placed on the “hand method lasting machine,” where the leather -is drawn tightly around the last. Before this operation, it is dipped in -water to preserve its shape when formed and that it may be more easily -formed by the machine. At each pull of the pincers a small tack, driven -automatically part way in, holds the edge of the upper exactly in place, -so that every part of the upper has been stretched in all directions -equally. A special machine by means of a series of “wipers” is used to -last the toe and heel. After the leather has been brought smoothly -around the toe, it is held there by a little tape fastened on each side -of the toe, which is held securely in place by the surplus leather, -crimpled in at this point. The surplus leather crimpled in at the heel is -forced smoothly down against the insole and held there by tacks driven -by an ingenious hand tool. In all these lasting operations the tacks are -only driven in part way, so they may afterwards be withdrawn and leave -the inside perfectly smooth, except at the heel of the shoe, where they -are driven into the iron heel of the last and clinched. - -[Illustration: Rough Rounding. _See page 131._] - -[Illustration: Edge Trimming. _See page 130._] - -After these operations, the surplus leather at the toe and sides of the -shoe is removed by the “upper trimming machine,” which cuts it away by -means of a little knife and leaves it very smooth and even. A small -hammer operating in connection with the knife pounds the leather on the -same parts. A pounding machine hammers the leather and counter around -the heel so that the stiff position conforms exactly to the last. - -After the “lasted” shoe has been trimmed and pounded down to the shape -of the last, it is turned over to the tack setter, who pulls out all the -tacks except a few, called draft tacks. The insole is then wet to make it -pliable, and is turned over to a very experienced operator, called the -“inseamer,” who is to sew the welt on. - -The shoe is now ready to receive a narrow strip of prepared leather, -that is sewed after it is wet to make it pliable, along the edge of the -shoe, beginning where the heel is placed and ending at the same spot on -the opposite edge. This is called the welt, and is sewed from the inside -lip of the insole, so that the curved needle passes through the lip, the -upper, and the welt, uniting all three securely and allowing the welt to -protrude beyond the edge of the shoe. The thread is very stout linen, and -is passed through a pan of hot wax before being looped into chain stitch -that holds the shoe together. - -The nature of the stitch is a chain--two rows of threads on the outside -that loop with the single thread in the inside lip of the insole. When -the welt is finally sewed on, and the shoe put down on the bench, it -looks like an ordinary shoe resting on a wide flange of leather. This -flange is the welt, and to it the heavy outer sole is to be sewed fast. -Should a single stitch break in this operation, it is passed to a -cobbler, who repairs it by hand. - -Before the outer sole is put on, the edges of the uppers must be trimmed -along the seam that holds the welt. A slip of steel called steel shank -is laid along the insole where the hollow of the foot is, and a piece of -leather board laid over this to give the necessary stiffness and prevent -the shoe from doubling up. As the welt has left a hollow space along the -ball of the foot, it is necessary to fill this up, either with a piece -of leather, tanned felt, or other filler. Felt is not waterproof, and -leather squeaks, hence a mixture of ground cork and rubber cement is -used. This is heated and spread on the sole, and run over a hot roller -until the bottom of the shoe is perfectly smooth and even. The shoes are -placed on a rack and are ready for the outsole. - -Sole fastening is performed by a number of operations, in which a score -or more of separate machines are used. The sole layers smear a rubber -cement over this welt with a “cementing machine,” after the outsole has -been soaked in water to make it pliable, and then place it on the shoe -and tack a single nail in the heel. The “sole laying machine,” through -great pressure, cements the sole on and fits it to every curve of the -last. Then the sole is trimmed by a “rough rounding machine,” which trims -the soles to the shape of the last. This machine also channels the outer -sole at the same time, which is necessary for the next operation. The -“channel opening machine” now turns up the lips of the channel and the -sole is ready to be stitched to the welt. - -The outsole is now sewed by a waxed thread to the welt, by an “outsole -lock stitch machine,” which is similar to a welt sewing machine. The -stitch is finer and extends from the slit (channel) to the upper side of -the welt, where it shows after the shoe has been finished. - -It unites the sole and welt with a tightly drawn lock stitch of -remarkable strength. It sews through an inch of leather as easily as a -woman would sew through a piece of cloth. The stitches are made through -the welt and outer sole, the seam running in the channel of the outsole. - -[Illustration: Leveling. _See page 135._] - -[Illustration: Heeling. _See page 136._] - -The inside of the slit in which this stitch has just been made is now -coated with cement by means of a brush. The channel lip is forced back to -its original position after the cement has dried, by a rapidly revolving -wheel of a “channel laying machine.” In this way the stitches are hidden. - -Welt shoes are stitched on in three different ways: “channeled,” which, -when finished, leaves an invisible stitch on the bottom of the sole; -“regular stitched aloft,” showing the stitches on both sides; and “fudge -stitched,” in which the seam is sunk down in a groove, being almost -invisible from the welt side. - -Every stitch must be of such a nature that it is independent of the one -next to it, so that should one stitch break, the others will not work -loose. This is accomplished by running the threads through a pan of hot -wax just before entering the leather, which causes the waxed thread to -solidify, becoming, as it were, a part of the leather. - -Notice should be taken of the difference between the way the outsole -is stitched and the inner sole is stitched to the upper. In place of -three threads in the chain stitch “that holds the welt to the upper -and insole” there are but two here--an upper and a lower one. The upper -thread extends only part way down, where it loops, twists, and locks into -the lower thread. This is the reason why you can wear a welt sole clear -through without its pulling loose. - -Shoes that are stitched aloft go through the same operations as the -channel-stitched shoes, with the exception that the rounding machine -contrivance of cutting is eliminated. - -Shoes that are to be fudge stitched are sent through the same machine -as the regular stitched aloft, but an additional little knife point on -the arm of the Goodyear stitcher digs a channel in the welt so that the -stitches on that side are sunk into the leather. - -The outsole is nailed at the heel after the stitching on the “loose -nailing machine,” which drives the nails through the outsole and insole -and clinches against the steel plate of the last. The machine drives -separate nails fed from the hopper of any desired size or length, at the -rate of three hundred and fifty per minute. - -The edge of the outsole around the heel is now trimmed to conform exactly -to the shape of the heel on the “heel seat pounding machine.” - -The stitches of the regular stitched shoes are separated by a series of -indentations, giving the shoe that corrugated effect which adds so much -to the appearance of the shoe. In the fudge-stitched work the stitches -are entirely covered up by the indentations. - -Then a leveling machine, called the “automatic sole leveling machine,” -with a pressure of about two and a half tons to each of the concave -rollers, comes into play. The rolls move automatically back and forth and -from side to side, doing the work that the shoemaker used to do on his -lap with a hammer and stone, but doing it better and more quickly. It -practically levels off the bottom of the soles. - -An automatic guage regulates exactly the distance from the edge of the -last, and by the use of this machine the operator is enabled to make a -sole conform to that of all others of a similar design and size. - -Heels are formed by cementing different lifts of leather. A machine -called a “heel cutter” shapes out the lifts. The heel is then placed -under pressure, giving it exact form and greatly increasing its wear. - -[Illustration: Sole Scouring. _See page 138._] - -[Illustration: Heel Shaping. _See page 138._] - -In speaking of the ends and sides of a heel, the part that rests on the -ground is spoken of as the top, and the first piece is called the top -lift. The part that is fastened to the shoe is spoken of as the bottom, -while the side nearest the toes is called the breast. The wedge is a -flat, heel-shaped piece or lift of leather that is skived to a thin edge -at the breast. Being thicker at the back, it tips the heel forward. -Wedges are made from thin strips of waste leather, or from sheets of -leather board, and are cut out with a hollow die. The gouges are cut in -the sole leather room from scraps, and are a regular heel lift, having a -horseshoe-shaped piece of leather with an opening at the breast. - -The sole leather, insoles, counters, and heels, in the stock fitting -department are “got out” by being cut into shape by a machine die. - -The heel is now trimmed of all rough and surplus portions of leathers to -the exact size of top lift. A blower attached to the machine removes all -scraps, etc. - -The breast of the heel, which faces the forepart of the shoe, is trimmed -evenly across and with the desired slant by means of a peculiar-shaped -knife which extends over the sole at shank. The edges of the heel are -now scoured by revolving rolls with molded sandpaper to make perfectly -smooth. Blowers attached to the machine remove all dust. - -There are several types of machines for fastening the heel to the shoe, -all very rapid in operation. One of the latest is that which feeds the -nails, and which is operated by a man and boy, who together turn off a -great quantity of work. - -The nails are left protruding slightly above the heel so as to retain the -top lift, which is now placed in position by the same operator on the -same machine. It is pressed down over the heads of the nails securing it -in position. The small brass or steel nails which protect and ornament -the heel are now driven in by the “universal slugging machine.” This -machine cuts the slugs from a coil of wire and drives them in with great -rapidity. - -We have practically now a roughly formed shoe ready for the finishing -room. - -Here the heel slugs are ground down, heel and sole buffed by sandpaper -rolls on a scouring machine, wet down, stained, or blacked, as case may -be, finished on bristle brushes, placed to dry, polished by a polishing -machine, bottom stamped with the trademark, and passed to an operator -whose duty it is to see that no tacks are left inside the shoes. -Generally girls are hired to do this, as their hands are smaller and it -is very important that no tacks are left, which might cause a great deal -of trouble. If any are found, they are cut out with nippers or otherwise -removed. - -A lining is also generally put inside the shoe, covering the whole of the -insole in a McKay shoe, and the heel only in a Goodyear shoe. Shoes must -also be inspected here before they are packed, to see if they are perfect -in every way and that each shoe is a perfect mate in the pair. - -The shoes are now sent to the last department, called treeing, dressing, -and packing department. - -This department has to do with the finishing of the uppers. The bottoms -and edges are all finished when shoes get to this department, and nothing -remains but to finish the uppers and pack the shoes in single-pair -cartons and then in wooden boxes or cases. - -The different uppers are all finished by a different process, some being -ironed with a hot iron, which is done to take out the wrinkles and smooth -the uppers. Ironing was first introduced on kid shoes, but in recent -years the hot iron has been put on nearly all kinds of stock. A shoe must -be on a form or tree when ironed, the form or tree being the same shape -as the last. The whole idea in ironing is the same as that followed by -the tailor, who uses a hot iron to press and smooth out clothes. The -operations in detail are as follows:-- - -[Illustration: Ironing.] - -[Illustration: Packing.] - -Each shoe is treed, after having been drawn over a foot form similar to -that on which the shoe was lasted, and any stain or dirt which may have -been carelessly put on in former operations is cleaned off; the shoe is -sponged with a gum prepared for either black or tan goods, rubbed down -dull, and then rubbed to a polish. In many patent leather shoes the -treeing is to clean off the surface, as we said before, and then to iron -it with a hot iron, which takes out all stains, and leaves the leather -shiny and black. - -The shoes finally go to hand operators, who rag the edges and heels, -leaving them ready to be laced and put into the boxes. After lacing, the -shoes are passed to inspectors, whose duty it is to see that they are -perfect, to throw out all which are not, make a record of them, and pass -the perfect shoes to the packers, who see that the sizes are right, that -each pair is mated, and placed in paper cartons, ready to be packed in -wooden cases for shipment. The packing of cartons into wooden cases is -done by men who nail on the lid when each case is full, mark where goods -are to be sent, make a record of same and load the cases into freight -cars. - -There are other uppers that are treed, such as wax calf, for instance, -and split uppers, which are used in heavy shoes. The main idea of treeing -a shoe is to give it a smooth and finished appearance and a good “feel.” -In the regular treeing operation they use liquid preparations, often -called composition, and these are worked into the upper, filling it to -some extent. French chalk is used a great deal in some uppers, and oil or -some form of grease or gum is also used, all of which make the upper as -it was when first put on the cutting board of the shoe factory. All work -done in this room is intended to give leather its original luster, which -has been lost to a certain extent in going through the different rooms -and in being handled so much. - -There are still other uppers that may not be treed or ironed but merely -cleaned and polished to give luster. Some of these may be dressed. To -dress a shoe means to put on a liquid dressing. In some cases two coats -of dressing are put on and in other cases one coat. A shoe can have a -dull dressing or a bright dressing, according to how the buyer prefers to -have his shoes look. - - - - -CHAPTER SEVEN - -McKAY AND TURNED SHOES - - -The McKay process is used very extensively in the manufacture of cheap -shoes. Its introduction was a great improvement over the nailing and -pegging of the soles to the uppers. It allows the two to be stitched -together by means of a straight needle running through the entire -thickness of upper, sole, and insole. - -In following the McKay process through the factory, we find it very -similar to the Goodyear welt process, which has been explained, the main -difference being in the methods of fastening the sole to the uppers. - -[Illustration: Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe.] - -The lasts and patterns are obtained in the same manner as described in -the previous chapter. The order is made out in the factory office, and -the ticket is given to the sorter, who selects the required number of -skins, which he rolls in a bundle and turns over to the cutter. The -cutters form the various pieces of leather and linings, which are tied -up in bundles and sent to the stitching room. Here they pass through the -various sewing machines, finally coming out in the form of a complete -upper ready to be attached to the bottoms. - -The soles, insoles, counters, and heels for McKay shoes are all formed in -the same room, as described in the Goodyear process. - -There is a difference in making ready the outsoles and insoles. It will -be recalled that the outsole for the Goodyear welt shoe was simply a -block of leather cut to fit the shoe and was not channeled. The outsole -for the McKay shoe is run through a channeling machine, which cuts a -slit around the edge of the sole, folds the leather back, and digs a -little trench along the inside of the slit. It will also be remembered -that the insole of the Goodyear welt shoe was channeled with two slits, -one of which was turned back to form the breast for sewing on the welt -strip. The insole of a McKay shoe is not channeled in any way, but is -left plain, like the outsole of the Goodyear welt. The uppers, the soles, -insoles, counters, and heels all having been made ready, the pieces are -taken to the lasting room. - -The first process is called “assembling.” The operator takes up one of -the uppers, inserts the last, sticks in a counter between the lining and -the outside, puts in a “box” (a stout piece of canvas to give stability -to the toe) at the toe, beneath the tip, puts in the insole, and then may -pull the shoe tight on the last or give it to the operator on the pulling -over machine to have it done. The pulling over machine is now used in -nearly all factories, having displaced hand pulling the same as the -lasting machines have displaced hand lasting. The assembling, pulling, -and lasting on the machine are all parts of the regular operation of -lasting. The hand laster had to do all three parts in former times, -but now there are machines to do nearly everything, and at the present -time the operation of lasting is divided into assembling, pulling over, -and lasting on the machine. But even these machines do not do it all, -as there is surplus upper to be cut away, toes to be pounded down, and -filling to be put in the bottom, all of which are done on a McKay shoe -before the sole can be laid. There are machines to do these parts, too. - -A trimmer (this is done by hand) now takes the shoe, trims off all the -surplus leather, tacks in the shank (a little piece of steel to give -rigidity to the shank of the sole), fills all up smoothly and then passes -it to the sole layer, who puts on the outer sole and tacks it in place. - -The last is now pulled out of the shoe and it is ready for the McKay -sewing machine. - -This machine sews right through the inner and outer sole, and at the same -time catches the edges of the upper leather and the lining in between -the two and draws them all snugly and firmly together. The stitches are -made right along in the channel of the outer sole, which is deep enough -to admit the row of stitches without raising a ridge on the outside of -the sole, after the channel is closed up and leveled. The channel is -next filled with cement and passed on to the leveler, which turns down -the loosened flap of leather, presses it all out smooth, and covers the -seam up so completely that no trace of the sewing is to be seen. This -little folded-over flap of leather serves the double purpose of hiding -the stitches in the sole, and at the same time protecting them from wear -against the ground. - -[Illustration: Stitching.] - -[Illustration: Tacking.] - -The shoe is then ready to be heeled, and from here to the shipping door -the McKay generally goes through the same process as a welt. After -heeling, the McKay shoes are relasted or have followers put in to keep -them in shape while going through. The sock lining may be put in here, -too, before relasting, or it may not be put in till the shoes get to -another room. The McKay lasting last must be pulled from the shoe to have -the bottoms and heels put on and this also applies to a pegged or nailed -shoe. But in the case of a welt shoe or a turn shoe, both stay on the -original last until the bottoms and heels have been fastened on. The turn -shoe being lasted inside out, must come off the last to be turned right -side out, and it goes right on the last as soon as it can be turned. The -different methods of fastening the bottoms constitute the main difference -between Goodyear and turn shoes on the one hand, and McKay, pegged, and -nailed on the other. The bottom stock must be prepared differently in -order to fit the methods. Thus it is seen that only two departments are -affected, namely, the sole leather and the making departments. In the -cutting, stitching, finishing, treeing, and packing, all operations are -practically the same on every shoe, no matter how it is bottomed. The -patterns, however, by which shoes are cut may be different. - -In the finishing room all of the finishing of the bottoms and heel edges -is done. The heels are sandpapered or scoured, and are then blacked and -polished under hot-iron pressure. Considerable wax is used on the edge -and is melted by the hot iron. Heel edges may also be finished on a wheel -or roll. There are several different ways, but the object of each method -is to give a hard, black, and highly polished surface to the edge. - -In finishing the bottom the top lift is scoured or buffed, and all of -the sole and the breast of the heel also. Each is a different process, -a different operator attending to each part. The object of scouring or -buffing with sandpaper is to get a smooth foundation for the finish, -which is put on next, and which may be all the same color in all parts -of the bottom or may have one color in the shank and another in the -forepart. The stains and blackings are used on bottoms, and these are -brought to a high, hard gloss by means of rolls and brushes. Hot irons -are often used on black shanks and bottoms to give added hardness and -luster to the finish. - -The turned or turn shoe is a woman’s fine shoe that is made wrong side -out, then turned right side out. The sole is fastened to the last, and -the upper is twisted over, the wrong side out. Then the two are sewed -together, the thread catching through a channel or shoulder cut in the -edge of the sole. The seam does not come through to the bottom of the -sole, nor to any part inside where it would chafe the foot. - -The preparation of the upper for a turn shoe is identical with that of -a welt or McKay, with the exception that the back is cut a little longer -and a little larger, in order to last it over the sole. The important -difference in the make-up of a turn shoe as compared with that of a McKay -or welt is that it has no insole, the upper being sewed directly to a -portion of the sole itself. - -As the cutting of the uppers and the stitching operations of a turn shoe -are the same as the Goodyear and McKay, and have been explained, we will -take up the forming of the sole, which is entirely different from either -of the other two methods. - -A turn shoe is put together wrong side out, and it is necessary, during -the course of making, to turn it by rolling the sole up like a roll of -carpet. It is evident, then, that nothing but good quality, pliable -leather can be used satisfactorily, and great care is taken to include -nothing but the best. - -The soles are cut out on the beam machines, also previously described. -They are then channeled on the side that is next to the foot. This -channeling is similar to that done on the welt insole. Two incisions are -made, the inside one being the same as in the welt insoles. The outside -one, however, is different, as the flange is cut off square instead of -being rolled up. This leaves a channel which begins at the edge and -surface of the sole and extends in semicircular form to the abrupt wall -of the cut in the sole, which forms the breast against which the upper is -to be sewed. - -After the soles are channeled, they are soaked until they become soft -enough to roll up easily. They are then placed on racks and kept in a -damp room until needed. - -A turn shoe is hand lasted wrong side out. First the uppers are turned -with the lining outside, then the last is inserted and also the toe -boxing. - -The sole is set straight on the last and is tacked firmly to it. The -operator, by aid of hand pullers, draws the upper over the sole and tacks -it securely from a point where the breast of the heel will rest to where -the large toe will extend, and then along the same distance on the other -side. The toe part is next lasted by machinery, a wire being fastened at -one side and run around the edge holding the pulled-up parts of the upper -which has been stretched tightly over the last. - -The shoe is next passed over to the Goodyear inseamer operator, who -sews the upper to the sole, the needle passing down through the inside -channel, through the sole leather, out through the square-cut channel -and then through the upper, uniting the upper to the sole with the chain -stitch. In fact, the bottom of a turn shoe at this time looks exactly -like the bottom of a welt, with the exception that the turn shoe is still -turned wrong side out. The nature of the stitch is the same--a waxed, -threaded chain, with two rows of thread on the outside that loop with -the single thread in the inside lip of the insole. The shoe is sewed only -from the back of the shank to the toe, the heel part still being loose. - -The seam is now trimmed with an inseam trimmer, a machine with a -revolving, jagged-edged knife that saws off the surplus portions of the -upper, leaving it smooth and even with the sole. The tacks are all pulled -out with a sort of a nail puller, which works rapidly and automatically. - -The lasts are then taken out and the shoe is turned right side out. -This turning process is not a difficult one, but it is perhaps the most -interesting operation that the layman will see in the entire factory. The -operation is accomplished by means of a rigid iron bar set slantwise in a -table. The upper is turned right side out by hand and the sole is rolled -right side out by means of pressure on this bar. - -After this turning process, which twists and rolls the shoe out of -shape, it has no semblance of its final form. The back part of the sole -and upper are still loose, the upper being fastened from the shank to the -toe. - -The turn shoe must be “second” lasted, and the inserting of the last is -no easy matter. A contrivance called a push jack assists the operator -greatly. He uses a flat, narrow rod to smooth out the lining, and after -squeezing, pushing, and smoothing, the last is finally made to fit in the -shoe. The counter is placed in at this time, the shank piece is set in -place, and the shoe and last are placed on a jack for nailing. The back -part upper is now stretched tightly over the heel part of the last by -means of lasting pullers, and is tacked down, the nails going through the -shank piece and clinching against the anvil heel seat of the last. This -operation completes the lasting, the shoe now having a form exactly like -the last over which it is made. - -Workmen now level the bottoms and form the shank by a hand method, -preparatory to the machine leveling process. The shoe is still wet and -is left to dry on the last twenty-four hours. Then it is run through the -machine called the “leveler,” which, with its enormous pressure, forms -the sole to that of the last. The shoes are now left four days on the -lasts, to dry thoroughly, so that they may retain their shape permanently. - -The putting on of the heel, and the various finishing processes are -practically the same as that of the welt, with the exception that a turn -sole must have a sock lining. - -Some factories use a grain leather sock lining, which is pasted in, -covering up the channels of the sole which hold the stitches and forming -a smooth surface for the foot to rest upon. - -The difference between a McKay and a turn shoe may be told by the fact -that the stitching on the inside of the sole is much closer to the edge -in a turn. Another thing, in a turn shoe, the seam connecting the upper -and the outsole can be seen. - -Nothing is likely to excel the turn shoe for lightness and flexibility, -since the method of making, whereby the sole is stitched directly to the -upper, interposes no thick or cumbersome material. Sole leather of good -quality is used. In fact, the sole would have to be not only strong, -but thin and light, or the shoe could not be turned in the process of -manufacture without straining it and getting it out of shape. - - -HISTORY OF THE TURN SHOE - -History states that prior to 1845, which marked the date of the -introduction of shoe machinery, most of the shoes were sewed by hand, -the lighter ones turned and the heavier ones welted. In fact, the early -factories that began to spring up in New England about the beginning of -the century, were merely cutting rooms and places for storing the lasts -and stock. - -Here the uppers, soles, and linings were cut by hand and then given out -to people in the vicinity, mostly farmers and fishermen, to be stitched -together and paid for at so much a dozen. Such was the beginning of -the shoe industry in New England. Hundreds of families added to their -resources in this way, the women doing the lighter work and the men the -heavier. - -In fishing communities, where men were away most of the time in their -boats, their wives and daughters, who stayed at home, undertook the -lighter grades of shoemaking--the turn process. This was the case in -the “North Shore” towns like Lynn, Haverhill, and Marblehead, and these -to-day, keeping to the old traditions, are the great centers for the -finer turn-grades of shoemaking, whereas the “South Shore” towns, like -Brockton, Whitman, Abington, Rockland, and the Weymouths, with the men -at home all the year, came to make a specialty of shoes for men, and -absorbed the heavier part of the growing industry. - -With the introduction of the Goodyear turn machine, however, the handwork -was gradually done away with, although more handwork is done in the turn -process than in either the McKay or welt process. - - -STANDARD SCREW SHOEMAKING - -Many good qualities of heavy shoes are made by the standard screw method, -which differs from the McKay method by having the outsole and insole -fastened together with a double-threaded wire, which is screwed through -and cut off by the machine the instant it reaches the inside of the shoe. - -[Illustration: Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe.] - -A pegged shoe is made in much the same way as the standard screw, except -that wooden pegs are used instead of wire to fasten the sole together. - -The nailed method of shoemaking consists in nailing the soles together -around the edge. It is used principally for heavy, cheap shoes. - - - - -CHAPTER EIGHT - -OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING - - -The old-fashioned shoemaker formerly made shoes by hand as follows:--A -last, which is a wooden model of a foot, was used, and pieces of leather -were pasted here and there on it so as to build up a model conforming to -the measurements of the foot. Then paper patterns of the upper leather -were made from the last, and from these the upper leathers were cut out -of tanned calfskins and sewed together. - -The leather for the soles was cut out of tanned ox or steer hide, the -pieces being the insole, the outsole, and the lifts of the heel. The -inner soles were made of softer leather. Sometimes split sole leathers -were used for uppers. The shoemaker then softened the leather by steeping -it in water, until it was pliable and at the same time firm, and would -cut like cheese. - -The insoles were attached to the bottom of a pair of wooden lasts, and -the wet leather fastened on with lasting tacks so as to mold it to the -last. When it was dry, the shoemaker with pincers drew the leather out -until it had taken the exact form of the bottom of the last. Then he -rounded the soles by paring down the edges close to the last, and formed -around these edges a small channel or feather cut or slit about an eighth -of an inch in the leather. - -Next he pierced the insoles all around with a bent awl, which “bit” into, -but not through, the leather, and came out at the channel or feather -edge. The boots were then lasted by placing the uppers on the lasts, -drawing the edges by means of pincers tightly round the edge of the -insoles. Then they were fastened in portions with lasting tacks. Lasting -was considered a very important operation, for unless the upper was -drawn smoothly and equally over the last, leaving neither a crease nor -wrinkle, the form would be a failure. A band of flexible leather about -an inch wide, with one edge pared, was then placed in position around -the sides of the shoes, up to the heel or seat, and the maker proceeded -to “inseam,” by passing his awl through the holes, already made in the -insole, catching with it the edge of the upper and the thin edge of the -welt, and sewing all three together in one flat seam, with a waxed thread. - -The threads which shoemakers use are called “ends,” and are made of two -or more strands of small flaxen threads. The shoemaker makes his own -waxed thread as follows:-- - -He holds the main part of the thread from the spool, in his left hand, -holding it firmly--where he wants to break it--between the first finger -and thumb, so that it will not turn beyond that point. Then with -the left hand, he lays the end of the flax on the knee and rolls it -from him. This will cause the small fibers that compose the thread to -separate--thus enabling him to break it easily. When the fibers separate, -he gives the thread a light, quick turn, which causes it to break. As the -thread breaks he pulls it apart gradually, so that the fibers will taper. -Then he places the threads together, one just behind the other, so that -the end will have a very fine point. He rolls the end and allows it to -turn between the fingers of the left hand. After it has been rolled and -twisted, it is waxed by drawing the thread through a piece of wax. - -The fine ends are waxed to a point. A bristle is fastened on in the -following manner: the head of the bristle is held in the left hand, and -the portion to which the thread is to be fastened is waxed; then the -thread and bristle are twisted together. A hole is made in the thread and -the bristle pulled through and fastened. After the threads are fastened, -the heads of the bristle are cut off, and the ends sandpapered. - -The wax thread or “end,” as it is called, should never be made longer -than is necessary to sew a shoe. Experience shows that if a portion of an -end left after sewing one shoe is used on the second shoe, it is never as -strong as a new end. The thread grows weaker and weaker as it is used. -When the thread is well waxed, it is cemented to the shoe. - -After the shoe is sewed, the shoemaker pares off inequalities and levels -the bottoms, by filling up the depressed part in the center with pieces -of tarred felt. The shoes are now ready for the outsoles. The fibers -of the leather to be used for the soles are thoroughly condensed by -hammering on the lapstone. Then they are fastened through the insole with -steel tacks, their sides are pared, and a narrow channel is cut round -their edges. Through this channel they are stitched to the welt, about -twelve stitches of strong, waxed thread being made to the inch. The soles -are next hammered into shape; the heel lifts are put on and attached with -wooden pegs. Then they are sewed through the stitches of the insoles; and -the top pieces, similar to the outsoles, are put on and nailed down to -the lifts. - -The finishing operations of the shoe include smoothing the edges of the -heel, paring, rasping, scraping, smoothing, blacking, and burnishing the -edges of the soles, withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning out any pegs -which may have pierced through the inner sole. There are numerous minor -operations connected with forwarding and finishing in various materials, -such as punching holes, inserting eyelets, etc. - - -HOW SHOES ARE REPAIRED - -Before one can understand how shoes are repaired, it is necessary to know -the difference between the inside and outside of a shoe. - -The last is divided into four parts, viz. toe, ball, shank, and heel. - -Diagram No. 1 shows these parts and their shapes. - -Diagram No. 2 shows the length of the inside of the divisions as compared -with those of the outside. Notice the long shank and short ball. - -Diagram No. 3 shows the outside of the divisions and the effect they have -upon the shape of the shoe. See short shank and long ball. - -Always remember that the ball of a shoe is longer on the outside, having -a short shank. The ball is shorter on the inside, having a long shank. -Compare outside and inside diagrams Nos. 2 and 3. - -[Illustration: How a Side of Leather is shaped and divided as to Quality. -_See page 5._ - -_Dia. 1._ _Dia. 2._ _Dia. 3._] - - -SHOE REPAIRING - -The first operation in half soling a shoe is to cut off the old portion -from “a” to “c” as shown on diagram No. 1. The shoe is placed in -different positions and corrected in every way before putting on the new -sole. It is generally better to wet the shoe in order to put it in shape. - -The leather is skived thin and accurate enough to make a neat, -comfortable joint, and yet thick enough for the nails to hold. - -Then the filling is added before placing on the sole. The sole is trimmed -and a guide line drawn around the edge, so that the nails may be properly -arranged. - -Finishing the sole is an important part. If everything else is properly -done, this part becomes comparatively easy. See that all nails are -clinched. With a level bottom, smooth joints and edges, the shoe can be -made to look like a new shoe and yet feel like an old one. - -On account of the heel being more directly under the body and the first -part to strike the ground, it generally wears out first. For this reason -in repairing a heel great care must be taken to see that good leather -and solid work are put into it. Pull off the worn top piece and see that -what is left is hammered down solidly. Next split a piece of solid, -easy-cutting, scrap sole leather, so that two pieces can be made out of -one. Put them on the shoe and fasten them on well, piece by piece, with -tacks. See that the heel is level before putting on the top piece. (If -necessary, a small piece may be put under the top piece.) After it is -level, put on top piece, trim in shape, then draw guide line and nail -down. The nails are placed thicker on the side that is worn down most, to -protect the heel. The heel is next rasped, and smoothed with a buffer and -sandpaper. When finished, it should set level. - - -MODERN METHOD OF REPAIRING SHOES - -As the shoemaking industry has become more and more perfect, there has -been an increasing interest taken in shoe repairing. A medium-priced -shoe as it is made to-day may often be in good enough condition to be -heeled and soled a couple of times. Hence, although in the past many shoe -stores and departments have had their shoe repairing done by outside -shops, the tendency to-day is for every shoe store to have its own repair -department. This method has resulted largely from the development of -machinery for shoe repairing, which is revolutionizing the business to -such an extent that in a few years repairing by hand will be among the -lost arts. With the new inventions for restoring upper leather, and the -improvement of machinery for shoe repairing, repair departments will very -soon be but little short of miniature factories. - -The machinery ordinarily used consists of the Goodyear stitcher, used -for attaching soles to Goodyear welts by the lock-stitch method, just -as in shoe factories making Goodyear welt shoes. Then there is a heel -trimmer, a bottom finisher, consisting of a rapidly revolving roll -covered with coarse and fine sandpaper, and an opera heel builder for -forming concave heels. There are two wheels used for tan and white -heel work, one heel being covered with a white cloth, and the other -with a coarse brush. Adjoining these are usually the shank and heel -finisher,--capable of smoothing and highly polishing a shank or heel in -about a dozen seconds,--the bottom finisher, that grinds and smooths down -the new sole, and a machine used for rubbing off dirt before the shoe is -finished, consisting of a heavy horsehair brush. Another useful part of -the equipment is an edge setter, which is also identical with the one -used in factories. The shoe stitching machines and the parts used in -finishing are all operated on one long shaft, rapidly revolved by the aid -of a motor. It is a fact that a shoe may be actually soled and heeled in -less than six minutes. - -Five or six men are usually employed in the repair department of a large -establishment. When the customer’s shoes are brought in, one of these men -cuts off the old sole and traces an outline of the new sole on a block of -the very best oak leather. After these are cut out by hand in rough form, -they are soaked in water and channeled; that is to say, a part of the -sole is turned up in which the stitches are to be run. A second man, by -the use of the Goodyear stitcher, joins the sole and welt together with a -very strong and tightly drawn lock stitch. This is a large machine with a -curved, barbed needle and awl, and a shuttle which sews through an inch -of leather with the greatest ease and speed. There are from one hundred -and fifty to two hundred stitches in each shoe; moreover, every one of -them is locked with heavy wax thread, so that there is no chance of their -ever giving away. If one stitch should break, the other stitches would -remain intact, as they are all independent of each other. Both soles are -stitched on in a little over half a minute without breaking a thread or -stopping the machine. - -A coating of rubber cement is now placed in the edges of the outsole, and -the lip of the channel is smoothed down so that the stitches are entirely -hidden when looking at the bottom of the shoe. The edge trimming is done -next with the aid of a rapidly revolving wheel, which trims the edges -square and true in about forty seconds. After this, the shank is finished -on a rapidly revolving wheel covered with emery cloth. - -Bottom finishing is the next step. This is done on a machine having -two long cylinders, one covered with fine and the other with coarse -sandpaper. These cylinders revolve rapidly, and the operator uses the -coarse sandpaper for scouring the dirt and old finish off the leather, -and the fine sandpaper for finishing the sole as smooth as that of any -new shoe. - -The brushing in or smoothing is next done by the horsehair brush we have -mentioned before. A preparation called Lewis’s rival bottom polish--a -sort of white wax--is placed on the brush machine. The brush now smooths -the surface of the sole, filling in all small holes with wax and leaving -the sole absolutely perfect. Finally, the shoe is placed against a -rapidly revolving brush which finishes the uppers with a luster that -would make any ordinary boot-black green with envy. Another operation -that fully completes the process is the hardening of the edges with hot -steel, which ends in producing an edge that is as hard as iron. When it -is polished with a black dye, it looks exactly like a new sole. - -A few words are necessary with regard to the heel. The old heel having -been removed, several lifts of new leather in rough form are tacked -on. The shoe is then taken to the heel trimmer and is formed correctly -and then smoothed down to a brilliant surface on the finely covered -revolving wheel. In a few seconds it is stained, smoothed, and polished. -In less than six minutes the shoe is ready for the customer. - - - - -CHAPTER NINE - -LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS - - -ASSEMBLING. Includes the following operations: tacking the insole to the -last, putting in the box and counter of the shoe, and putting the upper -of the shoe on the last. - -BACKSTAY. A term used to denote a strip of leather covering and -strengthening the back seam of a shoe. English backstay means the strip -of leather that meets the quarters on each side and is sewed to them, -forming the lower part of the shoe. California backstay is a term applied -to piping caught in the back seam. - -BACK STRAP. The strap by which the shoe is pulled on the foot. - -BAL. An abbreviation of the word “Balmoral” and means either men’s, -women’s, or children’s front lace shoe of medium height, as distinguished -from one that is adjusted to the ankle by buttons, buckles, rubber -goring, etc. - -BALL. Refers to the ball of the foot--the fleshy part of the bottom of -the foot, back of the toes. - -BEADING. Means folding in the edges of the upper leather instead of -leaving them raw, or wheeling any impression around the sole to the heel. -It is called seat wheeling in many shoe factory rooms. - -BEATING OUT. The same as leveling. It is the term used in turn-shoe work. - -BELLOWS TONGUE. A broad tongue sewed to the sides of the top, seen in -waterproof and some working shoes. - -BELTING. The term applied to the usual back tanned cowhide, used in -various thicknesses for machinery belts. - -BETWEEN SUBSTANCE. That part of the sole that holds the stitch. - -BLACKBALL. A mass of grease and lampblack, formerly used by shoemakers -on edges of heels and soles; sometimes called “cobbler’s botch.” - -BLACKING THE EDGE. Blacking or dyeing edge of sole, welt, or that part of -the edge which cannot be blacked so well in the making room. - -BLOCKING. The cutting or chopping of a sole in such a form or shape that -it can be rounded. - -BLOOM. A term often applied to the grayish white deposit that gathers on -shoes in stock. It can be wiped off readily. - -BLUCHER. The name of a shoe or half boot, originated by Field Marshal -Blücher of the Prussian Army, in the time of Napoleon I. It became very -popular and has since received occasional favor, being used with high -tops as a sporting or hunting boot. Its distinguishing feature is the -extension forward of the quarters to lace across the tongue, which may be -an extension upward of the vamp. - -BOOT. A term used (especially abroad) to designate women’s high-cut -shoes. In this country it applies only to high or topped footwear, -usually made with the tops stiff and solid. It is sometimes laced, as in -hunting boots. - -BOOTEE. Leather legging extending between knee and ankle, usually of -Russian calf,--a riding boot originating with the English. - -BOTTOM FILLING. The filling that goes in the low space on the bottom in -the forepart of the shoe. It is either ground cork, tarred felt, or other -filler. - -BOTTOM SCOURING. Sandpapering the parts of the sole, except the heel. - -BOXING. A term used to designate the stiffening material placed in the -toe of a shoe to support it and retain the shape; such as leather, -composition of leather and paper, wire net, drilling (a cotton fabric) -stiffened with shellac, etc. - -BOX CALF. A well-known proprietary leather having a grain of -rectangularly crossed lines. - -BOX TOE. Used to hold up the toe of the shoe so as to retain the shape. -It is generally of sole leather, but often made of canvas or other -material and stiffened with shellac or gum. - -BREAKING THE SOLE. Molding the sole so as to fit the spring better. - -BROGAN. A heavy pegged or nailed work shoe, medium cut in height. - -BRUSHING. The final finish of the top edge, heel, and bottom, by means of -a brush. - -BUCKSKIN. A soft leather, generally yellow or grayish in color. One way -of preparing it is by treating deerskins in oil. - -BUFF. A split side leather, coarser than glove grain, but otherwise -similar. It is used for cheaper grades of shoes, principally for men. - -BUFFING. The same as bottom scouring. - -CABARETTA. A tanned sheepskin of superior finish used for shoe stock. -There are sheep with wool not far removed from hair in texture, which -produce a skin of greater tenacity and finish than the ordinary sheep. - -CACK. A sole leather bottom without a heel. An infant’s shoe is called a -cack. - -CALFSKINS. Skins of meat cattle of all kinds, weighing up to fifteen -pounds, are usually included in this term. They make a strong and pliable -leather. Calfskins were formerly finished with wax and oil on the flesh -side, but can now be made so as to be finished on the “grain,” which is -the hair side of the skin. - -CAP. A term meaning the same as tip. - -CARTON. A cardboard box intended for one pair of shoes. - -CEMENTING. This is the operation of placing cement on the outsole and the -bottom of the welt shoe so that the outsole is held to the shoe by the -cement. - -CHAMOIS. A leather made from the skins of chamois, calves, deer, goats, -sheep, and split hides of other animals. - -CHANNELING. Cutting into the sole in such a way that the thread or -stitching is away from the surface. In the outsole department it means -preparing a place for the stitch. In insoles and turn soles, channeling -is done so that soles are prepared to hold the stitching. - -CHANNEL SCREWED. A process by which the sole is fastened to the uppers. -After a channel is cut and laid over on the outside of the outsole, the -outsole and insole are fastened together, holding the upper and lining -between them by means of wire screws, which are fastened in this channel. -The skived part is then smoothed down over the heads of the screws, -entirely covering them from sight, and preventing the screws from easily -working up into the foot. - -CHANNEL STITCHED. A method of fastening soles to the uppers, either by -McKay or welt process, in which a portion of the sole’s outer side is -channeled into, and the stitches afterwards covered on the lower side by -the lip of this channel. - -CHANNEL TURNING. Turning a lip or flap of sole leather (called channel), -so that the stitching can be done in the proper place; or it may mean -turning up the flap or lip of the channel, that is, the part that is to -cover the stitch. - -CHECKING. A term applied to the edges of heels or soles that have -cracked, or have been injured in process of construction. - -CLEANING INSIDE. Cleaning the lining. - -CLEANING NAILS. Scraping the blacking off the tops of the heel slugs. - -CLEANING SHOES. Removing dirt, wax, cement, etc., from them. - -CLICKING. Cutting the uppers of shoes. - -CLOSING. Putting two or more pieces together. - -CLOSING ON. Stitching the lining and outside together. - -COLONIAL. A name given to a woman’s low shoe, with vamp extended into a -flaring tongue, with a large, ornamental buckle across the instep. The -buckle and tongue are the distinctive features of the shoe, whether the -shoe fastens with a lace or strap. - -COLTSKIN. Coltskin has been brought into general use in shoemaking -within the past few years. The skin of a colt is thin enough to use like -calfskin in its entirety, with such shaving as is given all hides in -tanning. Coltskin makes a firm basis needed for patent leather, and has -been much used in recent years for this purpose. Russia is the chief -source of supply. - -COMBINATION LAST. One with a different width instep from the ball. It may -be one or two widths’ difference, such as the D ball with a B instep. -Combination lasts are generally used in fitting low insteps. - -COMPOSITION. A term used to denote the small scraps that accumulate -about tanneries and factories, which are ground up and mixed with a -paste or a kind of cement, and flattened into sheets which are used as -insoles, and in other parts, in various grades of shoes, where wear is -not excessive. - -CONGRESS GAITER. A shoe designed especially for comfort, with rubber -goring in the sides which adjusts it to the ankle, instead of laces, and -sometimes made with lace front to imitate a regular shoe. - -CORDOVAN. Originally a Spanish leather made from horsehide. The Spaniards -were, for a great many centuries, the best leather makers. The term -is applied to a grain leather from the best and strongest part of a -horsehide. - -COUNTER. The stiffening in the back part of a shoe, often called -stiffening, to support the outer leather and prevent the shoe from -“running over” at the heel. It is made either of sole leather, shaved -thin on the edge and shaped by machinery, as in the best shoes, or -composition or paper, in cheap shoes. Metal is occasionally used on the -outside of the shoes in heavy goods for miners and furnacemen. - -COUPON TAG. A tag from which a coupon is cut for every operation. -Operatives hold part of the coupon and the holders of the coupons are -paid for the part named. - -COWHIDE. Refers to hides of cattle, heavier than kips, which run up to -twenty-five pounds each. - -CREASING VAMP. Making hollow grooves across the front of the vamp to add -to its looks. - -CREEDMORE. A man’s heavy lace shoe, with gusset, blucher cut. - -CREOLE. A heavy congress work shoe. This shoe, the creedmore, and brogans -are usually made of oil grains, kip, or split leather, sometimes pegged, -sometimes “stitched down.” - -CRIMPING. Shaping any part of the upper so that it will conform to the -last better. - -CUSHION SOLE. An elastic inner sole. - -CUT-OFF VAMP. One cut off at tip for economy when tip is to be covered by -a cap. - -DIEING. Cutting soles to fit the last, outsoles, insoles, heel lifts, -counters, or half soles, with a machine and a die. - -DOM PEDRO. A heavy, one-buckle shoe, with gusset or bellows tongue. -Originally it was a patent name for certain shoes made of fine material, -but is now applied to cheap grades. - -DONGOLA. A heavy, plump goatskin, tanned with a semibright finish. - -DRESSING. A process for giving the upper its original finish by means of -liquid put on with sponge. - -EDGE SETTING. The finishing edge of the sole,--polishing it. - -EDGE TRIMMING. Trimming the edge of a sole smoothly to conform to last. - -ENAMEL. Leather that is given a shiny finish on the grain side. The -process is similar to that of patent leather, only that patent leather is -finished on the flesh side, or the surface of the split. - -EYELET. A small ring of metal, etc., placed in the holes for lacing; the -eyelet holes are sometimes worked with thread like a buttonhole. - -EYELETTING. Putting on eyelets. - -FACING. The bleached calf or sheepskin used around the top of the shoe, -and down the eyelet row and inside of the upper. - -FAIR STITCH. Term applied to the stitching that shows around the outer -edge of the sole, to give the McKay shoe the appearance of a welt shoe. - -FAKING. Putting a gloss on any part of the bottom of the shoe. - -FINDINGS. The small parts of a shoe, such as blacking, cement, nails, -wax, tacks, thread, etc. - -FLAP, LIP, AND SHOULDER. Terms used in connection with the channel or -with the operation of sewing. - -FOLLOWER. Any last or form put in a shoe from which the original last has -been pulled. - -FOREPART FINISHING. The staining and polishing of the forepart of the -shoe. - -FORM. A term applied to a filler last. It may be of wood, papier-mâché, -leather board, or any similar material, and is used to enhance the -appearance of sample shoes, in salesmen’s lines or in window displays. - -FOXED. Having the lower part of the quarter a separate piece of leather -or covered by an extra piece; “slipper foxed” is a term sometimes applied -to women’s full vamp shoes. - -FOXING. The name applied to that part of the upper that extends from the -sole to the laces in front, and to about the height of the counter in the -back; being the length of the upper. It may be in one or more pieces and -is often cut down to the shank in circular form. - -FRIZZING. A process to which chamois and wash leather are subjected, -after the skins are unhaired, scraped, “fleshed,” and raised. It consists -in rubbing the skins with pumice stone or a blunt knife till the -appearance of the grain is entirely removed. - -FRONT. A term used for part of a congress toe. - -GAITER. A term usually applied to a separate ankle covering or to a -congress shoe. - -GEMMING. The operation of making gem insoles. - -GEM INSOLES. An insole for welt shoes of leather. - -GLAZED KID. See Kid. - -GLOVE GRAIN. A light, soft-finished, split leather, for women’s or -children’s shoes or topping. - -GOATSKIN. See Kid. - -GOODYEAR WELT. A term used to denote the process of attaching the sole -to the upper of a shoe by means of a narrow strip of leather called a -welt. - -GORE. A rubber elastic used in a congress shoe. It is also applied to the -long, wedge-shaped piece of leather set in an upper to widen it. - -GRADING. The sorting of outsoles and half soles to get uniform weight in -edges of finished shoes. - -HALF SOLE. Half of a complete sole used in forepart of bottom under -outsole. - -HARNESS LEATHER. Similar to belting, and is made from hides heavier than -kips. - -HEEL. Made of layers of leather or wood called liftings, and attached to -rear part of shoe (heel seat). There are different varieties of heels. -The French heel is an extremely high heel with a curved outline in back -and front (breast). It is sometimes made of wood covered with leather, -with thicknesses of sole leather, or all sole leather. The Cuban heel is -a high, straight heel, without the curve of the French or “Louis XV” -heel. Military heel is a straight heel not as high as the Cuban. A spring -heel is a low heel formed by extending back the outside of the shoe to -the heel, with a slip inserted between the outsole and heel slat. Wedge -heel is somewhat similar to a spring heel, except that a wedge-shaped -lift is tacked on the outside instead of a slit. Slugging heels is the -process of affixing the made-up heel by one operation of the machine. - -HEEL FINISHING. Blacking and polishing the heel edge. - -HEEL LINING. The lining to cover heel nails inside the shoe; it is often -known by other names. - -HEEL PAD. In the manufacture of shoes, is a small piece of felt, leather, -or other substance fastened to and covering the full width of the insole -at the point upon which the heel rests. A heel cushion is sometimes -called a heel pad. - -HEEL SCOURING. Sandpapering the edge of the heel, except the front or -breast portion. - -HEEL SEAT. That part of sole on which heel is fastened. - -HEEL SEAT NAILING. Nailing the heel part of sole. - -HEEL SEAT TRIMMING. Trimming the rear or heel part of sole. - -HEEL SHAVING. Shaving the heel, shaping it. - -HEMLOCK TANNED. A process of tanning leather by hemlock bark. - -HIDES. Distinguished from skins, in the trade. Hides refer to skins of -animals which are over twenty-five pounds in weight. Skins refer to -smaller animals; as skins of goats, calves, sheep. - -INLAY. A trimming of the upper by an insertion of the same or different -kind of material than that of the body in which it is inlaid. It is used -for decorative purpose on a shoe. - -INSEAMING. Sewing sole on turn shoe. Welting and inseaming are -practically the same operation. - -INSEAM TRIMMING. Cutting off the surplus leather; term is also applied to -pulling sole tacks. - -INSOLE. The first sole laid on the last, and is the foundation of all -shoes with insoles. It is an important though invisible portion of a -shoe. This inner sole is the part to which the upper and outsole are -sewed or nailed in the McKay and welt shoes. - -INSPECTING. The examination of shoes to see that the work is perfect; it -is sometimes called crowning. - -INSPECTING INSOLE. The operation of looking inside of the shoe for tacks. - -INSTEP. The top of the arch of the foot. - -IRON. A term indicating the thickness