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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1539498 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #55358 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55358) diff --git a/old/55358-0.txt b/old/55358-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 23bc906..0000000 --- a/old/55358-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8741 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits: with Memoirs. Vol -5 (of 7), by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Gallery of Portraits: with Memoirs. Vol 5 (of 7) - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: August 15, 2017 [EBook #55358] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GALLERY OF PORTRAITS, VOLUME 5 *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - _UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL - KNOWLEDGE._ - - - - - THE - GALLERY OF PORTRAITS: - WITH - MEMOIRS. - - VOLUME V. - - - LONDON: - CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE-STREET. - - 1835. - - [PRICE ONE GUINEA, BOUND IN CLOTH.] - - - - - LONDON: - PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, - Duke-Street, Lambeth. - - - - - PORTRAITS AND BIOGRAPHIES - CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME. - - - Page. - - 1. Taylor 1 - - 2. Lavoisier 9 - - 3. Sydenham 18 - - 4. Clarendon 25 - - 5. Reynolds 35 - - 6. Swift 45 - - 7. Locke 53 - - 8. Selden 61 - - 9. Paré 69 - - 10. Blake 77 - - 11. L’Hôpital 85 - - 12. Mrs. Siddons 94 - - 13. Herschel 105 - - 14. Romilly 111 - - 15. Shakspeare 122 - - 16. Euler 129 - - 17. Sir W. Jones 134 - - 18. Rousseau 143 - - 19. Harrison 153 - - 20. Montaigne 157 - - 21. Pope 164 - - 22. Bolivar 173 - - 23. Arkwright 181 - - 24. Cowper 189 - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - JEREMY TAYLOR. - - _From the original Picture in the Hall of All Souls College, Oxford._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - TAYLOR. - - -If this great ornament of our church did not boast of an exalted -lineage, he numbered among his forefathers one at least, the worthy -ancestor of such a descendant, Dr. Rowland Taylor, chaplain to Cranmer, -and rector of Hadleigh, distinguished among the divines of the -Reformation for his abilities, learning, and piety, as well as for the -courageous cheerfulness with which he suffered death at the stake in the -reign of Queen Mary. Jeremy Taylor was the son of a barber, resident in -Trinity parish, Cambridge; and was baptized in Trinity church, August -15, 1613. He was “grounded in grammar and mathematics” by his father, -and entered as a sizar at Caius College, August 18, 1626. Of his -deportment, his studies, even of the honours and emoluments of his -academical life, we have no certain knowledge. It is stated by Dr. Rust, -in his Funeral Sermon, that Taylor was elected fellow: but this is at -least doubtful, for no record of the fact exists in the registers of the -college. He proceeded to the degree of M. A. in 1633; and in the same -year, though at the early age of twenty, we find him in orders, and -officiating as a divinity lecturer in St. Paul’s Cathedral. His talents -as a preacher attracted the notice of Archbishop Laud, who sent for him -to preach at Lambeth, and approved of his performance, but thought him -too young. Taylor begged his Grace’s pardon for that fault, and promised -that, if he lived, he would mend it. By that prelate’s interest he was -admitted to the degree of M. A. _ad eundem_, in University College, -Oxford, October 20, 1635, and shortly after nominated to a fellowship at -All Souls College. It was probably through the interest of the same -powerful patron that he obtained the rectory of Uppingham in -Rutlandshire, tenable with his fellowship, March 23, 1638. The -fellowship, however, he vacated by his marriage with Phœbe Langsdale, -May 27, 1639, who died in little more than three years, leaving two -sons. - -Taylor attracted notice at Oxford by his talents as a preacher; but he -does not seem to have commenced, during this period of ease and -tranquillity, any of those great works which have rendered him -illustrious as one of the most laborious, eloquent, and persuasive of -British divines. The only sermon extant which we can distinctly refer to -this period, is one preached by command of the Vice-chancellor on the -anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot, 1638. This piece requires notice, -because it is connected with a report, circulated both during Taylor’s -residence at Oxford and afterwards, that he was secretly inclined to -Popery. It is even said that he “wished to be confirmed a member of the -church of Rome,” (Wood, Athenæ Oxon.) but was rejected with scorn in -consequence of the things advanced against that church in this sermon. -Of this whole statement Bishop Heber, in his ‘Life of Taylor,’ has -expressed his disbelief; and the arguments on which his opinion is -founded appear to us satisfactory. Not even during his peaceable abode -at Uppingham do Taylor’s great works appear to have been projected, as -if his amiable, affectionate, and zealous temper had been fully occupied -by domestic cares and pleasures, and by the constant though quiet duties -of a parish priest. The year 1642, as it witnessed the overthrow of his -domestic happiness by his wife’s death, saw also the beginning of those -troubles which cast him out of his church preferment, a homeless man. We -do not know the date of the sequestration of his living; but as he -joined Charles I. at Oxford in the autumn of the year; published in the -same year, by the King’s command, his treatise ‘Of the sacred Order and -Offices of Episcopacy, &c.;’ was created D. D. by royal mandate; -appointed chaplain to the King, in which capacity he frequently preached -at Oxford, and attended the royal army in the wars; it is probable that -he was among the first of those who paid the penalty of adhering to the -losing cause. Little is known of this portion of Taylor’s history. It -appears that he quitted the army, and retired into Wales, where he -married, became again involved in the troubles of war, and was taken -prisoner at Cardigan, Feb. 4, 1644. We do not know the date of his -release, or of his marriage to his second wife, Joanna Bridges, a lady -possessed of some landed property at Mandinam, near Golden Grove, in the -Vale of Towy, in Carmarthenshire, who was commonly said to be a natural -daughter of Charles I., born before his marriage. But Heber conjectures -that Taylor’s marriage was anterior to his imprisonment, and that his -wife’s estate was amerced in a heavy fine, in consequence of his being -found engaged in the royal cause at Cardigan. It is at least certain -that until the Restoration he was very poor, and that he supported -himself during part of the time by keeping a school. - -During this period of public confusion and domestic trouble, Taylor -composed an ‘Apology for authorized and set Forms of Liturgy,’ published -in 1646, and his great work, a ‘Discourse on the Liberty of -Prophesying,’ published in 1647, “the first attempt on record to -conciliate the minds of Christians to the reception of a doctrine which, -though now the rule of action professed by all Christian sects, was -then, by all sects alike, regarded as a perilous and portentous -novelty.”[1] As such, it was received with distrust, if not -disapprobation, by all parties; and if it was intended to inculcate upon -the Episcopalians the propriety of conceding something to the prejudices -of their opponents, as well as to procure an alleviation of the -oppression exercised on the Episcopal church, we may see in the conduct -of the government after the Restoration, that Taylor preached a doctrine -for which neither the one nor the other were then ripe. It is the more -to his honour that in this important point of Christian charity he had -advanced beyond his own party, as well as those by whom his party was -then persecuted. But though his views were extended enough to meet with -disapprobation from his contemporaries, he gives a greater latitude to -the civil power in repressing error by penal means, than the general -practice, at least in Protestant countries, would now grant. “The -forbearance which he claims, he claims for those Christians only who -unite in the confession of the Apostles’ Creed,” and he advocates the -drawing together of all who will subscribe to that ancient and -comprehensive form of belief into one church, forgetting differences -which do not involve the fundamental points of Christianity. And he -inculcates the “danger and impropriety of driving men into schism by -multiplying symbols and subscriptions, and contracting the bounds of -communion, and the still greater wickedness of regarding all discrepant -opinions as damnable in the life to come, and in the present capital.” -For a fuller account of this remarkable work, we refer to the Life by -Heber, p. 201–218, or still better, to the original. - -Footnote 1: - - Heber’s Life of Taylor, p. xxvii. - -It was followed at no long interval by the ‘Great Exemplar of Sanctity -and Holy Life, described in the Life and Death of Jesus Christ.’ This, -the first of Taylor’s great works which became extensively popular, is -almost entirely practical in its tendency, having been composed, as the -author tells us, with the intention of drawing men’s minds from -controverted doctrines, to the vital points on which all men are agreed, -but which all men forget so easily. It is not an attempt to connect the -relations of the four Evangelists into one complete and chronologically -consistent account; but a “series of devout meditations on the different -events recorded in the New Testament, as well as on the more remarkable -traditions which have usually been circulated respecting the Divine -Author of our religion, his earthly parent, and his followers,” set off -by that majestic style, that store of illustrations derived from the -most recondite and miscellaneous learning, and, above all, that fervent -and poetical imagination, by which Taylor is distinguished perhaps above -all the prose writers in our language. Such qualities, even without a -digested plan and connected strain of argument, which, requiring a more -continuous and attentive perusal, would not perhaps have made the book -more acceptable or useful to the bulk of readers, ensured for it a -favourable reception; and the author followed up the impression which he -had produced, at no distant period, by two other treatises of a similar -practical tendency, which, from their comparative shortness, are better -known than any other of Taylor’s works, and probably have been as -extensively read as any devotional books in the English language. We -speak of the treatises on Holy Living and on Holy Dying. - -It has been mentioned that near Mandinam stood Golden Grove, the seat of -the Earl of Carbery, a nobleman distinguished by his abilities and zeal -in the Royal cause. He proved a constant and sincere friend to Taylor; -and the grateful scholar has conferred celebrity upon the name and -hospitality of Golden Grove by his ‘Guide to Infant Devotion,’ or manual -of daily prayers, which are called by the name of that place, in which -they, and many other of the author’s works, were meditated; especially -his Eniautos, or course of sermons for all the Sundays in the year. - -Considerable obscurity hangs over this portion of Taylor’s life: but it -appears that in the years 1654–5 he was twice imprisoned, in consequence -of his advocacy of the fallen causes of Episcopacy and Royalty. At some -time in 1654 he formed an acquaintance with Evelyn, which proved -profitable and honourable to both parties; for the layman, as is evident -from his Memoirs and Diary, highly valued and laid to heart the counsels -of the man whom he selected as his “ghostly father,” and to whose -poverty he liberally ministered in return out of his own abundance. - -We learn from Evelyn’s Diary that Taylor was in London in the spring of -1637, and his visits, if not annual, were at least frequent. He made -many friends, and among them the Earl of Conway, a nobleman possessed of -large estates in the north-east of Ireland, who conceived the desire of -securing Taylor’s eminent abilities for the service of his own -neighbourhood, and obtained for him a lectureship in the small town of -Lisburne. Taylor removed his family to Ireland in the summer of 1658. He -dwelt near Portmore, his patron’s splendid seat on the banks of Lough -Neagh; and some of the islands in that noble lake, and in a smaller -neighbouring piece of water called Lough Beg, are still recorded, by the -traditions of the peasantry, to have been his favourite places of study -and retirement. To this abode his letters show him to have been much -attached. - -In the spring of 1660 Taylor visited London, to superintend in its -passage through the press the ‘Rule of Conscience, or Ductor -Dubitantium.’ This, it appears from the author’s letters, was -considerably advanced so early as the year 1655. It was the fruit of -much time, much diligence, and much prayer; and that of all his writings -concerning the execution of which he seems to have felt most anxiety. In -this case, as it often happens, the author seems to have formed an -erroneous estimate of the comparative value of his works. Neither on its -first appearance, nor in later times, did the ‘Ductor Dubitantium’ -become extensively popular. Its object, which even at the first was -accounted obsolete, was to supply what the Romish church obtained by the -practice of confession, a set of rules by which a scrupulous conscience -may be guided in the variety of doubtful points of duty which may occur. -The abuses are well known, to which the casuistic subtlety of the Romish -doctors gave birth; and it may be doubted whether it were wise to lay -one stone towards rebuilding an edifice, which the general diffusion of -the Scriptures, a sufficient rule, if rightly studied, to solve all -doubts, had rendered unnecessary. The work, in spite of its passages of -eloquence and profusion of learning, is too prolix to be a favourite in -these latter days, but it is still, says his biographer, (p. ccxciii.) -one “which few can read without profit, and none, I think, without -entertainment. It resembles in some degree those ancient inlaid -cabinets, (such as Evelyn, Boyle, or Wilkins might have bequeathed to -their descendants,) whose multifarious contents perplex our choice, and -offer to the admiration or curiosity of a more accurate age a vast -wilderness of trifles and varieties with no arrangement at all, or an -arrangement on obsolete principles, but whose ebony drawers and perfumed -recesses contain specimens of every thing that is precious or uncommon, -and many things for which a modern museum might be searched in vain.” - -Taylor’s accidental presence in London at this period, when the hopes of -the Royalists were reviving, was probably serviceable to his future -fortunes. He obtained by it the opportunity of joining in the Royalist -declaration of April 24; and he was among the first to derive benefit -from the restoration of that King and that Church, of whose interests he -had ever been a most zealous, able, and consistent supporter. He was -nominated Bishop of Down and Connor, August 6, 1660, and consecrated in -St. Patrick’s Cathedral January 27, 1661. In the interval he was -appointed Vice-chancellor of the University of Dublin, which during past -troubles had been greatly dilapidated and disordered, in respect both of -its revenues and discipline. He was the principal instrument in -remodelling and completing the statutes, and settling the University in -its present form. - -In the spring of 1661 Taylor was made a member of the Irish Privy -Council, and the small diocese of Dromore, adjacent to Down, was -assigned to his charge, “on account,” in the words of the writ under the -Privy Seal, “of his virtue, wisdom, and industry.” This praise was well -deserved by his conduct in that difficult time, when those who had -displaced the episcopal clergy were apprehensive of being in their turn -obliged to give way, and religious differences were embittered by -thoughts of temporal welfare. Taylor had to deal chiefly with the wilder -and most enthusiastic party, and his advances towards an intercourse of -Christian charity were met with scorn and insult. But his exemplary -conduct, and persevering gentleness of demeanour, did much to soften at -least the laity of his opponents; for we are told that the nobility and -gentry of the three dioceses over which he presided came over, with one -exception, to the Bishop’s side. - -His varied duties can now have left little time for the labour of the -pen; still he published sermons from time to time, and in 1664 completed -and published his last great work, a ‘Dissuasive from Popery,’ -undertaken by desire of the collective body of Irish bishops. He -continued after his elevation to reside principally at Portmore, -occasionally at Lisburne. Of his habits, and the incidents of this -latter part of his life, we know next to nothing; except that he -suffered the severest affliction which could befal a man of his -sensibility and piety, in the successive deaths of his three surviving -sons, and the misconduct of two of them. One died at Lisburne, in March, -1661; one fell in a duel, his adversary also dying of his wounds; the -third became the favourite companion of the profligate Duke of -Buckingham, and died of a decline, August 2, 1667. Of the latter event -the Bishop can scarcely have heard, for he died on the 13th of the same -month, after ten days’ sickness. He was buried at Dromore. Two of his -daughters married in Ireland, into the families of Marsh and Harrison; -and several Irish families of repute claim to be connected with the -blood of this exemplary prelate by the female line. - -The materials for Bishop Taylor’s life are very scanty. The earliest -sketch of it is to be found in the funeral sermon preached by his friend -and successor in the see of Dromore, Dr. Rust, who sums up the virtues -of the deceased in a peroration of highly-wrought panegyric, of which -the following just eulogy is a part—“He was a person of great humility; -and notwithstanding his stupendous parts, and learning, and eminency of -place, he had nothing in him of pride and humour, but was courteous and -affable, and of easy access, and would lend a ready ear to the -complaints, yea, to the impertinence of the meanest persons. His -humility was coupled with an extraordinary piety; and I believe he spent -the greatest part of his time in heaven.... To all his other virtues he -added a large and diffusive charity; and whoever compares his plentiful -income with the inconsiderable estate he left at his death, will be -easily convinced that charity was steward for a great proportion of his -revenue. But the hungry that he fed, and the naked that he clothed, and -the distressed that he supplied, and the fatherless that he provided -for, the poor children that he put to apprentice, and brought up at -school, and maintained at the university, will now sound a trumpet to -that charity which he dispensed with his right hand, but would not -suffer his left hand to have any knowledge of it. - -“To sum up all in a few words, this great prelate had the good humour of -a gentleman, the eloquence of an orator, the fancy of a poet, the -acuteness of a schoolman, the profoundness of a philosopher, the wisdom -of a counsellor, the sagacity of a prophet, the reason of an angel, and -the piety of a saint; he had devotion enough for a cloister, learning -enough for an university, and wit enough for a college of virtuosi; and -had his parts and endowments been parcelled out among his poor clergy -that he left behind him, it would perhaps have made one of the best -dioceses in the world. But, alas! ‘Our Father! our Father! the horses of -our Israel, and the chariot thereof!’ he is gone, and has carried his -mantle and his spirit along with him up to heaven; and the sons of the -prophets have lost all their beauty and lustre which they enjoyed only -from the reflection of his excellencies, which were bright and radiant -enough to cast a glory upon a whole order of men.” - -There is a life of Taylor by Archdeacon Bonney; and a copious memoir, -enriched by a minute analysis of all the more remarkable compositions of -our author, is prefixed to Bishop Heber’s edition of Taylor’s works. -From this the materials of the present sketch are taken. Nor can we -better conclude than with the eloquent estimate of Taylor’s merits, with -which the accomplished biographer concludes his work. “It is on -devotional and moral subjects that the peculiar character of Taylor’s -mind is most, and most successfully, developed. To this service he -devotes his most glowing language; to this his aptest illustrations, his -thoughts, and his words, at once burst into a flame, when touched by the -coals of this altar; and whether he describes the duties, or dangers, or -hopes of man, or the mercy, power, and justice of the Most High; whether -he exhorts or instructs his brethren, or offers up his supplications in -their behalf to the common Father of all, his conceptions and his -expressions belong to the loftiest and most sacred description of -poetry, of which they only want, what they cannot be said to need, the -name and the metrical arrangement. - -“It is this distinctive excellence, still more than the other -qualifications of learning and logical acuteness, which has placed him, -even in that age of gigantic talent, on an eminence superior to any of -his immediate contemporaries; and has seated him, by the almost -unanimous estimate of posterity, on the same lofty elevation with Hooker -and with Barrow. - -“Of such a triumvirate, who shall settle the precedence? Yet it may, -perhaps, be not far from the truth, to observe that Hooker claims the -foremost rank in sustained and classic dignity of style, in political -and pragmatical wisdom; that to Barrow the praise must be assigned of -the closest and clearest views, and of a taste the most controlled and -chastened; but that in imagination, in interest, in that which more -properly and exclusively deserves the name of genius, Taylor is to be -placed before either. The first awes most, the second convinces most, -the third persuades and delights most: and, according to the decision of -one whose own rank among the ornaments of English literature yet remains -to be determined by posterity (Dr. Parr), Hooker is the object of our -reverence, Barrow of our admiration, and Jeremy Taylor of our love.” - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff._ - - LAVOISIER. - - _From the original Picture by David in a Private Collection at Paris._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - LAVOISIER. - - -Antoine Laurent Lavoisier was born in Paris, August 26, 1743. He was -educated under the eye of his father, a man of opulence, with -discernment to appreciate his son’s abilities, and liberality to -cultivate them without regard to cost. Lavoisier early showed a decided -inclination for the physical sciences; and before he was twenty years -old, had made himself master of the principal branches of natural -philosophy. - -In 1764 the government proposed an extraordinary premium for the best -and cheapest project of lighting the streets of Paris, and other large -cities. To this subject, involving a knowledge of several branches of -science, Lavoisier immediately devoted his attention. He produced so -able a memoir, full of the most masterly, accurate, and practical views, -that the gold medal was awarded to him. This production was the means of -introducing him into the Academy of Sciences, of which, after a severe -contest, he was admitted a member, May 13, 1768; and he proved himself -through life one of its most useful and valuable associates. - -At this time the whole range of chemical and physico-chemical science -was in an extremely imperfect state; and the first steps to a more -improved system involved the necessity of clearing away a vast mass of -error which encumbered the path to truth. For instance, one of the -fanciful ideas, the offspring of the alchemy of the dark ages, which -still continued to haunt the regions of science, was the belief of the -conversion of water into earth by gradual consolidation. This subject -Lavoisier treated in the true spirit of the experimental method, and -clearly showed that the pretended conversion was either a deposition of -earthy particles, or a sediment arising from the action of the water on -the internal surface of the retort. He also laboured on the analysis of -the gypsum found in the neighbourhood of Paris, and on the -crystallization of salts. He discussed the project of conveying water -from L’Yvette to Paris, and the theory of congelation; and to these -researches added extensive observations on the phenomena of thunder and -the Aurora Borealis. - -He next directed his attention more especially to mineralogy; and made -excursions, in conjunction with Guettard, into all parts of France, -endeavouring to form from different districts a complete collection of -their characteristic mineral productions. He made advances towards a -systematic classification of facts connected with the localities of -fossils, which afterwards served as the basis of his work on the -revolutions of the globe and the formation of successive strata, of -which two admirable abstracts were inserted in the Memoirs of the -Academy of Sciences, for 1772 and 1787. - -Thus during the earlier part of his life, Lavoisier does not seem to -have devoted himself in particular to any one branch of science. But -about the year 1770 the announcement of the existence of more than one -species of gaseous matter, arising out of the successive researches of -Black, Scheele, Priestley, and Cavendish, had the effect of fixing his -attention to the subject of pneumatic chemistry. The