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Vol -6 (of 7), by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Gallery of Portraits: with Memoirs. Vol 6 (of 7) - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: August 17, 2017 [EBook #55379] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GALLERY OF PORTRAITS, VOL 6 *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><em>UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.</em></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'><span class='small'>THE</span><br /> GALLERY OF PORTRAITS:<br /> <span class='xsmall'>WITH</span><br /> <span class='xlarge'>MEMOIRS.</span><br /> <br /> <span class='large'>VOLUME VI.</span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>LONDON:</div> - <div>CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE-STREET.</div> - <div class='c003'>1836.</div> - <div class='c003'><span class='xsmall'>[PRICE ONE GUINEA, BOUND IN CLOTH.]</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div>LONDON:</div> - <div>PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,</div> - <div>Duke-Street, Lambeth.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PORTRAITS AND BIOGRAPHIES<br /> <span class='large'>CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME.</span></h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary='PORTRAITS AND BIOGRAPHIES CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME.'> - <tr> - <th class='c006'></th> - <th class='c007'> </th> - <th class='c008'>Page.</th> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>1.</td> - <td class='c007'>Raleigh</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>2.</td> - <td class='c007'>Jenner</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>3.</td> - <td class='c007'>Maskelyne</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>4.</td> - <td class='c007'>Hobbes</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>5.</td> - <td class='c007'>Raphael</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>6.</td> - <td class='c007'>John Knox</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>7.</td> - <td class='c007'>Adam Smith</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>8.</td> - <td class='c007'>Calvin</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>9.</td> - <td class='c007'>Lord Mansfield</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>10.</td> - <td class='c007'>Bradley</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>11.</td> - <td class='c007'>Melancthon</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>12.</td> - <td class='c007'>William Pitt</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_83'>84</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>13.</td> - <td class='c007'>Wesley</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>14.</td> - <td class='c007'>Dr. Cartwright</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>15.</td> - <td class='c007'>Porson</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>16.</td> - <td class='c007'>Wiclif</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>17.</td> - <td class='c007'>Cortez</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>18.</td> - <td class='c007'>Leibnitz</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>19.</td> - <td class='c007'>Ximenes</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>20.</td> - <td class='c007'>Addison</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>21.</td> - <td class='c007'>Bramante</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_156'>156</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>22.</td> - <td class='c007'>Madame de Stael</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>23.</td> - <td class='c007'>Palladio</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>24.</td> - <td class='c007'>Queen Elizabeth</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_001fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />RALEIGH.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in the Collection of the Duchess of Dorset.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> -<img src='images/i_001.jpg' alt='RALEIGH.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>RALEIGH.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Very little is known concerning the youth of Sir Walter Raleigh. -He was a younger son, descended of an ancient family, and was born -at a farm called Hayes, near the mouth of the river Otter, in Devonshire, -in the year 1552. He went to Oriel College, Oxford, at an early -age, and gained high praise for the quickness and precocity of his -talents. In 1569 he began his military career in the civil wars of -France, as a volunteer in the Protestant cause. It is conjectured that -he remained in France for more than six years, and returned to England -in 1576. Soon after, he repaired to the Netherlands, and served -as a volunteer against the Spaniards. In such schools, and under such -leaders as Coligni and the Prince of Orange, Raleigh’s natural aptitude -for political and military science received the best nurture: but -he was soon drawn from the war in Holland by a pursuit which had -captivated his imagination from an early age—the prosecution of discovery -in the New World. In conjunction with his half-brother, Sir -Humphrey Gilbert, a man of courage and ability, and a skilful sailor, -he made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a colony in North America. -Returning home in 1579, he immediately entered the Queen’s -army in Ireland, and served with good esteem for personal courage -and professional skill, until the suppression of the rebellion in that -country. He owed his introduction to court, and the personal favour -of Elizabeth, as is traditionally reported, to a fortunate and well-improved -accident, which is too familiar to need repetition here. It -is probable, however, that his name and talents were not unknown, -for we find him employed almost immediately in certain matters of -diplomacy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Among the cares and pleasures of a courtier’s life, Raleigh preserved -his zeal for American discovery. He applied his own resources to -the fitting out of another expedition in 1583, under command of -Sir Humphrey Gilbert, which proved more unfortunate than the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>former one: two out of five vessels returned home in consequence of -sickness, and two were wrecked, including that in which the admiral -sailed; and the only result of the enterprise was the taking possession -of Newfoundland in the name of England. Still Raleigh’s desire for -American adventure was not damped. The Continent northward of -the Gulf of Florida was at this time unknown. But Raleigh, upon -careful study of the best authorities, had concluded that there was -good reason for believing that a considerable tract of land did exist in -that quarter; and with the assent of the Queen in council, from whom -he obtained letters patent, granting to himself and his heirs, under -certain reservations, property in such countries as he should discover, -with a right to provide for their protection and administration, he fitted -out two ships, which sailed in April, 1584. The first land which -they made was an island named Okakoke, running parallel to the -coast of North Carolina. They were well received by the natives, -and returned to England in the following autumn highly pleased. -Nor was less satisfaction felt by Raleigh, or even by the Queen, who -conferred on him the honour of knighthood, a title which was then in -high esteem, inasmuch as it was bestowed by that wise princess with -a most frugal and just discrimination. She also gave him a very -lucrative mark of favour, in the shape of a patent for licensing the -selling of wine throughout the kingdom; and she directed that the -new country, in allusion to herself, should be called Virginia. Raleigh -did not think it politic, perhaps was not allowed, to quit the -court to take charge in person of his undertaking; and those to whom -he intrusted the difficult task of directing the infant colony appear -to have been unequal to their office. It is not necessary to pursue the -history of an enterprise which proved unsuccessful, and in which Sir -Walter personally bore no share. He showed his earnestness by fitting -out several expeditions, which must have been a heavy drain upon his -fortune. But he is said to have derived immense wealth from prizes -captured from the Spaniards; and we may here observe that the lavish -magnificence in dress, especially in jewels, for which Raleigh was remarkable, -even in the gorgeous court of Elizabeth (his state dress is -said to have been enriched with jewels to the value of £60,000), may -be considered less as an extravagance, than as a safe and portable -investment of treasure. A mind less active might have found employment -more than enough in the variety of occupations which pressed -upon it at home. He possessed a large estate, granted out of forfeited -lands, in Ireland; but this was always a source rather of expense than -of profit, until, in 1601, he sold it to the Earl of Cork. He was -Seneschal of the Duchies of Cornwall and Exeter, and held the wardenship -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>of the Stannaries; and in 1586, as well as formerly in 1584, -we find that he possessed a seat in parliament. In 1587, the formidable -preparation of the Spanish Armada withdrew the mind of Raleigh, -as of all Englishmen, from objects of minor importance, to the -defence of their country. He was a member of the council of war -directed to prepare a general scheme of defence, and held the office of -Lieutenant-General of Cornwall, in addition to the charge of the Isle -of Portland: but as on this occasion he possessed no naval command, -he was not actively engaged in the destruction of that mighty armament. -In 1589 he served as a volunteer in the expedition of Norris -and Drake to Portugal, of which some account has been given in the -life of the latter. Nor were his labours unrewarded even in that unfortunate -enterprise; for he captured several prizes, and received the -present of a gold chain from the Queen, in testimony of her approbation -of his conduct.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Soon after these events, Raleigh retired to his Irish property, being -driven from court, according to some authorities, by the enmity of the -Earl of Essex, then a young man just rising into favour. He there -renewed a former intimacy with the poet Spenser, who, like himself, -had been rewarded with a grant of land out of forfeited estates, and -then resided at Kilcolman Castle. Spenser has celebrated the return of -his friend in the beautiful pastoral, ‘Colin Clout’s come home again;’ -and in that, and various passages of his works, has made honourable -mention of the highly poetic spirit which enabled the ‘Shepherd of -the Ocean,’ as he is there denominated, to appreciate the merit of the -‘Fairy Queen,’ and led him to promote the publication of it by every -means in his power. The loss of Raleigh’s court-favour, if such there -were, could not have been of long duration on this occasion. But -he incurred more serious displeasure in consequence of a private -marriage contracted with Elizabeth Throgmorton, one of the Queen’s -maids of honour, a lady of beauty and accomplishments, who proved -her worth and fidelity in the long train of misfortunes which beset the -latter years of Raleigh’s life. In consequence of this intrigue, he was -committed to the Tower. One or two amusing anecdotes are related -of the devices which he employed to obtain forgiveness, by working -on that vanity which was the Queen’s chief foible. He succeeded in -appeasing his indignant mistress so far as to procure his release; and -about the same time, in 1594, she granted to him the valuable manor -of Sherborne, in Dorsetshire: but though she requited his services, -she still forbade his appearance at court, where he now held the -office of Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard. Raleigh was peculiarly -fitted to adorn a court by his imposing person, the graceful magnificence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>of his taste and habits, the elegance of his manners, and the interest -of his conversation. These accomplishments were sure passports -to the favour of Elizabeth; and he improved to the utmost the -constant opportunities of intercourse with her which his post afforded, -insomuch that, except the Earls of Leicester and Essex, no one ever -seems to have stood higher in her graces. But Elizabeth’s jealousy on -the subject of her favourites’ marriages is well known, and her anger -was lasting, in proportion to the value which she set on the incense -of Raleigh’s flattery. He retired, on his disgrace, to his new estate, -in the improvement and embellishment of which he felt great interest. -But though deeply alive to the beauties of nature, he had been too long -trained to a life of ambition and adventure to rest contented in the -tranquil routine of a country life; and during this period of seclusion, -he again turned his thoughts to his favourite subject of American -adventure, and laid the scheme of his first expedition to Guiana, in -search of the celebrated El Dorado, the fabled seat of inexhaustible -wealth. Having fitted out, with the assistance of other private persons, -a considerable fleet, Raleigh sailed from Plymouth, February 6, 1595. -He left his ships in the mouth of the river Orinoco, and sailed 400 -miles into the interior in boats. It is to be recorded to his honour, -that he treated the Indians with great kindness; which, contrasted -with the savage conduct of the Spaniards, raised so friendly a feeling -towards him, that for years his return was eagerly expected, and at -length was hailed with delight. The hardships of the undertaking, -and the natural advantages of the country which he explored, are -eloquently described in his own account of the ‘Discovery of Guiana.’ -But the setting in of the rainy season rendered it necessary to return, -without having reached the promised land of wealth; and Raleigh -reaped no other fruit of his adventure than a certain quantity of -geographical knowledge, and a full conviction of the importance of -colonizing and taking possession of the newly-discovered region. -This continued through life to be his favourite scheme; but neither -Elizabeth nor her successor could be induced to view it in the same -favourable light.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On reaching England, he found the Queen still unappeased; nor -was he suffered to appear at court: and he complains in pathetic -terms of the cold return with which his perils and losses were requited. -But he was invested with a high command in the expedition -of 1596, by which the Spanish fleet was destroyed in the harbour of -Cadiz; and to his judgment and temper in overruling the faulty -schemes proposed by others the success of that enterprise was chiefly -due. Indeed his services were perhaps too important, and too justly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>appreciated by the public, for his own interests: for the great and -general praise bestowed on him on this occasion tended to confirm -a jealousy of long standing on the part of the commander-in-chief, -the Earl of Essex; and it was probably owing to that favourite’s -influence, that Raleigh was still forbidden the Queen’s presence. -Essex, and the Secretary of State, Sir Robert Cecil, regarded each -other with mutual distrust and dislike. Cecil and Raleigh were -connected by ties of common interest, and, as the latter supposed, of -friendship. Still Raleigh found the interest of the minister too weak -to serve his purpose, while the interest of the favourite was employed -against him; and, as the only method of effecting his own restoration -to the Queen’s favour, he undertook to work a reconciliation between -these two powerful rivals. In this he succeeded, to the great admiration -of all spectators; and the fruit of his policy was seen in his -re-admission to the execution of his official duties at court, June 1, -1597. In the following August he was appointed Rear Admiral in -the expedition called the Island Voyage, of which Essex held the -chief command. The slight successes which were obtained were again -due to the military talents of Raleigh; the main objects of the voyage -were lost through the Earl’s inexperience.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From this time to the death of the Queen, Raleigh enjoyed an uninterrupted -course of favour. The ancient enmity between Essex and -himself was indeed renewed, and that with increased rancour; but the -indiscretions of the favourite had greatly weakened his influence. -Raleigh and Cecil spared no pains to undermine him, and were in -fact the chief workers of his ruin. This is perhaps the most unamiable -passage in Raleigh’s life; and the only excuse to be pleaded -for him is, the determined enmity of that unfortunate nobleman. -This fault, however, brought a slow but severe punishment with it; -for the death of Essex dissolved the tie which held together Cecil and -himself. Neither could be content to act second to the other; and -Raleigh’s high reputation, and versatile as well as profound abilities, -might well alarm the secretary for his own supremacy. The latter -took the surest way of establishing his power prospectively. Elizabeth -was now old: Cecil took no steps to diminish the high esteem in -which she held Sir Walter Raleigh, but he secretly laboured to prejudice -her successor against him, and he succeeded to his wish. -Very soon after the accession of James I., Raleigh’s post of captain -of the guard was taken from him; and his patent of wines was -revoked, though not without a nominal compensation being made. -To complete his ruin, it was contrived to involve him in a charge of -treason. Most writers have concurred in speaking of this passage of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>history as inexplicable: it is the opinion of the last historian of -Raleigh, Mr. Tytler, that he has found sufficient evidence for regarding -the whole plot as a device of Cecil, and he has supported this -opinion by cogent arguments. Lord Cobham, a violent and ambitious -but weak man, had engaged in private dealings with the -Spanish ambassador, which brought him under the suspicion of the -government. By a device of Cecil’s (we here follow the account of -Mr. Tytler) he was induced, in a fit of anger, and in the belief that -Raleigh had given information against him, to accuse Sir Walter -himself of being privy to a conspiracy against the government. This -charge Cobham retracted, confirmed, and retracted again, behaving -in so equivocal a manner, that no reliance whatever can be placed -on any of his assertions. But as the King was afraid of Raleigh -as much as the secretary hated him, this vague charge, unsupported -by other evidence, was made sufficient to commit him to the -Tower; and, after being plied with private examinations, in which -nothing criminal could be elicited, he was brought to trial, November -17, 1603. For an account of that memorable scene we shall refer to -Mr. Jardine’s ‘Criminal Trials,’ vol. i. It is reported to have been -said by one of the judges who presided over it, on his death-bed, that -“the justice of England had never been so degraded and injured as -by the condemnation of Sir Walter Raleigh.” The behaviour of the -victim himself was the object of universal admiration, for the tempered -mixture of patience and noble spirit with which he bore the oppressive -measure dealt to him. He had before been unpopular; but it was -recorded by an eye-witness that “he behaved himself so worthily, so -wisely, and so temperately, that in half a day the mind of all the company -was changed from the extremest hate to the extremest pity.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The sentence of death thus unfairly and disgracefully obtained was -not immediately carried into execution. James was not satisfied with -the evidence adduced on the trial; and believing at the same time -that Raleigh had been plotting against him, he set his royal wit to -dive into the mystery. Of the singular scene which our British Solomon -devised it is not necessary to speak, since Raleigh was not an -actor in it. But as no more evidence could be obtained against him -even by the King’s sagacity, he was reprieved, and remanded to the -Tower, where the next twelve years of his life were spent in confinement. -Fortunately, he had never ceased to cultivate literature with a -zeal not often found in the soldier and politician, and he now beguiled -the tedium of his lot by an entire devotion to those studies which -before had only served to diversify his more active and engrossing pursuits. -Of his poetical talents we have already made short mention: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>to the end of life he continued the practice of pouring out his mind in -verse, and there are several well-known and beautiful pieces expressive -of his feelings in prison, and in the anticipation of immediate death, -especially ‘The Lie,’ and the beautiful little poem called ‘The Pilgrimage.’ -He also possessed a strong turn for mathematics, and -studied them with much success in the society and under the guidance -of his friend Thomas Hariot, one of the most accomplished mathematicians -of the age. Chemistry was another favourite pursuit in which, -according to the standard of his contemporaries, he made great progress. -But the most important occupation of his imprisonment was -the composition of his ‘History of the World.’ Notwithstanding -the quaintness of the style and the discursive manner in which the -subject is treated, it is impossible to read this volume without admiring -the wonderful extent of the author’s reading, not only in history, -but in philosophy, theology, and even the ponderous and untempting -stores of Rabbinical learning. Many of the chapters relate to subjects -which few persons would expect to find in a history of the world; yet -these will often be found among the most interesting and characteristic -portions of the book; and its deep learning is relieved and set off by -passages of genuine eloquence, which display to the best advantage -the author’s rich imagination and grasp of mind. The work extends -from the Creation to the end of the second Macedonian war. Raleigh -meant to bring it down to modern times; but the untimely death of -Henry Prince of Wales, for whose use it was composed, deprived him -of the spirit to proceed with so laborious an undertaking. He enjoyed -the confidence of that generous youth in a remarkable degree, and -maintained a close correspondence with him on civil, military, and -naval subjects. Several discourses on these topics, addressed to the -Prince, will be found in the editions of Raleigh’s works. Henry -repaid these services with sincere friendship and admiration; and we -may presume that his adviser looked forward to that friendship, not -only for a cessation of misfortune, but for a more brilliant period of -favour and power than he had yet enjoyed. Fortunately, however, -this calamity was preceded by the death of his arch-enemy, Cecil; and -through the mediation of the Duke of Buckingham, employed in consideration -of 1500<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> paid to his uncles, Sir William, Sir John, and -Sir Edward Villiers, Raleigh was released from the Tower in March, -1615; and obtained permission to follow up his long-cherished scheme -of establishing a colony in Guiana and working a gold mine, of which -he had ascertained the existence and situation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The terms on which this licence was granted are remarkable. He -was not pardoned, but merely let loose on the engagement of his -friends, the Earls of Arundel and Pembroke, that he should return -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>to England. Neither did James contribute to the expense of the -undertaking, though it was stipulated that he was to receive a fifth -part of the bullion imported. The necessary funds were provided out -of the wreck of Raleigh’s fortune (his estate of Sherborne had been -forfeited) and by those private adventurers who were willing to risk -something in reliance on his experience and judgment. A fleet of -fourteen sail was thus provided, and Raleigh, by letters under the -privy seal, was appointed commander-in-chief and governor of the -intended colony. He relied, it is said, on the full powers granted -him by this commission as necessarily including a remission of all -past offences, and therefore neglected to sue out a formal pardon, -which at this period probably would hardly have been denied him. -The results of this disastrous voyage must be shortly given. Raleigh -sailed March 28, 1617, and reached the coast of Guiana in November -following. Being himself disabled by sickness from proceeding farther, -he dispatched a party to the mine under the command of Captain -Keymis, an officer who had served in the former voyage to Guiana. -But during the interval which had elapsed since Raleigh’s first discovery -of that country, the Spaniards had extended their settlements -into it, and in particular had built a town called Santa Thome, in the -immediate neighbourhood of the mine in question. James, with his -usual duplicity, while he authorised the expedition, revealed every -particular connected with it to the Spanish ambassador. The English, -therefore, were expected in the Orinoco, and preparation had been -made for repelling them by force. Keymis and his men were unexpectedly -attacked by the garrison of Santa Thome, and a sharp contest -ensued, in which the English gained the advantage, and burnt the -town. In this action Raleigh’s eldest son was killed. The Spaniards -still occupied the passes to the mine, and after an unsuccessful attempt -to dislodge them, Keymis abandoned the enterprize, and returned to -the ships. Raleigh’s correspondence expresses in affecting terms his -grief and indignation at this double misfortune; the loss of a brave -and promising son, and the destruction of the hopes which he had -founded on this long-cherished adventure. On his return to England, -he found himself marked out for a victim to appease the resentment -of the Spanish court, to which he had long been an object of fear and -hatred. He quietly surrendered himself to Sir Lewis Stukeley, who -was sent to Plymouth to arrest him, and commenced the journey -to London under his charge. But his mind fluctuated between the -desire to confront his enemies, and a sense of the hopelessness of obtaining -justice, and he was at last entrapped by the artifices of the -emissaries of government who surrounded him into an attempt to -escape, in which he was arrested and committed to close custody in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>the Tower. Here his conversation and correspondence were narrowly -watched, in the hopes that a treasonable understanding with the -French government, from which he had received the offer of an -asylum in France, might be established against him. His conduct -abroad had already been closely scrutinized, in the hope of finding -some act of piracy, or unauthorized aggression against Spain, for -which he might be brought to trial. Both these hopes failing, and -his death, in compliment to Spain, being resolved on, it was determined -to carry into effect the sentence passed fifteen years before, -from which he had never been legally released; and a warrant was -accordingly issued to the judges, requiring them to order execution. -The case was a novel one, and threw that learned body into some perplexity. -They determined, however, that after so long an interval -execution could not be granted without allowing the prisoner the -opportunity of pleading against it; and Raleigh was therefore brought -to the bar of the Court of King’s Bench, October 28, 1618. The -record of his conviction having been read, he was asked whether he -could urge any thing why the sentence should not be carried into -effect. He insisted on the nature of his late commission, and on that -plea being overruled, submitted with his usual calmness and dignity. -The execution, with indecent haste, was ordered to take place on the -following morning. In this last stage of life, his greatness of mind -shone with even more than its usual lustre. Calm, and fearless without -bravado, his behaviour and speech expressed the piety and resignation -of a Christian with the habitual coolness of one who has braved -death too often to shrink at its approach. The accounts of his deportment -on the scaffold effectually refute the charges of irreligion and -atheism which some writers have brought against him, unless we make -up our minds to believe him an accomplished hypocrite. He spoke -at considerable length, and his dying words have been faithfully reported. -They contain a denial of all the serious offences laid to his -charge, and express his forgiveness of those even who had betrayed him -under the mask of friendship. After delivering this address and spending -some time in prayer, he laid his head on the block, and breathing -a short private prayer, gave the signal to the executioner. Not being -immediately obeyed, he partially raised his head, and said, “What -dost thou fear? Strike, man!” and underwent the fatal blow without -shrinking or alteration of position. He died in his sixty-sixth year.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Raleigh sat in several parliaments, and took an active part in the -business of the house. His speeches, preserved in the Journals, are -said by Mr. Tytler to be remarkable for an originality and freedom of -thought far in advance of the time. His expression was varied and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>animated, and his powers of conversation remarkable. His person -was dignified and handsome, and he excelled in bodily accomplishments -and martial exercises. He was very fond of paintings, and of -music; and, in literature as in art, he possessed a cultivated and correct -taste. He was one of those rare men who seem qualified to excel -in all pursuits alike; and his talents were set off by an extraordinary -laboriousness, and capacity of application. As a navigator, soldier, -statesman, and historian, his name is intimately and honourably linked -with one of the most brilliant periods of British history.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The works of Oldys, Birch, Cayley, Mrs. Thompson, and Mr. -Tytler, may be consulted concerning this remarkable person. The -life of the last-named gentleman, published in the ‘Edinburgh Cabinet -Library,’ is the most recent; and the industry of the author has -enabled him to gain a clue to some points which before had been -imperfectly understood. A list of Raleigh’s numerous works is given -in the ‘Biographia Britannica.’ They will be found collected in eight -volumes, in the Oxford edition of 1829. Several of his MSS. are -preserved in the British Museum.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_010.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Sir Walter Raleigh in the Tower.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_011fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />JENNER.<br /><br /><em>From a Print engraved and coloured by J. R. Smith in the possession of the late John Ring Esq<sup>r</sup>.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span> -<img src='images/i_011.jpg' alt='JENNER.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>JENNER.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Edward, the third son of the Rev. Stephen Jenner, was born May -17, 1749, in the vicarage-house of Berkeley in Gloucestershire, of -which parish his father, a man of independent fortune, and of a -family long established and esteemed in that neighbourhood, was -incumbent. At the death of that parent in 1754, the care of Edward -Jenner’s education devolved upon his eldest brother, Stephen, who -succeeded to the living of Berkeley, and faithfully and affectionately -discharged the duties of a father towards him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He began at a very early age to give tokens of that fondness and -aptitude for the study of natural history, which first directed the choice -of his profession; and afterwards led him, by steps which may be -easily traced, to the discovery of a method of securing the constitution -against the small-pox, by a remedy so mild as to be scarcely an inconvenience, -yet so effectual as almost to have extinguished that disease -in some countries where it has been energetically used.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having finished his school education and fixed upon a profession, -Jenner was apprenticed at the usual age to Mr. Ludlow, a surgeon -practising at Sodbury near Bristol; and in 1770, when nearly twenty-one, -he came to London, and put himself under the tuition of John -Hunter, in whose house he lived for two years, as much in the capacity -of a friend as in that of a pupil, with great advantage to his professional -studies. The intimacy between these two eminent men was -very close and cordial, and subsisted till Hunter’s sudden death in -1793. It is attested by many letters from Mr. Hunter, which Jenner -carefully preserved; his own were probably destroyed with the rest of -Hunter’s papers by the late Sir Everard Home. Their correspondence -relates chiefly to facts and experiments in natural history.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>The success with which Jenner had already pursued his studies, -and the respect entertained for his talents by his illustrious instructor -at a period when their intercourse was yet in its infancy, may be -gathered from his being selected in 1771, on the recommendation of -Mr. Hunter, to arrange the collections in natural history which had -been made by Sir Joseph Banks in his voyage round the world with -Captain Cook, then just completed. Jenner acquitted himself so well -of this charge, that he was offered, though little more than twenty-two -years of age, the situation of naturalist to the second expedition under -the command of Captain Cook, which sailed in 1772. This was a -flattering proposal to so young a man, and consonant to Jenner’s -ruling tastes; nevertheless he declined it. It is fortunate for mankind -that he chose the laborious seclusion of a country practice in -preference to aiming at distinction and wealth; for in no other sphere -could he have found opportunities of pursuing his discovery of vaccination -through all the perplexities in which his early researches into -that subject involved him. Indeed, it is probable that considerations -of this kind, independently of his fondness for a country life, had -their weight with him in the choice; for the idea had already taken -strong hold of his naturally sanguine feelings and quick apprehension, -that he was furnished with a clue which might lead him to a result of -the highest importance to mankind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It may be added here that a few years after this time he declined a -very lucrative situation in India, as well as a much more tempting -proposal from Mr. Hunter, in 1775, to join him in a project for establishing -in London a school of natural history, including medicine, of -which Jenner was to undertake the anatomical department.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having determined to settle in the country, and being amply provided -with the requisite knowledge, Jenner established himself as a -general practitioner at Berkeley. Here he speedily acquired a profitable -and extensive practice; so much so, indeed, that finding his -health giving way, he was obliged to limit himself to the practice of -medicine alone; for which purpose he purchased, as it was then customary, -the degree of doctor at St. Andrew’s in 1792.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But he not only attained at an early age to a high degree of professional -reputation, but won the affectionate esteem of all with whom -he associated. It is related of him that his friends were in the habit of -joining in his daily professional rides, often of considerable extent, -for the sake of his agreeable and instructive conversation; and that -when any of them were ill, he would sometimes make their houses the -head-quarters of his practice for the time being, and remain in close -attendance upon them till their recovery.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>Music, the lighter kinds of literature, both as a reader and occasionally -as an author, and the innocent recreations of society, which no one -enjoyed more keenly than himself, were the means by which Jenner -lightened the burden of his professional labours; but his chief amusement -was natural history, including geology, a science then in its infancy, -for the study of which his position in the vale of Gloucester -afforded ample opportunity, the neighbourhood abounding with fossil -remains, and exhibiting a great variety of terrestrial structure. Towards -subjects of this nature he was led, not only by his original bias, -but by his correspondence with Hunter, Banks, and Parry.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1778 he formed a medical society, which held its periodical -meetings at Rodborough, for the purpose of communicating professional -information and promoting a friendly feeling among the members. -In furtherance of these objects, Jenner contributed several -important and original papers, the substance of which is now embodied -in medical science, without his property in them being generally -known. Among these were essays on the nature and causes of -Angina Pectoris, on a peculiar disease of the heart occurring in acute -rheumatism, and on several of the more severe affections of the eye. -He also belonged to another medical society, meeting at Alveston -near Bristol, to the members of which, who were men of congenial -dispositions with his own, he was personally much attached. Upon -one topic, however, they did not agree; for it is said that he was in -the habit of enlarging so frequently upon his favourite speculation of -the cow-pox, that the subject was at length proscribed, and he was -jestingly forbidden to renew it on pain of expulsion. This club was -for many years a source of much enjoyment and advantage to him, and -we may suppose that he was a very principal contributor to the diversion -of the other members; for it ceased to exist in 1789, when other -objects began to engross the time that he could spare from his practice. -In March of the previous year, at the age of thirty-seven, he -married Miss Catharine Kingscote, by whom he had several children. -The choice appears to have been a very fortunate one for his domestic -happiness.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1786 he had communicated to Mr. Hunter, in the form of an -essay, the result of several years’ careful observation of the singular -habits of the cuckoo, till then a mystery to naturalists. It was presented -by Mr. Hunter to the Royal Society, and was printed entire in -their Transactions in 1789, having been returned to Jenner in the -mean time, in order that he might record some additional facts which -he had ascertained. This tract has been considered as a very masterly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>performance, and was the occasion of the author being elected to the -fellowship of the Royal Society. It is not a little remarkable that -Mr. Hunter, like Jenner’s friends at Alveston, thought so doubtfully -of his views on the subject of vaccination, that he cautioned him against -publishing them, lest they should interfere with the fame he had acquired -in the learned world by his ‘Essay on the Cuckoo.’ But the -event proved that the caution, though well meant, was unnecessary. -Jenner was not more disposed than his gifted master to admit any -conclusion on merely collateral grounds, that might be put to the test -of experiment. This, however, was too new and important a matter -to be lightly or prematurely hazarded; and Jenner waited long and -patiently for an opportunity of thus testing his opinions, losing in the -mean time no occasion of collecting additional information. The idea, -thus watchfully and laboriously improved, was first excited in his -mind while he was an apprentice at Sodbury, by a remark accidentally -dropped by a young countrywoman in his master’s surgery, who, -overhearing a conversation about the small-pox, observed that she had -no fear of catching that disease as she had taken the <em>cow-pox</em>. Jenner, -who was always alive to any subject connected with natural history, -was induced to make more particular inquiries into this complaint, -of which he had never heard before; and the answers he received -were such as to suggest the probability of substituting it with advantage -for the inoculated small-pox. Of this theory he never lost sight -till he established it on the clearest evidence, and with it his unrivalled -claim to the perpetual gratitude of mankind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The cow-pox is a disease of the eruptive kind, which is sometimes -extensively prevalent among cattle in large dairy countries where they -are herded together in numbers, but often disappears for a long time -together. Though commonly mild, it is occasionally so severe as to -terminate fatally; and it is believed, on strong grounds, to have been at -different times even pestilential among them, and as such, to have been -mentioned by various writers on rural economy, ancient and modern, -as well as in medical and other histories. It is generally, however, a very -mild disorder, appearing on the udder of the cow, at first in the form -of vesicles much resembling those of small-pox; and it is sometimes, -as in the instance which first attracted the attention of Jenner, communicated -to the hands of milkers. In such cases, an eruption of -similar vesicles takes place on the hands and arms, not without much -swelling and inflammation, and occasionally with fever and disturbance -of the health for some days. It has never been known to prove fatal -when thus communicated, or to have left any unpleasant effects behind -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>it, except a few indented marks in the situation occupied by the pustules. -It is not communicable, like small-pox in the human subject, -by the effluvia; but the matter, or lymph as it is called, contained in -the vesicles, must be actually inserted under the skin, or applied to a -raw or an absorbing surface. But the most important of its peculiarities -is the security it affords against the infection of small-pox. -This property was well known among the agricultural classes in the -grazing districts before the time of Jenner, and it has been stated that -individuals among them had turned their knowledge of it to account -for the protection of their families, by inoculating them with the vaccine -disease. But this circumstance, alleged on very scanty evidence -by those who were opposed to Jenner’s claims, cannot lessen the merit -of his independent discovery, of which each step was communicated in -succession to a numerous circle of medical friends, and is recorded in -the most authentic form. His reputation is, on the other hand, enhanced -by the fact that, although the immunity conferred by the casual -disease in milkers had frequently come under the notice of medical -men from their failing in such persons to produce the small-pox by -inoculation, yet the idea of introducing the disease of an animal into -the human frame was so little in consonance with any former practice, -that Jenner was the first among his brethren to conjecture that cow-pox, -as the milder disease, might advantageously supersede the inoculated -small-pox; and that, as the latter is rendered less virulent by -inoculation, so the former introduced in the same way might be milder -than the casual complaint, and yet retain its protecting power. He -had even communicated this conjecture to Hunter, himself no mean -innovator in medicine, so early as the year 1770; and Mr. Hunter -was for many years in the habit of mentioning it in his public lectures -coupled with Jenner’s name: but the proposed substitution was so -distasteful, or appeared of such questionable propriety, that it obtained -no favourable notice till it was forced by the inventor on the public -attention, thirty years after it had first attracted his own.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It would be interesting to enter into a detail of the progress of -Jenner’s discovery and of its introduction into general use, as well as -to show its inestimable value to society by a reference to statistical -facts. This, however, can only be done here in a very cursory manner.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The way in which the idea was first suggested to him has been -already mentioned. After his return to Berkeley from London, he -pursued the subject with great patience and sagacity for many years. -In the course of these preliminary inquiries he found reason to believe -that of several kinds of vesicular disease in the cow, but one had the -property of securing from the small-pox, and that one exclusively, or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>at least with the greatest certainty, in its first stage. He also ascertained -that the horse is subject to an eruption of similar vesicles, apparently -arising without infection, and popularly known by the name of -the <em>grease</em>. The matter issuing from these is sometimes conveyed to -the cow by milkers engaged in farriery; and Jenner conceived it to -be the original and only source of cow-pox among the herds. The -opinion is not generally held at present to its full extent; but experiments -by himself and others since the publication of his Inquiry have -proved a fact much disputed at the time, that he was right in believing -the diseases to be identical, whatever may be their origin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It may be mentioned as a curious circumstance, that the first lymph -transmitted in an active state to British India in 1802 by Dr. De -Carro of Vienna, long the only source of vaccination in that country, -had been furnished to him by Dr. Sacco of Milan, from genuine vesicles -produced by direct inoculation from the horse, without passing -through the cow; an intervention which, till about that period, Jenner -had continued to think essential to the production of the true disease -in man.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In addition to these and other curious results, laboriously collected -during a period of twenty-six years, Dr. Jenner at length arrived at a -rational conviction of the safety of the experiment he meditated, from -observing the invariable harmlessness of the disease when casually -taken: he determined therefore to put his long-cherished idea to the -trial on the first opportunity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This offered on the 14th of May, 1796, the anniversary of which is -still kept as a festival at Berlin. On that day he inoculated a boy of -the name of Phipps in the arm, from a pustule on the hand of a young -woman who was infected by her master’s cows. The boy went favourably -through the disease. On the 1st of July he was inoculated for -the small-pox, and, as Jenner had predicted, without effect.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The feelings of the sanguine philanthropist may be conceived. -They cannot be better described than they have been by himself in -the following terms. “While the vaccine discovery was progressive, -the joy I felt at the prospect before me of being the instrument destined -to take away from the world one of its greatest calamities, -blended with the fond hope of enjoying independence and domestic -peace and happiness, was often so excessive, that in pursuing my -favourite subject among the meadows, I have sometimes found myself -in a reverie. It is pleasant to me to recollect that these reflections -always ended in devout acknowledgments to that Being from whom -this and all other mercies flow.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the next two years many other equally successful trials were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>made; and at length the discovery was published to the world in June, -1798, in a quarto pamphlet of seventy pages, which had been previously -subjected to the most rigorous criticism and revision by a few -chosen friends who met for that purpose at the house of Thomas Westfaling, -Esq., at Rudhall, near Ross. It is entitled ‘An Inquiry into -the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ; a disease discovered -in some of the Western Counties of England, particularly Gloucestershire, -and known by the name of the Cow-pox.’ The pamphlet is -enriched with the detail of sixteen cases of the casual, and seven of the -inoculated disease, the latter including the case of one of the author’s -sons; and with coloured drawings of the appearances in both.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The style of this pamphlet, as well as of others which succeeded it -from Jenner’s pen in the course of a few years, is remarkably modest, -and admirable in all respects, which probably contributed much to the -early favour it received. The facts were such as to defy contradiction, -and the conclusions so just and mature, that the experience of nearly -forty years has been able to add little more than its seal of confirmation -to them. The few errors that have been detected relate chiefly to the -degree of protection afforded by the cow-pox, which Jenner affirmed -to be perfect: it is now however believed to be incomplete, perhaps in -three instances out of every hundred; that small proportionate number -passing, in general after the lapse of some years, through a very mild -and modified small-pox, in which the per-centage of fatal cases is certainly -not more, and probably much less, than five; being not more than -three in 2000 of all vaccinated persons, while the rate of mortality -even in inoculated small-pox is one in fifty, or forty in 2000. It -should be borne in mind that small-pox itself sometimes occurs a -second time even in a severe and fatal form, as in the case of Louis -XV. Some constitutional peculiarity is probably the occasion of both -these anomalies; and this supposition will also account for the often-observed -fact, that small-pox after vaccination commonly affects several -members of the same family almost simultaneously, thus giving an -appearance of failure in a proportion much greater than the truth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another position advanced by Jenner in this pamphlet is too remarkable -to be passed over. After stating his belief that the cow-pox -originates from the horse in the way already mentioned, he proceeds -to suggest that the small-pox may have been itself originally morbid -matter of the same kind, aggravated into a malignant and contagious -form by accidental circumstances. But this opinion, though plausible, -is not considered by any means as established.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Favourably as his work was received, the author, who had come to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>London partly to superintend the publication, was unable to obtain an -opportunity of displaying the disease in that city, which had been the -chief object of his visit; and returned, much disappointed, to Cheltenham, -where he now frequently resided, in the middle of July. He -left, however, some vaccine lymph with Mr. Cline, who was the first -surgeon in London that ventured to make a trial of it. The complete -success of the experiment, which was publicly performed, so strongly -interested the profession, that the new practice became quickly popular, -in spite of a warm though partial opposition, which was put down -in the summer of 1799 by a manifesto expressive of confidence in its -efficacy and safety, signed by seventy-three of the most eminent medical -men in the metropolis. In the same year some unfortunate occurrences -took place in consequence of Dr. Woodville, the physician of -the Small-pox Hospital, having incautiously used and distributed -matter from persons whom he had inoculated with small-pox a few -days after vaccination, before it had taken a sufficient hold. The -mongrel lymph thus produced sometimes occasioned one, sometimes -the other disease; their effects were confounded; and some deaths -which ensued, as well as a general eruption of the skin which took -place in many instances, were attributed to the cow-pox. This and -other mistakes would probably have much retarded the general adoption -of vaccination, but for the promptitude of Jenner to discover and -expose the source of the error.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1802 a parliamentary inquiry into the value of the new method -of preventing small-pox, including Jenner’s claim to the discovery of -it, was instituted, and a grant was voted to him of 10,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> In 1807 -he received an additional vote of 20,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, which, considering that he -had been the instrument of saving in England alone at least 45,000 -lives annually, will seem by no means an extravagant mark of national -gratitude and respect.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1803 the Royal Jennerian Society, for the encouragement of -vaccination, was established in London under the superintendence of -Dr. Jenner. In 1808 this society was merged by his advice in the -National Vaccine Establishment, which still continues to dispense -the blessings of the antidote at the public charge.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The growing interest in the public mind in favour of vaccination -was of course everywhere extended to its author, who, in spite of -several unworthy cabals, and attempts to deprive him of the credit of -a discovery peculiarly his own, was received among all ranks with -the highest distinction at home, and also gratified with various continental -honours. If he had thought fit to settle in London, he might -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>undoubtedly have secured wealth in proportion to his reputation; but -he preferred the quiet enjoyment of rural life and domestic happiness. -His death took place at Berkeley, from a sudden attack of apoplexy, in -February, 1823, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. The latter -years of his life were spent between Berkeley and Cheltenham, and -in occasional visits to London, in the zealous prosecution of his -favourite subjects of research, and successful endeavours to diffuse the -blessings of his discovery more widely in his own and other lands.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In England, however, these have not been so extensively felt as -in some other countries where the form of government has given -facilities for the enforcement of vaccination. The small-pox consequently -prevails to a considerable extent in this country, and especially -in London. Yet the annual number of deaths from small-pox within -the bills of mortality is at present under 700; the largest number in -one year since the general practice of vaccination having been 1299, in -1825. A century ago, when the population certainly did not reach -half its present amount, the yearly average was 2000, the maximum -being in 1796, when the mortality swelled to 3549. That this decrease -is wholly due to vaccination cannot be doubted; the advantage, -however, is partly indirect, and has arisen from the discontinuance of -the practice of inoculating for the small-pox, which afforded security -to individuals, but increased the general mortality by keeping alive a -constant source of infection. But the most striking examples of the -advantage derived from vaccination are to be found on the continent. -Thus at Berlin, where the average annual amount of deaths from -small-pox was 472 for the twenty years previous to 1802, and 1646 -died in 1801, the mortality so speedily diminished after the enforcement -of vaccination by law, that in 1821 and 1822 there was only one -death in each year. These and similar instances which might be adduced -from other countries, seem almost to warrant us in adopting the -sanguine expectation of Jenner, that by means of his discovery this -disgusting and dreadful malady, from which not four in a hundred of -the human race wholly escaped, and which destroyed a tenth part of -all that were born, and disfigured where it did not destroy, may yet be -swept from the face of the earth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The best books of reference on the subjects of this memoir are -‘Baron’s Life of Jenner,’ ‘Moore’s History of the Cow-pox,’ Dr. -Gregory’s admirable articles in the ‘Encyclopædia of Medicine,’ and -the reports of various parliamentary committees, especially those of -1802 and 1833.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span> -<img src='images/i_020.jpg' alt='MASKELYNE.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>MASKELYNE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Nevil Maskelyne was born in London, October 6, 1732. He was -educated at Westminster, and in time proceeded to Catherine Hall, -Cambridge, from whence he migrated to Trinity College. He took -the degree of Bachelor of Arts, with honours, in the year 1754. In -1755, he was ordained to a curacy near London. He had previously -turned his attention to astronomy, to which he was led by the solar -eclipse of 1748; and he now formed an acquaintance with Bradley, -an astronomer of unequalled merit, whether in discovery or practical -excellence in observation, whom he assisted in calculating his table -of refractions. It is no wonder that, under such instruction, Maskelyne -should have distinguished himself afterwards as an observer. -From this period (<span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A.D.</span></span> 1750) Delambre dates the commencement -of really good observations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1758 Maskelyne was elected Fellow of his college; in 1759 he -became Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1761 he went to St. Helena, -to observe the transit of Venus, and also to collect such observations -as might, if possible, enable him to detect the parallax of the fixed -stars. He failed in both objects; in the first from cloudy weather, in -the second from faulty instruments, as he supposed, though the quantity -in question is so small that its existence has not yet been detected; -but he was enabled to correct the principal errors of those instruments -in a considerable degree, and also to make very good observations on -various other points. In his voyage out and home he applied himself -to perfect the method of observing lunar distances, and deducing the -longitude from them. In 1764 he sailed to Barbadoes, to make a trial -of Harrison’s time-keeper; and in 1765 he was appointed Astronomer -Royal, on the decease of Mr. Bliss. He was then only thirty-three -years of age, and had enjoyed a rapid career of celebrity. He had -published enough in the ‘British Mariner’s Guide,’ <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A.D.</span></span> 1763, to -require honourable mention of his name and methods in every work of -navigation.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_020fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />MASKELYNE.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by Vanderburgh in the possession of the Royal Society.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>As soon as he had obtained the post of Astronomer Royal, he began -to call the attention of the Commissioners of Longitude to the practicability -of the method of lunar distances, and proposed to them to -establish a Nautical Almanac, which should contain such an ephemeris -of the moon’s path as would make the object in view attainable. The -memorial on this subject was presented February 9, 1765, and the -evidence of various officers of the East India Company’s service was -taken as to the success of the method. The lunar tables of Mayer -furnished the proposed materials for the moon’s places; and upon the -adoption of the scheme of Maskelyne, a parliamentary reward of 3000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> -was given to Mayer’s widow. To Maskelyne we are thus indebted -for a work which has more than any other contributed to the advancement -of navigation, in the removal of the great difficulty of finding the -longitude. It is true that this first effort could hardly then be expected -to give the longitude within a degree; but this was a great improvement, -when it is considered that the reckoning of a ship might -be out several degrees, and that chronometers had not yet been introduced. -But the ‘Nautical Almanac’ must be considered as a work -addressed to astronomers as well as seamen, from its earliest commencement. -Maskelyne saw the importance of saving the observer -the trouble and risk of error which would attend his reductions without -such assistance, and contemplated the continual improvement of -the lunar tables. It is not one of the least obligations which astronomical -science owes to Maskelyne, that since his time a very slender -portion of mathematical knowledge will enable a diligent observer to -turn his means to good account in the promotion of sidereal and even -of planetary astronomy. Without saying that the observer, as such, -is employed about the highest department of the science, or in any -way recommending the lover of observation to stop his career at that -point, we may remind him that, with the assistance of an ephemeris, -such as the ‘Nautical Almanac’ of Maskelyne did, still more as that -of the present day, he can never want the means of turning his amusements -to useful purpose.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first Nautical Almanac was published in 1767, and was continued -by Maskelyne to the end of his life. The requisite tables, -intended to accompany that work, were first published by him in -1781.