of sole leather; each unit is -approximately one thirty-second of an inch in thickness. - -IRONING UPPERS. Taking wrinkles out of the uppers and smoothing the same -with a hot iron. - -JULIETTE. A woman’s house slipper which is cut a little above the ankle -in front and back, and cut down on the sides is called a Juliette. - -KANGAROO. The skin of the animal of that name, which makes a splendid -leather, of firm texture. It is quite expensive, hence substitutes are on -the market under the same name. - -KID. A term applied to the shoe leather made from the skins of mature -goats. - -KIP. A term applied to leather made from hides weighing between fifteen -and twenty-five pounds. - -LACE STAY. A strip of leather reënforcing the eyelet holes. - -LACE HOOK. An eyelet extended into a recurved hook, around which the lace -is looped. It is most commonly used in men’s and boys’ shoes, although -recently some have been invented for use in women’s shoes with curved -ends, to avoid catching the dress. - -LACING. The operation of putting laces in shoes. - -LAST. A wooden form over which the shoe is constructed, giving the shoe -its distinctive shape. - -LASTING. The process of making the uppers conform to the last in all -respects. The operations of assembling and pulling over are parts of -lasting. - -LAYING CHANNEL. Turning down the lip or flap to cover the stitching. - -LEVELING. Shaping the sole to the bottom of the last. - -LIFT. The name given to one thickness of sole leather used in the heel. -Top lift is the bottom lift, when the shoe is right side up, and is the -last piece put on in manufacture. - -LINING. The inside part of shoe, generally of cloth (dull) or sheepskin. - -LINING CUTTING. The operation of cutting the cloth linings. - -LINING-IN. The operation of putting lining inside of the shoe to cover -insole or part of insole. - -LOADING LEATHER. Filling the pores of the leather with glucose to -increase its weight. - -MAKING LININGS. Consists of closing up heel of lining; putting on top and -side or eyelet stay. - -MATCH MARKING. An operation performed on colored uppers, except black, to -get different parts of the upper the same shade and color, and both shoes -in the pair alike. - -MAT. A term applied to a dull finish kid as distinguished from glazed. - -MCKAY SEWED OR MCKAY. A shoe in which the outsole is attached to the -insole and upper by a method named for the inventor. - -MCKAY SEWING. Sewing through and through so that thread is seen inside -of shoe. - -MIDDLE SOLE. Any sole between outsole and insole. - -MOCK WELT. McKay-sewed shoe with a double sole and having a leather sock -lining. It is fair stitched to imitate a welt. - -MONKEY SKIN. A peculiar grained skin, and is considered in the trade as a -fancy leather. It is often imitated. - -MOROCCO. A name applied to leather originally made in Morocco. It is a -sumac-tanned goatskin, red in color, and is used in book binding. The -name is also applied to a leather made in imitation of this, and to -heavy, plump goatskins used for shoes. - -MOLDING. Shaping the sole to fit the bottom of last. - -MULES. The name applied to slippers with no counters or quarters. - -NAP. The woolly side of hide, cloth, or felt. - -NAUMKEAGING. Smoothing up the bottom with fine sandpaper. Sometimes the -buffing grain. - -NULLIFIER. A shoe with high vamp and quarter, dropping low at the sides, -made with a short rubber goring for summer or house wear. - -OAK TANNED. A process of tanning by means of a substance obtained from -oak bark. - -OIL LEATHER. Leather prepared by currying hides in oil. The hides are -moist, that the oily matter may be gradually and thoroughly absorbed. - -OOZE. A chrome tan calfskin treated on the flesh side in such a manner -that the long fibers are loosened and form a nap surface; made in many -colors. - -OUTSIDE CUTTING. Cutting the leather parts of the shoe, as vamp, tip, -top, etc. - -OUTSIDE TAP. The tap used outside of men’s or boys’ heavy shoes. - -OUTSOLE. The sole next the ground, on which all wear comes. - -[Illustration: Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe.] - -[Illustration: Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe.] - -OXFORD. A low-cut shoe no higher than the instep lace, button, or -goring, made in men’s, women’s, and children’s sizes. - -PACKER HIDES. Hides taken off in the large slaughterhouses. They are -rated slightly higher in price, because great care and skill are used in -taking them off. - -PACKING. Placing a pair of shoes in a carton. - -PACS. Coverings for the feet made of good quality calfskin, similar in -form and appearance to the Indian moccasin. They do not have sole leather -bottoms. If properly made, they are waterproof. - -PANCAKE. A term applied to one of the many artificial leathers formed -from leather scraps, shaved thin, and cemented together under heavy -pressure. - -PASTED COUNTER. One that is cut from two pieces of sole leather pasted -together. It is sometimes called a two-piece counter. - -PATENT LEATHER. Varnished leather. - -PATTERN. The model by which the pieces comprising the upper of a shoe -are cut, applied collectively to upper as modified by the differing -shape of these pieces. - -PEBBLE. A term used in the process to bring out the grain of leather and -give it a roughened or rubbed appearance. - -PEGGING. Lasting out soles with pegs. - -PERFORATING. Making very small holes around parts of upper. It is -performed mostly for decoration. - -POLISH. The name of ladies’ or misses’ front-lace shoe of higher cut than -“bal,” and named from Poland, where it originated. - -PRESSING. Consists of a flat-press pressure for heels and soles, to -prevent cracking of edges and to make parts adhere. - -PORPOISE. This skin is sometimes used for leather and boot laces, but -porpoise hides are ordinarily obtained from the white whale. - -PULLING LASTS. Removing the lasts from shoes. - -PULLING OVER. Pulling upper on the last and tacking it in position. - -PUMP. A low-cut shoe originally having no fastenings, such as laces or -buttons. A pump is cut lower than the instep. - -PUMP SOLE. An extra-light single sole, running clear through to the -back of the heel. A pump sole in former years was distinguished by its -flexibility and was hand turned. - -PUTTING ON TAP. Sticking half sole to the outsole. - -QUARTER. The rear part of upper when a full vamp is not used. Term is -used mostly in women’s, and Oxfords or low shoes. - -RAND. Made of sole leather about as wide as a welt, but thin at one edge. -It is tacked to the heel so as to balance the heel evenly on the sole and -fill any open space around the edge between sole and heel. - -RAPID STITCHING. Sewing the sole to welt. - -RELASTING. Consists in putting lasts in shoes from which the original -lasts have been removed. - -REPAIRING. A term applied to filling slight cracks in patent tips or -patent leather. - -ROAN. Sheepskin tanned with sumac. The process is similar in its details -to that employed for morocco leather, but lacks the graining given to the -morocco by the grooved rollers in the finishing. It imitates ungrained -morocco. - -ROLLING. The process of passing leather between rolls to make it firm and -hard. Rolling consists in polishing the bottom on roll and brush. - -ROUGH ROUNDING. Rounding outsole to the shape of last, and cutting -channel in the welt-channeled shoes. - -ROYALTIES. Sums paid for the use of machines to machine companies. - -RUSSET CALF. Russet-colored calf is made from calfskins. - -RUSSET GRAIN. Russet-colored grain is made from a split cowhide. - -SABOT. The name of a one-piece wooden shoe, carved from a block of -basswood. A novelty to Americans, but worn by people in the rural and -manufacturing sections of Holland, Germany, and France. - -SACK LINING. The lining inside the shoe and insole. - -SANDAL. The name of a woman’s strap slipper, or a sole worn by children. -Originally fastened on the foot by straps. - -SATIN CALF. A grain split, stuffed with oil, and smooth finished. - -SCOURING BREAST. Sandpapering the front part of the heel. - -SCREW-FASTENED. A shoe having the sole attached with screws, as in cheap -or working shoes. - -SEAL GRAIN. Usually a flesh split, with an artificial grain which is -stamped or printed on the finished leather. - -SECOND LASTING. The same as relasting. Term used most in turn work. - -SHANK. The middle position of the bottom of the foot. Shank supports are -placed in shoes to stiffen that part of the bottom. They are of steel, -of wood, or of a combination of leather board and steel, and can be -placed in the shoe any time before the outsole is laid. - -SHANK BURNISHING. Polishing a black shank with hot iron. - -SHANK FINISHING. Finishing the shank with blacking or in colors. The top -lift is generally finished at the same time. - -SHANKING OUT. Means making the edge of the shank thinner than the other -part of the sole, and making it smooth. - -SHEEPSKINS. Used largely for linings and for cheap shoes for women and -children. It is too soft and weak in texture for heavy wear, and liable -to split and tear. - -SHORT VAMP. A foreshortened vamp. The distance between the extreme tip -and the throat of the vamp shortened for appearances. - -SIDES. Leather made from hides which are split into two sides down the -back. - -SIDE LASTING. Lasting the side of the shoe only. - -SIZE. Shoes are measured by the length and width. The length is expressed -by numbers and the widths by letters. - -SKINS. A term used to represent the skin covering of small animals, such -as goats. - -SKIRTING. The outer parts of leather (hide), such as shanks, bellies, -necks, etc. - -SKIVING. Making the sole the same thickness in all parts. Skiving means -cutting or shaving down to a thin edge. This operation may be done in the -cutting department or stitching department. - -SLIP. The name applied to spring heels or to soles. Slip is a thin piece -of sole leather inserted above the outer sole. - -SLUGGING. Driving slugs in heels, on part or all of the heel. - -SOCK LINING. The lining for insole, inside of shoe. - -SOFT TIP. A term applied to a shoe on which no boxing is used under the -tip. - -SOLES AND SOLE LEATHER. Name applied to pieces of leather of various -thickness on the bottom of a shoe, usually made from heavy hides of -leather. There are many varieties of soles: a “full-double” sole has two -thicknesses of leather extending clear back to the heel; “half-double” -sole is a full outer sole, with slip extending back to shank; single sole -is self-defining; “tap” is a half sole. - -SOLE LAYING. Sole laying is the operation of laying the outsole. - -SORTING. The process of selecting and sorting soles, so that they may be -put up in different qualities. - -SPEWING. Shoes in stock sometimes become coated with a grayish white, -powdery substance, that looks like mildew. This formation on leather that -is not fully seasoned is called spewing, and the deposit is called bloom. -It can readily be wiped off, and does not indicate any serious defect or -trouble with the leather. It is not a mildew or growth, but apparently -an exudation of materials used in tanning. - -SPLITS. A name applied to split leather, that is, two or more parts of -the hide. - -SPRING HEEL. Consists of one or more lifts used between the outsole and -upper. It is seen mostly in children’s shoes and is often called wedge -heel. It can also be put on outside instead of under the outsole. - -STAMPING. The operation of putting size and width on the inside of the -shoe. Parts of the uppers are often stamped or marked so that the whole -are put together properly in the stitching room. - -STAY. The name given to any piece of leather put in the upper to -strengthen it or to strengthen a seam. - -STAMPING BOTTOMS. The operation of stamping name on bottom. It is often -performed in finishing rooms. - -STAMPING CARTON. Putting the size, width, and other marks on carton. - -STAMPING SIZES. Stamping sizes on heel part of the sole. - -STANDARD-FASTENED. Nailing bottom on standard screw machine. - -STAYING. Putting on a stay, generally heel stay. - -STITCH SEPARATING. Marking between stitches so as to make them show to -good advantage. - -STITCH DOWN. A term applied to a flexible shoe used in the army, in which -the top is turned out instead of under and stitched through the sole. - -STITCHED ALOFT. A term used to indicate that the sewing stitches show -on the bottom. No channel is necessary in this sole. It may be a slight -groove. In stitching, the shoe is held bottom up, therefore the name -“stitched aloft.” - -STRAIGHT LAST. One that is neither right nor left, and a shoe made over -such a last can be worn on either foot. This term is sometimes applied to -right and left shoes that have a barely perceptible outside swing. - -STRIPPING. Consists of cutting in strips wide enough to cut soles all of -equal size in length. - -SUEDE. A trade term applied to kid skins, finished on the flesh side. - -SWING. A term applied to the curve of the outer edge of a sole. - -TACKING ON. Consists in laying the outsole on McKay’s lasted shoes. - -TACK PULLING AND TRIMMING OUT. Consist of preparing bottom for welting. -It also makes it better for the operation. - -TAMPICO. A variety of goat skins coming from the province of Tampico, -Central America. - -TAP. Half of a complete sole, often called half sole when used under -outsole. - -TAN. Tan is a sort of brownish leather. - -TANNING. Tanning is the process of converting hides or skins into -leather. - -TAP TRIMMING. Shaping the tap to conform to the sole. - -TAWING. The process of making leather by soaking hides in a solution of -salt and alum, or by packing them down with dry salt and powdered alum. -Used to prepare skin rugs and furs. - -TEMPERING. The operation of wetting the leather in water to take hardness -out and make leather “mull,” so that it may be worked easier. - -TIP. The toe piece which is stitched to the vamp and outside of it. Stock -tip is a tip of the same material as the vamp. Patent tip is a patent -leather tip. Diamond tip refers to the shape extending back to a point. -Imitation tip-stitching across the vamp is imitation of a tip. - -TIP CUTTING. Cutting the tip which goes on the toe of the vamp. - -TOE AND HEEL LASTING. Lasting heel and toe. - -TOE PIECE. A piece attached to cut-off vamp to lengthen it. - -TONGUE. A narrow strip of leather necessary on all laced shoes. - -TOP. The part of the upper above the vamp; tip of shoe. - -TOP CUTTING. Cutting the top only. - -TOP FACING. The strip of leather or band of cloth around the top of the -shoe on the inside is called the top facing. It adds to the finish of the -lining, and is sometimes used to advertise the name of manufacturers by a -design of letters woven or sewed on it. - -TOP LIFT. The lift which is next to the ground. - -TOP LIFT SCOURING. Sandpapering top lift of heel to make it smooth. - -TOP STITCHING. Consists of stitching across the top and down the side. - -TREEING. Shaping the shoe, making it smooth. Produces the same effect -as ironing, although no hot iron is used. It makes the upper plump and -gives it a good finish and “feel.” - -TRIMMING CUTTING. Cutting stays, facings, and other small parts of the -upper. - -TRIMMING VAMP. Cutting off hanging or surplus thread. - -TURNING. To turn shoe right side out. Also turning upper right side out. - -TURNED SHOE. A lady’s fine shoe that is made wrong side out, then turned -right side out, which operation necessitates the use of a thin, flexible -sole of good quality. The sole is fastened to the last, the upper is -lasted over it wrong side out, then the two are sewed together, the -thread catching through a channel cut in the edge of the sole. The seam -does not come through to the bottom of the sole where it would chafe the -foot on inside. - -UPPER. A term applied collectively to the upper parts of a shoe. - -UNGRAINED. Smooth surface. - -VAMP. The lower or front part of the upper of a shoe. It is the most -important piece of the upper and should be cut from the strongest and -cleanest part of the skin. “Cut-off” vamp is one that extends only to the -tip, instead of being continued to the toe and lasted under with the tip. -Whole vamp is one that extends to the heel without a seam. - -VAMPING. Stitching the vamp to the top. - -VAMP CUTTING. Cutting vamp with or without the tip. - -VELOUR. A finish for calf leather. It is the French name for velvet and -is used in the shoe trade for a patent chrome-tanned calf leather. It is -an excellent leather and has a smooth and velvety finish. - -VELLUM. A name for skins that are made into a variety of parchment. - -VENEERING. Consists in making soles, whole or part, heavier, by means of -leather-board or other material fastened to the sole by an adhesive. - -VESTING. A material originally designed for making vests. As used in -shoes, it is made with fancy-figured weave, having a backing of stiff -buckram or rubber-treated tissue to strengthen it. - -VISCOLIZING. A patent method of waterproofing sole leather by the use of -partly emulsified oils with a water-resisting tendency. Viscolized soles -are used in hunting and sporting boots. - -VICI. A patent trade name for a brand of chrome-tanned kid. - -WASH LEATHER. An inferior quality of chamois. - -WELT. A narrow strip of leather that is sewed to the upper of a shoe -with an insole leaving the edge of the welt extending outward, so that -the outsole can be attached by sewing through both welt and outsole, -around the outside of the shoe. The attaching of the sole and upper -thus involves two sewings, first the insole, welt and upper, then the -outsole to the welt. The name is applied to the shoe itself when made -in this way to distinguish it from a turned, or McKay sewed shoe. This -is the method used by cobblers in the production of hand-sewed shoes to -fasten the sole and upper together. Goodyear welt is a welt in which the -sewing is done by a machine named for the inventor. There are very few -hand-welted shoes made. - -WELT BEATING. The flattening out of the welt, making it smooth. - -WELTING. Sewing the welt to shoe. - -WHITE ALUM. Bleached leather tawed with white alum. - -WOODEN CASE. Large box for twelve or more pairs. - - - - -CHAPTER TEN - -LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE - - -The use of gloves is so old that relics of them have been found in the -habitations of the cave dwellers. The Romans used them as decorative -articles of dress and the Greeks to protect the hands when doing heavy -work. - -The gloves of ladies and gentlemen in the days of Queen Elizabeth, -and before and after, were most beautiful in hand workmanship and -embellishments, but they were usually shapeless things, and in these days -no one would wear them; they are not to be compared with the elegant -style and artistic finish of the modern product. - -When the social world was restricted, so to speak, in the numbers of -its members who could afford some of life’s luxuries, the use of the -glove was confined largely to royalty, nobility, and the well-to-do. -And the trade not being extensive, prices were high--being added to by -decorative elaboration in needlework in order that the manufacturer and -his employees might extract as much money as possible from the ultimate -buyer. While glove making is now one of the stabilities of modern -manufacture, it is, nevertheless, constantly changing in styles, due to -eagerness for novelties and new fashions. - -Glove making of leather, in a rough, crude form, was carried on in this -country to a very limited extent in New York State as early as 1760, by -glove makers brought from Scotland to settle on the grants of Sir William -Johnson, in Fulton county. But there was no general market for the home -product until one was found in Albany in 1825. These early gloves, crude -and clumsy, were cut with shears from leather by means of pasteboard -patterns, and men did the cutting and women the sewing. Dies were later -introduced, and this led to a great improvement in the character of the -output. - -But a still greater step forward was taken when the sewing machine was -introduced in 1852. This abolished handwork entirely, but still the -industry remained largely of a domestic nature, since it could be carried -on at home with a machine as well as in a factory. Later steam power was -installed in factories with which to run the machines. The cutting of -gloves, and the stitching on the backs, was done before the gloves were -sent out to be completed in workers’ homes. - -As in everything wherein power can be substituted for hand labor in -these days, the methods of glove manufacture have undergone a great -transformation. The treating of skins in a great tub, three feet deep, -whole dyeing and scouring, in rooms of high temperature, has been -displaced by putting skins and colors into a cube-shaped box, which, -revolving with an irregular motion, produces the same results more -quickly than by the primitive way. But when color is to be applied to but -one side the process is the same as of old,--hand use of a brush while -the skin is stretched out on a slab. - -When taken from the stock on hand to be made into gloves, the first thing -done to skins by some glove makers is to “feed” them with eggs--not eggs -of suspicious merits, but good enough for table use. And of these nothing -is used but the yolk. One glove maker imports from China large quantities -of the yolks of duck eggs for his work, and his yearly consumption of -yolks amounts to seventeen thousand. - -When the skins leave the dyehouse, they are rapidly dried in steam-heated -lofts; and while stiff and rough they are, or were, worked into softness -and smoothness over a wooden upright standard, called a stake, at the -top of which is fitted a blunt semicircular knife. Over this the skin is -drawn by hand, back and forth, until it becomes as pliable and delicate -as silk. When this work was done manually it was most laborious. But now -it has been mostly taken over by very ingenious machinery, which looks, -in operation, as if it would tear a skin into fragments by the way it -snaps and pulls at it, but which is adjustable to such nicety of action -and power that the work is done exactly as it is wanted. - -The next operation is to pare the skins to uniformity of thickness. This -also was handwork for a long time, done with a peculiarly shaped knife, -but now emery-coated wheels, with rounded edges, are used by the workers, -who, with their aid, do just as good and much faster work in drawing and -thinning the skins with absolute precision. This completes the treatment -of the skin. - -Now the function of the cutter begins, and he must be a workman of -experience and good judgment, in that he must contend with the inconstant -inelasticity of the skin, reducing it to uniform resistance. He must -get so many pieces of glove size from each skin, and suit the pieces -to particular features of the skin. When done with a skin he must have -left, as useless, only trifling strips and shreds. The shapeliness of -the glove which a woman draws over her hand, depends altogether upon the -intelligence and skill of the cutter. In American factories the cutter is -usually from some glove-making center in Europe and from a family whose -occupation has been glove making for centuries. - -A punch next cuts these glove pieces into shape, forming and dividing the -fingers, slitting the buttonholes, providing side pieces for fingers and -thumbs, and also the fragments used for strengthening the buttonholes. -The sewing, formerly the handiwork of women, is now done on machines -of capacity for exceptionally fine quality of intricate stitching. The -number of glove sizes made is sufficient to meet every likely demand. -When sewn, and the buttons or fastenings put on, they pass beneath the -critical eye of an inspector for scrutiny as to faults. Then they are -finally shaped on a hot metal hand, smoothed, banded, boxed, and sent to -the salesroom for shipment. - -The first and fourth fingers of a glove are completed by gussets, or -strips, sewed only on the inner side; but the second and third fingers -require gussets on both sides to complete the fingers. In addition to -these, small, diamond-shaped pieces are sewed in at the roots of the -fingers. Special care is necessary in sewing in the thumb pieces, as -poorly made gloves usually give way at this point. - -Natural lined gloves are now common enough, although it is not many years -since they were regarded as impracticable. These are made from pelts of -various animals with the hair left on the skin to form the lining. - - -AUTOMOBILE AND FURNITURE LEATHER - -For automobile and furniture leather only choice hides should be used. -The kind of hides generally employed for this class of leather are French -and Swiss, as these run full and plump on the bellies, are free from cuts -on the flesh and are of clear grain. The hides are trimmed before placing -them in the soaking pits, all useless parts, such as nose, shanks, etc., -being cut away. - -After remaining in soak for a day or two, the hides are hauled out, -fleshed, and returned to the soaks for thorough softening. When -thoroughly soaked, they are toggled and reeled into the first lime. The -first lime must be a weak, mellow lime, or a harsh grain will show after -the leather is tanned. The hides are reeled over into stronger limes -every day for seven days, when they are ready for unhairing. After coming -from the limes, the hides should go into a pit of soft water heated to -about ninety degrees Fahrenheit and left over night before starting in -to unhair. After unhairing, they are thrown into a vat of clean water -and thoroughly worked out on the grain to remove short hairs and scud -and are then ready for bating. One that has a little bacterial action -is preferred to an acid bate. After bating, the hides are given a good -scudding on the grain and are then ready for the tanning liquors. - -The liquors are made of hemlock and oak and are used very weak on the -start. The hides are suspended for a day in a liquor not over six degrees -specific gravity reading in strength, and the following day shifted over -into a stronger liquor. The stock is given stronger liquors every day -until tanned enough for splitting. - -The stock is struck out smoothly and brought to the machine for -splitting. The buffing is first taken away and sold for hat bands, -pocket-books, etc. The grains are finished and the splits are returned to -the tanning liquors to be thoroughly tanned. As soon as the splits are -tanned, they are washed up, drained, and then drummed in the drum in a -sumac liquor. They are now scoured, and, after being well set out, are -given a good oiling with cod oil. - -They are now tacked out on the frames and dried out. They are next taken -from the frames and boarded by hand over the table. The splits are taken -to the japan shop and are tacked out again and are ready for the first -coat of daub. Two coats are applied. After each coat, the splits are well -rubbed down, when they receive the slicker coat. The color coats are now -applied, and after drying out, the leather is grained up and finished. - - - - -CHAPTER ELEVEN - -RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE - - -Examine the rubbers we wear during the winter and stormy weather. - -Rubber shoe coverings are made to protect the shoe from water and snow -and may be in the form of either slippers or arctics. The covering is -rendered waterproof by means of a compound rubber. - -Rubber is the name given to a coagulated milky juice obtained from many -different trees, vines, and shrubs that grow on that part of the earth’s -surface which forms a band some three or four hundred miles on either -side of the equator. - -[Illustration: Crude Rubber.] - -Rubber is graded commercially, according to the district where it is -found. In the order of importance it may be divided into three general -sorts, viz., American, African, and Asiatic. The best and largest -quantities of rubber come from Brazil, along the banks of the Amazon -River. The countries in the northern and western part of South America, -and the Central American States and Mexico furnish considerable rubber. -Eastern and western Africa also produce many kinds of rubber in large -quantities, though somewhat inferior to the Brazilian product. The -Asiatic rubbers are unimportant in quantity, and, excepting the rubber -obtained from cultivated trees in Ceylon, are decidedly inferior in -quality. - -The fluid rubber obtained from Brazil is called Para and is used -principally in the manufacture of rubber footwear. The method of -gathering and coagulating the rubber juice (called latex) varies in the -different countries. The native first clears a space under a number of -trees and proceeds to tap the trees with a short-handled ax, having a -small blade, by cutting gashes in the bark. A cup is fixed under each -cut to catch the fluid as it flows out. As fast as the cups are filled, -they are emptied into a large vessel and carried to the camp to be -coagulated. A fire is started in a shallow hole in the ground, and palm -nuts, which make a dense smoke, are thrown on. An earthen cover which has -a small opening on top is placed over the fire, allowing the smoke to -escape through the opening. A wooden paddle is first dipped in clay water -and then into the latex and then held over the smoke. The heat coagulates -a thin layer of rubber on the paddle. It is dipped again and again in the -latex and smoked each time. After being dipped many times, a lump (called -biscuit) of rubber is formed. A cut is made in the biscuit and the paddle -removed. Then the rubber is ready for market. The world’s crop of rubber -in 1911 was about ninety thousand tons. - -Few people realize the number of operations necessary to produce from the -crude biscuit of India rubber the highly finished rubber shoe of to-day. -Briefly stated, the various steps are washing, drying, compounding, -calendering, cutting the various parts, making or putting these parts -together, varnishing, vulcanizing, and packing. Each of these processes -requires a distinct and separate department, and many of these processes -are subdivided into minor operations. - -The huge stock of Para rubber, that is rubber obtained from the Amazon -section, to be found in any of the leading rubber factories counts well -up into the thousands of dollars. With rubber at or near $1.50 per pound, -a stock of ten to fifty tons runs up into the five or six figures. - -This crude rubber, as it comes from the Amazon, contains more or less -dirt, pebbles, and other foreign substances, which must be removed. - -The large cakes of crude rubber are first broken up by a cracker machine, -consisting of two large, revolving steel cylinders, from which the -product falls into pans or trays. It goes then to a machine known as a -“washer” or “sheeter,” where it is run between revolving cylinders, upon -which a continuous spray of clean water is maintained. After being rolled -into rough sheets, it is put into a tank, from which it is taken to the -“beater” machine, in which water runs continuously, and then it is washed -again and “sheeted out.” It is then dried in one of two ways. - -(1) The older way. The sheets are hung over rods in a large room, and -allowed to dry in the air. To facilitate the same, a fan or blower is -often used to cause a circulation and removal of the moisture-laden air. -This requires a period of from one to two or three months. - -[Illustration: Washing and Drying.] - -(2) The second method is called vacuum drying. This process is gradually -being introduced, so that now probably more rubber is dried in vacuum -than by air. The vacuum drier consists of a large iron cylinder filled -with plates, through which steam is allowed to circulate. The rubber -is placed on the plates and the air is exhausted from the cylinder by -means of an air pump until very nearly twenty-six degrees of vacuum are -obtained. By this process only from two to three hours are required to -produce perfectly dry rubber. - -The making of a rubber shoe is not the simple matter which might at -first be supposed. An ordinary rubber shoe consists of at least seven -or eight different parts, sometimes twenty-one parts to a pair, while -a high-button gaiter has seventeen distinct parts, and a rubber boot -has twenty-three different pieces. There are insoles, outsoles, stays, -piping, foxing, and a dozen other different pieces, each one of which -is necessary to the proper construction of a rubber shoe or boot. The -thinner sheets for the uppers are cut by hand, the deft work of the -cutters in following the patterns outlined on the sheets being the result -of years of practice. The sheets of rubber from which the uppers and -soles are cut are at this stage of the work plastic and very sticky. It -is necessary on this account to cut the various pieces one by one, and -keep them separate. The soles and some of the heavier pieces are dried -out by the machine, and the heels are made by a special machine, but by -far the greater part is done by wonderfully skilled hands. All of these -parts which go to make a shoe, or the twenty-three parts which go into -a boot, are collected and sent to the making department, which, in most -factories, is a large room containing several hundred operatives, each -working by herself, and bringing the many separate parts into the fully -finished footwear. - -[Illustration: Calender Room.] - -The sheets of rubber, after being dried, are taken to the “compound” -room, where they are sprinkled with whiting, to prevent sticking, and -weighed. Next they are taken into the calender room to a “mixer,” by -means of which the rubber is combined with other substances, which -include sulphur, litharge, whiting, lampblack, tar, resin, lime, palm -oil, and linseed oil. - -There are different calendering machines. The ones called the upper -calenders form sheets of rubber stock for the upper part of the shoe. The -soling calenders form the stock for the sole or bottom part of the shoe; -other calender machines are used to coat a layer of gum on one side of -the fabrics used for lining and various strips, fillers, toe, and heel -pieces. The gum sheets are sent to the cutting room. - -Generally, linings for nine pairs of shoes are cut at once. The linings -are cut both by hand and by machine. Men who cut with dies, by hand, -stand at the bench and use iron mallets, like those used in cutting -heels. Inner soles, heel pieces, and linings are all cut by means of dies -in the same manner. - -The edges of the several parts are spread with cement, and then the -parts are taken to the making room and distributed. In the making -department the boots and shoes are put together. Women make the light -overshoes; men make the heavy ones. Rubbers are made by women, but men -put on the outer soles. - -Linings are first applied smoothly to a wooden last and cemented -together, the cement side out. The rubber parts are then stuck on and -rolled firmly with a small hand roller. Young women become very skilled -in this work, taking up the several parts in rapid succession, placing -them accurately upon the last, and rolling and pounding them firmly -together. - -[Illustration: Cutting Room.] - -Perhaps the most interesting single process is that of putting the rubber -boot together. This work is done by men, and requires, in addition -to accurate eyesight, rapid and very deft movements of the hand and -considerable strength. No nails, tacks, or stitching are required. The -natural adhesiveness of the rubber, assisted by the use of rubber -cement, holds the parts solidly together. - -In the making of the shoe the last is covered with the various pieces -which are so made as to adhere where they are placed. It is exact and -nice work fitting all these pieces perfectly, each edge overlapping just -so far and no farther. The lighter shoes are made by women, but the heavy -lumbermen’s shoes, arctics, and especially the boots, are made by men, -for this work needs strength as well as dexterity. - -The goods which require varnishing are put on racks and treated with a -mixture of boiled linseed oil, naphtha, and other materials, which are -applied with brushes, and impart a gloss to the surface. - -On vulcanizing boots and shoes, the shoes are placed on racks supported -by iron cars, which are run over tracks into the vulcanizing chamber. -This consists principally of a large room provided with a steam coil on -the floor. The temperature rarely exceeds two hundred and sixty degrees -Fahrenheit. In vulcanizing shoes, the heat is increased gradually from -the beginning, about one hundred and eighty degrees Fahrenheit, otherwise -the goods would be blistered, due to the rapid evaporation of moisture -and other volatile constituents. They are kept in these heaters from six -to seven hours. This causes a union of sulphur and rubber, which is not -affected by heat or cold. - -They are wheeled on another truck to the packing room, where they are -inspected, taken from the lasts, tied together in pairs, or placed in -cartons, as the case may be. They are then sent to the shipping room to -be packed in cases ready to be delivered to the cars waiting at a side -track of the railroad, or sent to the storehouse until they shall be -called for by the jobbers or retail dealers. - -An important branch of the rubber business is the manufacture of tennis -shoes. This is a generic term, which is applied to all kinds of footwear -having cloth tops and rubber soles. As the name indicates, they were -first used in playing the game of tennis, but they have come into very -general use as warm weather and vacation shoes, and every year shows -an increased popularity. These shoes are made in a similar manner to -the rubber shoes, the rubber soles being cemented to the cloth uppers -and vulcanized the same as the rubber overshoes. Many different styles -are made, and each year shows some improvements in the shapes, in the -textiles which are used, in the colors and combinations of soles and -uppers. - -Rubber shoes should not be expected to give satisfactory service unless -properly fitted. If too short, too narrow, or if worn over leathers -with extra heavy taps, or unusually thick, wide soles, strains will be -brought upon parts not designed to stand them and the rubber will give -way. Rubber goods, particularly boots, if too large will wrinkle and a -continued wrinkling and bending is liable to cause cracking. - -Extreme heat or cold should be avoided. Rubber boots or shoes should -never be dried by placing them near a heater of any kind. If left near -a stove, register, or radiator, the rubber is liable to dry and crack. -If left out of doors in winter, or in an extremely cold place, they will -freeze. Then when the warm foot is put into them and the rubbers are -worn, the rubber will crack. - -Oil, grease, milk, or blood will cause rubber to decay in a very short -time. If spattered with any of these, the rubber should be promptly and -thoroughly cleaned with warm water and soap. - -The oil in leather tops will rot rubber, so that care should be taken -in storing and packing to prevent the leather and rubber from coming in -contact. - -[Illustration: Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe.] - -Various heavy goods are advertised as proof against snagging. It should -be remembered, however, that no rubber can be made strong enough to be -absolutely proof against tearing or puncturing by extremely sharp edges, -such as stiff stubble, sharp-edged rocks, broken glass, etc. - -Mud, barnyard dirt, or filth of any kind should never be allowed to dry -on rubbers. They should be cleaned as carefully as leather boots or shoes. - -Exposure to strong sunlight for any length of time produces an effect on -rubbers similar to that of putting them near a stove or radiator. Rubbers -should not be left in the sun to dry. When not in use they should be kept -in a cool, dark place. - - -RUBBER HEELS - -Rubber heels are generally made for boots and shoes as follows. The -compounded rubber is sheeted on a calender roll, on a drum, until -several layers are obtained, thus making a sheet of about one inch in -thickness. The heel is cut out from this sheet by means of a die and -placed in a mold. It is there subjected to an extremely high pressure, -generally obtained by hydraulic power. The plates of the press are heated -with live steam. The heels are removed at the end of nine or ten minutes -and the sheet which was formerly nearly an inch in thickness is now only -about half an inch and has by pressure been molded into the shape of the -heel desired, is semi or partially vulcanized, and also is imprinted upon -the bottom with the name or other brand of the company. - -The cup-shaped portion of the heel is now coated with a layer of rubber -cement, and firmly placed on the boot ready to go to the vulcanizer, -where vulcanizing of the heel is then completed. - -[Illustration: Heel-making Department.] - -Many articles of rubber are vulcanized by the use of chloride of sulphur, -which process is sometimes known as “cold cure.” The action of sulphur -chloride itself is so violent that it must be diluted, and for this -purpose carbon bisulfide is often used. In some cases, as, for example, -the manufacture of tobacco pouches, the articles are submerged for from -one to two minutes in the liquid, then removed and washed thoroughly. In -another case, as in the manufacture of some kinds of rubber cloth, such -as hospital sheeting, the coated cloth is suspended in a suitable room -and the chloride of sulphur and carbon bisulfide mixed and evaporated -by action of heat so that the cloth is subjected to the action of vapor -alone. Only articles with comparatively thin walls can be successfully -vulcanized by the cold cure, as at best the vulcanizing action of the -chloride is only superficial. - -No account of vulcanization processes as employed in the manufacture of -rubber goods is complete without the mention of “steam cure.” A great -variety of rubber goods under the general term of mechanical sundries -are cured by this method. This includes rubber matting, door mats, water -bottles, druggists’ sundries, etc. This process consists in brief of -submitting the articles to be vulcanized to the action of live steam -for from half an hour to an hour, or until the goods are thoroughly -vulcanized. The temperature and duration of time required depend to a -considerable extent upon the thickness of the walls of the article. In -order to prevent the goods from being pitted and damaged by the action of -steam, they are wrapped with cloth or imbedded in pans of soapstone. A -great variety of rubber tubing is cured by this method. - -In rubber cloth making, the crude rubber is put through the washing -process, dried and mixed with sulphur, litharge, coloring matter, etc., -and then is taken to the cement room, where it is “cut” with naphtha, -forming a thick paste or dough. This is taken to the spreading room in -large tubs and fed into the roller machine, which is like a long table -made of steam pipes placed horizontally in a single layer. Below one end -is a roll of cloth, which is passed between two iron rollers on the end. -The dough is fed in between these rollers and is spread smoothly over -the cloth, which is rolled up and removed to a heating room, where it -is unrolled and hung on racks, and then subjected to sufficient heat to -cause the combination of the sulphur and rubber. - - -CHEMISTRY IN THE MANUFACTURE OF RUBBER GOODS - -Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance in all rubber -factories of the chemical department. During the last two or three years -there has been an unusual development along these lines, and to-day no -factory for the manufacture of rubber goods is complete that does not -possess a well-equipped laboratory. Not only does this department enable -the manufacturer to control the purity and uniformity of his compounding -ingredients and the innumerable grades of crude rubber, but, what is of -even greater importance, it enables him to inaugurate research work as -applied to his particular line of manufacture. This part of laboratory -work is already producing results not only of scientific interest, but of -very great practical and economic value. Still another rôle of the modern -chemical laboratory is to exercise a control over the finished material, -so that the manager of the works may be in possession daily of reasons -for any variation detrimental to the standard of his products. - - -RUBBER TERMS - -ANKLE PIECE. A large piece of light sheeted gum, which goes around the -ankle and extends about halfway up the leg. - -BACK STAY. A piece of frictioned sheeting similar to the side stay in -shape and placed at the back of the heel and ankle. - -GUM COUNTER. A piece cut out of sheeted gum, on the under side of which -is placed a counter form or a piece of frictioned sheeting. - -OUTER FILLER. A filling sole cut from rag-coated or frictioned sheeting, -and designed to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused by bringing the -edges of the gum vamp and counter underneath. - -INNER SOLE. Usually made of felt or sheeting coated on one side with -rag stock. In lasting up, the bottom edges of the lining (which have -previously been cemented) are pulled under and adhere to the inner sole. - -LEG COVER. A piece of sheeted gum rolled upon a piece of frictioned -sheeting called the leg form. - -LEG LINING. The lining, usually of felt or wool netting, for the leg. - -PARA. A name given to rubber from Brazil. - -PIPING. Strips of frictioned sheeting used to join the lining together -over the instep and up the back, and also to hold the lining up on the -tree by passing a strip over the top. - -RAG COUNTER. Quarter stiff is a counter piece cut out of rag-coated or -frictioned sheeting, which gives stiffness to the counter. - -SIDE STAY. A spike-shaped piece of frictioned sheeting, placed on each -side of the ankle. - -RAG SOLE. A sole stiffening cut out of a sheet of rag stock, which covers -the whole bottom. The edges are skived to make a perfect edge. - -TOE FILLER. A rag-stock filling sole to fill up the hollow on the bottom -caused by attaching the lining to the inner sole. - -[Illustration: Parts of a Rubber Boot.] - -TOE LINING. The lining for the vamp, of the same material as the leg -lining. - -VAMP. A piece cut out of sheeted gum. - -VAMP FORM. A piece of frictioned sheeting cut to the shape of the vamp, -and put on over the toe lining. - -WEB STRAPS. Straps put on with the joined ends between the leg lining and -the leg cover, and forming a loop on the inside of the boot to pull it on -with. - - - - -CHAPTER TWELVE - -HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR - - -We find that primitive footwear, in common with all other beginnings, -was of the crudest nature and took the form of the simple sandal. It is -probable that man first protected his foot from the rough way by simple -pieces of hide, which were bound to the bottom of the foot. The sandal, -among the most primitive, is the type of footwear worn to-day. The sandal -was simply bound to the foot by thongs of hides, which were brought -between the toes and tied around the ankle. - -At about the Elizabethan period, shoemaking had really become a very -fine art. Some foot creations were made by the Court shoemakers that -reflected the individual taste of the monarch, and so great was the -competition to produce something novel that very often the styles -assumed a grotesque aspect. The toes were elongated so that sometimes -they were carried up and fastened by cords and tassels to the tops of the -shoes, and it finally became necessary to enact a law to prevent such -outrageous types of footwear. The slippers of this period were of the -extremely high-heeled variety, and small fortunes were often spent on -their ornamentation. They were mostly of the turn-shoe type, and samples -which are preserved show the excellent workmanship that was in vogue at -that time. - -We now come to the first shoemaker in America. When the _Mayflower_ -made the second trip to America, she carried among others a shoemaker -named Thomas Beard, who brought with him a supply of hides. Seven -years afterwards there arrived one Phillip Kertland, a native of -Buckinghamshire, who settled in Lynn in 1636. - -Kertland was the pioneer shoemaker of Lynn and for years he successfully -worked at his craft, teaching others his methods and ways, so that -fifteen years after his arrival, Lynn was not only supplying the -requirements of its inhabitants, but was also sending a part of its -products to the port of Boston. As early as 1648 we find tanning and -shoemaking mentioned as an industry of the colony of Virginia, special -mention being made of the fact that a planter named Matthews employed -eight shoemakers on his premises. Legal restraint was placed on the -cordwainer in Connecticut in 1656, and in Rhode Island in 1706, while -in New York the business of tanning and shoemaking is known to have -been firmly established previous to the capitulation of the Province -to England in 1664. In 1698 the industry was carried on profitably in -Philadelphia, and in 1721 the Colonial Legislature of Pennsylvania passed -an act regulating the material and the prices of the boot and shoe -industry. - -Prior to 1815 most of the shoes were hand sewed, a few having been copper -nailed. The heavier shoes were welted and the lighter ones turned. This -method of manufacture was changed, about the year 1815, by the adoption -of the wooden shoe peg, which was invented in 1811 and soon came into -general use. Up to this time little or no progress had been made in -the methods of manufacture. The shoemaker sat on his bench, and with -scarcely any other instrument than a hammer, knife, and wooden shoulder -stick, cut, stitched, hammered, and sewed until the shoe was completed. -Previous to the year 1845, which marked the first successful application -of machinery to American shoemaking, this industry was in the strictest -sense a hand process, and the young man who chose it for his vocation -was apprenticed for seven years, during which time he was taught every -detail of the art. He was instructed in the preparation of the insole -and outsole, depending almost entirely upon his eye for the proper -proportions; taught to prepare pegs and drive them, for the pegged shoe -was the common type of footwear in the first half of the last century; -and familiarized himself with the making of turned and welt shoes, which -have always been considered the highest types of shoemaking, as they -require exceptional skill of the artisan in channeling the insole and -outsole by hand, rounding the sole, sewing the welt, and stitching the -outsole. After having served his apprenticeship, it was the custom for -the full-fledged shoemaker to start on what was known as “whipping the -cat,” which meant traveling from town to town, living with a family while -making a year’s supply of shoes for each member, then moving on to fill -engagements previously made. - -The change from which has been evolved our present factory system began -in the latter part of the 18th century, when a system of sizes had been -drafted, and shoemakers more enterprising than their fellows gathered -about them groups of workmen, and took upon themselves the dignity of -manufacturers. - -It was soon found that the master workman could largely increase his -income by employing other men to do the work while he directed their -efforts, and this gradually led to a division of the labor: the shoe -uppers, which had prior to this time been sewed by men using waxed thread -with bristles, now were done by women, who often took the work home. - -One workman cut the leather, others sewed the uppers, and still others -fastened uppers to soles, each workman handling only one part in the -process of manufacture. - -We find that in the year 1795 the evolution of the factory system had -reached a stage where in Lynn alone there were two hundred master -workmen, employing six hundred journeymen and turning out three hundred -thousand pairs of shoes per year. The entire shoe was then made under one -roof, and generally from leather that was tanned on the premises. - -Factory buildings were not at this time of a very pretentious nature -and did not by any means represent the amount of work undertaken by the -proprietor; for the small ten by ten factories, which are even to-day in -existence in some of the backyards of Lynn homes, came into existence -at this time. Many farmers found that shoemaking was a remunerative -occupation in the winter, and they, and perhaps their neighbors, gathered -in these shops and took from the different factories shoes on which to -fasten the soles, or uppers to bind, which, after completion of the work, -were returned to the factory, where they were finished and sent to market -packed in wooden boxes. It was in this way that the industry prospered -and developed up to the period of the introduction of machines, which -happened but a little over half a century ago. - -Up to the year 1811 absolutely no machinery was used in the making of -shoes. This year shoe pegs were invented and a machine for making them. -The pegged shoe became very widely worn, but it was not until 1835 that -any machine for driving pegs was made, and even at this time the machine -was but an indifferent success. It was a hand machine and its work was by -no means of a reliable nature. - -The first machine to be widely accepted by the trade was the “rolling -machine.” This was used for rolling the sole leather under pressure, and -it is said that a man could perform in a minute with this machine the -same office that he would have required half an hour to have performed -with the old-fashioned lapstone and hammer. This was followed in 1848 by -the most important invention, the “sewing machine,” which was perfected -by Elias Howe, and was soon followed by a machine which sewed with waxed -thread and made it possible to sew the uppers of shoes in a much more -rapid, reliable, and satisfactory manner than had ever been done by hand. -This, too, was soon followed by a machine which split the sole leather -and by another for buffing or removing the grain. - -In 1855 William F. Trowbridge, who was a partner in the firm of F. -Brigham & Company, of Feltonville, Massachusetts, then a part of -Marlboro, conceived the idea of driving by horse power the machines then -in use. The introduction of power became very general, so that in the -year 1860 there were scarcely any factories which were not driven by -either steam or water power. - -The year 1858 was marked by the invention by Lyman R. Blake of the -McKay sewing machine, which probably more than any other has exerted a -revolutionary effect on the industry. - -The McKay machine did not at this time sew the toe or heel; the sewing -was started at the shank and carried forward to a point near the toe -on one side, and the same operation repeated on the other side; but -it seemed to possess great possibilities and created a great deal of -interest throughout the trade. It was, of course, a very crude machine -and very different from the McKay machine of to-day. It was set on a -bench and the shoe to be sewed was placed over a horn, and the sewing was -done from the channel in the outsole through the sole and insole. Colonel -McKay immediately started to improve the machine. He employed skilled -mechanics to work on it and attempted to introduce it in different -factories, but encountered a great deal of opposition and criticism -in regard to its future. It is said that he offered to dispose of the -machine to the shoemakers of Lynn and allow them its exclusive use if -they would pay him three hundred thousand dollars, an offer which was not -accepted. - -The machine left a loop stitch and a ridge of thread on the inside of the -shoe, but it filled the great demand that existed for sewed shoes, and -many hundreds of millions of pairs have been made by its use. - -While Colonel McKay had met rebuff and discouragement in attempting to -introduce his machine, the public necessity was such that manufacturers -were obliged to take it up immediately; but Colonel McKay was still -embarrassed by lack of capital to carry on his rapidly increasing -business. It was at this time that a system of placing machines in -factories, which system has proven to be the most potent factor in the -upbuilding of the shoe industry, was started. This was a royalty system, -whereby the machine or machine owner participated in the profits accruing -from the use of the machine. - -It hardly seems that there can be any question as to the principle of -royalty being one of the greatest forces in building up the successful -industry which we have to-day; it afforded an easy means whereby machines -could be introduced without entailing hardships on the manufacturers, -who, had they been obliged to pay the actual worth of the machines, -would have been entirely unable to adopt them. Instances are known where -hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent on machines, which machines -were abandoned without having made a single shoe. - -At the time of the introduction of the McKay machine, inventors were -busy in other directions, and as a result, came the introduction of the -“cable nailing machine.” This was provided with a cable of nails, the -head of one being joined to the point of another; these the machines cut -into separate nails and drove automatically. At about this time also -was introduced the “screw machine,” which formed a screw from brass -wire, forcing it into the leather and cutting it off automatically. -This was the prototype of the “rapid standard screw machine,” which -is a comparatively recent invention, and is very widely used at the -present time as a sole fastener on the heavier class of boots and shoes. -Very soon thereafter the attention of the trade was attracted to the -invention of a New York mechanic for the sewing of soles. The device was -particularly intended for the making of turn shoes and afterwards became -famous as the “Goodyear turn shoe machine.” - -Closely following the Goodyear invention came the introduction of -the first machine used in connection with heeling,--a machine which -compressed the heel and pricked holes for the nails; this was soon -followed by a machine which automatically drove the nails, the -heel having previously been put in place and held by the guides on -the machine. Other improvements in heeling machines followed with -considerable rapidity, and a machine came into use shortly afterwards -which not only nailed the heel, but which was also provided with a hand -trimmer, which the operator swung round the heel, after nailing. From -these have been evolved the heeling machines in use at the present time. - -One of the early uses to which the sewing machine was put was the sewing -together of the pieces of soft and pliable leather which make the upper -of a shoe--a simple thing, involving only a slight adjustment of the -original machine. It is a far more complicated operation to sew the upper -to the thick and heavy sole, and years passed by before the secret was -discovered, and the McKay machine appeared. In the shoe sewed on the -McKay machine, the thread ran through into the inside of the inner sole, -leaving a rasping ridge on which the stocking of the wearer rubbed. -The McKay shoe displaced only the coarser grades. The hand-sewed shoe -remained the favorite of wealth and fashion, and was worn exclusively -by those who cared for comfort and could afford the price. In sewing -a shoe by hand, a thin and narrow strip of leather, called a welt, is -first sewed to the insole and