invaluable -discoveries just alluded to had opened a new world to the inquirer into -nature; and the labours of those distinguished experimentalists had -conspired to commence a fresh era in science. Lavoisier was one of the -first to appreciate at once the importance of the results they had -arrived at, and the immense field of further research to which those -results had opened the way. He perceived by a sort of instinct the -glorious career which lay before him; and the influence which this new -science thus, as it were, created, must have over every sort of physical -research. Priestley possessed precisely those qualifications which are -most available for striking out new and brilliant discoveries of facts; -a boundless fertility of invention; a power of rapidly seizing remote -analogies; and an equal readiness in framing and in abandoning -hypotheses, which have no value, but as guides to experiment. Lavoisier, -less eminent in these respects, possessed in a more peculiar degree the -mental characteristics which enable their owner to advance to grand -generalizations and philosophical theories upon the sure basis of facts. -He possessed, in its fullest sense, the true spirit of inductive -caution, and even geometrical rigour; and his observations, eminently -precise and luminous, always pointed to more general views. - -In 1774, he published his ‘Opuscules Chimiques,’ in which, after a full -and truly philosophical examination of the labours of preceding -experimenters in the discovery of the gases and their characteristic -properties, he proceeds to describe his own beautiful and fundamentally -important researches, from which resulted the ‘True Theory of -Combustion,’ which may be termed the very sun and centre of the whole -modern system of chemistry. - -To the vague dreams of the alchemist had succeeded the remarkable theory -of Hooke, who maintained that a certain ingredient of the atmospheric -air (which also enters as an ingredient into several other bodies, -especially nitre) was the _solvent_ which absorbed a portion of the -combustible. This process was continued in proportion as more of the -solvent was supplied. The solution took place with such rapidity, as to -occasion those motions or pulsations in which Hooke believed heat and -light to consist. - -This near approach to the truth was thrown into discredit by the more -brilliant and imposing theory of Stahl, who captivated the imaginations -of chemists by his doctrine of phlogiston, the principle or element of -fire, a sort of metaphysical something, which conferred the property of -being combustible. Stahl taught that the process of combustion deprived -bodies of their phlogiston, which, in the act of separation, exhibited -its latent energies in the evolution of light and heat. - -This wild chimera long maintained its ground, and received successive -modifications in the hands of several distinguished chemists, the most -important of which was that of Kirwan; but these all retained the -fundamental error that something was _abstracted from_ the burning body. -Yet Rey, so early as 1630, and Bayer afterwards, had both shown that -metals by calcination _increase_ in weight, or have something _added_ to -them. Lavoisier turned his attention to the defects of the existing -theory about 1770; and the last-named experiments probably directed him -more specifically to the essential point of the inquiry. He pursued his -researches with unwearied industry; and by a long series of experiments -of the most laborious and precise nature, he succeeded in determining -that, in all cases of combustion, that substance which is the _real_ -combustible invariably receives _an addition_, or enters into a new -combination; and the matter with which it combines is in all cases that -same substance which had now been shown by Priestley to be one of the -constituents of the atmosphere, and which was then known by the name of -_vital air_. - -It was however long before Lavoisier gained a single convert. At length -M. Berthollet, at a meeting of the Academy in 1785, publicly renounced -the old opinions and declared himself a convert. Fourcroy followed his -example. In 1787, Morveau, during a visit to Paris, became convinced, -and declared the conclusions of Lavoisier irresistible. The younger -chemists speedily embraced the new views; and their establishment was -thus complete. There only remained some lurking prejudices in England, -where the Essay of Kirwan retained its credit. Lavoisier and his -coadjutors translated this essay into French, accompanying each section -by a refutation. So completely was this done, that the author himself -was convinced; and, with that candour which distinguishes superior -minds, gave up his views as untenable, and declared himself a convert. - -These discoveries introduced Lavoisier to the notice of the most eminent -persons in the State; and in 1776, Turgot engaged him to superintend the -manufacture of gunpowder for the Government. He introduced many valuable -improvements in the process, and many judicious reforms into the -establishment. - -In 1778, Lavoisier having been incessantly engaged on the subject of -gases and combustion, announced another great discovery, “that the -respirable portion of the atmosphere is the constituent principle of -acids,” which he therefore denominated _oxygen_. - -The question as to “the acidifying principle” had long formed the -subject of discussion. The prevalent theory was that of Beccher with -various modifications, which made the acid principle a compound of earth -and water regarded as elements. Lavoisier found in the instance of a -great number of the acids, that they consisted of a combustible -principle united with oxygen. He showed this both analytically and -synthetically, and hence proceeded to the conclusion that oxygen is the -acidifying principle in all acids. Berthollet opposed this doctrine, and -contended that, in general, acidity depended on the manner and -proportion in which the constituents are combined. The fact is, that, in -this instance, Lavoisier had advanced a little too rapidly to his -conclusion. Had he contented himself with stating it as applying to a -_great number_ of acids, it would have been strictly true; but he had -certainly no proof of its being _universally_ the case. When Sir H. -Davy, some years after, showed that one of the most powerful acids (the -muriatic) does not contain a single particle of oxygen, and when the -researches of Guy Lussac and others had exhibited other proofs of the -same thing, it became evident that Lavoisier’s assertion required -considerable modification. And though _nearly_ all acids have been since -included under the general law of containing _some supporter of -combustion_, yet there appear to be exceptions even to this; the -cautious language of Berthollet has been completely justified; and a -perfect theory of acidity is perhaps yet wanting. Nevertheless, -Lavoisier’s discovery is one of first-rate magnitude and importance, and -with this qualification, certainly forms the basis of all our present -knowledge of the subject. - -Another important research in which Lavoisier engaged, in conjunction -with Laplace, was the determination of the specific heats of bodies, by -means of an ingenious apparatus, which they denominated the calorimeter: -these were by far the most precise experiments on the subject which had -as yet been made, though some inaccuracies in the method have since been -pointed out. - -Lavoisier owed much, it must be owned, to those external advantages of -fortune, the absence of which, though it cannot confine the flights of -real genius, yet may seriously impair the value and efficiency of its -exertions; and the presence of which, though it cannot confer the powers -of intellect, may yet afford most invaluable aids to the prosecution of -research, and the dissemination of knowledge. In the instance before us, -these advantages were enjoyed to the full extent, and turned to the best -use. Lavoisier was enabled to command the most unlimited resources of -instrumental aid; he pursued his researches in a laboratory furnished -with the most costly apparatus, and was able to put every suggestion to -the test of experiment, by the assistance of the most skilful artists, -and instruments of the most perfect construction. - -But as he could thus command these essential advantages for the -prosecution of his own investigations, he was equally mindful of the -extension of similar advantages to others: he always evinced himself -ready to assist the inquiries of those who had not the same means at -their disposal; and was no less liberal in aiding them by his stores of -information and able advice. Indeed no one could be more sensible how -much there is of mutual advantage in such intercourse between those -engaged in the same scientific labours; and this conviction, joined with -a full perception of the immense benefits accruing from personal -acquaintance among men of kindred pursuits, and the interchange of -social good offices, led him to the regular practice of opening his -house on two evenings in every week, for an assembly of all the -scientific men of the French capital; which very soon became a point of -general resort and reunion to the philosophers of Europe. - -At these meetings general discourse and philosophic discussion were -agreeably intermingled; the opinions of the most eminent philosophers -were freely canvassed; the most striking and novel passages in the -publications of foreign countries were made known, recited, and -animadverted upon; and the progress of experiment was assisted by candid -comments and comparison with theory. In these assemblies might be found, -mingling in instructive and delightful conversation, all those whose -names made the last century memorable in the annals of science. -Priestley, Fontana, Landriani, Watt, Bolton, and Ingenhouz, were -associated with Laplace, Lagrange, Borda, Cousin, Monge, Morveau, and -Berthollet. There was also an incalculable advantage in bringing into -communication and intimacy men engaged in distinct branches of science: -the intercourse of the mathematician with the geologist, of the -astronomer with the chemist, of the computer with the experimenter, and -of the artist with the theorist, could not fail to be of mutual -advantage. In no instance were the beneficial effects of such -intercourse more strikingly displayed than in the chemical sciences; -which, from this sort of comparison of ideas and methods, began now to -assume a character of exactness from an infusion of the spirit of -geometry; and a department hitherto abandoned to the wildest -speculations, and encumbered with the most vague and undefined -phraseology (derived from the jargon of the alchemists), began to assume -something like arrangement and method in its ideas, and precision and -order in its nomenclature. This influence was strongly marked in the -physical memoirs produced in France from this period downwards. The -precision and severity of style, and the philosophical method of the -mathematicians, was insensibly transfused into the papers of the -physical and chemical philosophers. - -Lavoisier individually profited greatly by the sources of improvement -and information thus opened. Whenever any new result presented itself to -him, which, perhaps, from contradicting all received theories, seemed -paradoxical, or at variance with all principles hitherto recognised, it -was fully laid before these select assemblies of philosophers; the -experiment was exhibited in their presence, and they were invited with -the utmost candour to offer their criticisms and objections. In perfect -reliance on the mutual spirit of candour, they were not backward in -urging whatever difficulties occurred to them, and the truth thus -elicited acquired a firmness and stability in its public reception -proportioned to the severity of the test it had undergone. Lavoisier -seldom announced any discovery until it had passed this ordeal. - -At length he combined his philosophical views into a connected system, -which he published in 1789, under the title of ‘Elements of Chemistry:’ -a beautiful model of scientific composition, clear and logical in its -arrangement, perspicuous and even elegant in its style and manner. These -perfections are rarely to be found in elementary works written by -original discoverers. The genius which qualifies a man for enlarging the -boundaries of science by his own inventions and researches is of a very -different class from that which confers the ability to elucidate, in a -simple and systematic course, the order and connexion of elementary -truths. But in Lavoisier these different species of talent were most -happily blended. He not only added profound truths to science, but -succeeded in adapting them to the apprehension of students, and was able -to render them attractive by his eloquence. - -In 1791 he entered upon extensive researches, having for their object -the application