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>With the exception of attending the meetings of the Royal Society, -Maskelyne hardly ever quitted his observatory. His life is therefore -difficult to describe, except by its results. But in 1772 he went to -Scotland, to pursue his celebrated experiment for the discovery of the -earth’s density. The Newtonian doctrine of attraction, in the general -form, that all matter attracts all other matter, could hardly be said to -be finally established, except as a point of strong probability. That -a planet, considered as a whole, attracts a planet, might be thought -to be demonstrated, but there was no proof of matter being the agent -of attraction upon matter, <em>on the earth</em>, except in the case of magnetised -or electrified bodies. The notion that the attraction of a mountain, if -it existed, would cause a slight deviation of the plumb-line, which -should be perceptible in its effect on the observed position of the stars, -had been entertained, and the effect even suspected, but without being -reduced to absolute proof. To give an idea of the minuteness of the -angle of deviation which was to be looked for, we may state that a -pendulum ten thousand inches long, vibrating through an angle of ten -seconds, would only move through half an inch at the end farthest -from the point of suspension, and that ten seconds was, as it turned -out, nearly double of the angle in question. Maskelyne chose the -mountain Schehallien, in Perthshire, as the scene of his operations. -By observing well-known stars with an instrument depending on a -plumb-line, both north and south of the mountain, he determined the -difference of latitude of two stations, subject of course to an error if -the plumb-line were affected in its position by the attraction of the -mountain. He then measured the difference of latitude of his stations -by a trigonometrical survey, which gave their relative position by a -method independent of the plumb-line and its errors. He thus found -that his north and south plumb-lines were inclined to each other at -an angle of about eleven seconds and a half more than they should -have been from their difference of position on the earth, and that the -direction of their inclination was towards the mountain. He deduced -his results from those among his observations which he considered as -the best, being about one out of ten of the whole; but it is much to -his credit as an observer, that Baron Zach afterwards found that all -his observations, good and bad, gave the same average result as those -he had selected. Zach also established the same fact by his observations -in the neighbourhood of Marseilles, namely, that the vicinity of a -mountain affects the level, which was the instrument he used, and not -the plumb-line.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The labour of deducing an approximation to the earth’s mean density -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>was undertaken by Dr. Hutton. By getting the best possible estimate -of the materials of which Schehallien is composed, and comparing -what we must call the weight of the plumb-line <em>towards the mountain</em> -with its weight towards the earth, it appeared that the mean density -of the latter is about five times that of water. This, considered as a -numerical approximation, alone and unsupported, would have been -worth little, owing to the doubt which must have existed as to the -correctness of the estimation of the mountain’s density. It would -prove that there was attraction in the mountain, but would give no -very great probability to the value of the earth’s density, as deduced. -But a few years afterwards Cavendish made an experiment, with the -same object, and by an entirely different method. By producing oscillations -in leaden balls by means of other leaden balls, and by a process -of reasoning wholly free from astronomical data, he inferred that the -mean density of the earth was five and a-half times that of water. -The experiment of Cavendish was published in 1798. It is much to be -wished that the experiments of Cavendish should be repeated on a -larger scale: but the expense of the apparatus will probably deter individuals -from the attempt.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Schehallien experiment was carried on under many difficulties -and privations; and its successful result places its author in the list -of those who first opened the road to the determination of a fundamental -element of the solar system. But brilliant as it must appear, -it is by no means the most useful of Maskelyne’s labours. Excepting -Bradley, he may almost be called the first who systematically directed -his efforts to the attainment of the minutest accuracy in astronomical -observation. His celebrated catalogue, <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A.D.</span></span> 1790, consisted only of -thirty-six of the principal stars, but the places of these, especially in -right ascension, were determined with a degree of precision which was -then believed to be hardly attainable. The means by which he accomplished -his objects, such as taking the nearest tenth of a second -instead of the nearest second, or half second, of time in his transit -observations, the practice of uniformly observing all the wires of the -instrument, instead of one; the introduction of the movable eye-piece, -by which the several wires could all be viewed directly, instead of -obliquely, and many little things of the kind, are the indications of a -man who was familiar above his contemporaries with the sources of -error, and who had formed at once a bold estimate of the extent to -which they might be avoided, and a correct view of the means of doing -it. It is difficult to say what portion of the present improved spirit of -observation in these points may be attributed to Maskelyne, but it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>certainly was not small. Delambre, who knew at least as well as any -man of his time what had been done and was doing, and who was -never profuse of praise, as his ‘History of Astronomy’ amply demonstrates, -pays him the following compliment in the memoir which he -contributed to the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Biographie Universelle</span>:’—“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Maskelyne était en -correspondance avec tous les astronomes de l’Europe, qu’il considérait -comme ses frères, et qui, de leur côté, le respectaient comme un -doyen, dont les travaux leur avaient été éminemment utiles.</span>”</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have spoken, in the life of Harrison, of the controversy about the -merits of the time-piece of the latter. As Astronomer Royal, Maskelyne -was the official investigator of the rates of those instruments, -and both in the case of Harrison, and in that of Mudge, his decisions -underwent printed attacks, which he answered. Without entering -into the merits of these questions, since all the grave accusations -which were brought against him have fallen harmless, we shall only -state, that Maskelyne’s answers are full of documents, and free from -passion; both very favourable symptoms.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Dr. Maskelyne held church preferment from his college, and was -besides in possession of an easy fortune. He died Feb. 9, 1811, -leaving behind him an unblemished personal reputation, and a character -for scientific utility of the first order. He left behind him much -evidence of his utility in the labours and character of the assistants -whom he formed; all of whom, says Lalande, were useful astronomers. -The late Dr. Brinkley, Bishop of Cloyne, who added the reputation of -a distinguished mathematician to that of an eminent observer, was for -sometime one of his pupils in the practical part of the science.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_024.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Schehallien.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_025fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />HOBBES.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by Dobson in the possession of The Royal Society.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span> -<img src='images/i_025.jpg' alt='HOBBES.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>HOBBES.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>When Thomas Hobbes was eighty-four years of age he composed an -amusing account of his own fortunes in Latin hexameter and pentameter -verses; and in these it is mentioned that his birth was premature, -owing to the terror occasioned to his mother by a false report -of the approach of the Spanish fleet. To this accident he humorously -ascribes his patriotic zeal and the peacefulness of his disposition. -We quote from a translation made by a contemporary hand, which in -elegance of expression is on a par with the original.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c011'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“And hereupon it was, my mother dear</div> - <div class='line'>Did bring forth twins at once, both me, and Fear.</div> - <div class='line'>For this my country’s foes I e’er did hate,</div> - <div class='line'>With calm Peace and my Muse associate.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>It was at Malmsbury, on the 5th of April, 1588, that this very -singular man was thus called into an existence, which was continued, -in perpetual activity, for ninety-one years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of the earliest efforts of his talents was to translate the Medea -of Euripides into Latin iambics. At the age of fourteen, he commenced -his more serious labours at Magdalen College, Oxford; and -employed five years there in the study of logic and Aristotle’s Physics. -Immediately afterwards he entered into the family of William Cavendish, -Baron Hardwick, subsequently Earl of Devonshire, and became -tutor to his eldest son. The companion alike of his sports and his -studies, Hobbes presently acquired the affection of his pupil and the -confidence of the family; and the two young men (for they were of -the same age) set out together to travel in France and Italy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A free intercourse with the learned men of other countries enlarged -the mind of Hobbes, and opened new channels to his investigation. And -it appears, in the first instance, that when he beheld the contempt in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>which the subjects of his academical industry were generally held, he -turned from them to the more diligent study of Greek and Latin. -Nor was it his object alone to become master of the languages, but -also to meditate on the invaluable records of the history and the -wisdom of the ancients. He employed his leisure hours in the translation -of Thucydides; and he published it in the year 1628, to the -end (says his contemporary biographer), that the absurdities of the -democratical Athenians might become known to his own fellow-citizens. -This was the first of his publications; and it may have been -that perhaps to which, in later life, he attached the least importance. -Yet has it so fallen out, that after a lapse of two long centuries of -slowly progressive knowledge and wisdom, his other works are for the -most part consigned to the shelves of the profound and curious student, -while the “Translation of Thucydides” is familiar to the acquaintance -and respect of every scholar.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is related that Hobbes, while yet a youth, was present at an -assembly of several eminent men of letters, when one of them asked, -in a contemptuous manner, <em>And what is sensation?</em> No one attempted -to make any reply; and the question was thus silently -acknowledged to be inscrutable. This piqued his curiosity and his -pride; for he was astonished that those, who through their pretensions -to wisdom so despised others, should be ignorant of the nature of their -own senses. Accordingly he directed his deepest attention to that -inquiry. The first result of his meditation was this position: that if -all things were at <em>rest</em>, they would part with all their qualities. -Hence, in his mind, it followed, that all the principles of natural -science, including the senses of all animated things and all bodily -affections, depended on the varieties of <em>motion</em>; and to these, rather -than to any inherent or occult qualities, he referred all the phenomena -of physics.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This his system of physics is amply developed in the first section -(<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Corpore</span>) of his book of the ‘Elements of Philosophy;’ which -failed not to gain him a celebrity more than proportionate to the -number of his proselytes. For many admired his ingenuity who -did not adopt his conclusions. In conjunction with these pursuits, -Hobbes engaged with zeal in the study of mathematics. He flattered -himself that he had discovered how to square the circle, and published -several treatises in relation to that celebrated problem, which at the -time gained for him considerable reputation. In 1647 he was appointed -mathematical tutor to the Prince of Wales. He engaged in -a long mathematical controversy with Dr. Wallis, of which an amusing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>account will be found in D’Israeli’s ‘Quarrels of Authors,’ vol. 3. -Wallis, however, was an adversary entirely above Hobbes’ strength in -this department of science.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If Hobbes had confined his exertions to the pursuits of classical -literature and physical philosophy, he would have spent a more peaceful, -and therefore to him a happier, existence. But in the tumultuous -times in which he lived, with a mind habituated to deep investigations, -it was scarcely possible that he should do otherwise than fix his attention -on the political phenomena which were passing before him, and -endeavour to trace their causes and solve their difficulties. After a -residence of three years in England, he returned to Paris in 1640, -and enjoyed the society of some of the distinguished men who were -collected around Cardinal Richelieu. There he wrote his first political -work, the book <cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Cive</span></cite>, which he published in 1646. He then -proceeded to compose a much more elaborate treatise on the same -subject, which he published in England in the year 1651; this was -his <em>Leviathan</em>—a name associated with that of Hobbes in the mind -of every reader, though the <em>peculiar</em> principles which are embodied -under it are now known to few. Suffice it here to say, that the object -of this work was to give a decided support to the monarchical institution: -to show that there could be no safety without peace, -no peace without a strong government; that arms and money were -the elements which alone could give that strength; that even arms -will scarcely avail to this end, unless placed in a single hand, or if -opposed (as is the case in religious dissension), by motives and principles -which do not terminate in this world.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Political researches in that age necessarily involved theological, or -at least ecclesiastical, principles; and Hobbes had not feared to denounce -some of the antient usurpations of the clergy, and to pronounce -religious concord to be absolutely essential to the civil happiness of a -people: and while he broached some principles not well pleasing to -the pretensions of the hierarchy of the day, he advanced others -which were thought to end, by no violent interpretation, in absolute -infidelity. Accordingly, the theologians assailed him from every -quarter; and his work, while it divided learned laymen, some of -whom thought it a marvel of political genius, others a dangerous and -unseemly monster, was condemned by the unanimous indignation of -the ecclesiastical body. The churchmen of Rome united in hostility -with those of England against doctrines which were dangerous to the -common prerogatives of the whole order, if not to the integrity of -religion itself. The latter, being more closely attacked, were more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>violent in their enmity. They denounced the opinions as false and -heretical; and the divines of Cambridge went so far as publicly to -stigmatize the author as an atheist. Besides this, he did not even -escape the charges of being ill disposed to royalty, and a disguised -adversary to the party of the king. These calumnies (such at least -he constantly asserted both to be,) deprived him of the patronage of -the Court, and seemed at one time even to have endangered his -personal safety; insomuch that, under the Commonwealth, he found -it expedient to escape from his enemies at Paris, and take refuge -among those, whose enmity he had rather deserved, the republicans -of England. He escaped however the fate, so common to men of -moderation in violent times, of being persecuted by both parties; and -only sustained the animosity of that which he had intended to serve.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hobbes was a decided Episcopalian. He studied in all matters -to conform both to the doctrines and the ceremonies of the church -established; and avoided, even with a feeling of dislike, the conventicles -of the Puritans. Still less did he incline, on the other hand, to -the Roman Catholic faith. During a dangerous illness, which he -suffered with great firmness at Paris, when he was supposed to be on -the point of death, an intimate friend, named Mersenne, a learned Franciscan, -approached him with spiritual consolation, and pressed him to -depart in communion with the Roman church. Hobbes calmly replied, -“Father, I have long ago considered all those matters well, and it -would trouble me to reconsider them now. You can entertain me on -some more agreeable subject. When did you see Gassendi?”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Yet neither his unmoved adhesion to Protestantism, nor even his -affection for episcopal government, could disarm the wrath of the -theologians, who continued to wage an unsparing warfare against -him, and to inflict on his reputation, and even on his fortunes, such -mischief as they were able. On the other hand, his singular qualities -and talents failed not to procure him many powerful protectors; -and he stood so balanced (says his biographer) between his friends -and his enemies, that the former were just strong enough to prevent -his destruction, the latter to obstruct his advancement. So that he -continued, with a mighty reputation and a slender fortune, to remain, -even to the end of his days, under the same noble patronage, under -which his first distinctions had been acquired.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But in this comparative obscurity he was consoled by the society of -the learned, the courtesy of the great, and the admiration of almost all -men. Among his personal friends or acquaintances were numbered -Francis Bacon of Verulam, Ben Jonson (who is said to have revised -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>his Translation of Thucydides), the astronomer Galileo, the antiquarian -Selden, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Harvey, physician to -Charles I., Des Cartes, Gassendi; and his praises were celebrated by -the contemporary muse of Cowley. He was sought by distinguished -foreigners who visited England, even nobles and ambassadors; especially -by Cosmo de’ Medici, then Prince, afterwards Duke of Tuscany, -who offered him ample proofs of his esteem; and there were many -among his own compatriots who received his opinions with respect, -if not with favour.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the long period of his declining life, Hobbes is related to -have pursued with most assiduity his studies in natural philosophy; -but the publications of his old age (if we except the Decameron -Physiologicum, published in 1676) rather indicate a return to his -earliest tastes, which inclined, we are told, to history and poetry. At -the age of about 80, he wrote, in English, the <em>Behemoth</em>, or History -of the Civil Wars between Charles and the Parliament; besides a long -Latin poem on the origin and increase of the pontifical power. At -about 86, he translated the Odyssey into English verse, and the Iliad -at 87: and he persevered for the four following years, which were his -last, in the same peaceful course of literary recreation. A list of his -works, forty-two in number, is given in Chalmers’ ‘Biographical -Dictionary:’ the great majority of them are forgotten.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He died towards the end of the year 1679, and was buried at -Hault-Bucknall, close by the grave of his faithful patroness, the -Countess of Devonshire. Respecting his personal character and conversation -it is recorded, that he was agreeable and courteous in his -familiar intercourse with all, those alone excepted who approached -him for the mere purpose of disputation: and these he treated with -more severity than was necessary. Above all things, he detested -theological controversy, and always strove to turn his hearers away -from it to the exercise of piety and the practice of Christian morality. -His favourite authors were Homer, Virgil, Thucydides, and Euclid: -but his reading was not extensive; as he thought the careful meditation -on a few good works more profitable to the understanding than -a more abundant draught of indiscriminate learning; and was fond -of saying upon this subject, that if he read as much as others he should -be as ignorant as they were. He persisted in a life of celibacy, that -he might be able to pursue his studies with the less interruption. In -his disposition he was generous and charitable; but his means were -scanty: for even at the end of his life he had little else but two small -pensions, the one from the family of Devon, the other from the king.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span> -<img src='images/i_030.jpg' alt='RAPHAEL.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>RAPHAEL.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Raffaello Sanzio, the greatest of painters, was born in 1483 at -Urbino, where the house in which he passed the first years of his life -is still preserved, consecrated by a suitable inscription. His first -teacher was his father, Giovanni Sanzio, a painter who, allowing for -the technical imperfections of the time, was perhaps entitled to more -praise than Vasari has awarded him; the evidence of the remaining -works of this master has indeed led his recent biographer, Pungileoni, -to conclude that he was in many essential points equal to the -best of his contemporaries, and that his feeling for expression may -have had no unimportant influence on the genius he was destined -to instruct. An interesting altar-piece by the elder Sanzio still exists -at Urbino, in the church of S. Francesco, representing the Madonna -with St. Francis and other saints: the members of the painter’s -family are introduced, and among them the infant Raphael kneels -by his mother’s side.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_030fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Thomson.</em><br /><br />RAFFAELLE.<br /><br /><em>From a Miniature copy of the original Picture in the Gallery at Florence. In the Possession of the Rev<sup>d</sup>. Horace Cholmondeley Kingston House, Dorchester.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The silence of the historians of art as to the claims of Giovanni -Sanzio is less surprising than their omitting to notice the importance -of his city and province at the period in question. The duchy of -Urbino, at the close of the fifteenth century, could boast, as Sismondi -justly remarks, a population as warlike, and a court as lettered and -polished as any in Italy. The hereditary dukes of the ancient family -of Montefeltro ranked high among the captains of the age, and among -the distinguished patrons of science. Federigo da Montefeltro, who -died a few months before the birth of Raphael, had employed the -talents of some of the best painters of Italy, and of other countries, to -adorn his capital. Among the native artists, Fra Carnevale was one -of the earliest who attempted perspective; and to him, or at least to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>his works, Bramante, as well as Raphael, may have been indebted for -a knowledge of the rudiments of architecture; Pietro della Francesca, -whose compositions on mathematics and geometry enriched the ducal -library, was domiciliated with Giovanni Sanzio; Lucian, a painter and -architect of Dalmatia, superintended for a time the building of the -castle; but the most remarkable guest was Justus van Ghent, called -by the Italians Giusto da Guanto; a considerable work painted by -him contained portraits of the Duke Federigo and his successor Guid’ -Ubaldo, under whose auspices again the talents of the celebrated Luca -Signorelli were put in requisition. Pictures by most of these artists -probably still exist at Urbino, and undoubtedly were seen and studied -by Raphael in his early youth. Among the first reputed works of the -great artist himself, which are preserved in his native city, may be -mentioned a Madonna, originally painted on the wall in his father’s -house, and a holy family on wood in the church of S. Andrea.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is difficult to fix with precision the time when Raphael first -studied under Perugino; but if, as Rumohr supposes, that painter only -settled finally at Perugia about 1500, his distinguished scholar must -have joined him at the age of sixteen or seventeen, and not some years -earlier, as has been generally assumed. Even at this age it is sufficiently -wonderful that the scholar should have been fitted to select the -best qualities in his master’s style, and indeed very soon to improve -upon them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Besides the works which his native city contained, Raphael doubtless -had had opportunities of seeing the productions of Andrea Luigi -di Assisi, called Ingegno, of Niccolò di Fuligno, and other painters of -the school of Umbria. Their robust style of colour, which was somewhat -modified by Perugino and Pinturicchio, is occasionally to be -traced in Raphael’s early works. There was another quality which -Perugino, in his best time, possessed in common with other painters -of his province, and which may be said generally to characterize the -school of Umbria. This was an intensity of expression in sacred subjects -indicating a deep religious feeling; and it is so striking in the -best productions of the artist last named, that it has been considered -sufficient of itself to prove the orthodoxy of his creed, which Vasari -had called in question. The impulse was probably derived from -Assisi, where some of the earliest Italian masters had left specimens -of their powers, and the source was the doctrine of St. Francis. The -history and legends of this saint (who died in 1226), frequently -exercised the pencil of the early Italians, even to the danger of -causing Bible subjects to be neglected, from the time of Giotto to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>that of Angelico da Fiesole: but the chief influence on the school -above-mentioned is apparent rather in the treatment than in the -subject; it is to be recognised in a certain subdued earnestness of -expression, allied to the severe tenets of the saint of Assisi, and exhibiting -religion rather in its suffering than in its triumphant character. -This tendency received an additional impulse from the works -which Taddeo di Bartolo of Siena had left in Perugia and other parts -of Umbria early in the fifteenth century. The painters most remarkable -for the quality alluded to were Niccolò Alunno, called Niccolò -di Fuligno, and Pietro Perugino; but the same feeling had extended -itself to Francia in Bologna. The taste of the Florentine painters -on the other hand, with the single exception of Angelico da Fiesole, -had long taken another direction: their pictures of this time abound -in portraits; the saints and Madonnas of the school, those for instance -of Domenico Ghirlandajo, seem to have been taken from -common nature, and are seldom inspired with that sanctity of expression -so frequent and so remarkable in the painters above-named. In -later times, the painters of the various Italian schools, who were supposed -to copy nature with too little selection, were called <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">naturalisti</span></i>, -and, at the period alluded to, Florence may be considered comparatively -the seat of this kind of imitation; a tendency greatly owing, it -appears, to the introduction of early Flemish pictures, in which portraits -were frequent, and in which the back-ground and accessories -were treated with an attention new to the Italian painters.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Thus it cannot but be considered among the greatest of Raphael’s -advantages, that he had opportunities of studying in both the schools -alluded to; and in both, he of all men knew or felt what was fittest to -be imitated. The depth and fervour of expression which he imbibed -from the masters he first contemplated, and which he never relinquished, -was improved and enlivened by the accurate study of the forms and -varieties of nature to which the Florentines were devoted: again, -before Raphael arrived in Florence, Lionardo da Vinci had laid the -foundation of that profound anatomical knowledge, the only true means -of representing action, which was afterwards carried to its greatest -results in the works of Michael Angelo. The celebrated Cartoons -of both these great designers were the object of study and admiration -in Florence at the time Raphael resided there, although they were -not completed quite so soon as might be inferred from a passage in -Vasari. The importance of considering and accounting for the earliest -tendency of Raphael’s feeling, will be apparent when we remember -that it reappeared in his later, and even in his latest, works. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>Dispute of the Sacrament, his altar-pieces, and even the Cartoons, -are not Florentine in their taste, but are rather allied to the school -from which he derived his first impressions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From 1500, or perhaps a little earlier, to 1504–5, Raphael was -employed at Perugia, or at Città di Castello (a township midway -between Perugia and Urbino); his works in the latter place must, -however, have been executed after he became a pupil of Perugino, as -they clearly evince an imitation of that painter’s manner. An altar-piece, -originally in the church of S. Niccola di Tolentino, at Città -di Castello, is now in the Vatican; a Crucifixion from the church of -S. Domenico, in the same place, is in the Fesch collection at Rome; -and the celebrated Marriage of the Virgin, from the church of S. -Francesco, is at Milan. The last, which was copied almost without -alteration from a painting of Perugino, has the date 1504, and immediately -precedes Raphael’s first visit to Florence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The works done by Raphael in Perugia were much more numerous, -to say nothing of his assistance in pictures which pass for Perugino’s. -Among his own may be mentioned an Assumption of the -Virgin, now in the Vatican, as well as another picture of the same -subject begun by Raphael, but finished, not till after his death, by his -scholars. The fresco, in the cloister of S. Severo, at Perugia, which -resembles the upper part of the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Disputa</span></i> (to be hereafter mentioned), -has the date 1505; the lower part was finished by Perugino when -very old, after Raphael’s death. The style of this fresco bespeaks an -acquaintance with higher examples of art than Perugia contained; it -was probably done after a first visit to Florence. The interesting -picture at Blenheim, mentioned by Vasari as having been painted for -the chapel Degli Ansidei, in the church De’ Servi at Perugia, has the -date 1505; it may be considered to be the last example of Raphael’s -imitation of Perugino, and to mark the transition from that imitation -to the Florentine manner.</p> - -<p class='c000'>While Raphael was studying at Perugia, Pinturicchio, a native of -that place, and an assistant of Perugino, was employed to paint some -subjects relating to the Life of Pius II., in the library, now the sacristy, -of the Duomo at Siena. Vasari relates, not without contradicting -himself in the separate lives of Raphael and Pinturicchio, that the latter -availed himself of his young friend’s skill in composition, in engaging -him to design the whole series of subjects; he further adds, that -Raphael accompanied Pinturicchio to Siena, but left him to proceed -to Florence, in order to see the Cartoons of Michael Angelo and -Lionardo da Vinci. The works in the sacristy at Siena appear to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>have been done before the death of Pius III., in 1503: at that time -the Cartoons in question were not completed (M. Angelo’s was not -finished and publicly shown before 1506, Vinci’s not much earlier); -and as we have before seen, Raphael was employed at Città di -Castello in 1504, probably before he had seen Florence at all. -It is however certain that Raphael made some designs for Pinturicchio, -since two small compositions, almost identical with the -frescoes at Siena, and other separate studies by his hand exist, although -various reasons, too long to adduce here, render it extremely improbable -that he was ever employed at Siena. The vast number of -works which this great man executed in his very short life, make it -sufficiently difficult to assign time enough for the production of those -that are undoubted.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The amiable character, as well as the extraordinary talents of -Raphael, soon procured him the notice and admiration of the Florentine -artists. Among his chief friends were Taddeo Gaddi (in return -for whose hospitality he probably painted the Madonna del Gran -Duca and the Madonna Tempi), Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, and Fra -Bartolommeo. It would be impossible here to give a list of the works -which he executed during his residence in Florence from 1504–5 to -1508, when we find him in Rome. Some pictures were left unfinished -at the time of his departure for that city, and were completed -by Ridolfo Ghirlandajo. A picture sent to Siena, by some -supposed the Giardiniera, now at Paris, but more probably the Lanti -Madonna, was among these, as well as the Madonna painted for the -Dei family: an accurate critic, Rumohr, even supposes that the -celebrated entombment done for Perugia, which is now in the Borghese -palace in Rome, was completed from Raphael’s designs by -Ridolfo Ghirlandajo. The number of Madonnas, portraits, and altar-pieces -produced in the three or four years of Raphael’s residence in -Florence, must of necessity lead to the conclusion that the <em>repetitions</em> -of these works, which all pretend to originality, must have been -done by his imitators. Again Vasari states, not without some probability, -that Raphael visited his native place, and painted several -works there for the Duke Guid’ Ubaldo, during the short time above-mentioned: -and Malvasia, in his account of the Bolognese school, -enumerates various works which were unknown even to Vasari.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile Raphael reaped all the improvement which the sight -of the excellent works of art in Florence was calculated to communicate. -The inspection of the works of Michael Angelo and Lionardo -da Vinci enlarged his knowledge of form and his execution, while the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>inventions of the earlier Florentine masters were diligently examined -and remembered; yet it is here important to remark, that he never -imitated even the highest examples alluded to, as he had imitated the -first models from which he studied. This is naturally to be accounted -for in some degree by the greater docility of earlier youth; but as -so much has been said of the inspiration which Raphael caught -from Michael Angelo, in Florence from a sight of the Cartoons, and -in Rome from that of the ceiling of the Capella Sistina, it is necessary -to remember that a direct imitation of Michael Angelo is no -where to be traced in Raphael, and that he seemed desirous rather of -exhibiting his own feeling as distinct from that of the great Florentine -master, than of aiming at that master’s style.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From 1508 to 1520, the year of his death, Raphael resided in -Rome. Vasari relates that Bramante, the architect of Julius II., -being from the same city with Raphael and distantly related to him, -had recommended him to the Pope, as qualified to paint in fresco certain -rooms of the Vatican; but it was more probably Raphael’s great -reputation, now second to none, which was the real cause of the -Pope’s notice, although Bramante may have been the medium of -communication. To the honour of Julius it should be remembered, -that he had discernment enough to fix in every instance on the best -artists of his age, and he left no means unemployed, sometimes even -to an indulgence at variance with the haughtiness of his character, to -secure their best efforts in his service.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At no period of Raphael’s laborious life were his exertions greater -than during the reign of Julius II., that is, till 1513, the year of that -pontiff’s death. The room called the <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Camera della Segnatura</span>, where -the great artist began to work, was evidently planned by him as one -design, and its four walls were appropriated to four comprehensive -subjects,—theology, philosophy, poetry, and jurisprudence. The -ceiling is occupied with single figures and subjects forming part of -the same scheme. The subject of Theology, commonly called the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Disputa</span></i>, -was begun the first, and the right hand of the upper part was -first painted. This is evident from a certain inexperience in the mechanical -process of fresco painting, which is found to disappear even -in the same work. Six of these vast subjects, besides other works, -were executed between 1508 and 1513, and the two last, the Miracle -of Bolsena and the Heliodorus, are unsurpassed in colour, as well as -in every other excellence fitted for the subject and dimensions. For -richness and force of local colour these two works have often been -compared to those of Titian; it should be added that they are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>earlier in date than the finest oil pictures of Titian, and that they are -decidedly superior in colour to the frescoes by that master in Padua. -The supposition of Rumohr, that Giorgione may have seen and profited -by these specimens, is, however, not to be reconciled with the -date of that painter’s death. The impatience of the character of Julius, -who was bent on the speedy prosecution of this undertaking, makes it -probable that some works attributed by Vasari to this period were -executed later. The portrait of Julius, that of Bindo Altoviti, the -musician in the Sciarra palace, the Madonna di Fuligno, the <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Madonna -della Sedia</span>, and the Vision of Ezekiel, belong however to this time. -The St. Cecilia, begun in 1513, was not sent to Bologna till some -years afterwards. In the last, the assistance of subordinate hands is -evident; and the variety of works in which Raphael was employed -under Leo X. made this practice of intrusting the execution of his -designs to others more and more necessary. Unfortunately, his grand -works, the frescoes of the Vatican, with the exception of two excellent -specimens, the Attila and the Liberation of Peter (painted immediately -after the accession of Leo), were completed very much in this way by -his scholars. Even the <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Incendio del Borgo</span>, so remarkable for its -invention and composition, has but few traces of his own hand in -the execution. The frescoes of the Vatican have often been described -as exhibiting one comprehensive plan as to their meaning, but -it is well known that the subjects of the Attila and the Liberation of -Peter were suggested by incidents in the life of Leo, and consequently -that they could not have been thought of before the accession of that -pope. Of all these works the Attila is justly considered to be the -most perfect example of fresco painting, and to exhibit the greatest -command over the material; though produced after the death of -Julius, it may be regarded as the noblest result of that impulse which -the pontiff’s energy had communicated to Raphael. The character of -Leo X., as a protector of art, has been perhaps sometimes too favourably -represented. More educated than his predecessor, he loved the -refinement which the arts and letters imparted to his court; but he -had no deep interest, like Julius, in inciting such men as Raphael -and Michael Angelo to do their utmost under his auspices. Whether -from the indifference of Leo, or from his neglecting, as Vasari hints, -to discharge his pecuniary debts to Raphael, we soon find the painter -employed in various other works, and the remaining frescoes of the -Vatican bear evidence of the frequent employment of other hands. -Many works of minor importance in the same palace were entirely -executed by his assistants.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>The celebrated Cartoons were designs for tapestries, of which more -than twenty of various sizes are preserved in the Vatican. The Cartoons, -it may be inferred, were equally numerous, but seven only, -now fit Hampton Court, remain entire. A portion of another was -bequeathed by the late Prince Hoare to the Foundling Hospital, -where it is now to be seen. These works owed their existence to -the Pope’s love of magnificence rather than to a true taste for art; but -although destined for a merely ornamental purpose, some of the designs -are among the very finest of Raphael’s inventions, and a few -may have been, at least in part, executed by his hand. The Ananias, -the Charge to Peter, the Paul and Barnabas at Lystra, and the Paul -preaching at Athens, are generally considered to have the greatest -pretensions to this additional interest. The fine portrait of Leo with -the Cardinals de’ Medici and de’ Rossi completes the list of larger -works undertaken for the Pope, but the many designs by Raphael -from classical or mythological subjects may be supposed to have been -also made at the suggestion of the pontiff. In obedience to his wishes, -Raphael undertook the inspection of the ancient Roman monuments, -and superintended the improvements of St. Peter’s. Among the numerous -and extensive works done for other employers may be mentioned -the Sybils in the Chiesa della Pace, the frescoes from Apuleius’s -story of Cupid and Psyche in the palace of Agostino Chigi, called the -Farnesina, where the so-called Galatea was the beginning of another -Cyclus from the same fable, the Madonna del Pesce, the Madonna di -S. Sisto, and the Spasimo di Sicilia. Many a palace in the neighbourhood -of Rome still exhibits remains of frescoes for which Raphael -at least furnished the designs; and his own Casino, near the more -modern Villa Borghese, may retain traces of his hand, but it is now -fast falling to decay. A long list of portraits might be added to the -above works, together with many interesting designs in architecture, -and even some productions in sculpture. In reviewing the amazing -number of works attributed to Raphael, it must not however be forgotten -that many are his only in the invention, and some pictures that -bear his name may have been even designed as well as finished by his -imitators. The Flemish copies of Raphael are frequent, and are to -be detected, among other indications, by their extreme smoothness; -the contemporary imitations, especially those of the earlier style of the -master, by Domenico Alfani and Vincenzo di S. Geminiano, are much -less easily distinguished. The question respecting the Urbino earthenware -may be considered to have been set at rest by Passeri (<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Storia -delle pitture in Maiolica<a id='t37'></a> di Pesaro e di altri luoghi della Provincia -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>Metaurense</span>). From this inquiry, it appears, first, that the art of -painting this ware had not arrived at perfection till twenty years after -Raphael’s death: and secondly, that about that time Guid’ Ubaldo II. -(<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">della Rovere</span>) collected engravings after Raphael, and even original -designs by him, and had them copied in the Urbino manufactory. -Battista Franco at one time superintended the execution, and one of -the artists was called Raffaello del Colle; his name may perhaps -occasionally be inscribed on the Urbino ware, but the initials O. F. -(Orazio Fontana) are the most frequent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Transfiguration was the last oil picture of importance on which -Raphael was employed; it was unfinished at his death, and was afterwards -completed, together with various other works, by his scholars. -The last and worst misstatement of Vasari cannot be passed over, for -unfortunately, none of the biographer’s mistakes have been oftener -repeated than that which ascribes the death of this great man to the -indulgence of his passion for the Fornarina. Cardinal Antonelli was -in possession of an original document, first published by Cancellieri, -which assigns a different, and a much more probable, cause for -Raphael’s death; it thus concludes,—“Life in him (Raphael) seemed -to inform a most fragile bodily structure, for he was all mind; and -moreover, his physical forces were much impaired by the extraordinary -exertions he had gone through, and which it is wonderful to -think he could have made in so short a life. Being then in a very -delicate state of health, he received orders one day while at the Farnesina -to repair to the court; not to lose time, he ran all the way to -the Vatican, and arrived there heated and breathless; there the sudden -chill of the vast rooms, where he was obliged to stand long consulting -on the alterations of St. Peter’s, checked the perspiration, and he was -presently seized with an indisposition. On his return home, he was -attacked with a fever, which ended in his death.” Raphael was born -and died on Good Friday. Some of his biographers have hence, -through an oversight, asserted that he lived exactly thirty-seven years. -He was born March 28, 1483, and died April 6, 1520. He was -buried in the Pantheon, now the church of Sta. Maria ad Martyres, -in a niche or chapel which he had himself endowed. His remains -have been lately found there.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Quatremère de Quincy’s ‘Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de -Rafael, etc. Paris, 1824,’ has been improved and superseded by the -notes to the Italian translation of Longhena, Milan, 1829. Pungileoni, -the author of the ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Elogio Storico di Giovanni Santi, Urbino, 1822</span>,’ -has been long employed in preparing a life of Raphael. The observations -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>of Rumohr, in the third volume of his ‘<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Italienische Forschungen, -Berlin, 1831</span>,’ are original and valuable. A few interesting facts will -be found in Fea’s ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Notizie intorno Raffaele Sanzio, Rome 1822.</span>’ -The author, however, fails to prove the regularity of Leo’s payments -to Raphael, since the latest document concerning the frescoes in the -<i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Stanze</span></i> has the date 1514.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The engraving is from a miniature after the portrait by Raphael -himself, in his first manner, cut from the stucco of a wall at Urbino, -which forms the chief attraction of the <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Camera di’ ritratti</span> at Florence. -The head engraved by Morghen, and so generally known, represents -the features of Bindo Altoviti, which do not even resemble in a single -point those of Raphael. The notion arose solely from a passage in -Vasari’s Lives:—‘<i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">E a Bindo Altoviti fece il ritratto suo</span></i>;’ for Bindo -Altoviti he did his portrait (not <em>his own</em>): these words were distorted -by the Editor Bottari in a marginal note; but the error has been -decisively exposed by Missirini and others, whose account is every -where received in Italy. Nor does it appear that the Tuscans in -general fell into the mistake, for the portrait now given, and not, -as Bottari asserts, the Altoviti portrait, is engraved in the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Museum -Florentinum</span></i>.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_039.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Death of Ananias.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span> -<img src='images/i_040.jpg' alt='KNOX.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>KNOX.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>John Knox was born in East Lothian, in 1505, probably at the -village of Gifford, but, according to some accounts, at the small town -of Haddington, in the grammar-school of which he received the rudiments -of his education. His parents were of humble rank, but sufficiently -removed from want to support their son at the University of -St. Andrew’s, which Knox entered about the year 1524. He passed -with credit through his academical course, and took orders at the age -of twenty-five, if not sooner. In his theological reading, he was led -by curiosity to examine the works of ancient authors quoted by the -scholastic divines. These gave him new views of religion, and led -him on to the perusal of the scriptures themselves. The change in -his opinions appears to have commenced about 1535. It led him to -recommend to others, as well as to practise, a more rational course of -study than that prescribed by the ancient usage of the University. -This innovation brought him under suspicion of being attached to -the principles of the Reformation, which was making secret progress -in Scotland: and, having ventured to censure the corruptions which -prevailed in the Church, he found it expedient to quit St. Andrew’s -in 1542, and return to the south of Scotland, where he openly avowed -his adherence to the Reformed doctrines.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_040fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by B. Holl.</em><br /><br />JOHN KNOX.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in the possession of Lord Somerville.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Having cut himself off from the emoluments of the Established -Church, Knox engaged as tutor in the family of Douglas of Langniddrie, -a gentleman of East Lothian. As a man of known ability, -and as a priest, he was especially obnoxious to the hierarchy; and it is -said that Archbishop Beatoun sought his life by private assassination, -as well as openly under colour of the law. At Easter, 1547, Knox, -with many other Protestants, took refuge in the castle of St. Andrew’s, -which was seized and held, after the archbishop’s murder, by the band -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>of conspirators who had done the deed. He here continued his usual -course of instruction to his pupils, combined with public reading and -explanation of the scriptures to those who sought his assistance. His -talents pointed him out as a fitting person for the ministry; but he -was very reluctant to devote himself to that important charge, and was -only induced to do so, after a severe internal struggle, by a solemn call -from the minister and the assembled congregation. He distinguished -himself during his short abode at St. Andrew’s by zeal, boldness, and -success in preaching. But in the following July the castle surrendered; -and, by a scandalous violation of the articles of capitulation, the garrison -were made prisoners of war, and subjected to great and unusual -ill-treatment. Knox, with many others, was placed in a French -galley, and compelled to labour like a slave at the oar. His health -was greatly injured by the hardships which he underwent in that worst -of prisons; but his spirit rose triumphant over suffering. During -this period he committed to writing an abstract of the doctrines which -he had preached, which he found means to convey to his friends in -Scotland, with an earnest exhortation to persevere in the faith through -persecution and trial. He obtained liberty in February, 1549, but -by what means is not precisely known.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At that time, under the direction of Cranmer, and with the zealous -concurrence of the young King Edward VI., the Reformation in -England was advancing with rapid pace. Knox repaired thither, as -to the safest harbour; and in the dearth of able and earnest preachers -which then existed, he found at once a welcome and active employment. -The north was appointed to be the scene of his usefulness, and -he continued to preach there, living chiefly at Berwick and Newcastle, -till the end of 1552. He was then summoned to London, to appear -before the Privy Council on a frivolous charge, of which he was -honourably acquitted. The King was anxious to secure his services -to the English Church, and caused the living of All Hallows, in -London, and even a bishopric, to be offered him. But Knox had -conscientious scruples to some points of the English establishment. -He continued, however, to preach, itinerating through the country, -until, after the accession of Mary, the exercise of the Protestant -religion was forbidden by act of parliament, December 20, 1553. -Shortly afterwards he yielded to the importunity of his friends, and -consulted his own safety by retiring to France. Previous to his departure, -he solemnised his marriage with Miss Bowes, a Yorkshire -lady of good family, to whom he had been some time engaged.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Knox took up his abode in the first instance at Dieppe, but he soon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>went to Geneva, and there made acquaintance with Calvin, whom he -loved and venerated, and followed more closely than any others of the -fathers of the Reformation in his views both of doctrine and ecclesiastical -discipline. Towards the close of 1554 he was invited by a congregation -of English exiles resident at Frankfort to become one of -their pastors. Internal discords, chiefly concerning the ritual and -matters of ceremonial observance, in which, notwithstanding the -severe and uncomplying temper usually ascribed to him, no blame -seems justly due to Knox, soon forced him to quit this charge, and he -returned to Geneva; where he spent more than a year in a learned -leisure, peculiarly grateful to him after the troubled life which he -had led so long. But in August, 1555, moved by the favourable -aspect of the time, and by the entreaties of his family, from whom he -had now been separated near two years, he returned to Scotland, and -was surprised and rejoiced at the extraordinary avidity with which his -preaching was attended. He visited various districts, both north and -south, and won over two noblemen, who became eminent supporters -of the Reformation, the heir-apparent of the earldom of Argyle, and -Lord James Stuart, afterwards Earl of Murray. But in the middle -of these successful labours he received a call from an English congregation -at Geneva to become their pastor; and he appears to have felt -it a duty to comply with their request. It would seem more consonant -to his character to have remained in Scotland, to watch over the seed -which he had sown, and that his own country had the most pressing -claim upon his services. But the whole tenor of his life warrants the -belief that he was actuated by no unworthy or selfish motives; and -in the absence of definite information, some insight into the nature of -his feelings may probably be gained from a letter addressed to some -friends in Edinburgh, in March, 1557. “Assure of that, that whenever -a greater number among you shall call upon me than now hath -bound me to serve them, by His grace it shall not be the fear of -punishment, neither yet of the death temporal, that shall impede -my coming to you.” He quitted Scotland in July, 1556.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During this absence Knox maintained a frequent correspondence -with his brethren in Scotland, and both by exhortation and by his -advice upon difficult questions submitted to his judgment, was still of -material service in keeping alive their spirit. Two of his works composed -during this period require mention; his share in the English -translation of the Scriptures, commonly called the ‘Geneva Bible,’ -and the ‘Blast of the Trumpet against the monstrous Regimen of -Women,’ a treatise expressly directed against the government of Mary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>of England, but containing a bold and unqualified enunciation of the -principle, that to admit a woman to sovereignty is contrary to nature, -justice, and the revealed will of God. In January, 1559, at the invitation -of the leading persons of the Protestant congregation, he -again returned to Scotland. Matters at this time were drawing to a -crisis. The Queen Regent, after temporising while the support of a -large and powerful party was essential to her, had thrown off disguise, -and openly avowed her determination to use force for the suppression -of heresy: while the leading Protestants avowed as plainly their resolution -of protecting their preachers; and becoming more and more -sensible of their own increasing strength, resolved to abolish the -Roman, and set up the Reformed method of worship in those places -to which their influence or feudal power extended. St. Andrew’s was -fixed on for the commencement of the experiment; and under the -protection of the Earl of Argyle and Lord James Stuart, Prior of -St. Andrew’s, Knox, who on his landing had been proclaimed a rebel -and outlaw, undertook to preach publicly in the cathedral of that city. -The archbishop sent word that he should be fired upon if he ventured -to appear in the pulpit, and as that prelate was supported by a stronger -force than the retinue of the Protestant noblemen, they thought it best -that he should abstain at this time from thus exposing his life. Knox -remained firm to his purpose. After reminding them that he had first -preached the Gospel in that church, of the sufferings of his captivity, -and of the confident hope which he had expressed to many that he -should again perform his high mission in that same church, he besought -them not to stand in the way when Providence had brought -him to the spot. The archbishop’s proved to be an empty threat. -Knox preached for four successive days without interruption, and -with such effect, that the magistrates and the inhabitants agreed to -set up the reformed worship in their town; the monasteries were -destroyed, and the churches stripped of images and pictures. Both -parties now rose in arms. During the contest which ensued, Knox -was a chief agent in conducting the correspondence between Elizabeth -and the Lords of the Congregation. The task suited neither his profession -nor his character, and he rejoiced when he was relieved from -it. In July, 1560, a treaty was concluded with the King and Queen -of France, by which the administration of the Queen Regent was terminated; -and in August a parliament was convoked, which abolished -the papal jurisdiction, prohibited the celebration of mass, and rescinded -the laws enacted against Protestant worship.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From the persecuted and endangered teacher of a proscribed religion, -Knox had now become, not indeed the head, but a leader and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>venerated father of an Established Church. He was at once appointed -the Protestant minister of Edinburgh, and his influence ceased not to -be felt from this time forward in all things connected with the Church, -and in many particulars of civil policy. Still his anxieties were far -from an end. Many things threatened and impeded the infant Church. -Far from acquiescing in the recent acts of the parliament, the young -King and Queen of France were bent on putting down the rebellion, -as they termed it, in Scotland by force of arms. The death of -Francis put an end to that danger; but another, no less serious, was -opened by the arrival of Mary in August, 1561, to assume her paternal -sovereignty, with a fixed determination of reviving the supremacy -of the religion in which she had been brought up, and to which -she was devotedly attached. There were also two subjects upon -which Knox felt peculiarly anxious, and in which he was thwarted -by the lukewarmness, as he considered it, of the legislature,—the -establishment of a strict and efficacious system of church discipline, -and the entire devotion of the wealth of the Catholic priesthood to -the promotion of education, and the maintenance of the true religion. -In both these points he was thwarted by the indifference or interestedness -of the nobility, who had possessed themselves, to a large amount, -of the lands and tithes formerly enjoyed by monasteries.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It soon became evident that the Queen disliked and feared Knox. -She regarded his ‘Blast against the Regimen of Women’ as an attack -upon her own right to the throne; and this is not surprising, -though Knox always declared that book to be levelled solely against -the late Queen of England, and professed his perfect readiness to submit -to Mary’s authority in all things lawful, and to wave all discussion -or allusion to the obnoxious tenet. His freedom of speech in the -pulpit was another constant source of offence; and it is not to be -denied that, although the feelings of that age warranted a greater latitude -than would now be tolerated in a teacher of religion, his energetic -and severe temper led him to use violent and indiscreet language -in speaking of public men and public things. For Mary herself he -prayed in terms which, however fitting for a minister to employ -towards one of his flock whom he regarded to be in deadly and pernicious -error, a queen could hardly be expected to endure from a subject -without anger. Accordingly, he was several times summoned to -her presence, to apologise or answer for his conduct. The narrations -of these interviews are very interesting: they show the ascendancy -which he had gained over the haughty spirit of the Queen, and at the -same time exonerate him from the charge urged by her apologists of -having treated her with personal disrespect, and even brutality. He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>expressed uncourtly opinions in plain and severe language; farther -than this he neither violated the courtesy due from man to woman, -nor the respect due from a subject to a superior. In addition to the -causes of offence already specified, he had remonstrated, from her first -landing, against the toleration of the mass in her own chapel. And -at a later time, he spoke so freely concerning the probable consequence -to the Reformed Church from her marrying a Papist, that in reprimanding -and remonstrating with him she burst into a passion of tears. -He remained unmoved, protesting that he saw her Majesty’s tears with -reluctance, but was constrained, since he had given her no just ground -of offence, rather to sustain her tears than to hurt his conscience, and -betray the commonwealth through his silence. This interview is one -of the things upon which Mr. Hume has sought to raise a prejudice -against the reformer in his partial account of this period.