upper, and the heavy outsole is sewed to -this welt, so that the stitches come outside and do not touch the foot, -the insole being left entirely smooth. It is a delicate operation by -hand, and many years elapsed before a machine was contrived by which it -could be done. At last the problem was solved. The “Goodyear welting and -stitching machines” appeared--so named for Charles Goodyear, who financed -and perfected them, a son of the man who taught the world the use of -rubber. These two machines are the nucleus of the Goodyear welt system, -to which must be attributed the revolution of an industry. Although they -are entirely distinct machines, they are inseparable, for neither can be -used effectively without the other in making the modern Goodyear welt -shoe. - -[Illustration: Insole for Hand Sewed Shoe.] - -[Illustration: Hand Sewed Shoe.] - -Much of the style of a shoe depends upon the wooden last over which the -upper is shaped before being attached to the sole. To find a substitute -for the human hand in fitting the shoe to the last and pulling the -leather over its delicate lines and curves seemed for a long time -impossible. - -This took place in the early seventies, when a machine was invented for -doing this work. It created a great change in a department of shoemaking -which, prior to this time, had been regarded as a confirmed hand process. -This machine, as well as those which followed afterwards for a period of -twenty years, was known as the best type of machine, by which the shoe -upper was drawn over the last by either friction or pincers, and then -tacked by use of a hand tool. - -At a comparatively recent period another machine which revolutionized all -previous ideas in lasting was introduced. This machine is generally in -use at the present time, and is known as the “consolidated hand method -lasting machine.” It was fitted with pincers, which automatically drew -the leather round the last, at the same time driving a tack which held -it in place. This machine has been so developed that it is now used for -the lasting of shoes of every type, from the lowest and cheapest to -the highest grade, and it is a machine that shows wonderful mechanical -ingenuity. - -The perfection of the lasting machine has been followed recently by -the introduction of a machine which performs in a satisfactory way the -difficult process known as “pulling over,” which consists of accurately -centering the shoe upper on the last and securing it temporarily in -position for the work of lasting. The new machine, which is known as the -“hand-method pulling over machine,” is provided with pincers, which close -automatically, gripping the shoe upper at sides and toe. It is fitted -with adjustments by which the operator is enabled to quickly center the -shoe upper on the last, and, on pressure of a foot lever, the machine -automatically draws the upper closely to the last and secures it in -position by tacks, which are also driven by the machine. The introduction -of this machine marked a radical change in the one important shoemaking -process that had up to this time successfully withstood all attempts at -mechanical improvement. - -At about the time that lasting was first introduced, came the machines -which were used for finishing heel and fore part. These machines were -fitted with a tool, which was heated by gas and which practically -duplicated the hand workman in rubbing the edges with a hot tool for the -purpose of finishing them. From these early machines have been evolved -the “edge-setting machines” which are in use at present. - -Thus, one after another, every operation has yielded to invention, until -very recently the only remaining process was subdued when a machine for -cutting uppers was devised. There are machines for shaping, compressing, -and nailing heels; for attaching soles to uppers in heavy shoes by wooden -pegs or copper screws and wires; for rounding, buffing, and polishing the -soles; for trimming and setting the edges of the sole; for performing -innumerable operations, some seemingly trivial, but all essential to -perfection in comfort, durability or style; so that in shoe factories -to-day a greater variety of intricate and expensive machines is used than -in factories of any other kind. - -At the present time the genius of the American inventor has provided for -every detail of shoemaking, even the smallest processes being performed -by mechanical devices of some kind. This has naturally made the shoemaker -of to-day a specialist, who very seldom knows anything of shoemaking -apart from the particular process in the performance of shoemaking of -which he is an adept, and from which he earns a livelihood. The American -shoe of to-day is the standard production of the world. It is in demand -wherever shoes are worn. - -In the year 1874 there had been perfected not only the machines which -Colonel McKay and Mr. Goodyear had been instrumental in building, but -other inventors had introduced similar machines for doing similar work. -This brought about the most acute business competition, and finally -resulted in many cases where one machine manufacturer alleged that the -other machine infringed his rights of patent, and in many other cases the -fiercest kind of litigation was established. This had a most disastrous -effect upon shoe manufacturers, for in many cases the manufacturer was -made to bear the brunt of the blows which contending shoe machinery -manufacturers aimed at each other. - -Machines in use in factories were stopped by means of injunctions; -damage suits were entered, and litigation was very general. During the -year 1899, there was ushered in one of the most important events that -ever transpired in the history of shoemaking. The most important of the -concerns which had been making war upon each other were purchased by one -large company and brought under one harmonious management. - -The United Shoe Machinery Company owes its origin to a call for a change -in conditions menacing the industry of making shoes which could not -be ignored. It was created by combining into one the three companies -existing in 1899: the Goodyear Sewing Machine Company, the Consolidated & -McKay Lasting Machine Company, and the McKay Shoe Machinery Company, each -of which respectively made and leased machines adapted to a particular -class of operations. The principal machines which each made did not -interfere with the principal machines of any other. They were dependent -links in an industrial chain. The Goodyear Sewing Machine Company -chiefly made machines for sewing the sole to the upper in welt shoes -and various auxiliary machines which helped to complete the shoe; The -Consolidated & McKay Lasting Machine Company made machines for lasting -a shoe; The McKay Shoe Machinery Company made various machines for -attaching soles and heels by metallic fastenings, and furnished material -for that purpose. A single manufacturer, in order to make Goodyear welt -shoes, would be compelled to patronize all the companies, going to each -of them for that part of his equipment which it exclusively supplied. -Each company had its agents in factories looking after its machines. - -The gathering of these three companies into a single organization -wrought an instant change. It resulted immediately in greater economy -of administration; in relieving the manufacturer of the vexation of -sometimes seeing his factory crippled while orders were piling up; -in freeing him from the annoyance and expense of dealing with several -different concerns in order to get his most important machines and keep -them in repair. - -The attention which had been paid to royalty machines and which had been -such an important factor in building up the industry in America, was -magnified by the management of the new company. Large forces of men and -expert machinists, as well as expert shoemakers, were maintained in the -different districts where shoes were made, and every effort exerted to -promote the growth of the industry. - -While the royalty system proved to be of great advantage to small shoe -manufacturers, the largest manufacturers objected to paying royalty on -machines and desired to purchase them outright. Being unable to do so, -they placed experts at work to invent similar machines. This has resulted -in the United Shoe Machinery Company claiming that these machines are -infringements and causing considerable litigation. - -If one reviews the history of the trade during the past ten years, there -will be little question but that one will find it has been a period of -the greatest advancement that the trade has ever known. - -Within the time of those who read these words, the way to make a shoe has -been completely changed. Methods which held their own for centuries have -disappeared, to be replaced by processes which only recently would have -been thought impossible, and which have brought within the reach of men -of modest means a luxury once enjoyed exclusively by the well-to-do. The -feet of the million are clad to-day as finely as the feet of yesterday’s -millionaire. Shoes marked by comfort, durability, and style have driven -to historical museums the stiff and clumsy boots and brogans which not so -many years ago were worn by those who could not pay to have shoes sewed -by hand. - -The American people spend more than three hundred million dollars every -year in buying shoes, and average three pairs apiece, and yet few ever -think about their shoes so long as they do not look clumsy, or wear out -too quickly, or hurt the foot. Every one likes to buy good shoes as -cheaply as he can, and every one likes to feel that shoe manufacturers -are independent and successful, and that workmen get good wages, because -these things help along prosperity; but that is all. Yet here is an -industry in which the United States within a decade has come to lead -the world, and there are many things about it which it would be worth -while for every one to understand. It is worth while, for instance, to -know that there is no important operation on a shoe which need be done -by hand; that in the making of every good shoe no less than fifty-eight -different machines, and sometimes twice that number, are brought into -play; that nearly all these machines are of American invention; and -that they have been so perfectly adjusted one to another that they work -together almost with the precision of a watch; it is worth while to know -something about the marvelous system under the encouragement of which -this typical American industry has blossomed and borne fruit until it -employs two hundred million dollars of capital and nearly two hundred -thousand people, and turns out two hundred and fifty million pairs of -shoes a year; and why it is that the average man you meet to-day has a -better fitting, better wearing, and better looking shoe than the moneyed -man of yesterday--at a fraction of the expense. - -This remarkable growth is distinctly American. In the United States -the tendency among the artisan class has been to abandon the slow hand -process. This tendency has been as strong as the tendency in Europe to -adhere to it. Moreover, there has developed among the laboring classes -in the United States a mobility such as is unknown elsewhere in the world. - -Another advantage which has contributed to the rapid development of the -manufacture of shoes in the United States is the comparative freedom from -inherited and overconservative ideas. This country has entered upon its -industrial development unfettered by the old order of things, and with a -tendency on the part of the people to seek the best and quickest way to -accomplish every object. - -[Illustration: Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory.] - -In all of the European countries in which the manufacturing of shoes is -an important industry, the transition from the household to the factory -system was hampered by guilds, elaborate national and local restrictions, -and by the national reluctance with which a people accustomed for -generations to fixed methods of work, in which they have acquired a large -degree of skill, abandon those methods for new ones. It was natural, -also, that in spite of the superior advantages of machine methods, hand -process of manufacture should still continue side by side with them, in -the European countries, though machine work had long since usurped the -whole field of the shoe industry in the United States. - -As an American goes about among the European shoe factories he is greatly -surprised at the state of affairs. He is struck by three things which -are very conspicuous. They are: (1) Lack of use of machinery, lack of -all sorts of devices in order to save hand labor, which is carried out -so extensively in the United States. (2) Lack of the division of labor, -one factory attempting to make four or five kinds of shoes. (3) Lack of -methods employed for handling large quantities of materials. - -One point that is overlooked in considering the shoe industries of the -two countries is the great difference in organization. In most European -factories, the manufacturer gets all the orders of different kinds, and -then attempts to make one or two lines with one or two qualities in the -same factory. In Switzerland one may find shoes and slippers for men, -women, and children made under the same roof. - -In the United States the manufacturer makes a certain line of shoes in -one factory, and no other kind. If he has more than one line, he has -more than one factory, and each factory turns out a distinct shoe for a -distinct purpose. The manufacturer has his salesmen to sell these shoes. - -The advantages of the American system are: (1) The managers and -workers of a factory turning out a certain line of goods become highly -specialized in that line, and can produce better results than the workers -in a factory attempting to make two or three lines of goods. (2) A large -shoe factory is laid out as a rule to do a certain kind of work, and it -seldom changes. This practice makes possible a greater production. On the -other hand we have something to learn from the European organization. -American manufacturers must meet the foreign trade. In order to do -this, the manufacturer must cater to the habits, customs, and climatic -conditions. The European manufacturer does this. - - - - -INDEX - - - Amhide, black, 58. - russet, 59. - - Anatomy of the foot, 77, 80. - - Ankle piece, 246. - - Assembling, 126, 177. - - Automobile leather, 225. - tanning of, 226. - - - Backs, 12. - - Backstay, 2, 177, 247. - - Back strap, 177. - - Bal., 177. - - Ball, 178. - - Bating, 19. - - Beading, 178. - - Beamhouse process, 5. - - Beating out, 178. - - Bellows tongue, 178. - - Belting, 62, 63, 178. - by-products, 69. - round, 69. - - Belt-knife splits, 60. - - Between substance, 178. - - Bison, 59. - - Blackball, 178. - - Black box chrome side, 58. - - Black hawk patent, 58. - - Blacking the edge, 179. - - Blocking, 179. - - Bloom, 179. - - Blucher, 179. - - Boot, 180. - - Bootee, 180. - - Boris, 59. - - Bottom, 1. - filling, 180. - scouring, 180. - - Box calf, 55, 180. - toe, 181. - - Boxing, 180. - - Branded cowhide, 9. - - Breaking the sole, 181. - - Breast of the heel, 3. - - Brogan, 181. - - Bronko patent, 57. - - Brushing, 181. - - Buckskin, 181. - - Buff, 181. - - Buffing, 181. - - Bull hides, 16. - - Bunions, 84. - - Button fly, 2. - - Butts, 9. - - - Cable-nailing machine, invention of, 261. - - Cack, 182. - - Cadet kid, 56. - side, 57. - - Calf leather, boarded, 40. - box, 40. - classes of, 40, 41. - cadet calf side, 57. - Dongola, 59. - dry hides, 40. - French, 40. - mat, 40. - Sheboygan, 59. - storm, 40. - suede, 40. - wax, 40. - - Calf side leather, 57. - skins, 39, 182. - - Calluses, 83. - - Cambridge calf union splits, 60. - - Cap, 182. - - Carbarettas, 51, 181. - - Carton, 182. - - Cementing, 182. - - Chamois, 182. - - Channeling, 183. - - Channel screwed, 183. - stitched, 183. - turning, 184. - - Checking, 184. - - Chemical tanning, 23, 24, 25. - - Chrome flexible splits, 61. - tannage, 25, 26. - tanned embossed splits, 62. - - Cleaning, inside, 184. - nails, 184. - shoes, 184. - - Clicking, 184. - - Closing, 184. - on, 184. - - Colonial, 185. - - Colorado steer hides, 9. - - Colored box chrome side, 58. - - Coltskin, 41, 185. - - Combination last, 185. - - Composition, 185. - - Congress gaiter, 186. - - Cordovan, 186. - - Corns, 83, 84. - - Counter, 124, 186. - pasted, 201. - - Coupon tag, 187. - - Cowhide, 187. - native, heavy and light, 7-9. - branded, 9. - - Creasing vamp, 187. - - Creedmore, 187. - - Creole, 187. - - Crimping, 188. - - Cushion sole, 188. - - Cut-off vamp, 188. - - - Dyeing, 188. - - Dom Pedro, 188. - - Dongola, 188. - calf, 59. - - Dressing, 188. - - Dry importation, 40, 41. - salted hides, 12, 32. - - - Edge setting, 188. - trimming, 188. - - Enamel, 189. - - Eyelet, 189. - - Eyeletting, 189. - - - Facing, 189. - - Factory system, first, 254. - - Fair stitch, 189. - - Faking, 189. - - Fat liquored, 27. - - Findings, 189. - - Finishes of upper leather, 38. - - Finishing of upper leather, 5. - - Flap, 190. - - Flesher, 18. - - Flesh splits leather, 38, 60. - - Flexible bends, 61. - splits, 61. - - Follower, 190. - - Foot, 77. - adult, 87. - anatomy of, 77, 78. - astragalus, 78. - calcaneum, 78. - characteristics of, 81. - cuneiform, 79. - flatfoot, 78. - measurements of, 95. - metatarsal, 79. - phalanges, 79. - rheumatism, 79. - structure of, 86. - - Footwear, history of, 250. - - Forepart finishing, 190. - - Form, 190. - - Foxed, 190. - - Foxing, 2, 190. - - Fresh hides, 7. - - Frizzing, 191. - - Front, 191. - - Fudge-stitched, 133. - - Fundamental shoe terms, 1. - - Furniture leather, 225. - tanning of, 226. - - - Gaiter, 191. - congress, 186. - - Gem insoles, 191. - - Gemming, 191. - - Glazed kid, 191. - - Gloves, 218. - grain, 191. - tanning, 221. - - Goatskin, 191. - - Goodyear welt, 192. - difference between McKay and, 145. - - Gore, 192. - - Grades of leather, 7. - - Grading, 192. - - Grain leather, 38. - - Green hides, 7. - - Green salted, 12. - - Gum counter, 247. - - - Half sole, 192. - - Harness leather, 192. - - Heel, 192. - breast of, 3. - finishing, 193. - lining, 193. - nailing, 194. - nailing machine, invention of, 262. - pad, 193. - scouring, 194. - seat, 194. - shaving, 194. - trimming, 194. - - Hemlock leather, 29. - tanning, 29, 30, 194. - - Hercules storm chrome, 59. - - Hides, 4, 194. - bull, 10, 63. - classes of, 5, 6. - country, 10. - dry, 12, 32. - dry importation, 40, 41. - dry salted, 12, 32. - fresh, 7. - grades of, 7, 8, 9. - green, 7. - green salted, 12, 32. - imported, 32. - quality of, 6. - - - Inlay, 194. - - Inner sole, 247. - - Inseaming, 195. - - Inseam trimming, 195. - - Instep, 195. - - Iron, 195. - - Ironing uppers, 196. - - - Juliette, 196. - - - Kid, buckskin, 52. - buff, 52. - caster, 51. - chamois, 52. - characteristics of, 49. - Cordovan, 52. - dull, 49. - glazed, 49, 50. - importation of, 45. - kangaroo, 52, 196. - kangaroo kid side, 58. - kinds of finish, 49. - mat, 49, 50. - method of collecting, 46-48. - patent, 49. - process of tanning, 49. - seal grain, 52. - splits, 52. - suede, 51. - - Kids, 41, 44, 196. - - Kips, 5, 196. - - - Lace hook, 196. - stay, 2, 196. - - Lacing, 197. - - Lasting, 197. - - Lasts, 97, 197. - combination, 185. - how made, 97. - - Laying channel, 197. - - Leather, 4. - automobile and furniture, 226. - belting, 62. - effect of cold, 53. - gloves, 218. - glove tanning, 221. - harness, 192. - hemlock, 29. - products, manufacture of, 218. - white, 54. - - Leg cover, 198. - lining, 198. - - Leveling, 197. - - Lift, 197. - - Lining, 197. - - Lining-in, 198. - - Lip, 190. - - Loading leather, 198. - - - Mat royal chrome side, 58. - - McKay shoe, 144, 198, 199. - difference between Goodyear welt and, 145. - difference between turned and, 152. - - Middle sole, 199. - - Mock welt, 199. - - Molding, 199. - - Monkey skin, 199. - - Morocco, 199. - - Mules, 199. - - - Nap, 199. - - Native cowhides, 9. - steer hides, 9. - - Naumkeaging, 199. - - Nullifier, 200. - - - Oak-tanned leather, 28, 200. - - Oak tanning, 28, 29. - - Ohio buffs, 10. - - Ooze gusset splits, 61. - leather, 200. - vamp splits, 62. - - Ottawa, 59. - black and russet splits, 60. - - Outer filler, 247. - - Outside cutting, 200. - tap, 200. - - Oxford, 200. - calf union splits, 60. - - - Packer hides, 201. - - Packing, 201. - - Pacs, 201. - - Pancake, 201. - - Para, 248. - - Pasted leather, 201. - - Patent leather, 41-43, 201. - black hawk, 58. - effect of cold on, 43. - objections to, 44. - - Pattern, 201. - - Pebble, 202. - - Pegged shoemaking, 160. - - Pegging, 202. - - Perforating, 118. - - Perforation, 202. - - Pickled skins, 18. - - Piping, 248. - - Polish, 202. - - Porpoise, 202. - - Pressing, 202. - - Pulling lasts, 202. - - Pulling over, 202. - machine, 127. - - Pump, 202. - sole, 202. - - - Quarter, 2, 203. - - - Rag counter, 248. - - Rand, 203. - - Rawhide products, 67. - - Relasting, 203. - - Remnants, 33. - sole leather, 33-37. - - Repairing, 204. - - Roan, 204. - - Rolling, 204. - machine, invention of, 257. - - Rough rounding, 204. - - Royal kid, 56. - - Royalties, 204. - - Royalty system, invention of, 260. - - Rubber, 228. - cloth manufacture, 244. - commercial grades of, 228. - drying, 232. - heels, 241. - shoe manufacture, 228. - calendering, 235. - cutting, 235. - varnishing, 237. - vulcanizing, 237. - washing, 231. - - Russet calf, 204. - grain, 204. - - - Sabot, 204. - - Sack lining, 204, 207. - - Sandal, 205, 250. - - Satin calf, 205. - - Scouring breast, 205. - - Screw fastened, 205. - - Seal grain, 205. - - Second lasting, 205. - - Sewing machine, invention of, 257. - - Shank, 1, 205. - burnishing, 206. - finishing, 206. - - Shanking out, 206. - - Sheboygan calf, 59. - - Sheepskin, 206. - - Sheep tanning, 16, 17. - - Shoe, 103. - apprentice, 253. - case of, 109. - cutting room, 112. - departments of, 103. - dressing, 142. - factories, 103. - finishing, 138. - heeling, 140. - methods of manufacture, 103. - parts of, 1. - repairing, 167, 170. - sizes, 85, 207. - stitching, 119, 131. - treeing, 140. - - Shoe Machinery Company, organization of, 270. - - Shoemaker, first, in America, 251. - - Shoemaking, 162. - old-fashioned, 162. - nail method, 161. - terms of, 177. - - Shoe pegs, invention of, 257. - - Shoulder, 196. - - Sides, 206. - - Side stay, 248. - - Skins, 6, 207. - - Skirting, 207. - - Skiver, 18, 207. - - Skiving machine, 117. - - Slip, 207. - - Slugging, 207. - - Soaking process, 13, 19. - - Soft tip, 207. - - Sole, 11, 123, 208. - leather, 27, 28, 208. - laying, 208. - breaking of, 181. - - Sorting, 208. - - Spewing, 208. - - Splits, 11, 60-62, 209. - - Spring heel, 209. - - Stamping, 209, 210. - - Standard fastened, 210. - screw shoemaking, 160. - - Stay, 209. - - Staying, 210. - - Steer hides, native, 9. - - Stitch aloft, 210. - - Stitch down, 210. - fair, 189. - separating, 210. - - Stitching, rapid, 203. - - Straight last, 210. - - Stripping, 211. - - Styles, how made, 93. - - Suede, 211. - - - Tacking on, 211. - - Tack pulling, 211. - - Tampico, 211. - - Tan, 211. - royal, 56. - - Tanned leather adulterants, 75. - effects of perspiration, 71. - lubrication, 72. - properties, 70. - substitutes, 73, 74, 76. - weighing, 75. - - Tannin, 21. - - Tanning, 4, 21, 211. - chemical, 21. - hemlock, 29, 30. - leather for belting, 64, 65, 66. - oak, 28, 29. - processes of, 21. - rapid processes of, 25. - tawing, 21, 212. - Union, 30, 31. - vegetable, 21. - - Tap, 211. - putting on, 202. - trimming, 212. - - Tawing, 212. - - Tempering, 212. - - Tennis shoe manufacture, 239. - - Texas steer hide, 9. - - Tip, 2, 212. - cutting, 212. - - Toe, and heel lasting, 212. - box, 181. - filler, 248. - lining, 248. - piece, 213. - - Tongue, 2, 213. - - Top, 1, 213. - cutting, 213. - facing, 213. - left, 213. - left scouring, 213. - left stitching, 213. - - Treeing, 213. - - Trimming counter, 213. - vamp, 213. - - Turned shoe, characteristics of, 156. - difference between McKay and, 152. - history of, 158. - - Turning, 214. - shoe, 151, 214. - - - Ungrained, 214. - - Unhairing of hides, 15, 19. - - Union-tanned leather, 30, 31. - - Union tanning, 30, 31. - - Upper, 1, 214. - - Upper or dress leather, 37, 38, 55-57. - - - Vamp, 1, 214, 249. - creasing, 187. - cutting, 215. - form, 249. - short, 206. - - Vamping, 215. - - Vegetable tanning, 22. - tans, 22. - - Vellum, 215. - - Velour, 215. - - Veneering, 215. - - Vesting, 215. - - Vici, 216. - - Viscolizing, 216. - - Vulcanizing, 243. - cold cure, 243. - steam cure, 243. - - - Wash leather, 216. - - Waterproof black, 58. - - Waxed threads, 164. - - Web straps, 249. - - Welts, 129, 216. - beating, 217. - Goodyear, 192. - - Welting, 217. - - White alum, 217. - - Willow calf leather, 55. - - Wooden case, 217. - - - Zulu, 59. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and -Rubber Products, by William H. 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Dooley - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and Rubber Products - -Author: William H. Dooley - -Release Date: September 1, 2017 [EBook #55474] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger">A MANUAL OF SHOEMAKING</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus1" style="width: 520px;"> -<img src="images/illus1.jpg" width="520" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">An Old-Fashioned Shoemaker. <i>Frontispiece.</i></p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger">A MANUAL<br /> -<span class="smaller">OF</span><br /> -SHOEMAKING<br /> -<span class="smaller">AND</span><br /> -LEATHER AND RUBBER<br /> -PRODUCTS</p> - -<p class="titlepage">BY<br /> -WILLIAM H. DOOLEY<br /> -<span class="smaller">PRINCIPAL OF THE LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage"><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></p> - -<p class="titlepage">BOSTON<br /> -LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY<br /> -1912</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Copyright, 1912</i>,<br /> -<span class="smcap">By Little, Brown, and Company.</span></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><i>All rights reserved.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller">Published, September, 1912.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> - -<p>The author was asked in 1908 by the -Lynn Commission on Industrial Education -to make an investigation of European shoe -schools and to assist the Commission in -preparing a course of study for the proposed -shoe school in the city of Lynn. A close -investigation showed that there were several -textbooks on shoemaking published in -Europe, but that no general textbook on -shoemaking had been issued in this country -adapted to meet the needs of industrial, -trade, and commercial schools or those who -have just entered the rubber, shoe, and -leather trades. This book is written to meet -this need. Others may find it of interest.</p> - -<p>The author is under obligations to the -following persons and firms for information -and assistance in preparing the book, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> -for permission to reproduce photographs -and information from their publications: -Mr. J. H. Finn, Mr. Frank L. West, Head -of Shoemaking Department, Tuskegee, Ala., -Mr. Louis Fleming, Mr. F. Garrison, President -of <i>Shoe and Leather Gazette</i>, Mr. Arthur -L. Evans, <i>The Shoeman</i>, Mr. Charles F. -Cahill, United Shoe Machinery Company, -Hood Rubber Company, Bliss Shoe Company, -American Hide and Leather Company, -Regal Shoe Company, the publishers -of <i>Hide and Leather</i>, <i>American Shoemaking</i>, -<i>Shoe Repairing</i>, <i>Boot and Shoe Recorder</i>, <i>The -Weekly Bulletin</i>, and the New York Leather -Belting Company.</p> - -<p>In addition, the author desires to acknowledge -his indebtedness to the great -body of foreign literature on the different -subjects from which information has been -obtained.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PREFACE">v</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr smaller">CHAPTER</td> - <td></td> - <td></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Fundamental Shoe Terms</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_ONE">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Hides and their Treatment</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TWO">4</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Processes of Tanning</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_THREE">21</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Anatomy of the Foot</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_FOUR">77</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">How Shoe Styles are Made</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_FIVE">93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Departments of a Shoe Factory</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_SIX">103</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">McKay and Turned Shoes</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_SEVEN">144</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Old-fashioned Shoemaking and Repairing</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_EIGHT">162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Leather and Shoemaking Terms</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_NINE">177</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Leather Products Manufacture</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TEN">218</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Rubber Shoe Manufacture and Terms</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_ELEVEN">228</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">History of Footwear</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_TWELVE">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">281</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> - -<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<table summary="List of illustrations"> - <tr> - <td>An Old-fashioned Shoemaker</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr smaller"><span class="smcap">Facing Page</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus2">2</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Green-salted Calfskin</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus3">12</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tanning Process</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus4">24</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tanning Process, showing Rotating Drums</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus5">28</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sole Leather Offal</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus6">34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bones and Joints of the Human Foot</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus7">78</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus8">78</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A Last in Three Stages of Manufacture</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus9">98</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A Modern Shoe Factory</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus10">104</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>A Skin Divided before Cutting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus11">112</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cutting Leather</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus12">116</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Goodyear Stitching</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus13">116</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stock Fitting Room</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus14">120</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lasting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus15">124</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Welting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus16">124</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rough Rounding</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus17">128</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Edge Trimming</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus18">128</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Leveling</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus19">132</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span>Heeling</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus20">132</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sole Scouring</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus21">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Heel Shaping</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus22">136</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ironing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus23">140</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Packing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus24">140</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus25">144</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stitching</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus26">148</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tacking</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus27">148</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus28">160</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Side of Leather divided as to Quality</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus29">168</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus30">200</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus31">200</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Crude Rubber</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus32">228</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Washing and Drying</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus33">232</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Calender Room</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus34">234</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cutting Room</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus35">236</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus36">240</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Heel-making Department</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus37">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Parts of a Rubber Boot</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus38">248</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Insole for Hand-sewed Shoe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus39">264</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hand-sewed Shoe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus40">264</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#illus41">276</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - -<h1>SHOEMAKING</h1> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_ONE">CHAPTER ONE<br /> -<span class="smaller">FUNDAMENTAL SHOE TERMS</span></h2> - -<p>Before explaining the manufacture of -shoes, it is necessary to fix definitely in -our minds the names of their different parts. -Examine your shoes and note the parts that -are here described.</p> - -<p>The bottom of the shoe is called the sole. -The part above the sole is called the upper. -The top of the shoe is that part measured -by the lacing which covers the ankle and -the instep. The vamp is that section which -covers the sides of the foot and the toes. -The shank is that part of the sole of the shoe -between the heel and the ball. This name -is often applied to a piece of metal or other -substance in that part of the sole, intended -to give support to the arch of the foot. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -throat of the vamp is that part which curves -around the lower edge of the top, where -the lacing starts.</p> - -<p>Backstay is a term used to denote a strip -of leather covering and strengthening the -back seam of the shoe. Quarter is a term -used mostly in low shoes to denote the rear -part of the upper when a full vamp is not -used. Button fly is the portion of the upper -containing the buttonholes of a button shoe. -Tip is the toe piece of a shoe, stitched to -the vamp and outside of it. The lace stay -is a term used to denote a strip of leather -reënforcing the eyelet holes. Tongue denotes -a narrow strip of leather used on all -lace shoes to protect the instep from the -lacing and weather.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus2" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus2.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Names of the Different Parts of Foot Wear. <i><a href="#Page_2">Page 2.</a></i></p> -</div> - -<p>Foxing is the name applied to leather of -the upper that extends from the sole to -the laces in front, and to about the height -of the counter in the back, being the length -of the upper. It may be in one or more -pieces, and is often cut down to the shank<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -in circular form. If in two pieces, that part -covering the counter is called a heel fox. -Overlay is a term applied to leather attached -to the upper part of the vamp of a slipper. -The breast of the heel is the inner part of -the heel, that is, the section nearest the -shank.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_TWO">CHAPTER TWO<br /> -<span class="smaller">HIDES AND THEIR TREATMENT</span></h2> - -<p>If we examine our shoes, we will find -that the different parts are composed of -material called leather. The bottom of the -shoe is of hard leather, while the part above -the sole is of a softer, more pliable leather. -This leather is nothing more than the hides -of different animals treated in such a way -as to remove the fat and the hair.</p> - -<p>After the hides have been taken from the -dead body of the animal, they are quite -heavily salted to preserve them from spoiling. -In this salted condition they are -shipped to the tanneries.</p> - -<p>The process or series of processes by -which the hides and skins of animals are -converted into leather is called tanning. -The process may be divided into three -groups of subprocesses as follows:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> - -<p>Beamhouse process, which removes the -hair from the hides and prepares them for -the actual process of the tanning or conversion -into leather; tanning, which converts -the raw hide into leather; and finishing, -which involves a number of operations, the -objects of which are to give the leather the -color that may be desired and also to make -it of uniform thickness, and impart to it the -softness and the finish that is required for -a particular purpose.</p> - -<p>Hides are divided roughly in the tannery, -according to the size, into three general -classes:—</p> - -<p>(1) Hides, skins from fully grown animals, -as cows, oxen, horses, buffaloes, walrus, -etc. These are thick, heavy leather, used -for shoe soles, large machinery belting, -trunks, etc., where stiffness, strength, and -wearing qualities are desired. The untanned -hides weigh from twenty-five to -sixty pounds.</p> - -<p>(2) Kips, skins of the undersized animals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -of the above group, weighing between -fifteen and twenty-five pounds.</p> - -<p>(3) Skins from small animals, such as -calves, sheep, goats, dogs, etc. This last -group gives a light, but strong and pliable -leather, which may be used for a great many -purposes, such as men’s shoes and the -heavier grades of women’s shoes.</p> - -<p>The hides, kips, and skins are divided into -various grades, according to their weight, -size, condition, and quality.</p> - -<p>The quality of the hides not only depends -upon the kind of animal, but also upon its -fodder and mode of living. The hides of -wild cattle yield a more compact and stronger -leather than those of our domesticated -beasts. Among these latter the stall-fed have -better hides than the meadow-fed, or grazing -cattle. The thickness of the hide varies -considerably on different animals and on the -parts of the body, the thickest part of the -bull being near the head and the middle of -the back, while at the belly the hide is thinnest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -These differences are less conspicuous -in sheep, goats, and calves. As regards -sheep, it would appear that their skin is -generally thinnest where their wool is longest.</p> - -<p>In the raw, untanned state, and with -the hair still on, the hides are termed -“green” or “fresh.” Fresh, or green hides -are supplied to the tanners by the packers -or the butchers, or are imported, either dry -or salted.</p> - -<p>Hides are obtained either from the regular -packing houses or from farmers who -kill their own stock, and do not skin the -animal as scientifically as the regular packing -houses, in which case they are called -country hides. There are different grades -of hides and leather, and these different -grades are divided in the commercial world -into the five following grades:—</p> - -<h3>I. NATIVE HIDES</h3> - -<ul> -<li>Native Steers</li> -<li>Native Cows, heavy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></li> -<li>Native Cows, light</li> -<li>Branded Cows</li> -<li>Butts</li> -<li>Colorado Steers</li> -<li>Texas Steers, heavy</li> -<li>Texas Steers, light</li> -<li>Texas Steers, ex-light</li> -<li>Native Bulls</li> -<li>Branded Bulls</li> -</ul> - -<h3>II. COUNTRY HIDES</h3> - -<ul> -<li>Ohio Buffs</li> -<li>Ohio Ex.</li> -<li>Southerns</li> -</ul> - -<h3>III. DRY HIDES</h3> - -<p>(Raised on plain. Rough side suitable for soles.)</p> - -<ul> -<li>Buenos Ayres</li> -</ul> - -<h3>IV. CALFSKINS</h3> - -<p>(Green salted)</p> - -<ul> -<li>Chicago City</li> -</ul> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> - -<h3>V. PARIS CITY CALFSKINS</h3> - -<ul> -<li>Light</li> -<li>Medium</li> -<li>Heavy</li> -</ul> - -<p>Hides obtained from steers raised on -Western farms are known as native steer -hides.</p> - -<p>Native cowhide (heavy) is hide weighing -from fifty-five to sixty-five pounds, obtained -from cows.</p> - -<p>Native cowhide (light) is cowhide weighing -under fifty-five pounds.</p> - -<p>Branded cowhide is hide obtained from -cows that are branded on the face of the -hide.</p> - -<p>Butts is a term applied to the part of the -hide remaining after cutting off the head, -shoulders, and strip of the belly.</p> - -<p>Colorado steer hide is from Colorado -steers, which are very light.</p> - -<p>Texas steer hide comes in three grades, -heavy, light, and extra light. The heavy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -grade is very heavy because the animal is -allowed to graze on the plains. That is the -reason why it is heavier than the Colorado -steer hide, which is raised on the farm.</p> - -<p>Bull hide is divided into two classes, the -regular hide and the branded grade. The -branded grade usually is one cent a pound -less than the regular.</p> - -<p>Country hides are of three grades, Ohio -Buffs, Ohio Ex., and Southern. The Ohio -Buffs weigh from forty to sixty pounds. -The Ohio Ex. weighs from twenty to forty -pounds. Southern hides have spots without -hair and other blemishes on them, due to -the sting of insects. This makes the -Southern hide inferior to the Ohio, Indiana, -Michigan, and Chicago hides that have no -such blemishes. Ohio Butt hides are the -best, because in Ohio they kill a great many -young calves, while in Chicago young cows -(that have calved) are killed, causing the -hide to be flanky.</p> - -<p>The season of the year in which cattle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -are slaughtered has considerable influence -upon both the weight and condition of the -hide. During the winter months, by reason -of the hair being longer and thicker, the hide -is heavier, ranging from seventy-five to -eighty pounds, and gradually decreasing -in weight as the season becomes warmer -and the coat is shed, until in June and -July it weighs from seventy down to fifty-five -pounds, the hair then being thin and -short. The best hides of the year are -October hides, and short-haired hides are -better for leather purposes than long-haired -ones.</p> - -<p>A thick hide which is to be used for -upper leather is cut into sides before the -tanning process is completed. This is -performed by passing it between rollers -where it comes in contact with a sharp -knife-edge, which splits it into two or more -sheets. Great care must be exercised in -cutting the leather in order to have good -“splits” (sheets of leather). A split from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -a heavy hide is not as good as a whole of a -lighter leather.</p> - -<p>Butts and backs are selected from the -stoutest and heaviest oxhides. The butt -is formed by cutting off the head, the -shoulder, and the strip of the belly. The -butt or back of oxhide forms the stoutest -and heaviest leather, such as is used for -soles of boots, harness, etc.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus3" style="width: 490px;"> -<img src="images/illus3.jpg" width="490" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Green-Salted Calfskin. <i><a href="#Page_12">Page 12.</a></i></p> -</div> - -<p>Hides and skins are received at the -tannery in one of three conditions, viz. -green-salted, dry, or dry-salted. Very few -hides are received by tanners in fresh or -unsalted condition, salt being necessary to -preserve them from decay. Green-salted -hides are those that have been salted in -fresh condition, tied up in bundles, and -shipped to the tanner. Dry hides are those -that were taken from the carcass and dried -without being salted; these are usually -stiff and hard. Dry-salted hides are hides -that were heavily salted while they were -fresh, and then dried. The hides and skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -that are received from the slaughterhouses -of this country are almost invariably green-salted; -those from foreign countries are -green-salted, dry, and dry-salted.</p> - -<p>It does not matter in what condition the -hides are received or the kind of leather -into which they are to be tanned; they all -require soaking in water before any attempt -is made to remove the hair or to tan them. -The object of the soaking process, as it is -called, is to thoroughly soften the hides -and to remove from them all salt, dirt, -blood, etc. Ordinary hides are usually -soaked from twenty-four to forty-eight -hours. Dry hides require much longer. -The water should be changed once or twice -during the process, since dirty water may -injure the hides. Soft water is better than -hard for this process. Where the water is -hard, it is customary for the tanner to add -a quantity of borax to it to increase its -cleansing power and to hasten the softening -of the hides.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> - -<p>When dry hides have become soft enough -to bend without cracking, they are put -into a machine and beaten and rolled, then -soaked again until they are soft and pliable. -It is very important that all the salt and -dirt are removed during the process of -soaking, as they injure the quality of the -leather if they are not removed before -the hides are unhaired. When the soaking -process is completed, the lumps of fat and -flesh that may have been left on by the -butcher are removed by hand or by a -machine, and the hides are then in condition -to be passed along into the next process. -The parts that cannot be made into leather, -such as tails, teats, etc., are trimmed off -before the hides are soaked. Large hides -are cut into two pieces or halves, called -“sides,” after they have been soaked.</p> - -<p>For the purpose of taking the hair from -the hides and skins, lime, sulphide of -sodium, and red arsenic are used. Lime -is sometimes used alone, but usually one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -of the other two chemicals is mixed with it. -The lime is dissolved in hot water, a quantity -of either sulphide of sodium or red -arsenic is added to it, and the solution is -then mixed with water in a vat, the hides -being immersed in this liquor until the hair -can be easily removed. The action of the -unhairing liquor is to swell the hides, then -to dissolve the perishable animal portion -and loosen the hair so that it can be rubbed -or pulled off.</p> - -<p>There are several different processes of -unhairing the hides. Each tanner uses the -process that will help to give the leather -the qualities that it should have, such as -softness and pliability for shoe and glove -leather, or firmness and solidity for sole -and belting leather. This is one of the -most important in the series of tannery -processes, and if the hides are not unhaired -properly and not prepared for tanning as -they should be, the leather will not be right -when it is tanned and finished.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> - -<p>There is also a process of unhairing, called -“sweating,” which softens the hide and -loosens the hair so that it can be scraped off. -In this process the hides begin to decay before -the hair is loose; it is therefore a dangerous -process to use and must be carefully watched -or the hides will be entirely spoiled. Sweating -is never used for the finer, softer kinds -of leather. It is applied chiefly to dry -hides for sole, lace, and belt leather. It is -an old-fashioned process and is not used as -much nowadays as some years ago.</p> - -<p>The pelts of sheep are salted at the -slaughterhouses and then shipped to the -tannery. Here they are thrown into water -and left to soak twenty-four hours to -loosen the dirt and dissolve the salt. The -pelts are next passed through machines that -clean the wool, and any particles of flesh -remaining on the inner or flesh side are -removed. The pelts are then in condition -to have the wool removed. As long as a -sheepskin has the wool upon it, it is called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -a pelt; as soon as the wool has been taken -off, it is called a skin or a “slat.”</p> - -<p>Each pelt is spread out smoothly on a -table with the wool down and the inner or -flesh side up. A mixture of lime and -sulphide of sodium is next applied uniformly -over the skin with a brush. The pelt is -then folded up and placed in a pile with -others. The solution that was applied -penetrates the skin and loosens the wool, -which, at the end of twenty-four hours, -more or less, can be easily pulled off with -the hands or rubbed off with a dull instrument -or stick. The workman must be -careful not to get any of the solution on to -the wool, as it dissolves it and makes it -worthless. Since the wool is valuable, the -solution must be applied to the flesh side -very carefully so that it does no injury. -The wool that is removed from the skins is -called “pulled wool.”</p> - -<p>The slat is now ready to be limed, washed, -pickled, and tanned. Heavy skins are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -often split into two sheets after they have -been limed. The part from the wool side -is called a skiver, and that from the flesh -side is called a flesher.</p> - -<p>After the skins have been limed, they are -bated and washed, which makes them soft, -clean, and white; they are then put into a -solution of salt, sulphuric acid, and water, -called “pickle,” and after a few hours they -are taken out, drained, and tanned.</p> - -<p>Large quantities of sheepskins are sold -to tanners in the pickled condition by those -who make a business of preparing such -skins and selling the wool. Pickled skins -can be kept an indefinite length of time -without spoiling; they can also be dried -and worked out into a cheap white leather -without any further tanning whatever. -Most of such skins, however, are sold to -tanners, who tan them into leather. Sheepskins -contain considerable grease, which -must be removed before the leather can be -sold.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> - -<p>For some processes of tanning, calfskins, -goatskins, and cattle hides are also pickled -the same as sheepskins; for other processes -they are not pickled, but are thoroughly -bated or delimed, washed, and cleansed. -Heavy hides are sometimes split out of the -lime; more frequently, however, they are -not split until after they have been tanned.</p> - -<p>To capitulate, the preparatory processes -may be briefly described as follows:—</p> - -<p>Soaking, which dissolves the salt, removes -the dirt and makes the hides soft and -comparatively clean.</p> - -<p>Liming and unhairing, which swell the -hides and dissolve the perishable animal -portion, loosen the hair, and put the hides -into proper condition for tanning. Hides -tanned without liming, even if the hair is -removed by some chemical, do not make -pliable leather, but are stiff and hard.</p> - -<p>Bating, which removes the lime from the -hides.</p> - -<p>Pickling, which helps in the tanning later,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -and keeps the hides and skins from spoiling -if they are not tanned at once.</p> - -<p>The lumps of fat and flesh that may be on -the hides are removed by machinery or by -placing the hide over a beam and scraping it -with a knife. The hair, when it is loosened -by the lime, is removed by a machine or by -hand.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_THREE">CHAPTER THREE<br /> -<span class="smaller">PROCESSES OF TANNING</span></h2> - -<p>The various processes of tanning may -be roughly divided into two classes, -vegetable chemical and mineral chemical. -The first class is often spoken of in tanneries -simply as the “vegetable” while the second -is called “chemical” process. In the vegetable -processes the tanning is accomplished -by tannin, which is found in various barks -and woods of trees and leaves of plants. In -the so-called chemical processes the tanning -is done with mineral salts and acids which -produce an entirely different kind of leather -from that procured by vegetable tanning.</p> - -<p>There is also a method of tanning, or, -more properly speaking, tawing, in which -alum and salt are used. This process -makes white leather that is used for many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -purposes; it is also colored and used in -the manufacture of fine gloves. Leather -is also made by tanning skins with oil. -Chamois skins are made in this way.</p> - -<p>The materials that are used to tan hides -and skins act upon the hide fibers in such -a way that the hides are rendered proof -against decay and become pliable and strong. -There are many vegetable tans; they are -used for sole leather, upper leather, and -colored leather for numerous purposes. -The bark of hemlock trees is one of the -principal tans. The woods and barks -of oak, chestnut, and quebracho trees -are often used. Palmetto roots yield a -good tan. Large quantities of leather are -treated with gambier and various other -tanning materials that come from foreign -countries. Sumac leaves, which are imported -from Sicily, contain tannin that -makes soft leather suitable for hat sweatbands, -suspender trimmings, etc. Sumac -is also obtained from the State of Virginia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -but the foreign leaves contain more tannin -and make better leather than the -American.</p> - -<p>To a large extent the so-called chemical -processes have supplanted the vegetable -processes, that is, old tan bark and sumac -processes; but in some tanneries both -methods are used on different kinds of -skins.</p> - -<p>In the old bark process the tan bark is -ground coarse and is then treated in leaches -with hot water until the tanning quality is -drawn out. The liquor so obtained is used -at various strengths as needed.</p> - -<p>In the newer method the tan liquor is -displaced by a solution of potassium bichromate, -which produces its results with much -less expenditure of time.</p> - -<p>When the hides or skins are ready for -the tanning process, they are put into a -revolving drum, known as a “pinwheel,” -or into a pit in which are revolving paddles, -with a dilute solution of potassium dichromate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -or sodium dichromate, acidified with -hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. If the pinwheel -is employed, it is revolved for seven -hours or longer; after which time the -liquor is drawn off and replaced by an -acidified solution of sodium thiosulphate or -bisulphite, and then the revolution is continued -several hours longer. If the pit is -used, the skins are removed to another -drum containing the second solution, and -kept at rest or overturned for a like period.</p> - -<p>In removing the skins from the pinwheel -or vat, and in handling them after treatment -with lime for the loosening of the hair, the -hands and arms of the workmen are seriously -injured, becoming raw if not protected by -rubber gloves; even with gloves it is difficult -to prevent injury, and in some establishments -the workmen are relieved by -the substitution of a single-bath process, -in which the liquor is less harmful to the -skin.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus4" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus4.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Tanning Process</p> -<p class="caption">Showing the vats, the unhairing and liming processes. <i><a href="#Page_24">Page 24.</a></i></p> -</div> - -<p>The hides are then removed from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -pits, washed and brushed, followed by slow -drying in the air. When partly dried, they -are placed in a pile and covered until heating -is induced. They are then dampened -and rolled with brass rollers to give the -leather solidity. Sole leather is oiled but -little. Weight is increased by adding glucose -and salt.</p> - -<p>Various rapid processes of tanning have -been devised in which the hides are suspended -in strong liquors or are tanned in -large revolving drums. It is claimed that -this hastens the process, but the product -has been criticized as lacking substance or -being brittle.</p> - -<p>Chrome tannage has been chiefly developed -in this country during the last twenty -years and is now in general use. It consists -in throwing an insoluble chromium hydroxide -or oxide on the fibers of a skin which -has been impregnated with a soluble chromium -salt—potassium bichromate. Other -salts like basic chromium chloride, chromium<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -chromate, and chromic alum are also used. -The hydrochloric or sulphuric acid acts -by setting free chromic acid.</p> - -<p>After several hours, the skin shows a -uniform yellow when cut through its thickest -part. It is then drained and the skin -worked in a solution of sodium bisulphite -and mineral acid (to free sulphur dioxide). -The chromic acid is absorbed by the fiber -and later reduced by sulphur dioxide.</p> - -<p>In the making of chrome black leather -each tanner has his own method. Contrary -to the general belief, there are many different -methods of chrome tannage. No two tanneries -employ just the same process.</p> - -<p>Tanners of chrome leather seek to produce -leather suitable for the particular -demands made upon it by the peculiarities -or characteristics of the varying seasons. -Summer shoes require a cool, light leather; -at other times a heavier tannage is essential, -with some call for a practically waterproof -product.