of pneumatic chemistry to the advancement of medicine, -in reference to the process of respiration. With this view he examined -in great detail the changes which the air undergoes, and the products -generated in that process of the animal economy. He had previously, -however, as far back as 1780, detailed a series of experiments to -determine the quantity of oxygen consumed and carbonic acid generated by -respiration, in a given time, in the Memoirs of the French Academy. - -In the twenty volumes of the Academy of Sciences, from 1772 to 1793, are -not less than forty memoirs by Lavoisier, replete with all the grand -phenomena of the science:—the doctrine of combustion in all its -bearings; the nature and analysis of atmospheric air; the generation and -combinations of elastic fluids; the properties of heat; the composition -of acids; the decomposition and recomposition of water; the solutions of -metals; and the phenomena of vegetation, fermentation, and -animalization. These are some of the most important subjects of his -papers; and during the whole of this period he advanced steadily in the -course which was pointed out to him by the unerring rules of inductive -inquiry, to which his original genius supplied the commentary. So well -did he secure every point of the results to which he ascended, that he -never made a false step. It was only in one subject, before alluded to, -that he may be said to have gone a few steps too far. Nor did he ever -suffer himself to be discouraged, or his ardour to be damped by the -difficulties and obstacles which perpetually impeded his progress. He -traced new paths for investigation, and founded a new school of science; -and his successors had ample employment in following out the inquiries -which he had indicated, and exploring those recesses to which he had -opened the way. - -In the relations of social and civil life Lavoisier was exemplary; and -he rendered essential service to the state in several capacities. He was -treasurer to the Academy, and introduced economy and order into its -finances: he was also a member of the board of consultation, and took an -active share in its business. When the new system of measures was in -agitation, and it was proposed to determine a degree of the meridian, he -made accurate experiments on the dilatation of metals, in conjunction -with Laplace (1782), to ascertain the corrections due to changes of -temperature in the substances used as measuring rods in those delicate -operations. - -By the National Convention he was consulted on the means of improving -the manufacture of assignats, and of increasing the difficulty of -forgery. He turned his attention to matters of rural economy, and, by -improved methods of cultivation, on scientific principles, he increased -the produce of an experimental farm nearly one half. In 1791 he was -invited by the Constituent Assembly to digest a plan for simplifying the -collection of taxes: the excellent memoir which he produced on this -subject was printed under the title of ‘The Territorial Riches of -France.’ He was likewise appointed a Commissioner of the National -Treasury, in which he effected some beneficial reforms. - -During the terrors of Robespierre’s tyranny, Lavoisier remarked that he -foresaw he should be stripped of all his property, and accordingly would -prepare to enter the profession of an apothecary, by which he should be -able to gain a livelihood. But the ignorant and brutal ruffians who were -then in power had already condemned him to the scaffold, on which he was -executed, May 8, 1794, for the pretended crime of having adulterated -snuff with ingredients destructive to the health of the citizens! On -being seized, he entreated at least to be allowed time to finish some -experiments in which he was engaged; but the reply of Coffinhall, the -president of the gang who condemned him, was characteristic of the -savage ignorance of those monsters in human form:—“The Republic does not -want savans or chemists, and the course of justice cannot be suspended.” - -Lavoisier in person was tall and graceful, and of lively manners and -appearance. He was mild, sociable, and obliging; and in his habits -unaffectedly plain and simple. He was liberal in pecuniary assistance to -those in need of it; and his hatred of all ostentation in doing good -probably concealed greatly the real amount of his beneficence. He -married, in 1771, Marie-Anni-Pierrette Paulze, a lady of great talents -and accomplishments, who after his death became the wife of Count -Rumford. - - - - -[Illustration] - - SYDENHAM. - - -The celebrated physician, Thomas Sydenham, in many respects the most -eminent that England has produced, was born in the year 1624, at -Wynford-Eagle, in Dorsetshire, where his father, William Sydenham, -enjoyed a considerable estate. The mansion in which he was born is now -converted into a farm-house, and stands on the property of Lord Wynford. - -In the year 1642, when eighteen, he was admitted as a commoner at -Magdalen-Hall, Oxford; but quitted it in the same year, when that city -became the head quarters of the royal army, after the battle of -Edge-hill. He was probably induced to take this step by reasons of a -political nature; for we find that his family were active adherents of -the opposite party. Indeed he is said, though on doubtful authority, to -have held a commission himself under the Parliament during his absence -from Oxford; and his elder brother, William, is known to have attained -considerable rank in the republican army, and held important commands -under the Protectorate. - -The political bias of his family is not without interest, as affording a -probable explanation of some circumstances in his life which would -otherwise be rather unaccountable,—such as the fact, that though he -reached the first eminence as a practising physician, he was never -employed at court, and was slighted by the college, who invested him -with none of their honours, nor even advanced him to the fellowship, -though a licentiate of their body, and qualified by the requisite -University education. - -When Oxford was surrendered to the Parliament, Sydenham determined to -resume his academical studies; and passing through London - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by E. Scriven._ - - SYDENHAM. - - _From the Picture in the Hall of All Souls College, Oxford._ - - Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - -on his way, he met accidentally with Dr. Thomas Coxe, a physician of -some repute at that time, who was attending his brother. The choice of a -profession became the subject of a conversation between them, which -determined him in favour of medicine; for in a letter addressed to Dr. -Mapletoft, thirty years after this time, which forms the preface to one -of his writings, he refers with much warmth to this conversation as the -origin of his professional zeal, and, consequently, of whatever useful -advances he had made in medicine. Thus his success, both in the practice -and reformation of his art, may show the advantage of waiting till the -faculties are fully matured, before they are exercised in a study which -requires independence as well as vigour in thinking: for the -circumstances of his family being sufficiently affluent to place him -above the necessity of choosing a profession early, he had not turned -his attention to physic till an age at which the medical education is -generally almost completed. We are not, however, to believe in the -justice of an accusation brought against him, that he had never studied -his profession till he began to practise it; for though we do not know -what particular line of study he pursued on his return to Oxford, it is -clear from many passages in his works that he had studied the writings -of the ancient physicians with no common care; and as his own show no -defect of acquaintance with whatever real information had been collected -before his time, we may reasonably conclude that this contemporary -censure was mistaken or malicious. He certainly held the opinions of his -modern predecessors in very little respect, for he does not often -mention them, even for the purpose of confutation; and in the letter to -Dr. Mapletoft already referred to, he says that he had found the best, -and, in fact, the only safe guide, through the various perplexities he -had met with in his practice, to be the method of actual observation and -experiment recommended by Lord Bacon. This sentiment is often repeated -in his works; but it surely does not countenance the idea that he had -begun to practise without endeavouring to make what preparation he -could, or would have had others follow such an example; for the charge -against him goes to this length. The notion might arise from a foolish -anecdote related by his admirer, Sir Richard Blackmore, of his having -recommended Don Quixote as the best introduction he knew to the practice -of medicine, which Sydenham must have intended as a jest, or perhaps as -a sarcasm on the narrator himself. - -At Oxford he formed a close friendship with John Locke, better known -afterwards as a philosopher than as a physician. Their intimacy, which -lasted to the end of Sydenham’s life, probably contributed not a little -to give form to the disgust which he soon displayed at the -unsatisfactory and fluctuating state of medical opinion, and to the zeal -with which he sought to establish it on surer grounds; for he appeals, -as to the highest authority, in confirmation of some of his new views on -the treatment of fever, to the approval of his illustrious friend, who -even paid him the compliment of prefixing a eulogy in indifferent Latin -verse to the treatise in which these views are developed. - -On the 14th of April, 1648, he took the degree of bachelor of medicine, -being then twenty-four years old; and in the same year obtained a -fellowship at All Souls College, by the interest of a relation. The -degree of doctor he subsequently took at Cambridge, where, being among -those who thought with him in politics, he probably found himself more -at his ease. After a visit of some length at Montpellier, then -considered the best practical school of medicine on the continent, he -settled in Westminster, and soon after married. - -His progress to eminence in his profession must have been unusually -rapid, which might be owing, in some measure, to the call for men of -good capacity to the more stirring scenes of civil strife; for at -thirty-six he had succeeded in establishing a first-rate reputation, -which he continued to sustain in spite of much hostility and ill-health -for upwards of twenty years. - -He witnessed the breaking out of the plague in 1665, but when it reached -the house adjoining his own, he was induced to remove with his family -some miles out of town. Of this desertion of his post, however, he seems -to have repented; for he afterwards returned, and occupied himself -diligently in visiting the victims of that devastating malady, and has -left a short but interesting account of his opinions respecting it, and -of the treatment he adopted; for the comparative success of which, he -appeals to the physicians who had witnessed or followed his practice. - -At the age of 25, though a man of remarkably temperate and regular -habits, he became afflicted with gout and stone, from which he suffered -extreme torment with great resignation and patience for the rest of his -life. Of course he did not neglect the opportunity of studying those -diseases in his own person, and recording the result of his -observations. His account of gout, especially, is considered to be a -most accurate and able history of that disease. - -He died, leaving a family, at his house in Pall-Mall, on the 29th of -December, 1689, in the 66th year of his age, and was buried in the -parish church of St. James, Westminster, where, in 1810, a tablet was -erected to his memory by the College of Physicians, who became, as a -body, tardily but fully convinced of his extraordinary merit and eminent -claims to the gratitude and respect of his profession. - -He is said to have been a man of the most retiring and unobtrusive -disposition, and the utmost placidity of temper. In a biographical -sketch by Dr. Samuel Johnson, prefixed to an English edition of his -works by Swan, in 1742, it is remarked, that if he could not teach us in -his writings how to cure the painful disorders from which he suffered, -he has taught us by his example the nobler art to bear them with -serenity. Nor was he less patient of mental than of bodily inflictions; -for though he was the object of much asperity among the physicians of -his time, he made no reprisals upon the reputations of those who -slandered him: though he often speaks of their bitterness, he never even -mentions their names,—a forbearance to which, as his biographer -pungently remarks, they are indebted for their escape from a -discreditable immortality. His writings breathe throughout a spirit of -warm piety, candour, and benevolence: he is said to have been extremely -generous in his dealings with his patients; for which, with other -reasons, his practice though large was not very gainful, and he did not -leave much wealth behind him. He never was sought after by the great, -like his successor and disciple Radcliffe; and had none of the talents -by which that singular man was able to push his fortune and establish a -kind of professional despotism. Yet, whatever medical skill the latter -evinced seems to have been derived from Sydenham, whose doctrines and -treatment he contrived to bring into a much more early and general -repute in England than they would probably have otherwise obtained. Each -had his reward: the one will be long remembered as the founder of a -magnificent library; the other can never be forgotten as the author of -modern medicine. - -The bent of Sydenham’s mind was eminently practical; he thought that the -business of a physician is to acquire an accurate knowledge of the -causes and symptoms of diseases, and the effects of different remedies -upon them, that if he cannot prevent them, he may at least recognise -them with certainty, and apply with promptitude the means most likely to -cure them: with Hippocrates and the ancient empirical physicians, whose -tenets he professed to follow, he condemned all curious speculations -upon the intimate nature of disease, as incapable of proof, and -therefore always useless, and often hurtful; and maintained that the -only trustworthy source of opinion in medicine is experience resulting -from observations frequently repeated, and experiments cautiously -varied; and that no theories worth attention can be framed until the -recorded experience of many observers, under many different -circumstances, and even through successive ages, shall be embodied into -one general system; and he boldly declared his belief that every acute -disease might then be cured. An instance, which unfortunately as yet -stands alone in support of this rather sanguine expectation, may be -taken from the history of small-pox. The observation of its contagious -nature led to the general practice of inoculation, and this to the -immortal discovery of Jenner, by which a disease but yesterday the -scourge of the earth has been almost extinguished. It is remarkable that -Sydenham, who first pointed out the important difference between its -distinct and confluent forms,—who so materially improved the treatment -by changing it from stifling to cooling,—and who studied and has -described it with a laborious accuracy hardly paralleled in the history -of medicine,—was not aware of this, to us, its most striking -characteristic of contagion. A person conversant with such subjects will -feel no surprise at this: to the general reader it may be a sufficient -explanation, that it lies dormant for ten days; and that as it can only -be taken once, and was always prevalent in London, the number of persons -susceptible at any given time, and in obvious communication with each -other, were comparatively few: so that opportunities were not so likely -to arise as might be imagined of tracing its progress in single families -or neighbourhoods from one source of contagion. - -Sydenham is justly celebrated for the happiness of his descriptions, and -his skilful application of simple methods of cure, which are as -effectual as they were novel in that age when a medical prescription -sometimes contained a hundred different substances; but he has merit of -a higher kind, as a discoverer of general laws. Among others, he was the -first to notice that there is a uniformity in the fevers prevailing at -any one time, which is subject to periodical changes; and that other -acute diseases often partake largely of the same general character, and -sometimes even merge in it altogether, as the plague is said to have -swallowed up all other diseases. This, which he ascribed to some -peculiar state of the atmosphere, he called its epidemic constitution; -and to be aware of its vicissitudes must of course be very important to -the physician as a guide to practice. The value of these laws, which -Sydenham deduced from a multitude of observations, has been attested by -almost every medical writer since his time. - -His works have been repeatedly printed in the original Latin, as well as -in English and the continental languages. The first was published after -he had been sixteen years in practice; the last he edited himself, is -dated three years before his death; and an elegant compendium of his -experience was published posthumously by his son. They all appear to -have been extorted by the importunity of his friends or the -misrepresentations of his enemies. It is said that they were composed in -English, and translated into Latin by his friends Mapletoft and Havers: -there is, however, little reason for attaching credit to this report, as -we are assured, on the authority of Sir Hans Sloane, who knew him well, -that Sydenham was an excellent classical scholar, and perfectly capable -of expressing himself elegantly in Latin. They are most carefully -written and clearly expressed, and bear marks of the utmost truth and -impartiality in the narration of facts, and judgment in arranging them. -They are not voluminous, as he studiously refrained from overloading -them with trivial matter, and from entering into the detail of a greater -number of cases than might be sufficient to illustrate his method of -practice. His object was to confine himself to the results of his own -observation: to this he pretty strictly adhered, so that little space is -occupied in his writings by quotations or criticism. It must be admitted -that he occasionally lapses into theoretical discussion, in violation of -his own principles; but as he seldom or never permitted his fancy to -divert him from what was practically useful, he may be pardoned, if in -that age of speculation he could not entirely resist the seduction. A -graver charge against him is, that he overlooked or undervalued the -immense body of information to be obtained from examining the effects of -diseased actions after death, and devoted himself too exclusively to the -study of the symptoms during life, and the effect of remedies upon them. -It is hardly a sufficient justification of a man of so much independence -of spirit to reply, that such examinations were opposed by the -prejudices of the age in which he lived. Others have overcome the same -obstacles, and with them many of those difficulties which perplexed and -misled even the mind of Sydenham. He had equal or greater difficulties -to contend against in the deep-rooted absurdities of the chemical and -mechanical schools, which in the early part of his life held an almost -equally divided sway in medicine: the former originated with Paracelsus -and his disciples, and had the advantage of a longer prescription; and -the latter had received a fresh accession of strength from the recent -discoveries of Harvey: both, however, gave way before his energetic -appeal to fact and experience. Scarcely less credit is due to him for -his successful opposition to the popular superstition in favour of a -host of futile remedies, which are now happily consigned to oblivion -with the family receipt books and herbals in which their virtues were -paraded, than for his victory over false principles and dangerous rules -of practice. - -On the whole, it may be safely advanced that medicine, as a practical -science, owes more to the closely-printed octavo, in which the results -of his toilsome exertions are comprised, than to any other single source -of information. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff._ - - LORD CLARENDON. - - _From the Picture in the Bodleian Library, Oxford._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - CLARENDON. - - -Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, the third son of Henry Hyde, of Dinton, -Esquire, a younger branch of an ancient family long established in -Cheshire, was born at Dinton, near Salisbury, February 18, 1609. The -most valuable part of his early education he received from his father, -who was an excellent scholar: from his residence at Magdalen Hall, -Oxford, where he entered in 1622, and took his bachelor’s degree in -1625, according to his own account he obtained little benefit. In -February 1627, he was entered at the Middle Temple. At the age of -twenty-one, he married his first wife, who died within six months of -their union. After the lapse of three years he was again married, to the -daughter of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests to the King, by -whom he left a numerous family. He was called to the bar in Michaelmas -term, 1633. To the study of law he entertained in the first instance a -strong dislike, and applied himself chiefly to history and general -literature. But from the time of his second marriage he devoted himself -steadily to the pursuit of his profession, in which he early acquired -considerable practice and reputation. His business was, however, more -frequent in the Court of Requests, in the Star Chamber, than in the -courts of common law, and his name rarely appears in the reports of that -period. - -Soon after he was called to the bar, Mr. Hyde was concerned in a -transaction of considerable moment, which produced important -consequences in his future life, by introducing him to the favourable -notice of Archbishop Laud. It arose out of certain Custom-House -regulations, by which the London merchants found themselves aggrieved. -The leading men among them applied to Mr. Hyde, who, on finding all -remonstrances with the Lord Treasurer unavailing, advised them to state -their grievances in a petition to the King, which he drew for them. On -the death of the Lord Treasurer, the Earl of Portland, the affairs of -the Treasury were placed under the management of several commissioners, -of whom Laud was one. The Archbishop soon found occasion to investigate -the complaint of the merchants; and in consequence he sent for, and held -several interviews with, Mr. Hyde: to whom he became a valuable and -efficient patron, noticing him particularly when he appeared as counsel -in the Star Chamber, and consulting and employing him on many public -occasions. - -Laud’s favour introduced Mr. Hyde to the Lord Keeper Coventry, the Earl -of Manchester, then Lord Privy Seal, and other political and legal -characters of high rank, of the court party. With the leaders of the -popular, or country party also he was upon friendly terms, “having,” as -he says, “that rare felicity, that even they who did not love many of -those upon whom he most depended, were yet very well pleased with him -and with his company.” - -Upon the summoning of what was called the Short Parliament, which met -April 3, 1640, Mr. Hyde was elected member for Wootton-Basset, and for -Shaftesbury. He chose to take his seat for the former place. His first -and only speech during the session was in the celebrated debate on the -subject of grievances, introduced by a motion of Mr. Pym; on which -occasion Mr. Hyde directed the attention of the house to the enormous -abuses of the Earl Marshal’s Court. Whitelocke says that “he gained much -credit by his conduct in this business.” In the warm debate which took -place in the House of Commons upon the question of a supply, it was -hinted by members of the house connected with the court, that Charles, -upon hearing of their proceedings, would probably dissolve the -parliament in displeasure. Mr. Hyde perceived the injurious tendency of -such a measure, and immediately went from the house to Archbishop Laud, -to entreat him to dissuade the King from so injudicious a course. The -Archbishop heard him as usual with patience, but refused to interfere: -and the Parliament was dissolved in less than three weeks after its -first meeting. - -The necessities of the King compelled him to call the Long Parliament in -the following November, of which Mr. Hyde was also a member. The -elections having in general favoured the popular party, the temper of -this parliament was at its commencement decidedly more opposed to the -court than the last. At first, Mr. Hyde, whose familiarity with Laud was -well known, was an object of jealousy and dislike. His conduct as -chairman of the committee appointed to consider the abuses of the Earl -Marshal’s Court, which led to the total abolition of that unauthorized -jurisdiction, and his avowed disapprobation of several obnoxious -branches of the prerogative, restored him in some degree to the good -opinion of the house, while his influence with the moderate party, both -in the court and the parliament, daily increased. Having given up his -professional practice since the beginning of the parliament, he was much -employed in the ordinary business of the house. He was chairman of the -committee appointed to inquire into the legality and expediency of the -courts of the President and Council of the North, commonly called the -Courts of York; and in April, 