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Many of the nobility who had aided in the establishment of the -Reformation, gained over either by the fascination of Mary’s beauty -and manners, or by the still more cogent appeal of personal interest, -were far from seconding Knox’s efforts, or partaking in his apprehensions. -The Earl of Murray was so far won over to adopt a temporising -and conciliatory policy, that a quarrel ensued in 1563 between -him and Knox, which lasted for two years, until quenched, as Knox -expresses it, by the water of affliction. Maitland of Lethington, once -an active Reformer, a man of powerful and versatile talents, who was -now made Secretary of State, openly espoused the Queen’s wishes. -In the summer of 1563, Knox was involved in a charge of high -treason, for having addressed a circular to the chief Protestant gentlemen, -requesting them to attend the trial of two persons accused of -having created a riot at the Queen’s chapel. It appears that he held -an especial commission from the General Assembly to summon such -meetings, when occasion seemed to him to require them. Upon this -charge of treasonably convoking the lieges, he was brought before the -privy council. Murray and Maitland were earnest to persuade him -into submission and acknowledgment of error. Knox, however, with -his usual firmness and uprightness, refused positively to confess a -fault when he was conscious of none, and defended himself with so -much power, that by the voice of a majority of the council he was -declared free of all blame.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In March, 1564, more than three years after the death of his first -wife, Knox was again married to a daughter of Lord Ochiltree, a -zealous Protestant. Throughout that year and the following, he continued -to preach as usual. Meanwhile, the Protestant establishment, -though confirmed by the parliament, remained still unrecognised by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>the Queen, whose hasty marriage to Lord Henry Darnley in July, -1565, increased the alarm with which her conduct had already inspired -the Reformers. But early in the following year, when Mary, -in conjunction with her uncles of the House of Lorrain, had planned -the formal re-establishment of Catholicism, her dissensions with her -husband led to the assassination of Rizzio, and in rapid succession to -the murder of Darnley, her marriage with Bothwell, and the train of -events which ended in her formal deposition and the coronation of her -infant son James VI. It is denied that Knox was privy to the assassination -of Rizzio, and the tenor of his actions warrants us in disbelieving -that he would have been an accomplice in any deed of blood; -but after that event, he spoke of it in terms of satisfaction, indiscreet, -liable to perversion, and unbecoming a Christian preacher. The -Queen’s resentment for this and other reasons became so warm against -him, that it was judged proper for him to retire from Edinburgh. -He preached at the coronation of James VI. After Mary was made -prisoner and confined at Lochleven, he, in common with most of the -ministers and the great body of the people, insisted strongly on the -duty of bringing her to trial for the crimes of murder and adultery, -and of inflicting capital punishment if her guilt were proved.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the short regency of Murray, Knox had the satisfaction, not -only of being freed from the personal disquietudes which had been his -portion almost through life, but of seeing the interests of the Church, -if not maintained to the full extent which he could wish, at least treated -with respect, and advocated as far as the crooked course of state-policy -would permit. The murder of that distinguished nobleman, January -23, 1570, affected Knox doubly, as the premature decease of a loved -and esteemed friend, and as a public calamity to church and state.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the following October he suffered a slight fit of apoplexy, from -which however he soon recovered so far as to resume his Sunday -preachings. But the troubled times which followed on the death of -the Regent Murray denied to him in Edinburgh that repose which his -infirmities demanded, and in May, 1571, he was reluctantly induced -to retire from his ministry and again to seek a refuge in St. Andrew’s. -Nor was his residence in that city one of peace or ease, for he was -troubled by a party favourable to the Queen’s interests, especially by -that Archibald Hamilton who afterwards apostatised to the Roman -Catholic Church and became his bitter calumniator; and he was placed -in opposition to the Regent Morton with respect to the filling up of -vacant bishoprics and the disposal of church property, which, far from -being applied to the maintenance of religion and the diffusion of education, -was still in great measure monopolised by the nobility. In -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>August, 1572, his health being rapidly declining, he returned to -Edinburgh at the earnest request of his congregation, who longed -to hear his voice in the pulpit once more. He felt death to be nigh -at hand, and was above all things anxious to witness the appointment -of a zealous and able successor to the important station in the ministry -which he filled. This was done to his satisfaction. On Sunday, -November 9, he preached and presided at the installation of his successor, -James Lawson, and he never after quitted his own house. -He sickened on the 11th, and expired November 24, 1572, after a -fortnight’s illness, in which he displayed unmixed tranquillity, and -assured trust in a happy futurity, through the promises of the Gospel -which he had preached. It is the more necessary to state this, because -his calumniators dared to assert that his death was accompanied by -horrid prodigies, and visible marks of divine reprobation. The same -tales have been related of Luther and Calvin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Knox’s moral character we may safely pronounce to have been unblemished, -notwithstanding the outrageous charges of dissolute conversation -which have been brought by some writers against him,—calumnies -equally levelled against Beza, Calvin, and other fathers of -the Reformation, and which bear their own refutation in their extravagance. -As a preacher, he was energetic and effective, and uncommonly -powerful in awakening the negligent or the hardened conscience. -As a Reformer and leader of the Church, he was fitted for -the stormy times and the turbulent and resolute people among whom -his lot was cast, by the very qualities which have been made a reproach -to him in a more polished age, and by a less zealous generation. He -was possessed of strong natural talents, and a determined will which -shunned neither danger nor labour. He was of middle age when he -began the study of Greek, and it was still later in life when he acquired -the Hebrew language,—tasks of no small difficulty when we consider -the harassed and laborious tenor of his life. No considerations of temporising -prudence could seduce him into the compromise of an important -principle; no thought of personal danger could make him shrink -when called to confront it. His deep sense and resolute discharge of -duty, coupled with a natural fire and impetuosity of temper, sometimes -led him into severity. But that his disposition was deeply affectionate -is proved by his private correspondence; and that his severity proceeded -from no acerbity of temper may be inferred from his having -employed his powerful influence as a mediator for those who had borne -arms against his party, and from his having never used it to avenge an -injury. The best apology for his occasional harshness is that contained -in the words of his own dying address to the elders of his church -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>as quoted by Dr. M’Crie. “I know that many have frequently complained, -and do still loudly complain, of my too great severity; but -God knows that my mind was always void of hatred to the persons of -those against whom I thundered the severest judgments. I cannot -deny but that I felt the greatest abhorrence at the sins in which they -indulged; but still I kept this one thing in view, that, if possible, I -might gain them to the Lord. What influenced me to utter whatever -the Lord put into my mouth so boldly, and without respect of persons, -was a reverential fear of my God, who called and of His grace appointed -me to be a steward of divine mysteries, and a belief that He will demand -an account of the manner in which I have discharged the trust -committed to me, when I shall at last stand before His tribunal.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>A list of Knox’s printed works, nineteen in number, is given by -Dr. M’Crie at the end of his notes. They consist chiefly of short religious -pieces, exhortations, and sermons. In addition to those more -important books which we have already noticed, his ‘History of the -Church of Scotland’ requires mention. The best edition is that -printed at Edinburgh in 1732, which contains a life of the author, -the ‘Regimen of Women,’ and some<a id='t48'></a> other pieces. Dr. M’Crie’s -admirable ‘Life of Knox’ will direct the reader to the original -sources of the history of this period.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_048.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Knox’s House in the Canongate, Edinburgh.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_049fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />ADAM SMITH.<br /><br /><em>From a Medallion executed in the life time of A. Smith, by Tafsiel.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span> -<img src='images/i_049.jpg' alt='A. SMITH.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>A. SMITH.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Adam Smith was born June 5, 1723, at Kirkaldy, in the county of -Fife, where his father held the place of comptroller of the customs. -Being a posthumous and only child, he became the sole object of his -widowed mother’s tenderness and solicitude; and this was increased -by the delicacy of his constitution. Upon her devolved the sole charge -of his education; and the value of her care may be estimated from the -uninterrupted harmony and deep mutual affection which united them, -unchilled, to the end of life. He was remarkable for his love of -reading and the excellence of his memory, even at the early age when -she first placed him at the grammar-school of Kirkaldy, where he -won the affection of his companions by his amiable disposition, though -the weakness of his frame hindered him from joining in their sports.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the age of fourteen he was sent to the University of Glasgow, -from which, at the end of three years, he was removed to Baliol -College, Oxford, in order to qualify himself for taking orders in the -English Church. Mathematics and natural philosophy seem to have -been his favourite pursuits at Glasgow; but at Oxford he devoted all -his leisure hours to belles-lettres, and the moral and political sciences. -Among these political economy cannot be reckoned; for at that period -it was unknown even in name: still, in such studies, and by the -sedulous improvement of his understanding, he was laying the foundations -of his immortal work. He remained seven years at Oxford, -without conceiving, as may be inferred from some passages in the -‘Wealth of Nations,’ any high respect for the system of education -then pursued in the University; and, having given up all thoughts -of taking orders, he returned to his mother’s house at Kirkaldy, and -devoted himself entirely to literature and science. In 1748 he removed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>to Edinburgh, where, under Lord Kames’s patronage, he delivered a -course of lectures on rhetoric and belles-lettres. These were never -published; and, with other papers, were destroyed by Smith a short -time before his death. Dr. Blair, in the well-known course which -he delivered ten years afterwards on the same subject, acknowledges -how greatly he was indebted to his predecessor, and how largely he -had borrowed from him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1751 Mr. Smith was elected Professor of Logic in the University -of Glasgow, and in the following year he was transferred to -the chair of Moral Philosophy, which he filled during thirteen years. -The following account of his lectures is given by Professor Millar. -“His course of lectures on this subject was divided into four parts. -The first contained natural theology, in which he considered the -proofs of the being and attributes of God, and those principles of the -human mind upon which religion is founded. The second comprehended -ethics, strictly so called, and consisted chiefly of the doctrines -which he afterwards published in his ‘Theory of Moral Sentiments.’ -In the third part he treated more at length of that branch of morality -which relates to justice, and which, being susceptible of precise and -accurate rules, is for that reason capable of a full and particular -explanation.... In the last part of his lectures he examined -those political regulations which are founded, not on the principle of -justice, but on that of expediency, and which are calculated to increase -the riches, the power, and the prosperity of a state. Under this view, -he considered the political institutions relating to commerce, to -finances, to ecclesiastical and military establishments. What he -delivered on these subjects contained the substance of the work he -afterwards published under the title of ‘An Inquiry into the Nature -and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.’”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“There was no situation in which the abilities of Dr. Smith appeared -to greater advantage than as a professor. In delivering his lectures, -he trusted almost entirely to extemporary elocution. His manner, -though not graceful, was plain and unaffected; and as he seemed to -be always interested in the subject, he never failed to interest his -hearers. Each discourse consisted of several distinct propositions, -which he successively endeavoured to prove and to illustrate. These -propositions, when announced in general terms, had, from their extent, -not unfrequently something of the air of a paradox. In his attempts -to explain them, he often appeared at first not to be sufficiently possessed -of the subject, and spoke with some hesitation. As he advanced, -however, the matter seemed to crowd upon him, his manner became -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>warm and animated, and his expression easy and fluent. In points -susceptible of controversy, you could easily discern that he secretly -conceived an opposition to his opinions, and that he was led upon this -account to support them with greater energy and vehemence. By the -fulness and variety of his illustrations, the subject gradually swelled -in his hands, and acquired a dimension which, without a tedious repetition -of the same views, was calculated to seize the attention of his -audience, and to afford them pleasure as well as instruction in following -the same object through all the diversity of shades and aspects in -which it was presented, and afterwards in tracing it backwards to -that original proposition or general truth from which this beautiful -train of speculation had proceeded.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“His reputation as a professor was accordingly raised very high, -and a multitude of students from a great distance resorted to the -University merely upon his account. Those branches of science which -he taught became fashionable at this place, and his opinions were the -chief topics of discussion in clubs and literary societies. Even the -small peculiarities in his pronunciation or manner of speaking became -frequently the objects of imitation.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Smith published his ‘Theory of Moral Sentiments’ in 1759. The -fundamental principle of this work, we use the summary of Mr. Macculloch, -is that “<em>sympathy</em> forms the real foundation of morals; that -we do not immediately approve or disapprove of any given action, -when we have become acquainted with the intention of the agent and -the consequences of what he has done, but that we previously enter, -by means of that sympathetic affection which is natural to us, into the -feelings of the agent, and those to whom the action relates; that -having considered all the motives and passions by which the agent -was actuated, we pronounce, with respect to the <em>propriety</em> or <em>impropriety</em> -of the action, according as we sympathise or not with him; -while we pronounce, with respect to the <em>merit</em> or <em>demerit</em> of the action, -according as we sympathise with the gratitude or resentment of those -who were its objects; and that we necessarily judge of our own conduct -by comparing it with such maxims and rules as we have deduced -from observations previously made on the conduct of others.” This -theory, ingenious as it is, is generally abandoned as untenable. Dr. -Brown has argued, and the objection seems fatal, that though sympathy -may diffuse, it cannot originate moral sentiments: at the same -time he bears the strongest testimony to the literary merits and moral -tendency of the work.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1763 Smith received from the University of Glasgow the honorary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>degree of Doctor of Laws, and he was offered, and accepted, the -situation of travelling tutor to the young Duke of Buccleugh. His -long residence in the populous and manufacturing metropolis of western -Scotland had enabled him to collect a rich hoard of materials for the -great work he had in view; and this new appointment changed the -method, rather than interrupted the course, of his studies. It afforded -him the means of examining the habits, institutions, and condition of -man under new forms, and in new countries, and he observed with -his natural acuteness and sagacity the influence of locality, of climate, -and of government. He no doubt derived considerable advantage -from the society of the distinguished men with whom he associated -at Paris; among these, Turgot, D’Alembert, Helvetius, Marmontel, -Morellet, Rochefoucauld, and Quesnay, were his intimate friends. -So highly did he appreciate the talents of the last-named person as -an economist, that he had intended, had Quesnay lived, to have acknowledged -the debt he owed him by dedicating to him his own great -work on the ‘Wealth of Nations.’</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having spent two years on the Continent, Dr. Smith returned to -England with his pupil, and soon after joined his mother at Kirkaldy, -where he resided for about ten years almost entirely in seclusion, -occupied in the prosecution of his great work. It was published in -1776; and few books have ever been given to the world tending -more directly to destroy the prejudices, develop the powers, and promote -the happiness of mankind. But the world at that time was not -clear-sighted enough to appreciate its merits. Dr. Smith however -had the gratification to see that, during fifteen years which elapsed -between its publication and his death, it had produced a considerable -effect upon public opinion, and that the eyes of men were beginning -to be opened upon an object of such importance to human happiness. -In this country at least Dr. Smith was the creator of the science of -political economy, for he had only a chaos of materials from which -to form it. Some defects may be discovered in his arrangement, -and some errors detected in the principles as laid down by him; for -it is hardly given to human intellect, that the originator of a science -should also carry it to perfection. But Smith established the foundation -upon which all future superstructures must rest; and the labours -of Ricardo, Malthus, and some now living, eminent as they are, -instead of superseding their predecessor do but enhance his merit. -With all the progress which liberty of every kind has made since his -time, no one has maintained the freedom of industry in all its bearings -more forcibly than himself. The theories of rent, and of population, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>seem to be the only important branches of the science, as it now -stands, which had escaped his observation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1778 Dr. Smith was appointed Commissioner of the Customs for -Scotland. The duties of his office obliged him to quit London, where -he had resided for two years subsequent to the publication of the -‘Wealth of Nations,’ and where his society had been courted by the -most distinguished characters; and he took up his abode in Edinburgh, -accompanied by his aged mother. In 1787 he was elected Rector of -the University of Glasgow; a compliment which gave him great -pleasure, as he was much attached to that body, and grateful for the -services it had rendered him in his youth, and the honours it had conferred -on him at a more advanced age.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His mother died in 1784, and his grief on this occasion is supposed -to have injured his health, and his constitution, which had never been -robust, began to give way. He suffered another severe privation in -the death of his cousin, Miss Douglas, who had managed his household -for many years, since the infirmities of his parent had disqualified -her for that employment. He survived Miss Douglas only two years, -and died in 1790 of a tedious and painful illness, which he bore with -patience and resignation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Adam Smith’s private character is thus summed up by his friend -Mr. Dugald Stewart: “The more delicate and characteristical features -of his mind it is perhaps impossible to trace. That there were many -peculiarities both in his manners and in his intellectual habits was -manifest to the most superficial observer; but, although to those who -knew him, these peculiarities detracted nothing from the respect which -his abilities commanded; and although, to his intimate friends, they -added an inexpressible charm to his conversation, while they displayed -in the most interesting light the artless simplicity of his heart, yet it -would require a very skilful pencil to present them to the public eye. -He was certainly not fitted for the general commerce of the world, or -for the business of active life. The comprehensive speculations with -which he had been occupied from his youth, and the variety of materials -which his own inventions continually supplied to his thoughts, -rendered him habitually inattentive to familiar objects and to common -occurrences; and he frequently exhibited instances of absence which -had scarcely been surpassed by the fancy of La Bruyère. Even in -company he was apt to be engrossed with his studies, and appeared, -at times, by the motion of his lips, as well as by his looks and gestures, -to be in the fervour of composition. I have often however -been struck, at the distance of years, with his accurate memory of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>most trifling particulars; and am inclined to believe, from this and -some other circumstances, that he possessed a power, not perhaps uncommon -among absent men, of recollecting, in consequence of subsequent -efforts of reflection, many occurrences which, at the time when -they happened, did not seem to have sensibly attracted his notice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“To the defect now mentioned, it was probably owing, in part, that -he did not fall in easily with the common dialogue of conversation, -and that he was somewhat apt to convey his own ideas in the form of -a lecture. When he did so however, it never proceeded from a wish -to engross the discourse, or gratify his vanity. His own inclination -disposed him so strongly to enjoy in silence the gaiety of those around -him, that his friends were often led to concert little schemes, in order -to engage him in the discussions most likely to interest him. Nor do -I think I shall be accused of going too far, when I say that he was -scarcely ever known to start a new topic himself, or to appear unprepared -upon those topics that were introduced by others. Indeed, his -conversation was never more amusing than when he gave a loose to -his genius, upon the very few branches of knowledge of which he -only possessed the outlines.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“In his external form and appearance there was nothing uncommon. -When perfectly at ease, and when warmed with conversation, his gestures -were animated, and not ungraceful; and in the society of those -he loved, his features were often brightened with a smile of inexpressible -benignity.... He never sat for his picture, but the -medallion by Tassie conveys an exact idea of his profile, and of the -general expression of his countenance.” It is from this that our -portrait of him is engraved.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To those of Smith’s works of which we have already spoken, we -have to add two articles in a short-lived periodical publication, called -the ‘Edinburgh Review,’ for 1755, containing a review of Johnson’s -Dictionary, and a letter on the state of literature in the different -countries of Europe; an ‘Essay on the Formation of Languages;’ and -Essays, published after his death by his desire, with an account of his -life and writings prefixed, by Dugald Stewart, on the Principles which -lead and direct Philosophical Inquiries; on the nature of the Imitation -practised in the Imitative Arts; on the affinity between certain English -and Italian verses; and on the External Senses. To that account of -his life we may refer for an able analysis of his most important -writings, as well as to the memoir prefixed to Mr. Macculloch’s -edition of the ‘Wealth of Nations,’ from which this sketch is principally -taken.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_055fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by T. Woolnoth.</em><br /><br />CALVIN.<br /><br /><em>From a Print engraved by C. Dankertz.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span> -<img src='images/i_055.jpg' alt='CALVIN.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>CALVIN.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>John Cauvin (afterwards called Calvin) was born of humble parents, -his father following the trade of a cooper, at Noyon in Picardy, July 10, -1509. He was intended in the first instance for the profession of the -church, and two benefices were already set apart for him, when, at a -very early age, from what motive is not exactly known, his destination -was suddenly changed, and he was sent, first to Orleans and then to -Bourges, to learn under distinguished teachers the science of jurisprudence. -He is said to have made great proficiency in that study; -but nevertheless, he found leisure to cultivate other talents, and made -himself acquainted with Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac, during his residence -at Bourges. His natural inclination seems ever to have bent -him towards those pursuits to which his earliest attention was directed; -and though he never attended the schools of theology, nor had at any -time any public master in that science, yet his thoughts were never -far away from it; and the time which he could spare from his professional -labours was employed on subjects bearing more or less -directly upon religion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Thus it was, that he failed not to take part in the discussions, which -arose in France during his early years, respecting the principles of the -Reformation; and it may be, that his happy escape from theological -tuition made him more disposed to embrace them. It is certain -that his opposition to the Church of Rome became very soon notorious, -and made him, young as he was, an object of jealousy to some of its -powerful adherents. Even the moderate Erasmus viewed his aspiring -talents and determined character with some undefined apprehension; -and he is related (after a conversation with Calvin at Strasbourg) to -have remarked to Bucer, who had presented him,—“I see in that -young man the seeds of a dangerous pest, which will some day throw -great disorder into the Church.” The weak and wavering character -of Erasmus renders it difficult for us to understand what sort of disorder -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>it was that he anticipated, or what exactly was the <em>Church</em> on -which the apprehended mischief was to fall. In 1535 Calvin -published his great work, the ‘Christian Institute,’ which was intended -as a sort of confession of faith of the French reformers, in answer to -the calumnies which confounded them with the frantic Anabaptists of -Germany.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1536, finding that his person was no longer secure in France, -Calvin determined to retire into Germany, and was compelled by -accident to pass through Geneva. He found this city in a state of -extreme confusion. The civil government was popular, and in those -days tumultuous: the ecclesiastical had been entirely dissolved by the -departure of the bishops and clergy on the triumph of the Reformation, -and only such laws existed as the individual influence of the pastors -was able to impose upon their several flocks. It was a tempting field -for spiritual ambition, and Calvin was readily persuaded to enter into -it. He decided to remain at Geneva, and forthwith opened a theological -school.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the very year following his arrival, he formed the design of -introducing into his adopted country a regular system of ecclesiastical -polity. He assembled the people; and, not without much opposition, -prevailed on them at length to bind themselves by oath; <em>first</em>, that -they would not again, on any consideration, ever submit to the dominion -of Rome; <em>secondly</em>, that they would render obedience to a -certain code of ecclesiastical laws, which he and his colleagues had -drawn up for them. Some writers do not expressly mention that this -second proposition was accepted by the people—if accepted, it was -immediately violated: and as Calvin and his clerical coadjutors (who -were only two in number) refused with firmness to administer the -holy communion to such as rejected the condition, the people, not yet -prepared to endure that bondage, banished the spiritual legislators -from the city, in April, 1538.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Calvin retired to Strasbourg, where he renewed his intimacy with -Bucer, and became more and more distinguished for his talents and -learning. He was present at the Conferences of Worms and Ratisbon, -where he gained additional reputation. He founded a French reformed -church at Strasbourg, and obtained a theological chair in that city; at -the same time, he continued in communication with Geneva, and in -expressions of unabated affection for his former adherents. Meanwhile, -the disorders which had prevailed in that city were in no manner alleviated -by his exile, and a strong reaction gradually took place in his -favour; insomuch, that, in the year 1541, there being a vacancy in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>the ministry, the senate and the assembly of the people proclaimed -with equal vehemence their wish for the return of Calvin. “We will -have Calvin, that good and learned man, Christ’s minister.” “This,” -says Calvin, Epist. 24, “when I understood, I could not choose but -praise God; nor was I able to judge otherwise, than that this was the -Lord’s doing; and that it was marvellous in our eyes; and that the -stone which the builders refused was now made the head of the -corner.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was on September 13th that he returned from his exile in the pride -of spiritual triumph; and he began, without any loss of time, while -the feelings of all classes were yet warm in his favour, to establish -that rigid form of ecclesiastical discipline which he may formerly have -meditated, but which he did not fully propound till now. He proposed -to institute a standing court (the Consistory), consisting of all -the ministers of religion, who were to be perpetual members, and also -of twice the same number of laymen to be chosen annually. To these -he committed the charge of public morality, with power to determine -all kinds of ecclesiastical causes; with authority to convene, control, -and punish, even with excommunication, whomsoever they might think -deserving. It was in vain that many advanced objections to this -scheme: that they urged the despotic character of this court; the certainty -too, that the perpetual judges, though fewer in number, would -in fact predominate over a majority annually elected; and that Calvin, -through his power over the clergy, would be master of the decisions -of the whole tribunal. He persisted inflexibly; and since there now -remained with the people of Geneva only the choice of receiving his -laws or sending him once more into exile, they acquiesced reluctantly -in the former determination. On the 20th of November, in the same -year (1541), the Presbytery was established at Geneva.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Maimbourg, in his ‘History of Calvinism,’ has remarked that, -from this time forward, Calvin became, not pontiff only, but also -caliph, of Geneva; since the unbounded influence which he possessed -in the Consistory extended to the council, and no important state-affair -was transacted without his advice or approbation. At the same time, -he enlarged the limits of his spiritual power, and made it felt in every -quarter of Europe. In France most especially he was regarded personally -as the head of the Reformed Church; he composed a liturgy -for its use; and, secured from persecution by his residence and dignity, -he gave laws, by his writings and his emissaries, to the scattered -congregations of Reformers. The fruits of his unwearied industry -were everywhere in their hands. His Institute, and his learned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>Expositions of Scripture, were substantial foundations of spiritual -authority; and he became to his Church what the “Master of the -Sentences,”—almost what Augustin himself—had been to the Church -of Rome. And he did the Reformed Church an essential service -by procuring the establishment of the academy, or university of -Geneva; which was long the principal nursery of Presbyterian -ministers, and which was the chief instrument of communicating to -the citizens of its little state, that general mental culture and love -of literature for which they have been remarkable.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The peculiarities of his religious opinions are known to all our -readers; nor indeed, at any rate, have we space, in this brief outline -of the Life of the Reformer, so to detail his tenets as to avoid the -chance of misconception, either by his followers or his adversaries. -We shall, therefore, proceed to another subject, respecting which -there will be little difference, either as to the facts themselves, or the -judgment to be formed of them—we mean that darkest act of his -life, which being, as far as we learn, unatoned and unrepented, throws -so deep a shadow over all the rest, as almost to make us question his -sincerity in any good principle, or his capability of any righteous -purpose.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A Spaniard, named Servetus, born at Villa Nueva, in Aragon, in -the same year with Calvin, had been long engaged in a correspondence -with the latter, which had finally degenerated into angry and abusive -controversy. He had been educated as a physician, and had acquired -great credit in his profession; when, in an evil hour, he entered the -field of theological controversy, and professed without fear, and defended -without modification, the Unitarian doctrine; adding to it -some obscure and fanciful notions, peculiar, we believe, to his own -imagination. He published very early in life ‘Seven Books concerning -the Errors of the Trinity,’ and he continued in the same principles -until the year 1553, when he put forth (at Vienne, in Dauphiné), a -work entitled ‘The Restoration of Christianity, &c.,’ in further confirmation -of his views.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Now it is very true, that the propagation of these opinions by a professed -Reformer was at that crisis a matter of great scandal, and -perhaps even of some danger to the cause of the Reformation. It -was felt as such by some of the leading Reformers. Zuinglius and -Œcolampadius eagerly disclaimed the error of Servetus. “Our -Church will be very ill spoken of,” said the latter in a letter to Bucer, -“unless our divines make it their business to cry him down.” And -had they been contented to proclaim their dissent from his doctrine, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>or to assail it by reasonable argument, they would have done no more -than their duty to their own communion absolutely demanded of them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But Calvin was not a man who would argue where he could command, -or persuade where he could overthrow. Full of vehemence and -bitterness, inflexible and relentless, he was prepared to adopt and to -justify extreme measures, wheresoever they answered his purpose -best. He was animated by the pride, intolerance, and cruelty of the -Church of Rome, and he planted and nourished those evil passions in -his little Consistory at Geneva.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Servetus, having escaped from confinement at Vienne, and flying -for refuge to Naples, was driven by evil destiny, or his own infatuation, -to Geneva. Here he strove to conceal himself, till he should be -enabled to proceed on his journey; but he was quickly discovered by -Calvin, and immediately cast into prison. This was in the summer -of 1553. Presently followed the formality of his trial; and when we -read the numerous articles of impeachment, and observe the language -in which they are couched;—when we peruse the humble petitions -which he addressed to the “Syndics and Council,” praying only that -an advocate might be granted him, which prayer was haughtily refused;—when -we perceive the misrepresentations of his doctrine, and -the offensive terms of his condemnation, we appear to be carried back -again to the Halls of Constance, and to be witnessing the fall of Huss -and Jerome beneath their Roman Catholic oppressors. So true it is -(as Grotius had sufficient reason to say), “that the Spirit of Antichrist -did appear at Geneva as well as at Rome.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>But the magistrates of this Republic did not venture completely -to execute the will of Calvin, without first consulting the other -Protestant cities of Switzerland; namely, Zurich, Berne, Bâsle, and -Schaffhausen. The answers returned by these all indicated very great -anxiety for the extinction of the heresy, without however expressly -demanding the blood of the heretic. The people of Zurich were the -most violent: and the answer of their “Pastors, Readers, and Ministers,” -which is praised and preserved by Calvin, is worthy of the -communion from which they had so lately seceded. As soon as these -communications reached Geneva, Servetus was immediately condemned -to death (on the 26th of October, 1553), and was executed on -the day following.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is extant a letter written by Calvin to his friend and brother-minister, -William Farel (dated the 26th), which announces that the -fatal sentence had been passed, and would be executed on the morrow. -It is only remarkable for the cold conciseness and heartless indifference -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>of its expressions. Not a single word indicates any feeling of -compassion or repugnance. And as the work of persecution was carried -on without mercy, and completed without pity, so likewise was it -recollected without remorse; and the Protestant Republican Minister -of Christ continued for some years afterwards to insult with abusive -epithets the memory of his victim.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Soon after the death of Servetus, Calvin published a vindication of -his proceedings, in which he defended, without any compromise, the -principle on which he had acted. It is entitled, “A Faithful Exposition -and short Refutation of the Errors of Servetus, wherein it is -shown that heretics should be restrained by the power of the sword.” -His friend and biographer Beza also put forth a work “On the propriety -of punishing Heretics by the Civil authority.” Thus Calvin -not only indulged his own malevolent humour, but also sought to -establish among the avowed principles of his own Church the duty of -exterminating all who might happen to differ from it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He lived eleven years longer; and expired at Geneva on the 27th -of May, 1564; having maintained his authority to the end of his life, -without acquiring any of the affection of those about him. Neither of -these circumstances need surprise us, for it was his character to awe, -to command, and to repel. Fearless, inflexible, morose, and imperious; -he neither courted any one, nor yielded to any one, nor conciliated any -one. Yet he was sensible of, and seemingly contrite for, his defects of -temper; for he writes to Bucer: “I have not had harder contests -with my vices, which are great and many, than with my impatience. -I have not yet been able to subdue that savage brute.” His talents -were extremely powerful, both for literature and for business. His -profound and various learning acquired for him the general respect -which it deserved. He was active and indefatigable; he slept little, -and was remarkable for his abstemious habits. With a heart inflated -and embittered with spiritual pride, he affected a perfect -simplicity of manner; and professed, and may indeed have felt, a consummate -contempt for the ordinary objects of human ambition. Besides -this, he was far removed from the besetting vice of common minds, by -which even noble qualities are so frequently degraded—avarice. He -neither loved money for itself, nor grasped at it for its uses; and at -his death, the whole amount of his property, including his library, -did not exceed, at the lowest statement, one hundred and twenty-five -crowns, at the highest, three hundred.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We may thus readily understand how it was that Calvin acquired, -through the mere force of personal character thrown into favourable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>circumstances, power almost uncontrolled over a state of which he -was not so much as a native, and considerable influence besides over -the spiritual condition of Europe—power and influence, of which deep -traces still exist both in the country which adopted him, and in others -where he was only known by his writings and his doctrines. His -doctrines still divide the Christian world; but that ecclesiastical principle, -which called in the authority of the sword for their defence, has -been long and indignantly disclaimed by all his followers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The best clue to the real character of Calvin will be found in his -letters. Many accounts of his life, as well as of his doctrines and -writings, exist; but they are mostly influenced by party feeling. The -earliest is that of his friend Beza; it is said however not to be strictly -accurate even as to the facts of Calvin’s life before 1549, when the -author became acquainted with him, and it is of course a panegyric.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span> -<img src='images/i_062.jpg' alt='MANSFIELD' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>MANSFIELD</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The first Earl of Mansfield was a younger son of a noble house in -Scotland, which he raised to higher rank by his own brilliant talents -and successful industry.</p> - -<p class='c000'>William Murray was the eleventh child of David, Viscount Stormont, -and was born at Perth, March 2, 1704. He received his -education at Westminster School and Christchurch College, Oxford, -where he gained distinction by the elegance of his scholarship. He -took his degree of M.A. in June, 1730, and was called to the bar in -the Michaelmas term following: the interval he employed in travelling -in France and Italy. At an early age he gained the friendship of -Pope, who in several passages has borne testimony to the grace, -eloquence, rising fame, and attractive social accomplishments of the -young lawyer. In 1737, in consequence of the sudden illness of his -leader, who was seized with a fit in court, Mr. Murray had to undertake, -at an hour’s notice, the duty of senior counsel, in the cause of -Cibber <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">v.</span></i> Sloper. From his success on this occasion he was wont to -date the origin of his fortune. “Business,” he said, “poured in -upon me on all sides; and from a few hundred pounds a year I -fortunately found myself, in every subsequent year, in possession of -thousands.” In the same year he was retained by the corporation -of Edinburgh in the memorable transactions which arose out of the -Porteous riot; and his exertions to preserve their privileges were -subsequently acknowledged by the gift of the freedom of the city -in a gold box. November 20, 1738, Mr. Murray was married to -Lady Elizabeth Finch, daughter of the Earl of Winchelsea, a lady -who, in addition to rank and fortune, possessed those more valuable -qualities which rendered their married life, through near half a century, -one of harmony and domestic happiness.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Murray was appointed Solicitor-General in 1742, and took his -seat in parliament, for the first time, as member for Boroughbridge.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_062fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />LORD MANSFIELD.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by Sir Joshua Reynolds in the Possession of Lord Mansfield.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>For many years, during which he held office under the Pelham -administration, he was recognized in the House of Commons as one -of the ablest supporters of government; and he was frequently opposed -in the outset of his career to Mr. Pitt, who, after the elevation -of both to the upper house, bore this high testimony, among others, -to Murray’s weight as a speaker. “No man is better acquainted with -his abilities and learning, nor has a greater respect for them, than I -have. I have had the pleasure of sitting with him in the other house, -and always listened to him with attention. I have not lost a word of -what he said, nor did I ever.” In his official station, he necessarily -took a prominent part in the prosecution of the rebel lords, especially -at the trial of Lord Lovat in 1747; and his eloquence was set off -by his fairness towards the prisoner, whose concern in the rebellion -was indeed too evident to admit of hesitation on the part of his -judges. We may follow up the history of his legal advancement by -briefly stating that, in 1754, he was appointed Attorney-General, and, -in 1756, Chief Justice of the King’s Bench, and, at the same time, -raised to the peerage, by the title of Baron Mansfield. It is said that -the Duke of Newcastle was extremely unwilling to consent to the -removal of his most powerful supporter from the Commons, but was -forced to comply by the threat that, if he refused, Murray would no -longer act as Attorney-General.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Lord Mansfield’s private life appears for the most part to have been -passed in tranquil prosperity, which afforded no incidents for the biographer -to dwell on; at least the published records of him are nearly -confined to his exertions as an advocate, his speeches in parliament, -and reports on the important cases which he adjudicated. It will be -sufficient here to mention those events by which Lord Mansfield is -connected with the public history of England, and to make a few -general observations on his character as a lawyer and a judge.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1763, the legality of what were called general warrants, not -directed against persons by name specifically, but generally against -any person or persons supposed to be guilty of a certain act, was -mooted, in consequence of a secretary of state’s warrant to apprehend -the “authors, printers and publishers” of the celebrated No. 45 of -the ‘North Briton.’ Wilkes, being apprehended by virtue of this -warrant, was discharged by Pratt, afterwards Lord Camden, Chief -Justice of the Common Pleas, when brought up before that court by -writ of <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">habeas corpus</span></i>. The question came before Lord Mansfield in -a different form. An action of trespass was brought in the court of -Common Pleas against the messengers who executed the warrant, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>and a verdict was given for the plaintiff. A bill of exceptions against -Chief Justice Pratt’s directions to the jury was tendered, in pursuance -of which the question was again argued before Lord Mansfield, who -coincided with his brother chief in holding the instrument illegal -under which the defendants had acted. Since this decision, general -warrants have been disused.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1768, Wilkes, then at the height of his popularity, returned to -England, and applied for a reversal of his outlawry. The excitement -of his partisans broke out both in riots and in indecent attempts to -intimidate the judges before whom the point was to be argued. Lord -Mansfield pronounced for the reversal upon the ground of a technical -informality, which the Court held fatal to the process; but in his -elaborate judgment he took care strongly to censure the seditious -efforts which had been made to influence the court, and to impress on -his auditors that the apparently trifling objection on which the judgment -turned was fatal in law, and could not have been passed over in -any other case. This speech has been much admired; nor is it easy -to overrate its beauties as a composition: it lies open, however, to the -objection of being too theatrical. After overruling the objections -made by the defendant’s counsel, it rises into eloquent declamation -against the attacks of the press, and the threats of the mob; and, at -the moment when all seems ripe for a contrary decision, proceeds to -grant the thing so loudly clamoured for. He may safely contemn -danger who does not expose himself to it; and it would on this occasion -have been more dignified to make less parade of independence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Lord Mansfield’s view of the law of libel exposed him to much -obloquy. He was a resolute assertor of the doctrine that juries were -to judge of the fact only, not of the law, or rather of the question, -libel or no libel. A prerogative lawyer on the bench, he was a supporter -of Tory principles in parliament. He strenuously maintained -the right of the British legislature to tax America, and was the advocate, -though he probably would not have been the adviser, of those -measures which led to the American revolution; for the temper of -his mind seems to have been cautious and somewhat timid, and his -political conduct was swayed by an habitual moderation, which sometimes -prevented his accession to the more violent measures of his -party. His course was consistent with what we may suppose to have -been his early prejudices, for he came of a Jacobite family; and it -was made a matter of accusation against him, while Attorney-General -(most unfairly revived by Junius), that, as a schoolboy, he had been -known to drink Jacobite toasts. The charge, if true, was too trivial -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>to merit further notice than George II. bestowed upon it: “Whatever -they were while they were Westminster boys, they are now my -very good friends.” At the same time he was a steady advocate of -religious toleration, both on the bench and in the House of Lords. -This he showed in 1768, on occasion of the prosecution of a Roman -Catholic priest by a common informer, in his strict dealing with the -penal laws enacted against that class of men; and in assigning his -reasons for admitting a Quaker’s evidence on affirmation in certain -cases. And the Dissenters in general, and especially of the city of -London, were much indebted to his support in the House of Lords -in 1767, for the abolition of that mean and oppressive custom by -which they were fined for refusing to serve the office of sheriff, being -at the same time subject to legal penalties if they accepted it. Lord -Mansfield’s exposition of the iniquity of this practice was unsparing -and conclusive.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The unprecedentedly-long period during which Lord Mansfield -presided in the King’s Bench is one of considerable importance in the -history of British jurisprudence; indeed, the multiplicity of his decisions -during a period of thirty-four years could not fail materially to -affect the law relating both to commercial and other property, especially -in a country so rapidly increasing in wealth, and in which new cases -were continually arising out of the ever-changing state of society. -By a large body of his admirers, a class including the majority of -the nation, he was regarded with almost unlimited admiration; but -several of his important judgments have since been overruled; and -we probably shall not err in stating it as the general opinion of well-informed -persons in the present day, that, indecent and virulent as is -Junius’s attack on him as a judge, there is a solid foundation for the -charge that he was more prone to enlarge the power of the crown -than to protect the liberty of the subject, and more willingly referred -to the Roman law and the law of nations than to Magna Charta and -the Bill of Rights. But the charge of introducing equitable doctrines -into the common law must be received with much more caution. He -may have gone too far in his favourite scheme of introducing more -enlarged and liberal views than had prevailed before his time; he -may have neglected former authorities, and introduced too great laxity -in the interpretation of the law; but, dangerous as such licence is, -lest, in the uncertainty of law, a greater evil be incurred than by the -occasional commission of an essential injustice, yet we must look with -complacency on that alleged tendency to relax the strict rigour of law -in favour of substantial justice, which seems to have consisted chiefly -in a disposition to admit evidence when mere technical disqualification, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>and not essential unfitness, was urged against it; and rather -to let right prevail than give the victory to wrong by rigid adherence -to the technicalities of the law. His feelings may be illustrated by a -playful saying of his own to Garrick. “A judge on the bench is now -and then in your whimsical situation between Tragedy and Comedy; -inclination drawing one way, and a long string of precedents the -other.” It is certain that to him we owe all that our mercantile law -has of system, and of consistency with the principles which govern -the practice of other nations. It is no less true that the remedies -generally afforded by our courts of law have become much more -beneficial, since he enlarged and moulded actions originally of an -equitable nature to suit cases to which proceedings in equity are -very ill adapted. Nor is it too much to assert that under him the -science of law assumed the form of a liberal study.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is hardly necessary to reply to the graver charges of moral guilt -adduced by the able and unscrupulous author to whom we have referred. -The spirit in which they are conceived may be estimated -from the unmeasured vituperation of the Scotch in general, which -forms the opening of the forty-first letter of Junius, addressed to Lord -Mansfield. His lordship’s knowledge of English law has been impugned; -his innovations upon its doctrines have been censured; his -application and extension of its principles have been questioned; and -his constitutional doctrines have been often and justly condemned; -but we do not believe that his honesty has been seriously doubted, -since the violence of party animosity has ceased to inflame men’s -passions and pervert their judgment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Our knowledge of Lord Mansfield’s private history is very limited. -His life however seems to have been spent in happiness and tranquillity, -until the riots of 1780, in which his house, with its contents, -was destroyed. Beside a valuable property in books, pictures, and -furniture, he sustained that loss which, to a literary man, is irreparable,—the -collected manuscripts of a laborious life. He bore this -heavy calamity with honourable fortitude, and declined to accept of -pecuniary compensation. To the application of government he returned -this answer: “I think it does not become me to claim or -expect reparation from the state. I have made up my mind to my -misfortune as I ought, with this consolation, that it came from those -whose object manifestly was general confusion and destruction at -home, in addition to a dangerous and complicated war abroad. If I -should lay before you any account or computation of the pecuniary -damage I have sustained, it might seem a claim or expectation of -being indemnified.” Shortly afterwards he appeared in the House -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>of Lords, to justify the strong measures by which the riots had been -quelled. “It was wonderful,” says Bishop Newton in his ‘Life and -Anecdotes,’ “after such a shock as he had received, that he could so -soon summon his faculties as to make one of the finest and ablest -speeches that ever was heard in parliament, to justify the legality of -the late proceedings on the part of government, to demonstrate that -no royal prerogative had been exerted, no martial law had been exercised, -nothing had been done but what every man, civil or military, -had a right to do in the like cases. ‘I speak not from books,’ he -said, ‘for books I have none;’ having been all consumed in the fire. -The effects of his speech were the admiration and conviction of all -who heard him, and put an end to the debate without division. Lord -Mansfield never appeared greater in any action of his life.” No particular -cause connected with the frenzy of the time can be assigned -for this attack on the Chief Justice; he had not been active in supporting -the measures for the relief of the Catholics, which produced -this remarkable ebullition of folly and wickedness. But when once -riot is afoot, the causes which have first stirred up men’s minds are -readily forgotten; and the violence of party abuse with which Lord -Mansfield had been assailed, and the unpopularity of the government, -in which he was supposed to exercise a principal though secret influence, -are sufficient to account for this calamity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1776, Lord Mansfield, at his own request, was raised to the -dignity of an earl. He had no children, and his object was to raise -the rank of his paternal family in the person of his nephew Lord -Stormont, to whom the succession was secured. In 1784, he was -compelled to absent himself from his judicial duties for a season, and -spent some time, with considerable benefit to his health, at Tunbridge -Wells. He returned to his judicial employment and continued to -exercise it with unclouded intellect, being only prevented by bodily -infirmity from attending the court during the last year and a half that -he held the office. In 1788 he resigned it, at the advanced age of -eighty-four, having presided in the court of King’s Bench for the -unprecedented period of thirty-two years, and being still in possession -of a share of health and power of enjoyment which seldom fall to -the lot of so advanced an age. He retained the perfect possession -of his faculties until within a week of his death, which took place -March 18, 1794, in the ninetieth year of his age.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the case of this, as of many other eminent men, we may regret -that so few particulars of their every-day manners have been preserved. -In the relations of private life his conduct was exemplary; and the -amenity of his manners, the playfulness of his wit, and his admirable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>qualifications as a companion, secured the affection of those who enjoyed -his society. His talents as a speaker were set off by a graceful -and attractive person, and a remarkably harmonious voice; qualifications -greatly conducing to good delivery, which it is said he was -in the habit of improving in youth, by sedulous cultivation under the -direction of Pope.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A gentleman (Mr. Baillie), who had been deeply indebted to Lord -Mansfield’s professional abilities, bequeathed 1500<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> to erect a monument -to his memory. The commission was entrusted to worthy hands, -for it was given to Flaxman. A sketch of his work forms the vignette -to this memoir.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The ‘Life of the Earl of Mansfield,’ by Mr. Halliday, is the only -biographical account of this eminent lawyer which we know to exist. -It is too manifestly panegyrical, and, as has been intimated, contains -a very meagre account of the private history of its noble subject. It -is mainly occupied by reports of Lord Mansfield’s speeches and judgments, -and must therefore be chiefly acceptable to legal readers.