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> - -<p>All leathers, whether vegetable-or chrome-tanned, -must be “fat liquored.” That is -to say, a certain amount of fatty material -must be put into the skin in order that it -may be mellow, workable, and serviceable. -This is very essential in producing calf -leather. Fat liquors usually contain oil -and soap, which have been boiled in water -and made into a thin liquor. The leather -is put into a drum with the hot fat liquor; -the drum is set in motion, and as it revolves -the leather tumbles about in the drum and -absorbs the oil and soap from the water. -It is the fat liquor that makes the leather -soft and strong.</p> - -<p>Leather used in shoes is divided into two -classes: sole leather and upper leather.</p> - -<p>Sole leather is a heavy, solid, stiff leather -and may be bent without cracking. It is -the foundation of the shoe, and therefore -should be of the best material. The hides -of bulls and oxen yield the best leather for -this purpose.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> - -<p>The hide that is tanned for sole leather is -soaked for several days in a weak solution -(which is gradually made stronger) of oak or -hemlock tan made from the bark. Oak-tanned -hide is preferred and may be known -by its light color. A chemical change takes -place in the fiber of the hide. This is a -high-grade tannage, and is distinguished -principally by its fine fibers and close, -compact texture.</p> - -<p>Oak sole leather, by reason of its tough -character, and its close, fibrous texture, -resists water and will wear well down -before cracking. It is by many considered -better than other leather for flexible-sole -shoes, requiring waterproof qualities.</p> - -<p>Sole leather is divided into three classes -according to the tanning—oak, hemlock, -and union.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus5" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus5.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Tanning Process</p> -<p class="caption">Showing the rotating drums. <i>See <a href="#Page_24">page 24</a>.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Oak tanning is as follows: the hides are -hung in pits containing weak or nearly -spent liquors from a previous tanning, and -agitated so as to take up tannin evenly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -Strong liquor would harden the surface -so as to prevent thorough penetration into -the interior of the hides. After ten or -twelve days, the hides are taken out and -laid away in fresh tan and stronger liquor. -This process is repeated as often as necessary -for eight to ten months. At the end of this -time the hide has absorbed all of the tannin -which it will take up.</p> - -<p>Hemlock tanning is similar to the oak -tanning in process. The hemlock tan is a -red shade. Hemlock produces a very hard -and inflexible leather. It is modified by -use of bleaching materials which are applied -to the leather after being tanned. It is sold -in sides without being trimmed, while the -oak is sold in backs, with belly and head -trimmed off.</p> - -<p>Hemlock leather is used extensively and -almost principally for men’s and boys’ -stiff-soled, heavy shoes, where no flexibility -is required or expected. Its principal desirable -quality is its resistance to trituration,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -or being ground to a powder, and its use in -men’s and boys’ pegged, nailed, or standard -screw shoes is not in any way objectionable -to the wearer. In fact, for this class of -shoes, it is probably the best leather that -can be used. But when hemlock is used -in men’s and boys’ Goodyear welt shoes, -where a flexible bottom is expected and -required, it generally does not give good -results. It cannot satisfactorily resist the -constant flexing to which it is subjected, -and after the sole is worn half through, the -constant bending causes it to crack crosswise. -On this account it becomes like a -sieve, and has no power of resistance in -water, and therefore it is not at all suited -to flexible-bottomed shoes.</p> - -<p>In “union-tanned” hides, both oak and -hemlock are used and the result is a compromise -in both color and quality. This -tan was first used about fifty years ago. -Twenty-five years ago the union leather -tanners began to experiment with bleaching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -materials to avoid the use of oak bark, -which was becoming scarce and high priced, -and eventually developed a system of tanning -union leather with hemlock or kindred -tanning agents, excluding oak. The red -color and the hard texture were modified -by bleaching the leather to the desired -color and texture. This produces leather -which has not the fine, close tannage of -genuine oak leather and at the same time -lacks the compact, hard character of hemlock -leather. Union leather produced in -this manner is a sort of mongrel or hybrid -leather, being neither oak nor hemlock. -On account of its economy in cutting -qualities, however, it is largely used in the -manufacture of medium-priced shoes where -a certain degree of flexibility is required in -the sole. This is particularly true of women’s -shoes.</p> - -<p>Union leather is sold largely in backs and -trimmed the same as oak, though not so -closely.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> - -<p>Sole leather is also made nowadays by -tanning the hides by the chrome or chemical -process. This leather is very durable -and pliable and is used on athletic and sporting -shoes. It has a light green color and -is much lighter in weight than the oak or -hemlock leather.</p> - -<p>Many kinds of hide are used for sole -leather. This country does not produce -nearly enough hides for the demand, and -great quantities are imported from abroad, -although most of the imported hides come -from South America. Imported hides are -divided into two general classes, dry hides -and green-salted hides.</p> - -<p>Dry hides are of two kinds, the dry -“flint,” which are dried carefully after -being taken from the animal and cured -without salt. These generally make good -leather, although if sunburnt, the leather is -not strong. “Dry-salted hides” are salted -and cured to a dry state. Dry hides of -both kinds are used for hemlock leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -only, although all hemlock leather is not -made from dry hides.</p> - -<p>Green-salted hides are used in making -oak-tanned leather as well as hemlock, and -those used by United States tanners come -largely from domestic points; but there is a -variable amount imported each year from -abroad, principally from Europe and South -America. Green-salted hides are of two -general classes, those branded and those -free of brands.</p> - -<p>Cow and steer hides of the branded type -are used by tanners of oak and union leather. -Those not branded are used more largely for -belting and upholstering leathers, a small -part finding their way into hemlock leather.</p> - -<p>Sole leather remnants, strictly speaking, -include such a wide variety of items that -it is difficult to cover them all. Few people, -however, realize the big range of usefulness -of this class of stock. While not exactly a -by-product, remnants are often classed as -such. Under the class of sole leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -remnants are included sole leather offal, -such as heads, bellies, shoulders, shanks, -shins, men’s heeling, men’s half heeling, -men’s and women’s three-and four-piece -heeling, etc. Stock that cannot be used -in the shoe business goes into the chemical -and fertilizer trade, among other outlets. -By a special acid process of burning this -stock, ammonia is derived from it, which -goes into fertilizer; and another by-product -is sulphuric acid for the chemical trade. -The amount of ammonia obtained is small, -being about seven per cent of ammonia to -a ton of sole leather scrap. This is mixed -with fertilizer and sold mostly in the Southern -States, and to a small extent in the West, -there being a law in many of the Western -States against the use of fertilizer made -from leather products, on account of its -low grade.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus6" style="width: 465px;"> -<img src="images/illus6.jpg" width="465" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sole Leather Offal</p> -<p class="caption">Showing bellies, shoulders, etc. <i><a href="#Page_35">Page 35.</a></i></p> -</div> - -<p>In the disposition of offal, heads are used -for taps, top lifts, and under lifts. Shoulders -are used for outsoles and inner soles, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -bellies are used for medium to heavy taps -and counters. Lightweight bellies and -shanks are utilized for making box toes -and counters.</p> - -<p>Shanks are also used for taps and under -lifts. This stock is solid and substantial -and well suited for these purposes. The -bellies, being flexible, are the best part of -the hide obtainable for inner soles.</p> - -<p>In cutting out soles, the manufacturer -accumulates a considerable quantity of -solid or center pieces, which are used for -small top lifts, also for “Cuban” tops, -thereby using up the bulk of the small -heavy scrap that ordinarily would be sold -for pieced heeling. There is also a demand -for similar stock from the hardware trade, -where it is used for making mallet and tool -handles, also for wagon and carriage -washers. Large quantities of men’s and -women’s heeling and half heeling go to -England, where it is cut up by heel manufacturers -into lifts and sectional lifts for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -the English trade; there being a shortage -of this class of offal there.</p> - -<p>The shoe manufacturer, after cutting his -soles and taps, is obliged to skive them to -get the particular iron he needs. This -leaves what is known as a “flesh sole -shape,” also a “tap shape.” These skivings -are pasted together by another class of -trade and again used for inner soling and -taps in the cheaper grades of shoes. Smaller -skivings, or waste, after sorting out the sole -and tap shapes, are sold to the leather -board trade. This eventually comes back -to the shoe trade in the shape of leather -board and is cut into heel lifts. The waste -after cutting heel lifts is again resold to -the leather board trade and makes another -round trip to the shoe manufacturer. This -illustration, as well as many others in the -leather remnant business, demonstrates the -scientific principle that nothing is ever -entirely lost. In regard to pieced heel lifts, -these are made in either two, three, or four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -sections. This refers to what are known as -sectional heel lifts. Scrap leather is also -used for shanking for the European trade.</p> - -<p>Soles and taps, known as rejects, that is, -those thrown out by the high-grade trade, -are sold to manufacturers of cheaper lines. -A shoe manufacturer cutting his own soles -and buying sole leather in sides, after sorting -out the soles suited to his own requirements, -will sell what he cannot use to remnant -dealers, who in turn re-sell them to shoe -manufacturers requiring that particular -class of stock. The scrap leather, or remnant -dealer, thus forms a useful link in the -chain of distribution, furnishing a market -where shoe and leather manufacturers may -dispose of their surplus products to best -advantage, and providing a source of supply -for buyers who wish any particular article -to suit their individual needs.</p> - -<p>Upper or dressed leather is made from -kips or large calfskins. It is tanned and -finished like all other forms of leather by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -variations of the foregoing process. Thick -hides are often split thin by machinery, -and the parts retained and finished separately. -The parts of the leather from the -hair side are most valuable and are called -“grain” leather; the inner parts or “flesh -splits” are made into a variety of different -kinds of leather by waxing, oiling, and -polishing.</p> - -<p>It is finished by scouring with brushes and -then rubbed with a piece of glass, which -removes creases and wrinkles and stretches -the leather. Then it is stuffed with a -mixture of oil, soap, and tallow, which is -worked into it by rolling. Various finishes -are given to leather, such as seal grain, -buff, glove grain, oil grain, satin calf, -russet, plain shoe, etc.</p> - -<p>Upper leathers are blacked by rubbing with -a mixture of lampblack and oil or tallow, or -with a solution of copperas and logwood.</p> - -<p>No tanning process, no matter how good -or thorough, can make firm, serviceable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -wear-resisting leather out of all portions -of any hide, because nature made some -parts of every hide porous, spongy, and -lacking in fibrous strength.</p> - -<p>Calfskins used by tanners are of several -classes. American calfskins, taken off in -the United States and Canada, are usually -sold green pelted. Farmers raise only a -small fraction of the calves born. Each -cow must produce a calf in order to insure a -maximum flow of milk. Most of the farmers -keep cows to produce milk, hence they -sell the young calves for veal and use their -skins for high-grade calf leather.</p> - -<p>In European countries farmers fatten -their calves before selling them in order to -get a higher price for the veal. The skin -is not so valuable for leather as the skin -from younger calves, and it is used for -lower-value leathers.</p> - -<p>Calfskin is not split. A heavier weight -skin might be. It is shaved to a uniform -thickness.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> - -<p>Calf leather is divided into the following -classes, depending upon the finish of the -leather:—</p> - -<p>Boarded calf (made in both chrome and -bark tannage).</p> - -<p>Wax calf, finished on the flesh side with a -waxy, hard surface.</p> - -<p>Box calf is a proprietary name. It is -boarded—rubbed with a board to raise the -grain. It is known by minute, squarelike -lines.</p> - -<p>Mat calf is a dull-finished calfskin, used -more in topping.</p> - -<p>Suede calf is finished on flesh side. Most -makes of suede calf are chromed, although -there are some vegetable.</p> - -<p>Storm calf is a heavy skin, finished for -winter wear. Considerable oil is used in -finishing.</p> - -<p>French calf is finished on flesh side.</p> - -<p>Dry hides are obtained from Buenos -Ayres, where the cattle are raised on the -plains. This city exports a large quantity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -hides, dry, salted, and cured by smoking. -The hides of cows generally yield inferior -grain leather; but South American cowhides -may be worked for light sole leather.</p> - -<p>Calves’ hides are thinner, but when well -tanned, curried, and dressed, they yield a -very soft and supple leather for boots and -shoes. They are finished with wax and -oil on the flesh side, and can also be finished -on the hair (grain of skin).</p> - -<p>Calves’ skin (green salted).</p> - -<p>Paris City calfskins. These are obtained -in three grades—light, medium, and heavy.</p> - -<p>Light grades run from four to five, -or seven to eight pounds; medium grades -run from seven to nine pounds; heavy -grades run from nine to twelve pounds.</p> - -<p>Patent leather may be made from colt, -calf, or kid skin. Coltskin is the skin of -young horses, or split skins of mature -horses.</p> - -<p>Patent colt and kid are used for the most -part in the medium fine grades, and patent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -side (cowhide) is used in the medium and -cheaper grades. Chrome tanned are used entirely -in the manufacture of patent leather.</p> - -<p>Patent leather, as it appears in shoes, -may be described either as varnished leather, -coltskin, or kid, and sometimes the French -use calfskin. The process is largely a -secret one, although there is no longer any -patent on the principle of the same. It is -made by shaving the skins on the flesh side -or hair side to a uniform thickness. Then -it is de-greased to put the skin in condition -to receive the finish and protect the same -from peeling off. Successive coats of liquid -black varnish are applied, the first coats -being dried and rubbed down, so as to work -the liquid thoroughly into the fibers of the -leather. The last coat is applied with a brush, -and baked to from one hundred and twenty -to one hundred and forty degrees Fahrenheit -for thirty-six hours and then allowed to dry -in direct sunlight for from six to ten hours, -which seems to be essential to remove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -the sticky feeling. Various ingredients are -used in making the different varnishes, the -first coating consisting of naphtha, wood -alcohol, amyl acetate, etc. The black -varnishes consist of linseed oil and various -other mixtures, heated in iron kettles. The -final coating is a naphtha preparation resembling -japanning material. The hide is -stretched on a frame during the varnishing -operations.</p> - -<p>It is almost impossible to tell the difference -in quality of shiny leather by appearance, -although in general the leather on which -the grain shows through the varnish will -prove more serviceable than that on which -the finish is so thick as to hide the grain. -Great care must be exercised in resewing -patent leather shoes that have been exposed -during the cold weather, as the cold has -a tendency to freeze the finish. Patent -leather, like all varnished coatings, is liable -to crack. No one can guarantee it not to do -so. The kid patent leather is more elastic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -and porous than other kinds. The serious -objection to the use of patent leather for a -shoe is its air-tightness. This makes it both -unhygienic and uncomfortable. The kid -patent leather is the only patent leather -that has not this objection.</p> - -<p>Kid is a term applied to shoe leather -made from the skins of mature goats. The -skin of the young goat or kid is made into -the thin, flexible leather used for kid gloves, -which is too delicate for general use in -shoes. The goats from which come the -supply of leather used in this country for -women’s and children’s fine shoes are not -the common, domesticated kind known in -this country, but are wild goats or allied -species partially domesticated, and are -found in the hill regions of India, the mountains -of Europe, portions of South America, -etc.</p> - -<p>There are about sixty-eight recognized -kinds of goatskins that are imported from -all over the world. The Brazilian, Buenos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -Ayres, Andean, Mexican, French, Russian, -Indian, and Chinese are a few of the many -kinds that are known as such. Each -particular species of goat hide possesses -its own peculiarities of texture. The thickness -and grain differ according to the environment -in which the animal has been -raised. It is peculiar that those raised in -cold climates do not have as thick skins as -those raised in warmer climates, for the long, -thick hair apparently takes the strength.</p> - -<p>We may wonder where all the skins come -from that are made up into glazed kid, -mat kid, and suede, at the rate of several -thousand dozen every day. The great proportion -of the skins are <i>goatskins</i>. These -are almost all imported from abroad, where -the animals are slaughtered and disposed of -much the same as we dispose of beef and -veal here. Sheepskins and carbarettas, the -hides of animals that are a cross between -sheep and goats, are also used.</p> - -<p>The finer grades of kid and goatskins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -which are tanned in large quantities in -New England, come from the Far East.</p> - -<p>In China there are two great ports from -which skins are shipped, Tientsin and -Shanghai. Back in the interior, starting -from a point about twelve hundred miles -from the sea, collectors make their rounds -twice a year.</p> - -<p>The breeder of goats kills his flock just -before the collector is due, skins the animals -on the hillside, preserves the meat for food, -and with the kidskins, which have been -partly dried, wrapped in a bundle carried -upon the back, or upon a pack animal, the -breeder makes his way to the station. It -may be that there are a half hundred -breeders awaiting the coming of the collector -and he pays them the market price for the -skins.</p> - -<p>Whenever the collector has a sufficient supply -to make it profitable to ship, he bales the -skins and then sends them over the thousand -mile journey along the river to the seaport.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -From Tientsin or Shanghai they are -taken by tramp steamers, which reach -Eastern ports by way of the Suez Canal, -and on the trip the steamers make several -ports, so that it is from six to ten weeks -before the skins reach America.</p> - -<p>Another method of importing is to have -the raw material shipped across the Pacific -and then transferred to a railroad, but the -difference in cost to the manufacturer is so -great that it is unprofitable.</p> - -<p>The China goatskins are rated as among -the finest in the world and when tanned -they make the highest-grade shoe.</p> - -<p>Then there are mocha skins, which come -from Tripoli, Arabia, and Northern Africa. -In those places the method of collection is -practically the same as in China.</p> - -<p>The two best-known grades are the -Hodieda and the Benghazi. They derive -their designations from the exporting cities. -Hodieda is located in the southwestern -part of Arabia on the Red Sea, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -Benghazi is in Barca, one of the provinces -of Tripoli.</p> - -<p>Other goatskins are produced in India -and Russia, and millions of skins are exported -annually from Bombay, Madras, and -Calcutta. These skins are not brought -direct to America, but are transshipped at -Marseilles or London.</p> - -<p>The jobbers in Europe or India occupy -rather a unique position, for according to -their practice it is almost impossible for -them to suffer financial losses in dealing -with an American tanner. The latter, when -he wishes to arrange for his year’s supply of -raw material, negotiates with an agent in -Boston, with whom he signs a contract -for so many skins. Then it is necessary for -the tanner to either purchase with money -equal to the face value or secure by loans -letters of credit from Boston banking -houses which have European connections.</p> - -<p>Before the skins are exported, the jobber -has his money from the European banking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -concerns and the bills of lading are forwarded -to the Boston bankers, who turn them over -to the tanners, and, when the occasion -requires, obtain from the tanners what is -known as a deed of trust.</p> - -<p>All goatskins are tanned by the same -chrome tanning process, whether the finish -is to be glazed or mat. The proportions of -chemicals vary according to the texture of -the skin, and according to the grain.</p> - -<p>The process of tanning is quicker than -the tanning of heavier hides, and all varieties -of tannage are used, the chrome -methods having come into very general use. -There are many kinds of finish given, such -as glazed, dull, mat, patent, etc. One -quality that distinguishes goat leather, the -“kid” of shoemaking, is the fact that the -fibers of the skin are interlaced and interlocked -in all directions. The finished skins -as they come from the tannery, by whatever -process they may be put through, are sorted -for size and quality, a number of grades<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -being made. Instead of ripping straight -through, like a piece of cloth, or splitting -apart in layers, as sheepskin will do when -made into leather, the kid holds together -firmly in all directions.</p> - -<p>Glazed kid is colored after it is tanned by -submerging it in the color, a very important -process. The glossy surface is obtained by -“striking” or burnishing on the grain side. -It is made in black and colors, particularly -tan, and is known by about as many names -as there are manufacturers of it.</p> - -<p>Glazed kid is used in the uppers of shoes, -making a fine, soft shoe that is particularly -comfortable in warm weather, and is said -to prevent cold feet in winter, owing to -unrestricted circulation.</p> - -<p>Mat kid is a soft, dull black kid, the -softness being the result of treatment with -beeswax or olive oil. It is finished on the -grain side the same as glazed kid, and is -used principally for shoe toppings. It is -very similar in appearance to mat calf and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -is often used in preference to it, as it is of -much lighter weight, and about as strong.</p> - -<p>Suede kid is not tanned, but is subjected -to a feeding process in an egg solution, -called “tawing,” to make it soft and pliable. -The skin is stretched and the color is applied -by “brushing” (with a brush). The color -does not permeate the skin, but is merely -on the surface. Suedes are made from -carbarettas and split sheepskins. Suedes -are used very extensively in making slippers, -and come in a great variety of colors.</p> - -<p>A castor kid is a Persian lambskin finished -the same as a suede, and is used in -making very soft, fine-appearing leather—like -glove leather. The skin is of such a -very light weight that it has to be “backed -up” before being made into shoes.</p> - -<p>Fancy leathers are used extensively for -toppings of shoes having patent leather -vamps. Facings are selected from fancy -leathers to make the inside of a shoe attractive -and to increase its wearing quality.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -Leathers of dull or glazed finish are used in -typical shoe colors.</p> - -<p>Miscellaneous kinds of kids are as -follows:—</p> - -<ul> -<li><i>A.</i> Kangaroo</li> -<li><i>B.</i> Buckskin</li> -<li><i>C.</i> Sheepskin</li> -<li><i>D.</i> Chamois</li> -<li><i>E.</i> Cordovan</li> -<li><i>F.</i> Splits</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>a.</i> Seal Grain</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>b.</i> Buff</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>c.</i> Oil Grain</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>d.</i> Satin Calf</li> -<li><i>G.</i> Enamel</li> -<li><i>H.</i> Sides</li> -</ul> - -<p>Kangaroo is the skin of the animal of that -name.</p> - -<p>Buckskin is the skin of certain deer.</p> - -<p>Sheepskin is the skin of the familiar domestic -sheep.</p> - -<p>Chamois is the skin of the animal of that -name and by courtesy the specially treated -skins of certain domestic animals.</p> - -<p>It is a simple matter to recognize a kid-skin -among the various kinds of upper -leather, because of its very light weight -and pliability.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> - -<p>During the winter, leather, in drying, -is apt to become frozen, especially where no -well-equipped drying loft is provided. Such -leather becomes weak and limp if thawed -out too rapidly. In freezing, the water in -the hides which have been hung up to dry -is forced out and stretches apart the hide -fiber. The wetter the hides, therefore, the -more demoralized they will be by the frost. -The treatment of rushing the frozen leather -into a warm room is inadvisable; the best -method is to allow the hides to hang as they -were and to tightly close all openings to -the outside air. In case this is impossible, -it is best to place the leather in a heap, in a -room where the temperature will not fall -below the freezing point, and to cover it -with a cloth. In case the leather rolls up, -it should be moistened before the roll becomes -greater than is customary; it will -thus become firmer throughout. Some upper -leather and especially sheepskins for lining -purposes are aided by freezing, since the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -leather becomes white and plump and also -is of a bright color, though the durability -is somewhat lessened.</p> - -<p>The popularity of white leather for shoes -is increasing wonderfully. There is good -reason for this. The modern white shoes -have a stylish and fashionable appearance -which has won the hearts of women of all -ages and conditions, and when they want -a thing, there is always alertness in supplying -it. The new love for white shoes is -interesting to trace. Years ago white -leather for shoes was made principally -from deerskins. But this leather, while -attractive when new, would stretch soon -after being worn, and take on a yellowish -tinge. Besides, the price of such shoes was -very high, and it is not surprising that they -became supplanted by the cheaper, but -attractive and useful, white canvas shoes, -which became quick sellers during the season.</p> - -<p>It is greatly to the credit of our tanners -that they have been able to perfect and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -put on the market a white leather for shoes -which answers all requirements satisfactorily. -This leather is made from cowhides; -the white color will not fade nor turn -yellow, and best of all, the leather can be -easily cleaned and made to look good as -new. Another advantage is that such -leathers can be used in shoes that sell at -popular prices.</p> - -<p>There are many common, commercial -grades of upper leather.</p> - -<p>Willow calf is a fine, soft, chrome tannage -of calfskin. It is sold in three colors, -light tan, ox blood, and olive-brown. The -distinguishing features of this leather are -its durability and the fact that it always -keeps soft and pliable. It is adapted to the -highest quality of men’s and women’s shoes.</p> - -<p>Box calf is a storm-calf leather of highest -quality. It is a waterproof, chrome tannage -in a medium tan color, with a dull -finish. This is the best leather obtainable -for rough, outdoor wear, walking shoes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -hunting boots, etc. It is also adapted to -men’s and women’s very fine footwear. -There is a growing demand for this kind -of shoe. In the uppers of the best storm -shoes you will always find box calf.</p> - -<p>Royal kid is a black chrome calfskin, -dull finished with a smooth, natural grain -of fine texture, soft and pliable. It is used -for vamps and whole shoes of the highest -grades for men and women, and is a very -popular material for the fall and winter -shoe. The desirable qualities of fine calf -leather are making the demand for it -grow faster than the supply of raw material -increases.</p> - -<p>Tan royal is a tan color, chrome calf -leather, smooth finish, fine grain, excellent -cutting qualities, uniform, of medium -rich tan shades. Tan calf leather is very -attractive and the tan shoe is now a staple -product.</p> - -<p>Cadet kid is a bright black, smooth-finished, -chrome calfskin for men’s and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -women’s fine shoes. This tannage and -finish give a remarkable cutting value. -The stability of this stock is entirely unique -and makes the finished shoe stand up, -keeping its much desired shape through the -different tests of manufacturing. It is said -to be the best calfskin, by the best judges, -the shoe manufacturers.</p> - -<p>Bronko patent is distinguished for its -fine, coltskin-effect grain. It has a rich -and lustrous black patent finish. The -results obtained from bronko patent in its -workings through the shoe factory and its -wearing qualities afterward have never been -equaled. Bronko is one of the finest results -of the development of chrome patent -leather.</p> - -<p>Cadet kid side is a chrome side leather -that closely imitates the calfskin, called -cadet kid. It has a bright, lustrous finish, -and a remarkably fine grain. It is surprisingly -like fine calf leather in appearance.</p> - -<p>Cadet calf sides are similar to cadet kid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -sides with the exception of a boarded finish. -This is another black chrome, side leather -which comes very near to a calfskin.</p> - -<p>Mat royal chrome side is a special finish, -closely resembling calf, used for the tops -of men’s and women’s medium fine shoes.</p> - -<p>Black hawk patent is a well-tanned, -well-finished patent leather for medium-priced -women’s shoes and for tipping.</p> - -<p>Colored box chrome side, boarded, is a -substitute for willow calf.</p> - -<p>Black box chrome side, boarded, is a -substitute for box calf in medium fine shoes.</p> - -<p>Kangaroo kid side is a back-tanned, dull, -smooth, black leather nearly like calf, used -in the tops of men’s shoes, and men’s and -women’s whole shoes.</p> - -<p>Waterproof black is a high quality -leather of great durability for men’s and -boys’ heavy shoes. Waterproof brown is -similar to waterproof black, except in color, -and is a leather made for hard service.</p> - -<p>Amhide black is a soft, dry, high-grade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -tannage for lightweight, comfortable, sporting, -work, and hard-wear shoes.</p> - -<p>Amhide russet is like black amhide in -everything but color.</p> - -<p>Hercules storm chrome is a leather distinguished -for its fine grain and good appearance -of medium heavy weight.</p> - -<p>Boris is a heavy-weight, soft, waterproof -leather for men’s medium quality shoes. It -is finished in three colors and black.</p> - -<p>Zulu is a medium-priced leather, which -makes a very fine wearing heavy shoe. It is -made in two colors and black.</p> - -<p>Bison is a colored or black-finished -leather, of a high grade, very comfortable -and durable.</p> - -<p>Ottawa is of two colors and black finished, -and is suitable for high quality, heavy, -rough shoes.</p> - -<p>Sheboygan calf is a heavily stuffed, soft, -waterproof leather. It is of two colors and -black.</p> - -<p>Dongola calf is a black leather used for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -durable, medium-priced, heavy, outdoor -shoes.</p> - -<p>Belt knife splits are sold in several tannages -and finishes of the most improved -manufacture. These splits are sorted in -all weights. Uniform selection is maintained, -and the quality in every way is of -the highest order.</p> - -<p>Oxford calf union splits is one of the -highest grades of grain-finished, union splits. -It has an extremely soft and fine appearance.</p> - -<p>Cambridge calf union splits have a most -careful and high-grade finish, but somewhat -firmer than Oxford calf.</p> - -<p>Flesh splits are sold in two tannages. -These are the highest-grade flesh splits -that it is possible to make, and they are a -long distance ahead of the ordinary flesh -splits, their improved finish making them -a modern and largely used substitute for -satin.</p> - -<p>Ottawa black and russet splits include -a variety of printed splits, used for shoes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -in combination with grain leather and for -whole shoes. They are selected in many -weights.</p> - -<p>Flexible splits for Goodyear, gem, McKay -inner soles, is leather that offers the greatest -advantages to large and small buyers. It -is the product of six different tanneries, -assorted in all the usual weights. Great -care is taken in the manufacture of these -splits to adapt them perfectly to the shoe -manufacturer’s needs.</p> - -<p>Flexible bends are used by manufacturers -of Goodyear welt shoes requiring a straight -Goodyear or gem inner sole. They find -these bends of great advantage on account -of the small amount of waste, the strength -and desirability of stock. They are made -in six tannages.</p> - -<p>Chrome flexible splits for inner soles furnish -a very strong and durable leather for -inner soles, taps, and outer soles.</p> - -<p>Ooze gusset splits, colored, give a very -low-priced leather suitable for gussets, bellows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -tongues for high-cut boots, also for -the quarter-linings of Oxfords.</p> - -<p>Ooze vamp splits, black and colored, are -strong, durable, low-priced leathers suitable -for cheap work shoes where waterproof -qualities are not required.</p> - -<p>Chrome-tanned embossed splits, colored, -are made in a great variety of patterns for -cheap shoes and other work where leather -is required. They are durable and low -priced.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Leather for Belting</span></h3> - -<p>A native steer about four years old, -killed in the month of October, affords the -best example of a good hide for belting -manufacture, that is, for the transmission -of power from pulley to pulley. At this -age and at this season the steer is in prime -condition.</p> - -<p>On account of the great and enormous -strain put upon belting, and the necessity -for its running true upon the pulley, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -should be of the highest grade possible, -combining great strength to prevent -stretching, and evenness of grain to insure -long wear; therefore only hides of selected -steers are serviceable, and these in turn -are rejected when they contain any blemishes -or cuts or other imperfections. After -a hide is accepted for belting purposes, it is -subjected to a generous trimming, the head, -neck, legs, and belly being cut away, leaving -only a small and compact section embracing -from two to two and a quarter feet on -each side of the backbone and extending -about six feet along the same from the -tail forward. This is the portion of the hide -where the fibers are closely and firmly -knit together, and where the vitality is -the greatest, due to the close proximity of -the network of nerves radiating from each -side of the spine to all parts of the hide.</p> - -<p>The hides of the bull and cow of every -breed are inferior for belting purposes to -that of the steer. The hide of the bull is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -coarse and hard, with the neck very heavy -and full of wrinkles, causing a variation in -the thickness and run of the grain of the -leather. The hide of the cow is thin, does -not run uniform in thickness, being heavier -on the hips than at the shoulder, and is -lacking in the firmness necessary in good -belting. The sharp angles of the hip bones -of a cow also tend to form pockets in the -hide.</p> - -<p>After the hide has been trimmed, it is -subject to the process of “currying.” All -membranes or particles of flesh adhering -to the hide are removed by a machine which -shaves the membrane, etc., off, with lightning -rapidity. The leather is then washed -and scoured by machine, which removes all -dirt still adhering to the hide. After the -leather is thoroughly cleaned and while in -a damp state, it is placed upon the table, -and greases, composed of pure animal oil, -are worked into the leather on both the -grain and the flesh side with brushes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -This is carried on in the cold state. It is -then put into a large revolving wheel -containing water heated to a high degree, -which causes the leather to swell and pores -to open. The leather is then taken out -and put into another wheel containing -heavy mineral oil and heated several degrees -greater than the water, and tumbled about -in the wheel until the heavy oil fills the -distended pores and fibers. After this, the -leather is allowed to dry.</p> - -<p>The hides are allowed to remain for -several months in the tan liquor until the -green hide is changed into leather.</p> - -<p>After the hide has been changed into -leather, it is stretched. To properly stretch -the leather for belting purposes, it must -first be cut so as to remove that part which -shows the markings of the backbone of -the steer.</p> - -<p>Leather is stretched by placing it in -clamps, every part of the piece getting the -same pull. (The leather is put into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -clamps while damp, as damp leather will -give the greatest amount of stretching.)</p> - -<p>When the stretching process is completed -and the leather has thoroughly dried in -stretching clamps, it is released. These -pieces of leather are quite dry, very firm, -and not very pliable. The leather is now -moistened in order that it shall be more -pliable as it passes through the finishing -processes. After the water has soaked into -the leather (called sammied), it becomes very -soft. It is then subjected to a roller under -heavy pressure to take all the unevenness -out of the hide. It is next thoroughly -dried, causing the fibers to shrink; then -again moistened and put through a polishing -machine, which acts on the same principle -as the rolling jack.</p> - -<p>The sides and centers are now put through -a cutting machine, which reduces the leather -to strips of different sizes.</p> - -<p>Belts are put together by cementing the -parts. Belt cement is a most powerful adhesive.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -It actually governs the strength of -the belt, as the belt is as strong as the weakest -part of the joint.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Rawhide Products</span></h3> - -<p>Rawhide is used for a great many purposes. -After the side of leather has been -trimmed of the portions that cannot be -used, it is sold to the lace maker. He -measures the same in a machine.</p> - -<p>The trimmings from the side of the hide -may be used for a mallet head or other -tools made of leather. The most common -products of the strong section of rawhide -strings are shoe strings, belting laces, and -parts of harnesses. It is also made into -leather shoe strings that are used in the -logging camps.</p> - -<p>When the hide is selected for the rawhide -purposes, it is first passed to a de-hairing -machine, where all the hair is removed. -It is then fleshed; that is, all loose membrane<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -and any flesh that may have adhered -to the hide are removed from the flesh side. -The rawhide is then placed in a special -bath for the purpose of opening the pores, -before the oils and greases are added to it. -After this bath, it is dried thoroughly in a -hot box and then put into wheels which -mill the greases into the hide.</p> - -<p>The hide, which is made hard by this -drying process, is put through breakers, -where it is thoroughly worked into soft -and pliable form.</p> - -<p>The hide is next passed to the setting-out -machine, which finishes all forms of leather—by -condensing and strengthening the -fibers. Special oils are applied to both -the grain and flesh side of the hide. It is -finished by hand and cut into laces. This -hand finishing is usually done in order to -reject all parts that are not perfect.</p> - -<p>Haired leather is tanned by acid—a -quicker method. The hide is split into -sides and tanned with the belly stock on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -them, which is used for car straps, cowbell -straps, trunk straps, and riding bridles.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The By-products of a Leather Belting -Factory</span></h3> - -<p>There are a great many by-products in -a leather belting factory, all of which are -used. The finest strips are used for whip -lashes, small pieces are used for the French -heel, and the extremely small pieces are -used in leather mats.</p> - -<p>The by-product from the belting bull, -which is about fifty per cent, is used for shoe -leather and leather straps. There is considerable -leather taken from the belting -bull for certain harness work. The belly -is thick and porous though not tough, and -is used for halters, cow bridles, and other -parts of harness where the strain is not -great.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Round Belt Making</span></h3> - -<p>Round belt is made from the best belting, -but while the strain on round belting is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -not severe, the leather must be soft and -pliable. It is selected from regular stock -of native steer hide.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Properties of Tanned Leather</span></h3> - -<p>Leather that has been tanned is made -up of a great many little bundles of fibers. -The coarser and stronger fibers are on the -inside, and the very fine and smoothly laid -fibers are on the outside. These fibers are -so intertwined and so elastic that when the -leather bends these bundles play on one -another. On account of the smoothness -of the surface it may be polished, and -beautiful finishes and effects obtained on -the leather.</p> - -<p>The elasticity of leather (which is due -to the elasticity of its fibers) allows it to -stretch to a great extent. The tendency -to return to its original position is very -strong at the beginning, but grows weaker -if the strain is continued at any one point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -Of course, in stretching the leather, there is -always a corresponding drawing in another -part of the shoe, which gives it a worn and -baggy appearance.</p> - -<p>When shoes are removed from the feet, -they are oftentimes damp, due to perspiration. -The stretched or strained fibers are -apt to shrink and return to their original -position. In order to avoid this, it is -necessary to place shoe-trees in them.</p> - -<p>When the linings of shoes are exposed to -friction and excretion of perspiration from -the feet of some people, they deteriorate. -This is due to the fact that the acids of -perspiration (acetic, formic and butyric -acids) have become so concentrated that -they act on the fibers of the leather. These -acids exert a burning effect, causing the -fibers to lose their elasticity so that they -no longer play on one another, but become -fastened to each other. The result is that -they become hard, and any attempt to -bend the leather tears them apart; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -once the union of fibers is destroyed it -cannot be repaired.</p> - -<p>In order to keep the fibers in such a -condition (soft and flexible), they should be -lubricated often (twice a week) with a liquid -followed by a wax paste, usually called -shoe dressing. When a brush or a piece of -cloth is rubbed over the surface of leather -containing the shoe lubricants (shoe polish), -it produces a smooth surface called a -“shine.”</p> - -<p>Compounds which shine without friction -produced by brush or cloth should not be -used, as they are simply varnishes and -one coat on top of the other destroys the -leather.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Substitutes for Leather</span></h3> - -<p>In olden times our fathers and mothers -used handmade shoes, and wore them till -they had passed their period of usefulness. -At that time the consumption did not equal -the production of leather. Knowledge of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -conditions in the great western countries -to-day will show that many of the big -cattle-raising sections, once famed for their -cattle, have been taken up by homesteaders -and are now producing grain instead of -cattle. But since the appearance of the -machine-made shoe, different styles of -shoes are placed on the market at different -seasons, to correspond to the change of -style of clothing, and shoes are often -discarded before they are worn out. We -have not been able thus far to utilize -cast-off leather as the shoddy mill uses -wool and silk, etc. The result is that -the consumption of leather is above the -production, therefore substitutes must be -used.</p> - -<p>In shoe materials there is at present an -astonishing diversity and variety. Every -known leather is used from kid to cowhide, -and textile fabrics have developed rapidly, -especially in the making of women’s and -children’s shoes. The satins, velvets, serges,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -and other fabrics that are used in the -manufacture of shoes must be firm and -well woven, and are usually supplied with -a backing of firm, canvas-like fabric, to -give strength.</p> - -<p>As to wearing quality the old saying, -“There is nothing like leather,” still holds -good; but people do not buy shoes for their -wearing qualities alone in these days. Style -and intrinsic beauty are considered, and -have a cash value just as in any other -article of apparel.</p> - -<p>Each fabric is made of two sets of threadlike -yarn woven at right angles to each -other. They are called the warp and filling -(weft). The warp is composed of yarn -running the longest way of the fabric, and -filling runs the short way of the fabric. -Since the warp is the body of the cloth, it -is its strongest part and all fabric in shoes -should be placed warpwise across the foot -of the wearer, so as to be able to resist the -great strain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> - -<p>Various attempts have been made for -legislation to prohibit the treating of leather -by chemicals or the use of substances to -increase its weight. Complaints have been -made by a number of shoe manufacturers -that the excessive use of glucose (a form -of sugar) in sole leather has resulted in -injuring the leather and fabrics composing -the uppers of shoes.</p> - -<p>Representatives of large leather firms -claim that the methods of tanning sole -leather have radically changed during the -last few years, and that the small quantity -of glucose and epsom salts that is used -to-day in finishing sole leather is absolutely -necessary to its value, and is in no sense -an adulterant or weighting material. Shoe -manufacturers, on the other hand, claim -that in some cases larger amounts of glucose, -salt, etc., have been added to the soft -leather from the belly of the animal, in -order to give it the desired stiffness. On -account of the high price of leather, various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -attempts have been made to find a substitute -for it. Most of these substitutes consist -of strong cloth treated with some -drying oil like linseed, the oil having previously -been mixed with other solid substances.</p> - -<p>A prize of five thousand francs has been -awarded to a Belgian inventor, Louis -Gevaert, for his unusually superior artificial -leather. The process consists in the more -or less intimate impregnation of stout cloth -with tannic albuminoid substances. Shoes -made of this are said to possess not only the -resistance and elasticity of natural leather, -but its durability of wear. Moreover, they -are much cheaper, costing, including manufacture, -only four francs (about eighty -cents) and being sold at about six francs -per pair.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_FOUR">CHAPTER FOUR<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT</span></h2> - -<p>Very few people, even among those -engaged in the shoe industry, know -much of the anatomy of the foot. Yet -it is evident that they ought to know something -about it in order to furnish the foot -with a proper covering.</p> - -<p>The first thing that strikes a person on -looking at the human foot is its large proportion -of bone. On pressing its top surface -and that of its inner side, the amount of -flesh will be found to be very small, indeed. -The same is true of the inner and outer -ankle. The extreme back of the ankle has -scarcely any flesh covering. The most -fleshy portions of the foot are its outer side, -the base of the heel and the ball of the big -toe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> - -<p>The reason for this disposition of flesh -is to protect or cover those parts of the foot -that support the body by coming in contact -with the ground. They act as pads and -lessen the concussion. The abundance of -flesh on the outer side of the foot is to protect -or act as a shield against danger. The -inside of the foot is not exposed as much as -the outside.</p> - -<p>The foot is divided into three parts, -the toes, the waist and instep, and the heel -and ankle. The largest bone of the foot -is the heel bone (called calcaneum). It is -the bone that projects backward from the -principal joint and forms the main portion -of the heel. When a person is flat-footed, -this bone is thrust farther backward than -nature intended to have it. The connection -between it and the tarsal bones is lost.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus7" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus7.jpg" width="420" height="270" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Bones and Joints of the Human Foot.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus8" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/illus8.jpg" width="200" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Different Parts of the Foot and Ankle. <i>See <a href="#Page_86">page 86</a>.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The top bone of the foot is the astragalus, -and it forms the main joint upon which -the process of walking depends. This bone -has a smooth, circular, upper surface that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -connects it with the main bone of the lower -leg. It is absolutely necessary that this -bone should be in perfect harmony (relation) -with the others in order to insure -comfort and health. If the arches of the -foot are forced out of position, up or down -or sidewise, this joint is not permitted to -do its work normally.</p> - -<p>Rheumatism is a frequent evil of an -injured joint. Hence the necessity of absolutely -normal action, unhampered by ill-fitting -shoes.</p> - -<p>The principal arch of the instep is called -the cuneiform or tarsal bone. Persons are -troubled with defective insteps to quite an -extent. Misshapen joints at this point -due to shoes that do not fit and consequently -disarrange and throw out of position -the delicate, natural structure, work great -havoc with the comfort of the foot. Nine -joints cluster at this point.</p> - -<p>The bones of the toes are called the -metatarsal bones and phalanges. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -can be no doubt that nature intended -mankind to walk in his bare feet, and in -that event the phalanges of the foot would -occupy a much more important part than -is now the case as a result of modern civilization. -There are nineteen bones in the -foot, and the disturbance of one or more of -these will serve to upset the entire foot by -throwing out of relationship the general -unit of work devolving upon the whole -number of joints and bones. Each joint -has its accompaniment of muscles, and -each lack of alignment of bones and joints -provokes discord and lack of harmony in -the muscular action.</p> - -<p>Muscles are attached to bones, and by -their contraction or extension the bones -are moved. Very few movements are -effected by means of a single muscle. The -muscles of the foot in nearly all cases are -in combination, and are so complex in their -action that the best surgeons find it difficult -to describe them satisfactorily.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> - -<p>The chief characteristics of the foot are -its spring and elasticity. While the foot -has wonderful powers of resistance and -adaptability, it is the shoemaker’s duty not -to strain the same, but to provide for each -action.</p> - -<p>The most sensitive part or the one part -that is most susceptible of injury is the -big toe. This is due to the fact that the -tendency of the foot in walking is to travel -toward the toe of the boot, and in a word -to press into rather than shun danger. The -shoemaker provides for this, first, by allowing -sufficient length of sole to extend beyond -the termination of the toe, and second, by -the fit of the upper and the preparation of -the sole. In this way, if the toe of the -shoe strikes against a hard substance, the -big toe of the foot will remain untouched.</p> - -<p>Seventy-five per cent of the people have -more or less trouble with their feet. Some -of these troubles are caused by the manufacturer -putting on the market shoes whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -lines look handsome and attractive to the -eye, but are lacking in any other good -features. Shoes that fit properly should -have plenty of room from the large toe -joint to the end of the toes, and also should -have plenty of tread, especially at this -point.</p> - -<p>A mere glance at our bare foot will show -conclusively that pointed-toe boots are -false in the theory of design. The toes of a -foot when off duty touch each other gently. -When they are called on to assist us in -walking or in supporting our body, they -spread out—although not to any great -extent. This, then, being the action, no -sensible maker of boots and shoes would -attempt to restrain them. Box or puff-toe -shoes allow the greatest freedom.</p> - -<p>The pointed-toe shoes, which join the -vamp to the upper immediately over the -big toe joint, exceedingly high heels, and -thick waist shoes are not for the best interests -of the foot.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> - -<p>The evils of ill-fitting shoes are corns, -bunions, and calluses.</p> - -<p>Corns are mainly due to pressure and -friction. When the layers of skin become -hardened, they form a corn, which is merely -a growth of dead skin that has become -hard in the center. This hardened spot -acts like a foreign body to the inflamed parts.</p> - -<p>A hard corn is formed more by friction -than pressure. It is produced by the -constant rubbing of a tight or small shoe -against the projecting parts of some prominent -bony part, as the last joints on the -third, fourth, and little toe. When this -action continues, it produces inflammation. -Rest—as relieving the feet of the friction—decreases -this inflammation, leaving a layer -of hardened flesh. Renewed action reproduces -the same effects, leaving behind a -second layer of hardened flesh. This continued -action and reaction brings on a -callus, rising above the surface of the -skin. This increases from its base. An<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -ordinary hard corn may be removed by -scraping up the callous skin around its -border, and prying out carefully with a -knife. Soft corns are chiefly the result of -pressure or friction. These corns are soft -and spongy elevations on the parts of the -skin subjected to pressure. Soft corns -are mostly found on the inner side of the -smaller toes. Those on the surface of -joints by mechanical action will become -hard.</p> - -<p>The blood corn is excessively painful. -It is the result of an ordinary corn forcibly -displacing the blood vessels surrounding it, -and causing them to rest upon its surface.</p> - -<p>The bunion is an inflammatory swelling -generally to be found on the big toe joint. -The chief cause of bunions is known to be -the wearing of boots or shoes of insufficient -length. The foot, meeting with resistance -in front and behind, is robbed of its natural -actions, the result being that the big toe -is forced upward, and subjected to continuous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -friction and pressure. The wearing -of narrow-toe boots that prevent the outward -expansion of the toe is another cause.</p> - -<p>The comparisons of quantities are often -called ratios. The ratios of the different -parts of the foot to the height are different -in the infant from that of the adult period. -Between these two periods the ratios are -constantly changing.