1641, he was commissioned to communicate -to the House of Lords the resolutions of the Commons against those -courts. The performance of this duty he accompanied by a speech, in -which he explained to the Lords, with much clearness and precision, the -origin and nature of this obnoxious jurisdiction, and which he says in -his History, “met with good approbation in both houses.” In July -following he was chairman of the committee for inquiring into the -conduct of the judges in the case of ship-money; and the management of -the impeachment of the Lord Chief Baron Davenport, Baron Weston, and -Baron Trevor, before the Lords, was afterwards entrusted to him. Upon -this occasion, he delivered an excellent speech, exhibiting, in eloquent -language, the destructive effects of the corruption of the judges upon -the liberty of the subject and the security of property. During the same -year, he appears from the Commons’ journals to have been usually named -on the most important committees both of a public and private nature. - -The course adopted by Mr. Hyde with reference to the Earl of Strafford’s -prosecution cannot be precisely ascertained. That he was employed in -arranging the preliminary steps for the impeachment, appears from the -journals; but in his History he does not explicitly declare what part he -took upon the introduction of the bill of attainder. Some of his -biographers state that he warmly opposed it; but no evidence is given in -support of the assertion; and it is quite clear that neither his name, -nor that of Lord Falkland, his political and personal friend, appear -amongst those which were posted as “Straffordians, Betrayers of their -Country,” for having voted against the measure. Though he cordially -acquiesced in many of the measures at this time introduced by the -popular leaders for the redress of grievances, his political opinions, -as well as his ultimate views and intentions, differed widely from those -of the predominant party. He strenuously opposed a bill for depriving -the bishops of their seats in parliament, which passed the House of -Commons, though it was rejected in the House of Lords by a great -majority. In no degree discouraged by this discomfiture, the leaders of -the Puritan party soon afterwards introduced a measure for the total -abolition of episcopacy, known by the title of ‘The Root and Branch -Bill,’ which was read a first time and committed. Mr. Hyde was appointed -chairman of the committee, by common consent of both parties; the one -wishing to get rid of his opposition in the committee, the other to -secure a chairman of their own views. The result proved the latter party -to be in the right; for Hyde contrived so to baffle the promoters of the -measure, that they at last thought proper to withdraw it, Sir Arthur -Haselrig declaring in the house, that “he would never hereafter put an -enemy into the chair.” His conduct respecting this measure was warmly -approved by the King; who before he went to Scotland in 1641, sent for -Mr. Hyde, to express how much he was beholden to him for his services, -“for which he thought fit to give him his own thanks, and to assure him -that he would remember it to his advantage.” - -Before the King left Whitehall, in consequence of the tumults occasioned -by his indiscretion in demanding the Five Members, he charged Mr. Hyde, -in conjunction with Lord Falkland and Sir John Colepeper, to consult -constantly together upon the state of affairs in his absence, and to -give him on every occasion their unreserved advice, without which he -declared solemnly that he would take no step in the parliament. Though -much discouraged by the previous conduct of the King respecting the Five -Members, which he had adopted without consulting them, and entirely -against their judgment, they undertook and faithfully executed the -charge imposed upon them; and after the King had left London, they met -every night at Mr. Hyde’s house in Westminster, to communicate to each -other their several intelligences and observations, and to make such -arrangements as they thought best adapted to stay the falling fortunes -of the royal cause. - -Mr. Hyde’s good understanding with the leaders of the popular party had -rapidly declined, since his opposition to the proposed measure for -ejecting the bishops from the House of Lords; and after his conduct in -the committee for abolishing episcopacy he was regarded as a declared -enemy, and his nightly consultations with Falkland and Colepeper were -watched with the utmost jealousy. Though his situation at this time was -one of considerable danger, he remained at his post after the King’s -departure to York, and constantly took his seat in the House of Commons. -About the latter end of April, 1642, Mr. Hyde received a letter from the -King, requiring him immediately to repair to him at York; with which -requisition he complied in the course of the next month, having first -rendered a signal service to the royal cause by persuading the Lord -Keeper Littleton to send the Great Seal and also to go himself to the -King. In consequence of this step the House of Commons passed a -resolution, in August, 1642, disabling him from sitting again in that -parliament; and their indignation was raised to such a degree, that Mr. -Hyde was one of the few persons who were excepted from the pardon which -the Earl of Essex was afterwards instructed to offer to those who might -be induced to leave the King and submit to the parliament. On joining -the King at York, Mr. Hyde continued to be one of his most confidential -advisers, and was soon afterwards knighted and made Chancellor of the -Exchequer. In this capacity he negotiated with the parliamentary -commissioners sent to Oxford in 1643; and in 1645 he acted as one of the -King’s commissioners at the treaty of Uxbridge. After the breaking off -of that treaty it was thought expedient to send the Prince of Wales into -the west of England, both to secure his person from the dangers with -which his father was environed, and to give encouragement to the -Royalists in that part of the country. Sir Edward Hyde accompanied him -as one of his council. The parliamentary successes in the west compelled -the Prince to migrate, first to Scilly, thence to Jersey, from which -place he departed into France in July, 1646. Hyde remained in Jersey for -the space of two years, devoting himself wholly to his History of the -Rebellion, which he had commenced in the Scilly Islands, and of which he -completed the four first books at that time. While engaged in this -manner, he received several letters from the King, expressive of his -approbation of his undertaking, and supplying him with a particular -relation of the occurrences which had taken place from the departure of -the Prince until the period of his joining the Scotch army. - -In May, 1648, Hyde received the King’s commands to join the Prince of -Wales at Paris. On the way thither, he met Lord Cottington and others at -Rouen, where he learned that the Prince was gone to Holland, and was -ordered to follow him. After many difficulties and dangers, Cottington -and Hyde met their young master at the Hague in the month of August, and -were soon afterwards joined by several other members of the King’s -council. - -On the announcement of the execution of his father, Charles despatched -Sir Edward Hyde and Lord Cottington as his ambassadors to Spain. After a -fruitless negotiation of fifteen months, they received a message from -court shortly after the arrival of the news of Cromwell’s victory at -Dunbar, desiring them to quit the Spanish dominions. Hyde then repaired -to Antwerp, where he resided with his wife and family, until, at the end -of 1651, he was summoned to Paris, to meet Charles II., after his -memorable escape from the battle of Worcester. He resided at Paris with -the exiled court for nearly three years, and during this period enjoyed -the unlimited confidence of his master, who left the arduous and -difficult task of corresponding and negotiating with the English -royalists entirely to his management. At this period the exiled -royalists were frequently reduced to great pecuniary distress. The -miserable dissensions and petty jealousies which prevailed among them -are fully described in the History of the Rebellion. At length Charles, -wearied and disgusted by the intrigues and broils which perpetually -disturbed his council, while subject to the interference of the Queen -Mother, determined to leave Paris; and accordingly he quitted that city -in June, 1654, and went to reside at Cologne, Sir Edward Hyde and the -rest of his court still following his humble fortunes. Upon the -execution of the treaty with Spain, Charles removed from Cologne to -Bruges in 1657, and in the course of that year bestowed upon Sir Edward -Hyde the then empty dignity of Lord High Chancellor of England. Soon -after this event the prospects of the Royalists began to brighten. The -government of Cromwell had been for some time growing infirm, in -consequence of domestic dissensions, the exhausted state of the revenue, -and the distrust entertained towards the Protector, who had successively -deceived and disappointed all parties. These seeds of discord were -sedulously cultivated by the English royalists; and at last the death of -that extraordinary man led to a series of events which introduced the -restoration of Charles II. - -At the Restoration Sir Edward Hyde was continued as Lord Chancellor; and -notwithstanding the constant hostility of the Queen Mother and her -faction at court, he maintained for some time a paramount influence with -the King, who treated him with the confidence and friendship which his -great industry and talents for business, and his faithful attachment to -himself and his father so well deserved. In November, 1660, he was -raised to the peerage, by the title of Baron Hyde of Hindon in the -county of Wilts, and in the spring of the following year he was created -Viscount Cornbury and Earl of Clarendon. He was also about this time -elected Chancellor of the University of Oxford. Among the tribes of -expectant cavaliers who now flocked to the court of the restored -monarch, all impatient to obtain something in recompense for their -alleged services and sufferings in the royal cause, these honours and -distinctions bestowed upon the Earl of Clarendon raised a storm of envy -and malice which eventually caused his ruin. The King’s easiness of -access, and, as Lord Clarendon calls it, that “_imbecillitas frontis_, -which kept him from denying,” together with the moral cowardice which -induced him to escape from the most troublesome importunities, by -sending petitioners to the Chancellor for their answers, necessarily -increased the dislike with which he was regarded. The discovery of the -marriage of his daughter to the Duke of York, afterwards James II., -though it probably took place without the knowledge of the Chancellor, -gave ample opportunity to the malice of his enemies. The King, however, -behaved on this occasion in a manner which did him credit. He not only -required the Duke to acknowledge his wife, on being certified that the -ceremony had been duly performed, but refused with passion the proffered -resignation of the Chancellor, who offered to reside in future beyond -seas, and conjured him “never more to think of those unreasonable -things, but to attend and prosecute his business with his usual -alacrity, since his kindness should never fail him.” - -The first open act of hostility against Lord Clarendon was undertaken by -the Earl of Bristol, who, in 1663, exhibited articles of high treason -and other misdemeanors against him in the House of Lords. These -articles, which contained a great variety of vague and inconsistent -charges, were forwarded by the House of Lords to the King, who informed -them, that “he found several matters of fact charged, which upon his own -certain knowledge were untrue; and that the articles contained many -scandalous reflections upon himself and his family, which he looked upon -as libels against his person and government.” Upon a reference by the -House of Lords to the judges, they reported that “the whole charge did -not amount to treason though it were all true;” and upon this the -proceedings were abandoned. - -But it was at last the fate of Lord Clarendon to experience the -proverbial ingratitude of princes. From the period of the Restoration a -powerful union of discontented parties had gradually combined against -him. All hated him—the old cavaliers, because they thought he neglected -their just claims upon the bounty of the King; the papists and the -dissenters, because they found him an uncompromising opponent of all -concessions to those whom he regarded as enemies of the established -church; the licentious adherents of an unprincipled court, because his -honest endeavours to withdraw the King from his levity and profligacy to -serious considerations, thwarted their intentions and interrupted their -pleasures. Their