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_068.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Monument of Lord Mansfield in Westminster Abbey.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_069fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />BRADLEY.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by Richardson in the possession of the Royal Society.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span> -<img src='images/i_069.jpg' alt='BRADLEY.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>BRADLEY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Of all men who have combined both astronomical theory and practice, -Bradley is one of the most remarkable. In this respect, we must -assign to him the first place in English history; and if we were disposed -to add, in that of the world, we are convinced that no country -would pretend to offer more than one candidate to dispute his claim.</p> - -<p class='c000'>James Bradley<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c012'><sup>[1]</sup></a> was born in March 1692–3, at Sherbourn in Gloucestershire. -He was educated at the Grammar School of Northleach, -and admitted of Baliol College, Oxford, in March 1710–11, where he -proceeded to the degrees of B.A. and M.A. in the years 1714 and 1717 -respectively. His mother’s brother was James Pound (deceased 1724), -rector of Wanstead in Essex, and known as an observer, particularly -by the observations which he furnished to Newton, as described in the -Principia. With him Bradley spent much of his younger life, and -was his assistant in his astronomical pursuits; and some observations -of 1718–19 on double stars are in good accordance with the relative -motions which have been since established in the case of those bodies. -His tables of Jupiter’s satellites, on which he was employed at the -same time, show that he had detected the greater part of the inequalities -in their motions which have since been observed.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. </span>The facts here given are entirely taken from the searching account of Bradley -given by Professor Rigaud in his “Miscellaneous Works, &c., of James Bradley, -Oxford, 1832.”</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In 1718 he was elected fellow of the Royal Society; in 1719 he -was ordained to the vicarage of Bridstow, in Monmouthshire; in the -following year he received a sinecure preferment. But in 1721 he -resigned these livings, on obtaining the Savilian professorship of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>Astronomy at Oxford, the holder of which, by the statutes, must not -have any benefice. To finish what we may call the gazette of his -life, he was engaged in observation (with what results we shall presently -see) both at Kew and Wanstead till 1732, when he went to -reside at Oxford, having since 1729 given yearly courses of lectures -on Experimental Philosophy. In 1742 he was appointed to succeed -Halley as Astronomer Royal, and he held this appointment for the -remainder of his life. In the same year he obtained the degree of -D.D. In 1752, having refused the living of Greenwich, because he -thought the duty of a pastor to be incompatible with his other studies -and necessary engagements, he was presented with a pension of 250<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> -The last observation made by him in the observatory is dated Sept. 1, -1761; and he died July 13, 1762, at Chalford in Gloucestershire, -having been afflicted by various diseases for several years, and particularly -by a depression of spirits, arising from the fear lest he should -survive his faculties. He married in 1744, and left one daughter, -who died at Greenwich in 1812.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There are now no lineal descendants of Bradley. Most of his -writings, which were few in number, were published in the Philosophical -Transactions. His personal merits are proved by the number -of his friends, and the warmth with which they endeavoured to serve -him when occasion arose, as well as by the strength of the testimonies -which those who survived bore to his reputation as a man and a -member of society.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have much abridged the preceding account, in order to make -room for a popular exposition of his two great discoveries—the <em>aberration -of light</em>, and the <em>nutation of the earth’s axis</em>. If we were to blot -these discoveries out of his life, there would remain an ample stock of -useful labours, fully sufficient to justify us in stating that Bradley was -unequalled as an observer, and of no mean character as a philosopher. -But for the latter we must refer the reader to the excellent account -from which our facts have been taken, or to any history of astronomy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The <em>parallax</em> of the fixed stars had been long a subject of inquiry. -If a body describe a circle, and a spectator on that body be unconscious -of his own motion, all other bodies will appear to describe -circles parallel to that of the spectator’s motion, and, absolutely speaking, -equal to it; consequently, the greater the distance of the body -from the spectator, the smaller will its apparent annual motion be; -and it will not be circular, because the projection of the circle upon -the apparent sphere of the heavens will foreshorten, and cause it to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>appear oval. If we suppose a star to describe an oval in the course of -a year, the consequence will be that it will pass the spectator’s meridian -sometimes before a star in the centre of the oval, sometimes after -it; sometimes nearer to the pole of the heavens, and sometimes more -distant; and the nature of the motion of this kind which would arise -from parallax can be mathematically deduced. If the star be so -distant that the oval is too small to be detected by measurement (which -is hitherto the case with the fixed stars), then no alteration of place -will be perceived on this account; but if an oval large enough to be -observed be described in the course of a year, then the test of the -phenomenon arising from the earth’s motion in its orbit is as follows:—Imagine -a plane always passing through the centre of the sun, the -centre of the earth, and the centre of the oval described by the star, then -the place of the star in its oval must be in that plane; or draw the shortest -distance on the globe from the centre of the oval to the sun, and -the star will be on the point of the oval which lies in that distance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In and before the time of Bradley, the refraction of light was not -well determined, which would throw a doubt over any observations -made to detect small quantities, unless the star which furnished them -were situated in that part of the observer’s heaven in which there is no -refraction, or next to none, that is, in or near his zenith. For the purpose -of measuring annual parallax, therefore, stars had always been chosen -which passed very nearly over the spot of observation, and instruments -called zenith sectors (now almost out of use) were employed, which -measured small angles of the meridian near the zenith, the latter -point being ascertained by a plumb-line. Mr. Molyneux, a friend -of Bradley, and a wealthy man, had caused the celebrated Graham -to erect a large instrument of this kind at his house in Kew, afterwards -the palace. Bradley and Molyneux observed with this instrument -the star γ in the Dragon, which passed nearly through the -zenith of that place, in December 1725. The star was found to -pass the meridian more and more to the south of the zenith, until the -following March, when it was about twenty seconds (about the sixty-five -thousandth part of the whole circuit of the heavens) lower than -at first. It was afterwards traced back again to its first position in -the following December, allowing for the precession of the equinoxes. -Other stars were examined in the same way, and the result was, that -all stars were found to describe small<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c012'><sup>[2]</sup></a> ovals in the course of the year. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>But on comparing the situations of the stars in their small orbits -with the corresponding places of the sun, it was evident that the cause -of the phenomenon could not be the change of place arising from the -orbital motion of the earth. Various hypotheses proposed by Bradley -were found insufficient. In 1727 he erected a zenith sector for himself -at Wanstead; and by further observations, and using different -stars, he came at length to this fact, that instead of the star being in -the place which annual parallax would give it, it was always in the -position which it should have had a quarter of a year later: or that -if the observer could measure the oval with sufficient exactness, and -were to find the time of the year from the star, on the supposition of -annual parallax being the cause of the star’s orbit, he would suppose -himself in March instead of December, and so on.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. </span>The original memorandum of Bradley, on the first night on which a decided result -had been obtained, was accidentally found among his papers. There is a fac-simile -of it in Professor Rigaud’s work.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>That the phenomenon then had a regular connexion with the place -of the earth was evident; but it was not that sort of connexion arising -from the mere change of place of the earth. It is related<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c012'><sup>[3]</sup></a> that he -was led to the true explanation by observing that the vane at the top of -a boat’s mast changed its direction a little whenever the boat was put -about, and made to go in a contrary direction; and that on his remarking -that it was curious the wind should shift every time the boat -was put about, he was assured by the boatmen that the same thing -always happened. Be this as it may, he proposed to the Royal Society, -in 1728, his beautiful explanation of the annual motion which -he had observed in the stars; namely, that it is caused by the alteration -in the apparent direction of the rays of light, arising from the -earth being in motion. Suppose a stream of bullets fired into a -carriage in motion, in a line perpendicular to its side, and so directed -as to hit the middle of the first window, but not with sufficient velocity -to reach any part of the second window. It is plain that they -will strike the hinder pannel, which the motion of the carriage brings -forward, and that to passengers in the inside the direction of the -stream will appear to be from the middle of the window at which -it enters to the opposite hinder pannel: whereas, had the carriage -been at rest, it would have appeared to pass through the centre of -both windows. And to make the stream really pass through both -windows it must, if the carriage be in motion, be directed through the -nearer window towards the foremost pannel on the other side. A ray -of light is in the same situation with regard to the spectator, both as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>to the diurnal and the annual motion of the earth. The former gives -an insensible aberration only; the latter, one which though small is -sensible. The smallness of the latter aberration arises from the velocity -of light being more than ten thousand times that of the earth in -its orbit. And it must be remembered that the motion of light was -not an hypothesis, invented to form the basis of Bradley’s explanation, -but was ascertained before his time, by Römer, from a phenomenon of -an entirely different nature; namely, the retardation observed in the -eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, as the planet moved from the earth. -The absolute deduction of the laws of aberration was completed by -Bradley.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. </span>Professor Rigaud gives this story on the authority of ‘Dr. Thomson’s History of -the Royal Society,’ in which work we find no authority cited for it. We cannot find it -in any other place, but are credibly informed that it rests on good traditional evidence.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The other great discovery of Bradley, namely, the <em>nutation</em>, or -oscillatory motion of the earth’s axis, was completed in 1747. In his -Wanstead observations he had observed some minute discrepancies, -which at that time might be attributed to errors of observation; but -after he was able to clear the apparent place of a star from the effects -of aberration, the field became open to consider and assign the laws of -smaller variations. By continual observation, he found a small irregularity -in the places of the stars, depending upon the position of the -moon’s node. Newton had already shown it to be a consequence of -gravitation, that the sun must produce a small oscillation in the earth’s -axis: Bradley showed that a larger oscillation must arise from the -moon, and be completed in the course of a revolution, not of the -moon, but of the point where her orbit cuts the ecliptic. This discovery -is therefore not of so original a character as the last, since -astronomers had for some time been in the habit of trying to reconcile -every discrepancy which they observed by supposing a nutation; but -to Bradley belongs the merit of discovering that small irregularity -which really can be reconciled to such a supposition, and its physical -causes. The easiest way of conceiving the effect of nutation is -as follows:—The precession of the equinoxes, discovered by Hipparchus, -has this effect, that the fixed stars, so called, appear to -move round the pole of the ecliptic, at the rate of a revolution in -about 26,000 years. Instead of a star, let a small oval describe the -same course, and let the star in the mean while move round that -oval in the course of nineteen years. The motion thus obtained will -represent the combined effect of precession and nutation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To these discoveries of Bradley we owe, as Delambre observes, -the accuracy of modern astronomy. It must be remarked, that no individual, -whose previous labours have caused public opinion to point -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>him out as most fit for the part of Astronomer Royal, has ever been -passed over when occasion occurred, from the time of Flamsteed to -that at which we write. It is the fair reward of such a course, that -the reputation which each successive occupant brought to that position -should be considered as appertaining to him in the public capacity -which it gained for him; and this being granted, it may be -truly said that there is no institution in the world which has, upon -the whole, done so much towards the advancement of correct astronomy -as the Observatory of Greenwich.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_074.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Observatory at Greenwich.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_075fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />MELANCTHON.<br /><br /><em>From an Engraving by Albert Durer<br />1526.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span> -<img src='images/i_075.jpg' alt='MELANCTHON.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>MELANCTHON.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Philip was the son of a respectable engineer named Schwartzerde, -that is, Black-earth, a name which he Grecised at a very early age, as -soon as his literary tastes and talents began to display themselves,—assuming, -in compliance with the suggestion of his distinguished kinsman -Reuchlin or Capnio, and according to the fashion of the age, -the classical synonyme of Melancthon. He was born at Bretten, -a place near Wittemberg, February 16, 1497. He commenced -his studies at Heidelberg in 1509; and after three years was -removed to Tubingen, where he remained till 1518. These circumstances -are in this instance not undeserving of notice, because -Melancthon gave from his very boyhood abundant proofs of an -active and brilliant genius, and acquired some juvenile distinctions -which have been recorded by grave historians, and have acquired him -a place among the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Enfans Célèbres</span>’ of Baillet. During his residence -at Tubingen he gave public lectures on Virgil, Terence, -Cicero, and Livy, while he was pursuing with equal ardour his -biblical studies; and he had leisure besides to furnish assistance to -Reuchlin in his dangerous contests with the monks, and to direct the -operations of a printing-press. The course of learning and genius, -when neither darkened by early prejudice nor perverted by personal -interests, ever points to liberality and virtue. In the case of Melancthon -this tendency was doubtless confirmed by the near spectacle of -monastic oppression and bigotry; and thus we cannot question that -he had imbibed, even before his departure from Tubingen, the principles -which enlightened his subsequent career, and which throw the -brightest glory upon his memory.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1518 (at the age of twenty-one) he was raised to the Professorship -of Greek in the University of Wittemberg. The moment was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>critical. Luther, who occupied the theological chair in the same -University, had just published his ‘Ninety-five Propositions against -the Abuse of Indulgences,’ and was entering step by step into a contest -with the Vatican. He was in possession of great personal authority; -he was older by fourteen years, and was endowed with a far -more commanding spirit, than his brother professor; and thus, in that -intimacy which local circumstances and similarity of sentiments immediately -cemented between these two eminent persons, the ascendancy -was naturally assumed by Luther, and maintained to the end of his -life. Melancthon was scarcely established at Wittemberg when he -addressed to the Reformer some very flattering expressions of admiration, -couched in indifferent Greek iambics; and in the year following -he attended him to the public disputations which he held with -Eckius on the supremacy of the Pope. Here he first beheld the -strife into which he was destined presently to enter, and learned the -distasteful rudiments of theological controversy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Two years afterwards, when certain of the opinions of Luther were -violently attacked by the Faculty of Paris, Melancthon interposed to -defend their author, to repel some vain charges which were brought -against him, and to ridicule the pride and ignorance of the doctors of -the Sorbonne. About the same time he engaged in the more delicate -question respecting the celibacy of the clergy, and opposed the Popish -practice with much zeal and learning. This was a subject which he -had always nearest his heart, and, in the discussions to which it led, -he surpassed even Luther in the earnestness of his argument; and he -at least had no personal interest in the decision, as he never took -orders.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1528 it was determined to impose a uniform rule of doctrine -and discipline upon the ministers of the Reformed churches; and the -office of composing it was assigned to Melancthon. He published, -in eighteen chapters, an ‘Instruction to the Pastors of the Electorate -of Saxony,’ in which he made the first formal exposition of the doctrinal -system of the Reformers. The work was promulgated with -the approbation of Luther; and the article concerning the bodily -presence in the Eucharist conveyed the opinion of the master rather -than that of the disciple. Yet were there other points so moderately -treated and set forth in so mild and compromising a temper, as sufficiently -to mark Melancthon as the author of the document; and -so strong was the impression produced upon the Roman Catholics -themselves by its character and spirit, that many considered it the -composition of a disguised friend; and Faber even ventured to make -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>personal overtures to the composer, and to hold forth the advantages -that he might hope to attain by a seasonable return to the bosom of -the Apostolic Church.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Diet of Augsburg was summoned soon afterwards, and it -assembled in 1530, for the reconciliation of all differences. This -being at least the professed object of both parties, it was desirable that -the conferences should be conducted by men of moderation, disposed -to soften the subjects of dissension, and to mitigate by temper and -manner the bitterness of controversy. For this delicate office Luther -was entirely disqualified, whereas the reputation of Melancthon presented -precisely the qualities that seemed to be required; the management -of the negotiations was accordingly confided to him. But -not without the near superintendence of Luther. The latter was -resident close at hand, he was in perpetual communication with his -disciple, and influenced most of his proceedings; and, at least during -the earlier period of the conferences, he not only suggested the matter, -but even authorised the form, of the official documents.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was thus that the ‘Confession of Augsbourg’ was composed; -and we observe on its very surface thus much of the spirit of conciliation, -that of its twenty-eight chapters twenty-one were devoted to -the exposition of the opinions of the Reformers, while seven only -were directed against the tenets of their adversaries. In the tedious -and perplexing negotiations that followed, some concessions were privately -proposed by Melancthon, which could scarcely have been -sanctioned by Luther, as they were inconsistent with the principles -of the Reformation and the independence of the Reformers. In some -letters written towards the conclusion of the Diet, he acknowledged -in the strongest terms the authority of the Roman Church, and all its -hierarchy; he asserted that there was positively no doctrinal difference -between the parties; that the whole dispute turned on matters of -discipline and practice; and that, if the Pope would grant only a -provisional toleration on the two points of the double communion and -the marriage of the clergy, it would not be difficult to remove all other -differences, not excepting that respecting the mass. “Concede,” he -says to the Pope’s legate, “or pretend to concede those two points, -and we will submit to the bishops; and if some slight differences shall -still remain between the two parties, they will not occasion any breach -of union, because there is no difference on any point of faith, and they -will be governed by the same bishops; and these bishops, having -once recovered their authority, will be able in process of time to -correct defects which must now of necessity be tolerated.” On this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>occasion Melancthon took counsel of Erasmus rather than of Luther. -It was his object at any rate to prevent the war with which the Protestants -were threatened, and from which he may have expected their -destruction. But the perfect and almost unconditional submission to -the Roman hierarchy, which he proposed as the only alternative, -would have accomplished the same purpose much more certainly; -and Protestant writers have observed, that the bitterest enemy of the -Reformation could have suggested no more effectual or insidious -method of subverting it, than that which was so warmly pressed upon -the Roman Catholics by Melancthon himself. Luther was indignant -when he heard of these proceedings; he strongly urged Melancthon -to break off the negotiations, and to abide by the Confession. -Indeed, it appears that these degrading concessions to avowed enemies -produced, as is ever the case, no other effect than to increase -their pride and exalt their expectations, and so lead them to demand -still more unworthy conditions, and a still more abject humiliation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Howbeit, the reputation of Melancthon was raised by the address -which he displayed during these deliberations; and the variety of -his talents and the extent of his erudition became more generally -known and more candidly acknowledged. The modesty of his character, -the moderation of his temper, the urbanity of his manners, his -flexible and accommodating mind, recommended him to the regard of -all, and especially to the patronage of the great. He was considered -as the peace-maker of the age. All who had any hopes of composing -the existing dissensions and preventing the necessity of absolute schism -placed their trust in the mildness of his expedients. The service -which he had endeavoured to render to the Emperor was sought by -the two other powerful monarchs of that time. Francis I. invited -him to France in 1535, to reconcile the growing differences of his -subjects; and even Henry VIII. expressed a desire for his presence -and his counsels; but the Elector could not be persuaded to consent -to his departure from Saxony.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1541 he held a public disputation with Eckius at Worms, which -lasted three days. The conference was subsequently removed to -Ratisbon, and continued, with pacific professions and polemic arguments, -during the same year, with no other result than an expressed -understanding that both parties should refer their claims to a general -council, and abide by its decision.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the meantime, as the Popes showed great reluctance to summon -any such Council, unless it should assemble in Italy and deliberate -under their immediate superintendence, and as the Reformers constantly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>refused to submit to so manifest a compromise of their claims, -it seemed likely that some time might elapse before the disputants -should have any opportunity of making their appeal. Wherefore the -emperor, not brooking this delay, and willing by some provisional -measure to introduce immediate harmony between the parties, published -in 1548 a formulary of temporary concord, under the name -of the Interim. It proclaimed the conditions of peace, which were -to be binding only till the decision of the general council. The conditions -were extremely advantageous, as might well have been expected, -to the Roman Catholic claims. Nevertheless, they gave -complete satisfaction to neither party, and only animated to farther -arrogance the spirit of those whom they favoured.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Interim was promulgated at the Diet held at Augsbourg, and -it was followed by a long succession of conferences, which were -carried on at Leipzig and in other places, under the Protestant -auspices of Maurice of Saxony. Here was an excellent field for -the talents and character of Melancthon. All the public documents -of the Protestants were composed by him. All the acuteness of his -reason, all the graces of his style, all the resources of his learning -were brought into light and action; and much that he wrote in censure -of the Interim was written with force and truth. But here, as -on former occasions, the effects of his genius were marred by the very -moderation of his principles, and the practical result of his labours was -not beneficial to the cause which he intended to serve. For in this -instance he not only did not conciliate the enemies to whom he made -too large concessions, but he excited distrust and offence among his -friends; and these feelings were presently exasperated into absolute -schism.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the death of Luther, two years before these conferences, the -foremost place among the reformers had unquestionably devolved -upon Melancthon. He had deserved that eminence by his various -endowments, and his uninterrupted exertions: yet was he not the -character most fitted to occupy it at that crisis. His incurable thirst -for universal esteem and regard; his perpetual anxiety to soothe his -enemies and soften the bigotry of the hierarchy, frequently seduced -him into unworthy compromises, which lowered his own cause, -without obtaining either advantage or respect from his adversaries. It -is not thus that the ferocity of intolerance can be disarmed. The lust -of religious domination cannot be satisfied by soothing words, or -appeased by any exercise of religious charity. It is too blind to -imagine any motive for the moderation of an enemy, except the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>consciousness of weakness. It is too greedy to accept any partial -concession, except as a pledge of still farther humiliation, to end in -absolute submission. It can be successfully opposed only by the same -unbending resolution which itself displays, tempered by a calmer -judgment and animated by a more righteous purpose.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The general principle by which the controversial writings of -Melancthon at this time were guided was this—that there were -certain essentials which admitted of no compromise; but that the -Interim might be received as a rule, in respect to things which were -<em>indifferent</em>. Hence arose the necessary inquiry, what could properly -be termed indifferent. It was the object of Melancthon to extend -their number, so as to include as many as possible of the points in -dispute, and narrow the held of contention with the Roman Catholics. -In the pursuance of this charitable design he did not foresee—first, -that he would not advance thereby a single step towards the conciliation -of their animosity—next, that he would sow amongst the -Reformers themselves the seeds of intestine discord: but so, unhappily, -it proved; and the feeble expedient which was intended to -repel the danger from without, multiplied that danger by introducing -schism and disorder within.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Indeed, we can scarcely wonder that it was so: for we find that -among the matters to be accounted indifferent, and under that name -conceded, Melancthon ventured to place the doctrine of justification -by faith alone; the necessity of good works to eternal salvation; the -number of the sacraments; the jurisdiction claimed by the pope and -the bishops; extreme unction; and the observance of certain religious -festivals, and several superstitious rites and ceremonies. It was not -possible that the more intimate associates of Luther—the men who -had struggled by his side, who were devoted to his person and his -memory, who inherited his opinions and his principles, and who -were animated by some portion of his zeal—should stand by in silence, -and permit some of the dearest objects of their own struggles and the -vigils of their master to be offered up to the foe by the irresolute -hand of Melancthon. Accordingly, a numerous party rose, who -disclaimed his principles and rejected his authority. At their head was -Illyricus Flacius, a fierce polemic, who possessed the intemperance -without the genius of Luther. The contest commonly known as the -Adiaphoristic Controversy broke out with great fury; it presently -extended its character so as to embrace various collateral points; and -the Roman Catholics were once more edified by the welcome spectacle -of Protestant dissension.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>Melancthon held his last fruitless conference with the Roman -Catholics at Worms in the year 1557; and he died three years afterwards, -at the age of 63, the same age that had been attained by -Luther. His ashes were deposited at Wittemberg, in the same -church with those of his master; a circumstance which is thus simply -commemorated in his epitaph:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c011'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hic invicte tuus Collega, Luthere, Melancthon</span></div> - <div class='line in2'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non procul a tumulo conditur ipse tuo.</span></div> - <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ut pin doctrinæ concordia junxerat ambos,</span></div> - <div class='line in2'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sic sacer amborum jungit his ossa locus.</span></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Some days before his death, while it was manifest that his end was -fast approaching, Melancthon wrote on a scrap of paper some of the -reasons which reconciled him to the prospect of his departure. Among -them were these—that he should see God and the Son of God; that -he should comprehend some mysteries which he was unable to -penetrate on earth, such as these:—why it is that we are created such -as we are? what was the union of the two natures in Jesus Christ? -that he should sin no more; that he should no longer be exposed to -vexations; and that he should escape <em>from the rage of the theologians</em>. -We need no better proof than this how his peaceable spirit had been -tortured during the decline of life by those interminable quarrels, -which were entirely repugnant to his temper, and yet were perpetually -forced upon him, and which even his own lenity had seemingly -tended to augment. And it is even probable that the theologians -from whose rage it was his especial hope to be delivered were those -who had risen up last against him, and with whom his differences -were as nothing compared to the points on which they were agreed, -his brother reformers. For being in this respect unfortunate, that -his endeavours to conciliate the affections of all parties had been -requited by the contempt and insults of all, he was yet more peculiarly -unhappy, that the blackest contumely and the bitterest insults proceeded -from the dissentients of his own. Thus situated, after forty -years of incessant exertions to reform, and at the same time to unite, -the Christian world, when he beheld discord multiplied, and its fruits -ripening in the very bosom of the Reformation; when he compared -his own principles and his own conscience with the taunts which were -cast against him; when he discovered how vain had been his mission -of conciliation, and how ungrateful a task it was to throw oil upon the -waters of theological controversy; when he reflected how much time -and forbearance he had wasted in this hopeless attempt,—he could -scarcely avoid the unwelcome suspicion that his life had been, in some -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>degree, spent in vain, and that in one of the dearest objects of his -continual endeavours he had altogether failed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reason was, that the extreme mildness of his own disposition -blinded him to the very nature of religious contests, and inspired him -with amiable hopes which could not possibly be realized. He may -have been a better man than Luther; he may even have been a -wiser; he had as great acuteness; he had more learning and a purer -and more perspicuous style; he had a more charitable temper; he -had a more candid mind; and his love for justice and truth forbade -him to reject without due consideration even the argument of an -adversary. He was qualified to preside as a judge in the forum -of theological litigation; yet was he not well fitted for that which he -was called upon to discharge, the office of an advocate. He saw too -much, for he saw both sides of the question; his very knowledge, -acting upon his natural modesty, made him diffident. He balanced, -he reflected, he doubted; and he became, through that very virtue, a -tame sectarian and a feeble partisan.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But his literary talents were of the highest order, and were directed -with great success to almost all the departments of learning. He -composed abridgments of all the branches of philosophy, which -continued long in use among the students of Germany, and purified -the liberal arts from the dross which was mixed up with them. And -it was thus that he would have purified religion; and as he had -introduced the one reformation without violence, so he thought to -accomplish the other without schism. But he comprehended not the -character of the Roman Catholic priesthood, nor could he conceive the -tenacity and the passion with which men, in other respects reasonable -and respectable, will cling to the interests, the prejudices, the abuses, -the very vices, which are associated with their profession. It was an -easy matter to him to confound the superstitious rites and tenets -of Rome by his profound learning and eloquent arguments; but it -was another and a far different task to deal with the offended feelings -of an implacable hierarchy. And thus it is, that while we admire his -various acquirements and eminent literary talents, and praise the -moderation of his charitable temper, we remark the wisdom of that -Providence which entrusted the arduous commencement of the work of -reformation to firmer and ruder hands than his.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Melancthon’s printed works are very numerous. The most complete -edition of them is that of Wittemberg, in 1680,3, in four -volumes folio.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_083fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />WILLIAM PITT.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by Hoppner in the possession of the Publisher.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span> -<img src='images/i_083.jpg' alt='PITT.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PITT.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The observations made at the beginning of our memoir of Mr. Burke -(vol. iii. p. 33) apply with greater force to Mr. Pitt, on account both -of the more recent date of his death, and of the more important influence -which he exercised over our national welfare. We shall -therefore lay before the reader a very succinct account of this celebrated -statesman, endeavouring not to colour it by the introduction -of our own opinions, and avoiding any statements that can reasonably -be controverted. There can be no doubt as to Mr. Pitt’s title to a -place in this work; but it is not here that those who have their opinion -still to form as to his character and policy should seek for the materials -to do so.</p> - -<p class='c000'>William Pitt, the second son of the first Earl of Chatham, was born -at Hayes in Kent, May 28, 1759. He suffered much and frequently -from ill health until he had nearly reached the age of manhood; and -his delicacy of constitution prevented his reading for honours at Pembroke -College, Cambridge, of which he became a resident member at -the age of fourteen. He therefore took the honorary degree of M.A., -to which his birth entitled him, in 1776. His private tutor and biographer, -the late Bishop of Winchester, has borne testimony to Mr. -Pitt’s proficiency in scholarship at the time when he commenced his -residence, and to his diligent study of the ancient languages, of mathematics, -and of modern literature, during the long period of seven -years which he spent at Cambridge. His illustrious father was not -slow to perceive and appreciate this early promise; and the few letters -which are extant, addressed by Lord Chatham to his son, contain a -most pleasing picture of parental affection, confidence, and esteem.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>Mr. Pitt was called to the bar June 12, 1780, and went the western -circuit in that year and the following. In January, 1781, he was -brought into parliament by Sir James Lowther, for the borough of -Appleby. He made his maiden speech in support of Mr. Burke’s -bill for the reform of the civil list; and this being in great measure -in reply to former speakers, and therefore evidently not premeditated, -produced the greater effect, and amply satisfied public expectation, -which had been highly raised by his hereditary fame and reputed talents. -Young as he was, he took a leading part in denouncing the -impolicy and injustice of the American war, then drawing to its close, -and in effecting the downfall of Lord North’s administration, which -occurred in March, 1782. In the Rockingham administration, which -followed, he bore no office: not that his talents were held cheap, for -he was offered several important places; but he had already determined, -as he declared soon afterwards, never to accept any office -without a seat in the cabinet. He gave his support, however, to the -measures of government; and, with a determination which he manifested -again at a later period, of securing his independence, he continued, -notwithstanding his brilliant prospects in public life, his professional -attendance at Westminster Hall. During this session he -distinguished himself as an advocate of parliamentary reform by supporting -three measures upon the subject: a motion, made by himself, -for a committee to examine into the state of representation of the -Commons; a bill for shortening the duration of parliaments; and a -bill for the prevention of bribery, and the diminution of expense -at elections. These, not being supported by government, were all -thrown out.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The death of the Marquis of Rockingham, July 1, 1782, led to the -appointment of the Earl of Shelburne as prime-minister, and to Mr. -Fox’s retirement from office. Mr. Pitt, at the age of twenty-three, -was made Chancellor of the Exchequer. As a strong opposition was -expected in the next session of parliament, it became desirable to -effect a junction, if possible, with one of the adverse parties. Against -acting in concert with Lord North, Mr. Pitt had formed an unchangeable -determination; and the negotiation with Mr. Fox was stopped in -the outset by that gentleman’s resolution not to act under Lord Shelburne. -Thus two of the three principal parties into which the House -of Commons was then divided were shut out of office during the continuance -of the existing administration; and a strong motive was given -them to unite, even against all probability, considering the virulent -hostility which had long existed between their leaders. Mr. Fox and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>Lord North however did form their celebrated Coalition; and, in spite -of its unpopularity, had strength enough to turn out the Shelburne -ministry in the spring of 1783. Mr. Pitt, while in office, introduced -a bill for promoting economy, and removing many gross abuses in -various departments of the public service. This, after passing the -Commons, was thrown out by the Lords.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The King, it is well known, was exceedingly averse to the re-admission -of Mr. Fox into office. He pressed the task of forming an -administration upon Mr. Pitt, who, being convinced that no effective -support could be hoped for, at that time, either in parliament or -from the expression of public opinion, steadily refused the offer. -The coalition ministry therefore came into power. In the session of -1783 Mr. Pitt again introduced the question of parliamentary reform, -in the shape of three resolutions, which provided that one hundred -members should be added to those returned by the counties and the -metropolis, and that all boroughs should be disfranchised where a -majority of voters had been proved guilty of corruption. These resolutions -were rejected.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the meeting of parliament in November, Mr. Fox brought forward -his celebrated India Bill. It was quickly carried through the -lower house, but was thrown out in the upper, partly through the -personal influence exerted by the King; and on the next day, December -18, Mr. Fox and Lord North received their dismissal. Mr. -Pitt did not now hesitate to take his place at the head of government. -He felt himself in a much stronger position than at the close of the -Shelburne administration. He foresaw that the India Bill would -become unpopular, though as yet little outcry had been made against -it, and he resolved, with a courage, ability, and penetration, which -those who condemn his conduct most strongly cannot deny, to -assume office in the teeth of a majority of the House of Commons, -and to hold it in spite of the majorities continually arrayed against -him. Nor, though strongly urged, would he resort to a dissolution; -knowing that such a measure would be fatal unless the new parliament -should prove much more favourable to him than the existing one, -being aware that Mr. Fox’s popularity, though shaken by the coalition, -was not overthrown, and trusting to the growing unpopularity of the -India Bill to dispose the nation more favourably to his own administration. -It was therefore resolved to continue the sitting parliament; -and the house adjourned on the 26th of December to the 12th of -January. During the recess Mr. Pitt gained the applause of all parties -by his disinterestedness in giving the valuable sinecure of Clerk of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>the Pells to Colonel Barré, on condition of his resigning a pension of -3000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> a year; thus effecting a saving to the country of that amount.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the 12th the new ministry was twice left in a minority, once of -thirty-nine, the second time of fifty-four. This not inducing them to -resign, a series of motions was made to compel them to do so. It -was never ventured however to stop the supplies. Between January -12 and March 8, fourteen motions, besides those which passed without -a division, were carried against the ministers with various but on the -whole decreasing majorities, the last only by a majority of one. This -ended the struggle. The minister saw that the time was now come -when a dissolution was likely to tell in his favour, and it took place -accordingly, March 25.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was now returned for the University of Cambridge. In the -ensuing session his attention was principally engaged by the Westminster -scrutiny, the state of the revenue, and the affairs of India. -In the first he took a part which widened the breach between Mr. Fox -and himself; and he had the mortification of being exposed to the -charge that he cherished personal animosity against his illustrious -antagonist, and of being deserted by many of his usual adherents, -and finally left in a minority, March 3, 1785, when the scrutiny was -ended by a vote of the house. Lord Hood and Mr. Fox were then -returned. In his financial measures Mr. Pitt had eminent success. -By economy, by resolutely facing the difficulties of the question, and, -no doubt, by the assistance of that general prosperity, agricultural as -well as commercial, which was beginning to succeed the depression of -the American war, the revenue, which at his accession to office was -considerably below the expenditure, was improved so much as, by the -spring of 1786, to afford the promise of a million surplus. This was -devoted to the formation of an effective sinking-fund. Mr. Pitt prided -himself on this more than any other of his measures, and resisted -all temptation to encroach upon it even during the pressing difficulties -of the latter years of his administration. The merit of having devised -the scheme was claimed by Dr. Price: be this as it may, the principal -merit, that of having rigidly carried it into execution, is Pitt’s. Later -authorities have denied the advantage of the system altogether. The -India Bill, the other leading measure of this session, differed from -Mr. Fox’s chiefly in these important points, that the members of the -Board of Control, like other members of administration, were removable -at pleasure, and that nearly all the patronage of India was -left in the hands of the Board of Directors. In 1785, for the last time, -Mr. Pitt again brought forward the subject of parliamentary reform. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>His plan was to transfer the members of thirty-six decayed boroughs to -the metropolis and to various counties, and as other boroughs decayed, -to give their franchises to populous and increasing towns. But the -boroughs being regarded, in the words of his biographer, as “a -species of valuable property and private inheritance, the voluntary -surrender of their rights was not to be expected without an adequate -consideration.” This was not treated as a government measure, and -was rejected by a large majority.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The other passages of most importance in Mr. Pitt’s political life, -before the French Revolution, were his decided support of the impeachment -of Warren Hastings, though without going the whole -length of Mr. Burke and other opposition members, in 1786, and the -conclusion of a commercial treaty with France on a more liberal -footing than had yet been contemplated by the countries; the successful -opposition which he made to the repeal of the Test and Corporation -Acts, in 1787, notwithstanding the support he had received -from the Dissenters a few years before; his conduct on the Regency -Bill, in opposition to the ill-advised assertion of Mr. Fox, that the -Prince of Wales was entitled as a matter of right to the full possession -of the powers of royalty, as sole Regent, in 1788–9; and his support of -the abolition of the Slave Trade, for which he spoke and voted, but -without making it a ministerial question. Indeed, in consequence of -Mr. Wilberforce’s illness, Pitt was the first to bring that national disgrace -and crime under the notice of the house, and he exerted his -best eloquence in favour of its immediate abolition, and against the -temporising course which was adopted.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It does not appear that in the beginning of the French Revolution -Mr. Pitt anticipated any bad consequences to Great Britain, or that -he expected or wished to be led into that protracted war, which, though -ultimately triumphant, involved us in imminent danger, enormous -expense, and a debt still pressing us to the ground. At least, in -opening his budget in 1792, he spoke with more than usual confidence -of the favourable prospects of the revenue, and prognosticated -many years of peace. At the same time he was already impressed -with suspicion and fear of those in England who regarded with -complacency the dawning of the Revolution; and in the same session -he declared himself opposed to the introduction of Mr. Grey’s motion -for reform in parliament, on the express ground that men’s minds were -in a state of fermentation, which rendered any innovation inexpedient -and dangerous. But the events of the summer and autumn changed -Mr. Pitt’s views more widely. After the deposition of Louis XVI., on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>the 10th of August, the British minister at Paris was recalled; and as -soon as the news of that unhappy sovereign’s death reached England, -the French minister in London was ordered to quit the kingdom. War -was declared by France, February 1, 1793. We do not attempt to -compress the history of that eventful period into these pages. The -policy of our government was to make the sea the scene of our chief -exertions, and our fleets were victorious in every quarter of the -globe. By land the conduct of the war was most unsuccessful. We -were indeed cautious of risking our own troops on the continent; but -the national wealth was profusely spent in subsidizing other nations, -in combining alliances against France, which one after another proved -utterly unable to withstand the energy of the French government and -the talent of the republican generals, and in trifling expeditions, -injurious if they failed, and useless if successful. Meanwhile the -enormous expenditure of the day caused a corresponding increase of -the public burdens, and, as was foreboded, a ruinous accession to the -public debt. A large party, who were far from joining with those -that would willingly have made England the subject of an experiment -similar to the one going on in France, denied both the necessity and -the expediency of the contest in which we were engaged; party spirit -reached a frantic height; and these men, as sincere friends to their -country as those who most strenuously supported the arbitrary -measures of government, were denounced, and confounded with the -small minority really hostile to domestic order. And no doubt the -oppressive conduct of the administration drove many persons to -extremes, which, in cooler moments and under a more equitable -policy, they would not have countenanced. Then came the trials of -Muir and Palmer in Scotland, in 1793, of Hardy and Horne Tooke -in 1794, the Alien Bill, the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, -and other measures calculated, in the language of the times, to prevent -the spread of revolutionary principles, for which the minister was hailed -by one party as the saviour of his country from anarchy, and denounced -by another as a pillar of despotism, an enemy to the free constitution of -his country, a deserter from the principles of his youth, and a persecutor -of those associates who still adhered to them. Increased discontent -was met by increased severity; and, after the insults offered to the -King’s person as he proceeded to open the session of parliament in -1796, the famous bills, for the prevention of seditious meetings and -for the better security of his Majesty’s person and government, commonly -called the Pitt and Grenville Acts, were introduced and carried, -not without the utmost indignation and the most determined opposition -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>by all means short of forcible resistance, both within the walls of -parliament and without.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Fox and the other chief members of opposition, finding their -utmost efforts unsuccessful, seceded openly from the House of Commons -when the Seditious Meetings Bill went into committee. Meanwhile -the country was beset by the most serious difficulties. The -drain of specie produced by our subsidies to foreign powers, the large -advances required from the Bank by government, and the disposition to -hoard money produced by the fear of invasion and of domestic anarchy, -gave reason to apprehend that the Bank would be unable to meet its -engagements; and in 1797 it was relieved by the Restriction Act from -the obligation of paying cash in exchange for its notes. In the same -year the mutiny at the Nore broke out; and in 1798 the rebellion in -Ireland made a most formidable addition to the dangers and distresses -of the nation. Meanwhile our exertions had been powerless to check -the victorious arms of France on the continent of Europe, and a strong -desire for peace was felt by many who had been Mr. Pitt’s staunch -supporters, and advocates of the revolutionary war. This led to his -retirement from office in 1801, unless that event is rather to be ascribed -to the King’s fixed determination not to grant the Irish Catholics that -full relief, which had been held out as one inducement to procure -the consent of Ireland to the Act of Union. It is to Mr. Pitt that -the merit of carrying through that important measure is due; a measure -which would probably have been attended with much more beneficial -results if the policy of its author with respect to Catholic Emancipation -had been adopted. But even the importance of the object -is insufficient to justify, and can only palliate, the corrupt means which -were used in gaining the assent of the Irish parliament to the Union, -which was very unpopular with the Irish nation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Pitt resigned his office in February, 1801, and was succeeded -by Mr. Addington, who concluded the peace of Amiens in 1802, the -preliminaries having been signed the autumn before. Mr. Pitt -defended the conditions of this treaty when attacked in parliament, -therein taking a different part from several of his late colleagues. But -his retirement in the first instance was regarded as not much more -than nominal, and he was generally thought to be the adviser of the -ministry after he ceased to belong to it. This state of affairs however -was short-lived. His support gradually subsided, first into coldness, -then into avowed disapprobation, and finally into hostility not less -decided than that of the regular opposition. In the early part of -1804, after the lapse of twenty years of violent hostility, Pitt and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>Fox were again seen speaking and voting on the same side. A -fruitless attempt was made by the ministry to procure the accession -of the former; and as it became clear that the existing government -could not stand, and as the lapse of time and change in affairs had -removed many of the most irreconcileable grounds of party variance, -a strong hope was felt that an administration, uniting the best talents -and most powerful interests of the country, might be formed by -the junction of the three parties represented by Mr. Pitt, Mr. Fox, -and Lord Grenville. This hope appears to have been defeated by -the King’s personal objections to admit Mr. Fox to office. It is -asserted by Mr. Rose that Mr. Pitt used his utmost endeavours to -overcome that prejudice, “conceiving a strong government as important -to the public welfare, and as calculated to call forth the united -talents as well as the utmost resources of the empire; in which endeavour -he persisted till within a few months of his death.” Unfortunately -for his own fame, and probably for the interests of the country, he did -not think fit to make this union of parties a condition of his own return -to office. Lord Grenville, his relation, friend, and coadjutor, refused -to become a member of an exclusive ministry, and Mr. Pitt took his -station at the head of a cabinet singularly deficient in men of commanding -talent, and more than half composed of Mr. Addington’s -colleagues. The disappointment of the nation was great; but the -late period of the session (he was gazetted First Lord of the Treasury -May 12) was of material service in enabling him to face the difficulties -of his position; and he employed the autumn in seeking to -gain strength by forming an alliance with some other party. Lord -Grenville however proved firm in his resolution not to accept office -while Mr. Fox was excluded; and the minister, assuredly with deep -mortification, was compelled to make overtures of reconciliation to -Mr. Addington, who was created Viscount Sidmouth, and appointed -President of the Council in January, 1805. This alliance after all -proved inefficient to strengthen the government, while it was fruitful -in jealousies, which led to Lord Sidmouth’s speedy retirement from -office in July; and in the same session the dismissal, and ultimately -the impeachment, of his old and valued friend and ablest coadjutor, -Mr. Dundas, now created Viscount Melville, added another and a still -more distressing embarrassment to those by which the minister was -already beset.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On his return to office Mr. Pitt had again recourse to his former -policy of raising up continental alliances against France; and he succeeded -in uniting Austria and Russia in the confederacy which was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>crushed by the decisive battle of Austerlitz, December 2, 1805. At -this time his constitution was rapidly giving way, exhausted by a life -of excessive labour, which he sought to relieve by the immoderate use -of wine, a habit first induced by the original defects in his constitution. -In December he was ordered by his physicians to Bath, but -he received no benefit from the change of place, and returned to his -residence at Putney by slow stages. He expired January 23, 1805.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In addition to his other offices, Mr. Pitt held the sinecure of Warden -of the Cinque Ports, worth about 3000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> per annum, which, unsolicited, -was bestowed on him by the King in 1792, as a mark of -personal esteem. But the pressure of public business left no time for -the regulation of his domestic affairs, and, notwithstanding his large -income, he expended his small patrimonial estate, and died deeply -involved in debt. The parliament was not slow to acknowledge his -long services. His remains were interred at the public expense; a -monument was erected to him in Westminster Abbey; 40,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> were -voted to discharge his debts; and, in conformity to his dying request, -a pension of 1500<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> was conferred on his nieces, daughters of the -Earl of Stanhope.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We abstain, for the reasons already assigned, from attempting to -give a summary of Mr. Pitt’s qualifications and merits as a statesman, -but it is a debt of justice to bear testimony to his unimpeached -integrity in all pecuniary affairs. As a speaker he possessed extraordinary -powers; clear, fluent, and singularly correct in his diction, -unimpassioned, and seldom rising into flights of eloquence, he was -always ready to profit by the indiscretions of an opponent, and his -sarcasm was of the most cutting and effective kind. His argumentative -powers were of a high order, and the clearness and precision -of his mind fitted him admirably for those minute financial statements -which formed an important part of his official duties. His voice, -though wanting in variety, was sonorous and impressive in an extraordinary -degree; his action, though awkward and ungainly at first -sight, was not unpleasing, nor unsuited to his discourse. In the -relations of private life his character was unexceptionable. “With a -manner somewhat reserved and distant, in what might be termed his -public deportment, no man was ever better qualified to gain, or more -successful in fixing, the attachment of his friends, than Mr. Pitt. They -saw all the powerful energies of his character softened into the most -perfect complacency and sweetness of disposition in the circles of private -life, the pleasures of which no one more enjoyed, or more agreeably -promoted, where the paramount duties he conceived himself to owe to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>the public admitted of his mixing in them; that indignant severity -with which he met and subdued what he considered unfounded opposition, -that keenness of sarcasm with which he repelled and withered -(as it might be said) the powers of most of his assailants in debate, -were exchanged, in the society of his intimate friends, for a kindness -of heart, a gentleness of demeanour, and a playfulness of good humour, -which none ever witnessed without interest, or participated without -delight.” Such is the testimony borne to Mr. Pitt’s social qualities -by his intimate and attached friend, the Hon. George Rose, in his -“Brief Examination into the Increase of the Revenue, &c. of Great -Britain, during Mr. Pitt’s administration.