</p> - -<p>There are two series of shoe sizes on the -market; the smallest size of shoe for -infants (size No. 1) is, or was originally, -four inches long; each added full size -indicates an increase in length of one third -of an inch (sizes 1 to 5). Children’s sizes -run in two series, 5 to 8, and 8 to 11; then -they branch out into youths’ and misses’; -both running 11½, 12, 12½, 13, 13½ and back -again to 1, 1½, 2, etc., in a series of sizes that -run up into men’s and women’s. Boys’ -shoes run from 2½ to 5½; men’s from 6 to -11 in regular runs. Larger sizes usually are -made upon special orders. Some few manufacturers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -go to 12. Women’s sizes run -from 2½ to 9. Some manufacturers do not -go above size 8. The rate of sizes is sometimes -varied from by manufacturers of -special lines of shoes. A man’s No. 8 shoe -would be nearly eleven inches long. These -measurements originated in England and -are not now absolute.</p> - -<p>A system of French sizes is used which -consists of a cipher system of markings to -indicate the sizes as well as widths so that -the real size may not be known to the -customer.</p> - -<p>All feet are not alike in structure and -shape. In infancy the foot is broad at -the toes, which press forward in the direction -of their length. The heel is small in -comparison to the width of the toes, and -also short in length, due to the undeveloped -bones. But during growth, the thickness -above the heel bones disappears, and the -heel itself becomes thicker and assumes the -beauty of perfection at maturity. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -development is due to the growth of bones -which must be well exercised and properly -cared for during this period. The various -parts of the feet and legs do not mature -at the same rate—those at the upper part -of the body increase at a greater rate than -the lower parts. Thighs develop first, next -the upper part of the legs, and lastly the feet.</p> - -<p>The adult foot, when properly formed, -is straight from heel to toe on the inner side, -and is wider across the joints than one inch -or so farther back. The manner of walking -has a considerable bearing on the character -and development of the foot.</p> - -<p>There are many sorts of feet, which are -due to a number of causes, such as habits, -climate, occupation, locality, etc. As a -general rule we may divide the feet into -four classes: Bony feet—those with very -little flesh upon them; hard feet—those -that have plenty of flesh, but which are -almost as hard as a stone; fat feet—plump, -with plenty of flesh, but having<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -little shape; spongy feet—those that seem -to have no bones in them, usually found -in the female sex.</p> - -<p>The characteristics of a foot are common -with the body to which it is connected. -Some people have a strong, bony frame, -with strong, firm muscles, prominent bones -and muscles, and a flesh that is hard. The -feet of this type of person are usually long, -bony, and arched, with a well-developed big -toe joint. The heel measurements are large -in proportion. A soft foot is prevalent -among the Scotch. The feet of a person -who is delicately shaped, with a small -frame and thin, small, tapering muscles, -are usually thin and finely formed, giving -evidence of quickness. This kind of a -foot in a man has a tendency to develop a -flat foot.</p> - -<p>A person with a form inclined to plumpness, -full of exercise and activity, and a good -circulation, has a well-developed foot. -The heel is round and fairly prominent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -although there are no special bony prominences. -On the other hand a person -with a body of general roundness, but with -tissues and muscles flabby, and a languid -blood circulation, has feet that are short, -soft, and flabby.</p> - -<p>We will allow that these four different -kinds of feet all measure a 4 size and D -in width. One would naturally think that -the same size shoe would fit them all, but -this is not so. This size shoe will only -fit one and that is the bony foot. The -hard feet require a C½ width; the fat feet -require a C width, and the sponge feet require -a B width.</p> - -<p>The same last may, and often will possess -a slight variation in some manner or other. -The fitter of feet must know the stock, each -pair, and be on intimate terms with the -peculiarities of each last and the inside -lines of each pair of shoes before attempting -to try them upon the feet of the customer.</p> - -<p>Different makes of footwear are apt to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -manufactured over a slightly varying system -of measurements. One line of shoes made -over a small measure may be longer or -shorter or narrower or wider than some -other line. The heel measurements require -careful study for each line introduced. -The peculiarities of each line must be tested -by tape and measure, and the foot fitter -must have a strong knowledge along these -lines.</p> - -<p>We should measure the foot by the stick -if necessary, and make a note of the size -and width that will be likely to prove a fit. -The height of the arch must be considered, -and the shape of arch curve, the shape of -the instep, and the general contour of the -foot. A normal foot will show about a -half-inch arch. The average foot will carry -from an inch to an inch and a quarter heel, -without putting a strain on any of the -joints of the foot. Some feet vary from -this by a wide margin. A foot is a trifle -longer in walking than in repose. Allowance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -should be made, in using the measuring -stick, over what the foot actually draws -on the stick. In men’s shoes the allowance, -should be from two to two and one half -sizes.</p> - -<p>When a one-legged man buys a shoe, the -dealer sends to the factory a shoe to match -the one left remaining. In these days of -the use of machinery in every process of -their manufacture, shoes are made with the -utmost exactness and precision, and it is -easily possible to mate that remaining shoe -with the greatest nicety in size, style, material, -and finish.</p> - -<p>Few people have feet exactly alike; -commonly the left foot is larger than the -right, so that one shoe may fit a little -more snugly than the other. Commonly, -however, people buy shoes in regularly -matched pairs, the difference in their feet, -if it is noticeable to them at all, not being -enough to make any other course desirable.</p> - -<p>But there are people who buy shoes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -different sizes or widths, in which case the -dealer breaks two pairs for them, giving -them, to fit their feet, one shoe from each. -In such cases the dealer matches up the -two remaining shoes, one from each of two -pairs just as he would where he had broken -one pair to sell one shoe to a one-legged man.</p> - -<p>But a man does not have to be one-legged -nor to have feet of uneven sizes or -shapes to make him ask the dealer to break -a pair of shoes for him. A man with two -perfectly good feet came into the store -where he was accustomed to buy and wanted -one shoe. While traveling in a sleeping -car, his shoes had been mixed up with -others and he had received back one of his -own and one of some other man’s; a fact -which he had not discovered until he was -too far away from train and station to set -things right. So he came in to buy one -shoe to match his own.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_FIVE">CHAPTER FIVE<br /> -<span class="smaller">HOW SHOE STYLES ARE MADE</span></h2> - -<p>If you examine the shoes worn by -people in a large city, you will notice -different styles. Shoe styles that were -called grotesque a few seasons ago are -comparatively usual to-day, for the new -designs in women’s footwear, which manufacturers -are now making, are the most -varied that ever have been put on the -market. Pink and green and blue are -among the new colors in materials for footwear.</p> - -<p>Some of the styles for the coming seasons -are more lavish than have hitherto been -seen in the women’s shoe trade of America. -Coronation purple velvet boots look like -an extravagant color for footwear, but -they are now selling. Samples of pink,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -green, and blue shoes, both boots and pumps, -are being made up, and they will soon be -offered to buyers.</p> - -<p>The style of the shoe is dominated by -fashion. All styles are related, that is, -every part of our dress is influenced by the -prevailing fashion, ideas of color, fabric, -or garment outline. To illustrate: when -short skirts are stylish, women wear mannish -shoes to harmonize with them; on the -other hand, with long skirts they must -have a shoe that is neat and small, hence, -the short vamp. When women wear white -in the summer, cool canvas shoes spring -into favor; when gray and blue dress -materials are to be used, a variety of tan -shoes are worn to harmonize, etc.</p> - -<p>After the style has been decided upon, -it is necessary to work out an exact reproduction. -An expert model maker, called a -last maker, produces a last, a wooden model -of the shoe. In order to do this, it is necessary -to lay out certain plans or specifications<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -for the details of the manufacturer -of the shoe.</p> - -<p>There are certain parts of all feet that -have fixed measurements. To illustrate: -the length of the shank, that part of the -sole of the foot between the heel and ball, -in every person’s foot is always the same. -The part of the foot back of the ball or -large toe joint conforms to certain fixed -measurements. These definite measurements -form a basis by which the last -maker originates new styles by shortening, -lengthening, widening, or narrowing the -space in front of the toes, but always -retaining the true and fixed measurements -of the back part of the last.</p> - -<p>When the last maker desires to produce a -new style, he takes an old last and tacking -pieces of leather on some parts of it (front -of the toes), he builds it up and cuts off -other parts. This patched-up last is taken -to a special machine (lathe), where a number -of duplicates are turned from a block of wood.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> - -<p>The “pattern maker” is the man in the -factory who makes patterns, consisting of -heavy pieces of cardboard bound with brass, -in the shapes of the various pieces of leather -required to make up the upper part of the -shoe.</p> - -<p>The pattern maker has found by experience -that the top part of the shoe also -conforms to certain fixed measurements, -and by working in sympathy with the -last maker he need only to change the -front part of the vamp to bring out the -latter’s ideas. With these measurements -as a foundation, he puts forth from time to -time different style uppers, as buttons, lace, -blucher, fixings, scrolls, straps, ties, pumps, -etc. This is the way new style tops originate.</p> - -<p>After the manufacturer has approved of -sample patterns, the pattern maker receives -an order for a certain quantity of patterns -to be made over a certain last which is -submitted to him. Working on the fixed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -top measurements and the last submitted as -a basis, the pattern maker draws plans for -a model pattern. The standard size of a -model pattern is size 7 in men’s shoes and -size 4 in women’s. He is also given an -order for a certain number of widths; for -instance, B, C, D, and E, and he draws -out on paper a complete set for each width -in the size 7. These four sets of model -patterns are reproduced and cut out in sheet -iron by hand. But from these sheets any -number of iron models, and any size regular -cardboard pattern can be reproduced by a -machine.</p> - -<p>Wood to be made into lasts comes to the -shoe manufacturers in a rough, unchiseled -form. The lasts are made of maple wood; -hollow forms used by traveling salesmen and -window trimmers are made of bass wood.</p> - -<p>The making of the model of the last is -the most exacting operation in the factory. -It is produced by a machine most important. -The principle of this machine has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -brought about by the pantograph; that is, -it will turn from a rough block of wood an -exact copy of the model last; or it will -enlarge or reduce a duplicate of any other -size or width, so, from a single model last, -such as the manufacturer has decided on, -any number of lasts can be made, and of -any size or width. The machine itself -consists of two lathes. On one is placed -the model and on the other the block of -wood. The model is held against a wheel -by a spring. By adjusting this wheel, -any desired width last can be obtained, -and by adjusting a bar in front of the -machine any length last can be produced -from the block of wood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus9" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus9a.jpg" width="420" height="190" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Rough Unchiseled Block of Maple.</p> -<img src="images/illus9b.jpg" width="420" height="160" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A Last after leaving Turning Lathe.</p> -<img src="images/illus9c.jpg" width="420" height="160" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A Finished Last.</p> -</div> - -<p>The lathe, when in motion, revolves -both the last and the model, the model -being pressed against the wheel, which is -really a guide for the revolving knife that -digs into the block of wood, and regulates -the depth that the knife is allowed to cut. -In this manner the model is reproduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -from the block which is also regulated as to -size and width by the wheel and by the bar. -This machine is so accurate that a tack -driven into the model to locate the center -of the last is reproduced by a sort of a -wooden pimple in the block of wood when -finished. The model sole pattern is now -tried on the half-finished last to insure -accuracy.</p> - -<p>Notice in the figures of lasts that the -turning lathe has left stubs of wood on the -toes and heels. These must be finished to -a “templet.” The templet is a measure -or guide used to indicate the shape any -piece of work is to assume when finished. -From the heel and toe of the model, a piece -of iron is shaped on an exact arc of that -model, and is used on the heeler machine -as a guide to form an exact copy of the -heels and toes of the model. This machine -works very rapidly, and by the aid of an -irregular shaped, revolving knife it quickly -transforms the toes and heels to the desired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -shape. The bottoms are again tried out -on a sole pattern and the last number, the -size and the width are stamped on.</p> - -<p>We now have the last as a solid piece -of maple wood and turned to the desired -shape, size and width. Were it possible -to insert and extract the last in this form -from the half-finished shoe, no other steps -would be necessary in last manufacture, -but inasmuch as the leather is stretched -very tightly over this last a little later, it -necessitates the introduction of some method -that will facilitate a quick removal of the -last from the shoe. This is accomplished -by cutting it in two parts and making a -hinged heel. The fact that the slightest -measurement changes the size of the shoe, -necessitates great care in the introduction -of the hinge as a part of the last, and in -order to insure accuracy and uniformity -in all the lasts, they are marked with -templets and gigs. The hinge must be -placed inside of the last.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> - -<p>The finished last is so constructed that -it can be readily inserted or withdrawn -from the shoe, and the strong hinge provides -the last, when inserted, with the same rigid -qualities as though it were one piece. -The center of the last is indicated, as before -stated, by a reproduction in the side of the -last of the tack that was placed in the -model. This is the mark that locates the -position of all the holes, and it is done by a -“gig” in the following manner:—</p> - -<p>A gig is a piece of steel having cylinders -that guide the bit of the boring machine -in an exact perpendicular line. This gig, -being placed on the last in the position -marked by the turning machine, forms the -accurate location of the bolt holes that -hold the hinge.</p> - -<p>After the hinge is placed in the last, it -goes to the ironers to have the bottom put -on it, if it is a McKay last, and a heel -plate if it is a welt. The bottom is again -tried and the plate filled up to the same.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -The last is then ready to go to the scouring -room. In this room the last goes through -three operations, first of which is ruffing. -This consists of scouring with a coarse -grade of quartz. This operation must be -carried on so that the sole lines and insteps -are not brought into contact with the -quartz.</p> - -<p>The second operation, medium grinding, -is done with a fine grade of quartz, and in -this operation, also, the worker keeps away -from the toe. The third operation is done -with a much finer-grade quartz, the operator -going over the entire last. The last is now -ready for polishing, and after that, for a -heavy coat of shellac. It is polished and -waxed on a leather wheel. Then it goes -into the shipping room ready for shipment -to the manufacturer.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_SIX">CHAPTER SIX<br /> -<span class="smaller">DEPARTMENTS OF A SHOE FACTORY—GOODYEAR -WELT SHOES</span></h2> - -<p>The principal methods of manufacturing -shoes are the following:—</p> - -<p>Goodyear welt; McKay; turned; standard -screw; pegged; nailed.</p> - -<p>The simplest and the clearest way of -showing how the various kinds of shoes are -made is to explain the manufacture of a -Goodyear welt and afterwards bring out -the points in which this method of shoemaking -differs from the others.</p> - -<p>Shoes are manufactured in up-to-date -factories, employing hundreds of operatives. -The modern shoe factory of to-day is divided -into six general departments: the sole -leather department, upper leather department, -stitching department, making department,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -finishing department, and the treeing, -packing, and shipping departments.</p> - -<p>In some sections of the country, several -of these departments are often designated -by other names. The stitching department -is often called the fitting department; the -making department, the bottoming department; -and the sole leather department, -the stock-fitting department. The departments -are popularly termed rooms for -brevity.</p> - -<p>A shoe factory is designed so as to have -a width of about fifty feet for each room, -while the length is according to the number -of shoes to be produced. A width of about -fifty feet gives plenty of daylight and ample -room in the center of each department, -which is very essential in shoemaking.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus10" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus10.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A Modern Shoe Factory.</p> -</div> - -<p>Shoe factories are usually about two -hundred feet long, while many are nearly -four hundred feet. A few exceed four hundred -feet, running as long as eight hundred -feet. Some are built in the shape of hollow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -squares, while others have wings added, -which give almost as much floor space as -the original building.</p> - -<p>The average factory has usually four -floors. The first floor, or basement, is -occupied by the sole leather department. -The next floor above includes the treeing, -finishing, packing, and shipping departments, -and also the office. The third floor is -devoted entirely to the making or bottoming -department. The top floor is divided -so that the cutting and stitching departments -have each half a floor.</p> - -<p>There are several exceedingly large factories -in this country that find it advantageous -to divide the factory into more -departments, as, for example, the cutting -room is divided so that the linings and -trimmings are cut in a separate department. -The skiving may also be done in a separate -room. The making room will be divided -so that the lasting is set off as a separate -department on account of the many workmen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -and machines employed. In the same -way there will be a division of work so that -the packing and shipping will be set apart -from the treeing. Then, again, in the sole -leather room, the making of heels as well -as the fitting of the bottom stock may -become independent departments.</p> - -<p>The system of making women’s shoes is -practically the same as that of men’s -except that in a great many factories the -method of preparing the bottom stock is -somewhat different. Most manufacturers -of women’s shoes do not cut sole leather, -but buy outsoles, insoles, counters, and -heels, all cut or prepared. These soles are -in blocked form and large enough so that -they can be cut or rounded by the manufacturers -to fit their lasts. The counters, -when bought, are all ready to put in the -uppers, while the heels are ready to put on -the shoes. Whenever a manufacturer of -women’s shoes cuts his sole leather, he has the -same system as that in the men’s factories.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> - -<p>In women’s factories where sole leather -is not cut, they do not have a complete -sole leather department. Instead, they -have what is called a stock-fitting department. -There are independent cut sole -houses, etc., in the trade, which supply -the soles to manufacturers. The same -system of buying supplies also applies to -many other parts of the shoe, as in the -top lift, half sole, welt, rand, etc. In the -upper leather department, manufacturers -of both men’s and women’s shoes often -buy trimmings and other parts of the upper -all prepared.</p> - -<p>A large proportion of the men’s shoe -manufacturers are now buying heels all built, -while fully nine tenths buy counters all -molded. The soles and other parts that are -needed for a shoe are put up in different -qualities and grades, and a manufacturer can -buy any grade of sole he wants, so that it is -considered an advantage to buy some parts, -instead of cutting them. In a side of sole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -leather there are twenty-five or more different -qualities and grades of soles, and -very few manufacturers, especially in the -women’s trade, can use all of these. The -greater variety of shoes a manufacturer -turns out, the more advantageous it is -for him to cut his own sole leather, and -prepare all parts in his own factory.</p> - -<p>In this country the number of factories -in the shoe trade appears to be growing less -and the average factory larger each year. -It is estimated that there are at present -something like fifteen hundred factories in -all. These range from the smallest product -up to the largest. The average factory may -be said to produce about twelve hundred -pairs of shoes per day. Many turn out -five thousand pairs daily, while a few -manufacturers turn out ten thousand or -more pairs. Several manufacturers and -firms have half a dozen or more factories -and have a total output of between twenty -thousand and thirty thousand pairs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> -shoes a day. There is no such thing as a -trust or monopoly of any kind in this trade, -and there never has been up to the present -time.</p> - -<p>In all factories and all classes of work, -the “case” has always been of such a -number of pairs that it can be divided by -twelve in every instance. A case can be -twelve, twenty-four, thirty-six, forty-eight, -sixty, or seventy-two pairs, and in children’s -work it is often sixty and seventy-two pairs. -All cases of these numbers are regular -cases, whereas any other number would be -out of the ordinary. Of course, a case of -shoes may contain any number of pairs, -but the numbers given above have always -been used in regular work.</p> - -<p>Cases of shoes may differ, but every -pair of shoes in any one case must be made -exactly alike. All shoes are made in cases, -except in the matter of custom work or -single-pair orders or samples. In making -men’s heavy shoes, or working shoes, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -regular case was formerly sixty pairs or -thirty-six pairs, but the tendency has been -of late to have a standard case of twenty-four -pairs. In the men’s fine trade the -regular case is twenty-four pairs, while in -the women’s it is thirty-six pairs. Long -boots for men have always been made in -twelve-pair cases.</p> - -<p>Goods are sold by the samples, sent out -with the traveling salesman. As fast as he -receives an order, he sends it to the main -office. Here the orders are subdivided and -sent to the factories making the goods. -For example, an order for seventy-five -dozen men’s shoes of a certain style received -by the main office from the traveling salesman -would be sent to the factory in the -form of a typewritten order, covering the -general description and sizes written out -in the proper form, for each case is made -according to the specifications on the tags -that are made out in the office. These -tags specify the sole, heel, upper, kind and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -quality, how stitched, the last to be used, -how bottomed finished, treed, and packed. -Everything is marked plainly on the tags -so that a buyer can have any shoe made -just as he wants it.</p> - -<p>This order would be sent from the factory -office to the cutting room, where a clerk -would make out twenty-five long tickets.</p> - -<p>Twenty-five are made because the shoes -go through the factory in lots of twenty-four -pairs, each lot being called a job and -when finished making a case of shoes. The -long ticket is made in duplicate form, and is -perforated so it may be tied to a lot of shoes. -Both parts of the tickets are made out -to contain the various operations with the -specifications as to detail. The lower part -is sent to the stock or sole leather room, -while the top part remains with the uppers -which are cut in the cutting room. While -each part of the ticket is sent by a different -route through the factory, they finally -meet in the form of finished shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> - -<p>In addition to the long ticket already -described, two other tickets are made out, -the top ticket and the trimming ticket. -The top ticket is sent to the leather bins -of the factory, where the sorter knows by -experience exactly the amount of leather -required to cut the order, being careful to -see that it is all of uniform quality and -free from blemishes. He rolls the leather -in a bundle, attaches the ticket and sends -it to the cutter.</p> - -<p>In the cutting room there are three classes -of cutters; cutter of trimmings, who cuts -lace stays, top facings, back stays, tongues, -etc.; outside cutter, who cuts quarters, -vamps, tops, tips, etc.; and the lining -cutter, who cuts cloth linings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus11" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus11.jpg" width="420" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A Nine and One-Half Foot Skin divided to best advantage before -Cutting.</p> -</div> - -<p>Skins of leather are received in the shoe -factory in different shapes. Some are perfect, -others have blemishes or imperfect -spots. The skins that are to be used for -upper stock are carefully graded by two or -three men, as to quality of leather and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -weight. This is necessary in order to be -sure that a lot of shoes made for a certain -dealer will be uniform. On account of the -leather coming in different shapes, some -skins perfect, others having imperfect spots, -the cutter must place his patterns in such -a way that certain parts of the shoe will use -up all the perfect parts, and others, less -important, will be composed of the weaker -parts of the skin. This explains why you -sometimes find the inside top part of a shoe -made of flanky leather, while the vamp is -made of a better grade.</p> - -<p>There is a pattern for each and every -size shoe, and each piece of leather is cut -out separately on a block of wood. Nothing -is wasted. In order to make each cutter -as efficient as possible, the cutters are divided, -so as to have a different cutter for -each grade of leather. In this way they -become better judges of leather.</p> - -<p>The lining cutters use patterns and -knives on drilling. The facing is cut out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -with a knife and pattern. The side stays -and the tongue are cut out by dies.</p> - -<p>After the leather has been cut into the -desired shape, uppers, vamps, toe pieces, -back stays, lace stays, etc., cutting at -times ten pieces, and for some styles of -shoes as many as fourteen pieces, the cutters -take care to keep the parts for the same -shoe together, matching and marking them -so that eventually all will meet again in -the shoe.</p> - -<p>Machines are used now on almost every operation, -and annually several new machines -make their appearance. The cutting of -uppers up to four or five years ago was -performed by an operator cutting the -leather by running the knife along the -side of the pattern. Now they are using -a cutting machine and dies to cut uppers in -nearly all factories. This cutting machine -is called the “clicking machine,” and it -is considered quite a labor saver in a -department where it was the universal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -opinion that machines never could be -used.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to give a list of all the -operations performed and have it complete. -But a good general idea of the system can -be given and the name and meaning of the -main operations in the several departments. -It should be kept in mind that the methods -in rooms differ, and that hardly any two -factories put a shoe through in exactly the -same manner. The general system and -plan is the same everywhere and the -machines are the same in all factories, but -the details and minor operations are so -numerous that there is plenty of scope for -them to vary.</p> - -<p>The function of the clicking machine is -to cut the upper leather into the desired -shapes required. It consists of an iron -frame, with a cutting board on the top of -it. Above this is a large beam which can -be swung to the right or left of any portion -of the board. The skin to be cut,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -which may be of any kind, is placed on -the board and a die of the design or -shape of the leather desired is placed on it. -The handle of the swinging beam is -taken by the operator and moved over the -die; then by pressure of the handle the -beam is brought downward, pressing the -die through the leather. As soon as this -is done, the beam automatically returns to -its full height.</p> - -<p>These dies are made in different designs -and sizes to meet the different sizes and -designs in the upper of the shoe. One -die for each design and size. They mark -the vamps for the location of the toe cap -and blucher foxings as well as the size by -means of nicks in the edge of the piece cut. -The dies are about three-quarters of an -inch in height and so light that they do -not mar the most delicate leather.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus12" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus12.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Cutting the Leather by Means of Pattern and Knife. -<i><a href="#Page_118">Page 118.</a></i></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus13" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus13.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Goodyear Stitching.</p> -<p class="caption">A machine that sews around the edge of the welt and joins it to the sole -exactly at the heel. <i><a href="#Page_119">Page 119.</a></i></p> -</div> - -<p>After the outside cutter has cut the skin -into pieces to make up the shoe, these are -tied up in separate bundles, that is, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -twenty-four of tips in one bundle, twenty-four -pairs of vamps in another. These are -turned over to girls who stencil the sizes -on the edge and match them, that is, see -that each upper is exactly like the mate.</p> - -<p>After the different parts have been cut -by the operator of the clicking machine or -by hand, the edges of the upper leather, -which shows in the finished shoe, must be -thinned down (skived) by a “skiving -machine” to a beveled edge. This is -done in order that the edges of the leather -that are to show in the completed shoe may -be folded to give a more finished appearance. -The machines are operated by girls; -each one an expert on one particular piece.</p> - -<p>The order number and size of shoe are -stamped on the top lining of each shoe. -After all linings have been prepared, according -to the data given on the instruction -card attached to parts of the shoe, the -parts are sent to the stitching department, -where the stitchers on a multitude of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -machines stitch all the different parts -together very rapidly and accurately.</p> - -<p>The toe caps are then given a series of -ornamental perforations along the edge. -This is done by either “power tip press,” -or a “perforating machine.” The first -consists of a series of dies placed in a machine -by which the leather is perforated according -to the designs desired. Each series -of dies represents a different design.</p> - -<p>The perforating machine resembles a -sewing machine, but instead of a series of -dies, the one in this machine is made of -single or combination dies which make one -or more holes on each downward movement. -The machine feeds automatically and does -the work very accurately. The cutting -tool is kept from becoming dull by pressing -against a band of paper. Ornamentation -on other parts of the shoes, such as the edges -of vamps, etc., is made by this machine.</p> - -<p>Before going to the stitching room, every -bundle is examined by sorters. The sorters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -are divided and subdivided; that is, one -man always sorts tips, another vamps, etc. -They examine each piece for imperfection, -and if any is found, the piece is thrown out -and a new one put in. The last operation -is the assembling of pieces. Here each -job of twenty-four pairs is brought together -and securely tied and numbered.</p> - -<p>This stitching department is one in which -female labor is generally employed, although -in late years more men are being used to -operate machines, especially on vamping or -other heavy parts. In some parts of the -country it is called the fitting room. The -work of the department consists of stitching -the different parts of the upper together, -so that it is ready to put on the last. The -terms used mean in most cases stitching -the part named to the rest of the upper. -There are very many operations in the -department, several of which are named -below, together with their meaning.</p> - -<p>The bundles of pieces which have come<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -from the cutting room are placed on the -table, where they are subdivided into three -parts, the linings, the tops, the vamps and -the tips.</p> - -<p>The linings for the tops of the shoes are -pasted together (with the back strap and top -bands), care being taken to join them at the -marks made for that purpose. After being -dried, they go into the hands of the machine -operators, where they are joined together -by a stitching machine, and the edges, etc., -trimmed. The sewing machines used are -very similar to an ordinary home sewing -machine, with the exception that they are -much larger and stronger.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus14" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus14.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Stock Fitting Room.</p> -<p class="caption">Where all bottom stock is prepared after being cut. <i>See <a href="#Page_120">page 120</a>.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The lining is finished. The next step is -to join the lining to the piece of leather -making up the outside of the same shape, -called the top. The top receives the eyelets -by a machine placed in proper position. -The top and lining can be put together by -sewing them face to face. The top is -inspected and all threads clipped off.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> - -<p>After the shoe uppers have been properly -stitched together, the eyelets are placed -on by a “duplex eyeletting machine,” -which eyelets both sides of the shoe at one -time. The top of the eyelets are solid -black knobs, so as not to wear brassy, while -the bottom (which clinches inside the shoe) -called the barrel, is of nickel. This finishes -the shoe upper.</p> - -<p>The vamp, tongues, and tip are then put -together. The edges of the vamps, quarters, -tips, etc., are covered with a cement -made of rubber and naphtha, which is -kept in small bowls on the benches in front -of employees. Several grades of cements -are used. The cemented parts are allowed -to dry, and the edges are then turned over -by “pressing machines,” which gives a -finished appearance. The shoe is put together -by stitching the vamp to the quarters. -This work is done by both men and -women, and is work which demands much -care.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> - -<p>In stitching men’s uppers, the system -varies in various factories as much as it -does on women’s. Here are some of the -operations, which will give an idea how -men’s uppers go through.</p> - -<p>Extension or toe piece sewed to vamp.</p> - -<p>Leather box stitched on.</p> - -<p>Tip stitched to vamp.</p> - -<p>Vamp seamed up back.</p> - -<p>Top folded around edge.</p> - -<p>Top seamed up.</p> - -<p>Eyelet row stitched up and down.</p> - -<p>Lining seamed up.</p> - -<p>Side facing put on lining.</p> - -<p>Top facing put on lining.</p> - -<p>Lining and outside pasted together.</p> - -<p>Under trimming.</p> - -<p>Eyeletting.</p> - -<p>Hooking.</p> - -<p>Vamping.</p> - -<p>The upper is complete when it leaves the -stitching room and is all ready to be put -on the last. While the upper is being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -prepared, the soles, insoles, counters, and -heels are made in other departments.</p> - -<p>When the foreman of this department -has received the tags with the data necessary -for the preparation of outsoles, insoles, -counters, toe boxes, and heels, they -are sent to the stock room, where these -parts are kept.</p> - -<p>The soles are roughly cut out by means -of dies, pressing down through the leather, -in “dieing out machines.” Before the soles -are cut, the leather is dipped in water and -sufficiently dampened. After they are cut -out, they are made to conform to the exact -shape by rounding them in a machine -called the “rounding machine.” The -roughly died out piece of leather is held -between clamps, one of which is the exact -pattern of the sole. The machine works a -little knife that darts around this pattern, -cutting the sole exactly to conform. The -outsole is now passed to a heavy rolling -machine, where it is pressed by tons of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -pressure between heavy rolls. This takes -the place of the hammering which the old-time -shoemaker gave his leather to bring -the fibers very closely together, so as to -increase its wear.</p> - -<p>Counters and toe boxes (stiffening which -is placed between the heel and toe cap and -the vamp of shoe) are prepared in the same -room with the heels. After they are made, -they are sent to the making or bottoming -room, where the shoe upper is awaiting -them. As the counter is an important -feature in the life of a shoe, much depends -upon the quality of leather that goes into it.</p> - -<p>The sole is next fed to a “splitting -machine,” which reduces it to an absolutely -even thickness. The insole is made of -lighter leather than the outsole, but has the -same thickness and is cut out in the same -way one at a time. The sizes are stamped -on them and they are sorted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus15" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Lasting. <i><a href="#Page_127">Page 127.</a></i></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus16" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus16.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Welting.</p> -</div> - -<p>If you examine a Goodyear welt shoe, -you will notice no stitches in sight, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -seam being fastened to an under portion of -the insole. The durability of the shoe -relies, to a great extent, on the quality and -strength of the insole.</p> - -<p>The smooth-appearing insole of a welt -shoe must be either pasted in or fastened -underneath in some manner. This fastening -is accomplished by passing the insole -through a very small machine called a -Goodyear channeler, which makes two incisions -at one operation. It cuts a little -slit along the edge of the insole, extending -about one-half inch toward its center.</p> - -<p>The upper part of insole made by the -slit on the edge is turned up on a lip -turning machine so that it extends out at -right angles from the insole. In other -words, the channel is opened up and laid -back, forming a ridge around the outer edge -of the sole. This forms a lip or shoulder, -against which the welt is sewed. In this -way the thread used in sewing cannot be -seen in the finished shoe. The cut made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -on the surface serves as guide for the -operator of the welt sewing machine when -the shoe reaches him.</p> - -<p>The inner and outer soles as well as the -uppers are now brought into the lasting or -gang room. The first part of lasting is -called “assembling,” which means that -many parts are brought together, such as -upper, counter, insole, box toe, and last. -The counter is placed in the upper, between -lining and vamp, while the box toe is shellacked -and put in the toe of the upper -(provided it has not been stitched in the -stitching room). The operator first tacks -the inner sole on to a wooden last.</p> - -<p>There are very many different styles of -lasts, and in cutting uppers a different -pattern must be used for each style. Then -the upper is placed in position on the last, -and it is ready to be pulled and stretched -to the wood and take its required shape. -This is accomplished by placing the shoes -on the “pulling over machine,” where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -the shoe uppers are correctly placed on the -last by the pincers of a machine holding -the leather at different points securely -against the wood of the last. By the -movements of levers the shoe uppers are -adjusted correctly. Then the pincers draw -the leather securely around the last and at -the same time two tacks on each side and -at the toe are driven in part way, to hold -the uppers securely.</p> - -<p>It is now placed on the “hand method -lasting machine,” where the leather is drawn -tightly around the last. Before this operation, -it is dipped in water to preserve its -shape when formed and that it may be -more easily formed by the machine. At -each pull of the pincers a small tack, -driven automatically part way in, holds the -edge of the upper exactly in place, so that -every part of the upper has been stretched -in all directions equally. A special machine -by means of a series of “wipers” is used to -last the toe and heel. After the leather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> -has been brought smoothly around the toe, -it is held there by a little tape fastened on -each side of the toe, which is held securely -in place by the surplus leather, crimpled -in at this point. The surplus leather -crimpled in at the heel is forced smoothly -down against the insole and held there by -tacks driven by an ingenious hand tool. In -all these lasting operations the tacks are only -driven in part way, so they may afterwards -be withdrawn and leave the inside perfectly -smooth, except at the heel of the shoe, -where they are driven into the iron heel -of the last and clinched.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus17" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus17.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Rough Rounding. <i>See <a href="#Page_131">page 131</a>.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus18" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus18.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Edge Trimming. <i>See <a href="#Page_130">page 130</a>.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>After these operations, the surplus -leather at the toe and sides of the shoe is -removed by the “upper trimming machine,” -which cuts it away by means of a little -knife and leaves it very smooth and even. -A small hammer operating in connection -with the knife pounds the leather on the -same parts. A pounding machine hammers -the leather and counter around the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -heel so that the stiff position conforms exactly -to the last.</p> - -<p>After the “lasted” shoe has been trimmed -and pounded down to the shape of the last, -it is turned over to the tack setter, who -pulls out all the tacks except a few, called -draft tacks. The insole is then wet to -make it pliable, and is turned over to a -very experienced operator, called the “inseamer,” -who is to sew the welt on.</p> - -<p>The shoe is now ready to receive a narrow -strip of prepared leather, that is sewed -after it is wet to make it pliable, along the -edge of the shoe, beginning where the heel is -placed and ending at the same spot on the -opposite edge. This is called the welt, and -is sewed from the inside lip of the insole, -so that the curved needle passes through -the lip, the upper, and the welt, uniting -all three securely and allowing the welt to -protrude beyond the edge of the shoe. -The thread is very stout linen, and is -passed through a pan of hot wax before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -being looped into chain stitch that holds -the shoe together.</p> - -<p>The nature of the stitch is a chain—two -rows of threads on the outside that -loop with the single thread in the inside -lip of the insole. When the welt is finally -sewed on, and the shoe put down on the -bench, it looks like an ordinary shoe resting -on a wide flange of leather. This flange is -the welt, and to it the heavy outer sole is -to be sewed fast. Should a single stitch -break in this operation, it is passed to a -cobbler, who repairs it by hand.</p> - -<p>Before the outer sole is put on, the edges -of the uppers must be trimmed along the -seam that holds the welt. A slip of steel -called steel shank is laid along the insole -where the hollow of the foot is, and a piece -of leather board laid over this to give the -necessary stiffness and prevent the shoe -from doubling up. As the welt has left a -hollow space along the ball of the foot, it is -necessary to fill this up, either with a piece<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -of leather, tanned felt, or other filler. Felt -is not waterproof, and leather squeaks, -hence a mixture of ground cork and rubber -cement is used. This is heated and spread -on the sole, and run over a hot roller until -the bottom of the shoe is perfectly smooth -and even. The shoes are placed on a rack -and are ready for the outsole.</p> - -<p>Sole fastening is performed by a number -of operations, in which a score or more -of separate machines are used. The sole -layers smear a rubber cement over this -welt with a “cementing machine,” after the -outsole has been soaked in water to make it -pliable, and then place it on the shoe and -tack a single nail in the heel. The “sole -laying machine,” through great pressure, -cements the sole on and fits it to every -curve of the last. Then the sole is trimmed -by a “rough rounding machine,” which -trims the soles to the shape of the last. -This machine also channels the outer sole -at the same time, which is necessary for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -the next operation. The “channel opening -machine” now turns up the lips of the -channel and the sole is ready to be stitched -to the welt.</p> - -<p>The outsole is now sewed by a waxed -thread to the welt, by an “outsole lock stitch -machine,” which is similar to a welt sewing -machine. The stitch is finer and extends -from the slit (channel) to the upper side -of the welt, where it shows after the shoe -has been finished.</p> - -<p>It unites the sole and welt with a tightly -drawn lock stitch of remarkable strength. -It sews through an inch of leather as easily -as a woman would sew through a piece of -cloth. The stitches are made through the -welt and outer sole, the seam running in -the channel of the outsole.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus19" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus19.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Leveling. <i>See <a href="#Page_135">page 135</a>.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus20" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus20.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Heeling. <i>See <a href="#Page_136">page 136</a>.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The inside of the slit in which this stitch -has just been made is now coated with -cement by means of a brush. The channel -lip is forced back to its original position -after the cement has dried, by a rapidly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -revolving wheel of a “channel laying machine.” -In this way the stitches are -hidden.</p> - -<p>Welt shoes are stitched on in three -different ways: “channeled,” which, when -finished, leaves an invisible stitch on the -bottom of the sole; “regular stitched aloft,” -showing the stitches on both sides; and -“fudge stitched,” in which the seam is -sunk down in a groove, being almost -invisible from the welt side.</p> - -<p>Every stitch must be of such a nature -that it is independent of the one next to it, -so that should one stitch break, the others -will not work loose. This is accomplished -by running the threads through a pan of hot -wax just before entering the leather, which -causes the waxed thread to solidify, becoming, -as it were, a part of the leather.</p> - -<p>Notice should be taken of the difference -between the way the outsole is stitched -and the inner sole is stitched to the upper. -In place of three threads in the chain stitch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -“that holds the welt to the upper and -insole” there are but two here—an upper -and a lower one. The upper thread extends -only part way down, where it loops, twists, -and locks into the lower thread. This is -the reason why you can wear a welt sole -clear through without its pulling loose.</p> - -<p>Shoes that are stitched aloft go through -the same operations as the channel-stitched -shoes, with the exception that the rounding -machine contrivance of cutting is eliminated.</p> - -<p>Shoes that are to be fudge stitched are -sent through the same machine as the regular -stitched aloft, but an additional little -knife point on the arm of the Goodyear -stitcher digs a channel in the welt so that -the stitches on that side are sunk into the -leather.</p> - -<p>The outsole is nailed at the heel after -the stitching on the “loose nailing machine,” -which drives the nails through the outsole -and insole and clinches against the steel -plate of the last. The machine drives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -separate nails fed from the hopper of any -desired size or length, at the rate of three -hundred and fifty per minute.</p> - -<p>The edge of the outsole around the -heel is now trimmed to conform exactly -to the shape of the heel on the “heel seat -pounding machine.”</p> - -<p>The stitches of the regular stitched shoes -are separated by a series of indentations, -giving the shoe that corrugated effect which -adds so much to the appearance of the shoe. -In the fudge-stitched work the stitches are -entirely covered up by the indentations.</p> - -<p>Then a leveling machine, called the -“automatic sole leveling machine,” with -a pressure of about two and a half tons to -each of the concave rollers, comes into -play. The rolls move automatically back -and forth and from side to side, doing the -work that the shoemaker used to do on his -lap with a hammer and stone, but doing it -better and more quickly. It practically -levels off the bottom of the soles.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> - -<p>An automatic guage regulates exactly -the distance from the edge of the last, and -by the use of this machine the operator is -enabled to make a sole conform to that of -all others of a similar design and size.</p> - -<p>Heels are formed by cementing different -lifts of leather. A machine called a “heel -cutter” shapes out the lifts. The heel is -then placed under pressure, giving it exact -form and greatly increasing its wear.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus21" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus21.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sole Scouring. <i>See <a href="#Page_138">page 138</a>.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus22" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus22.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Heel Shaping. <i>See <a href="#Page_138">page 138</a>.</i></p> -</div> - -<p>In speaking of the ends and sides of a -heel, the part that rests on the ground is -spoken of as the top, and the first piece is -called the top lift. The part that is fastened -to the shoe is spoken of as the bottom, -while the side nearest the toes is called the -breast. The wedge is a flat, heel-shaped -piece or lift of leather that is skived to a -thin edge at the breast. Being thicker at -the back, it tips the heel forward. Wedges -are made from thin strips of waste leather, -or from sheets of leather board, and are cut -out with a hollow die. The gouges are cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -in the sole leather room from scraps, and -are a regular heel lift, having a horseshoe-shaped -piece of leather with an opening at -the breast.</p> - -<p>The sole leather, insoles, counters, and -heels, in the stock fitting department are -“got out” by being cut into shape by a -machine die.</p> - -<p>The heel is now trimmed of all rough and -surplus portions of leathers to the exact -size of top lift. A blower attached to the -machine removes all scraps, etc.</p> - -<p>The breast of the heel, which faces the -forepart of the shoe, is trimmed evenly -across and with the desired slant by means -of a peculiar-shaped knife which extends -over the sole at shank. The edges of the -heel are now scoured by revolving rolls -with molded sandpaper to make perfectly -smooth. Blowers attached to the machine -remove all dust.</p> - -<p>There are several types of machines for -fastening the heel to the shoe, all very rapid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -in operation. One of the latest is that -which feeds the nails, and which is operated -by a man and boy, who together turn off a -great quantity of work.</p> - -<p>The nails are left protruding slightly above -the heel so as to retain the top lift, which is -now placed in position by the same operator -on the same machine. It is pressed down -over the heads of the nails securing it in -position. The small brass or steel nails -which protect and ornament the heel are -now driven in by the “universal slugging -machine.” This machine cuts the slugs -from a coil of wire and drives them in with -great rapidity.</p> - -<p>We have practically now a roughly formed -shoe ready for the finishing room.</p> - -<p>Here the heel slugs are ground down, -heel and sole buffed by sandpaper rolls on a -scouring machine, wet down, stained, or -blacked, as case may be, finished on bristle -brushes, placed to dry, polished by a -polishing machine, bottom stamped with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -the trademark, and passed to an operator -whose duty it is to see that no tacks are -left inside the shoes. Generally girls are -hired to do this, as their hands are smaller -and it is very important that no tacks are -left, which might cause a great deal of -trouble. If any are found, they are cut out -with nippers or otherwise removed.</p> - -<p>A lining is also generally put inside the -shoe, covering the whole of the insole in -a McKay shoe, and the heel only in a -Goodyear shoe. Shoes must also be inspected -here before they are packed, to -see if they are perfect in every way and -that each shoe is a perfect mate in the -pair.</p> - -<p>The shoes are now sent to the last department, -called treeing, dressing, and packing -department.</p> - -<p>This department has to do with the -finishing of the uppers. The bottoms and -edges are all finished when shoes get to -this department, and nothing remains but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -to finish the uppers and pack the shoes in -single-pair cartons and then in wooden -boxes or cases.</p> - -<p>The different uppers are all finished by a -different process, some being ironed with a -hot iron, which is done to take out the -wrinkles and smooth the uppers. Ironing -was first introduced on kid shoes, but in -recent years the hot iron has been put on -nearly all kinds of stock. A shoe must be -on a form or tree when ironed, the form or -tree being the same shape as the last. The -whole idea in ironing is the same as that -followed by the tailor, who uses a hot iron -to press and smooth out clothes. The -operations in detail are as follows:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus23" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus23.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Ironing.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus24" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus24.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Packing.</p> -</div> - -<p>Each shoe is treed, after having been -drawn over a foot form similar to that on -which the shoe was lasted, and any stain or -dirt which may have been carelessly put on -in former operations is cleaned off; the -shoe is sponged with a gum prepared for -either black or tan goods, rubbed down dull,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -and then rubbed to a polish. In many -patent leather shoes the treeing is to clean -off the surface, as we said before, and then -to iron it with a hot iron, which takes out -all stains, and leaves the leather shiny and -black.</p> - -<p>The shoes finally go to hand operators, -who rag the edges and heels, leaving them -ready to be laced and put into the boxes. -After lacing, the shoes are passed to inspectors, -whose duty it is to see that they are -perfect, to throw out all which are not, -make a record of them, and pass the perfect -shoes to the packers, who see that the sizes -are right, that each pair is mated, and placed -in paper cartons, ready to be packed in -wooden cases for shipment. The packing of -cartons into wooden cases is done by men -who nail on the lid when each case is full, -mark where goods are to be sent, make a -record of same and load the cases into -freight cars.</p> - -<p>There are other uppers that are treed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -such as wax calf, for instance, and split -uppers, which are used in heavy shoes. -The main idea of treeing a shoe is to give -it a smooth and finished appearance and a -good “feel.” In the regular treeing operation -they use liquid preparations, often -called composition, and these are worked -into the upper, filling it to some extent. -French chalk is used a great deal in some -uppers, and oil or some form of grease or -gum is also used, all of which make the -upper as it was when first put on the cutting -board of the shoe factory. All work done -in this room is intended to give leather its -original luster, which has been lost to a -certain extent in going through the different -rooms and in being handled so much.</p> - -<p>There are still other uppers that may not -be treed or ironed but merely cleaned and -polished to give luster. Some of these may -be dressed. To dress a shoe means to put -on a liquid dressing. In some cases two -coats of dressing are put on and in other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -cases one coat. A shoe can have a dull -dressing or a bright dressing, according to -how the buyer prefers to have his shoes -look.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_SEVEN">CHAPTER SEVEN<br /> -<span class="smaller">McKAY AND TURNED SHOES</span></h2> - -<p>The McKay process is used very -extensively in the manufacture of -cheap shoes. Its introduction was a great -improvement over the nailing and pegging -of the soles to the uppers. It allows -the two to be stitched together by means -of a straight needle running through the -entire thickness of upper, sole, and insole.</p> - -<p>In following the McKay process through -the factory, we find it very similar to the -Goodyear welt process, which has been -explained, the main difference being in the -methods of fastening the sole to the uppers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus25" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus25.jpg" width="420" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Cross Sections of Welt Shoe and McKay Sewed Shoe.</p> -</div> - -<p>The lasts and patterns are obtained in -the same manner as described in the previous -chapter. The order is made out in the -factory office, and the ticket is given to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -sorter, who selects the required number of -skins, which he rolls in a bundle and turns -over to the cutter. The cutters form the -various pieces of leather and linings, which -are tied up in bundles and sent to the -stitching room. Here they pass through -the various sewing machines, finally coming -out in the form of a complete upper ready -to be attached to the bottoms.</p> - -<p>The soles, insoles, counters, and heels -for McKay shoes are all formed in the same -room, as described in the Goodyear process.</p> - -<p>There is a difference in making ready the -outsoles and insoles. It will be recalled -that the outsole for the Goodyear welt -shoe was simply a block of leather cut to -fit the shoe and was not channeled. The -outsole for the McKay shoe is run through -a channeling machine, which cuts a slit -around the edge of the sole, folds the -leather back, and digs a little trench along -the inside of the slit. It will also be remembered -that the insole of the Goodyear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -welt shoe was channeled with two slits, one -of which was turned back to form the breast -for sewing on the welt strip. The insole of -a McKay shoe is not channeled in any way, -but is left plain, like the outsole of the -Goodyear welt. The uppers, the soles, -insoles, counters, and heels all having been -made ready, the pieces are taken to the -lasting room.</p> - -<p>The first process is called “assembling.” -The operator takes up one of the uppers, -inserts the last, sticks in a counter between -the lining and the outside, puts in a “box” -(a stout piece of canvas to give stability -to the toe) at the toe, beneath the tip, puts -in the insole, and then may pull the shoe -tight on the last or give it to the operator -on the pulling over machine to have it -done. The pulling over machine is now -used in nearly all factories, having displaced -hand pulling the same as the lasting -machines have displaced hand lasting. The -assembling, pulling, and lasting on the machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -are all parts of the regular operation -of lasting. The hand laster had to do all -three parts in former times, but now there -are machines to do nearly everything, and -at the present time the operation of lasting -is divided into assembling, pulling over, and -lasting on the machine. But even these -machines do not do it all, as there is surplus -upper to be cut away, toes to be pounded -down, and filling to be put in the bottom, -all of which are done on a McKay shoe before -the sole can be laid. There are machines -to do these parts, too.</p> - -<p>A trimmer (this is done by hand) now -takes the shoe, trims off all the surplus -leather, tacks in the shank (a little piece -of steel to give rigidity to the shank of the -sole), fills all up smoothly and then passes -it to the sole layer, who puts on the outer -sole and tacks it in place.</p> - -<p>The last is now pulled out of the shoe -and it is ready for the McKay sewing -machine.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p> - -<p>This machine sews right through the -inner and outer sole, and at the same time -catches the edges of the upper leather and -the lining in between the two and draws -them all snugly and firmly together. The -stitches are made right along in the channel -of the outer sole, which is deep enough to -admit the row of stitches without raising -a ridge on the outside of the sole, after -the channel is closed up and leveled. The -channel is next filled with cement and -passed on to the leveler, which turns down -the loosened flap of leather, presses it all -out smooth, and covers the seam up so -completely that no trace of the sewing is -to be seen. This little folded-over flap of -leather serves the double purpose of hiding -the stitches in the sole, and at the same -time protecting them from wear against -the ground.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus26" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus26.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Stitching.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus27" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus27.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Tacking.</p> -</div> - -<p>The shoe is then ready to be heeled, and -from here to the shipping door the McKay -generally goes through the same process as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -a welt. After heeling, the McKay shoes are -relasted or have followers put in to keep -them in shape while going through. The -sock lining may be put in here, too, before -relasting, or it may not be put in till the -shoes get to another room. The McKay -lasting last must be pulled from the shoe -to have the bottoms and heels put on and -this also applies to a pegged or nailed shoe. -But in the case of a welt shoe or a turn -shoe, both stay on the original last until -the bottoms and heels have been fastened -on. The turn shoe being lasted inside out, -must come off the last to be turned right -side out, and it goes right on the last as -soon as it can be turned. The different -methods of fastening the bottoms constitute -the main difference between Goodyear and -turn shoes on the one hand, and McKay, -pegged, and nailed on the other. The -bottom stock must be prepared differently -in order to fit the methods. Thus it is -seen that only two departments are affected,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -namely, the sole leather and the making -departments. In the cutting, stitching, -finishing, treeing, and packing, all operations -are practically the same on every shoe, no -matter how it is bottomed. The patterns, -however, by which shoes are cut may be -different.</p> - -<p>In the finishing room all of the finishing -of the bottoms and heel edges is done. The -heels are sandpapered or scoured, and are -then blacked and polished under hot-iron -pressure. Considerable wax is used on -the edge and is melted by the hot iron. -Heel edges may also be finished on a wheel -or roll. There are several different ways, -but the object of each method is to give a -hard, black, and highly polished surface to -the edge.</p> - -<p>In finishing the bottom the top lift is -scoured or buffed, and all of the sole and -the breast of the heel also. Each is a -different process, a different operator attending -to each part. The object of scouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -or buffing with sandpaper is to get a smooth -foundation for the finish, which is put on -next, and which may be all the same color -in all parts of the bottom or may have one -color in the shank and another in the forepart. -The stains and blackings are used -on bottoms, and these are brought to a -high, hard gloss by means of rolls and -brushes. Hot irons are often used on black -shanks and bottoms to give added hardness -and luster to the finish.</p> - -<p>The turned or turn shoe is a woman’s -fine shoe that is made wrong side out, -then turned right side out. The sole is -fastened to the last, and the upper is -twisted over, the wrong side out. Then -the two are sewed together, the thread -catching through a channel or shoulder -cut in the edge of the sole. The seam does -not come through to the bottom of the sole, -nor to any part inside where it would chafe -the foot.</p> - -<p>The preparation of the upper for a turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -shoe is identical with that of a welt or -McKay, with the exception that the back -is cut a little longer and a little larger, in -order to last it over the sole. The important -difference in the make-up of a turn -shoe as compared with that of a McKay or -welt is that it has no insole, the upper -being sewed directly to a portion of the -sole itself.</p> - -<p>As the cutting of the uppers and the -stitching operations of a turn shoe are the -same as the Goodyear and McKay, and -have been explained, we will take up the -forming of the sole, which is entirely -different from either of the other two -methods.</p> - -<p>A turn shoe is put together wrong side out, -and it is necessary, during the course of making, -to turn it by rolling the sole up like a roll -of carpet. It is evident, then, that nothing -but good quality, pliable leather can be -used satisfactorily, and great care is taken -to include nothing but the best.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p> - -<p>The soles are cut out on the beam machines, -also previously described. They are -then channeled on the side that is next -to the foot. This channeling is similar to -that done on the welt insole. Two incisions -are made, the inside one being the -same as in the welt insoles. The outside one, -however, is different, as the flange is cut -off square instead of being rolled up. This -leaves a channel which begins at the edge -and surface of the sole and extends in -semicircular form to the abrupt wall of the -cut in the sole, which forms the breast -against which the upper is to be sewed.</p> - -<p>After the soles are channeled, they are -soaked until they become soft enough to -roll up easily. They are then placed on -racks and kept in a damp room until needed.</p> - -<p>A turn shoe is hand lasted wrong side out. -First the uppers are turned with the lining -outside, then the last is inserted and also -the toe boxing.</p> - -<p>The sole is set straight on the last and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -tacked firmly to it. The operator, by aid -of hand pullers, draws the upper over the -sole and tacks it securely from a point -where the breast of the heel will rest to -where the large toe will extend, and then -along the same distance on the other side. -The toe part is next lasted by machinery, -a wire being fastened at one side and run -around the edge holding the pulled-up -parts of the upper which has been stretched -tightly over the last.</p> - -<p>The shoe is next passed over to the Goodyear -inseamer operator, who sews the upper -to the sole, the needle passing down through -the inside channel, through the sole leather, -out through the square-cut channel and -then through the upper, uniting the upper -to the sole with the chain stitch. In fact, -the bottom of a turn shoe at this time looks -exactly like the bottom of a welt, with the -exception that the turn shoe is still turned -wrong side out. The nature of the stitch -is the same—a waxed, threaded chain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -with two rows of thread on the outside that -loop with the single thread in the inside -lip of the insole. The shoe is sewed only -from the back of the shank to the toe, the -heel part still being loose.</p> - -<p>The seam is now trimmed with an inseam -trimmer, a machine with a revolving, jagged-edged -knife that saws off the surplus portions -of the upper, leaving it smooth and even -with the sole. The tacks are all pulled -out with a sort of a nail puller, which works -rapidly and automatically.</p> - -<p>The lasts are then taken out and the -shoe is turned right side out. This turning -process is not a difficult one, but it is -perhaps the most interesting operation that -the layman will see in the entire factory. -The operation is accomplished by means -of a rigid iron bar set slantwise in a table. -The upper is turned right side out by hand -and the sole is rolled right side out by means -of pressure on this bar.</p> - -<p>After this turning process, which twists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -and rolls the shoe out of shape, it has no -semblance of its final form. The back part -of the sole and upper are still loose, the -upper being fastened from the shank to -the toe.</p> - -<p>The turn shoe must be “second” lasted, -and the inserting of the last is no easy matter. -A contrivance called a push jack assists -the operator greatly. He uses a flat, narrow -rod to smooth out the lining, and -after squeezing, pushing, and smoothing, -the last is finally made to fit in the shoe. -The counter is placed in at this time, the -shank piece is set in place, and the shoe -and last are placed on a jack for nailing. -The back part upper is now stretched tightly -over the heel part of the last by means of -lasting pullers, and is tacked down, the -nails going through the shank piece and -clinching against the anvil heel seat of the -last. This operation completes the lasting, -the shoe now having a form exactly like -the last over which it is made.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> - -<p>Workmen now level the bottoms and -form the shank by a hand method, preparatory -to the machine leveling process. -The shoe is still wet and is left to dry on -the last twenty-four hours. Then it is run -through the machine called the “leveler,” -which, with its enormous pressure, forms -the sole to that of the last. The shoes are -now left four days on the lasts, to dry -thoroughly, so that they may retain their -shape permanently.</p> - -<p>The putting on of the heel, and the -various finishing processes are practically -the same as that of the welt, with the -exception that a turn sole must have a -sock lining.</p> - -<p>Some factories use a grain leather sock -lining, which is pasted in, covering up the -channels of the sole which hold the stitches -and forming a smooth surface for the foot -to rest upon.</p> - -<p>The difference between a McKay and a -turn shoe may be told by the fact that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -stitching on the inside of the sole is much -closer to the edge in a turn. Another -thing, in a turn shoe, the seam connecting -the upper and the outsole can be seen.</p> - -<p>Nothing is likely to excel the turn shoe -for lightness and flexibility, since the method -of making, whereby the sole is stitched -directly to the upper, interposes no thick -or cumbersome material. Sole leather of -good quality is used. In fact, the sole -would have to be not only strong, but thin -and light, or the shoe could not be turned -in the process of manufacture without -straining it and getting it out of shape.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">History of the Turn Shoe</span></h3> - -<p>History states that prior to 1845, which -marked the date of the introduction of -shoe machinery, most of the shoes were -sewed by hand, the lighter ones turned -and the heavier ones welted. In fact, the -early factories that began to spring up in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -New England about the beginning of the -century, were merely cutting rooms and -places for storing the lasts and stock.</p> - -<p>Here the uppers, soles, and linings were -cut by hand and then given out to people -in the vicinity, mostly farmers and fishermen, -to be stitched together and paid for at so -much a dozen. Such was the beginning of -the shoe industry in New England. Hundreds -of families added to their resources -in this way, the women doing the lighter -work and the men the heavier.</p> - -<p>In fishing communities, where men were -away most of the time in their boats, -their wives and daughters, who stayed at -home, undertook the lighter grades of -shoemaking—the turn process. This was -the case in the “North Shore” towns like -Lynn, Haverhill, and Marblehead, and these -to-day, keeping to the old traditions, are the -great centers for the finer turn-grades of -shoemaking, whereas the “South Shore” -towns, like Brockton, Whitman, Abington,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -Rockland, and the Weymouths, with the -men at home all the year, came to make a -specialty of shoes for men, and absorbed -the heavier part of the growing industry.</p> - -<p>With the introduction of the Goodyear -turn machine, however, the handwork was -gradually done away with, although more -handwork is done in the turn process than -in either the McKay or welt process.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Standard Screw Shoemaking</span></h3> - -<p>Many good qualities of heavy shoes are -made by the standard screw method, which -differs from the McKay method by having -the outsole and insole fastened together -with a double-threaded wire, which is -screwed through and cut off by the machine -the instant it reaches the inside of the shoe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus28" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus28.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Cross Section of Standard Screwed Shoe.</p> -</div> - -<p>A pegged shoe is made in much the same -way as the standard screw, except that -wooden pegs are used instead of wire to -fasten the sole together.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> - -<p>The nailed method of shoemaking consists -in nailing the soles together around the -edge. It is used principally for heavy, -cheap shoes.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_EIGHT">CHAPTER EIGHT<br /> -<span class="smaller">OLD-FASHIONED SHOEMAKING AND REPAIRING</span></h2> - -<p>The old-fashioned shoemaker formerly -made shoes by hand as follows:—A -last, which is a wooden model of a -foot, was used, and pieces of leather were -pasted here and there on it so as to build -up a model conforming to the measurements -of the foot. Then paper patterns of the -upper leather were made from the last, and -from these the upper leathers were cut out -of tanned calfskins and sewed together.</p> - -<p>The leather for the soles was cut out of -tanned ox or steer hide, the pieces being -the insole, the outsole, and the lifts of -the heel. The inner soles were made of -softer leather. Sometimes split sole leathers -were used for uppers. The shoemaker -then softened the leather by steeping it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -in water, until it was pliable and at the -same time firm, and would cut like cheese.</p> - -<p>The insoles were attached to the bottom -of a pair of wooden lasts, and the wet -leather fastened on with lasting tacks so -as to mold it to the last. When it was -dry, the shoemaker with pincers drew the -leather out until it had taken the exact -form of the bottom of the last. Then he -rounded the soles by paring down the edges -close to the last, and formed around these -edges a small channel or feather cut or slit -about an eighth of an inch in the leather.</p> - -<p>Next he pierced the insoles all around -with a bent awl, which “bit” into, but not -through, the leather, and came out at the -channel or feather edge. The boots were -then lasted by placing the uppers on the -lasts, drawing the edges by means of -pincers tightly round the edge of the insoles. -Then they were fastened in portions with -lasting tacks. Lasting was considered a -very important operation, for unless the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -upper was drawn smoothly and equally -over the last, leaving neither a crease nor -wrinkle, the form would be a failure. A -band of flexible leather about an inch wide, -with one edge pared, was then placed in -position around the sides of the shoes, up -to the heel or seat, and the maker proceeded -to “inseam,” by passing his awl through -the holes, already made in the insole, -catching with it the edge of the upper and -the thin edge of the welt, and sewing all -three together in one flat seam, with a -waxed thread.</p> - -<p>The threads which shoemakers use are -called “ends,” and are made of two or -more strands of small flaxen threads. The -shoemaker makes his own waxed thread as -follows:—</p> - -<p>He holds the main part of the thread -from the spool, in his left hand, holding it -firmly—where he wants to break it—between -the first finger and thumb, so -that it will not turn beyond that point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -Then with the left hand, he lays the end -of the flax on the knee and rolls it from -him. This will cause the small fibers that -compose the thread to separate—thus -enabling him to break it easily. When -the fibers separate, he gives the thread a -light, quick turn, which causes it to break. -As the thread breaks he pulls it apart -gradually, so that the fibers will taper. -Then he places the threads together, one -just behind the other, so that the end will -have a very fine point. He rolls the end -and allows it to turn between the fingers -of the left hand. After it has been rolled -and twisted, it is waxed by drawing the -thread through a piece of wax.</p> - -<p>The fine ends are waxed to a point. A -bristle is fastened on in the following -manner: the head of the bristle is held in -the left hand, and the portion to which the -thread is to be fastened is waxed; then the -thread and bristle are twisted together. A -hole is made in the thread and the bristle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -pulled through and fastened. After the -threads are fastened, the heads of the bristle -are cut off, and the ends sandpapered.</p> - -<p>The wax thread or “end,” as it is called, -should never be made longer than is necessary -to sew a shoe. Experience shows that -if a portion of an end left after sewing one -shoe is used on the second shoe, it is never -as strong as a new end. The thread grows -weaker and weaker as it is used. When -the thread is well waxed, it is cemented to -the shoe.</p> - -<p>After the shoe is sewed, the shoemaker -pares off inequalities and levels the bottoms, -by filling up the depressed part in the -center with pieces of tarred felt. The -shoes are now ready for the outsoles. -The fibers of the leather to be used for -the soles are thoroughly condensed by -hammering on the lapstone. Then they -are fastened through the insole with steel -tacks, their sides are pared, and a narrow -channel is cut round their edges. Through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -this channel they are stitched to the welt, -about twelve stitches of strong, waxed -thread being made to the inch. The soles -are next hammered into shape; the heel -lifts are put on and attached with wooden -pegs. Then they are sewed through the -stitches of the insoles; and the top pieces, -similar to the outsoles, are put on and -nailed down to the lifts.</p> - -<p>The finishing operations of the shoe -include smoothing the edges of the heel, -paring, rasping, scraping, smoothing, blacking, -and burnishing the edges of the -soles, withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning -out any pegs which may have pierced -through the inner sole. There are numerous -minor operations connected with forwarding -and finishing in various materials, -such as punching holes, inserting eyelets, etc.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">How Shoes are Repaired</span></h3> - -<p>Before one can understand how shoes are -repaired, it is necessary to know the difference<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -between the inside and outside of a -shoe.</p> - -<p>The last is divided into four parts, viz. -toe, ball, shank, and heel.</p> - -<p>Diagram No. 1 shows these parts and -their shapes.</p> - -<p>Diagram No. 2 shows the length of the -inside of the divisions as compared with -those of the outside. Notice the long -shank and short ball.</p> - -<p>Diagram No. 3 shows the outside of the divisions -and the effect they have upon the shape -of the shoe. See short shank and long ball.</p> - -<p>Always remember that the ball of a shoe -is longer on the outside, having a short -shank. The ball is shorter on the inside, -having a long shank. Compare outside -and inside diagrams Nos. 2 and 3.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus29" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus29a.jpg" width="420" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">How a Side of Leather is shaped and divided as to Quality. -<i>See <a href="#Page_5">page 5</a>.</i></p> - -<img src="images/illus29b.jpg" width="420" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><i>Dia. 1.</i> <i>Dia. 2.</i> <i>Dia. 3.</i></p> -</div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Shoe Repairing</span></h3> - -<p>The first operation in half soling a shoe is -to cut off the old portion from “a” to “c” -as shown on diagram No. 1. The shoe is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> -placed in different positions and corrected -in every way before putting on the new sole. -It is generally better to wet the shoe in -order to put it in shape.</p> - -<p>The leather is skived thin and accurate -enough to make a neat, comfortable joint, -and yet thick enough for the nails to hold.</p> - -<p>Then the filling is added before placing -on the sole. The sole is trimmed and a -guide line drawn around the edge, so that -the nails may be properly arranged.</p> - -<p>Finishing the sole is an important part. -If everything else is properly done, this -part becomes comparatively easy. See that -all nails are clinched. With a level bottom, -smooth joints and edges, the shoe can be -made to look like a new shoe and yet feel -like an old one.</p> - -<p>On account of the heel being more directly -under the body and the first part to strike -the ground, it generally wears out first. -For this reason in repairing a heel great -care must be taken to see that good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -leather and solid work are put into it. -Pull off the worn top piece and see that -what is left is hammered down solidly. -Next split a piece of solid, easy-cutting, -scrap sole leather, so that two pieces can -be made out of one. Put them on the -shoe and fasten them on well, piece by -piece, with tacks. See that the heel is -level before putting on the top piece. -(If necessary, a small piece may be put -under the top piece.) After it is level, -put on top piece, trim in shape, then draw -guide line and nail down. The nails are -placed thicker on the side that is worn -down most, to protect the heel. The heel -is next rasped, and smoothed with a buffer -and sandpaper. When finished, it should -set level.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Modern Method of Repairing Shoes</span></h3> - -<p>As the shoemaking industry has become -more and more perfect, there has been an -increasing interest taken in shoe repairing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -A medium-priced shoe as it is made to-day -may often be in good enough condition to -be heeled and soled a couple of times. -Hence, although in the past many shoe -stores and departments have had their -shoe repairing done by outside shops, the -tendency to-day is for every shoe store -to have its own repair department. This -method has resulted largely from the -development of machinery for shoe repairing, -which is revolutionizing the business -to such an extent that in a few years -repairing by hand will be among the lost -arts. With the new inventions for restoring -upper leather, and the improvement of -machinery for shoe repairing, repair departments -will very soon be but little short -of miniature factories.</p> - -<p>The machinery ordinarily used consists -of the Goodyear stitcher, used for attaching -soles to Goodyear welts by the lock-stitch -method, just as in shoe factories making -Goodyear welt shoes. Then there is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -heel trimmer, a bottom finisher, consisting -of a rapidly revolving roll covered with -coarse and fine sandpaper, and an opera -heel builder for forming concave heels. -There are two wheels used for tan and -white heel work, one heel being covered -with a white cloth, and the other with a -coarse brush. Adjoining these are usually -the shank and heel finisher,—capable of -smoothing and highly polishing a shank or -heel in about a dozen seconds,—the bottom -finisher, that grinds and smooths down the -new sole, and a machine used for rubbing -off dirt before the shoe is finished, consisting -of a heavy horsehair brush. Another useful -part of the equipment is an edge setter, -which is also identical with the one used in -factories. The shoe stitching machines -and the parts used in finishing are all -operated on one long shaft, rapidly revolved -by the aid of a motor. It is a fact that a -shoe may be actually soled and heeled in -less than six minutes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> - -<p>Five or six men are usually employed in -the repair department of a large establishment. -When the customer’s shoes are -brought in, one of these men cuts off the -old sole and traces an outline of the new -sole on a block of the very best oak leather. -After these are cut out by hand in rough -form, they are soaked in water and channeled; -that is to say, a part of the sole is -turned up in which the stitches are to be -run. A second man, by the use of the -Goodyear stitcher, joins the sole and welt -together with a very strong and tightly -drawn lock stitch. This is a large machine -with a curved, barbed needle and awl, and -a shuttle which sews through an inch of -leather with the greatest ease and speed. -There are from one hundred and fifty to -two hundred stitches in each shoe; moreover, -every one of them is locked with -heavy wax thread, so that there is no chance -of their ever giving away. If one stitch -should break, the other stitches would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -remain intact, as they are all independent -of each other. Both soles are stitched on -in a little over half a minute without -breaking a thread or stopping the machine.</p> - -<p>A coating of rubber cement is now placed -in the edges of the outsole, and the lip of -the channel is smoothed down so that the -stitches are entirely hidden when looking at -the bottom of the shoe. The edge trimming -is done next with the aid of a rapidly revolving -wheel, which trims the edges square -and true in about forty seconds. After this, -the shank is finished on a rapidly revolving -wheel covered with emery cloth.</p> - -<p>Bottom finishing is the next step. This -is done on a machine having two long -cylinders, one covered with fine and the -other with coarse sandpaper. These cylinders -revolve rapidly, and the operator uses -the coarse sandpaper for scouring the dirt -and old finish off the leather, and the -fine sandpaper for finishing the sole as -smooth as that of any new shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p> - -<p>The brushing in or smoothing is next -done by the horsehair brush we have mentioned -before. A preparation called Lewis’s -rival bottom polish—a sort of white wax—is -placed on the brush machine. The -brush now smooths the surface of the sole, -filling in all small holes with wax and leaving -the sole absolutely perfect. Finally, the -shoe is placed against a rapidly revolving -brush which finishes the uppers with a -luster that would make any ordinary boot-black -green with envy. Another operation -that fully completes the process is the -hardening of the edges with hot steel, -which ends in producing an edge that is as -hard as iron. When it is polished with a -black dye, it looks exactly like a new sole.</p> - -<p>A few words are necessary with regard -to the heel. The old heel having been -removed, several lifts of new leather in -rough form are tacked on. The shoe is -then taken to the heel trimmer and is -formed correctly and then smoothed down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -to a brilliant surface on the finely covered -revolving wheel. In a few seconds it is -stained, smoothed, and polished. In less -than six minutes the shoe is ready for the -customer.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_NINE">CHAPTER NINE<br /> -<span class="smaller">LEATHER AND SHOEMAKING TERMS</span></h2> - -<p><span class="smcap">Assembling.</span> Includes the following operations: -tacking the insole to the last, -putting in the box and counter of the shoe, -and putting the upper of the shoe on the -last.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Backstay.</span> A term used to denote a -strip of leather covering and strengthening -the back seam of a shoe. English backstay -means the strip of leather that meets the -quarters on each side and is sewed to them, -forming the lower part of the shoe. California -backstay is a term applied to piping -caught in the back seam.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Back Strap.</span> The strap by which the -shoe is pulled on the foot.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bal.</span> An abbreviation of the word -“Balmoral” and means either men’s,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -women’s, or children’s front lace shoe -of medium height, as distinguished from -one that is adjusted to the ankle by buttons, -buckles, rubber goring, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ball.</span> Refers to the ball of the foot—the -fleshy part of the bottom of the foot, -back of the toes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Beading.</span> Means folding in the edges -of the upper leather instead of leaving -them raw, or wheeling any impression -around the sole to the heel. It is called -seat wheeling in many shoe factory rooms.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Beating Out.</span> The same as leveling. -It is the term used in turn-shoe work.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bellows Tongue.</span> A broad tongue -sewed to the sides of the top, seen in waterproof -and some working shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Belting.</span> The term applied to the usual -back tanned cowhide, used in various thicknesses -for machinery belts.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Between Substance.</span> That part of the -sole that holds the stitch.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blackball.</span> A mass of grease and lampblack,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -formerly used by shoemakers on -edges of heels and soles; sometimes called -“cobbler’s botch.”</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blacking the Edge.</span> Blacking or dyeing -edge of sole, welt, or that part of the -edge which cannot be blacked so well in -the making room.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blocking.</span> The cutting or chopping -of a sole in such a form or shape that it -can be rounded.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bloom.</span> A term often applied to the -grayish white deposit that gathers on shoes -in stock. It can be wiped off readily.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blucher.</span> The name of a shoe or half -boot, originated by Field Marshal Blücher -of the Prussian Army, in the time of -Napoleon I. It became very popular and -has since received occasional favor, being -used with high tops as a sporting or hunting -boot. Its distinguishing feature is the -extension forward of the quarters to lace -across the tongue, which may be an extension -upward of the vamp.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Boot.</span> A term used (especially abroad) -to designate women’s high-cut shoes. In -this country it applies only to high or -topped footwear, usually made with the -tops stiff and solid. It is sometimes laced, -as in hunting boots.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bootee.</span> Leather legging extending between -knee and ankle, usually of Russian -calf,—a riding boot originating with the -English.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bottom Filling.</span> The filling that goes -in the low space on the bottom in the forepart -of the shoe. It is either ground cork, -tarred felt, or other filler.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bottom Scouring.</span> Sandpapering the -parts of the sole, except the heel.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Boxing.</span> A term used to designate the -stiffening material placed in the toe of a -shoe to support it and retain the shape; -such as leather, composition of leather and -paper, wire net, drilling (a cotton fabric) -stiffened with shellac, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Box Calf.</span> A well-known proprietary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -leather having a grain of rectangularly -crossed lines.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Box Toe.</span> Used to hold up the toe of -the shoe so as to retain the shape. It is -generally of sole leather, but often made of -canvas or other material and stiffened with -shellac or gum.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Breaking the Sole.</span> Molding the sole -so as to fit the spring better.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Brogan.</span> A heavy pegged or nailed work -shoe, medium cut in height.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Brushing.</span> The final finish of the top -edge, heel, and bottom, by means of a -brush.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Buckskin.</span> A soft leather, generally -yellow or grayish in color. One way of -preparing it is by treating deerskins in oil.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Buff.</span> A split side leather, coarser than -glove grain, but otherwise similar. It is -used for cheaper grades of shoes, principally -for men.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Buffing.</span> The same as bottom scouring.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cabaretta.</span> A tanned sheepskin of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -superior finish used for shoe stock. There -are sheep with wool not far removed from -hair in texture, which produce a skin of -greater tenacity and finish than the ordinary -sheep.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cack.</span> A sole leather bottom without -a heel. An infant’s shoe is called a cack.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Calfskins.</span> Skins of meat cattle of all -kinds, weighing up to fifteen pounds, are -usually included in this term. They make -a strong and pliable leather. Calfskins -were formerly finished with wax and oil -on the flesh side, but can now be made so -as to be finished on the “grain,” which is -the hair side of the skin.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cap.</span> A term meaning the same as tip.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carton.</span> A cardboard box intended for -one pair of shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cementing.</span> This is the operation of -placing cement on the outsole and the -bottom of the welt shoe so that the outsole -is held to the shoe by the cement.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Chamois.</span> A leather made from the skins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> -of chamois, calves, deer, goats, sheep, and -split hides of other animals.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Channeling.</span> Cutting into the sole in -such a way that the thread or stitching is -away from the surface. In the outsole -department it means preparing a place for -the stitch. In insoles and turn soles, channeling -is done so that soles are prepared to -hold the stitching.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Channel Screwed.</span> A process by which -the sole is fastened to the uppers. After a -channel is cut and laid over on the outside -of the outsole, the outsole and insole are -fastened together, holding the upper and -lining between them by means of wire -screws, which are fastened in this channel. -The skived part is then smoothed down -over the heads of the screws, entirely -covering them from sight, and preventing -the screws from easily working up into the -foot.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Channel Stitched.</span> A method of fastening -soles to the uppers, either by McKay<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -or welt process, in which a portion of the -sole’s outer side is channeled into, and the -stitches afterwards covered on the lower -side by the lip of this channel.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Channel Turning.</span> Turning a lip or -flap of sole leather (called channel), so that -the stitching can be done in the proper -place; or it may mean turning up the flap -or lip of the channel, that is, the part that -is to cover the stitch.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Checking.</span> A term applied to the edges -of heels or soles that have cracked, or have -been injured in process of construction.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Inside.</span> Cleaning the lining.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Nails.</span> Scraping the blacking -off the tops of the heel slugs.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Shoes.</span> Removing dirt, wax, -cement, etc., from them.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clicking.</span> Cutting the uppers of shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Closing.</span> Putting two or more pieces -together.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Closing On.</span> Stitching the lining and -outside together.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Colonial.</span> A name given to a woman’s -low shoe, with vamp extended into a flaring -tongue, with a large, ornamental buckle -across the instep. The buckle and tongue -are the distinctive features of the shoe, -whether the shoe fastens with a lace or -strap.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Coltskin.</span> Coltskin has been brought -into general use in shoemaking within the -past few years. The skin of a colt is thin -enough to use like calfskin in its entirety, -with such shaving as is given all hides in -tanning. Coltskin makes a firm basis -needed for patent leather, and has been -much used in recent years for this purpose. -Russia is the chief source of supply.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Combination Last.</span> One with a different -width instep from the ball. It may be -one or two widths’ difference, such as the -D ball with a B instep. Combination -lasts are generally used in fitting low -insteps.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Composition.</span> A term used to denote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -the small scraps that accumulate about -tanneries and factories, which are ground -up and mixed with a paste or a kind of -cement, and flattened into sheets which -are used as insoles, and in other parts, in -various grades of shoes, where wear is not -excessive.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Congress Gaiter.</span> A shoe designed -especially for comfort, with rubber goring -in the sides which adjusts it to the ankle, -instead of laces, and sometimes made with -lace front to imitate a regular shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cordovan.</span> Originally a Spanish leather -made from horsehide. The Spaniards were, -for a great many centuries, the best leather -makers. The term is applied to a grain -leather from the best and strongest part of -a horsehide.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Counter.</span> The stiffening in the back -part of a shoe, often called stiffening, to -support the outer leather and prevent the -shoe from “running over” at the heel. It -is made either of sole leather, shaved thin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -on the edge and shaped by machinery, as -in the best shoes, or composition or paper, -in cheap shoes. Metal is occasionally used -on the outside of the shoes in heavy goods -for miners and furnacemen.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Coupon Tag.</span> A tag from which a -coupon is cut for every operation. Operatives -hold part of the coupon and the -holders of the coupons are paid for the -part named.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cowhide.</span> Refers to hides of cattle, -heavier than kips, which run up to twenty-five -pounds each.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Creasing Vamp.</span> Making hollow grooves -across the front of the vamp to add to its -looks.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Creedmore.</span> A man’s heavy lace shoe, -with gusset, blucher cut.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Creole.</span> A heavy congress work shoe. -This shoe, the creedmore, and brogans are -usually made of oil grains, kip, or split -leather, sometimes pegged, sometimes -“stitched down.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Crimping.</span> Shaping any part of the -upper so that it will conform to the last -better.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cushion Sole.</span> An elastic inner sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cut-off Vamp.</span> One cut off at tip for -economy when tip is to be covered by a cap.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dieing.</span> Cutting soles to fit the last, -outsoles, insoles, heel lifts, counters, or -half soles, with a machine and a die.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dom Pedro.</span> A heavy, one-buckle shoe, -with gusset or bellows tongue. Originally -it was a patent name for certain shoes made -of fine material, but is now applied to cheap -grades.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dongola.</span> A heavy, plump goatskin, -tanned with a semibright finish.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dressing.</span> A process for giving the -upper its original finish by means of liquid -put on with sponge.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edge Setting.</span> The finishing edge of -the sole,—polishing it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edge Trimming.</span> Trimming the edge of -a sole smoothly to conform to last.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Enamel.</span> Leather that is given a shiny -finish on the grain side. The process is -similar to that of patent leather, only that -patent leather is finished on the flesh side, -or the surface of the split.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eyelet.</span> A small ring of metal, etc., -placed in the holes for lacing; the eyelet -holes are sometimes worked with thread -like a buttonhole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eyeletting.</span> Putting on eyelets.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Facing.</span> The bleached calf or sheepskin -used around the top of the shoe, and -down the eyelet row and inside of the -upper.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fair Stitch.</span> Term applied to the stitching -that shows around the outer edge of -the sole, to give the McKay shoe the appearance -of a welt shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Faking.</span> Putting a gloss on any part -of the bottom of the shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Findings.</span> The small parts of a shoe, -such as blacking, cement, nails, wax, tacks, -thread, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Flap, Lip, and Shoulder.</span> Terms used -in connection with the channel or with the -operation of sewing.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Follower.</span> Any last or form put in a -shoe from which the original last has been -pulled.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Forepart Finishing.</span> The staining and -polishing of the forepart of the shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Form.</span> A term applied to a filler last. -It may be of wood, papier-mâché, leather -board, or any similar material, and is -used to enhance the appearance of sample -shoes, in salesmen’s lines or in window -displays.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Foxed.</span> Having the lower part of the -quarter a separate piece of leather or -covered by an extra piece; “slipper foxed” -is a term sometimes applied to women’s -full vamp shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Foxing.</span> The name applied to that part -of the upper that extends from the sole to -the laces in front, and to about the height -of the counter in the back; being the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -length of the upper. It may be in one or -more pieces and is often cut down to the -shank in circular form.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Frizzing.</span> A process to which chamois -and wash leather are subjected, after the -skins are unhaired, scraped, “fleshed,” and -raised. It consists in rubbing the skins -with pumice stone or a blunt knife till the -appearance of the grain is entirely removed.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Front.</span> A term used for part of a congress -toe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gaiter.</span> A term usually applied to a separate -ankle covering or to a congress shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gemming.</span> The operation of making gem -insoles.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gem Insoles.</span> An insole for welt shoes -of leather.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glazed Kid.</span> See Kid.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glove Grain.</span> A light, soft-finished, -split leather, for women’s or children’s -shoes or topping.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Goatskin.</span> See Kid.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Goodyear Welt.</span> A term used to denote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -the process of attaching the sole to -the upper of a shoe by means of a narrow -strip of leather called a welt.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gore.</span> A rubber elastic used in a congress -shoe. It is also applied to the long, -wedge-shaped piece of leather set in an -upper to widen it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Grading.</span> The sorting of outsoles and -half soles to get uniform weight in edges of -finished shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Half Sole.</span> Half of a complete sole -used in forepart of bottom under outsole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Harness Leather.</span> Similar to belting, -and is made from hides heavier than kips.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heel.</span> Made of layers of leather or wood -called liftings, and attached to rear part -of shoe (heel seat). There are different -varieties of heels. The French heel is an -extremely high heel with a curved outline -in back and front (breast). It is sometimes -made of wood covered with leather, with -thicknesses of sole leather, or all sole leather. -The Cuban heel is a high, straight heel,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -without the curve of the French or “Louis -XV” heel. Military heel is a straight heel -not as high as the Cuban. A spring heel is -a low heel formed by extending back the -outside of the shoe to the heel, with a slip -inserted between the outsole and heel slat. -Wedge heel is somewhat similar to a spring -heel, except that a wedge-shaped lift is -tacked on the outside instead of a slit. -Slugging heels is the process of affixing the -made-up heel by one operation of the -machine.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heel Finishing.</span> Blacking and polishing -the heel edge.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heel Lining.</span> The lining to cover heel -nails inside the shoe; it is often known by -other names.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heel Pad.</span> In the manufacture of shoes, -is a small piece of felt, leather, or other -substance fastened to and covering the full -width of the insole at the point upon which -the heel rests. A heel cushion is sometimes -called a heel pad.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heel Scouring.</span> Sandpapering the edge -of the heel, except the front or breast portion.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat.</span> That part of sole on which -heel is fastened.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat Nailing.</span> Nailing the heel -part of sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heel Seat Trimming.</span> Trimming the -rear or heel part of sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heel Shaving.</span> Shaving the heel, shaping -it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hemlock Tanned.</span> A process of tanning -leather by hemlock bark.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hides.</span> Distinguished from skins, in the -trade. Hides refer to skins of animals -which are over twenty-five pounds in weight. -Skins refer to smaller animals; as skins -of goats, calves, sheep.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Inlay.</span> A trimming of the upper by an -insertion of the same or different kind of -material than that of the body in which -it is inlaid. It is used for decorative purpose -on a shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Inseaming.</span> Sewing sole on turn shoe. -Welting and inseaming are practically the -same operation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Inseam Trimming.</span> Cutting off the -surplus leather; term is also applied to -pulling sole tacks.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Insole.</span> The first sole laid on the last, -and is the foundation of all shoes with -insoles. It is an important though invisible -portion of a shoe. This inner sole is -the part to which the upper and outsole -are sewed or nailed in the McKay and welt -shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Inspecting.</span> The examination of shoes -to see that the work is perfect; it is sometimes -called crowning.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Inspecting Insole.</span> The operation of -looking inside of the shoe for tacks.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Instep.</span> The top of the arch of the -foot.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Iron.</span> A term indicating the thickness -of sole leather; each unit is approximately -one thirty-second of an inch in thickness.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ironing Uppers.</span> Taking wrinkles out -of the uppers and smoothing the same with -a hot iron.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Juliette.</span> A woman’s house slipper which -is cut a little above the ankle in front and -back, and cut down on the sides is called -a Juliette.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kangaroo.</span> The skin of the animal of -that name, which makes a splendid leather, -of firm texture. It is quite expensive, -hence substitutes are on the market under -the same name.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kid.</span> A term applied to the shoe leather -made from the skins of mature goats.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kip.</span> A term applied to leather made -from hides weighing between fifteen and -twenty-five pounds.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lace Stay.</span> A strip of leather reënforcing -the eyelet holes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lace Hook.</span> An eyelet extended into -a recurved hook, around which the lace is -looped. It is most commonly used in -men’s and boys’ shoes, although recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -some have been invented for use in women’s -shoes with curved ends, to avoid catching -the dress.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lacing.</span> The operation of putting laces -in shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Last.</span> A wooden form over which the -shoe is constructed, giving the shoe its -distinctive shape.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lasting.</span> The process of making the -uppers conform to the last in all respects. -The operations of assembling and pulling -over are parts of lasting.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Laying Channel.</span> Turning down the lip -or flap to cover the stitching.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Leveling.</span> Shaping the sole to the -bottom of the last.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lift.</span> The name given to one thickness -of sole leather used in the heel. Top lift -is the bottom lift, when the shoe is right -side up, and is the last piece put on in -manufacture.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lining.</span> The inside part of shoe, generally -of cloth (dull) or sheepskin.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lining Cutting.</span> The operation of cutting -the cloth linings.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lining-in.</span> The operation of putting -lining inside of the shoe to cover insole -or part of insole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Loading Leather.</span> Filling the pores of -the leather with glucose to increase its -weight.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Making Linings.</span> Consists of closing -up heel of lining; putting on top and side -or eyelet stay.