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_092.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Statue of Mr. Pitt, by Chantrey, in Hanover Square.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_093fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />WESLEY.<br /><br /><em>From a Print engraved by J. Fittler, after a Miniature Painted by J. Barry.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span> -<img src='images/i_093.jpg' alt='WESLEY.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>WESLEY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Samuel Wesley, whose mother was a niece of Thomas Fuller, the -church historian, was in his earliest years thrown by family circumstances -among the party of the dissenters; but he abandoned them in -disgust, and entered at Exeter College, Oxford, in 1684. He afterwards -obtained the livings of Epworth and Wroote, in Lincolnshire; -and at the former of those places, June 17, 1703, was born his second -son John. Six years afterwards, the house was set on fire by some -refractory parishioners, and the boy was forgotten in the first confusion. -He was presently discovered at a window, and by great exertion rescued -at the very moment which promised to be his last. John Wesley -saw the hand of Providence in this preservation, and made it in after -life a subject of reflection and gratitude.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the age of seventeen he was removed from the Charterhouse -School, where he had made some proficiency, to Christchurch, Oxford; -and the reputation by which he was then distinguished was that of a -skilful logician and acute disputant. He was destined for the Church; -and when the time for ordination arrived, after some faint scruples -which he professed respecting the damnatory clauses of the Athanasian -Creed and the supposed Calvinistic tendency discoverable in -the Articles had been removed, he entered into orders; and, as the -book which had especially excited him on the most serious meditation -to undertake that office was Jeremy Taylor’s ‘Rules of Holy Living -and Dying,’ so was it with the deepest earnestness that his resolution -was taken, and with a fixed determination to dedicate his life and his -death, his whole thoughts, feelings and energies, to the service of God. -Accordingly, in the selection of his acquaintance, he avoided all who -did not embrace his principles; and having now obtained a fellowship -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>at Lincoln College, he had the means of assembling round him a little -society of religious friends or disciples, over whom his superior talents -and piety gave him a natural influence. These, through their strict -and methodical manner of living, acquired from their fellow-students -the appellation of Methodists,—a name derived from the schools of -ancient science, and thus destined, through its capricious application -by a few thoughtless boys, to designate a large and vital portion of the -Christian world.</p> - -<p class='c000'>About this time Wesley entered upon his parochial duties as his -father’s curate at Epworth<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c012'><sup>[4]</sup></a>, and presently afterwards, on the approaching -death of that respectable person, he was strongly urged by -his family to obtain, as he probably might have done, the next presentation -for himself. Had he yielded to their solicitations, he might have -passed his days in humble and peaceful obscurity; but his mind was -too large for the limits of a country parish, and he already felt that he -was intended to serve his Maker in a larger field. So, evading the -arguments and withstanding the entreaties of his friends, he went back -to reside for a while upon his fellowship at Oxford.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. </span>It was, strictly speaking, during this his absence from Oxford that his little society -then (of which the leading member was his younger brother Charles) acquired the -name of Methodist.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In the year 1735 he engaged in the more public exercise of the -ministry in the character of a missionary. He set sail for the new -colony of Georgia in America; he had the countenance of the civil -authorities, and the object which he principally professed was the -conversion of the Indians. His habits at this period were deeply -tinged with ascetism. In his extreme self-denial and mortification, -in respect to diet, clothing, and the ordinary comforts of life, he -affected a more than monastic austerity, and realized the tales of -eremitical fanaticism. He even declaimed against the study of classical -authors, and discouraged, as sinful, any application to profane -literature. And the extravagance of his zeal took a direction, such -indeed as might be expected from his birth and education, but ill -adapted to recommend him to the affections of the colonists. He adhered, -with the obstinacy of a bigot, to the rubric of the Church; he -refused to administer baptism except by immersion; he withheld the -communion from a pious dissenter, unless he should first consent to -be rebaptized; he declined to perform the burial service over another; -and while he was exciting much enmity by this excessive strictness, -he formed an indiscreet, though innocent, connexion with a young woman -named Sophia Causton, which led him into difficulty, and occasioned, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>after some ludicrous and some very serious scenes, his sudden -and not very creditable departure from America.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He remained there a year and nine months without making, so far -as we learn, a single attempt to introduce Christianity among the -Indians. He alleged that the Indians had expressed no wish for -conversion; and if his conscience was indeed thus easily satisfied, he -was yet very far removed from Christian perfection. Thus much -indeed he certainly appears to have learnt from this first experiment -on his own powers, that he was not yet qualified for the office of -missionary; for he felt that he, who would have converted others, -was not yet converted himself.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wesley had sailed to America in the society of some Moravian -missionaries, whose exalted piety had wrought deeply on his feelings, -and given them some influence over his conduct. On his return to -England, while he was already impressed with some sense of his own -unworthiness, he became closely connected with Peter Boehler, a man -of talents and authority, and a Moravian. Through his instructions -Wesley became thoroughly convinced of his own unbelief, and began -to pray, with all the ardour of his enthusiastic soul, for an instantaneous -conversion. It was not long before he believed that this blessing was -vouchsafed to him. On the evening of the 24th of May, 1738, as one -of a society in Aldersgate Street was reading in his presence Luther’s -‘Preface to the Epistle to the Romans,’—“About a quarter before -nine,” says Wesley, “while he was describing the change which God -works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely -warmed; I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone, for salvation; and -an assurance was given me that He had taken away <em>my</em> sins, even -<em>mine</em>, and saved <em>me</em> from the law of sin and death.” Howbeit, when -he returned home, he had still some more struggles with the evil one, -and was again buffeted by temptations; but he was now triumphant -through earnest prayer. “And herein,” he adds, “I found the difference -between this and my former state chiefly to consist. I was -striving, yea fighting, with all my might under the law, as well as -under grace; but then I was sometimes, if not often, conquered; now -I am always conqueror.” This is justly considered as a remarkable -day in the history of methodism; and Wesley himself attached so -much importance to the change that had been wrought in him, that -he scrupled not to proclaim, to the great scandal of some of his unregenerate -friends, that he had never been a Christian until then.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His first act after his conversion was to set out on a visit to the -celebrated Moravian colony, established under the patronage of Count -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>Zinzendorf, at Herrnhut in Lusatia. There he employed a fortnight -in examining the doctrines and discipline of that sect, and -then returned, as he went, on foot. “I would gladly have spent my -life here; but my Master calling me to labour in another part of the -vineyard, I was constrained to take my leave of this happy place.” -Yet he perceived clearly enough the imperfections in their method; -and his intercourse with their noble patron was not such as to flatter -the ambition, or even the independence, of his character. But he had -acquired a knowledge of their system, and was thus qualified to apply -to his own purposes any part of it which might hereafter serve them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wesley returned from his visit to Germany burning with religious -enthusiasm, and presently entered into the path which Whitefield, his -friend and disciple, had opened for him. The latter, who was a few -years younger than Wesley, and like him educated at Oxford, and in -orders, had begun a short time before to address the people in the -open air, at Kingswood near Bristol. Wesley, after some little hesitation, -proceeding from his respect for ecclesiastical practice and discipline, -followed his example, and commenced his field-preaching in -the same place. Here was the first indication of any approach to a -separation from the Church, and thus in fact were laid the foundations -of the sect of Methodists; yet such was not the design, perhaps, of -either of its founders,—certainly not of Wesley. His scheme, if -indeed he had then proposed to himself any fixed scheme, was rather -to awaken the spirit of religion slumbering within the Church,—to revive -the dying embers of vital Christianity,—to infuse into the languid -system new life and energy,—to place before the eyes of the people the -essentials of their faith, and to rouse their religious instructors to a -proper view of their profession and sense of their duty. It was rather -an order than a sect that he designed to found; an order subsidiary to -the Church, in rivalry indeed with the ancient branches of the Establishment, -but filled with no hostile spirit, and having no final object -but its regeneration. Such as were the Mendicants in respect to the -Roman Church; severe in their reproaches against the indolence and -degeneracy of the clergy, whether regular or secular; severe in their -own professions, and for a season in their piety and practice too; -making their earnest appeals to the lower classes, and turning their -influence with them to their own aggrandizement; yet so far removed -from schism, so far from harbouring any ill designs against the papacy, -as to be the warmest zealots of the Vatican, and the most faithful -ministers of all its projects:—such (so far as the change in civil and -ecclesiastical principles would permit) the disciples of Wesley were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>probably designed to have become, in respect to the English Church, -by the original intention of their master. At any rate, it was certain -that the emulation, which he could not fail to rouse, would in the end -be serviceable to the interests of true religion; and it is very possible -that, in the depth of his enthusiasm, he held every other consideration -to be entirely subordinate to this.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first effects of his public preaching have not been surpassed by -any thing that we read in the history of fanaticism. On one occasion, -as he was inculcating the doctrine of universal redemption, “immediately -one, and another, and another, sank to the earth; they dropped -down on every side as thunderstruck.” Sometimes, as he began to -preach, numbers of his believers fell into violent fits and lay struggling -in convulsions around him. At other times his voice was lost amidst -the groans and cries of his distracted hearers. Wesley encouraged -the storm which he had raised; he shared the fanaticism which he -imparted; and in these deplorable spectacles of human imbecility he -saw nothing but the hand of God confirming by miraculous interposition -the holiness of his mission.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But however elated the preacher might be by these spiritual triumphs, -however confident in the immediate aid and favour of God, he did not -neglect such human means as occurred to him for securing and advancing -his conquests. At a very early period he divided his followers at -Bristol into male and female <em>bands</em>, for purposes of mutual confession -and prayer, in imitation of one part of the Moravian discipline. The -establishment of love feasts was equally early. Presently Friday was -set apart by him for prayer and fasting; and a house was erected (likewise -at Bristol) for the meeting of his disciples. Things were already -advancing towards schism. The directors of the church discouraged -the extravagance of the teacher, and pitied the madness of the people. -Many clergymen, with praiseworthy discretion, refused their pulpits to -men who might turn them to such strange purposes. And this gave -a pretext to Wesley for seeking means of instructing the people independent -of the Church.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the mean time he discovered that there were differences between -himself and those with whom he had hitherto been most closely connected—differences -the more difficult to reconcile, because they concerned -points of doctrine—the one with the Moravians, the other with -Whitefield and his followers. For the arrangement of the former, -Count Zinzendorf came in person to England, and had some conferences -with Wesley—but he no longer found in him a timid disciple, or obsequious -admirer. Wesley defended fearlessly the opinions which he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>professed, concerning Christian perfection and the means of grace; -and as no concession was possible on the other side, the controversy -ended in an entire and final breach between him and the Moravians. -The dispute with Whitefield, occasioned by the predestinarian doctrines -now nakedly advanced by him, was conducted with considerable bitterness, -and came to a similar termination. Not that the separation was -in this case so complete as to preclude a temporary reconciliation, which -was effected some years afterwards; but the difference was clearly -proved to be real and irreconcileable; and the permanent division of -methodism may in fact be dated from the year 1740.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From this time Wesley, having shaken off two connexions which -had embarrassed more than they had strengthened him, became the -sole head and mover of a considerable religious party: and he immediately -applied his talents to give it organization and perpetuity. He -divided his followers into <em>classes</em>, each under the direction of a leader. -He caused pecuniary contributions to be collected from the individuals -composing those classes, so as to establish a permanent fund for the -support of his society, bearing an exact proportion to the number of its -members. He appointed itinerant preachers, and instructed them to -preach in the open air, under the plea that they were excluded from -the pulpits of the Church. And lastly and reluctantly,—for he still -retained much affection for that Church, and could not be blind to the -consequences of the measure,—he committed the office of preaching to -laymen. In the first instance, indeed, he conceded to them no more -than the privilege of expounding the Gospel; but seeing how soon they -deviated from exposition into preaching, he thought it wiser at once to -acknowledge the latter as a part of his system, and thus acquire the -power of preventing, as far as might be, its abuse. These men were, -for the most part, humbly born and ill educated. But their zeal supplied, -in popular estimation, the place of learning; and their habits -of poverty enabled them to endure the privations incident to the missionary -of a new sect. Thus were their labours attended with great -success; and this was essentially promoted by a very sage provision of -Wesley, that no confession of faith should be required on admission -into his community. The door was thus open to all mankind. The -new member was never called upon to secede from the body to which -he had previously belonged. He might bear what denomination he -chose among the visible members of Christ’s Church, so long as he -renounced his vices and his pleasures, and engaged with a regenerate -heart in the work of his salvation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time (about 1742) Wesley and his disciples attained that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>degree of importance, which qualified them to become objects of persecution. -It was among the lower classes that they had thrown the -torch of fanaticism, and it was from the same that the outrages which -now assailed them proceeded. On two or three occasions the person -of the master himself was in some danger from popular fury; and -it may perhaps have been preserved by his singular presence of mind, -and the awe which he knew how to inspire into his fellow creatures. -But these violent eruptions of indignation, as they were founded on no -semblance of reason, and opposed by the civil authorities, were partial -and of short duration; and as the rumours of them were much exaggerated -at the time, their influence, as far as they had any, was probably -favorable to the progress of methodism. Some calumnies that were -raised against Wesley from more respectable quarters, touching his tendency -to papacy and his disaffection to the reigning dynasty, arising -from entire misunderstanding or pure malevolence, were immediately -repelled, and speedily silenced and forgotten.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the year 1744 Wesley invited his brother Charles, four other -clergymen who co-operated with him, and four of his lay-preachers to -a <em>Conference</em>: this was the origin of the assembly or council, which -was afterwards held annually, and became the governing body, for the -regulation of the general affairs of the society. Four years subsequently, -a school was opened at Kingswood, for the education chiefly of the sons -of the preachers. In the extreme severity of some of the rules which he -imposed on this establishment, Wesley seems to have been guided by an -ambitious design to set apart his own people from the rest of the community, -rather than by the common principles of education, or the common -feelings of nature. And so jealous was he of any other influence -being exerted on his children, that they were not allowed to be absent -from the school, not even for a day, from their first admission till their -final removal from it. Notwithstanding however the peculiarity and, as -he thought, the purity of his system, he met with many difficulties and -reverses, in his first attempts to place it on a permanent foundation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We may pass over the circumstances of his unfortunate marriage, -which ended, after a few months of discord and vexation, in a hasty but -final separation. His wife, after proving herself his foulest slanderer -and bitterest enemy, presently deserted him. “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non eam reliqui</span> (says -Wesley)—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">non dimisi</span>—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">non revocabo</span>.” “I have not left her—I have -not put her away—I will not recall her.” The same calmness of temper -and perfect self-possession, which so remarkably distinguished him -in his public proceedings, seem not to have abandoned him even in the -more pressing severity of his domestic trials.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>Neither have we space to notice the controversies which he carried -on with two of the most eminent divines of his time, bishops Lavington -and Warburton; since Wesley, though engaged in dispute with the prelates -of the Church, and very frequent and bitter in the reproaches -which he cast against its ministers, still adhered to its communion, and -had yet committed no act declaratory of absolute independence. But -later in life he advanced farther towards schism. First of all, as he -did not assume for his lay-preachers the power of administering the -sacrament, he caused several to be ordained by one Erasmus, a Greek -Bishop of Arcadia—thus evading the spiritual authority, which he -could not contest, and which he did not yet venture to dispense with. -But this was a feeble resource, unworthy of his courage, and unavailing -to his purposes. A stronger measure followed. His disciples were very -numerous in America, and it was desirable to send out to them a head, -invested with the highest spiritual authority. Dr. Coke, an “evangelical” -clergyman, was selected for that office, and Wesley took upon -himself to invest him with the requisite dignity. These letters of ordination -are dated September 2, 1784, and announce in substance, that -Wesley thought himself providentially called, at that time, to set apart -some persons for the work of the ministry in America; and therefore, -under the protection of Almighty God, and with a single eye to his -glory, had that day set apart, as a superintendent, by the imposition -of his hands and prayer, Thomas Coke, a doctor of civil law, and a -presbyter of the Church of England.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this affair, it was weak in Wesley to plead (as he did) a seasonable -conviction, that in the true primitive Church the order of bishop -and presbyter were one and the same—for if Wesley exercised as presbyter -episcopal authority, so, under the same plea, might Dr. Coke -have exercised it, without any imposition of Wesley’s hands. This was -a shallow pretence, which could scarcely have deceived himself. The -fact was, that Wesley, now acting as the sole head of a separate religious -party, assumed the prerogatives of the highest ecclesiastical -dignity; and resolved that all the privileges of his ministers should -emanate from himself. This is properly considered as a second important -epoch in the history of methodism.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Wesley was then eighty-one years old, and he lived for seven years -longer, in the perfect enjoyment of his health and exercise of his -faculties, almost to the very end. He died March 2, 1791: leaving -no property, except the copyright and current editions of his works, -which he bequeathed for the use of the connexion. The whole number -of his followers, at the time of his decease, is stated at about 135,000, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>of whom more than 57,600 were Americans. In the United Kingdoms, -his principal success had been in some of the large towns in England -and in Ireland. But he complains of the coldness with which his -preaching was, for the most part, received by the agricultural classes -generally, and by the entire Scotch nation—facts which may however -be accounted for, without supposing any religious obduracy either in -the one or the other.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Thus did Wesley live to fix and consolidate, by the calmer deliberation -of his later years, the effects, which might otherwise have been -transient, of his early enthusiasm. It required many talents, as well -as many virtues, to accomplish this—and Wesley was abundantly endowed -with both. The natural ardour and eagerness of his character -was moderated by great sagacity and calm judgment, a conciliating -and forgiving temper. If he loved power, he did not covet money; -but bestowed all that he had upon the poor. Doubtless his original -object was simply to awaken the dormant spirit of vital Christianity; -and if spiritual ambition, fomented by the general discouragement -which he received from the clergy, seduced him too readily—though -reluctantly and in opposition to his own professions, and even to his own -intentions—into what did in fact amount to schism; yet the breach is -not even now irreparable, if only his better spirit shall preside in the -councils of his disciples, and be met with a kindred feeling of religious -moderation by the directors of the Established Church.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_101.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Monument to Wesley in the Chapel in the City Road.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span> -<img src='images/i_102.jpg' alt='Dr. CARTWRIGHT.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'><span class='sc'>Dr.</span> CARTWRIGHT.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The incident which immediately led to the invention of the power-loom -is best related in the words of the inventor himself. “Happening -to be at Matlock in the summer of 1784, I fell in company with -some gentlemen of Manchester, when the conversation turned on -Arkwright’s spinning machinery. One of the company observed, that -as soon as Arkwright’s patent expired, so many mills would be -erected, and so much cotton spun, that hands never could be found to -weave it. To this observation I replied, that Arkwright must then -set his wits to work to invent a weaving mill. This brought on a -conversation on the subject, in which the Manchester gentlemen unanimously -agreed that the thing was impracticable; and in defence of -their opinion, they adduced arguments which I certainly was incompetent -to answer, or even to comprehend, being totally ignorant of the -subject, having never at that time seen a person weave. I controverted -however the impracticability of the thing.” Looms driven by -power had been constructed before, but they had not been made to -answer; and it is probable, from the circumstances of Dr. Cartwright’s -life, that he had never heard of them: at all events the idea thus -suggested to him did not lie dormant. Before the following April, he -had constructed his first power-loom; and he took out his last weaving -patent Aug. 1, 1787. Mechanical spinning therefore was the parent -of mechanical weaving. Without the former, the latter would have -been needless; without the latter, the former would have been incomplete. -Every stage of the cotton manufacture, from the cleaning of -the raw wool to the formation of a perfect web, may be, and in many -establishments is, now carried on under the same roof, and by the -moving power of the same engine. The name of Dr. Cartwright -should follow that of Sir Richard Arkwright in the list of our -national benefactors; though at present it is far less known to the -world at large. It was long indeed before Cartwright’s merits were -appreciated, and they failed to obtain for him the wealth and distinction -which the creation of the factory system secured to Arkwright. -The utility of the power-loom is now acknowledged, and its sphere -appears to be rapidly enlarging. But it is still limited even in the -cotton, and much more in the silk and woollen manufactures; and -it is not unreasonable to expect that, as prejudices give way, and fresh -refinements render the machine susceptible of more general, not to -say universal, application, the art of weaving by mechanism, as formerly -of spinning, may give an impulse to our trade, of which we -now see the beginning, but cannot conjecture the end.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_102fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Thomson.</em><br /><br />D<sup>R</sup>. CARTWRIGHT.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in the possession of Miss Cartwright.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society of the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>Edmund Cartwright was the fourth son of William Cartwright, -Esq., of Marnham in Nottinghamshire, a gentleman whose family had -been long established in the county, and had suffered considerably in -its fortune by adherence to the cause of Charles I. in the civil war. -He was born April 24, 1743; and at the school of Wakefield, and at -University College, Oxford, received the education usually bestowed -upon young men destined for the clerical profession. At an early -age he manifested a taste for poetic composition; but though he had -printed some short pieces anonymously, his name was not given to the -public, until the appearance, in 1770, of ‘Armenia and Elvira,’ a -legendary poem, which became so popular that it passed through -seven editions in little more than a year. He also published, about -the same period, the ‘Prince of Peace,’ and ‘Sonnets to Eminent -Men.’ In 1774 he became a contributor to the Monthly Review, in -which he continued to write for ten years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have not ascertained the date of his taking orders, of his election -to a fellowship at Magdalen College, or of his vacating that fellowship -by marriage. The degree of D.D. he took in 1806. For some years -after his marriage he resided, first on his living at Brampton in Derbyshire, -and afterwards at Goadby-Marwood in Leicestershire; where -the hours which were not devoted to the duties of his calling were -chiefly employed in literary pursuits.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hitherto Mr. Cartwright’s private life had been that of a retired -country clergyman, varied only by his correspondence with literary -friends. From his family connexions, and the esteem in which he was -held by some who had power to advance him, his prospects in the -church were favourable; and he had good reason to believe, that if he -had confined himself to the line of life in which he had been educated, -and in which he was then advancing, he would have attained a more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>ample provision in his profession, than it was his lot to acquire by the -exercise of his mechanical talent. The existence of such a talent in -his own mind had been wholly unknown even to himself, until he was -upwards of forty years of age, when the circumstance which has been -above narrated called it into action, and caused a change in the whole -tenor of his life. In his first attempts he had to contend with the difficulties -which usually beset genius without experience. “As I had -never before turned my thoughts to anything mechanical, either in -theory or practice, nor had even seen a loom at work, or knew anything -of its construction, you will readily believe that my first loom -was a most rude piece of machinery. The warp was placed perpendicularly; -the reed fell with the weight of at least half a hundred -weight, and the springs which threw the shuttle were strong enough -to have thrown a Congreve rocket. In short, it required the strength -of two powerful men to work the machine at a slow rate, and only for -a short time.” This, as we have seen, was in 1785: he also applied -his talents to effecting the substitution of machinery for manual labour -in combing wool, and took out his first patent on this subject in April -1790.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following anecdotes we quote from the ‘Pursuit of Knowledge,’ -vol. ii.; we believe them to rest upon the best authority. “Dr. Cartwright’s -children still remember often seeing their father about this -time walking to and fro apparently in deep meditation, and occasionally -throwing his arms from side to side; on which they used to be told -that he was thinking of weaving and throwing the shuttle. From the -moment indeed when his attention was first turned to the invention of -the power-loom, mechanical contrivance became the grand occupying -subject of his thoughts. With that sanguineness of disposition which -seems to be almost a necessary part of the character of an inventor, he -looked on difficulties, when he met with them in any of his attempts, -as only affording his genius occasion for a more distinguished triumph: -nor did he allow even repeated failures for a moment to dishearten -him. Some time after he had brought his first loom to perfection, a -manufacturer, who had called upon him to see it at work, after expressing -his admiration of the ingenuity displayed in it, remarked, -that wonderful as was Mr. Cartwright’s mechanical skill, there was -one thing that would effectually baffle him, namely the weaving of -patterns in checks, or in other words, the combining in the same web, -of a pattern, or fancy figure, with the crossing colours which constitute -the check. Mr. Cartwright made no reply to this observation at -the time; but some weeks after, on receiving a second visit from the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>same person, he had the pleasure of showing him a piece of muslin of -the description mentioned, beautifully executed by machinery. The -man is said to have been so much astonished, that he roundly declared -his conviction that some agency more than human must have been -called in on the occasion.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The prejudices and opposition which Dr. Cartwright’s invention -encountered from the manufacturers, stood greatly in the way of any -general adoption of his loom during the period of his patent rights. -Other causes, however, were concerned in this. A mill, containing -five hundred of his looms, was burnt down almost immediately after -its erection. He engaged in a concern for manufacturing with power-looms -at Doncaster; but this proved unsuccessful. And it is not -improbable, though we have not found it expressly stated, that the -machine itself was not at this time able to compete, in respect of -economy and beauty of workmanship, with hand labour: for during -the period of his exclusive rights, two or three other persons took out -patents for power-looms, without being able to make them answer. But -about the year 1801, in which his patent expired, he had the pleasure -of finding that his invention was coming into use to a very considerable -extent; and the mortification of seeing others reap the fruit of -his unrequited ingenuity. The increased demand during the war for -English cotton goods, with the necessity for working up at home the -cotton yarn which had hitherto been exported to the Continent, had -given an impulse to the manufacture favourable to the introduction of -machinery; and at the same time the power-loom was rendered much -more economical by a very ingenious method, invented by Mr. Radcliffe -of Stockport, about 1804, of dressing or sizing the warp, before -it was placed in the loom. A cotton manufacturer of Stockport, -named Horrocks, took out a patent for another power-loom in 1803. -He failed; but his loom, with various modifications, is that which has -now come into general use.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The following estimate, taken from ‘Baines’s History of the Cotton -Manufacture,’ of the number of power-looms in Britain at various -periods, though literal exactness in such a matter is unattainable, -affords probably a tolerably correct measure of the rapid multiplication -of these engines.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='c013'>In 1813.</th> - <th class='c007'> </th> - <th class='c013'>In 1820.</th> - <th class='c013'>In 1829.</th> - <th class='c008'>In 1833.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>Not exceeding 2,400.</td> - <td class='c007'>England</td> - <td class='c006'>12,150</td> - <td class='c006'>45,500</td> - <td class='c009'>85,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c007'>Scotland</td> - <td class='c006'>2,000</td> - <td class='c006'>10,000</td> - <td class='c009'>15,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c006'><hr /></td> - <td class='c006'><hr /></td> - <td class='c009'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c006'>14,150</td> - <td class='c006'>55,500</td> - <td class='c009'>100,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>At the present time, we are told by the same authority, the machinemakers -of Lancashire are making power-looms with the greatest rapidity, -and they cannot be made sufficiently fast to meet the demands -of the manufacturers. This quick increase, notwithstanding the considerable -expense of outfit, which by employing hand-weavers the -manufacturer avoids entirely, may safely be taken as a test of the advantages -and national importance of the power-loom. The following -estimate is given of its productiveness as compared with hand-loom -labour. A very good hand-weaver, twenty-five or thirty years of -age, will weave <em>two</em> pieces of cloth per week, of a certain description, -each twenty-four yards long. In 1833, a steam-loom weaver, from -fifteen to twenty years of age, assisted by a girl about twelve years of -age, attending to four looms, can weave <em>eighteen</em> similar pieces in a -week; some can weave twenty pieces. It appears from the fuller -statement given by Mr. Baines, that the comparative productiveness -of steam-looms has rapidly increased up to the last-mentioned period, -and therefore it may be conjectured not yet to have reached its -maximum; and it is also stated, that in those descriptions of plain -goods for which they have hitherto been chiefly used, “cloth made -by these looms, when seen by those manufacturers who employ hand-weavers, -at once, excites admiration, and a consciousness that their -own weavers cannot equal it.” The set-off against these advantages -is the interest on capital employed, and the expense of supplying -power. It is not asserted by the more intelligent, either among -masters or workmen, that the power-loom has been more than a -secondary and minor cause of the lamentable depression and misery -now existing among the hand-weavers; a depression which it is to -be feared will never be removed but by the gradual relinquishment -of that laborious and ill-paid trade.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The hardships of Dr. Cartwright’s case, his merits, and the extent -to which the country was then profiting by his discoveries, had become, -by 1807, so manifest to those who were best acquainted with -the cotton trade, that a considerable number of the most respectable and -influential gentlemen of Manchester presented a memorial to government, -praying that some remuneration for his useful inventions might -be taken into consideration. He petitioned the legislature himself to -the same effect; and in 1809 obtained from parliament a grant of -£10,000 for “the good service he had rendered the public by his -invention of weaving.” The compensation thus awarded, though -falling far short of the sums he had expended in perfecting his inventions, -as well as in defending his patent-rights, contributed essentially -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>to place him in comparatively easy circumstances; and being advanced -in life, he was thankful to be enabled to pass the remainder of his days -in tranquil retirement. The activity of his mind however was unabated. -Engaged to the last in scientific pursuits, with an occasional revival of -the poetic spirit of his youth, he closed his active, useful, and benevolent -life at Hastings, October 30, 1823, in the eighty-first year of his age.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Like many inventors, Dr. Cartwright was negligent of his pecuniary -interests: he possessed another quality less common to that -class of persons, entire freedom from jealousy, and great liberality in -communicating his ideas and assistance to others engaged in pursuits -similar to his own. And we may fairly conjecture that the temper -of mind in which such conduct originated, promoted his happiness -much more than any increase to his fortune, procured by a less frank -and generous spirit, could have done. It is also stated, that whether -from absorption in the pursuits of the moment, or carelessness of their -value, he was remarkably apt to forget his own productions, even -when offered to his notice. Among other instances of this disposition, -it is related, that on examining the model of one of his own machines, -he expressed great admiration, and said that he should have been -proud to have been the inventor of it; nor could he readily be convinced -that the merit was indeed his own.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this sketch of Dr. Cartwright’s life a limited notice only has -been taken of his productions. He is chiefly known as the inventor of -the power-loom; but the public are also reaping the advantage -of several minor improvements in the arts of life, which emanated -from his active and observing mind. It is sufficient here to state that -he obtained ten patents, either for original inventions, or improvements -upon his earlier mechanical attempts: and in addition to the -kindred arts of weaving, spinning, wool-combing, and rope-making, -he had successfully applied his talents to a variety of subjects unconnected -with those manufactures.</p> - -<p class='c000'>An account of his life, containing a more detailed description of his -various inventions, as well as a relation of the struggles and difficulties -which he encountered, is now, we are informed, in preparation for the -press. The portrait from which our engraving is taken was copied -from one painted by Robert Fulton, when studying the art under his -countryman, Benjamin West.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span> -<img src='images/i_108.jpg' alt='PORSON.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PORSON.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>It is perhaps not easy to invest the memoirs of a verbal critic with -the interest which attaches itself to the lives of men distinguished in -other departments of literature and science: the classical scholar has -little sympathy, in respect of his peculiar vocation, with the world -around him, and the world for the most part repays his indifference -with interest. Nevertheless, it is due to the great reputation of the -subject of this memoir to relate the principal events of his life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Richard Porson was born December 25, 1759. His father, Mr. -Huggin Porson, was the parish-clerk of East Ruston, near North -Walsham, in the county of Norfolk. Notwithstanding his poverty, -Porson had the good fortune to obtain a first-rate education. Even -in his childhood he was taught by a careful father more than is generally -learned by the children of the rich; and after he had spent -a short time at a village school, to which he was sent at the age of -nine, his abilities attracted the notice of Mr. Hewitt, the vicar of his -native place, who kindly undertook to teach the young prodigy the -rudiments of Greek and Latin. In these elementary studies Porson -passed his time till 1774, being also occasionally employed as a shepherd -or a weaver. But his reputation had reached the ears of Mr. -Norris, of Grosvenor Place, who in the summer of that year undertook -the charge of maintaining him at Eton College. His name soon -became favorably known beyond the circle of his admiring school-fellows. -The interest which he excited was fortunate for him, for on the -death of his kind patron Mr. Norris, he would have been unable to -continue at Eton, had it not been for a subscription collected by Sir -George Baker, then President of the Royal College of Physicians, from -a number of gentlemen who had heard of Porson’s talents, and were -desirous of giving him a fair opportunity to cultivate them to the uttermost. -With this subscription, an annuity of 80<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> for a few years was -purchased for him; and thus he was enabled to finish his course at -Eton, and to proceed thence to Trinity College, Cambridge.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_108fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by B. Holl.</em><br /><br />PORSON.<br /><br /><em>From a Print engraved by W. Sharpe, after a Picture by Hoppner.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In the second term of his third year (1781), Porson obtained one of -the Craven University Scholarships, which, being open to the free -competition of the whole body of undergraduates, have always been -regarded among our most honourable academical distinctions. He -took the degree of B. A. in 1782; and, on the mathematical tripos, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>obtained the respectable place of third senior optime: but he gained -the first of the medals annually given by the Chancellor of the University -to the two commencing bachelors of arts, under certain restrictions, -who pass the best examination in classical learning. In the -following September he was elected Fellow of Trinity College. He -proceeded to the degree of M.A. in 1785; but being unwilling, from -conscientious motives, to subscribe to the articles of the Established -Church, he could not take orders, and, according to the rules of the -College, vacated his Fellowship in 1791. He was thus for the second -time dependant upon the liberality of his friends. Nor did they neglect -him: a subscription was entered into by Mr. Cracherode and -some others, from the proceeds of which a life annuity of 100<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> was -purchased for him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1792 he was elected Regius Professor of Greek: but, as the -salary of this office is only 40<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> per annum, he was still a poor man; -and not being able to procure a suitable lecture room, he was prevented -from making the usual addition to his income, by delivering lectures -on the Greek authors. In 1795 he married Mrs. Lunan, the sister of -Mr. Perry, the well-known Editor of the Morning Chronicle. From -this union, short as it proved, Porson derived important benefits. He -laid aside, while it lasted, most of the unseemly and intemperate habits -which he had contracted at College: but unfortunately his wife died -of consumption in 1797, and he subsequently relapsed into his former -course of life, and, as is too notorious, sacrificed friends, health and -fortune, to his passion for drinking. After her death the kindness of -his brother-in-law provided him with a home, gave him an opportunity -of mixing in good society, and preserved him from many inconveniences, -to which a man of Porson’s careless habits is always exposed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>About the time of his wife’s death, in 1797, Porson published an -edition of the Hecuba of Euripides; which he intended to form the -first portion of a complete edition of that poet, and which, with very -modest pretensions, was at once acknowledged to be a piece of first-rate -criticism by the scholars not only of England but of all Europe. -However, in 1800, Gottfried Hermann of Leipzig, who has since -become very eminent as a verbal critic, published an edition of the -same play, as a professed attack on Porson’s; and there was something -in the tone, as well as in the matter of his strictures, which more than -counterbalanced the compliment at the commencement of the preface. -When, therefore, Porson republished the ‘Hecuba,’ in 1802, he added -to the preface a long Supplement, in which Hermann was treated -rather superciliously; indeed it appears from a letter which Porson -wrote to Professor Dalzel, of Edinburgh, on the third of September, -1803, that he entertained a most sincere contempt for his German -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>censor. The Supplement, however, obtained the applause of the -learned in all countries, and, in its kind, it has rarely been surpassed -in learning and ingenuity. Porson subsequently published the -‘Orestes,’ ‘Phœnissæ,’ and ‘Medea,’ and the four plays, collected -into one volume, have gone through numerous editions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the London Institution was established, in 1805, Porson -was appointed Librarian, with a salary of 200<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> per annum. The -situation however gave him no opportunity of useful exertion. He selected -indeed an excellent classical library, and was tolerably diligent -in his attendance; but he acquired in this monotonous employment a -habit of selfish intemperance, which impaired his faculties and ruined -his health. From the beginning of 1808 he was afflicted with asthma; -and neglecting the usual modes of treating this disease, he endeavoured -to cure it by abstinence. Under this regimen he grew weaker and -weaker, and on Monday, September 19, 1808, he was attacked with -apoplexy in the street. Being unknown, he was carried to a neighbouring -workhouse; but on the following day he was discovered and -taken home by his friends, whose attention had been called to an -advertisement describing his person, and some scraps of Greek writing -and algebra, which were found in his pockets. He recovered so far -as to receive a visit from his friend Dr. Adam Clarke, at the Institution; -but the hand of death was upon him, and he never regained the -full use of his faculties. He died on the night of the following Sunday, -just as the clock struck twelve. His body was conveyed to Cambridge, -and buried, with the highest academical honours, in Trinity College -Chapel, near the statue of Newton, where a monument, with a bust by -Chantrey, is erected to his memory.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A complete list of Porson’s works is given by Dr. Young in the -‘Supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica.’ The general reader -will perhaps form the best notion of his style from his celebrated -‘Letters to Archdeacon Travis,’ in which the genuineness of the -long-controverted text, 1 John v. 7, is, we may venture to say, finally -refuted. This work, from its subject, is chiefly interesting to the -theologian and scholar: but its wit, terseness and strength of style, -and force of argument, will well repay even the general reader for -perusing it. Of his posthumous works the Photius requires particular -notice. It was printed in 1822, from Porson’s transcript of the -Galean MS. of an imperfect Lexicon, which is generally attributed to -the celebrated Patriarch of Constantinople. He had transcribed and -corrected this Lexicon with the intention of printing it some years -before his death, but a fire having broken out in Mr. Perry’s house -at Merton, and having consumed, among other papers, this transcript, -he began the task again, and completed another copy in his own -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>handwriting. A collection of his miscellaneous notes, under the title -of ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Adversaria</span>,’ was published several years after the author’s death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As Porson was the champion of English scholarship against the -attacks of continental critics, and the head of a school of verbal criticism -in this country, we must expect to find among his English -contemporaries and successors a sort of reverence for him not altogether -justified by his merits, and among the scholars of Germany, on -the other hand, a corresponding feeling of dislike and desire to disparage -him. Hermann wrote an article a few years since in the -‘Vienna Journal,’ on the characteristics of English scholarship, in -which (vol. liv. p. 236,) the peculiar features of Porson’s criticism -are said to be “great metrical accuracy in the kinds of verse with -which he was acquainted; in others, sometimes an acquiescent acceptance -of what he found, sometimes uncertain alterations: in his knowledge -of the Greek language, great correctness; a sound judgment in -the choice of readings, and considerate circumspection in conjecture, -except where his own rules came in the way.” On the other hand, -it is affirmed that “Porson’s notes are defective in acute and decisive -proofs, and in that criticism which proceeds from a lively conception -of the poetical: and that their contents are much more indicative of -great industry and cool examination.” This is true enough as far as it -goes; but had Hermann in his old age forgotten the rivalry which -subsisted between Porson and himself in his earlier years, he would -not have omitted to add that, with all these drawbacks, Porson was the -greatest verbal critic of modern times.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It has been stated that Porson could not make himself generally -agreeable; but it is well known that he had a strong turn for the humorous, -and was almost always successful in his strokes of wit, so that -it cannot be doubted that his society was courted even by the superficial; -and we have heard from several of his surviving friends that, -though his coarseness was sometimes offensive, he was often a welcome -guest at the tea-table. He was also very happy in connecting classical -allusions with ludicrous associations; and Professor Dobree, in -his inaugural Prælection, speaks rapturously of the delight which -Porson’s broad vernacular translations from Aristophanes afforded to -his intimates at college. Some of his <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">jeux d’esprit</span> have been printed -in the Classical Journal; the poem called ‘The Devil’s Walk’ was -till lately attributed to him: it is stated in the last edition of Coleridge’s -works to be the joint production of that poet and of Southey.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It may be necessary to say a few words in conclusion on those -two peculiarities for which perhaps Porson is most talked about at the -present day: his extraordinary memory, and his fondness for the -manual labour of writing. The former he attributed in great measure -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>to the latter. He told a friend, that he recollected nothing which -he had not transcribed three times, or read at least six times; -adding the assurance, that any one who would take the same trouble -would acquire the same powers. We should incline to ascribe the -tenacity of his recollection, so far as it depended on cultivation, in -great measure to the early training of his father, who taught him the -rules of arithmetic without the use of book or pencil; and his proficiency -was such, that at nine years of age he is said to have been -able to extract cube roots in his head. His memory was as indiscriminate -as it was retentive and capacious. Proper names of no -importance, foolish ballads, and prosing tales he could recall as easily, -and repeat as accurately, as the passages of ancient authors which he -required for the illustration or correction of a line of Euripides: he -loved to recite, and was equally ready to repeat, ‘Jack the Giant -Killer,’ or half a book of Milton, to his wearied company. As to his -penmanship, it has been objected to him that he wasted many hours -in an employment which would have better suited a country writing-master -than a man of such talents. But it must be recollected that -a reader of Greek MSS. must also be a scribe himself; and a great -deal of the facility with which Porson performed his collations is to -be attributed to his practice as a calligrapher. And if, as he used -to say, his memory was principally formed by repeated copying, he -certainly did not throw away his time; for all that he did in the way -of illustrating Greek authors was mainly owing to his memory. And -the world has at least derived one benefit from the perfection of -Porson’s handwriting, in the adoption by the English University -presses of a set of uniform types, formed after his models, of which -even Hermann has said that they far exceed all attempts made in -modern times to improve the beauty of Greek writing.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_112.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[London Institution.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_113fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />WICLIF.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by G. White, after a Picture in the Collection of the Duke of Dorset.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span> -<img src='images/i_113.jpg' alt='WICLIF.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>WICLIF.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The village of Wiclif, distant about six miles from Richmond in -Yorkshire, had long been the residence of a family of the same name, -when it gave birth, about the year 1324, to its most distinguished -native. The family possessed wealth and consequence; and though -the name of the Reformer is not to be found in the extant records of -the household, it is probable that he belonged to it. Perhaps the -spirit of the times, and zeal for the established hierarchy, may have -led it to disclaim the only person who has saved its name from -absolute obscurity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>John Wiclif was first admitted at Queen’s College, Oxford, but -speedily removed to Merton, a society more ancient and distinguished, -and adorned by names of great ecclesiastical eminence. Here he -engaged in the prescribed studies with diligence and success. In -scholastic learning he made such great proficiency as to extort admiration -from some who loved him not; and the direction in which his -talents were turned is indicated by the honourable appellation, which -he early acquired, of the Evangelic or Gospel Doctor. The terms, -“profound,” “perspicuous,” “irrefragable,” were applied to mark -the respective peculiarities of Bradwardine, of Burley, and of Hales; -and so we may infer, that the peculiar bent of Wiclif’s youthful exertions -was towards the book on which his subsequent principles were -founded, and that he applied the ambiguous fruits of a scholastic education, -not to enlarge the resources of sophistry, but to illustrate the -treasures of truth. And on the other hand, in the illustration of those -oracles, and in the accomplishment of his other holy purposes, it was -of good and useful service to him that he had armed himself with the -weapons of the age, and could contend with the most redoubtable -adversaries on the only ground of argument which was at all accessible -to them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1356 he put forth a tract on ‘The Last Age of the Church,’ -which was the first of his publications, and is on other accounts -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>worthy of mention. It would appear that his mind had been deeply -affected by meditation on the various evils which at that period -afflicted the world, especially the pestilence which had laid waste, a -few years before, so large a portion of it. He was disposed to ascribe -them to God’s indignation at the sinfulness of man; and he also -believed them to be mysterious announcements of the approaching -consummation of all things. Through too much study of the book -of the Abbot Joachim, he was infected with the spirit of prophecy; -and, not contented to lament past and present visitations, he ventured -to predict others which were yet to come. All however -were to be included in the fourteenth century, which was to be the -last of the world. That Wiclif should have been thus carried away -by the prevalent infatuation, so as to contribute his portion to the -mass of vain and visionary absurdity, was human and pardonable: but -in his manner of treating even this subject, we discover the spirit and -the principles of the Reformer. Among the causes of those fearful -calamities, among the vices which had awakened to so much fierceness -the wrath of the Almighty, he feared not to give the foremost -place to the vices of the clergy, the rapacity which <em>ate up the people -as it were bread</em>, the sensuality which infected the earth with its savour, -and “smelt to heaven.” Here was the leaven which perverted and -corrupted the community; here the impure source whence future visitations -should proceed. “Both vengeance of sword, and mischiefs -unknown before, by which men in those days shall be punished, shall -befal them, because of the sins of their priests.” Thus it was that -in this singular work, of which the foundation may have been laid -in superstition, Wiclif developed notwithstanding a free and unprejudiced -mind, and one which dared to avow without compromise, -what it felt with force and truth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The mendicant orders of friars were introduced into England in -the year 1221; and they presently supplanted the antient establishments -in the veneration of the people, and usurped many of the prerogatives, -honours, and profits of the sacerdotal office. As long as -they retained their original character, and practised, to any great extent, -the rigid morality and discipline which they professed, so long -did their influence continue without diminution, and the clamours of -the monks and the priests assailed them in vain: but prosperity soon -relaxed their zeal and soiled their purity, and within a century from -the time of their institution, they became liable to charges as serious -as those which had reduced the authority of their rivals. Accordingly, -towards the middle of the following century, the contest was conducted -with greater success on the part of the original orders; and some of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>the leading prelates of the day took part in it against the Mendicants. -Oxford was naturally the field for the closest struggle, and the rising -talents of Wiclif were warmly engaged in it. About the year 1360 -he is generally believed to have first proclaimed his hostility “against -the orders of friars;” and he persisted, to the end of life, in pursuing -them with the keenest argument and the bitterest invective, denouncing -them as the authors of “perturbation in Christiandome, and -of all the evils of this worlde; and these errors shallen never be amended -till the friars be brought to freedom of the Gospel and clean religion -of Jesu Christ.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the year 1365 Urban V. renewed the papal claim of sovereignty -over the realm of England, which was founded on the submission -rendered by John to Innocent III. The claim was resisted by -Edward III., and the decision of his parliament confirmed, in the -strongest language, the resolution of the monarch. A zealous advocate -of papacy ventured to vindicate the pretension of the Vatican, -and challenged Wiclif to reply to his arguments. He did so; and -his reply has survived the work which gave it birth. It is not however -remarkable for any power of composition, still less can it be -praised for grace or accuracy of style; but it stands as a rude -monument of his principles, and proves that even then he was imbued -with that anti-papal spirit which more splendidly distinguished his -later years. Still, he was not yet committed as the adversary of -Rome; and in a dispute, in which he was engaged with the Archbishop -of Canterbury at this very time, he appealed from the decision -of the Primate to the authority of the Pope.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Seven years afterwards, at the age of forty-eight, Wiclif was raised -to the Theological Chair at Oxford; and from this period we may -date the most memorable of his spiritual achievements. For it is a -question whether, had he died before that time, his name would have -come down to us distinguished by any peculiar characteristic from -those of the other divines and doctors of his age; but when he turned -this eminence into a vantage-ground for assailing the corruptions -of his church, and thus recommended the expressions of truth and -justice by the authority of academical dignity, his language acquired -a commanding weight, and his person a peculiar distinction, which -the former would never have possessed had he remained in an inferior -station, nor the latter, had he not employed his station for the noblest -purposes: purposes which, though they were closely connected with -the welfare and stability of the Roman Catholic communion, were -seldom advocated from the pulpits of her hierarchy, or the chairs of -her professors. Had Wiclif been no more than an eminent and dignified -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>theologian, he would have been admired, perhaps, and forgotten, -like so many others. Had he been only a humble pleader for the reformation -of the church, his voice might never have been heard, or it -might have been extinguished by the hand of persecution: but his -rank removed him above the neglect of his contemporaries; and his -principles, thus acquiring immediate efficacy, have secured for him the -perpetual respect of a more enlightened and grateful posterity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time the various profitable devices, by which the Vatican -turned into its own channels the wealth and patronage of the church, -were come into full operation. By its provisions and reservations, and -other expedients, it had filled many valuable benefices with foreign -ecclesiastics; these, for the most part, were non-resident, and spent in -other countries the rich revenues which they derived from England. -This system had been vigorously opposed both by kings and people, -but with little effectual success; for the Pope commonly contrived to -repair the losses which he had sustained in the tempest during -the interval which succeeded it. In 1374 Edward III. dispatched an -embassy to Avignon to remonstrate on these subjects with Gregory XI., -and procure the relinquishment of his pretensions. The Bishop -of Bangor was at the head of this commission, and the name of Wiclif -stood second on the list. The negociation was protracted, and ended -in no important result; and the various arts of the Vatican triumphed -over the zeal of the Reformer, and, as some believe, over the honesty -of the Bishop. Howbeit, Wiclif obtained on that occasion a nearer -insight into the pontifical machinery, and beheld with closer eyes the -secret springs which moved it. And if he carried along with him into -the presence of the vicar of Christ no very obsequious regard for his -person, or reverence for his authority, he returned from that mission -armed with more decided principles, and inflamed with a more determined -animosity. At the same time his sovereign rewarded his -services at the Papal Court by the prebend of Aust, in the Collegiate -Church of Westbury, in the diocese of Worcester; and soon afterwards -by the rectory of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After this period, his anti-papal opinions were more boldly declared, -and he became more and more distinguished as an advocate -for the Reformation of the Church. The suspicions of the hierarchy -were aroused; and whatever reasons the Prelates might have had -for sometimes siding with their sovereign against the usurpations of -the Pope, they were ill-disposed to listen to the generous remonstrances -of a private Reformer. Accordingly, at a Convocation held Feb. 3, -1377, they summoned him to appear at St. Paul’s, to clear himself -from the fatal charge of holding erroneous doctrines. Had Wiclif -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>trusted to no other support than the holiness of his cause—had he -thrown himself, like Huss and Jerome of Prague, only on the mercy -and justice of his ecclesiastical judges—it might have fared as ill -with him as it did with his Bohemian disciples. But his principles, -recommended as it would seem by some private intercourse, had -secured him the patronage of the celebrated John of Gaunt, Duke -of Lancaster, under whose protection he presented himself on the -appointed day before the assembled bishops. A tumultuous scene -ensued: and after an undignified and indecent dispute between the -Duke and the Bishop of London, the meeting dispersed without -arriving at any conclusion, or even entering on any inquiry respecting -the matter concerning which it was convened. The process against -Wiclif was however suspended; and this good result was at least -obtained, though by means more in accordance with the violent habits -of the age, than with the holiness of his cause.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the course of the same year, while the Pope was endeavouring -to re-establish and perpetuate his dominion in fiscal matters over -the English, and the Parliament struggling to throw it off altogether, -Wiclif was again called forth as the advocate of national independence; -and he argued with great force and boldness against the legality of the -papal exactions. In this Treatise, he entered more generally into the -question, as to what were the real foundations, not only of papal but -of spiritual pretensions; he pressed the Gospel of Christ as the last -appeal in all reasonings respecting the Church of Christ; and he contrasted -the worldliness and rapacity of his Vicar with the principles of -the religion, and the character of its Divine founder. The name and -example of Christ were never very pleasing objects of reflection to the -hierarchy of that age; and the argument with which they loved to repel -such ungrateful suggestions was, the personal oppression of those -who ventured to advance them. Accordingly, the storm gathered; -and four Bulls were issued forthwith against the doctrines and person -of Wiclif. “His holiness had been informed that John Wiclif, rector -of the church of Lutterworth, and Professor of the Sacred Page, had -broken forth into a detestable insanity, and had dared to assert opinions -utterly subversive of the Church, and savouring of the perversity and -ignorance of Marsilius of Padua, and John of Ganduno, both of accursed -memory.” It was then ordained that he should be apprehended and -imprisoned; and in an address to Edward III., the arm of the flesh was -invoked to co-operate with the spiritual authorities for the suppression -of this monstrous evil. One of these Bulls was addressed to the University -of Oxford; and what may seem singular, it found there a -spirit so far in advance of the bigotry of the age, that a question was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>raised whether it should be received, or indignantly rejected. After -long hesitation, it was received; but still no readiness was shown to -comply with its requisitions, nor were any measures taken to punish or -degrade the Reformer.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Howbeit, in the beginning of the year following, Wiclif presented -himself at Lambeth, before the Tribunal of the Papal Commissioners, -to meet the various charges of heretical pravity. We have no room -to doubt the wishes and intentions of his judges. But on this occasion -he was rescued from them, for the second time, by extraneous -circumstances. The populace of London, among whom his opinions -may have made some progress, and by whom his name was -certainly respected, interrupted the meeting with much clamour and -violence, and showed a fierce determination to save him from oppression. -And at the same time, while the delegates were confounded by -this interference, a message was delivered to them from the Queen -Mother, prohibiting any definitive sentence against Wiclif. Thus -unexpectedly assailed, and from such different quarters, the Prelates -immediately softened their expressions, and abandoned their design; -and Wiclif returned once more in safety to the propagation of his -former opinions, and to the expression of others which had not yet -been broached by him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The sum of those opinions might be given with tolerable accuracy, -though some of them were not perhaps propounded with perfect distinctness, -and others have been made liable to consequences which -were disclaimed by their author. In the first place, he rejected every -sort of pretension, tenet, or authority, which did not rest on the foundation -of Scripture: here he professed to fix the single basis of his -whole system. Accordingly he denounced, with various degrees of -severity, many of the popular observances of his church. He rejected -auricular confession; and declared pardons and indulgences to be no -better than antichristian devices for augmenting the power and wealth -of the clergy, at the expense of the morality of the people. He paid -no respect to excommunications and interdicts; he pronounced confirmation -to be an unnecessary ceremony, invented for the aggrandizement -of the episcopal dignity; he reprobated the celibacy of -the clergy, and the imposition of monastic vows. And in his contempt -for the outward ceremonies of the church, even to the use -of Sacred music, he anticipated by more than two centuries the -principles of the Puritans. In like manner, he maintained that bishops -and priests, being one and the same order according to their original -institution, were improperly distinguished; and that the property -claimed by the clergy, being in its origin eleemosynary, was merely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>enjoyed by them in trust for the benefit of the people, and was disposable -at the discretion of the secular government.</p> - -<p class='c000'>So long as Wiclif confined himself to the expression of these opinions, -though he ensured the hatred of the hierarchy, he might reckon -on a powerful party both at the Court and among the people. The -objects for which he contended were at least manifest, and his arguments -generally intelligible. But he was not content with this limited -field. In his solicitude to assail all the holds of papacy, and denounce -all its pernicious errors, he entered, in the year 1381, into a controversy -respecting the nature of the Eucharist. His opinion on this mysterious -question seems to have approached very nearly to that of Luther. -He admitted a real presence; but though he did not presume to determine -the manner, he rejected the doctrine of Transubstantiation in -the Roman Catholic sense. This was ground sufficient for a new -clamour, louder and more dangerous than all that had preceded it: -not that there was stronger argument on the side of his opponents, but -because the subject, being more obscure, was more involved in prejudice; -it was more closely connected with the religious feelings and -deepest impressions of his hearers; it affected, not their respect for a -sensual and avaricious hierarchy, but their faith in what they had been -taught to consider a vital doctrine essential to salvation. And thus -it proved, not perhaps that his enemies became more violent, but that -his friends began to waver in their support of him. The lower -classes, who had listened with delight to his anti-sacerdotal declamations, -trembled when he began to tread the consecrated ground of their -belief. His noble patrons, if they were not thus sensibly shocked, perceived -at least the impolicy of contending in that field; and John of -Lancaster especially commanded him to retire from it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>With the sincerity of a zealot he persisted, and in the course of May, -1382, a Synod was held by Courtney, who had been just promoted to -the primacy, and the heresies of Wiclif became, for the third time, the -subject of ecclesiastical consultation. We have no space to pursue -the details of these proceedings. The result was, that he was summoned -to answer, before the Convocation at Oxford, respecting certain -erroneous doctrines, the most prominent of which was that regarding -the Eucharist. He prepared to defend them. And it was then that -the Duke of Lancaster, who had been his faithful protector throughout -all his previous troubles—whether it was that he sincerely differed -with Wiclif on that particular question, or whether he was unwilling -to engage in a struggle with the whole hierarchy, supported by -much popular prejudice, for the sake of an abstract opinion, which -might appear to him entirely void of any practical advantage—withdrew -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>his support, and abandoned the Reformer to his own -resources. Yet not then was his resolution shaken. In two Confessions -of Faith, which he then produced, he asserted his adherence to -his expressed doctrines. And though one of them is so perplexed -with scholastic sophistry, as to have led some to imagine that it was -intended to convey a sort of retractation, yet it was not so interpreted -by his adversaries, six of whom immediately entered the lists against -it. Neither did it persuade his judges of his innocence. He was -condemned—but not, as the annals of that age would have led us to -expect, to death. And whether the praise of this moderation be due -to the Prelates who forbore so far to press their enmity, or to the -State, which might have refused to sanction the vengeance of the Prelates, -Wiclif was merely condemned to banishment from the University -of Oxford. He retired in peace to his rectory at Lutterworth, and -there spent the two remaining years of his life in the pursuit of his -theological studies and the discharge of his pastoral duties.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The greater part of the opinions by which he was distinguished were -so entirely at variance with the principles and prejudices of his age, -that our wonder is not at their imperfect success, but at their escape -from immediate extinction. Having thus escaped, however, and taken -root in no inconsiderable portion of the community, they were such -as to secure by their own strength and boldness their own progress and -maturity. Neither was their author neglectful of the methods proper -to ensure their dissemination. For in the first place, by his translation -of the Sacred Book on which he supposed them to rest, he increased -the means of ascertaining their truth, or at least the spuriousness -of the system which they opposed. In the next, he sent forth -numerous missionaries, whom he called his “Poor Priests,” for the -express purpose of propagating his doctrines; and thus they acquired -some footing even in his own generation. In succeeding years, -the sect of Lollards, in a great measure composed of his disciples, professed -and perpetuated his tenets; and by their undeviating hostility -to the abuses of Rome, prepared the path for the Reformation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nor were the fruits of his exertions confined to his native country. -It is certain that his works found their way, at a very early period, -into Bohemia, and kindled there the first sparks of resistance to the -established despotism. The venerable Huss proclaimed his adherence -to the principles, and his reverence for the person, of the English -Reformer; and he was wont in his public discourses to pray, that -“on his departure from this life, he might be received into those -regions whither the soul of Wiclif had gone; since he doubted not -that he was a good and holy man, and worthy of a heavenly habitation.” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>The memory of Huss is associated by another incident with -that of his master. The same savage Council which consigned the -former to the flames, offered to the other that empty insult, which we -may receive as an expression of malignant regret that he had been -permitted to die in peace. It published an edict, “That the bones -and body of Wiclif should be taken from the ground, and thrown far -away from the burial of any church.” After a long interval of hesitation, -this edict was obeyed. Thirty years after his death, his grave -was violated, and his ashes contemptuously cast into a neighbouring -brook. On this indignity, Fuller makes the following memorable -reflection:—“The brook did convey his ashes in Avon; Avon into -Severn; Severn into the narrow seas; they into the main ocean. And -thus the ashes of Wiclif are the emblems of his doctrine, which now -is dispersed all the world over.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The date of Wiclif’s death renders the authenticity of his portraits -in some degree uncertain, and we are not able to trace the history of -any which exist. But that some memorials were preserved in his -features, in illuminations or otherwise, we may conclude from the -general resemblance which is to be traced in two different pictures of -him—that from which our print is engraved, and that at King’s College, -Cambridge, engraved in ‘Rolt’s Lives of the Reformers,’ and -Verheiden, ‘Præstantium Theologorum Effigies, &c.,’ 1602.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_121.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Lutterworth Church.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div id='t122' class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span> -<img src='images/i_122.jpg' alt='CORTEZ.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>CORTEZ.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Perhaps no great revolution has ever been effected by means apparently -so inadequate to the end proposed, as in the first establishment -of the Spanish monarchy on the continent of America. The immense -importance of that revolution, and its intimate connexion with the -history of geographical discovery, warrant us in assigning a place in -our Gallery to a representative of the rude and daring men by whom -the mighty conquest was effected. Of these, Fernando Cortez claims -the first place. It is proper to mention, in explanation of what might -seem a capital omission in our work, that no authentic likeness is -known to exist of Columbus: a man raised above those who followed -him across the Atlantic, no less by the purity of his motives, than by -the originality of his daring career.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Columbus, however, did not colonize the American continent: his -settlement was in Hispaniola. But the Spaniards soon took possession -of other islands in the group of the Antilles. In 1511 Diego -Velasquez annexed the most important of them, Cuba, to the Spanish -crown, and was rewarded with the appointment of Governor. Eager -to gain fresh wealth and honour, he equipped a squadron of discovery, -in 1518, which tracked the southern shores of the Gulf of Mexico, -and brought home so inviting a report, that he determined to attempt -the conquest of the country. But he was greatly embarrassed in the -choice of a commanding officer. To conduct the enterprise himself -was no part of his scheme: at the same time he was very desirous to -appropriate to himself the advantages likely to accrue from its successful -issue. It was no easy matter to find a person qualified by -talent and courage to assume the command of such an enterprise; -yet so humble in rank, or so devoid of ambition, as to give no umbrage -to the governor’s jealousy. After much hesitation, he invested -Cortez with the chief command as his lieutenant. The early history -and character of this remarkable man are clearly and concisely told -by Dr. Robertson.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_122fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />CORTEZ.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in the Florence Gallery.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>“He was born at Medelin, a small town in Estremadura, in the -year 1485, and descended from a family of noble blood, but of very -moderate fortune. Being originally destined by his parents to the -study of the law, as the most likely method of bettering his condition, -he was sent early to the university of Salamanca, where he imbibed -some tincture of learning. But he was soon disgusted with an academic -life, which did not suit his ardent and restless genius, and -retired to Medelin, where he gave himself up entirely to active sports -and martial exercises. At this period of life he was so impetuous, -so overbearing, and so dissipated, that his father was glad to comply -with his inclination, and send him abroad as an adventurer in arms. -There were in that age two conspicuous theatres on which such of -the Spanish youth as courted military glory might display their -valour: one in Italy, under the command of the Great Captain; the -other in the New World. Cortez preferred the former, but was prevented -by indisposition from embarking with a reinforcement of troops -sent to Naples. Upon this disappointment he turned his views towards -America, whither he was allured by the prospect of the advantages -which he might derive from the patronage of Ovando, the Governor -of Hispaniola, who was his kinsman. When he landed at St. -Domingo, in 1504, his reception was such as equalled his most sanguine -hopes, and he was employed by the Governor in several honourable -and lucrative stations. These, however, did not satisfy his -ambition; and in the year 1511 he obtained permission to accompany -Diego Velasquez in his expedition to Cuba. In this service he distinguished -himself so much, that, notwithstanding some violent contests -with Velasquez, occasioned by some trivial events, unworthy of -remembrance, he was at length taken into favour, and received an -ample concession of lands and of Indians, the recompense usually -bestowed upon adventurers in the New World.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Though Cortez had not hitherto acted in high command, he had -displayed such qualities in several scenes of difficulty and danger, as -raised universal expectation, and turned the eyes of his countrymen -towards him, as one capable of performing great things. The turbulence -of youth, as soon as he found objects and occupations suited to -the ardour of his mind, gradually subsided, and settled into a habit of -regular indefatigable activity. The impetuosity of his temper, when -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>he came to act with his equals, insensibly abated, by being kept under -restraint, and mellowed into a cordial soldierly frankness. These -qualities were accompanied with calm prudence in concerting his -schemes, with persevering vigour in executing them, and with what -is peculiar to superior genius, the art of gaining the confidence and -governing the minds of men. To all which were added the inferior -accomplishments that strike the vulgar, and command their respect; -a graceful person, a winning aspect, extraordinary address in martial -exercises, and a constitution of such vigour as to be capable of enduring -any fatigue.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“As soon as Cortez was mentioned to Velasquez by his confidants, -he flattered himself that he had at length found what he had hitherto -sought in vain, a man with talents for command, but not an object for -jealousy. Neither the rank, nor the fortune of Cortez, as he imagined, -were such that he could aspire at independence. He had reason -to believe that by his own readiness to bury ancient animosities in -oblivion, as well as his liberality in conferring several recent favours, -he had already gained the good-will of Cortez; and hoped, by this -new and unexpected mark of confidence, that he might attach him -for ever to his interest.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is remarkable that Velasquez, actuated by these views, should -have selected for his deputy such a man as is here described. He -soon repented of his confidence, and sought to revoke the commission -which he had bestowed. But Cortez, in addition to the funds -provided by the governor, had spent the whole of his own available -means in raising troops, and making preparations for the enterprise; -he was already embarked at the head of a body of impatient adventurers; -and he despised a mandate which there were no means of -enforcing. And one of his first steps after landing on the Main was -to throw off formally all subordination to Velasquez, and to assume -the title of Chief Justice and Captain General of the intended colony, -by virtue of a new commission, drawn in the king’s name, and purporting -to continue in force until the royal pleasure should be known.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The expedition sailed from Cuba, February 10, 1519, and following -the track of the preceding one, coasted the western side of the peninsula -of Yucatan. At St. Juan de Ulloa some natives came on board, -and replied to the questions put to them through the medium of -interpreters, that their country formed part of a great empire called -Mexico, governed by a powerful monarch, Montezuma. Several -interviews followed, in which Cortez, professing to come as ambassador -from his own sovereign, perseveringly demanded to be led into the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>presence of Montezuma. This was peremptorily refused; but the -denial, as if to make amends, was accompanied by presents rich enough -to inflame, had that been necessary, the cupidity of the strangers. -Instead of departing, they laid the foundations of a settlement, named -Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. Meanwhile, Montezuma acted indecisively -and weakly: he neither admitted his formidable visitors to -the friendly intercourse which they insidiously demanded, nor summoned -the strength of his empire to crush them at once; but let them -fortify themselves while he was making vain requisitions for their -immediate departure, and gave time and opportunity to those who -were discontented under his own heavy yoke, to rally round the -standard of the invader. And it was not long before the Spaniards -obtained that native assistance, without which their mere physical -strength must have sunk under the vastness of their enterprise.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Cacique of Zempoalla, prompted by hatred of Montezuma, was -the first to assist in the ruin of his native land. Supported by a small -body of that chieftain’s troops, and attended by 200 Indians of an -inferior class, who in that country, where the art of breaking animals -to the use of man was unknown, performed the humiliating services of -beasts of burden, Cortez marched from Zempoalla towards the heart -of the country, August 16, with only 500 Europeans, and six cannon. -Aware that on the first reverse of fortune his men might grow disgusted -with an enterprise of such formidable appearance, or from -mere inconstancy might be eager to return to their homes in Cuba, -a temper which had been already manifested by some, he resolved, -before quitting the coast, to destroy the shipping; and it is a remarkable -instance of his ascendency over his followers’ minds, that he procured -a general consent to this decisive, not to say desperate measure, -which left small hope of safety but in success.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His route lay through the country of the Tlascalans, a warlike -people, who spurned his professions of friendship, and attacked the -invaders in a series of battles. The imperfection of their weapons -rendered their efforts fruitless; and having been severely taught the -strength of their enemies, they sued for peace, and became faithful -and active allies. The Spaniards, accompanied by a body of 6000 -Tlascalans, then advanced without resistance to Mexico itself; after -punishing an attempt to lead them into an ambuscade at Cholula -by an indiscriminate massacre, in which 6000 persons are reported -to have perished. Montezuma received them with the semblance -of profound respect. He told them of an ancient tradition, that the -ancestors of the Mexicans came originally from a remote region, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>conquered the land: after which their leader went back to his own -country, promising that at some future period his descendants should -return to reform their constitution, and assume the government; and -Montezuma expressed his belief that the Spaniards were the persons -whom his countrymen were thus taught to expect. Another tradition, -which helped to produce that weak and wavering conduct which -gave the Spaniards such advantage, foretold that some great misfortune -should accrue to the native inhabitants from a race of invaders -from the regions of the rising sun. It is remarkable that, according -to the earliest and best Spanish historians, this belief was very prevalent -in the New World.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Spaniards, with their Indian allies, were quartered in the -ample precincts of a royal palace. But Cortez was uneasy, notwithstanding -these fair appearances. He had advanced with a handful -of men into a populous city, where he might at any time be surrounded -and attacked by multitudes. He was warned by the Tlascalans of -Montezuma’s faithlessness; and the hostile spirit of the Mexicans was -made plain, by intelligence that several Spaniards had been slain in -repelling an attack on the garrison of Vera Cruz. Cortez felt that -Montezuma’s forbearance proceeded only from timidity, and that his -own best security lay in working upon that passion. He conceived -the daring resolution to make the king a prisoner in his own capital; -judging that, while Montezuma lived, the Mexicans would not throw -off their allegiance, nor disobey his mandates, though issued under -foreign control. He went, therefore, as usual, to the palace, attended -only by a few picked men; and being admitted without suspicion to -the emperor’s presence, he complained angrily of the attack on the -garrison of Vera Cruz, and required Montezuma, as a pledge of his -good faith, to take up his residence in the Spanish quarters. Betrayed -by his own easiness into the power of a few strangers, Montezuma -complied, under the imminent fear of personal violence. Cortez next -required that the officer who commanded in the attack complained -of should be given up. This was done; and he, his son, and five -others, were publicly burnt on a pile of Mexican weapons, taken -from the public armoury. While this atrocious act of cruelty and -revenge was proceeding, the emperor, apparently to render it the -more impressive, was placed in fetters.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Haughty and tyrannical, but unstable and timid, the spirit of -Montezuma was entirely broken by his misfortunes. He remained -passively during six months in his captivity; and formally acknowledged -himself a vassal to the crown of Castile. Religion was the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>only point on which he was firm. Cortez urged him with the blind -zeal of a crusader to renounce his false gods, and embrace Christianity; -and not content with these importunate solicitations, he attempted -forcibly to remove the idols from the grand temple. The -resolute interference of priests and people compelled him to desist -from the rash project; but not until it had aroused a spirit of implacable -hostility.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile Velasquez’s anger at Cortez’s faithlessness was increased -by the brilliant accounts of his success; and having obtained from -the court of Castile a patent constituting himself governor of New -Spain, he prepared to remove or punish his disobedient officer by -force of arms. He sent 900 men, commanded by Narvaez, a brave -and experienced officer, who immediately opened a correspondence -with Montezuma. This raised the hopes of the Mexicans, by showing -that their invaders were not exempt from internal discord. Cortez -perceived and met the dangers of his position with his usual ability -and courage. Having tried in vain to arrange matters with Narvaez -by negotiation, he left a garrison of 150 men in Mexico, and marched -with only 250 against an enemy who nearly quadrupled him in number. -His skill, the patience of his soldiers, inured to the inclemency -of a tropical climate, and the too great security of his adversary, won -for him an almost bloodless victory; and the troops sent out for his -destruction enlisted almost to a man under his standard. Placed -against all expectation at the head of near a thousand men, he hastened -back to Mexico, where by that time his presence was urgently -required.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He found the Spanish garrison hemmed in, and reduced to extremities, -by a people who, stimulated by superstition and maddened by -a fresh and atrocious outrage, seemed suddenly to have exchanged -timidity for desperation. The return of Cortez with his formidable -reinforcement did not abate their ferocity. Even the person of Montezuma, -who was exposed on the Spanish rampart, ceased to command -respect, and he received three wounds from stones and arrows, -from the effects of which, aggravated by rage and a deep sense of his -degradation, he expired. The Mexicans now sought to blockade their -enemies and reduce them by hunger; and, as Cortez had not the command -of the lake, he found it necessary immediately to evacuate the -city. But he was taken at disadvantage in traversing by night (July -1, 1520) one of the long causeways which connect the city with the -shores of the lake in which it stands; and on mustering those who -reached the mainland, he found his small battalion of Europeans reduced -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>by one-half, with the loss of all the horses, baggage, artillery, -and most of the treasure which had been amassed by individual -soldiers. The anniversary of this calamity was long, and may be still, -distinguished in New Spain by the appellation of Noche Triste, the -sad night.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By a circuitous route, and not without cutting their way through -an immense army assembled to intercept them, the Spaniards returned -to the friendly Indians of Tlascala, among whom Cortez meant to -recruit his exhausted companions, and to wait until fresh supplies of -men and stores could be obtained from the West India islands. Some -vessels which put into the harbour of Vera Cruz afforded an unexpected -reinforcement of 180 men; and on the 28th of December -Cortez began to retrace his march towards Mexico. At Tezeuco, the -second city of the empire, situated on the banks of the lake, about -twenty miles from the capital, he established his head-quarters for -four months, during which the timbers of twelve small vessels, cut out -in the mountains of Tlascala, were put together. This force ensured -the command of the lake, for the Mexicans had nothing larger than -canoes; and just before their completion, a reinforcement of 200 -men, with arms and stores, arrived from Hispaniola. At the beginning -of May, 1521, with about 800 Europeans, Cortez commenced -the siege of Mexico itself.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Guatimozin, a nephew of Montezuma, who had succeeded to the -throne, made a resolute defence; and Cortez, aware of the danger of -entangling his troops in the streets, yet anxious to preserve the buildings -as a trophy of his victory, urged the siege with unusual caution. -Each day he pushed his way as far as possible into the city; but he -returned to his quarters at night, during which the barricades of the -causeways were repaired, and on the morrow a fresh battle was to be -fought on the same ground. Thus matters went until the 3d of July, -when Cortez, impatient of so protracted a resistance, made a desperate -attempt to carry every thing before him in one great assault. Experience -improved the Mexicans in the art of war. When the Spaniards, by -the energy of their attack, had forced a way into the heart of the city, -Guatimozin led them still onwards by a show of slackened resistance, -while he detached troops, by land and water, to beset the breaches in -the causeway by which it was necessary for the enemy to retire. At -a given signal, the great drum of the god of war was struck, and the -Mexicans returned to the attack, their hatred of the invaders stimulated -by the ferocity of their superstition. The Spaniards were compelled -to give way, and disorder was converted into absolute rout by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>the promiscuous onset of the natives, when they arrived at the breach. -Above sixty Europeans perished, for those who were taken prisoners -were offered as sacrifices on the Mexican altars. After this reverse -Cortez took a surer way to success, and as fast as his troops made -a lodgment, he caused the houses to be levelled with the ground. -When three quarters of the city were thus destroyed, and those who -defended the remainder were exhausted by famine and disease, Guatimozin -yielded to the persuasion of those who urged him to preserve -himself, to renew the war in the remote provinces of the empire. But -he was intercepted and captured with his family, as he sought to -escape across the lake; and on the loss of their sovereign, the Mexicans -ceased to resist. The siege thus ended August 13, 1521.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The victors were greatly disappointed in the amount of the precious -metals which fell into their hands. What remained of the royal -treasures Guatimozin had ordered to be thrown into the lake. Much -spoil was carried off by the Indian auxiliaries, and much probably -was lost or destroyed in the ruins of the city. The whole treasure -collected was inferior in amount to that which the Spaniards had -formerly received as a present from Montezuma; and the adventurers -clamorously expressed their dissatisfaction. Pressed by this spirit of -discontent, Cortez gave way to a passion, as alien to that undefined -feeling which we call the spirit of chivalry, as to the natural laws of -charity and justice; and tried, in vain, to extract by torture from the -royal prisoner and one of his favourite followers a discovery of the -treasures which were supposed to be hidden. Overcome by pain, the -latter cast a look on his master, which seemed to ask permission to -reveal what he knew. Guatimozin indignantly replied to the implied -entreaty—“Am I reposing on a bed of flowers?” and the faithful -subject kept silence, and died. The emperor, with his two principal -officers, was afterwards hanged, on a groundless charge of having -excited insurrection.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The provinces were readily overrun after the fall of the capital, and -made subject to Spain; though intolerable oppression often produced -insurrections, which were put down with unrelenting severity. -Having conquered an empire without commission from the monarch -in whose name he made war, Cortez narrowly escaped having to -answer as a criminal for the irregularity of his proceedings. But in -1522 he succeeded in procuring a royal commission, which constituted -him captain-general and governor of New Spain. Still his actions -were watched with an ungenerous though natural jealousy; and his -situation became so critical, that he resolved, in 1528, to return to Castile, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>and answer, before no inferior tribunal, such charges as might -be urged against him. He appeared with the splendour which became -one who had unlocked the treasures of the New World; and -his own ample fortune, contrasted with the smallness of the sum divided -among his comrades, gave birth to a belief that he had not dealt -fairly in the partition of the spoil. As his return to Spain put an end -to all fears of his ambition, he was received with the favour which -such brilliant services merited. He was invested with the order of -St. Jago, the highest rank of Spanish knighthood; and the valley of -Guaxaca, with an extensive domain, was erected into a marquisate in -his behalf. But he could not obtain what he most desired, the supreme -direction of affairs in Mexico. He returned thither in 1530 at -the head of the military department, and with authority to prosecute -new discoveries; but the direction of civil affairs was vested in a -board, entitled the Audience of New Spain. Henceforward we may -regard Cortez as a disappointed and unhappy man. Thwarted at -home by the double authority established, he sought to reap new glory -by exploring the Pacific Ocean; and in 1536 he discovered the peninsula -of California, and surveyed part of the gulf which separates it -from the American continent. But from that country neither profit -nor honour, unless as a geographical discoverer, could be gained; and -the result of the expedition neither satisfied the expectations of others, -nor repaid the adventurers for the hardships which they underwent. -In 1540, wearied and disgusted, Cortez returned to Spain, and found -his services forgotten, or at least his person slighted. He served as a -volunteer in 1541, in Charles V.’s expedition against Algiers, and had -a horse killed under him. This was his last military action. After -wearying his proud spirit in fruitless attempts to gain attention from -Charles or his ministers to his real or supposed grievances, he retired -into seclusion, and died at Seville, December 2, 1547, in the sixty-third -year of his age.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have passed rapidly over the shocking cruelties which marked -the progress of the Spanish arms. Some portion of the horror, with -which we naturally regard the actors in such events, may be neutralized -by the consideration, that men’s notions in all things, and perhaps -most especially in matters of international justice, are greatly dependent -on the spirit of the time in which they live; and that it is -hardly fair to judge actions, which won the admiration of contemporaries, -according to the standard of a subsequent age. But even in -that age there were not wanting many to raise an indignant voice -against the cruelties practised on an unoffending people; and after -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>every just allowance has been made, it is not to be doubted that the -treatment of the American aborigines forms a foul stain on the history -of Spain, and loads all who were concerned in it with an awful responsibility; -and we willingly acknowledge it to have been a just -retribution, that of the original settlers few reaped prosperity, repose, -or wealth, as the harvest of their arms. With their leaders it was -eminently otherwise. Scarce one of those who led the conquerors of -Peru escaped a violent death in civil strife; while Cortez (with whom -no one divides the fame of conquering Mexico) lived to experience the -proverbial ingratitude of courts, and died in that forced obscurity -which is most galling to an ambitious mind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The noble inscription, composed by Southey for the birth-place of -Cortez’s early companion in arms and rival in fame, needs but the -change of name to render it equally applicable to Cortez himself.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c011'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Pizarro here was born—a greater name</div> - <div class='line'>The list of Glory boasts not. Toil and Pain,</div> - <div class='line'>Famine, and hostile Elements, and Hosts</div> - <div class='line'>Embattled, failed to check him in his course,</div> - <div class='line'>Not to be wearied, not to be deterred,</div> - <div class='line'>Not to be overcome. A mighty realm</div> - <div class='line'>He overran, and with relentless arm</div> - <div class='line'>Slew or enslaved its unoffending sons,</div> - <div class='line'>And wealth, and power, and fame were his rewards.</div> - <div class='line'>There is another world beyond the grave,</div> - <div class='line'>According to their deeds where men are judged.</div> - <div class='line'>O reader! if thy daily bread be earned</div> - <div class='line'>By daily labour,—yea, however low,</div> - <div class='line'>However wretched be thy lot assigned,</div> - <div class='line'>Thank thou, with deepest gratitude, the God</div> - <div class='line'>Who made thee, that thou art not such as he.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div id='t132' class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span> -<img src='images/i_132.jpg' alt='LEIBNITZ.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>LEIBNITZ.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The materials for this life of Leibnitz are chiefly taken from the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">éloge</span></i> -of his contemporary Fontenelle.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Godfrey William Leibnitz was born at Leipzic, June 23, 1646. -His father was Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of -that place: he died when his son was only six years old. Leibnitz’s -education therefore was left to his mother; and the great variety of -his studies is traced to his free access to a large collection of books -which his father left. He thus became a poet, an orator, an historian, -a lawyer, a metaphysician, a mathematician, and a theologian. In -some of these capacities he would not have escaped oblivion; but -every accession to such a mass of titles becomes interesting, when it -is remembered how conspicuous he became in more than one of them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the age of twenty he applied to the University of Leipzic for the -degree of doctor of laws. This was refused, on the plea that he was -too young; and he then went to Altdorf, where he maintained a -public disputation, and was admitted to the degree which he desired, -with unusual distinction. From Altdorf he repaired to Nuremberg, -where he heard of a secret society of chemists, or, which was then the -same thing, of searchers after the philosopher’s stone. Desiring to -obtain some insight into their pursuits, he procured some books on -chemistry, a subject which he had never studied, and picking out the -phrases which seemed hardest, he wrote a letter altogether unintelligible -to himself, which he addressed to them as his certificate of -qualification. He was admitted with great honour, and was even -offered the post of secretary, with a salary; and though he continued -his intercourse with them for some time, he kept up his character as -an adept to the last.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_132fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by B. Holl.</em><br /><br />LEIBNITZ.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in the Florence Gallery.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>His first work, which appeared when he was twenty-two years old, -was a treatise written under the name of George Vlicorius, recommending -the choice of the Elector Palatine to be King of Poland. -In 1670 he published his first philosophical work, an edition of -‘Marius Nizolius contra Pseudophilosophos;’ and in the following -year two treatises on abstract and concrete motion, severally dedicated -to the French Academy and the Royal Society.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During his abode at Nuremberg, the Baron de Boinebourg, minister -of the Elector of Mayence, procured a legal appointment for him in that -state. While he held this post he travelled into France and England. -After the death of the Elector, he accepted a similar appointment in -the dominions of the Duke of Brunswick-Lunenberg. At the peace -of Nimeguen in 1678 he wrote upon some disputed ceremonials, under -the title of Cesarinus Furstnerius, and displayed a great extent of -reading, and a little of that speculative spirit which afterwards produced -the <em>pre-established harmony</em>. He is said, though a Lutheran, to -have argued on the supposition that Europe was to be considered as a -large federation, of which the Emperor was the temporal, and the -Pope the spiritual, head. In 1679 he was engaged by the reigning -Duke to write the history of the House of Brunswick. On this service -he went through Germany and Italy in search of authorities. It is -related that, on one occasion, having left Venice in a small boat, a -storm arose, and the boatmen began to discuss in Italian, which they -supposed their passenger did not understand, the propriety of throwing -the heretic overboard. Leibnitz, with great presence of mind, drew -out a rosary, which he had about him <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">par précaution</span></i>, as Fontenelle -supposes, who does not seem to guess that this anecdote, coupled with -what has preceded, makes it at least an even chance that Leibnitz was -really a Catholic. And this is negatively supported by the fact, that, -Lutheran as he was considered, he very rarely attended the services -of his church, in spite of the publicly-expressed disapprobation of -the clergy. But on the other hand, he positively refused to profess -Catholicism, when an advantageous settlement at Paris was offered on -that condition. That he was both a religious man and a Christian is -sufficiently attested by his writings.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He returned from his tour in 1690, and in 1693 published his -‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Codex Juris Gentium Diplomaticus</span>.’ He had published almost at -the same time with his first work a treatise on the study of jurisprudence. -The first volume of the ‘History of Brunswick’ appeared -in 1707, and two others in 1710 and 1711.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1700 he induced the Elector of Brandenburg to found the Academy -of Berlin, of which he was appointed perpetual president. He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>contributed many valuable papers to its memoirs. His patron, the -Duke of Brunswick-Lunenberg, died in 1678, and was succeeded by -Ernest-Augustus, first Elector of Hanover, on whose issue by the -Electress Sophia the crown of England was settled. Leibnitz continued -in the Elector’s service till his death. This took place from -gout, November 14, 1716, at Hanover. The real life of such a man -is in his character and writings. With regard to the first, the -account of Fontenelle is as follows. He had a strong constitution, -ate a good deal, drank little, and never undiluted liquors. When -alone, he always took his meals as his studies permitted. His chair -was frequently his only bed, and in this way he is said to have sometimes -passed whole months. He made notes of all he read, not to -preserve them, but to fix the contents on his memory; for when once -written, they were finally laid aside. He communicated freely with -all classes of men, and could entirely divest himself of his character of -a philosopher. His correspondence was immense; he answered every -one who wrote, however small the pretext for addressing him. He -was of a gay humour, easily excited to anger, and easily appeased. He -lived at great expense, but had preserved and hid two years’ amount of -his salary. The securing of this treasure gave him great uneasiness; -and upon this slight ground he has been charged with avarice. He -was never married: it is said that he contemplated such a connexion -at the age of fifty, but that the lady desired time to consider. “This,” -says his biographer, “gave M. Leibnitz the same opportunity, and he -continued unmarried.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The number and variety of characters in which Leibnitz is known -will not permit us to say much upon each subject. His public life was -that of a jurist. His ‘History of Brunswick’ was continued by M. -Echard; who supplied Fontenelle with the necessary information for -his <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">éloge</span></i>. In youth he was a poet; and he is said in one day to -have made three hundred Latin verses without a single elision. But -the Leibnitz of our day is either the mathematician or the metaphysician.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the first of these two characters he is coupled in the mind of the -reader with Newton, as the co-inventor of what was called by himself -the Differential Calculus, and by Newton the Method of Fluxions. -Much might be instanced which was done by him for the pure sciences -in other respects; but this one service, from its magnitude as a discovery, -and its notoriety as the cause of a great controversy, has -swallowed up all the rest.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Leibnitz was in London in 1673, and from that time began to pay -particular attention to mathematics. He was in correspondence with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>Newton, Oldenburg, and others, on questions connected with <em>infinite -series</em>, and continued so more or less till 1684, when he published his -first ideas on the Differential Calculus in the Leipzic Acts. But it is -certain that Newton had been in possession of the same powers under -a different name, from about 1665. The English philosopher drops -various hints of his being in possession of a new method, but without -explaining what it was, except in one letter of 1672, of which it was -afterwards asserted that a copy had been forwarded to Leibnitz in -1676. Leibnitz published both on the Differential and Integral -Calculus before the appearance of Newton’s Principia in 1687; -and indeed before 1711, the era of the dispute, this new calculus had -been so far extended by Leibnitz and the Bernoullis, that it began to -assume a shape something like that in which it exists at the present -day. In the first edition of the Principia, Newton expressly avows -that he had, ten years before (namely, about 1677), informed Leibnitz -that he had a method of drawing tangents, finding maxima and -minima, &c.; and that Leibnitz had, in reply, actually communicated -his own method, and that he (Newton) found it only differed from his -own in symbols. This passage was, not very fairly, suppressed in the -third edition of the Principia, which appeared in 1726, alter the -dispute; and the space was filled up by an account of other matters. -It was obvious that, on the supposition of plagiarism, it only gave -Leibnitz a year to infer, from a hint or two, his method, notation, -and results.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Some discussion about priority of invention led Dr. Keill to -maintain Newton’s title to be considered the sole inventor of the -fluxional calculus. Leibnitz had asserted that he had been in -possession of the method eight years before he communicated it to -Newton. He appealed to the Royal Society, of which Newton was -President, and that body gave judgment on the question in 1712. -Their decision is now worth nothing; firstly, because it only determined -that Newton was the <em>first</em> inventor, which was not the whole -point, and left out the question whether Leibnitz had or had not -stolen from Newton; secondly, because the charge of plagiarism is -insinuated in the assertion that a copy of Newton’s letter, as above -mentioned, had been sent to Leibnitz. Now they neither prove that -he had received this letter in time sufficient to enable him to communicate -with Newton as above described, or, if he had received it, -that there was in it a sufficient hint of the method of fluxions. The -decision of posterity is, that Leibnitz fairly invented his own method; -and though English writers give no strong opinion as to the fairness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>with which the dispute was carried on, we imagine that there are -few who would now defend the conduct of their predecessors. Whoever -may have had priority of invention, it is clear that to Leibnitz -and the Bernoullis belongs the principal part of the superstructure, -by aid of which their immediate successors were enabled to extend the -theory of Newton; and thus Leibnitz is placed in the highest rank -of mathematical inventors.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The metaphysics of Leibnitz have now become a by-word. He -is pre-eminent, among modern philosophers, for his extraordinary -fancies. His monads, his pre-established harmony, and his best of all -possible worlds, are hardly caricatured in the well-known philosophical -novel of Voltaire. If any thinking monad should find that the pre-established -harmony between his soul and body would make the -former desire to see more of Leibnitz as a metaphysician, and the -latter able to second him, we can inform him that it was necessary, -for the best of all possible universes, that Michael Hansch should in -1728 publish the whole system at Frankfort and Leipzic, under the -title, ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leibnitzii Principia philosophica more geometrico demonstrata</span>;’ -and also that M. Tenneman should give an account of this system, -and M. Victor Cousin translate the same. It is not easy to give any -short description of the contents, nor would it be useful. A school -of metaphysicians of the sect of Leibnitz continued to exist for some -time in Germany, but it has long been extinct.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The mathematical works of Leibnitz were collected and published -at Geneva in 1768. His correspondence with John Bernoulli was -also published in 1745, at Lausanne and Geneva. It is an interesting -record, and exhibits him in an amiable light. He gives his friend a -check for his manner of speaking of Newton, at the time when the -partizans of the latter were attacking his own character, both as a man -and a discoverer. He says (vol. ii. p. 234), “I thank you for the animadversions -which you have sent me on Newton’s works; I wish you -had time to examine the whole, which I know would not be unpleasant -even to himself. But in so beautiful a structure, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">non ego paucis -offendar maculis</span></i>.” He also says that he has been informed by a -friend in England, that hatred of the Hanoverian connexion had something -to do with the bitterness with which he was assailed; “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non -ab omni veri specie abest, eos qui parum Domui Hanoveranæ favent, -etiam me lacerare voluisse; nam amicus Anglus ad me scribit, videri -aliquibus non tam ut mathematicos et Societatis Regiæ Socios in -socium, sed ut <em>Toryos in Whigium</em> quosdam egisse.</span>” (Vol. ii. p. 321.)</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_137fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff</em><br /><br />CARDINAL XIMENES.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in the Florence Gallery.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span> -<img src='images/i_137.jpg' alt='XIMENES.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>XIMENES.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Gonzales Ximenes de Cisneros, Primate and Regent of Spain, -was born at Tordelaguna, in Castile, in 1437. He was descended -of an ancient family, long settled at Cisneros in the kingdom of -Leon, and was baptized Gonzales after an ancestor who was one of -the most renowned knights of his day: the name of Francis, by -which he is commonly known, he assumed in after-life, in honour -of the saint whose monastic rule he embraced. But though he -was of honourable descent, neither rank nor wealth were stepping-stones -to his preferment. His father supported a large family upon -the income of his humble office of collector of tenths, payable to the -king by the clergy: but his own studious disposition, and the facilities -then afforded by the universities to poor scholars, raised him out -of the obscurity in which his lot appeared to be cast. At the schools -of Alcala, and at the University of Salamanca, he studied philosophy, -theology, canon and civil law; and his proficiency soon enabled him to -support himself, by teaching others. Having completed his education -he undertook a journey to Rome, hoping there to find a readier field -for the exercise of his talents than at home. Poor and friendless, he -maintained himself by pleading in the Spanish causes which came -before the Court of the Consistory; and he was already rising into -eminence, when, hearing of his father’s death, and the distress of his -family, he abandoned his flattering prospects and returned to Spain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It appears that he had taken holy orders during his abode at -Rome, for before his departure Sixtus IV. bestowed on him a reversionary -grant of the first benefice which should fall vacant. This -proved to be Uceda; and he immediately produced his letters and -took possession. The Archbishop of Toledo, who had already promised -the living, was highly offended at this exercise of what in -truth was a most objectionable prerogative of the Holy See. He not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>only dispossessed, but imprisoned for six years, Ximenes, who remained -firm in the assertion of his rights. At the end of that time -the prelate yielded. Ximenes soon exchanged Uceda for a chaplaincy -in the cathedral of Siguenza. Here he applied himself to the -pursuit of theology, and laid the foundation of that Hebrew and -Chaldaic learning which bore such noble fruit in after-life. He -gained the warm friendship of his bishop, the Cardinal Mendoza, -who, in 1483, appointed him grand vicar of the diocese. In that -office he distinguished himself by integrity and talents for business, -as he had before by piety and learning. And the fairest prospect of -advancement was open to him, when all at once he resolved to quit -the world, and to devote himself wholly to religious meditation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He embraced the strictest rule of the Franciscan order, with a -zeal to which the general example of his brethren gave no countenance. -He retired to the secluded monasteries of Castagnar and -Salceda, and in the forests which surrounded them, devoted himself -wholly to prayer, the study of the Scriptures, and the mortification of -the flesh. He thus gained the reputation of uncommon sanctity, and -there seems to be no reason to think that his asceticism was defiled by -any trace of hypocrisy. But his friend the Cardinal saw that he was -fitted for still better things, and regretting his departure from active -life, expressed a belief that he would ultimately be raised to much -higher dignity, to the great advantage of the Church. And, in truth, -the Cardinal, who had been raised from the see of Siguenza to the -primacy of Spain, the Archbishopric of Toledo, did much to fulfil his -own prediction. He introduced Ximenes to the Queen Isabella, -who was then in want of a confessor, and she readily listened to -his recommendation, and appointed Ximenes to the vacant office. -He would fain have declined it, urging that he had been called -to the cloister from active life to attend to his own salvation; that -what was demanded would withdraw him from his proper vocation; -and that a sovereign above all persons needed a religious guide, -not only of good intentions, but of experience and wisdom. The -Queen smiled as she assured him, that if he had formerly been -directed to solitude, he was now summoned to court, and that if he -would take charge of her conscience, she would be answerable for -having chosen him to do so. And he consented, on condition that he -should be required to attend her only when called by the duties of -his office. This was in 1492. The austerity of his life and the -wildness of his aspect caused him, when he appeared, to be compared -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>by the gay frequenters of the court to an old Egyptian hermit come -out from the desert.