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Match Marking.</span> An operation performed -on colored uppers, except black, -to get different parts of the upper the -same shade and color, and both shoes in -the pair alike.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mat.</span> A term applied to a dull finish -kid as distinguished from glazed.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">McKay Sewed or McKay.</span> A shoe in -which the outsole is attached to the insole -and upper by a method named for the -inventor.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">McKay Sewing.</span> Sewing through and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -through so that thread is seen inside of -shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Middle Sole.</span> Any sole between outsole -and insole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mock Welt.</span> McKay-sewed shoe with -a double sole and having a leather sock -lining. It is fair stitched to imitate a welt.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Monkey Skin.</span> A peculiar grained skin, -and is considered in the trade as a fancy -leather. It is often imitated.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Morocco.</span> A name applied to leather -originally made in Morocco. It is a sumac-tanned -goatskin, red in color, and is used -in book binding. The name is also applied -to a leather made in imitation of this, and -to heavy, plump goatskins used for shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Molding.</span> Shaping the sole to fit the -bottom of last.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mules.</span> The name applied to slippers -with no counters or quarters.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nap.</span> The woolly side of hide, cloth, or -felt.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Naumkeaging.</span> Smoothing up the bottom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -with fine sandpaper. Sometimes the buffing -grain.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nullifier.</span> A shoe with high vamp -and quarter, dropping low at the sides, -made with a short rubber goring for summer -or house wear.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oak Tanned.</span> A process of tanning by -means of a substance obtained from oak bark.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oil Leather.</span> Leather prepared by -currying hides in oil. The hides are moist, -that the oily matter may be gradually -and thoroughly absorbed.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ooze.</span> A chrome tan calfskin treated on -the flesh side in such a manner that the -long fibers are loosened and form a nap -surface; made in many colors.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Outside Cutting.</span> Cutting the leather -parts of the shoe, as vamp, tip, top, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Outside Tap.</span> The tap used outside of -men’s or boys’ heavy shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Outsole.</span> The sole next the ground, -on which all wear comes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus30" style="width: 330px;"> -<img src="images/illus30.jpg" width="330" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Cross Section of McKay Sewed Shoe.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus31" style="width: 370px;"> -<img src="images/illus31.jpg" width="370" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Cross Section of Goodyear Welt Shoe.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oxford.</span> A low-cut shoe no higher than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -the instep lace, button, or goring, made in -men’s, women’s, and children’s sizes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Packer Hides.</span> Hides taken off in the -large slaughterhouses. They are rated -slightly higher in price, because great care -and skill are used in taking them off.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Packing.</span> Placing a pair of shoes in a -carton.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pacs.</span> Coverings for the feet made of -good quality calfskin, similar in form and -appearance to the Indian moccasin. They -do not have sole leather bottoms. If -properly made, they are waterproof.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pancake.</span> A term applied to one of the -many artificial leathers formed from leather -scraps, shaved thin, and cemented together -under heavy pressure.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pasted Counter.</span> One that is cut from -two pieces of sole leather pasted together. -It is sometimes called a two-piece counter.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Patent Leather.</span> Varnished leather.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pattern.</span> The model by which the -pieces comprising the upper of a shoe are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -cut, applied collectively to upper as modified -by the differing shape of these pieces.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pebble.</span> A term used in the process -to bring out the grain of leather and give -it a roughened or rubbed appearance.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pegging.</span> Lasting out soles with pegs.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Perforating.</span> Making very small holes -around parts of upper. It is performed -mostly for decoration.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Polish.</span> The name of ladies’ or misses’ -front-lace shoe of higher cut than “bal,” -and named from Poland, where it originated.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pressing.</span> Consists of a flat-press pressure -for heels and soles, to prevent cracking -of edges and to make parts adhere.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Porpoise.</span> This skin is sometimes used -for leather and boot laces, but porpoise -hides are ordinarily obtained from the -white whale.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pulling Lasts.</span> Removing the lasts from -shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pulling Over.</span> Pulling upper on the -last and tacking it in position.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pump.</span> A low-cut shoe originally having -no fastenings, such as laces or buttons. A -pump is cut lower than the instep.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pump Sole.</span> An extra-light single sole, -running clear through to the back of the -heel. A pump sole in former years was -distinguished by its flexibility and was -hand turned.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Putting on Tap.</span> Sticking half sole to -the outsole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Quarter.</span> The rear part of upper when -a full vamp is not used. Term is used -mostly in women’s, and Oxfords or low shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rand.</span> Made of sole leather about as -wide as a welt, but thin at one edge. It is -tacked to the heel so as to balance the heel -evenly on the sole and fill any open space -around the edge between sole and heel.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rapid Stitching.</span> Sewing the sole to -welt.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Relasting.</span> Consists in putting lasts -in shoes from which the original lasts have -been removed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Repairing.</span> A term applied to filling -slight cracks in patent tips or patent leather.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Roan.</span> Sheepskin tanned with sumac. -The process is similar in its details to that -employed for morocco leather, but lacks -the graining given to the morocco by the -grooved rollers in the finishing. It imitates -ungrained morocco.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rolling.</span> The process of passing leather -between rolls to make it firm and hard. -Rolling consists in polishing the bottom on -roll and brush.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rough Rounding.</span> Rounding outsole -to the shape of last, and cutting channel -in the welt-channeled shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Royalties.</span> Sums paid for the use of -machines to machine companies.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Russet Calf.</span> Russet-colored calf is -made from calfskins.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Russet Grain.</span> Russet-colored grain is -made from a split cowhide.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sabot.</span> The name of a one-piece wooden -shoe, carved from a block of basswood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -A novelty to Americans, but worn by people -in the rural and manufacturing sections of -Holland, Germany, and France.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sack Lining.</span> The lining inside the shoe -and insole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sandal.</span> The name of a woman’s strap -slipper, or a sole worn by children. Originally -fastened on the foot by straps.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Satin Calf.</span> A grain split, stuffed with -oil, and smooth finished.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Scouring Breast.</span> Sandpapering the -front part of the heel.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Screw-fastened.</span> A shoe having the -sole attached with screws, as in cheap or -working shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Seal Grain.</span> Usually a flesh split, with -an artificial grain which is stamped or -printed on the finished leather.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Second Lasting.</span> The same as relasting. -Term used most in turn work.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Shank.</span> The middle position of the bottom -of the foot. Shank supports are placed -in shoes to stiffen that part of the bottom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -They are of steel, of wood, or of a combination -of leather board and steel, and can be -placed in the shoe any time before the outsole -is laid.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Shank Burnishing.</span> Polishing a black -shank with hot iron.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Shank Finishing.</span> Finishing the shank -with blacking or in colors. The top lift -is generally finished at the same time.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Shanking Out.</span> Means making the edge -of the shank thinner than the other part -of the sole, and making it smooth.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sheepskins.</span> Used largely for linings -and for cheap shoes for women and children. -It is too soft and weak in texture -for heavy wear, and liable to split and -tear.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Short Vamp.</span> A foreshortened vamp. -The distance between the extreme tip and -the throat of the vamp shortened for -appearances.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sides.</span> Leather made from hides which -are split into two sides down the back.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Side Lasting.</span> Lasting the side of the -shoe only.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Size.</span> Shoes are measured by the length -and width. The length is expressed by -numbers and the widths by letters.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Skins.</span> A term used to represent the -skin covering of small animals, such as goats.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Skirting.</span> The outer parts of leather -(hide), such as shanks, bellies, necks, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Skiving.</span> Making the sole the same -thickness in all parts. Skiving means cutting -or shaving down to a thin edge. This -operation may be done in the cutting department -or stitching department.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Slip.</span> The name applied to spring heels -or to soles. Slip is a thin piece of sole -leather inserted above the outer sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Slugging.</span> Driving slugs in heels, on -part or all of the heel.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sock Lining.</span> The lining for insole, -inside of shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Soft Tip.</span> A term applied to a shoe on -which no boxing is used under the tip.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Soles and Sole Leather.</span> Name applied -to pieces of leather of various thickness -on the bottom of a shoe, usually -made from heavy hides of leather. There -are many varieties of soles: a “full-double” -sole has two thicknesses of leather extending -clear back to the heel; “half-double” -sole is a full outer sole, with slip extending -back to shank; single sole is self-defining; -“tap” is a half sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sole Laying.</span> Sole laying is the operation -of laying the outsole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sorting.</span> The process of selecting and -sorting soles, so that they may be put up -in different qualities.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Spewing.</span> Shoes in stock sometimes become -coated with a grayish white, powdery -substance, that looks like mildew. This -formation on leather that is not fully -seasoned is called spewing, and the deposit -is called bloom. It can readily be wiped -off, and does not indicate any serious -defect or trouble with the leather. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -not a mildew or growth, but apparently -an exudation of materials used in tanning.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Splits.</span> A name applied to split leather, -that is, two or more parts of the hide.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Spring Heel.</span> Consists of one or more -lifts used between the outsole and upper. -It is seen mostly in children’s shoes and is -often called wedge heel. It can also be -put on outside instead of under the outsole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stamping.</span> The operation of putting size -and width on the inside of the shoe. Parts -of the uppers are often stamped or marked -so that the whole are put together properly -in the stitching room.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stay.</span> The name given to any piece of -leather put in the upper to strengthen it -or to strengthen a seam.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Bottoms.</span> The operation of -stamping name on bottom. It is often -performed in finishing rooms.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Carton.</span> Putting the size, -width, and other marks on carton.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stamping Sizes.</span> Stamping sizes on heel -part of the sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Standard-fastened.</span> Nailing bottom on -standard screw machine.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Staying.</span> Putting on a stay, generally -heel stay.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stitch Separating.</span> Marking between -stitches so as to make them show to good -advantage.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stitch Down.</span> A term applied to a flexible -shoe used in the army, in which the -top is turned out instead of under and -stitched through the sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stitched Aloft.</span> A term used to indicate -that the sewing stitches show on the -bottom. No channel is necessary in this -sole. It may be a slight groove. In stitching, -the shoe is held bottom up, therefore -the name “stitched aloft.”</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Straight Last.</span> One that is neither -right nor left, and a shoe made over such -a last can be worn on either foot. This -term is sometimes applied to right and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> -left shoes that have a barely perceptible -outside swing.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stripping.</span> Consists of cutting in strips -wide enough to cut soles all of equal size -in length.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Suede.</span> A trade term applied to kid -skins, finished on the flesh side.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swing.</span> A term applied to the curve of -the outer edge of a sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tacking On.</span> Consists in laying the -outsole on McKay’s lasted shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tack Pulling and Trimming Out.</span> -Consist of preparing bottom for welting. -It also makes it better for the operation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tampico.</span> A variety of goat skins coming -from the province of Tampico, Central -America.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tap.</span> Half of a complete sole, often -called half sole when used under outsole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tan.</span> Tan is a sort of brownish leather.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tanning.</span> Tanning is the process of -converting hides or skins into leather.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tap Trimming.</span> Shaping the tap to -conform to the sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tawing.</span> The process of making leather -by soaking hides in a solution of salt and -alum, or by packing them down with dry -salt and powdered alum. Used to prepare -skin rugs and furs.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tempering.</span> The operation of wetting -the leather in water to take hardness out -and make leather “mull,” so that it may -be worked easier.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tip.</span> The toe piece which is stitched -to the vamp and outside of it. Stock -tip is a tip of the same material as the -vamp. Patent tip is a patent leather tip. -Diamond tip refers to the shape extending -back to a point. Imitation tip-stitching -across the vamp is imitation of -a tip.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tip Cutting.</span> Cutting the tip which -goes on the toe of the vamp.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Toe and Heel Lasting.</span> Lasting heel -and toe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Toe Piece.</span> A piece attached to cut-off -vamp to lengthen it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tongue.</span> A narrow strip of leather necessary -on all laced shoes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Top.</span> The part of the upper above the -vamp; tip of shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Top Cutting.</span> Cutting the top only.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Top Facing.</span> The strip of leather or -band of cloth around the top of the shoe -on the inside is called the top facing. It -adds to the finish of the lining, and is sometimes -used to advertise the name of manufacturers -by a design of letters woven or -sewed on it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Top Lift.</span> The lift which is next to the -ground.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Top Lift Scouring.</span> Sandpapering top -lift of heel to make it smooth.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Top Stitching.</span> Consists of stitching -across the top and down the side.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Treeing.</span> Shaping the shoe, making it -smooth. Produces the same effect as ironing, -although no hot iron is used. It makes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -the upper plump and gives it a good finish -and “feel.”</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Trimming Cutting.</span> Cutting stays, facings, -and other small parts of the upper.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Trimming Vamp.</span> Cutting off hanging -or surplus thread.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Turning.</span> To turn shoe right side out. -Also turning upper right side out.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Turned Shoe.</span> A lady’s fine shoe that -is made wrong side out, then turned right -side out, which operation necessitates the -use of a thin, flexible sole of good quality. -The sole is fastened to the last, the upper -is lasted over it wrong side out, then the -two are sewed together, the thread catching -through a channel cut in the edge of the -sole. The seam does not come through to -the bottom of the sole where it would chafe -the foot on inside.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Upper.</span> A term applied collectively to -the upper parts of a shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ungrained.</span> Smooth surface.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vamp.</span> The lower or front part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -upper of a shoe. It is the most important -piece of the upper and should be -cut from the strongest and cleanest -part of the skin. “Cut-off” vamp is one -that extends only to the tip, instead of -being continued to the toe and lasted -under with the tip. Whole vamp is one -that extends to the heel without a seam.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vamping.</span> Stitching the vamp to the top.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vamp Cutting.</span> Cutting vamp with or -without the tip.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Velour.</span> A finish for calf leather. It -is the French name for velvet and is used -in the shoe trade for a patent chrome-tanned -calf leather. It is an excellent leather and -has a smooth and velvety finish.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vellum.</span> A name for skins that are -made into a variety of parchment.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Veneering.</span> Consists in making soles, -whole or part, heavier, by means of leather-board -or other material fastened to the -sole by an adhesive.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vesting.</span> A material originally designed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> -for making vests. As used in shoes, it is -made with fancy-figured weave, having a -backing of stiff buckram or rubber-treated -tissue to strengthen it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Viscolizing.</span> A patent method of waterproofing -sole leather by the use of partly -emulsified oils with a water-resisting tendency. -Viscolized soles are used in hunting -and sporting boots.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vici.</span> A patent trade name for a brand -of chrome-tanned kid.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wash Leather.</span> An inferior quality of -chamois.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Welt.</span> A narrow strip of leather that -is sewed to the upper of a shoe with an -insole leaving the edge of the welt extending -outward, so that the outsole can be -attached by sewing through both welt and -outsole, around the outside of the shoe. -The attaching of the sole and upper thus -involves two sewings, first the insole, welt -and upper, then the outsole to the welt. -The name is applied to the shoe itself when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -made in this way to distinguish it from a -turned, or McKay sewed shoe. This is the -method used by cobblers in the production -of hand-sewed shoes to fasten the sole and -upper together. Goodyear welt is a welt -in which the sewing is done by a machine -named for the inventor. There are very -few hand-welted shoes made.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Welt Beating.</span> The flattening out of -the welt, making it smooth.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Welting.</span> Sewing the welt to shoe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">White Alum.</span> Bleached leather tawed -with white alum.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wooden Case.</span> Large box for twelve or -more pairs.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_TEN">CHAPTER TEN<br /> -<span class="smaller">LEATHER PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE</span></h2> - -<p>The use of gloves is so old that relics -of them have been found in the -habitations of the cave dwellers. The -Romans used them as decorative articles -of dress and the Greeks to protect the hands -when doing heavy work.</p> - -<p>The gloves of ladies and gentlemen in the -days of Queen Elizabeth, and before and -after, were most beautiful in hand workmanship -and embellishments, but they -were usually shapeless things, and in these -days no one would wear them; they are -not to be compared with the elegant style -and artistic finish of the modern product.</p> - -<p>When the social world was restricted, so -to speak, in the numbers of its members who -could afford some of life’s luxuries, the use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -of the glove was confined largely to royalty, -nobility, and the well-to-do. And the trade -not being extensive, prices were high—being -added to by decorative elaboration -in needlework in order that the manufacturer -and his employees might extract as -much money as possible from the ultimate -buyer. While glove making is now one of -the stabilities of modern manufacture, it -is, nevertheless, constantly changing in -styles, due to eagerness for novelties and -new fashions.</p> - -<p>Glove making of leather, in a rough, -crude form, was carried on in this country -to a very limited extent in New York State -as early as 1760, by glove makers brought -from Scotland to settle on the grants of -Sir William Johnson, in Fulton county. -But there was no general market for the -home product until one was found in Albany -in 1825. These early gloves, crude and -clumsy, were cut with shears from leather -by means of pasteboard patterns, and men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -did the cutting and women the sewing. -Dies were later introduced, and this led to -a great improvement in the character of -the output.</p> - -<p>But a still greater step forward was taken -when the sewing machine was introduced -in 1852. This abolished handwork entirely, -but still the industry remained largely of -a domestic nature, since it could be carried -on at home with a machine as well as in a -factory. Later steam power was installed -in factories with which to run the machines. -The cutting of gloves, and the stitching -on the backs, was done before the gloves -were sent out to be completed in workers’ -homes.</p> - -<p>As in everything wherein power can be -substituted for hand labor in these days, -the methods of glove manufacture have -undergone a great transformation. The -treating of skins in a great tub, three feet -deep, whole dyeing and scouring, in rooms -of high temperature, has been displaced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -by putting skins and colors into a cube-shaped -box, which, revolving with an irregular -motion, produces the same results more -quickly than by the primitive way. But -when color is to be applied to but one side -the process is the same as of old,—hand -use of a brush while the skin is stretched -out on a slab.</p> - -<p>When taken from the stock on hand to -be made into gloves, the first thing done -to skins by some glove makers is to “feed” -them with eggs—not eggs of suspicious -merits, but good enough for table use. And -of these nothing is used but the yolk. One -glove maker imports from China large -quantities of the yolks of duck eggs for his -work, and his yearly consumption of yolks -amounts to seventeen thousand.</p> - -<p>When the skins leave the dyehouse, -they are rapidly dried in steam-heated -lofts; and while stiff and rough they are, or -were, worked into softness and smoothness -over a wooden upright standard, called a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -stake, at the top of which is fitted a blunt -semicircular knife. Over this the skin is -drawn by hand, back and forth, until it -becomes as pliable and delicate as silk. -When this work was done manually it was -most laborious. But now it has been -mostly taken over by very ingenious machinery, -which looks, in operation, as if it would -tear a skin into fragments by the way it -snaps and pulls at it, but which is adjustable -to such nicety of action and power that the -work is done exactly as it is wanted.</p> - -<p>The next operation is to pare the skins -to uniformity of thickness. This also was -handwork for a long time, done with a -peculiarly shaped knife, but now emery-coated -wheels, with rounded edges, are -used by the workers, who, with their aid, -do just as good and much faster work in -drawing and thinning the skins with absolute -precision. This completes the treatment -of the skin.</p> - -<p>Now the function of the cutter begins,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -and he must be a workman of experience -and good judgment, in that he must contend -with the inconstant inelasticity of the skin, -reducing it to uniform resistance. He must -get so many pieces of glove size from each -skin, and suit the pieces to particular features -of the skin. When done with a skin -he must have left, as useless, only trifling -strips and shreds. The shapeliness of the -glove which a woman draws over her hand, -depends altogether upon the intelligence -and skill of the cutter. In American factories -the cutter is usually from some -glove-making center in Europe and from -a family whose occupation has been glove -making for centuries.</p> - -<p>A punch next cuts these glove pieces -into shape, forming and dividing the fingers, -slitting the buttonholes, providing side -pieces for fingers and thumbs, and also -the fragments used for strengthening the -buttonholes. The sewing, formerly the -handiwork of women, is now done on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -machines of capacity for exceptionally fine -quality of intricate stitching. The number -of glove sizes made is sufficient to meet -every likely demand. When sewn, and the -buttons or fastenings put on, they pass -beneath the critical eye of an inspector for -scrutiny as to faults. Then they are finally -shaped on a hot metal hand, smoothed, -banded, boxed, and sent to the salesroom -for shipment.</p> - -<p>The first and fourth fingers of a glove are -completed by gussets, or strips, sewed only -on the inner side; but the second and third -fingers require gussets on both sides to -complete the fingers. In addition to these, -small, diamond-shaped pieces are sewed in -at the roots of the fingers. Special care is -necessary in sewing in the thumb pieces, -as poorly made gloves usually give way at -this point.</p> - -<p>Natural lined gloves are now common -enough, although it is not many years -since they were regarded as impracticable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> -These are made from pelts of various -animals with the hair left on the skin to -form the lining.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Automobile and Furniture Leather</span></h3> - -<p>For automobile and furniture leather -only choice hides should be used. The -kind of hides generally employed for this -class of leather are French and Swiss, as -these run full and plump on the bellies, are -free from cuts on the flesh and are of clear -grain. The hides are trimmed before placing -them in the soaking pits, all useless -parts, such as nose, shanks, etc., being cut -away.</p> - -<p>After remaining in soak for a day or two, -the hides are hauled out, fleshed, and -returned to the soaks for thorough softening. -When thoroughly soaked, they are toggled -and reeled into the first lime. The first -lime must be a weak, mellow lime, or a -harsh grain will show after the leather is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -tanned. The hides are reeled over into -stronger limes every day for seven days, -when they are ready for unhairing. After -coming from the limes, the hides should -go into a pit of soft water heated to about -ninety degrees Fahrenheit and left over -night before starting in to unhair. After -unhairing, they are thrown into a vat -of clean water and thoroughly worked out -on the grain to remove short hairs and scud -and are then ready for bating. One that -has a little bacterial action is preferred to -an acid bate. After bating, the hides are -given a good scudding on the grain and are -then ready for the tanning liquors.</p> - -<p>The liquors are made of hemlock and oak -and are used very weak on the start. The -hides are suspended for a day in a liquor -not over six degrees specific gravity reading -in strength, and the following day shifted -over into a stronger liquor. The stock is -given stronger liquors every day until -tanned enough for splitting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p> - -<p>The stock is struck out smoothly and -brought to the machine for splitting. The -buffing is first taken away and sold for hat -bands, pocket-books, etc. The grains are -finished and the splits are returned to the -tanning liquors to be thoroughly tanned. -As soon as the splits are tanned, they are -washed up, drained, and then drummed -in the drum in a sumac liquor. They are -now scoured, and, after being well set out, -are given a good oiling with cod oil.</p> - -<p>They are now tacked out on the frames -and dried out. They are next taken from -the frames and boarded by hand over the -table. The splits are taken to the japan -shop and are tacked out again and are -ready for the first coat of daub. Two coats -are applied. After each coat, the splits -are well rubbed down, when they receive -the slicker coat. The color coats are now -applied, and after drying out, the leather -is grained up and finished.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_ELEVEN">CHAPTER ELEVEN<br /> -<span class="smaller">RUBBER SHOE MANUFACTURE</span></h2> - -<p>Examine the rubbers we wear during -the winter and stormy weather.</p> - -<p>Rubber shoe coverings are made to protect -the shoe from water and snow and -may be in the form of either slippers or -arctics. The covering is rendered waterproof -by means of a compound rubber.</p> - -<p>Rubber is the name given to a coagulated -milky juice obtained from many different -trees, vines, and shrubs that grow on that -part of the earth’s surface which forms a -band some three or four hundred miles on -either side of the equator.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus32" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus32.jpg" width="650" height="530" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Crude Rubber.</p> -</div> - -<p>Rubber is graded commercially, according -to the district where it is found. In the -order of importance it may be divided into -three general sorts, viz., American, African,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -and Asiatic. The best and largest quantities -of rubber come from Brazil, along the -banks of the Amazon River. The countries -in the northern and western part of South -America, and the Central American States -and Mexico furnish considerable rubber. -Eastern and western Africa also produce -many kinds of rubber in large quantities, -though somewhat inferior to the Brazilian -product. The Asiatic rubbers are unimportant -in quantity, and, excepting the -rubber obtained from cultivated trees in -Ceylon, are decidedly inferior in quality.</p> - -<p>The fluid rubber obtained from Brazil -is called Para and is used principally in -the manufacture of rubber footwear. The -method of gathering and coagulating the -rubber juice (called latex) varies in the -different countries. The native first clears -a space under a number of trees and proceeds -to tap the trees with a short-handled -ax, having a small blade, by cutting gashes -in the bark. A cup is fixed under each cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> -to catch the fluid as it flows out. As fast -as the cups are filled, they are emptied -into a large vessel and carried to the camp -to be coagulated. A fire is started in a -shallow hole in the ground, and palm nuts, -which make a dense smoke, are thrown on. -An earthen cover which has a small opening -on top is placed over the fire, allowing the -smoke to escape through the opening. A -wooden paddle is first dipped in clay water -and then into the latex and then held over -the smoke. The heat coagulates a thin -layer of rubber on the paddle. It is dipped -again and again in the latex and smoked -each time. After being dipped many times, -a lump (called biscuit) of rubber is formed. -A cut is made in the biscuit and the paddle -removed. Then the rubber is ready for -market. The world’s crop of rubber in -1911 was about ninety thousand tons.</p> - -<p>Few people realize the number of operations -necessary to produce from the crude -biscuit of India rubber the highly finished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -rubber shoe of to-day. Briefly stated, the -various steps are washing, drying, compounding, -calendering, cutting the various -parts, making or putting these parts together, -varnishing, vulcanizing, and packing. -Each of these processes requires a distinct -and separate department, and many of these -processes are subdivided into minor operations.</p> - -<p>The huge stock of Para rubber, that is -rubber obtained from the Amazon section, -to be found in any of the leading rubber -factories counts well up into the thousands -of dollars. With rubber at or near $1.50 -per pound, a stock of ten to fifty tons runs -up into the five or six figures.</p> - -<p>This crude rubber, as it comes from the -Amazon, contains more or less dirt, pebbles, -and other foreign substances, which must -be removed.</p> - -<p>The large cakes of crude rubber are first -broken up by a cracker machine, consisting -of two large, revolving steel cylinders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -from which the product falls into pans or -trays. It goes then to a machine known as -a “washer” or “sheeter,” where it is run -between revolving cylinders, upon which a -continuous spray of clean water is maintained. -After being rolled into rough sheets, -it is put into a tank, from which it is taken -to the “beater” machine, in which water -runs continuously, and then it is washed -again and “sheeted out.” It is then dried -in one of two ways.</p> - -<p>(1) The older way. The sheets are -hung over rods in a large room, and allowed -to dry in the air. To facilitate the same, -a fan or blower is often used to cause a -circulation and removal of the moisture-laden -air. This requires a period of from -one to two or three months.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus33" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus33.jpg" width="650" height="530" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Washing and Drying.</p> -</div> - -<p>(2) The second method is called vacuum -drying. This process is gradually being -introduced, so that now probably more -rubber is dried in vacuum than by air. -The vacuum drier consists of a large iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -cylinder filled with plates, through which -steam is allowed to circulate. The rubber -is placed on the plates and the air is exhausted -from the cylinder by means of an -air pump until very nearly twenty-six -degrees of vacuum are obtained. By this -process only from two to three hours are -required to produce perfectly dry rubber.</p> - -<p>The making of a rubber shoe is not the -simple matter which might at first be -supposed. An ordinary rubber shoe consists -of at least seven or eight different -parts, sometimes twenty-one parts to a pair, -while a high-button gaiter has seventeen -distinct parts, and a rubber boot has twenty-three -different pieces. There are insoles, -outsoles, stays, piping, foxing, and a dozen -other different pieces, each one of which is -necessary to the proper construction of a -rubber shoe or boot. The thinner sheets -for the uppers are cut by hand, the deft -work of the cutters in following the patterns -outlined on the sheets being the result of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -years of practice. The sheets of rubber -from which the uppers and soles are cut -are at this stage of the work plastic and -very sticky. It is necessary on this account -to cut the various pieces one by one, and -keep them separate. The soles and some -of the heavier pieces are dried out by the -machine, and the heels are made by a special -machine, but by far the greater part is done -by wonderfully skilled hands. All of these -parts which go to make a shoe, or the -twenty-three parts which go into a boot, -are collected and sent to the making department, -which, in most factories, is a large -room containing several hundred operatives, -each working by herself, and bringing the -many separate parts into the fully finished -footwear.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus34" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus34.jpg" width="650" height="490" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Calender Room.</p> -</div> - -<p>The sheets of rubber, after being dried, -are taken to the “compound” room, where -they are sprinkled with whiting, to prevent -sticking, and weighed. Next they are taken -into the calender room to a “mixer,” by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -means of which the rubber is combined -with other substances, which include sulphur, -litharge, whiting, lampblack, tar, -resin, lime, palm oil, and linseed oil.</p> - -<p>There are different calendering machines. -The ones called the upper calenders form -sheets of rubber stock for the upper part of -the shoe. The soling calenders form the -stock for the sole or bottom part of the -shoe; other calender machines are used to -coat a layer of gum on one side of the -fabrics used for lining and various strips, -fillers, toe, and heel pieces. The gum -sheets are sent to the cutting room.</p> - -<p>Generally, linings for nine pairs of shoes -are cut at once. The linings are cut both -by hand and by machine. Men who cut -with dies, by hand, stand at the bench and -use iron mallets, like those used in cutting -heels. Inner soles, heel pieces, and linings -are all cut by means of dies in the same -manner.</p> - -<p>The edges of the several parts are spread<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -with cement, and then the parts are taken -to the making room and distributed. In -the making department the boots and shoes -are put together. Women make the light -overshoes; men make the heavy ones. -Rubbers are made by women, but men put -on the outer soles.</p> - -<p>Linings are first applied smoothly to a -wooden last and cemented together, the -cement side out. The rubber parts are -then stuck on and rolled firmly with a -small hand roller. Young women become -very skilled in this work, taking up the -several parts in rapid succession, placing -them accurately upon the last, and rolling -and pounding them firmly together.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus35" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus35.jpg" width="650" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Cutting Room.</p> -</div> - -<p>Perhaps the most interesting single process -is that of putting the rubber boot -together. This work is done by men, and -requires, in addition to accurate eyesight, -rapid and very deft movements of the hand -and considerable strength. No nails, tacks, -or stitching are required. The natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -adhesiveness of the rubber, assisted by the -use of rubber cement, holds the parts -solidly together.</p> - -<p>In the making of the shoe the last is -covered with the various pieces which are -so made as to adhere where they are placed. -It is exact and nice work fitting all these -pieces perfectly, each edge overlapping just -so far and no farther. The lighter shoes -are made by women, but the heavy lumbermen’s -shoes, arctics, and especially the -boots, are made by men, for this work needs -strength as well as dexterity.</p> - -<p>The goods which require varnishing are -put on racks and treated with a mixture of -boiled linseed oil, naphtha, and other -materials, which are applied with brushes, -and impart a gloss to the surface.</p> - -<p>On vulcanizing boots and shoes, the -shoes are placed on racks supported by -iron cars, which are run over tracks into -the vulcanizing chamber. This consists -principally of a large room provided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -with a steam coil on the floor. The temperature -rarely exceeds two hundred -and sixty degrees Fahrenheit. In vulcanizing -shoes, the heat is increased gradually -from the beginning, about one hundred and -eighty degrees Fahrenheit, otherwise the -goods would be blistered, due to the rapid -evaporation of moisture and other volatile -constituents. They are kept in these -heaters from six to seven hours. This -causes a union of sulphur and rubber, which -is not affected by heat or cold.</p> - -<p>They are wheeled on another truck to the -packing room, where they are inspected, -taken from the lasts, tied together in -pairs, or placed in cartons, as the case may -be. They are then sent to the shipping -room to be packed in cases ready to be -delivered to the cars waiting at a side track -of the railroad, or sent to the storehouse -until they shall be called for by the jobbers -or retail dealers.</p> - -<p>An important branch of the rubber business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -is the manufacture of tennis shoes. -This is a generic term, which is applied to -all kinds of footwear having cloth tops and -rubber soles. As the name indicates, they -were first used in playing the game of -tennis, but they have come into very general -use as warm weather and vacation shoes, -and every year shows an increased popularity. -These shoes are made in a similar -manner to the rubber shoes, the rubber -soles being cemented to the cloth uppers and -vulcanized the same as the rubber overshoes. -Many different styles are made, -and each year shows some improvements in -the shapes, in the textiles which are used, -in the colors and combinations of soles and -uppers.</p> - -<p>Rubber shoes should not be expected to -give satisfactory service unless properly -fitted. If too short, too narrow, or if worn -over leathers with extra heavy taps, or -unusually thick, wide soles, strains will be -brought upon parts not designed to stand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -them and the rubber will give way. Rubber -goods, particularly boots, if too large will -wrinkle and a continued wrinkling and -bending is liable to cause cracking.</p> - -<p>Extreme heat or cold should be avoided. -Rubber boots or shoes should never be -dried by placing them near a heater of any -kind. If left near a stove, register, or -radiator, the rubber is liable to dry and -crack. If left out of doors in winter, -or in an extremely cold place, they will -freeze. Then when the warm foot is put -into them and the rubbers are worn, the -rubber will crack.</p> - -<p>Oil, grease, milk, or blood will cause -rubber to decay in a very short time. If -spattered with any of these, the rubber -should be promptly and thoroughly cleaned -with warm water and soap.</p> - -<p>The oil in leather tops will rot rubber, -so that care should be taken in storing and -packing to prevent the leather and rubber -from coming in contact.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus36" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus36.jpg" width="650" height="475" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Putting together the Parts of a Rubber Shoe.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p> - -<p>Various heavy goods are advertised as -proof against snagging. It should be remembered, -however, that no rubber can be -made strong enough to be absolutely proof -against tearing or puncturing by extremely -sharp edges, such as stiff stubble, sharp-edged -rocks, broken glass, etc.</p> - -<p>Mud, barnyard dirt, or filth of any kind -should never be allowed to dry on rubbers. -They should be cleaned as carefully as -leather boots or shoes.</p> - -<p>Exposure to strong sunlight for any -length of time produces an effect on rubbers -similar to that of putting them near a stove -or radiator. Rubbers should not be left -in the sun to dry. When not in use they -should be kept in a cool, dark place.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Rubber Heels</span></h3> - -<p>Rubber heels are generally made for -boots and shoes as follows. The compounded -rubber is sheeted on a calender<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> -roll, on a drum, until several layers are -obtained, thus making a sheet of about one -inch in thickness. The heel is cut out from -this sheet by means of a die and placed in a -mold. It is there subjected to an extremely -high pressure, generally obtained by hydraulic -power. The plates of the press -are heated with live steam. The heels are -removed at the end of nine or ten minutes -and the sheet which was formerly nearly an -inch in thickness is now only about half -an inch and has by pressure been molded -into the shape of the heel desired, is semi or -partially vulcanized, and also is imprinted -upon the bottom with the name or other -brand of the company.</p> - -<p>The cup-shaped portion of the heel is now -coated with a layer of rubber cement, and -firmly placed on the boot ready to go to -the vulcanizer, where vulcanizing of the -heel is then completed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus37" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus37.jpg" width="650" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Heel-making Department.</p> -</div> - -<p>Many articles of rubber are vulcanized by -the use of chloride of sulphur, which process<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> -is sometimes known as “cold cure.” The -action of sulphur chloride itself is so violent -that it must be diluted, and for this purpose -carbon bisulfide is often used. In some -cases, as, for example, the manufacture of -tobacco pouches, the articles are submerged -for from one to two minutes in the liquid, -then removed and washed thoroughly. In -another case, as in the manufacture of some -kinds of rubber cloth, such as hospital -sheeting, the coated cloth is suspended in -a suitable room and the chloride of sulphur -and carbon bisulfide mixed and evaporated -by action of heat so that the cloth is subjected -to the action of vapor alone. Only -articles with comparatively thin walls can -be successfully vulcanized by the cold cure, -as at best the vulcanizing action of the -chloride is only superficial.</p> - -<p>No account of vulcanization processes as -employed in the manufacture of rubber -goods is complete without the mention of -“steam cure.” A great variety of rubber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> -goods under the general term of mechanical -sundries are cured by this method. This -includes rubber matting, door mats, water -bottles, druggists’ sundries, etc. This process -consists in brief of submitting the -articles to be vulcanized to the action of -live steam for from half an hour to an hour, -or until the goods are thoroughly vulcanized. -The temperature and duration of time required -depend to a considerable extent -upon the thickness of the walls of the -article. In order to prevent the goods -from being pitted and damaged by the -action of steam, they are wrapped with -cloth or imbedded in pans of soapstone. -A great variety of rubber tubing is cured -by this method.</p> - -<p>In rubber cloth making, the crude rubber -is put through the washing process, dried -and mixed with sulphur, litharge, coloring -matter, etc., and then is taken to the cement -room, where it is “cut” with naphtha, -forming a thick paste or dough. This is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -taken to the spreading room in large tubs -and fed into the roller machine, which is -like a long table made of steam pipes -placed horizontally in a single layer. Below -one end is a roll of cloth, which is passed -between two iron rollers on the end. The -dough is fed in between these rollers and -is spread smoothly over the cloth, which is -rolled up and removed to a heating room, -where it is unrolled and hung on racks, and -then subjected to sufficient heat to cause -the combination of the sulphur and rubber.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Chemistry in the Manufacture of -Rubber Goods</span></h3> - -<p>Too much stress cannot be laid upon the -importance in all rubber factories of the -chemical department. During the last two -or three years there has been an unusual -development along these lines, and to-day -no factory for the manufacture of rubber -goods is complete that does not possess a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> -well-equipped laboratory. Not only does -this department enable the manufacturer -to control the purity and uniformity of -his compounding ingredients and the innumerable -grades of crude rubber, but, what -is of even greater importance, it enables -him to inaugurate research work as applied -to his particular line of manufacture. This -part of laboratory work is already producing -results not only of scientific interest, but -of very great practical and economic value. -Still another rôle of the modern chemical -laboratory is to exercise a control over the -finished material, so that the manager of -the works may be in possession daily of -reasons for any variation detrimental to -the standard of his products.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Rubber Terms</span></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ankle Piece.</span> A large piece of light -sheeted gum, which goes around the ankle -and extends about halfway up the leg.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Back Stay.</span> A piece of frictioned sheeting -similar to the side stay in shape and -placed at the back of the heel and ankle.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gum Counter.</span> A piece cut out of -sheeted gum, on the under side of which is -placed a counter form or a piece of frictioned -sheeting.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Outer Filler.</span> A filling sole cut from -rag-coated or frictioned sheeting, and designed -to fill up the hollow on the bottom -caused by bringing the edges of the gum -vamp and counter underneath.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Inner Sole.</span> Usually made of felt or -sheeting coated on one side with rag stock. -In lasting up, the bottom edges of the lining -(which have previously been cemented) -are pulled under and adhere to the inner -sole.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Leg Cover.</span> A piece of sheeted gum -rolled upon a piece of frictioned sheeting -called the leg form.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Leg Lining.</span> The lining, usually of felt -or wool netting, for the leg.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Para.</span> A name given to rubber from -Brazil.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Piping.</span> Strips of frictioned sheeting used -to join the lining together over the instep -and up the back, and also to hold the -lining up on the tree by passing a strip over -the top.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rag Counter.</span> Quarter stiff is a counter -piece cut out of rag-coated or frictioned -sheeting, which gives stiffness to the -counter.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Side Stay.</span> A spike-shaped piece of -frictioned sheeting, placed on each side of -the ankle.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rag Sole.</span> A sole stiffening cut out of -a sheet of rag stock, which covers the whole -bottom. The edges are skived to make a -perfect edge.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Toe Filler.</span> A rag-stock filling sole -to fill up the hollow on the bottom caused -by attaching the lining to the inner sole.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus38" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus38.jpg" width="420" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Parts of a Rubber Boot.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Toe Lining.</span> The lining for the vamp, -of the same material as the leg lining.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vamp.</span> A piece cut out of sheeted gum.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vamp Form.</span> A piece of frictioned sheeting -cut to the shape of the vamp, and put -on over the toe lining.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Web Straps.</span> Straps put on with the -joined ends between the leg lining and the -leg cover, and forming a loop on the inside -of the boot to pull it on with.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_TWELVE">CHAPTER TWELVE<br /> -<span class="smaller">HISTORY OF FOOTWEAR</span></h2> - -<p>We find that primitive footwear, in -common with all other beginnings, -was of the crudest nature and took the -form of the simple sandal. It is probable -that man first protected his foot from -the rough way by simple pieces of hide, -which were bound to the bottom of the -foot. The sandal, among the most primitive, -is the type of footwear worn to-day. -The sandal was simply bound to the foot -by thongs of hides, which were brought -between the toes and tied around the ankle.</p> - -<p>At about the Elizabethan period, shoemaking -had really become a very fine art. -Some foot creations were made by the -Court shoemakers that reflected the individual -taste of the monarch, and so great -was the competition to produce something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> -novel that very often the styles assumed a -grotesque aspect. The toes were elongated -so that sometimes they were carried up and -fastened by cords and tassels to the tops -of the shoes, and it finally became necessary -to enact a law to prevent such outrageous -types of footwear. The slippers of this -period were of the extremely high-heeled -variety, and small fortunes were often -spent on their ornamentation. They were -mostly of the turn-shoe type, and samples -which are preserved show the excellent -workmanship that was in vogue at that -time.</p> - -<p>We now come to the first shoemaker in -America. When the <i>Mayflower</i> made the -second trip to America, she carried among -others a shoemaker named Thomas Beard, -who brought with him a supply of hides. -Seven years afterwards there arrived one -Phillip Kertland, a native of Buckinghamshire, -who settled in Lynn in 1636.