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Moved by the hope of advancing the temporal interests of their -order, his monastic brethren now appointed him their provincial. -They widely mistook his character. He accepted the proffered dignity, -moved chiefly by the hope that it would furnish him with an -excuse for more frequent absence from court; and he employed his -power in striving to reform the corruptions which abundant wealth -had introduced among them. His own life was in strict adherence -to the self-denial which he recommended to others. In his visitations -he travelled on foot from convent to convent, accompanied by one -brother, Francis Ruyz, whom he had selected for his constant companion, -as uniting the qualifications of a lively temper and sound health, -with learning, modesty, and trustworthiness. For their sustenance -they depended upon alms, and in the trade of begging Ximenes was -very unsuccessful. Ruyz used to remonstrate on the misapplication of -his talents. “Your Reverence will let us die of hunger; you were -not meant for this profession. God gives each of us his talents: do -you pray for me, and I will beg for you. Your Reverence may be -made to give, but certainly not to ask.” Visiting Gibraltar in one of -these tours, he was strongly possessed by the desire of going to preach -the gospel in Africa. On this subject he consulted a female devotee, -who had the reputation of enjoying divine revelations in visions, and -was dissuaded by her from prosecuting the scheme.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Primate Mendoza died at the end of 1494. In their last interview, -he urged his sovereign not to entrust the vast revenues of his -see to any one connected with the highest nobility, esteeming its -power to be even dangerous to the crown, when knit by family ties -to great feudal influence. Isabella listened to his advice, and after -much hesitation pitched on Ximenes to be his successor. Aware of -his feelings, she kept her intentions secret until letters confirmatory -of the appointment arrived from the Pope. These without preface -she put into his hands. Reading the address, “To our venerable -brother Ximenes, Archbishop elect of Toledo,” “Madam,” he said, -“these letters are not for me;” and he rose abruptly and quitted the -royal presence. Six months elapsed before he was induced to accept -the proffered dignity, in virtue of a direct injunction from the Pope. -He was consecrated October 11, 1495.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Rank and wealth made no difference in the manners of the ascetic -monk. He continued to live upon the coarsest fare, to wear the -humble dress of his order, to sleep on the ground, or on a bed as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>hard, and to travel on an ass, or on foot. And Pope Alexander VI. -thought it necessary to send a letter to him, with the very unusual exhortation -to cultivate the pomps and vanities of the world a little -more, for the sake of the church of which he was so exalted a member. -Ximenes obeyed, and probably became convinced of the propriety of -the counsel, as he became more engaged in civil government. He -assumed even a more gorgeous state than his predecessors, but he -still practised his usual self-denial in private; he slept and fared as -hardly as before, and wore a haircloth under his episcopal robes. -He was exemplary in the discharge of his public duties; liberal even -to an extreme in relieving the daily necessities of the poor, and in -contributing to charitable, useful, and religious undertakings; diligent -in promoting the welfare of the people to the full extent of his -almost regal power, by repressing extortion and peculation, whether -in courts of law, or the collection of the revenue, by providing for the -due administration of justice, ecclesiastical and civil, and by exercising -a strict superintendence over the conduct of the parochial -clergy. To the cry of the wretched his ears were always open; he -hated oppression; and if an injured vassal complained against the -highest noble in the land, he was ready to grant justice, if the matter -lay within his jurisdiction, or, if not, to carry the complaint before the -Queen. And his zeal and energy carried to a happy conclusion the -arduous undertaking of reforming the Franciscan brotherhood, upon -which he succeeded in enforcing a new system of regulations in 1499, -after a most obstinate resistance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We may here mention with unmixed praise one of the Archbishop’s -charitable undertakings. It was an institution for the education -of the daughters of indigent nobles, on such principles, according -to the words of our authority, as should train them to the fit -discharge of their duties towards their families and towards society. -A fund, afterwards increased by the Spanish monarchs, was set -apart to provide them with marriage portions. We may here trace -the original of the celebrated establishment of St. Cyr.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His principal work was the establishment of a university at Alcala, -where he himself received his early education. The foundation-stone -was laid by himself in 1498; the buildings were completed, -and the first course of lectures given, in 1508. For a model he -took the university of Paris; he endowed it richly, and collected men -distinguished for their learning from all parts of Europe, to fill the -professorial chairs. Here he undertook the great work of publishing -the first Polyglot Bible, the Complutensian, as it is called, from the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>Latin name of Alcala, where it was printed, which will exist for ages -as a noble specimen of the Archbishop’s piety, munificence, and zeal -for learning. The four first volumes contain the Old Testament in -the Hebrew—the Septuagint version, with a Latin translation—the -Vulgate, as corrected by St. Jerome—and the Chaldee Paraphrase, -with a Latin translation. The fifth and sixth volumes contain the -Greek Testament and the Vulgate. The printing of this great undertaking -commenced in 1502, and was not completed till 1517, -shortly before the death of Ximenes, who, when the last volume -was brought to him, is reported by his earliest biographer, after an -ejaculation of pious thanksgiving, to have addressed the bystanders in -these words:—“Many high and difficult undertakings I have carried -on in the service of the State, yet, my friends, there is nothing for -which I more deserve congratulation than for this edition of the -Scriptures, which lays open, in a time of much need, the fountain-head -of our holy religion, whence may be drawn a far purer strain of theology -than from the streams which have been turned off from it.” -But owing to a hesitation at the Court of Rome, how far the criticism -of the Scriptures should be encouraged, the Bible was not -given to the world till 1522. Only about 600 copies were printed. -The price fixed on it was six and a half ducats. The epistle dedicatory -to Leo X. is by Ximenes himself: the preface, according to Dr. -Dibdin, is by another hand. The most learned Hebrew and Greek -scholars who could be procured were employed in the collation of -manuscripts; and it may be noted that for seven Hebrew MSS. -the sum of 4000 golden crowns was paid. These with other treasures -of learning, which were deposited with the University of Alcala, -about the middle of the last century were sold to a firework-maker -as lumber. The whole cost of the work, which was defrayed by -Ximenes, is said to have exceeded 50,000 gold crowns.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1498 the Archbishop was summoned to Granada by Ferdinand -and Isabella, to deliberate on the means to be used for the conversion -of the Moors. Inflamed by zeal, he had recourse to means which -show the wisdom of the serpent more than the simplicity of the -dove. He began with the priests and doctors of the law, and strove -by kindness and attention, mixed with religious discussion, to dispose -them to adopt the Christian faith. The priests led over the people -in such flocks, that, in one day, the anniversary of which was observed -as a festival, December 18, 1499, upwards of 3000 persons were -baptized by aspersion in Granada. That the Archbishop should -have believed in the sincerity of these wholesale conversions is not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>credible; he probably thought that a hypocritical worship of the true -God was a less evil than sincere idolatry. The inquisition was -charged with the superintendence of the souls of these nominal Christians, -and the relapse from that faith which they never embraced was -punished according to the mercy of that irresponsible tribunal. The -dread and indignation produced by these measures led to a revolt, -which was quelled, however, under the guidance of the Archbishop.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The same desire of making Christians any how appears in the -measures adopted on this occasion. The inhabitants of the quarter in -which the tumult broke out were declared guilty of high treason, and -offered their choice of death or conversion. They embraced the latter; -and the other Granadans, to the number of 150,000, followed their -example. But these severities drove the most resolute spirits to that -last insurrection, related with so much interest in Washington Irving’s -‘Chronicles of Granada;’ which terminated in the expatriation of the -remnant who abided in their national creed. But however unapostolic -the Archbishop’s mode of conversion may have been, his zeal and ability -in instructing and rendering truly Christian those who submitted to -the outward forms of the religion is said to have been admirable.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His conduct towards the unhappy natives of the West Indies was -less exceptionable. He did his utmost not only for their conversion, -but to protect them from the cruel exactions of the Spanish settlers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The excellent Isabella of Castile died November 26, 1504. According -to the tenor of his beloved mistress’s will, Ximenes steadily -maintained the claim of Ferdinand, her husband, to the regency of the -kingdom during the minority of Charles V. After the death of the -Archduke Philip, September 25, 1506, he renewed his exertions to -determine the Castilians in favour of Ferdinand’s claim to the regency, -in preference to the Emperor Maximilian, Charles V.’s paternal -grandfather; being satisfied that, notwithstanding the ancient jealousy -between Castile and Arragon, the former would be better governed -by a prince intimately acquainted with its circumstances and interests -than by a stranger. Ferdinand, who was then engaged at Naples, -owed his success in this matter to Ximenes; and showed his gratitude -by procuring for him the rank of Cardinal, with the title of -Cardinal of Spain, together with the office of Grand Inquisitor.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In his zeal for spreading the true faith, Ximenes had conceived a -scheme for the conquest of the Holy Land, and indeed had nearly -succeeded in effecting a league for that purpose between Ferdinand, -Manuel of Portugal, and Henry VII. of England. But this hope -being defeated, he was still anxious to employ the power of Spain -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>against Mahometanism, and used his best endeavours to persuade -Ferdinand to invade the coast of Barbary. The king’s parsimony was -not to be overcome, until Ximenes offered a loan sufficient to equip -the proposed armament, and defray its expenses for two months; and -the capture of the town of Marsarquiver, in the autumn of 1505, was -the immediate result. Here the Spanish arms remained stationary till -1509, when the Cardinal obtained permission to attempt the siege of -Oran at his own expense, on the sole condition, that if he succeeded, -either the patrimony of the church expended in this secular undertaking -was to be repaid, or the domain conquered was to be annexed -to the see of Toledo. He assumed himself the supreme direction of -the expedition, entrusting the command of the army to Peter Navarre, -an able, turbulent, and ambitious soldier. Everything was unfavourable -to the Cardinal. The king was jealous of him; Navarre impatient -of the subjection of the sword to the crozier; and other officers, -corrupt or hostile, and encouraged by the example of their superiors, -stirred the soldiers to mutiny. But the decision of Ximenes compelled -obedience, and the wisdom of his measures ensured success; so that -the surrender of Oran was the almost immediate result of his descent -upon Africa. He would willingly have remained there to pursue his -successes. But finding the disobedience of his lieutenant to be secretly -encouraged by Ferdinand, he determined to return while he could do -so with honour, leaving Navarre in the command of the troops. For -himself or his see he reserved no part of the spoil. That which was -not bestowed upon the soldiers, or consumed in the service, he set -apart for the crown. Yet a fresh disagreement arose when the Cardinal, -according to the compact, demanded payment of the advances -made by the see; and when Ferdinand at last was compelled to -acquiesce, it was in the most ungracious and unbecoming manner.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Ferdinand died January 23, 1516. On his death-bed he appointed -Ximenes Regent of Castile during the minority of Charles V., with -expressions indicative of no personal regard, but bearing strong -testimony to his unbending justice, disinterestedness, and zeal for the -public welfare. The Cardinal’s conduct in this exalted station was -consistent with the tenor of his past life; he was a just ruler, but his -authority was feared and respected rather than loved. If he had one -passion unmortified, it was ambition: he ruled with a single eye to -his young sovereign’s interests; but he evaded that sovereign’s attempts -to circumscribe his powers with as much success as he bore down -the opposition of those turbulent nobles, who hoped, in the weakness -of a minority, to find a fit opportunity for prosecuting their own -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>aggrandizement, and committing with impunity acts of illegal violence. -For when Charles V. sent some of his confidential Flemish ministers -to be associates in the commission of regency, the Cardinal received -them with respect, and granted them the external distinctions of office; -for the rest they were mere puppets in his hands. Of his internal -policy, the chief scope was to elevate the regal power, and to depress -that of the nobles, even by throwing a greater weight into the hands -of the unprivileged classes: the same policy as had been pursued by -the wisest princes of the age, Ferdinand and Isabella, Henry VII. of -England, and Louis XI. of France. The crown had been reduced -to great poverty by lavish grants, extorted, in disturbed times, by the -necessity of conciliating powerful noblemen, rather than granted by -free-will, or out of real gratitude for services; and it was one of -Ximenes’ first objects to remedy this evil, even by means which -showed none of that regard to vested interests, which belongs to times -in which the course of law is regular and supreme, and consequently -the rights of property are rigidly respected. Such pensions as had -been granted in Ferdinand’s reign he cut off at once, on the plea -that the grantor could only have bestowed them for his own life. -The crown lands alienated during the same period were resumed: -even the Cardinal’s boldness did not venture to carry the inquiry -farther back, from the apprehension of driving the whole body of the -nobility into revolt.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These changes, and other important measures, were not carried into -effect without great discontent and considerable open resistance. But -the Cardinal was strong, in the resources of his own powerful mind, in -the general reverence of the people for the sanctity of his character, in -his exalted rank as head of the Spanish church, and in the immense -revenues of his see, which gave him a command of money not enjoyed -by the crown, and enabled him to keep in his own pay a considerable -body of troops. With these he maintained order, and repressed -feuds, which the barons, trusting to the common weakness of a -regency, hastened to decide by the sword; and set at defiance the -enmity of the nobility at a later period, when more decided encroachments -on the privileges of the order had produced a general spirit of -discontent. On one occasion a deputation of the chief grandees of -Castile required to be informed, under what title he presumed -to exercise such high authority. The Cardinal showed the will of -Ferdinand, and its confirmation by Charles V., and finding them -still unsatisfied, led them to a window, from which he pointed out a -strong military force under arms. “These,” he said, “are the powers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>which I have received from the king. With these I govern Castile; -and with these I will govern it, until the king, your master and mine, -takes possession of his kingdom.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>One of his schemes for strengthening the crown was the erection -of a species of militia, composed of burghers of cities; but that class -was not sufficiently advanced in knowledge to appreciate the immense -accession of importance which would accrue from this measure, which -they regarded solely as a burden. It was therefore unpopular among -them, as well as unpalatable to the barons; and was entirely dropped -soon after the regent’s death.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His foreign policy was nearly confined to the conduct of two wars: -the one to maintain Navarre, which had been usurped by Ferdinand, -against the legitimate monarch John d’Albret; the other, an expedition -against the pirate Barbarossa, King of Algiers, who inflicted a signal -and entire discomfiture on the invading army.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the administration of the kingdom Ximenes displayed the same -inflexible love of justice, and the same economy, integrity, and order, -as in the management of his own diocese of Toledo; and he brought -the finances into so flourishing a state, that after discharging the -crown debts, and placing the military establishment in a more than -commonly efficient state, he was enabled to remit large sums of money -to the young king in Flanders. And he had something of a title to -Charles’s more immediate and personal gratitude, for having used with -success his own overpowering influence to obtain the recognition of -that prince as king of Castile during the lifetime of his insane mother, -against the usage of the realm, although he had remonstrated with -earnestness against pressing the indecorous and unfilial claim. All -these services however were thrown into the shade by one thing. -Ximenes hated the Flemish ministers whom Charles sent into Spain, -and who disgraced their high station, and corrupted the country by -open and abandoned venality. He never ceased to remonstrate against -these abuses, and to importune Charles to visit his Spanish dominions; -and the Flemish favourites saw that their own ruin was certain if the -regent once gained an ascendance over the king’s mind. They retarded -therefore the departure of the latter as much as possible, and -succeeded in prejudicing him against his most sincere and judicious -friend and servant. Convinced at last of the necessity for his presence, -Charles set out for Spain, and landed in the province of Asturias, -September 13, 1517. The Cardinal hastened towards the coast to -meet him, but was stopped at Bos Equillos by a severe illness, which, -as was very usual in past times, was imputed to poison. He wrote to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>the king, entreating him to dismiss the train of foreigners by whom -he was attended, and earnestly soliciting a personal interview, which, -from the pressure of illness, he was unable himself to seek. This -favour was not granted, and he was vexed and harassed by a series of -petty slights. At the point of death he received a letter of dismissal -couched in civil but cold terms, permitting him to return to his diocese, -and repose from his labours. Whether the Cardinal retained his -faculties so as to be aware of this final mark of ingratitude is doubtful; -but his end was assuredly hastened by mortification at the evil return -made for his faithful service. He died a few hours after receiving the -dismissal in question, November 8, 1517.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Though austere in temper, Ximenes was not cruel, and in civil -matters had great reluctance to the shedding of blood. Yet in eleven -years, as Grand Inquisitor, he burnt at the stake 2500 persons, for the -glory of God and the good of the sufferer’s souls. Such miserable self-delusion -in so great and good a man ought to teach humility, as well -as to inspire abhorrence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Our sketch has necessarily been personal rather than historical: a -fuller account of the public life of Ximenes will be found in Robertson’s -‘Charles V.,’ as well as in the biographies of Flechier, Marsollier, and -others. Barrett’s ‘Life of Ximenes’ appears to be a compressed -translation from the Life by Flechier. We conclude with the short -and comprehensive praise of Leibnitz, who said, that “If great men -could be bought, Spain would have cheaply purchased such a minister -by the sacrifice of one of her kingdoms.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_147fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Thomson.</em><br /><br />ADDISON.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture copied by J. Thurston in the Possession of the Publisher.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span> -<img src='images/i_147.jpg' alt='ADDISON.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>ADDISON.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Joseph Addison, the second of the six children of Dr. Launcelot -Addison and Jane Gulstone, was born May 1, 1672, at Milston in -Wiltshire. The feebleness of his infancy seems to have impaired his -spirit as a boy; for, in the General Dictionary, Dr. Birch relates, that -when at school in the country, he was so afraid of punishment as to -have absconded, lodging in a hollow tree in the fields, till a hue and -cry restored him to his parents. At the Charter-House was formed -that friendship between him and Sir Richard Steele, which led to -their close alliance in a new kind of literary undertaking. Addison -could not but feel his own superiority; and Spence intimates, that the -one was too fond of displaying, and the other too servile in acknowledging -it. Steele occasionally availed himself not only of his friend’s -pen, but of his purse. Johnson has given currency to the story, that -Addison enforced the repayment of 100<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> by an execution, and the fact -is said to have been related by Steele himself, with tears in his eyes. -Hooke, the Roman historian, professed to have received it from Pope. -The biographer sarcastically remarks, that the borrower probably had -not much purpose of repayment; but the lender, who “seems to have -had other notions of 100<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, grew impatient of delay.” Now no date -is assigned to this anecdote; and Addison’s finances were so low -during the greater part of his life, that he might have suffered greatly -by the disappointment; nor does it detract from the character of a -man in narrow circumstances, that he entertains serious notions -of 100<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i></p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1687 Addison was entered at Queen’s College, Oxford, where -he took the degree of M.A., February 14, 1693. One of his early -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>poetical attempts was ‘An Account of the greatest English Poets, -inscribed to H. S.;’ initials which have been currently assigned to -Dr. Henry Sacheverell, who is indebted, for no enviable place in -history, to his trial and its consequences. But a college friend of Addison -has left it on record, that the initials were the property of a gentleman -bearing the same name, who died young, after having shown some -promise in writing a history of the Isle of Man, and who bequeathed -his papers to Addison, containing, among other things, the plan of a -tragedy 011 the death of Socrates, which the legatee had some thoughts -of working up himself. In this poem the writer tells his friend that -Spenser can no longer charm an understanding age. Now the judgment -of the present age disclaims this confident decision; nor would it -be worth recording, but for Spence’s assertion, that the critic had -never read the ‘Faery Queene,’ when he drew its character. In after -life he spoke of his own poem as a “poor thing;” but his general -level as a versifier was not high. The ‘Campaign’ is his masterpiece -in rhyme.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was indebted to Congreve for his introduction to Montague, then -Chancellor of the Exchequer. Johnson says, that “he was then -learning the trade of a courtier, and subjoined Montague as a poetical -name to those of Cowley and of Dryden.” In 1695 he wrote a poem -to King William, with an introduction addressed to Lord Somers, -who is said by Tickell to have sent a message to the author to desire -his acquaintance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1699, he obtained an annual pension of 300<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> to enable him to -travel. He passed the first year in preparation at Blois, and then -departed for Italy. That he was duly qualified to appreciate the -attractions of “classic ground,”—his own phrase, sneered at for affectation -by contemporary critics, but since sanctioned by general adoption,—appears -by his ‘Travels,’ and by the letter from Italy to Lord Halifax. -His ‘Dialogues on Medals’ were composed at this time. On -the death of King William, in March, 1702, he became distressed for -money by the stoppage of his pension. This compelled him to become -tutor to a travelling squire. The engagement seems to have been -for one year only, for he was at Rotterdam in June, 1703. In the -‘Gentleman’s Magazine’ for November, 1835, may be found three -very curious, because characteristic, letters, from the Duke of Somerset, -surnamed by his contemporaries the Proud, to old Jacob Tonson, -forwarding a proposal to Addison to undertake the office of tutor to -his son, then going abroad. We transcribe a passage from the second -letter, as a sample of the proud Duke’s liberality. “I desire he may -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>be more on the account of a companion in my son’s travels, than as a -governor, and as such shall account him; my meaning is that neither -lodging, travelling, nor diet, shall cost him sixpence, and over and -above that, my son shall present him at the year’s end with a hundred -guineas, as long as he is pleased to continue in that service to my son, -by taking great care of him, by his personal attendance and advice, -in what he finds necessary during his time of travelling.” It appears -from the Duke’s quotation of the answer, in the third letter to Tonson, -that Addison had “other notions” of this offer than the proposer -entertained. “I will set down his own words, which are these:—‘As -for the recompense that is proposed to me, I must confess I can by no -means see my account in it,’ &c.” A hundred guineas and maintenance -was, even in those days, a mean appointment from a Duke to a -gentleman.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Addison returned to England at the latter end of 1703. In 1704, -at the request of Lord Godolphin, to whom he was introduced by the -Earl of Halifax, he undertook to celebrate the victory of Blenheim, -and composed the first portion of his poem called the ‘Campaign.’ -This proved his introduction into office. After filling some inferior -appointments, he became, in 1706, Under-Secretary of State. About -the same time, he wrote the comic opera of ‘Rosamond,’ which was -neglected by the public, has been overpraised by Johnson, and is now -deservedly forgotten.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Thomas Earl of Wharton was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, -December 4, 1708, and proceeded to his destination April 10, -1709, accompanied by Addison as his Secretary. Addison therefore -left London two days before the commencement of the ‘Tatler,’ the -first number of which came out April 12; and his own first contribution -appeared May 26. His last was No. 267, and the work ended -with No. 271, January 2, 1710–11. In No. 93 is an article on -a ‘Letter from Switzerland, with Remarks on Travelling,’ and a sly -hint that ‘Fools ought not to be exported,’ in Addison’s happiest style -of playful satire. The praise of original design clearly belongs to the -projector of the ‘Tatler.’ Tickell however was justified in saying, -that Addison’s aid “did not a little contribute to advance its reputation;” -and Steele candidly allows, that his coadjutor not only assisted -but improved his original scheme. In his dedication of the comedy -of the ‘Drummer,’ he says, “It was advanced indeed, for it was raised -to a greater thing than I intended it; for the elegance, purity, and -correctness, which appeared in his writings, were not so much to my -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>purpose, as in any intelligible manner I could, to rally all those singularities -of human life, through the different professions and characters -in it, which obstruct any thing that was truly good and great.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first No. of the ‘Spectator’ appeared March 1, 1710–11, and -the paper was discontinued December 6, 1712; No. 555 concluded the -seventh volume, as first collected by the publishers. The work was -resumed June 18, 1714, with No. 556, and the eighth volume closed -with No. 635. Of the first forty-five papers of the revived ‘Spectator,’ -Addison wrote twenty-three; more than half: he did not contribute to -the last thirty-five. Notwithstanding the avowed purpose of exclusively -treating general topics, Steele’s Whiggism once burst its bounds, by reprinting -in the ‘Spectator’ a preface of Dr. Fleetwood to some sermons, -for the purpose of attracting the Queen’s notice to it. Had the Number -been published at the usual hour, the household might have devised -means for its suppression, with some plausible excuse for its absence -from the royal breakfast table; but the non-issue until twelve o’clock, -the time fixed for that meal, left no opening for cabal, and her Majesty’s -subjects were, for her sake, deprived of their morning’s speculation till -that hour. In No. 10 Addison states the daily sale at three thousand: -Johnson makes it sixteen hundred and eighty; apparently far below -the real number. The latter number is given on calculation from the -product of the tax; the assertion of the publisher was Addison’s -authority; and he might, in the commencement of the work, have -indulged in the puff oblique. No. 14, composed of Letters from the -Lion—from an Under-Sexton—on the Masquerade—and Puppet -Show, is selected by the annotators, as “meriting the attention of -such as pretend to distinguish with wonderful facility between Addison’s -and Steele’s papers.” It is wholly Steele’s. The ‘Guardian’ -was published in the interval, between the ‘Spectator’s’ being laid -down and taken up again. The first Number came out March 12, -1713; the last, October 1, 1713. Inattention to marks has sometimes -subjected Addison to undeserved censure. Dr. Blair vindicates Tasso’s -description of Sylvia against the ‘Guardian;’ but by a double inadvertence, -he quotes No. 38 for a passage contained in 28, and ascribes -to Addison what was written by Steele. The ‘Whig Examiner,’ and -the ‘Freeholder,’ both exclusively Addison’s, have been enabled by -their wit to survive the usual fate of party-writings. The former is so -much more pungent than usual with the author, and excited so much -alarm and jealousy in Swift, that he triumphantly remarks, “it is now -down among the dead men;” part of the burthen of a popular Tory -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>song. The humour of the latter, Steele thought too gentle for such -blustering times; and is reported to have said, that the ministry made -use of a lute, when they should have called for a trumpet.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the demise of the other papers, Hughes formed a project of a -society of learned men of various characters, who were to meet and -carry on a conversation on all subjects, empowering their secretary to -draw up any of their discourses, or publish any of their writings, under -the title of Register. Addison, in answer, applauds the specimen, -and approves the title; but adds, “To tell you truly, I have been so -taken up with thoughts of that nature, for these two or three years -last past, that I must now take some time <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pour me délasser</span></i>, and lay -in fuel for a future work. I am in a thousand troubles for poor -Dick, and wish that his zeal for the public may not be ruinous to -himself; but he has sent me word, that he is determined to go on, -and that any advice I can give him, in this particular, will have no -weight with him.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Tickell says respecting Cato, “He took up a design of writing a -play upon this subject, when he was very young at the university, and -even attempted something in it there, though not a line as it now stands. -The work was performed by him in his travels, and retouched in -England, without any formal design of bringing it on the stage, till -his friends of the first quality and distinction prevailed with him to -put the last finishing to it, at a time when they thought the doctrine -of liberty very seasonable.” Cibber says, that in 1704 he had the -pleasure of reading the first four acts privately with Steele, who told him -they were written in Italy. Oldmixon in his ‘Art of Criticism,’ 1728, -talks about Addison’s reluctance to resume the work, and his request -to Hughes to write the fifth act. According to Pope, the first packed -audience was made to support the ‘Distressed Mother;’ the scheme -was tried again for Cato with triumphant effect. The love-scenes -are the weakest in the play, and are by some supposed to have been -foisted on the original plan, to humour the false taste of the modern -stage. When the tragedy was shown to Pope, he advised the author -to print it, without committing it to the theatre, as thinking it better -suited to the closet than representation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Lord Sunderland was sent as lord lieutenant to Ireland in -1714, Addison was appointed his secretary. This, as well as another -step in his promotion, has been omitted by Johnson. In 1715 he was -made a lord of trade. In 1716 he married the Countess Dowager of -Warwick, to whom he had long paid his addresses. Johnson pleasantly -suggests, that his behaviour might be not very unlike that of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>Sir Roger to his disdainful widow, and supposes that the lady might -amuse herself by playing with his passion. Spence dates his first -acquaintance with her from his appointment as tutor to the young -earl; but as neither the time of that appointment is known, nor the -footing on which he stood with the family, the first steps in this affair -are left in obscurity. The result is better known. Mr. Tyers, in an -unpublished essay on ‘Addison’s Life and Writings,’ says, “Holland -House is a large mansion, but could not contain Mr. Addison, the -Countess of Warwick, and one guest, peace.” He became possessed -of this house by his marriage, and died in it. His last and great promotion -was to the dignity of Secretary of State in 1717; but he was -unfit for it, and gained no new laurels by it. He carried so much of -the author into the office of the statesman, that he could not issue an -order of mere routine without losing his time in hunting after unnecessary -niceties of language. During his last illness he sent for Gay, -and with a confession of having injured him, promised him a recompense -if he recovered. He did not specify the nature of the injury; -nor could Gay, either then or subsequently, guess at his meaning. -Dr. Young furnished the received account of his interview with -Lord Warwick on his death-bed; but there appears to be no ground -for Johnson’s imputation on the young man’s morals or principles, -or for supposing that it was a last effort on Addison’s part to reclaim -him. Young mentions his lordship as a youth finely accomplished, -without a hint of looseness either in opinions or conduct. -Addison died June 17, 1719: his only child, a daughter, died at -Bilton, in Warwickshire, at an advanced age, in 1797. Not many -days before his death he commissioned Mr. Tickell to collect his -writings; a gentleman of whom Swift said that Addison was a whig, -but Tickell, <em>whigissimus</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To ascertain the claim of short periodical papers to originality of -design, we must look to the state of newspapers at an earlier date. -As vehicles of information they are often mentioned in plays in the -time of James and Charles the First. Carew, in his ‘Survey of -Cornwall,’ first published in 1602, quotes ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mercurius Gallo-Belgicus</span>.’ -Till the beginning of the eighteenth century, the periodical press had -been exclusively political; no class of writers but divines and theoretical -reasoners had administered to the moral wants of society: certain -gentlemen, therefore, of liberal education, and men of the world, -combined to furnish practical instruction in an amusing form, by fictions -running parallel with the political newspaper. Addison announces -the design “to bring philosophy out of closets and libraries, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables -and in coffee-houses.” In the character of his fictitious friend the -clergyman, he speaks of “the great use this paper might be of to the -public, by reprehending those vices which are too trivial for the chastisement -of the law, and too fantastical for the cognizance of the -pulpit.” Another object was to allay party-violence by promoting -literary taste; in Steele’s figurative language, to substitute the lute -for the trumpet. On this subject Addison says, “I am amazed that -the press should be only made use of in this way by news-writers, and -the zealots of parties; as if it were not more advantageous to mankind -to be instructed in wisdom and virtue than in politics, and to be made -good fathers, husbands, and sons, than counsellors and statesmen.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Dr. Beattie, who published an edition of Addison’s works in 1790, -with a Life prefixed, says that he was once informed, but had forgotten -on what authority, that Addison had collected three manuscript volumes -of materials. He might have found this in Tickell’s Life. “It would -have been impossible for Mr. Addison, who made little or no use of -letters sent in by the numerous correspondents of the Spectator, to -have executed his large share of this task in so exquisite a manner, -if he had not ingrafted into it many pieces that had lain by him in -little hints and minutes, which he from time to time collected, and -ranged in order, and moulded into the form in which they now appear. -Such are the essays upon wit, the pleasures of the imagination, the -critique upon Milton, and some others.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The original delineation of Sir Roger de Coverley, for the management -and keeping of which character Addison has been highly extolled, -must unquestionably be ascribed to Steele. He drew the outlines; -Addison principally worked up the portrait. Johnson not only takes -a false view of the character, but in contradiction to every judgment -but his own, represents the author as sinking under the weight of it. -“The irregularities in Sir Roger’s conduct seem not so much the -effects of a mind deviating from the beaten track of life, by the pressure -of some overwhelming idea, as of habitual rusticity, and that negligence -which solitary grandeur naturally generates. The variable -weather of the mind, the flying vapours of incipient madness, which -from time to time cloud reason, without eclipsing it, it requires so much -nicety to exhibit, that Addison seems to have been deterred from prosecuting -his own design.” This seems to be a mistake from beginning to -end. Addison had no more design to impute incipient madness to Sir -Roger, than to his contrast, Sir Andrew Freeport. Habitual rusticity -is not the prevailing feature in a man who visited the metropolis every -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>season: a main beauty of the picture is, that Sir Roger is always -a gentleman, although an odd one. Hear Lord Orford on the subject. -“Natural humour was the primary talent of Addison. His -character of Sir Roger de Coverley, though inferior, is only inferior -to Shakspeare’s Falstaff.” But however prejudiced or mistaken -Johnson might be in this particular instance, when he deals in generalities, -he traces the peculiar merits of Addison’s manner with the -touch of a master. “He copies with so much fidelity, that he can -be hardly said to invent; yet his exhibitions have an air so much -original, that it is difficult to suppose them not merely the product of -imagination.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>An attempt has been made to compare the humour of Addison with -that of Molière, of whom Lord Chesterfield said that no man ever had -so much. But a parallel between an essayist and a dramatic writer -will not run straight; the construction of the drama gives so much -greater latitude to the display of humour, and allows of so much -nearer an approach to extravagance, that there can be no drawn game -between them, and the essayist will almost always be the loser.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As a critic, Addison’s merit is impartially and ably set forth in -the notes to his Life in Dr. Kippis’s edition of the ‘Biographia Britannica.’ -On that subject Johnson is just and liberal. “Addison is -now despised by some who perhaps would never have seen his defects, -but by the lights which he afforded them.” By some of these arrogant -despisers he has been blamed for deciding by taste rather than -by principles. To this Dr. Warton, who thought him superior to -Dryden as a critic, briefly answers, taste must decide. Addison’s -style has been universally admired and thought a model. Lord -Orford says of Addison, Swift, Bolingbroke, and Dr. Middleton, -“Such authors fix a standard by their writings.” Johnson says he did -not wish to be energetic; Dr. Warton affirms that he is so, and that -often. Steele describes his habits of composition. “This was particular -in this writer, that, when he had taken his resolution, or made -his plan for what he designed to write, he would walk about a room, -and dictate it into language with as much freedom and ease as any -one could write it down, and attend to the coherence and grammar of -what he dictated.” Pope says that he wrote with fluency; but if he -had time to correct, did it slowly and cautiously; but that many of -the ‘Spectators’ were written rapidly, and sent to the press in the -instant; and he doubts whether much leisure for revisal would have -led to improvement. “He would alter any thing to please his friends, -before publication, but would not retouch his pieces afterwards; and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>I believe not one word in Cato, to which I made an objection, was -suffered to stand.” The last line of Cato was Pope’s; a substitute -for the original.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have neither room nor willingness to enter on the jealousy -between these two eminent persons. Bowles vindicates Addison’s -conduct, and relates the following fact to the credit of his disposition:—“Though -attacked by Dennis as a critic, he never mentioned his -name with asperity, and refused to give the least countenance to a -pamphlet which Pope had written upon the occasion of Dennis’s -stricture on Cato.” The piece here alluded to is the ‘Narrative of -the Madness of John Dennis.’ Pope strangely imputed Addison’s -pious compositions to the selfish motive of an intention to take orders -and obtain a bishopric on quitting administration. Johnson cites -this as the only proof that Pope retained some malignity from their -ancient rivalship: with this opinion we cannot quite agree.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Addison’s defect of animal spirits condemned him to silence in -general company; but his conversation, when set afloat by wine and -the presence of confidential friends, was brilliant and delightful. Steele -represents him as “having all the wit and nature of Terence and -Catullus, heightened with humour more exquisite than any other man -ever possessed.” This high flight is borne out by Pope’s less suspicious -testimony. “Addison’s conversation had something in it more charming -than I have found in any other man.” Tonson and Spence represent -him as demanding to be the first name in modern wit; and -with Steele as his echo, depreciating Dryden, whom Pope and Congreve -defended against them. We close our account with the following -summary of his character from Hutchinson’s ‘History of Cumberland’:—“Addison -was modest and mild, a scholar, a gentleman, a poet, and -a Christian.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span> -<img src='images/i_156.jpg' alt='BRAMANTE.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>BRAMANTE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The name of Bramante derives a marked distinction from its -intimate connexion with the history of the famous church of St. Peter -at Rome, and is further interesting in its association with the names -of Michael Angelo, of Raphael, and of the pontiff Julius II. -Bramante is justly noted among the <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">cinquecento</span></i> architects, as a -powerful co-operator in the great work of restoring, under certain -modifications, the style of ancient Rome. The leader of this reformation -is universally acknowledged to have been Brunelleschi; while -Palladio is honoured as having effected its final and permanent establishment. -Brunelleschi had evinced his daring and his taste in projecting -the vast dome of Florence cathedral, the character of which, -however, exhibited only a slight advance towards the regular architecture -of antiquity; and it remained for a successor to emulate at -once the majestic elevation of the Florentine cupola, and the more -classic beauty of the Roman Pantheon.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Brunelleschi died in 1444, a circumstance which we mention -as giving additional interest to the fact, that, in 1444, Bramante was -born. The family of the latter, his birth-place, and even his name, -are matters of some obscurity; but there is reason to believe that his -parentage was humble, and that he was born in the territory of Urbino. -Whether at Urbino the capital of the Duchy, or at Castel -Durante, at Fermignano, or at Monte Asdrubale, there are no means -of deciding, unless we admit as evidence in favour of the latter place -an existing medal in the Museo Mazzachelliano, whereon are inscribed -the words “Bramantes Asdruvaldinus.” He is variously called Bramante -Lazzari, Lazzaro Bramante, and is spoken of as “<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Donato di -Urbino, cognominato Bramante</span>.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_156fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />BRAMANTE.<br /><br /><em>From a Portrait by Alessandro D’Este in the Collection of the Capitol, at Rome.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>He seems to have evinced, at an early age, a general feeling for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>poetry and art; and is said to have first studied painting assisted by -the works of Fra. Bartolomeo Corradini. During a sojourn at Milan -he obtained the friendship of the poet Gaspero Visconti, and in the -capacity of a sonneteer and improvisatore exhibited an unusual -facility of composition. Of his abilities as a painter in distemper and -fresco, examples are to be seen in that city, and at other places in the -Milanese territory. On his subsequent removal to Rome, he was -employed to execute some paintings (which no longer exist) in the -church of S. Giovanni Laterano.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Architecture, however, soon claimed Bramante as more particularly -her own, and he manifested a zealous ardour in the study of classic -examples. It does not appear that he published any volumes on the -subject, but we are credibly informed that he industriously measured -the ancient remains of Rome, and of Adrian’s villa at Tivoli.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Cardinal Caraffa was among the first to form an estimate of his -merits, and commissioned him to rebuild the cloisters of the Monastery -della Pace at Rome. He also superintended the execution of the -Trastevere Fountain for Pope Alexander VI., and erected great part -of the palace della Cancellaria. The church of S. Lorenzo in -Damaso, and the circular chapel in the cloister of S. Pietro in Montorio -(where St. Peter is said to have been crucified) are also of -Bramante’s architecture; nor should we omit to mention him as the -designer of the palace in the Piazza di Scossacavalli, which for some -time belonged to the English crown, and was presented by Henry -VIII. to the Campeggi. Bramante’s designs for other palaces and -churches were numerous. Several buildings in Milan are attributed -to him, as well as an imperial palace for the Duke of Urbino (never -finished), and the church dell’ Incoronata at Lodi.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The established fame of Bramante now recommended him to Pope -Julius II., who had formed the idea of uniting the old Vatican palace -with the Belvedere by means of a magnificent court, an engraving of -which, as it was first executed by Bramante, is to be seen in the public -library erected by the Corsini princes. The division of the court by -the Vatican library, subsequently erected by Sixtus V., and other -additions and alterations, have utterly destroyed the effect of Bramante’s -design, though the principal architectural features still -remain. Among these, in a lofty central pile of building, is a vast -semicircular headed niche, the archivolt of which springs from the -cornices of two lofty wing compartments, appearing, it must be confessed, -more like the section of an interior, than an external elevation. -It is as if the opposite walls in the length of a cathedral choir were taken -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>away, the grand altar recess being alone suffered to remain; and it may -be regarded as a very curious instance of a passion for the spherical -vault, which thus prompted Bramante to turn it, as it were, inside out; -and to take from the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellæ</span> of the temples of Peace, and of Venus -and Rome, the idea of the garden alcove.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Bramante was now high in favour with Julius II.; and, having -invented an ingenious machine for stamping the leaden seals attached -to the papal bulls, was rewarded with the office “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">del Piombo</span></i>.” He -attended the Pope to Bologna, when that city was united to the states -pontifical in 1504, and served his Holiness in the capacity of military -engineer.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Our account of Bramante now resolves itself into the history of St. -Peter’s church, the antecedent progress of which may be thus briefly -stated:—</p> - -<p class='c000'>St. Peter being buried within the site of Nero’s Circus, Constantine -erected (<span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A.D.</span></span> 324) a magnificent church over the apostle’s remains. -During the lapse of eleven centuries, it fell into decay, and in -the pontificate of Nicholas V. (1450) a new building was commenced -from designs by Alberti. On the death of Nicholas, the -works were discontinued till Paul II. caused them again to proceed: -but it must be understood that the structure then in course of erection -was in a great measure mixed up with Constantine’s church, many -remaining parts of which were to be incorporated in the new building.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The ascent of Julius II. to the papal throne was at that period, -when the revived taste for classical architecture suddenly pervaded -Italy, and left him assured of general support in his boldly formed -resolution of demolishing the old building with all its subsequent -amendments, and of erecting an entirely new structure, that -should stand paramount in the modern world for vastness and splendour. -It has been said, that the idea of the new church originated in -a suggestion by San Gallo, that the gorgeous sepulchral monument -which Julius, in honour of himself, had commissioned Michael Angelo -to execute, should be placed in a church of corresponding grandeur, -purposely built to receive it. Be this as it may, the new St. Peter’s -was resolved on: designs were sent in by various architects, and -several were submitted by Bramante, who proved, as might be expected, -the successful competitor. His ideas were as colossal as the -ambition of his patron:—“I will raise,” said the architect, “the Pantheon -on the Temple of Peace!”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Bramante’s plan was a Latin cross. The area of intersection was -to be surrounded with massive piers, having columns between as in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>the Pantheon; and the noble dome of the latter edifice, in the august -novelty of its exalted position, was to be freely imitated. A medal -struck in honour of Bramante shows the façade of his design, having -two <em>campaniles</em>, or towers, flanking a central compartment. In examining -the practicability of his plans, he failed not to inspect the quarries -of Tivoli, and was confirmed by the discovery that they would -yield him blocks of nine feet in diameter. Into the pecuniary means -of construction he did not however so closely examine. The contributions -of a world would have been necessary to the full realization of -his plans, which were considerably reduced by succeeding architects.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first stone of the new edifice was laid on the 18th of April, -1506; and the works proceeded with a rapidity more pleasing -perhaps to the impatient spirit of Julius, than beneficial to the stability -of so vast an edifice. Either to this haste on the part of the -pontiff, or to a want of constructive care on his own part, must be -attributed the failures which occurred to several of Bramante’s buildings; -and it is said, that, in the fear of Michael Angelo’s superior -scrutiny, he industriously sought to compass the removal of that great -artist from Rome.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His jealousy had been excited by the high admiration with which -Julius regarded Michael Angelo’s talent; and he strove to arrest the -progress of the intended monument, by stimulating in the pope a superstitious -dread of constructing his own tomb. He was, perhaps, not -more envious of Michael Angelo as a rival, than of the art of sculpture as -compared with his own; and it may have been with the view of diverting -the pope’s mind from the engrossing subject of the tomb, that he -suggested that Michael Angelo should be employed in painting the -vault of the Sistine Chapel. Julius, adopting the suggestion, ordered -Bramante to construct a scaffold for the painter’s purpose; but it was -no sooner done than Michael Angelo rejected it as totally unfit, and -invented one himself. If the opposition of these celebrated men had -been hitherto restrained within bounds, it now assumed a more decided -character of hostility. Half the painting of the chapel being -completed, Bramante was desirous that Raphael, then rising into eminence, -should finish the half remaining; expecting, no doubt, that the -latter, being more exclusively a painter, would exhibit a superiority -over one who had chiefly practised as a sculptor. At this, the indignation -of Michael Angelo was naturally fired, and he arraigned at -once, in the presence of the Pope, not only the architectural defects of -Bramante’s buildings, but likewise the moral faults of his character. -At a former period, however, he had paid full tribute to his rival’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>exalted taste, saying, in his letter to a friend, “It cannot be denied -that Bramante is superior in architecture to all others since the time of -the ancients.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Among the more pleasing passages of Bramante’s life, is that which -relates to his friendship for the inimitable Raphael, who was his fellow-countryman, -and, as it is reported, his relation. Certain it is that -Raphael was his pupil in architecture, and that he entertained an -affectionate regard for his master, whose portrait he introduced into -his celebrated picture of the “School of Athens,” where Bramante is -represented as describing with his compasses a geometrical figure to -several youths who surround him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Bramante died in 1514, one year after his patron Julius II., and -eight years after the commencement of the new St. Peter’s. At this -period the great arches over the central piers were turned, and the -principal chapel opposite the entrance erected. Subsequent additions, -however, to his portion of the building, and material deviations from -his original design, have left us to regard the church in its complete -state as deriving little else than its general idea from the genius of its -first architect. His remains were deposited in it with great pomp, -being attended by the Papal court, and the leading professors of art. -He is described as lively and agreeable in manner, and, notwithstanding -his quarrels with Michael Angelo, of a liberal and generous -disposition. He seems rather to have been distinguished by a bold -and fertile fancy, than by any great attainments in the mechanical -department of his profession; and to form a just estimate of his -designs, they should be considered with reference to the progressive -state of architectural taste, and cautiously adopted as examples for -imitation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The best authorities to be consulted on this subject are Vasari, -Tiraboschi, Milizia, and Condivi.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_160.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Great niche of the Belvedere.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_161fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />MADAME DE STAEL.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by F. Gerard in the possession of M. de Broglie, at Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span> -<img src='images/i_161.jpg' alt='MADAME DE STAEL.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>MADAME DE STAEL.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Anne Louise Germaine Necker, the celebrated daughter of a -celebrated father, was born at Paris, April 22, 1766. In her earliest -years she manifested uncommon vivacity of perception and depth of -feeling; and at the age of eleven, her sprightliness, her self-possession, -and the eager and intelligent interest which she took in all the -subjects of conversation, rendered her the pet and the wonder of the -brilliant circle which frequented her father’s house. Necker himself, -though he delighted in promoting the developement of his daughter’s -talents, was a watchful critic of her faults: “I owe,” she said, “to my -father’s penetration, the frankness of my disposition, and the simplicity -of my mind. He exposed every sort of affectation; and, in his -company, I formed the habit of thinking that my heart lay open -to view.” She repaid his care and tenderness by a passionate and -devoted affection, such as scarcely seems to belong to the relationship -which existed between them. Throughout his life, the desire to -minister to his pleasure was her first object, and his death threw a -permanent shade of melancholy over her spirit.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Madlle. Necker paid the usual price of mental precocity, in its debilitating -effects upon her bodily constitution. At the age of fourteen, -serious apprehensions were entertained for her life; and she was sent -to St. Ouen, in the neighbourhood of Paris, for the benefit of country -air, with orders to abstain from every species of severe study. Thither -her father repaired at every interval of leisure; and being withdrawn -from the strict line of behaviour prescribed by her mother, who, having -done much herself by dint of study, thought that no accomplishments -graces could be worth possessing which were not the fruit of study, -she passed her time in the unrestrained enjoyment of M. Necker’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>society, in the indulgence of her brilliant imagination, and the spontaneous -cultivation of her powerful mind. This course of life was -more favourable to the developement of that poetical, ardent, and -enthusiastic temper, which was the source of so much enjoyment, and -so much distinction, than to the habits of self-control without which -such a temper is almost too dangerous to be called a blessing. Her -character at this period of life is thus described by her relation and -biographer, Mad. Necker de Saussure: “We may figure to ourselves -Mad. de Stael, in her early youth, entering with confidence -upon a life, which to her promised nothing but happiness. Too benevolent -to expect hatred from others, too fond of talent in others to -anticipate the envy of her own, she loved to exalt genius, enthusiasm, -and inspiration, and was herself an example of their power. The love -of glory, and of liberty, the inherent beauty of virtue, the pleasures of -affection, each in turn afforded subjects for her eloquence. Not that -she was always in the clouds: she never lost presence of mind, nor -was she run away with by enthusiasm.” In later life her good taste -led her to abstain from this lofty vein of conversation, especially when -it was forced upon her: “I tramp in the mire with wooden shoes, -whenever they would force me to live always in the clouds.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Endowed with such qualities, the <em>effect</em> which Madlle. Necker produced -upon her introduction to society was as brilliant as her friends -could desire, though the effervescence of imagination and youthful -spirits sometimes led her to commit breaches of etiquette, which might -have been fatal to the success of a less accomplished debutant. At -the age of twenty, in 1786, she married the Baron de Stael Holstein, -ambassador of Sweden at the court of France. He was much the -elder, and the matter seems to have been arranged by her parents, -with her acquiescence indeed, but without her heart being at all interested -in the connexion. And we trace the effect of her ruling passion, -love of her father, in the Baron de Stael’s engagement not to -take her to reside in Sweden, without her free consent. During a -large portion of their married life they were separated from each other -by the baron’s absences from France; but when age and sickness -weighed him down, she hastened to comfort him, and his last hours -(in 1802) were soothed by her presence and watchful care. By this -marriage Mad. de Stael had four children, of whom only a son and -a daughter survived her: the latter became the wife of the Duc de -Broglie; the former inherited his father’s title, and has won for himself -a creditable place in the literature of the age.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>At the beginning of the revolution, Mad. de Stael watched the new -prospects opening 011 her country with joyful anticipation: but she -was shocked and disgusted by the ferocious excesses which ensued. -Her love of liberty was too sincere to let her justify the policy, or join -the party of the court, but, with an admirable courage, she used the -powerful influence of her talents and her connexions to save as many -as possible of the victims of that frenzied time. She arranged a plan -for the escape of the royal family from the Tuileries; and after the -death of Louis XVI., she had the boldness (for so it must be called) -to publish her ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Défense de la Reine</span>.’ It needed all the author’s tact -and ingenuity, as well as eloquence, so to plead the queen’s cause, -as, on the one hand, not to compromise the dignity of her innocence, -and, on the other, not to aggravate the rage of those who clamoured -for her destruction.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having passed safely through the Reign of Terror, Mad. de Stael -hailed the establishment of the Directory in 1795, as the commencement -of a settled government. Through life she devoted a large portion -of her attention to politics, which she designated as comprehending -within their sphere, morality, religion, and literature; and at this -period especially, while her fame in literature was not yet established, -and the ardent enthusiasm of her temper was unchecked by misfortune, -she not only took an eager interest in the course of affairs, but -exerted her powers to gain some influence in the direction of them. -Her brilliant conversation drew around her the ablest and most accomplished -men of the French capital; and in Paris, where the public -opinion of France is compressed into a narrow space, wit or beauty -have always had an influence unknown to the more sedate nations of -the north. To this period of her life belong the treatises,—more interesting -as specimens of her genius, than important for the truth of her -theories—‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De l’Influence des Passions sur le Bonheur des Individus -et des Nations</span>,’ published in 1796, of which only the first part, relating -to individuals, was completed; and ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la Littérature considerée -dans ses Rapports avec les Institutions Sociales</span>,’ published in 1800: -subjects, it has been truly said, which demand the observation and -study of a whole life. It is not on these, therefore, that her fame is -based. But the latter has the great merit, according to the testimony -of Sir James Mackintosh, of being the first attempt to treat the philosophy -of literary history upon a bold and comprehensive scale.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But she could not aspire to “direct the storm,” without running -some danger of being caught in it; and it is probable, as indeed she -herself admits, that if she had foreseen the troubles which political -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>influence was to bring upon her, she would have been well pleased -to resign all pretension to it. At the end of 1799, Bonaparte rose to -power on the ruin of the Directory. That remarkable man inspired -Mad. de Stael from the first with an indescribable fear and dislike, -which she has expressed throughout her very interesting work, entitled -‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dix Années d’Exil</span>;’ and as she saw at once the danger to -which the cause of rational liberty was exposed by his ambition, and -feared not to express her sentiments, her house became the focus of -discontent. Benjamin Constant, then one of her intimate associates, -having prepared and communicated to her a speech to expose the -dawning tyranny of the First Consul, warned her that, if spoken, it -would necessarily be followed by the desertion of the brilliant society -which she loved, and by which she was surrounded. She replied, -“We must do as we think right.” It was accordingly pronounced -on the following day, on the evening of which her favourite circle was -to assemble at her own house. Before six o’clock she received ten -notes of excuse. “The first and second I bore well enough, but as -one note came after another, they began to disturb me. I appealed -in vain to my conscience, which had bidden me resign the pleasures -which depended on Bonaparte’s favour: so many good sort of persons -blamed me, that I could not hold fast enough by my own view of the -question.” And she says just before, with her usual candour, “If I -had foreseen what I have suffered, dating from that day, I should not -have been resolute enough to decline M. Constant’s offer to abstain -from coming forward, for the sake of not compromising me.” The -speech was followed by an intimation from Fouché, that Mad. de -Stael’s retirement from Paris for a short time would be expedient.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the spring of 1800, Bonaparte’s absence upon the campaign of -Marengo, and the publication of her work on literature, brought -Mad. de Stael again into fashion. From that time until 1802, she -remained undisturbed, and divided her time chiefly between Paris, -and her father’s residence at Coppet, on the Lake of Geneva. In the -latter year (in which she published ‘Delphine’) her intimacy with Bernadotte -caused the First Consul to regard her with suspicion, though -the dread of being banished from the delights of Parisian society had -taught her prudence. “They pretend,” he said, “that she neither talks -politics, nor mentions me; but I know not how it happens, that people -seem to like me less after visiting her.” Prudence, or the warning of her -friends, detained Mad. de Stael at Coppet during the winter of 1802–3: -but when war broke out, and she thought that Bonaparte’s attention was -fully occupied by the proposed descent upon England, she could not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>resist the thirst of conversation which always drew her to Paris. She -did not venture to enter the city; but she had not been long in its -neighbourhood, when she was terribly disconcerted by a peremptory -order not to appear within forty leagues of the metropolis. She candidly -avows that “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la conversation Française n’existe qu’à Paris, et -la conversation a été, depuis mon enfance mon plus grand plaisir</span>.” -The rest of France, therefore, had no attraction for her, and she determined -to visit Germany. Weimar was her first place of abode, -where she became acquainted with Goethe, Wieland, and Schiller, -and, under their auspices, commenced her study of the German language -and literature. In 1804, she proceeded to Berlin; but she -was suddenly recalled to Switzerland by the illness and death of -M. Necker.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To this most painful loss Mad. Necker de Saussure attributes a -deep and beneficial influence on her friend’s character. It inspired a -melancholy which perhaps never was entirely dissipated, it raised her -thoughts to a more exalted strain of meditation, and gave vigour and -consistency to those reverential feelings, which before were perhaps -hardly definite enough to be termed religion. At this time she composed -her account of the private life of M. Necker, of which B. Constant -has said, that no other of her works conveys so good a notion -of the author. Shortly after she visited Italy for the first time. The -grand and solemn remains of antiquity harmonized with the melancholy -of her mind; and in this journey was developed a love of art, -and, in a less degree, a taste for scenery, of which up to this time she -seems to have been strangely deficient. The fruit of her travels -appeared in ‘Corinne,’ written after her return to Coppet in 1805, -and published at Paris early in 1807, which raised her to the first -class of living writers. Mad. Necker de Saussure says, in the strain -of high panegyric, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Il n’eut qu’une voix, qu’un cri d’admiration dans -l’Europe lettrée; et ce phénomène fut partout un événement</span>;” and -Sir James Mackintosh, who read it in India, in a translation, says, -“I swallow Corinne slowly, that I may taste every drop. I prolong -my enjoyment, and really dread the termination.” Dictated by the -same leading idea as ‘Delphine,’ but far superior in depth and truth -of sentiment, as well as eloquence, and genuine poetic ardour, it was -also free from the moral objections to the former novel. Each heroine, -according to the lively author first quoted, is a transcript from the -author herself. “‘Corinne’ is the ideal of Mad. de Stael; ‘Delphine’ -is her very self in youth.” A similar idea occurred to Mackintosh,—“In -the character of ‘Corinne,’ Mad. de Stael draws an imaginary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>self—what she is, what she had the power of being, and what she -can easily imagine that she might have become. Purity, which her -sentiments and principles teach her to love; talents and accomplishments, -which her energetic genius might easily have acquired; uncommon -scenes, and incidents fitted for her extraordinary mind; and -even beauty, which her fancy contemplates so constantly, that she can -scarcely suppose it to be foreign to herself, and which, in the enthusiasm -of invention, she bestows on this adorned as well as improved -self,—these seem to be the materials out of which she has formed -‘Corinne,’ and the mode in which she reconciled it to her knowledge -of her own character.... The grand defect is the want of repose—too -much, and too ingenious reflection—too uniform an ardour -of feeling. The understanding is fatigued, the heart ceases to feel.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before the publication of ‘Corinne.’ Mad. de Stael had ventured -into the neighbourhood of Paris. The book contained nothing hostile -to Napoleon; but the new wreath of fame which the author had woven -for herself revived his spleen, and she soon received a peremptory order -to quit France. This was a bitter mortification. We have mentioned -her ruling love of conversation: and to her Paris was the world; -beyond its limits life was vegetation. “Give me the Rue du Bac,” she -said to those who extolled the Lake of Geneva; “I would prefer living -in Paris on a fourth story, with a hundred louis a year.” The chief -studies of her exile were German literature and metaphysics. In the -autumn of 1807 she visited Vienna, where she spent a year in tranquil -enjoyment, soothed by the respect and admiration, and gratified by -the polished manners and conversation of the exalted circles in which -she moved, and undisturbed by the petty tyranny which, in her stolen -visits to France, always hung over her head. In 1808 she returned -to Coppet, to arrange the materials for her great work on Germany. -Having devoted nearly two years to this task, she went to France in -the summer of 1810, the decree of exile being so far relaxed, that she -was permitted, as before, to reside forty leagues from the capital. -Her principal object was to superintend the printing of her work, -which was to be published at Paris. After passing safely, though -with many alterations, through the censorship, the last proof was -corrected, September 23. Scarcely was this done, and 10,000 -copies struck off, when the whole impression was seized and -destroyed. Mad. de Stael fortunately was enabled, by timely warning, -to secrete the manuscript. This blow was accompanied by an order -to quit France without delay. America, which she had expressed a -desire to visit, and Coppet, were the only places offered to her choice: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>an attempt to reach England, which was her secret wish, would -have been followed by immediate arrest. She chose to return to her -paternal home. There the Emperor’s persecution, and her hatred of -him, reached their height; and though not to be ranked with the -graver offences of tyranny, his treatment of her was of a most irritating -character, and unbecoming any but a low-minded despot. It -was intimated that she had better confine her excursions to a circle -of two leagues; her motions were watched, even within her own -house; to be regarded as her friend was equivalent to a sentence of -disgrace or dismissal, to any person dependent on the government; -her sons were forbidden to enter their native country; M. Schlegel, -their domestic tutor, was ordered to quit Coppet; and worst of all, -her two dearest friends, M. de Montmorency and Mad. Recamier, were -banished France for having presumed to visit her. These, and more -trifling delinquencies are set forth with most stinging sarcasm, in her -‘Ten Years of Exile.’</p> - -<p class='c000'>Harassed beyond endurance, she resolved to make an attempt to escape -from these never-ending vexations. But whither to go? She could -not obtain permission to reside elsewhere; and if Napoleon demanded -her, no continental power, except Russia, could give her an asylum. -To obtain a conveyance to England was impossible, except from some -port to the north of Hamburg; and to reach that distant region, it -was necessary to traverse the whole of Europe, in constant danger of -being intercepted and detained. After eight months of irresolution, -she found courage and opportunity to make the attempt; and quitting -Coppet secretly, she reached Berne in safety, obtained a passport for -Vienna, and hastily traversing Switzerland and the Tyrol, arrived at -the Austrian capital, June 6, 1812. But this was neither a safe nor -pleasant resting-place. The Emperor was in attendance on his son-in-law -at Dresden; and the Austrian police thought fit to pay their -court to Napoleon, by following up the example of annoyance which -he had set. Mad. de Stael, therefore, hastened on her route to Russia, -through Moravia and Gallicia, honoured all the way by the especial -attention of the police, on whose happy combination of “French -machiavelism and German clumsiness,” she has taken ample revenge -in her ‘Ten Years of Exile.’ She crossed the Russian frontier, July -14, and in the joy of having escaped at last from the wide-spread -power of Napoleon, she sees and describes every thing in Russia -with an exuberance of admiration, which the position of the country -at that moment, and the kindness which the writer experienced, -may well excuse. The French armies had already crossed the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>Vistula, and the direct route to St. Petersburg being interrupted, -she was obliged to make a circuit by Moscow. After a hasty -survey of the wonders of that city, she continued her route to St. -Petersburg, where she was received with distinction by the Emperor -and his consort. But England was still the object of her -desires, and towards the end of September, she quitted the metropolis -of Russia for Stockholm. There, during a winter-residence of -eight months, she composed the journal of her travels, to which we -have so often referred; and in the following summer she arrived in -London.</p> - -<p class='c000'>She was received in the highest circles of our metropolis with an -enthusiastic admiration, which no doubt was rendered in part to the -avowed enemy of Napoleon, as well as to the woman of genius. Sir -James Mackintosh, in his journal, gives a lively description of the -manner in which she was <em>fêted</em>. “On my return I found the whole -fashionable and literary world occupied with Mad. de Stael—the most -celebrated woman of this, or perhaps of any age.... She treats -me as the person whom she most delights to honour. I am generally -ordered with her to dinner, as one orders beans and bacon: I have in -consequence dined with her at the houses of almost all the cabinet -ministers. She is one of the few persons who surpass expectation; -she has every sort of talent, and would be universally popular, if in -society she were to confine herself to her inferior talents—pleasantry, -anecdote, and literature, which are so much more suited to conversation -than her eloquence and genius.” A very characteristic observation -was made by the late Lord Dudley—“Mad. de Stael was not a -good neighbour; there could be no slumbering near her, she would -instantly detect you.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The publication of her long-expected work on Germany maintained -the interest which Mad. de Stael had excited, during the period of her -residence in England. It is comprised in four parts,—on the aspect and -manners of Germany,—on literature and the arts, as there existing,—on -philosophy and morals,—and on religion and enthusiasm. For -an analysis of it we may best refer to the elaborate criticism of Mackintosh, -in the Edinburgh Review, No. XLIII, who gives it the high -praise of “explaining the most abstruse metaphysical theories of Germany -precisely, yet perspicuously and agreeably; and combining the -eloquence which inspires exalted sentiments of virtue, with the -enviable talent of gently indicating the defects of men and manners by -the skilfully softened touches of a polite and merciful pleasantry:” and -of being “unequalled for variety of knowledge, flexibility of power, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>elevation of view, and comprehension of mind, among the works of -women, and in the union of the graces of society and literature with -the genius of philosophy, not surpassed by many among men.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>After the restoration of the Bourbons, Mad. de Stael returned to -France. She stood high in Louis XVIII.’s favour, who was well -qualified to enjoy and appreciate her powers of conversation; and he -gave a substantial token of his regard by the repayment of two millions -of francs, which the treasury was indebted to her father’s estate. At -the return of Napoleon, she fled precipitately to Coppet. She -was too generous to countenance the gross abuse lavished on the -fallen idol; and some sharp repartees, at the expense of the time-servers -of the day, seem to have inspired Napoleon with a hope -that he might work on her vanity to enlist her in his service. He sent -a message, that he had need of her to inspire the French with constitutional -notions: she replied, “He has done for twelve years without -either me or a constitution, and now he loves one about as little as the -other.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Concerning the last three years of her life, our information is very -scanty. She had contracted a second marriage, with M. Rocca, a -young officer, who, after serving with distinction in the French army -in Spain, had retired, grievously wounded, to Geneva, his native place. -For an account and apology for this much-censured and injudicious -connexion, the date of which we have not found specified, but which -should seem to have been previous to her flight to Coppet, since Rocca -accompanied her on the occasion, we must refer to Mad. Necker -de Saussure. It appears by her statement (and this is a material -consideration in estimating the extent of the lady’s weakness), that -though she must have been more than forty, and the gentleman was -twenty years younger, she had inspired Rocca with a devoted and romantic -passion. “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Je l’aimerai tellement</span>,” he said to one of his friends, -“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">qu’elle finira par m’épouser</span>,” and he kept his word. A less distinguished -woman might have contracted a marriage in which the -disparity of years was greater, at a slight expense of wondering and -ridicule; but probably Mad. de Stael felt that the eyes of the world -were upon her, and that any weakness would be eagerly seized by her -enemies; and, perhaps, had a natural dislike to resign a name which -she had rendered illustrious. She judged ill: the secrecy was the -worst part of the affair. The union, though generally believed to exist, -was not avowed until the opening of her will, which authorised her -children to make her marriage known, and acknowledged one son, -who was the fruit of it. The decline of M. Rocca’s health, which never -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>recovered the effect of his wounds, induced her to take a second -journey to Italy in 1816. At that time, her own constitution was -visibly giving way. She became seriously ill after her return to -France, and died, July 14, 1817, the anniversary of two remarkable -days of her life. These were, the commencement of the French revolution, -and the day on which, by entering Russia, she finally escaped -from Napoleon. M. Rocca survived her only half a year. He died in -Provence, January 29, 1818.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mad. de Stael’s last great work, which was published after her -death, is entitled ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Considérations sur les principaux Événements<a id='t170'></a> de la -Révolution Française</span>,’ a book, says Mackintosh, “possessing the -highest interest as the last dying bequest of the most brilliant -writer that has appeared in our days, the greatest writer, of a -woman, that any age or country has produced.” That it was left -unfinished is the less to be regretted, because it is not a regular -history of the revolution, but rather a collection of penetrating observations -and curious details, recorded in the true spirit of historic -impartiality, and therefore a most valuable treasure to the future historian. -The scope of the book, in accordance with her warm admiration -through life of the English constitution, is to show that France -requires a free government and a limited monarchy. The catalogue of -her works is closed by the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Œuvres Inédites</span> published in 1820, of -which the principal is ‘Ten Years of Exile.’ They are collected in -an edition of eighteen volumes 8vo., published at Paris, in 1819–20, -to which the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Notice sur le Caractère et les Ecrits de Mad. de Stael</span>,’ -by Mad. Necker de Saussure, is prefixed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The leading feature of Mad. de Stael’s private character was -her inexhaustible kindness of temper; it cost her no trouble to -forgive injuries. There seems not to have been a creature on -earth whom she hated, except Napoleon. “Her friendships were -ardent and remarkably constant; and yet she had a habit of analysing -the characters, even of those to whom she was most attached, -with the most unsparing sagacity, and of drawing out the detail and -theory of their faults and peculiarities, with the most searching and -unrelenting rigour; and this she did to their faces, and in spite of -their most earnest remonstrances. ‘It is impossible for me to do -otherwise,’ she would say; ‘if I were on my way to the scaffold, I -should be dissecting the characters of the friends who were to suffer -with me upon it.’” Though the excitement of mixed society was -necessary to her happiness, her conversation in a tête à tête with her -intimate friends is said to have been more delightful than her most -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>brilliant efforts in public. She was proud of her powers, and loved -to display and talk of them: but her vanity was divested of offensiveness -by her candour and ever-present consideration of others. Of her -errors we would speak with forbearance; but it is due to truth to say -that there were passages in her life which exposed her to serious and -well-founded censure. As a daughter and mother she displayed sedulous -devotion, and the warmest affection. Though never destitute of -devotional feeling, her notions of religion in youth seem to have been -very vague and inefficient. But misfortune drove her sensitive and -affectionate temper to seek some stay, which she found nothing on earth -could furnish; and in later years, her religion, if not deeply learned, -was deeply felt. Of this, the latter portion of Mad. Necker de Saussure’s -work will satisfy the candid reader. And though her testimony -to the truth and value of religion was for the most part indirect, -we may reasonably believe that it was not ineffective. “Placed in -many respects in the highest situation to which humanity could aspire, -possessed unquestionably of the highest powers of reasoning, emancipated -in a singular degree from prejudices, and entering with the -keenest relish into all the feelings that seemed to suffice for the happiness -and occupation of philosophers, patriots, and lovers, she has still -testified that without religion there is nothing stable, sublime or satisfying; -and that it alone completes and consummates all to which -reason and affection can aspire. A genius like hers, and so directed, -is, as her biographer has well remarked, the only missionary that can -work any permanent effect upon the upper classes of society in modern -times—upon the vain, the learned, the scornful and argumentative, -‘who stone the Prophets, while they affect to offer incense to the -Muses.’” (<cite>Ed. Review, No. LXXI.</cite>)</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span> -<img src='images/i_172.jpg' alt='PALLADIO.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PALLADIO.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Palladio is distinguished among the renowned professors of his age -as the chief modifier of the revived style of Roman architecture. The -celebrity however which attaches to his name, though just in regard -to its extent, is not always correctly appreciated: inasmuch as a -bigoted admiration for his precepts and designs, on the ground of their -intrinsic excellence, has too frequently supplanted that more sober -estimate, which results from a consideration of the circumstances -under which those precepts and examples were given to the world. -Neither have succeeding ages been sufficiently discriminating in -respect to the predecessors and contemporaries of Palladio, several of -whom either effected or assisted in effecting much, of which the credit -has been given by the world at large too exclusively to him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Our less informed readers should therefore be apprised that, for -more than a century before the time of Palladio, the ancient Roman -style of architecture had been in progress of revival. Brunelleschi, -who died in 1444, was the first to exhibit, in the upper part of Florence -cathedral, some departure from the Italian Gothic, and an -approach towards the more classic models of old Rome. Alberti, -his pupil, published a system of the Five Orders, and Bramante, -Raphael, and San Gallo, successively advanced the restored style -in the famous Basilica of St. Peter, then erecting. Sansovino, in -several costly edifices at Venice, and San Micheli, in many at -Verona, anticipated the best efforts of Palladio, and Vignola also distinguished -himself as a practical architect and author. Serlio was the -first to measure and describe the ancient examples of Rome; and in -1537, published the first part of his ‘Complete Treatise on Architecture.’</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_172fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by R. Woodman.</em><br /><br />PALLADIO.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by L. Biglieschi in the Collection of the Capitol at Rome.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>Much therefore had been already done to facilitate the operations -of a succeeding candidate for architectural distinction. Materials had -been amassed, and it only remained for a comprehensive genius to -analyse them more closely, to modify them in detail, and to enlarge, by -the exercise of a chastened fancy, the range of their combinations. -At this juncture the subject of our memoir commenced his professional -career.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Andrea Palladio was born at Vicenza, November 30, 1518. His -parents are said to have been “in the middle rank of life;” in belief -of which, Temanza discredits the traditionary account that he -worked as a common mason at the Villa di Cricoli, and that the name -‘Palladio’ was bestowed upon him, as a kind of ennoblement, by his -patron Trissino, who is said to have been his first architectural instructor. -It is at least certain that, if Trissino taught him not, he -assisted in stimulating his professional ardour. Vitruvius and Alberti -appear to have been his early studies, and allusions are made to his -proficiency in geometry and polite literature at the age of twenty-three. -The knowledge which he derived from books, far from satisfying, -prompted him to seek a deeper insight into the details and the -principles of his art; and, during several visits to Rome, he employed -himself in delineating from admeasurement the ancient remains of that -city.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Among the earliest testimonies to his growing fame, was the commission -he received to make certain costly additions to the Basilica, -or Hall of Justice, in his native town. The building, before alteration, -seems to have been a dilapidated example of the Italian Gothic style. -It was the opinion of Giulio Romano, who was also consulted on the -subject, that whatever new work might be necessary to afford strength -or supply convenience, the character of the old building should be -strictly preserved; and the appropriate and unprejudiced idea of that -architect merits quite as much praise as the realized design of his -more fortunate competitor. But the romantic rage for the restored -architecture of Pagan antiquity was too prevalent for the common -sense of Giulio to find support; and the Græco-Roman arcades of -Palladio were carried round the Gothic basilica, just as, under the -same infatuation, the Corinthian portico of Inigo Jones was subsequently -attached to the old Cathedral of St. Paul’s in London.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Considering the particular arrangements and present mixed style of -this noted Basilica to have been peremptorily insisted on by the public, -we can then concede to Palladio the merit of an honourable conquest -over difficulties. The adjoined wood-cut represents in simple outline -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>one of the seven bays or compartments, which form the longitudinal -elevation of the main building. The relative situations of the perpendiculars -<em>a</em> to <em>b</em>, as well as their height, were unalterable. The heights -<em>a</em> to <em>c</em>, and <em>c</em> to <em>d</em>, were also fixed. If, therefore, simple arches had -been adopted, affording the required superficies of aperture, their -limited height must have borne a very disproportioned ratio to their -extended breadth. If columns had been employed alone, the great -width of the interspaces would have been offensively opposed to the -laws which govern that department of architectural design. The -application, therefore, of the smaller columns is here most admirable. -By this measure, a central arch of good proportions is obtained, and a -sufficient supply of light is secured to the interior by the lateral openings -under the imposts, and by the circular apertures above them.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/i_174.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In 1546 the building of St. Peter’s church was in active progress, -when its third architect, San Gallo, died. Trissino, who was in -Rome at the time, exerted himself to establish Palladio as San Gallo’s -successor. It is well known however that Michael Angelo was appointed -to that important post, and that he remains recorded on the -scroll of fame as the most celebrated of the architects of St. Peter’s.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1547 Palladio appears to have finally established himself as the -leading architect of Northern Italy; nor was he less fortunate in opportunities -for professional display, than competent to avail himself of -them. Vicenza is literally a museum of Palladian design. Besides -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>the Basilica, already noticed, and the Olympic Theatre, which was -designed after ancient models, he constructed the great majority of -the private palaces, the proprietors of which were content to impoverish -their fortunes, that they might vie with each other in giving -scope to the talents of their architect. The churches del Redentore -and S. Giorgio, with other edifices public and private, evince the -estimation in which Palladio was held at Venice; and most of the -other cities in the north of Italy also contain examples of his genius. -The country around exhibits a variety of his designs, among which -is the Villa di Capri, called the Rotunda, which has been imitated -by the Earl of Burlington, at Chiswick, and by other architects in -several parts of England. It stands upon a hill, and commands a -beautiful view on every side. This was the architect’s reason for -adopting the four fronts and four porticoes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Oppressed (says Scamozzi) by the multiplicity and fatigue of his -studies, and distressed by the loss of his sons (Leonida and Orazio), -he sank under the influence of an epidemic, which terminated his life -August 19, 1580, at the age of sixty-two. The Olympic Theatre had -only been commenced on the 23rd of May preceding his death, and its -completion was intrusted to his surviving son Silla, who, with Leonida, -had studied architecture. The Olympic Academicians attended -their deceased brother to the grave, and gave public testimony of their -feelings by the recital of funeral odes, and by the observance of all -the “pomp and circumstance” consistent with the sepulture of so -eminent a man. He was interred in the church of the Dominicans at -Vicenza.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Palladio was no less remarkable for modesty than for professional -eminence. The affability of his conduct won for him the perfect love -of all workmen engaged in his buildings. He was small in stature, -but of admirable presence; and united, to the most respectful bearing, -a jocose and lively manner.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Palladio’s Treatise on Architecture, in four books, published at -Venice in 1570, has been several times reprinted. A magnificent -edition in three volumes, folio, appeared in London in 1715; and -another has been since issued from the Venetian press. He also composed -a work on the Roman Antiquities generally, and left many manuscripts -on the subject of military as well as civil architecture. He -illustrated the Commentaries of Cæsar, by annexing to Badelli’s translation -of that work, a preface on the military system of the Romans, -and by supplying numerous copper plates, designed for the most part -by his sons Leonida and Orazio. He also studied Polybius, and dedicated -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>a (yet imprinted) work on the subject to the Grand Duke of -Tuscany. His manuscripts, having been left to the senator Contarini, -were subsequently dispersed, and the Earl of Burlington became -possessed of many of them. The latter nobleman in 1732 published the -fruits of Palladio’s researches concerning the Roman baths; and, some -time after, appeared a truly beautiful work, intitled ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Fabbriche ei<a id='t176'></a> -Disegni di Andrea Palladio, raccolti ed illustrati da Ottavio Bertotti -Scamozzi</span>.’ The latter is by far the most interesting book connected -with the name of Palladio. It enables us, at once, critically to examine -his numerous designs, and to estimate them by a standard far -superior to that which is merely founded on Vitruvian precept and -Roman example. Our present acquaintance with all that Palladio -had the means of knowing, and with very much more of which he was -entirely ignorant, gives us a power and a right of censorship which -the bigot alone will oppose and deny. Since the day of this celebrated -architect, the Roman remains have been measured with more -minute accuracy, and examined with a more philosophical regard to the -principles which regulated the arrangement of their component parts. -The volume of Greek art, compared with which that of Rome was -but a debasing translation, has since that time been opened to the -world; and, however we may continue to admire the industry by -which Palladio obtained his then extended knowledge, the fancy and -pictorial beauty which pervade many of his designs, and the worth -of the architect himself as a man of genius, taste, and letters, it is -yet our duty to direct the architectural student to look much farther -than Vicenza for examples of pure design, and for principles of -essential value.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The authorities for the life of Palladio, in addition to those already -referred to, are the works of Vasari, Tiraboschi, and Milizia.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_176.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Villa di Capri.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_177fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />ELIZABETH.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in His Majesty’s collection at St. James’s Palace.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span> -<img src='images/i_177.jpg' alt='ELIZABETH.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>ELIZABETH.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Elizabeth, queen of England, daughter of Henry VIII. by his -second wife, Anne Boleyn, was born September 7, 1533. Her -religious principles were early fixed on the side of the Reformation by -Dr. Parker, her mother’s chaplain, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, -to whose care Anne Boleyn, not long before her violent death, -recommended this her only child, with the charge that she should not -want his wise and pious counsel. She passed her early days happily, -in the seclusion of private life, uninitiated in the dissipation of the court, -and unmolested by its intrigues; but a few months after the accession -of her sister Mary, she was arrested on suspicion of being concerned -in Wyat’s insurrection, of which it was the object to oppose the -marriage of Mary with the Archduke Philip, and to raise the princess -Elizabeth to the throne. Her life was placed in imminent danger, -by her removal from her abode at Ashridge in Buckinghamshire to -London during a severe illness, in compliance with an order to bring -her, “quick or dead.” She was committed to the Tower, and exposed -to a capital charge of high treason. Two councils were held, -before which she defended herself with entire presence of mind, and -great boldness. Several councillors voted for her death, but it was -ultimately decided that she could be convicted only of misprision of -treason, which was no longer a capital offence. She owed her life, -therefore, to the saving power of the law; not, as has often been -stated, to the intercession of Philip: who did, however, stand forward -afterwards in her behalf so as to obtain a mitigation of the severity -of her imprisonment, which was continued after her acquittal on the -capital charge. It may seem inconsistent in a bigot to the Catholic -religion to interfere in behalf of a person on whom the hopes of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>Protestants were known to depend: but Philip’s hatred against France -was greater than his or even his wife’s zeal in the cause of popery; and -the political motives of his conduct are obvious. In the event of Mary -dying without issue, the Queen of Scotland, who was actually betrothed, -and soon after married to the Dauphin, stood next in succession -to Elizabeth. Supposing the intermediate link in the chain -to be broken, the crown of England, united to that of France, would -give a fatal preponderance to the already formidable rival of the Spanish -monarchy. Philip, therefore, had a direct interest both in preserving -the life and conciliating the good will of the princess: he foresaw -that the demise of his queen must take place before long, and he had -formed the scheme of espousing her sister and successor, for which a -dispensation would readily have been obtained from the pope.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reign of Elizabeth began November 17, 1558, when she was -twenty-five years of age. Her person was graceful, her stature majestic, -and her mien noble. Her features were not regular; but her -eyes were lively and sparkling, and her complexion fair. Her spirit -was high; and her strong natural capacity had been improved by the -most enlarged education attainable in those days. She wrote letters -in Italian before she was fourteen; and at the age of seventeen -she had acquired the Latin, Greek, and French languages. In addition -to these studies she had ventured on the high and various departments -of philosophy, rhetoric, history, divinity, poetry, and music. As soon as -she was fixed on the throne, her interest and her principles engaged her -in plans for the restoration of the Protestant religion. For although -Pope Pius IV. promised, on her submission to the papal supremacy, “to -establish and confirm her royal dignity by his authority,” yet she -must have felt, that with the avowal of popery would be coupled the -virtual admission that her father’s divorce from Catherine of Arragon -was null and void; and, consequently, that Anne Boleyn was not a -wife but a concubine, and her own pretensions to the crown downright -usurpation. It was only by rejecting the Pope as her judge -that she could maintain her mother’s fair fame and her own legitimate -descent. Many writers, Bayle among others, have attempted -to prove that she was at heart little more of a Protestant than her -father; and her determination to retain episcopacy was sufficient to -raise that suspicion in the minds of the adherents to the presbyterian -system of church government.</p> - -<p class='c000'>While she was princess she received a private proposal of marriage -from Sweden; but she declared, “she could not change her condition.” -On her becoming queen, her brother-in-law, Philip II. of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>Spain, addressed her; but this match also she declined. In the -first parliament of her reign, the house of commons represented it as -necessary to the welfare of the nation “to move her grace to marriage.” -She answered, that by the ceremony of her inauguration she -was married to her people, and her subjects were to her instead of -children; that they would not want a successor when she died; -adding, “And in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a -marble stone shall declare, that a queen having reigned such a time, -lived and died a virgin.” Several great personages proposed a -matrimonial union with this illustrious princess; but she maintained -her celibacy to the last. The Duke of Anjou seems to have been the -most acceptable of her suitors. On his visit to England in 1581, -not only was he received with much public parade, but she vouchsafed -him strong tokens of personal attachment, and even suffered the marriage -articles to be drawn up. But the strong remonstrances of her -ministers and favourites finally prevailed, and the intended marriage -was broken off.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The compilers of memoirs have racked their brains for some plausible -explanation of Elizabeth’s repugnance to matrimony. When -overtures were first made to her she was young, and had a good -person, which she spared no art in setting off to advantage: she -was notoriously fond of admiration, and was no less jealous of the -personal beauty of Mary, Queen of Scots, than of her competition as a -rival sovereign, or as a claimant of the crown of England. Neither -prudery nor coldness could be imputed to her. Her gaiety extorted -a sarcastic exclamation from an ambassador: “I have seen the -head of the English church dancing!” She chose her favourites, -Leicester, Essex, Raleigh, and others, from among the most comely, -as well as the most valiant and accomplished of her subjects. Melvil, -who had been sent by Mary of Scotland to the court of Elizabeth, -relates in his Memoirs, that on creating Lord Robert Dudley Earl -of Leicester and Baron of Denbigh, at Westminster, with much -solemnity, the queen assisted at the ceremonial, and he knelt before -her with great gravity: “but,” he says, “she could not refrain from -putting her hand to his neck, smilingly tickling him, the French -ambassador and I standing by.” In relating his diplomatic transactions, -he furnishes other proofs of the queen’s partiality for the Earl of -Leicester. He had occasion to name before her “my Lord of Bedford -and my Lord Robert Dudley. She answered, it appeared I -made but small account of my Lord Robert, seeing I named the -Earl of Bedford before him; but that ere long she would make him -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>a far greater Earl; and that I should see it done before my return -home. For she esteemed him as her brother and best friend, whom -she would have herself married, had she ever intended to have taken -a husband. But being determined to end her life in virginity, she -wished the queen her sister might marry him.” It is no wonder that -her propensity to gallantry should have been stigmatized by popish -writers, or that they should even have ventured to assail her character -for chastity: even those of the reformed religion were somewhat -scandalized by the levities of their ecclesiastical governess. Her -foreign biographer, Gregorio Leti, in his ‘Histoire d’Elizabeth,’ -says, “I do not know whether she was so chaste as is reported; for, -after all, she was a queen, she was beautiful, young, full of wit, delighted -in magnificent dress, loved entertainments, balls, pleasures, -and to have the handsomest men in her kingdom for her favourites. -This is all I can say of her to the reader.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The charge of personal depravity in so illustrious a sovereign deserves -a fuller examination than is admissible within our limits. But -it is in a great measure discredited by the circumstance that it -originated with those Romish and political enemies, who perseveringly -strove to destroy the queen, as the main prop of that fabric they were -moving every engine to overthrow. Dr. Sanders and Cardinal Allen, -the popes, the Spanish writers and their partisans, make statements, -some of them manifestly untrue, others unsupported by respectable -testimony. Among her own subjects, the popular scandal turned -chiefly on Leicester, Hatton, and Essex; but without a single criminating -fact as to either. Bacon states the case candidly, and probably -puts it on its true ground: “She suffered herself to be honoured, -and caressed, and celebrated, and extolled with the name of love, and -wished it and continued it beyond the suitability of her age. If you -take these things more softly, they may not even be without some admiration, -because such things are commonly found in our fabulous -narratives, of a queen in the islands of Bliss, with her hall and -institutes, who receives the administration of love, but prohibits its -licentiousness. If you judge them more severely, still they have this -admirable circumstance, that the gratifications of this sort did not -much hurt her reputation, and not at all her majesty, nor even relaxed -her government, nor were any notable impediment to her state -affairs.” Some writers of secret history have assigned the danger -to which it was thought she would be exposed in bearing children as -the real reason for her perseverance in celibacy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We do not propose to relate the events of the reign of Elizabeth, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>inasmuch as our object does not extend beyond a sketch of her personal -character. It is perhaps the most brilliant period in English -history; it called into action some of the most able statesmen and -greatest warriors of whom this country could ever boast. Leti tells -us that Pope Sixtus V. was her ardent admirer, and placed her -among the only three persons who, in his estimation, deserved to -reign: the other two members of this curious triumvirate were Henry -IV. of France and himself. He once said to an Englishman, “Your -queen is born fortunate: she governs her kingdom with great happiness; -she wants only to be married to me, to give the world a second -Alexander.” The same author, in his life of Sixtus, records a secret -correspondence of that pope with Elizabeth; among other particulars -of which he relates the following anecdote. Anthony Babington, a -gentleman of Derbyshire, with other English papists, had engaged in -a conspiracy against the queen. Their project was, after having -assassinated her, to deliver Mary of Scotland from prison, and to -place her on the throne. Babington and three of his accomplices -armed themselves against the possible failure of their enterprise, by -applying to the pope for prospective absolution, to take effect at the -time of their last agonies. His Holiness complied with their demand; -but is said instantly to have despatched due warning to the queen.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This conspiracy was the preliminary to an event, which has been -justly characterized as the stain of deepest dye on the fair fame of -Elizabeth,—the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1586. It -would be foreign to the subject, to relate the circumstances which -led that princess to take refuge in England, trusting to Elizabeth’s -promises of protection and kindness. Her reception at first was -as favourable as was perhaps consistent with due attention to the -public safety, considering that the Roman Catholic portion of British -subjects held her to be the rightful sovereign, and Elizabeth an -illegitimate and heretical usurper. But feelings of habitual enmity, -enforced perhaps by the arguments of her political advisers, overpowered -the sympathy of the first moments, and suggested the advantages -to be taken of a defenceless competitor. Elizabeth, therefore, -after having in the first instance ordered her to be treated like a -queen, afterwards committed her to close prison. On the discovery -of Babington’s plot, in which Mary was deeply implicated, the queen -of Scots was arraigned of high treason before commissioners specially -appointed by the crown. By that solemn tribunal, she was -tried and found guilty, and by Elizabeth was delivered over to execution. -Even Bohun, in his character of Elizabeth, though in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>general her panegyrist, says on this occasion, “By this action, she -tainted her reign with the innocent blood of a princess, whom she had -received into her dominions, and to whom she had given sanctuary.” -If the sentence was executed, not in vindication of the offended laws, -but as a sacrifice to personal revenge, Elizabeth’s guilt was greatly -aggravated by her extreme dissimulation in the management of the -affair. She no sooner received intelligence of Mary’s decapitation, -than she abandoned herself to misery and almost despair: she put on -deep mourning; her council were severely rebuked; her ministers, and -even Burleigh, were driven from her presence with furious reproaches. -Her secretary Davison was subjected to a process in the Star-Chamber -for a twofold contempt, in having revealed her Majesty’s counsels -to others of her ministers, and having given up to them the warrant -which she had committed to him in special trust and secrecy, to be -reserved for a case of sudden emergency. But Davison’s apology, an -extract from which was inserted by Camden in his Annals, has since -been found entire among the original papers of Sir Amias Paulet. -From this authentic source it appears, that Davison was made her -unconscious agent and instrument. Those who have endeavoured to extenuate -the apparent treachery of Elizabeth, have alleged that the queen -of Scots kept the queen of England in continual dread of dethronement; -and that if the necessity existed to take the life of the queen -of Scots, it was equally necessary that it should be done with a show -of reluctance, and the least possible odium to the queen of England. -Such has been the defence, both of the act itself, and of the subsequent -dissimulation. But it would be difficult to apologize for her -proceedings against Davison, an able and honest servant, whom she -disgraced and ruined, for the purpose of impressing the belief that -Mary was executed without her knowledge and contrary to her intentions. -Right and wrong must be differently estimated in sovereigns -and ordinary persons, if the sacrifice of such a victim to the shade of -Mary or the indignation of her son can be justified.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reign of Elizabeth lasted forty-four years, four months, and six -days. It was distinguished by great actions; it raised the British name -to a high and glorious rank in the scale of nations: and we of the present -times are indebted to it for some of our greatest advantages. But -the sovereign herself closed her long and eventful life in a state of deep -melancholy. Her kinsman, Sir Robert Cary, relates, with the quaintness -of the time, the circumstances of his visit to her on her death-bed. -“She took me by the hand, and wrung it hard, and said that -her heart had been sad and heavy for ten or twelve days; and in her -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>discourse she fetched not so few as forty or fifty great sighs. I was -grieved at first to see her in this plight; for in all my lifetime I never -knew her fetch a sigh, but when the Queen of Scots was beheaded.” -She died March 24, 1603, in her seventieth year. Few as are the -particulars of her life which we have been able to admit into our narrative, -they have perhaps been sufficient to give an outline, however -faint, of her character. It has been drawn out in form, and with fairness, -by Lord Bolingbroke, in the following passage from his Idea of -a Patriot King. “Our Elizabeth was queen in a limited monarchy, -and reigned over a people at all times more easily led than driven; -and at that time capable of being attached to their prince and their -country by a more generous principle than any of those which prevail -in our days, by affection. There was a strong prerogative then in -being, and the crown was in possession of greater legal power. Popularity -was however then, as it is now, and as it must always be in -mixed government, the sole foundation of that sufficient authority and -influence which other constitutions give the prince gratis and independently -of the people, but which a king of this nation must acquire. -The wise queen saw it; and she saw too how much popularity -depends on those appearances that depend on the decorum, the -decency, the grace, and the propriety of behaviour of which we are -speaking. A warm concern for the interest and honour of the nation, -a tenderness for her people and a confidence in their affections, were -appearances that ran through her whole public conduct, and gave life -and colour to it. She did great things; and she knew how to set -them off according to their true value, by her manner of doing them. -In her private behaviour she showed great affability, she descended -even to familiarity; but her familiarity was such as could not be imputed -to her weakness, and was therefore most justly ascribed to her -goodness. Though a woman, she hid all that was womanish about -her; and if a few equivocal marks of coquetry appeared on some -occasions, they passed like flashes of lightning, vanished as soon as -they were discovered, and imprinted no blot on her character. She -had private friendships, she had favourites: but she never suffered her -friends to forget that she was their queen; and when her favourites -did, she made them feel that she was so.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Our delineation of Elizabeth has been rather that of a very great -personage, than of a good woman; but it must be admitted on all -hands, that the poison of calumny has been largely administered, in -proportion to the invidiousness of her position. This general lot of -greatness fell the heavier on her, in consequence of the severe laws -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>which she was compelled to enact and execute against the papists. -The libels against Elizabeth’s good fame were put forth mostly -by persons of that proscribed sect, who have represented her, not as -indulging the frailties from which her most strenuous advocates cannot -exonerate her, but as a monster of cruelty, avarice, and lust. It -is but justice to place in contrast with so hateful a picture the -noble character ascribed to her even by a Jesuit, in a book published -in the Catholic metropolis of France. Père d’Orleans, in his -‘Histoire des Revolutions d’Angleterre,’ speaks thus: “Elizabeth -was a person whose name immediately imprints in our minds such -a noble idea, that it is impossible well to express it by any description -whatsoever. Never did a crowned head better understand the -art of government, and commit fewer errors in it, during a long reign. -The friends of Charles V. could reckon his faults: Elizabeth’s enemies -have been reduced narrowly to search after hers; and they, -whose greatest concern it was to cast an odium upon her conduct, -have admired her. So that in her was fulfilled this sentence of the -Gospel, that the children of this world are often wiser in their views -and designs than the children of light. Elizabeth’s aim was to reign, -to govern, to be mistress, to keep her people in submission, neither -affecting to weaken her subjects, nor to make conquests in foreign -countries; but yet not suffering any person to encroach in the least -upon the sovereign power, which she knew perfectly well how to -maintain, both by policy and by force. For no person in her time had -more wit, more skill, more judgment than she had. She was not a -warlike princess; but she knew so well how to train up warriors, that -England had not for a long time seen a greater number of them, nor -more experienced.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_184.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[View of the Old Palace, Greenwich.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2> -</div> - <ol class='ol_1 c002'> - <li>Changed “Majolica” to “<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Maiolica</span>” on p. <a href='#t37'>37</a>. - - </li> - <li>Changed “and same other” to “and some other” on p. <a href='#t48'>48</a>. - - </li> - <li>The “Z” was reversed in “CORTEZ” on p. <a href='#t122'>122</a> and in “LEIBNITZ” on p. <a href='#t132'>132</a>. - - </li> - <li>Changed “Evénemens” to “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Événements</span>” on p. <a href='#t170'>170</a>. - - </li> - <li>Changed “ed i” to “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ei</span>” on p. <a href='#t176'>176</a>. - - </li> - <li>Did not correct the variant spellings of “Raphael”. - - </li> - <li>Silently corrected typographical errors. - - </li> - <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - </li> - </ol> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits: with -Memoirs. 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