</p> - -<p>Kertland was the pioneer shoemaker of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> -Lynn and for years he successfully worked -at his craft, teaching others his methods -and ways, so that fifteen years after his -arrival, Lynn was not only supplying the -requirements of its inhabitants, but was -also sending a part of its products to the -port of Boston. As early as 1648 we find -tanning and shoemaking mentioned as an -industry of the colony of Virginia, special -mention being made of the fact that a -planter named Matthews employed eight -shoemakers on his premises. Legal restraint -was placed on the cordwainer in -Connecticut in 1656, and in Rhode Island -in 1706, while in New York the business of -tanning and shoemaking is known to have -been firmly established previous to the -capitulation of the Province to England in -1664. In 1698 the industry was carried -on profitably in Philadelphia, and in 1721 -the Colonial Legislature of Pennsylvania -passed an act regulating the material and -the prices of the boot and shoe industry.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p> - -<p>Prior to 1815 most of the shoes were -hand sewed, a few having been copper -nailed. The heavier shoes were welted and -the lighter ones turned. This method of -manufacture was changed, about the year -1815, by the adoption of the wooden shoe -peg, which was invented in 1811 and soon -came into general use. Up to this time -little or no progress had been made in the -methods of manufacture. The shoemaker -sat on his bench, and with scarcely any -other instrument than a hammer, knife, -and wooden shoulder stick, cut, stitched, -hammered, and sewed until the shoe was -completed. Previous to the year 1845, -which marked the first successful application -of machinery to American shoemaking, -this industry was in the strictest sense a -hand process, and the young man who -chose it for his vocation was apprenticed for -seven years, during which time he was -taught every detail of the art. He was -instructed in the preparation of the insole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> -and outsole, depending almost entirely -upon his eye for the proper proportions; -taught to prepare pegs and drive them, -for the pegged shoe was the common type -of footwear in the first half of the last -century; and familiarized himself with the -making of turned and welt shoes, which -have always been considered the highest -types of shoemaking, as they require exceptional -skill of the artisan in channeling the -insole and outsole by hand, rounding -the sole, sewing the welt, and stitching -the outsole. After having served his -apprenticeship, it was the custom for the -full-fledged shoemaker to start on what -was known as “whipping the cat,” which -meant traveling from town to town, living -with a family while making a year’s supply -of shoes for each member, then moving on -to fill engagements previously made.</p> - -<p>The change from which has been evolved -our present factory system began in the latter -part of the 18th century, when a system of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> -sizes had been drafted, and shoemakers more -enterprising than their fellows gathered -about them groups of workmen, and took -upon themselves the dignity of manufacturers.</p> - -<p>It was soon found that the master workman -could largely increase his income by -employing other men to do the work while -he directed their efforts, and this gradually -led to a division of the labor: the shoe -uppers, which had prior to this time been -sewed by men using waxed thread with -bristles, now were done by women, who -often took the work home.</p> - -<p>One workman cut the leather, others -sewed the uppers, and still others fastened -uppers to soles, each workman handling -only one part in the process of manufacture.</p> - -<p>We find that in the year 1795 the evolution -of the factory system had reached a -stage where in Lynn alone there were two -hundred master workmen, employing six -hundred journeymen and turning out three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> -hundred thousand pairs of shoes per year. -The entire shoe was then made under one -roof, and generally from leather that was -tanned on the premises.</p> - -<p>Factory buildings were not at this time -of a very pretentious nature and did not -by any means represent the amount of -work undertaken by the proprietor; for -the small ten by ten factories, which are -even to-day in existence in some of the -backyards of Lynn homes, came into -existence at this time. Many farmers -found that shoemaking was a remunerative -occupation in the winter, and they, and -perhaps their neighbors, gathered in these -shops and took from the different factories -shoes on which to fasten the soles, or -uppers to bind, which, after completion of -the work, were returned to the factory, -where they were finished and sent to market -packed in wooden boxes. It was in this -way that the industry prospered and developed -up to the period of the introduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> -of machines, which happened but a little -over half a century ago.</p> - -<p>Up to the year 1811 absolutely no -machinery was used in the making of shoes. -This year shoe pegs were invented and a -machine for making them. The pegged -shoe became very widely worn, but it was -not until 1835 that any machine for driving -pegs was made, and even at this time the -machine was but an indifferent success. -It was a hand machine and its work was -by no means of a reliable nature.</p> - -<p>The first machine to be widely accepted -by the trade was the “rolling machine.” -This was used for rolling the sole leather -under pressure, and it is said that a man -could perform in a minute with this machine -the same office that he would have required -half an hour to have performed with the -old-fashioned lapstone and hammer. This -was followed in 1848 by the most important -invention, the “sewing machine,” which -was perfected by Elias Howe, and was soon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> -followed by a machine which sewed with -waxed thread and made it possible to sew -the uppers of shoes in a much more rapid, -reliable, and satisfactory manner than had -ever been done by hand. This, too, was -soon followed by a machine which split the -sole leather and by another for buffing or -removing the grain.</p> - -<p>In 1855 William F. Trowbridge, who was -a partner in the firm of F. Brigham & -Company, of Feltonville, Massachusetts, -then a part of Marlboro, conceived the idea -of driving by horse power the machines then -in use. The introduction of power became -very general, so that in the year 1860 there -were scarcely any factories which were not -driven by either steam or water power.</p> - -<p>The year 1858 was marked by the invention -by Lyman R. Blake of the McKay -sewing machine, which probably more than -any other has exerted a revolutionary effect -on the industry.</p> - -<p>The McKay machine did not at this time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> -sew the toe or heel; the sewing was started -at the shank and carried forward to a -point near the toe on one side, and the same -operation repeated on the other side; but -it seemed to possess great possibilities and -created a great deal of interest throughout -the trade. It was, of course, a very crude -machine and very different from the McKay -machine of to-day. It was set on a bench -and the shoe to be sewed was placed over -a horn, and the sewing was done from the -channel in the outsole through the sole -and insole. Colonel McKay immediately -started to improve the machine. He employed -skilled mechanics to work on it -and attempted to introduce it in different -factories, but encountered a great deal of -opposition and criticism in regard to its -future. It is said that he offered to dispose -of the machine to the shoemakers of Lynn -and allow them its exclusive use if they -would pay him three hundred thousand -dollars, an offer which was not accepted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p> - -<p>The machine left a loop stitch and a -ridge of thread on the inside of the shoe, -but it filled the great demand that existed -for sewed shoes, and many hundreds of -millions of pairs have been made by its use.</p> - -<p>While Colonel McKay had met rebuff -and discouragement in attempting to introduce -his machine, the public necessity was -such that manufacturers were obliged to -take it up immediately; but Colonel McKay -was still embarrassed by lack of capital to -carry on his rapidly increasing business. -It was at this time that a system of placing -machines in factories, which system has -proven to be the most potent factor in the -upbuilding of the shoe industry, was started. -This was a royalty system, whereby the -machine or machine owner participated in -the profits accruing from the use of the -machine.</p> - -<p>It hardly seems that there can be any -question as to the principle of royalty being -one of the greatest forces in building up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> -the successful industry which we have -to-day; it afforded an easy means whereby -machines could be introduced without entailing -hardships on the manufacturers, who, -had they been obliged to pay the actual -worth of the machines, would have been -entirely unable to adopt them. Instances -are known where hundreds of thousands -of dollars were spent on machines, which -machines were abandoned without having -made a single shoe.</p> - -<p>At the time of the introduction of the -McKay machine, inventors were busy in -other directions, and as a result, came the -introduction of the “cable nailing machine.” -This was provided with a cable of nails, the -head of one being joined to the point of -another; these the machines cut into -separate nails and drove automatically. -At about this time also was introduced the -“screw machine,” which formed a screw -from brass wire, forcing it into the leather -and cutting it off automatically. This was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> -the prototype of the “rapid standard screw -machine,” which is a comparatively recent -invention, and is very widely used at the -present time as a sole fastener on the -heavier class of boots and shoes. Very -soon thereafter the attention of the trade -was attracted to the invention of a New -York mechanic for the sewing of soles. -The device was particularly intended for -the making of turn shoes and afterwards -became famous as the “Goodyear turn -shoe machine.”</p> - -<p>Closely following the Goodyear invention -came the introduction of the first machine -used in connection with heeling,—a -machine which compressed the heel and -pricked holes for the nails; this was soon -followed by a machine which automatically -drove the nails, the heel having previously -been put in place and held by the guides on -the machine. Other improvements in heeling -machines followed with considerable -rapidity, and a machine came into use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> -shortly afterwards which not only nailed -the heel, but which was also provided with -a hand trimmer, which the operator swung -round the heel, after nailing. From these -have been evolved the heeling machines -in use at the present time.</p> - -<p>One of the early uses to which the sewing -machine was put was the sewing together -of the pieces of soft and pliable leather which -make the upper of a shoe—a simple thing, -involving only a slight adjustment of the -original machine. It is a far more complicated -operation to sew the upper to the -thick and heavy sole, and years passed by -before the secret was discovered, and the -McKay machine appeared. In the shoe -sewed on the McKay machine, the thread -ran through into the inside of the inner sole, -leaving a rasping ridge on which the stocking -of the wearer rubbed. The McKay shoe -displaced only the coarser grades. The -hand-sewed shoe remained the favorite -of wealth and fashion, and was worn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> -exclusively by those who cared for comfort -and could afford the price. In sewing a -shoe by hand, a thin and narrow strip of -leather, called a welt, is first sewed to the -insole and upper, and the heavy outsole -is sewed to this welt, so that the stitches -come outside and do not touch the foot, -the insole being left entirely smooth. It -is a delicate operation by hand, and many -years elapsed before a machine was contrived -by which it could be done. At last -the problem was solved. The “Goodyear -welting and stitching machines” appeared—so -named for Charles Goodyear, who -financed and perfected them, a son of the -man who taught the world the use of rubber. -These two machines are the nucleus of the -Goodyear welt system, to which must be -attributed the revolution of an industry. -Although they are entirely distinct machines, -they are inseparable, for neither can be used -effectively without the other in making the -modern Goodyear welt shoe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus39" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus39.jpg" width="420" height="230" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Insole for Hand Sewed Shoe.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus40" style="width: 420px;"> -<img src="images/illus40.jpg" width="420" height="330" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Hand Sewed Shoe.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p> - -<p>Much of the style of a shoe depends upon -the wooden last over which the upper is -shaped before being attached to the sole. -To find a substitute for the human hand in -fitting the shoe to the last and pulling the -leather over its delicate lines and curves -seemed for a long time impossible.</p> - -<p>This took place in the early seventies, -when a machine was invented for doing this -work. It created a great change in a department -of shoemaking which, prior to this -time, had been regarded as a confirmed hand -process. This machine, as well as those -which followed afterwards for a period of -twenty years, was known as the best type -of machine, by which the shoe upper was -drawn over the last by either friction or -pincers, and then tacked by use of a hand -tool.</p> - -<p>At a comparatively recent period another -machine which revolutionized all previous -ideas in lasting was introduced. This -machine is generally in use at the present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> -time, and is known as the “consolidated -hand method lasting machine.” It was -fitted with pincers, which automatically -drew the leather round the last, at the same -time driving a tack which held it in place. -This machine has been so developed that -it is now used for the lasting of shoes of -every type, from the lowest and cheapest -to the highest grade, and it is a machine -that shows wonderful mechanical ingenuity.</p> - -<p>The perfection of the lasting machine has -been followed recently by the introduction -of a machine which performs in a satisfactory -way the difficult process known as -“pulling over,” which consists of accurately -centering the shoe upper on the last and -securing it temporarily in position for the -work of lasting. The new machine, which -is known as the “hand-method pulling over -machine,” is provided with pincers, which -close automatically, gripping the shoe upper -at sides and toe. It is fitted with adjustments -by which the operator is enabled to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> -quickly center the shoe upper on the last, -and, on pressure of a foot lever, the machine -automatically draws the upper closely to -the last and secures it in position by tacks, -which are also driven by the machine. The -introduction of this machine marked a -radical change in the one important shoemaking -process that had up to this time -successfully withstood all attempts at -mechanical improvement.</p> - -<p>At about the time that lasting was first -introduced, came the machines which were -used for finishing heel and fore part. These -machines were fitted with a tool, which was -heated by gas and which practically duplicated -the hand workman in rubbing the -edges with a hot tool for the purpose of -finishing them. From these early machines -have been evolved the “edge-setting machines” -which are in use at present.</p> - -<p>Thus, one after another, every operation -has yielded to invention, until very recently -the only remaining process was subdued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> -when a machine for cutting uppers was -devised. There are machines for shaping, -compressing, and nailing heels; for attaching -soles to uppers in heavy shoes by wooden -pegs or copper screws and wires; for rounding, -buffing, and polishing the soles; for -trimming and setting the edges of the sole; -for performing innumerable operations, some -seemingly trivial, but all essential to perfection -in comfort, durability or style; -so that in shoe factories to-day a greater -variety of intricate and expensive machines -is used than in factories of any -other kind.</p> - -<p>At the present time the genius of the -American inventor has provided for every -detail of shoemaking, even the smallest -processes being performed by mechanical -devices of some kind. This has naturally -made the shoemaker of to-day a specialist, -who very seldom knows anything of shoemaking -apart from the particular process -in the performance of shoemaking of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> -he is an adept, and from which he earns -a livelihood. The American shoe of to-day -is the standard production of the world. -It is in demand wherever shoes are worn.</p> - -<p>In the year 1874 there had been perfected -not only the machines which Colonel -McKay and Mr. Goodyear had been instrumental -in building, but other inventors had -introduced similar machines for doing similar -work. This brought about the most -acute business competition, and finally -resulted in many cases where one machine -manufacturer alleged that the other machine -infringed his rights of patent, and in many -other cases the fiercest kind of litigation -was established. This had a most disastrous -effect upon shoe manufacturers, for -in many cases the manufacturer was made -to bear the brunt of the blows which -contending shoe machinery manufacturers -aimed at each other.</p> - -<p>Machines in use in factories were stopped -by means of injunctions; damage suits were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> -entered, and litigation was very general. -During the year 1899, there was ushered in -one of the most important events that ever -transpired in the history of shoemaking. -The most important of the concerns which -had been making war upon each other -were purchased by one large company and -brought under one harmonious management.</p> - -<p>The United Shoe Machinery Company -owes its origin to a call for a change in conditions -menacing the industry of making shoes -which could not be ignored. It was created -by combining into one the three companies -existing in 1899: the Goodyear Sewing Machine -Company, the Consolidated & McKay -Lasting Machine Company, and the McKay -Shoe Machinery Company, each of which -respectively made and leased machines -adapted to a particular class of operations. -The principal machines which each made -did not interfere with the principal machines -of any other. They were dependent links -in an industrial chain. The Goodyear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> -Sewing Machine Company chiefly made -machines for sewing the sole to the upper in -welt shoes and various auxiliary machines -which helped to complete the shoe; The -Consolidated & McKay Lasting Machine -Company made machines for lasting a -shoe; The McKay Shoe Machinery Company -made various machines for attaching -soles and heels by metallic fastenings, and -furnished material for that purpose. A -single manufacturer, in order to make -Goodyear welt shoes, would be compelled -to patronize all the companies, going to -each of them for that part of his equipment -which it exclusively supplied. Each company -had its agents in factories looking -after its machines.</p> - -<p>The gathering of these three companies -into a single organization wrought an instant -change. It resulted immediately in -greater economy of administration; in relieving -the manufacturer of the vexation of -sometimes seeing his factory crippled while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> -orders were piling up; in freeing him from -the annoyance and expense of dealing with -several different concerns in order to get -his most important machines and keep -them in repair.</p> - -<p>The attention which had been paid to -royalty machines and which had been such -an important factor in building up the -industry in America, was magnified by -the management of the new company. -Large forces of men and expert machinists, -as well as expert shoemakers, were maintained -in the different districts where shoes -were made, and every effort exerted to -promote the growth of the industry.</p> - -<p>While the royalty system proved to be -of great advantage to small shoe manufacturers, -the largest manufacturers objected -to paying royalty on machines and desired -to purchase them outright. Being unable -to do so, they placed experts at work to -invent similar machines. This has resulted -in the United Shoe Machinery Company<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> -claiming that these machines are infringements -and causing considerable litigation.</p> - -<p>If one reviews the history of the trade -during the past ten years, there will be -little question but that one will find it has -been a period of the greatest advancement -that the trade has ever known.</p> - -<p>Within the time of those who read these -words, the way to make a shoe has been -completely changed. Methods which held -their own for centuries have disappeared, -to be replaced by processes which only recently -would have been thought impossible, -and which have brought within the reach -of men of modest means a luxury once -enjoyed exclusively by the well-to-do. The -feet of the million are clad to-day as finely -as the feet of yesterday’s millionaire. Shoes -marked by comfort, durability, and style -have driven to historical museums the stiff -and clumsy boots and brogans which not -so many years ago were worn by those who -could not pay to have shoes sewed by hand.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p> - -<p>The American people spend more than -three hundred million dollars every year -in buying shoes, and average three pairs -apiece, and yet few ever think about their -shoes so long as they do not look clumsy, or -wear out too quickly, or hurt the foot. -Every one likes to buy good shoes as -cheaply as he can, and every one likes to -feel that shoe manufacturers are independent -and successful, and that workmen get -good wages, because these things help along -prosperity; but that is all. Yet here is an -industry in which the United States within -a decade has come to lead the world, and -there are many things about it which it -would be worth while for every one to understand. -It is worth while, for instance, to -know that there is no important operation -on a shoe which need be done by hand; -that in the making of every good shoe no -less than fifty-eight different machines, and -sometimes twice that number, are brought -into play; that nearly all these machines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> -are of American invention; and that they -have been so perfectly adjusted one to another -that they work together almost with -the precision of a watch; it is worth while -to know something about the marvelous -system under the encouragement of which -this typical American industry has blossomed -and borne fruit until it employs -two hundred million dollars of capital and -nearly two hundred thousand people, and -turns out two hundred and fifty million pairs -of shoes a year; and why it is that the -average man you meet to-day has a better -fitting, better wearing, and better looking -shoe than the moneyed man of yesterday—at -a fraction of the expense.</p> - -<p>This remarkable growth is distinctly -American. In the United States the tendency -among the artisan class has been to -abandon the slow hand process. This tendency -has been as strong as the tendency -in Europe to adhere to it. Moreover, -there has developed among the laboring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> -classes in the United States a mobility such -as is unknown elsewhere in the world.</p> - -<p>Another advantage which has contributed -to the rapid development of the manufacture -of shoes in the United States is the -comparative freedom from inherited and -overconservative ideas. This country has -entered upon its industrial development -unfettered by the old order of things, and -with a tendency on the part of the people -to seek the best and quickest way to -accomplish every object.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="illus41" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/illus41.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Stitching Room of a German Shoe Factory.</p> -</div> - -<p>In all of the European countries in which -the manufacturing of shoes is an important -industry, the transition from the household -to the factory system was hampered by -guilds, elaborate national and local restrictions, -and by the national reluctance with -which a people accustomed for generations -to fixed methods of work, in which they -have acquired a large degree of skill, abandon -those methods for new ones. It was -natural, also, that in spite of the superior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> -advantages of machine methods, hand process -of manufacture should still continue -side by side with them, in the European -countries, though machine work had long -since usurped the whole field of the shoe -industry in the United States.</p> - -<p>As an American goes about among the -European shoe factories he is greatly surprised -at the state of affairs. He is struck -by three things which are very conspicuous. -They are: (1) Lack of use of machinery, lack -of all sorts of devices in order to save hand -labor, which is carried out so extensively in -the United States. (2) Lack of the division -of labor, one factory attempting to make -four or five kinds of shoes. (3) Lack of -methods employed for handling large quantities -of materials.</p> - -<p>One point that is overlooked in considering -the shoe industries of the two countries -is the great difference in organization. In -most European factories, the manufacturer -gets all the orders of different kinds, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> -then attempts to make one or two lines with -one or two qualities in the same factory. -In Switzerland one may find shoes and -slippers for men, women, and children made -under the same roof.</p> - -<p>In the United States the manufacturer -makes a certain line of shoes in one factory, -and no other kind. If he has more than -one line, he has more than one factory, and -each factory turns out a distinct shoe for -a distinct purpose. The manufacturer has -his salesmen to sell these shoes.</p> - -<p>The advantages of the American system -are: (1) The managers and workers of a -factory turning out a certain line of goods -become highly specialized in that line, and -can produce better results than the workers -in a factory attempting to make two or -three lines of goods. (2) A large shoe -factory is laid out as a rule to do a certain -kind of work, and it seldom changes. This -practice makes possible a greater production. -On the other hand we have something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> -to learn from the European organization. -American manufacturers must meet the -foreign trade. In order to do this, the manufacturer -must cater to the habits, customs, -and climatic conditions. The European -manufacturer does this.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<ul> - -<li class="ifrst">Amhide, black, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">russet, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anatomy of the foot, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ankle piece, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Assembling, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Automobile leather, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tanning of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Backs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Backstay, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Back strap, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bal., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ball, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bating, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beading, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beamhouse process, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beating out, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bellows tongue, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Belting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">by-products, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">round, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Belt-knife splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Between substance, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bison, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blackball, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Black box chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Black hawk patent, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blacking the edge, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blocking, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bloom, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blucher, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boot, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bootee, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boris, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bottom, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">filling, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">scouring, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Box calf, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">toe, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boxing, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Branded cowhide, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Breaking the sole, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Breast of the heel, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brogan, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bronko patent, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brushing, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buckskin, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buff, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buffing, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bull hides, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bunions, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Button fly, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Butts, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cable-nailing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cack, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cadet kid, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">side, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calf leather, boarded, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">box, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">classes of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cadet calf side, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Dongola, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dry hides, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>French, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">mat, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Sheboygan, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">storm, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">suede, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">wax, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calf side leather, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">skins, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calluses, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cambridge calf union splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cap, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carbarettas, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carton, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cementing, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chamois, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Channeling, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Channel screwed, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">stitched, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">turning, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Checking, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chemical tanning, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chrome flexible splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tannage, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tanned embossed splits, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cleaning, inside, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nails, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">shoes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clicking, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Closing, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">on, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colonial, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colorado steer hides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colored box chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coltskin, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Combination last, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Composition, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Congress gaiter, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cordovan, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corns, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Counter, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pasted, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coupon tag, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cowhide, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">native, heavy and light, <a href="#Page_7">7-9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">branded, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Creasing vamp, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Creedmore, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Creole, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crimping, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cushion sole, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cut-off vamp, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dyeing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dom Pedro, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dongola, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">calf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dressing, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dry importation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">salted hides, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Edge setting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Enamel, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eyelet, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eyeletting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Facing, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Factory system, first, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fair stitch, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Faking, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fat liquored, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Findings, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Finishes of upper leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Finishing of upper leather, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flap, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flesher, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flesh splits leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flexible bends, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Follower, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foot, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">adult, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">anatomy of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">astragalus, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">calcaneum, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cuneiform, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">flatfoot, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">measurements of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">metatarsal, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">phalanges, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">rheumatism, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">structure of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Footwear, history of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Forepart finishing, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Form, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foxed, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foxing, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fresh hides, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frizzing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Front, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fudge-stitched, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fundamental shoe terms, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Furniture leather, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tanning of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gaiter, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">congress, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gem insoles, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gemming, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glazed kid, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gloves, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grain, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tanning, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goatskin, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goodyear welt, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">difference between McKay and, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gore, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grades of leather, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grading, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grain leather, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Green hides, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Green salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gum counter, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Half sole, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harness leather, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heel, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">breast of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nailing, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nailing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pad, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">scouring, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">seat, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">shaving, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hemlock leather, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tanning, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hercules storm chrome, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hides, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">bull, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">classes of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">country, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dry, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dry importation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dry salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fresh, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grades of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">green, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">green salted, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">imported, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">quality of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Inlay, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inner sole, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>Inseaming, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inseam trimming, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Instep, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ironing uppers, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Juliette, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kid, buckskin, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">buff, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">caster, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">chamois, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Cordovan, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dull, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">glazed, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">importation of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kangaroo, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kangaroo kid side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">kinds of finish, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">mat, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">method of collecting, <a href="#Page_46">46-48</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">patent, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">process of tanning, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">seal grain, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">splits, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">suede, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kids, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kips, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lace hook, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">stay, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lacing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lasting, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lasts, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">combination, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">how made, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laying channel, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leather, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">automobile and furniture, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">belting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of cold, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">gloves, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">glove tanning, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">harness, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">hemlock, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">products, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">white, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leg cover, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leveling, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lift, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lining, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lining-in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lip, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Loading leather, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mat royal chrome side, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">McKay shoe, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">difference between Goodyear welt and, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">difference between turned and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Middle sole, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mock welt, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Molding, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monkey skin, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Morocco, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mules, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nap, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Native cowhides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">steer hides, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Naumkeaging, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nullifier, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oak-tanned leather, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oak tanning, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ohio buffs, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>Ooze gusset splits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">leather, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">vamp splits, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ottawa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">black and russet splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Outer filler, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Outside cutting, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tap, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oxford, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">calf union splits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Packer hides, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Packing, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pacs, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pancake, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Para, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pasted leather, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Patent leather, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">black hawk, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effect of cold on, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">objections to, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pattern, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pebble, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pegged shoemaking, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pegging, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perforating, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perforation, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pickled skins, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Piping, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polish, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porpoise, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pressing, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pulling lasts, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pulling over, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">machine, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pump, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sole, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Quarter, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rag counter, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rand, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rawhide products, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Relasting, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Remnants, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sole leather, <a href="#Page_33">33-37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Repairing, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roan, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rolling, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rough rounding, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Royal kid, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Royalties, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Royalty system, invention of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rubber, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cloth manufacture, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">commercial grades of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">drying, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">heels, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">shoe manufacture, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2">calendering, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2">cutting, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2">varnishing, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2">vulcanizing, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> -<li class="isub2">washing, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Russet calf, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">grain, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sabot, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sack lining, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandal, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Satin calf, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scouring breast, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Screw fastened, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seal grain, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Second lasting, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sewing machine, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shank, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">burnishing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>Shanking out, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sheboygan calf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sheepskin, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sheep tanning, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shoe, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">apprentice, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">case of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cutting room, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">departments of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dressing, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">factories, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">finishing, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">heeling, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">methods of manufacture, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">parts of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">repairing, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sizes, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">stitching, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">treeing, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shoe Machinery Company, organization of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shoemaker, first, in America, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shoemaking, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">old-fashioned, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nail method, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">terms of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shoe pegs, invention of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shoulder, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sides, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Side stay, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skins, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skirting, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skiver, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skiving machine, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slip, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slugging, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soaking process, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soft tip, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sole, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">leather, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">laying, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">breaking of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sorting, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spewing, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Splits, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-62</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spring heel, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stamping, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Standard fastened, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">screw shoemaking, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stay, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Staying, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Steer hides, native, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stitch aloft, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stitch down, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fair, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">separating, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stitching, rapid, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Straight last, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stripping, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Styles, how made, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Suede, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tacking on, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tack pulling, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tampico, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tan, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">royal, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tanned leather adulterants, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of perspiration, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lubrication, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">properties, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">substitutes, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">weighing, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tannin, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tanning, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">chemical, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">hemlock, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">leather for belting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>oak, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">processes of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">rapid processes of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tawing, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Union, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">vegetable, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tap, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">putting on, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">trimming, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tawing, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tempering, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tennis shoe manufacture, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Texas steer hide, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tip, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toe, and heel lasting, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">box, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">filler, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lining, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">piece, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tongue, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Top, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">facing, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">left, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">left scouring, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">left stitching, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Treeing, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trimming counter, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">vamp, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turned shoe, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">difference between McKay and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turning, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">shoe, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ungrained, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Unhairing of hides, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Union-tanned leather, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Union tanning, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Upper, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Upper or dress leather, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55-57</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vamp, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">creasing, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cutting, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">form, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">short, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vamping, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vegetable tanning, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tans, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vellum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Velour, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Veneering, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vesting, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vici, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Viscolizing, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vulcanizing, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cold cure, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">steam cure, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wash leather, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Waterproof black, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Waxed threads, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Web straps, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Welts, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">beating, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Goodyear, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Welting, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">White alum, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Willow calf leather, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wooden case, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zulu, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -</ul> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and -Rubber Products, by William H. 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