united efforts erased from Charles’s mind the -recollection of services of no common value, and caused him to abandon -his best and most faithful counsellor, without having even the -appearance of a reason for his conduct, beyond what he called “the -Chancellor’s intolerable temper.” - -The Great Seal was taken from Lord Clarendon in August, 1667; and in the -month of November following, after an angry debate, he was impeached by -the Commons, in general terms, of high treason and other crimes and -misdemeanors; but the Lords, upon the impeachment being carried up, -refused to commit him, or to sequester him from parliament, on the -ground of the generality of the charge. Before the formal articles of -impeachment were prepared, Lord Clarendon left England, in consequence -of repeated messages from the King advising him to take that course, -having previously addressed to the Lords a vindication of his conduct. -Immediately after his departure a bill was introduced into the House of -Lords, and rapidly passed, by which he was condemned to perpetual -banishment, and declared to be for ever incapable of bearing any public -office or employment in England. - -The charges made against Lord Clarendon at this time were scarcely less -multifarious and inconsistent than those which were instituted by Lord -Bristol a few years before. He was accused of designing to govern by a -standing army,—of accusing the King of popery,—of receiving bribes for -patents,—of selling offices,—of _acquiring a greater estate than he -could lawfully have gained in a short time_,—of advising the sale of -Dunkirk to the French,—of causing Quo Warrantos to be issued against -corporations in order that he might receive fines on renewals of -charters, and many other particulars of alleged corruption. From most of -these accusations Lord Clarendon vindicated himself in an address -delivered to the House of Lords upon his departure; but during his -retirement at Montpellier, he prepared, and transmitted to his children -in England a fuller apology, in which he answered each article of the -charges objected to him by the Commons. - -After some hesitation, Lord Clarendon determined to reside at -Montpellier, where he arrived in July, 1668. He was treated with much -courtesy and respect by the governor of the city, as well as the French -and English inhabitants of all ranks. His first task was to write the -vindication of his conduct above-mentioned. During his retirement he -made himself master of French and Italian, and read the works of the -most eminent writers in both those languages. He also completed his -History of the Rebellion, and wrote an answer to Hobbes’s Leviathan, an -Historical Discourse on Papal Jurisdiction, a volume of Essays, divine, -moral, and political, and also those fragments of his Life, which were -first published by the University of Oxford in 1759. Engaged in these -pursuits he passed nearly three years at Montpellier in great -tranquillity and cheerfulness. He left that city in 1672, and went first -to Moulins, then to Rouen, where he died, December 9, 1673. His remains -were brought to England and interred in Westminster Abbey. - -The political conduct of Lord Clarendon, though variously described by -writers of opposite parties, appears to have been generally as -consistent and upright as can reasonably be expected from men of warm -tempers, deeply interested in the most violent civil dissensions. His -earliest impressions were decidedly in favour of the popular party; and -even after he had become familiar with Archbishop Laud, and was -favourably noticed by Charles I., he strenuously supported that party in -the removal of actual grievances, and resisted with zeal and energy the -encroachments of prerogative. That he afterwards refused to join in the -wild and intemperate actions committed by the Parliament, and supported -the royal cause against the continually increasing demands of those with -whom he had previously acted, is not to be ascribed to inconsistency in -his conduct, but to the development of designs and measures at all times -repugnant to his principles. His advice to Charles I. and to Laud was -always temperate and wise, and was given with boldness and candour. -After the Restoration, in the height of his power and influence, he -displayed the same moderation in his opinions and conduct, and acted -upon the same principles of dislike to fundamental changes, which had -influenced him as a member of the Long Parliament. It has been imputed -to Lord Clarendon that he neglected to exert himself for the relief of -those unfortunate cavaliers whose attachment to the King had involved -them in penury and ruin. It is difficult to ascertain the exact truth of -this charge; but, whether true or false, such an accusation was sure to -be made in a case where the applicants for compensation were numerous, -and the means of satisfying them inconsiderable. - -In the discharge of the legal functions of his office of Lord -Chancellor, as presiding in the Court of Chancery, he was by no means -distinguished; he promoted some reforms in the practice of his court, -and continued the judicious improvements effected during the -Commonwealth; but Evelyn says “he was no considerable lawyer,” and the -circumstance that he never decided a case without requiring the presence -of two judges is, if true, a sufficient acknowledgment of his judicial -incompetency. - -For his judicial appointments Lord Clarendon is entitled to unqualified -praise. Hale, Bridgeman, and other judges of the highest eminence for -learning and independence, were appointed by him immediately after the -Restoration, and contributed in a great degree to give stability and -moral strength to the new government, by the confidence which their -characters inspired in the due administration of the law. - -As an historian Lord Clarendon was unquestionably careless and inexact -to a surprising degree, which may in some measure be excused by the -necessity of writing very much from recollection; and he was a perpetual -advocate and partisan of the Royal cause, though by no means of most of -its supporters. But though his narration constantly betrays the bias of -party, and cannot therefore be safely relied upon for our historical -conclusions, his misrepresentations arise from the avowed partiality and -intense concern he feels for the cause he is advocating, and not from -any design to suppress or distort facts. His style is luxuriant and -undisciplined, and his expression in the narrative parts of his history -is diffuse and inaccurate; but his fervent loyalty and the warmth of his -attachment to his political friends have infused a richness of eloquence -into his delineations of character, which has perhaps never been -surpassed in any language. - -[Illustration] - - [Medal of Clarendon.] [Medal in Commemoration of the - Restoration.] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Posselwhite._ - - SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS. - - _From a Picture by himself in his Majesty’s Collection._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - SIR J. REYNOLDS. - - -“Sir Joshua Reynolds,” says Burke, “was the first Englishman who added -the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his country.” -Without staying to inquire how far the literal truth of this assertion -may be affected by the priority in date of Wilson and Hogarth, not to -mention their less illustrious predecessors, it may safely be affirmed, -not only that Reynolds was the founder of the English school, but that -the most valuable qualities in the art of painting were almost lost -sight of throughout Europe when he began his career. In Holland, the -rich manner of Rembrandt, feebly sustained by his imitators, had been -succeeded by no less opposite a style than that of Vanderwerf; the still -more laboured finish of Denner, a native of Hamburgh, followed; while -the minute perfection which was in vogue found a more legitimate -application in the flower-pieces of Van Huysum. Reynolds was twenty-four -years old at the decease of Denner, who had twice visited London, and -had been much employed there. The French school about the middle of the -last century took its tone from Boucher, a name now almost forgotten, -and if remembered, synonymous with the extreme of affectation; he was -principal painter to Louis XV. The native country of Claude and Poussin -was indeed more illustrious during this time in the department of -landscape, as Vernet produced his views of sea-ports about the period -alluded to; but this example, however respectable, was itself indicative -of a declining taste, and the style of view-painting in the hands of the -foreign artists who practised it in Italy, with the Prussian Hackert at -their head, had the effect of extinguishing for a time all invention in -landscape. The academy at Berlin was under the direction of a Frenchman; -Oeser was the greatest name at Leipzic and Dresden; and the south of -Germany still imported imitations of the latest Italian styles in -fashion. The state of the arts in Spain may be judged of by the fact, -that when, in 1761, Mengs, who was himself a native of Germany, repaired -to Madrid in the service of Charles III., the chief painters established -there were a Venetian and a Neapolitan, Tiepolo and Corrado Giaquinto. -The Venetian school, sometimes entirely losing its original character, -seemed at least to maintain a consistent degeneracy in the styles of -Sebastian Ricci and the above-named Giambattista Tiepolo, both weak and -mannered imitators of Paul Veronese, but still preserving, at least the -latter, some brilliancy of colour and pleasing execution. With Tiepolo -the characteristic merits of the school seem however to have ceased -altogether: towards the latter part of the century, the chief employment -of the Venetian painters was the restoration of old pictures.[2] A -particular school was established in 1778 for this purpose, and a -description of the extraordinary labours of the artists is preserved in -the thirty-eighth volume of Goëthe’s works. In Rome, the talents of -Maratta and Sacchi, and “the great but abused powers of Pietro da -Cortona,” had been succeeded by feebler efforts, descending or -fluctuating through the styles of Cignani, Trevisani, and others, till -the time of Sebastian Conca, and Pompeo Battoni. The last-named was -approaching the zenith of his short-lived reputation, and almost without -a rival (for Mengs was as yet young, and Conca already aged), when -Reynolds visited Rome. - -Footnote 2: - - It is worthy of remark that about the same time the sculptors in Rome - were as exclusively employed in restoring antique statues. - -Laborious detail on the one hand, and empty facility on the other, -formed the distinguishing characteristics of these different schools; -but however opposite in execution, mind was alike wanting in both. -Denner may be considered the representative of the microscopic style; a -style, if it deserves the name, which he applied even to heads the size -of life; and as mere finish never was, and probably never will be -carried to a more absurd length, his name, though comparatively obscure, -marks an epoch in the art. The same scrupulous minuteness obtained about -the same time in landscape; among the view-painters, Hendrick Van Lint, -surnamed Studio, may be named as the most remarkable of his class. -Reynolds alludes to him in one of his discourses, as noted, when he knew -him in Rome, for copying every leaf of a tree. The opposite style, which -aimed at quantity and rapidity, was derived from the expert painters of -galleries and ceilings, called “Machinisti,” and more immediately from -Luca Giordano. Facility and despatch, at the expense of every solid -quality of art, were the characteristics of the school which was -represented in the earlier part of Reynolds’s career, principally by -Sebastian Conca in Italy, and by Corrado Giaquinto in Spain. - -The changes which took place in this state of things, towards the latter -part of the century, may be traced partly to the renewed appreciation of -the antique statues (a taste which, however beneficial to sculpture, had -an unfortunate influence on the sister art), and subsequently to -political circumstances. The fluctuations of taste, however deliberately -estimated by retrospective criticism, are indeed generally the result of -accident, and depend on causes but seldom derived from a just definition -of the nature and object of art. It appears, however, that Reynolds, -alone as he was, the founder rather than the follower of a school, -enjoyed the rare privilege of making the taste of his time instead of -being made by it; and although it would be absurd to suppose that he -could be independent of the accidents with which he was brought in -contact, it will not appear, upon a candid inquiry, that this great -artist was in any respect directly influenced by the practice of his -age. - -Joshua Reynolds was born at Plympton, near Plymouth, in Devonshire, July -16, 1723; he was the son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds, who taught the -grammar school of Plympton. The young artist’s fondness for drawing -manifested itself early, and at eight years of age he had become so well -acquainted with the “Jesuits’ Perspective,” as to apply its principles -with some effect in a drawing of his father’s school, a building -elevated on stone pillars. Among other books connected with art to which -he had access, Richardson’s ‘Treatise on Painting’ had a powerful effect -in exciting his ambition. The earliest known picture he attempted is a -portrait of the Rev. Thomas Smart, who was the vicar of Maker, the -parish in which Mount Edgecumbe is situated. Reynolds, then a schoolboy -about twelve years of age, sketched the portrait of the vicar at church, -and afterwards copied it on canvass. This picture is now in the -possession of John Boger, Esq., of East Stonehouse near Plymouth. The -taste of the young painter becoming every day more decided, his father, -urged by the advice of some friends, placed him at the age of seventeen -as a pupil with Hudson, who had at that time the chief business in -portrait painting, although a very indifferent artist. In 1743 Reynolds -returned to Devonshire, in consequence of a disagreement with his -master, and set up as a portrait painter in the town of Plymouth Dock, -since called Devonport. He here painted various portraits, chiefly of -naval officers. One of these works, containing the portraits of Mr. and -Mrs. Eliot and family, is in the possession of the Earl of St. Germains. -The composition of this picture, the artist’s first attempt at a group, -approaches the pyramidal form, and Reynolds, after contemplating it when -finished, observed, ‘I see I must have read something about a pyramid, -for there it is.’ Six other pictures of the artist are preserved in the -same collection, at Port Eliot in Cornwall. An admirable picture of a -boy reading by a reflected light was also executed about this time. Many -interesting works of Reynolds, some of them belonging to his earlier -practice, are preserved in the immediate neighbourhood of Plymouth, in -the collections of the Earl of Morley, Mr. Pole Carew of Antony, Mr. -Rosdew of Beechwood, Mr. Lane of Coffleet, and others. The artist’s -early works, although sometimes carelessly drawn, are distinguished by -breadth of colour, by freedom of handling, and not unfrequently by great -truth of expression: in short, he seems to have contracted none of the -defects of Hudson, except, according to some of his biographers, a -certain stiffness and sameness in the attitudes of his portraits; -defects which he afterwards exchanged for such grace, spirit, and, above -all, endless variety, that it was said “his inventions will be the -future grammar of portrait painters.” The earliest portrait he painted -of himself is in the collection of Mr. Gwatkin of Plymouth, who married -a niece of Reynolds: the same gentleman also possesses the last portrait -of the artist by himself, together with many other interesting specimens -of his pencil. In 1747 Reynolds repaired again to London, and took -lodgings in St. Martin’s Lane, then and long afterwards the favourite -residence of artists. In 1749 he sailed to the Mediterranean, by the -invitation, and in the company of Captain (afterwards Lord) Keppel. -Reynolds spent two months in Minorca, where he painted several portraits -of military and naval officers, and proceeded thence, by way of Leghorn, -to Rome. - -He was fully alive to the sources of inspiration which this city of the -arts contained. In the midst of his enthusiasm, however, he was secretly -humiliated by discovering in himself an absence of all relish for the -grand works of Raffaelle in the Vatican. Richardson had inspired him -with the most exalted admiration of Raffaelle; and whatever may be -supposed, Reynolds could not be entirely unacquainted with the subjects -and designs of the works alluded to. Indeed, in some notes of his own -that have been preserved, he only confesses a feeling of disappointment, -and afterwards says, “In justice to myself, however, I must add, that -though disappointed and mortified at not finding myself enraptured with -the works of this great master, I did not for a moment conceive or -suppose that the name of Raffaelle, and these admirable paintings in -particular, owed their reputation to the ignorance and prejudice of -mankind: on the contrary, my not relishing them, as I was conscious I -ought to have done, was one of the most humiliating circumstances that -ever happened to me. I found myself in the midst of works executed upon -principles with which I was unacquainted; I felt my ignorance, and stood -abashed; all the indigested notions of painting which I had brought with -me from England, where art was in the lowest state it had ever been in -(indeed it could not be lower), were to be totally done away and -eradicated from my mind.” The union of candour and docility with good -sense, which the above account evinces, was the means of emancipating -Reynolds from the taste or fashion of the day. Instead of enrolling -himself among the scholars of Pompeo Battoni, as he was strongly -recommended to do before his departure from England by his kind patron -Lord Edgecumbe, he endeavoured during the practice of his art to -penetrate the principles on which the great works around him, -particularly those of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle, were produced. His -general theory will be found embodied in his writings, and if his -principles sometimes appear to be pushed too far, we may perhaps -attribute it to the wish to counteract certain prevailing errors among -his contemporaries. It is a general notion that, considering the -difference in style between the paintings of Reynolds and those of the -great models he professes to admire (Michael Angelo received his more -especial homage), he could not have been sincere in acknowledging so -thorough a conviction of their excellence. To decide fairly on this -difficult and often-discussed point, it is necessary to remember the -state of the arts when Reynolds formed his style. The great vice of the -age was a routine practice, seldom informed by any reference to the -general nature of the art, and as little remarkable for a just -discrimination of its various styles. In such a state of things it -cannot excite surprise that a sagacious and unprejudiced mind, in -endeavouring to retrace the leading principles of the art, should at the -same time see the necessity of modifying them in their application to a -particular, and in some respects a limited, department. As portrait -painting, the imitation of individuals, was to be Reynolds’s chief -occupation, it certainly did not occur to him that the abstract -representations of Michael Angelo, or even of Raffaelle, could be fit -models for him to follow, as far as execution was concerned. He saw -however that these masters were probably right even in this respect, -when the dignity and purity of their aim, and when subject, place, and -dimensions are duly considered. His imitation of them therefore began -when he endeavoured to define the end and object of the particular style -of art which he himself professed; and although he soon concluded that -it required a widely different treatment, he failed not to translate, if -we may so say, the causes of the grandeur he admired into the language -which belonged to his own department. What he considered the distinctive -and desirable requisites of portrait painting to consist in, may be best -learnt from his own works. In the first place, the more delicate -refinements of colouring and chiaro-scuro, by no means essential in the -grander and more abstract department of the art, are indispensable where -the imitation is confined to a single and generally a defective person. -It is thus that Rembrandt made up the _sum_ of beauty by the -fascinations of gradation and contrast, while the forms he had to deal -with were often of the most ordinary description. The just imitation of -the colour of flesh, the most beautiful and at the same time the most -nameless hue in nature, has ever been considered the triumph of -imitative art, and confers value and dignity on the _work_ wherever it -is fully accomplished. Again, it must be remembered that the domain of -expression begins with the accidents of form; that it belongs to and -often recommends individuality and redeems deformity; and that its vivid -interest is to be sought less in the abstract personifications of -Michael Angelo, far less in the higher region of beauty which the Greeks -justly placed above the atmosphere of the passions, than in the -varieties of accidental nature. Reynolds seized on the delicacies of -expression as strictly harmonizing with the individual forms he had to -copy: and, while thus adding a charm to his class of art, he became at -the same time the abler portrait painter; for the character and -expression of the individual are the chief points which are demanded. -Lastly, the conduct and execution of his pictures were in strict -conformity with the same principles, and may be said to have been -dictated by the largest view of the nature and means of the art. - -In his works the attention is always attracted by the important objects, -or diverted from them, when diverted, only to conceal the artifice which -thus commands the eye of the spectator. It is evident that the general -degree of completeness will depend on that of the principal object; and -assuming that Reynolds’s style of painting a head was sufficiently -elaborate (it is generally less so than Vandyck’s), the _unfinish_ of -the accessories could hardly be otherwise than it is, consistently with -due subordination. The truth of this consistency of style was ultimately -acknowledged, and although so opposite from what had before been in -fashion, and so different in many respects from what the vulgar admire, -the pictures of Reynolds soon won the favour of the public. If the -admiration of his works had any ill effect, it was that it tended to -produce an imitation of the same mode rather than of the same -consistency. - -On his return to England in 1752, which has been somewhat anticipated in -the foregoing remarks on his style, Reynolds repaired to his native -county, and painted one or two pictures at Plymouth: perhaps the -earliest of the fine portraits of Mr. Zachary Mudge, Vicar of St. -Andrews, was one of these. He returned to London accompanied by his -sister Frances. For a short time he again occupied lodgings in St. -Martin’s Lane, and produced there the portrait of Giuseppe Marchi, an -Italian whom he had brought home as an assistant. This picture, which -was in the style of Rembrandt, attracted general admiration; and when -his former master Hudson saw it, he exclaimed, stung with jealousy, -“Reynolds, you don’t paint so well as when you left England!” Soon after -this, in consequence of his increased fame and employment, Reynolds took -a house in Great Newport Street, where he resided for some years. The -whole length portrait of Admiral Keppel was the next work of importance -which he produced: it exhibited such powers that it completely -established the fame of the artist, and he was generally acknowledged to -be the greatest painter England had seen since the time of Vandyck. From -this period his career was one of uninterrupted success and improvement; -for his reputation was never greater than at the close of his laborious -life. The detraction which such extraordinary merit soon excited was -compelled to vent itself in attempting to undervalue the department of -art in which he excelled: in consequence of these insinuations, a -defence of portrait painting, from the pen of Dr. Johnson, appeared in -the forty-fifth number of the Idler. Johnson in that essay, after all, -only proved that portrait painting is interesting to a _few_—that in the -hands of Reynolds it was “employed in diffusing friendship, in renewing -tenderness, in quickening the affections of the absent, and continuing -the presence of the dead.” Reynolds himself, however, without forgetting -these important prerogatives, evidently took a more extended view of the -matter; he seems early to have felt that the chief difficulty of -portrait painting (a difficulty perhaps greater than any in the other -branches of art) is to make the representation _generally_ interesting. -It is quite obvious that this end can only be attained (especially as -beauty of form is not always at command) by a high degree of perfection -in all that constitutes the charm of art; for no interest that attaches -itself to the individual pourtrayed, however celebrated, can be so -universal or so independently intelligible as that which arises from a -large and true imitation of nature, to which all are more or less alive. -The perfection of art as applicable to portrait painting, was therefore -Reynolds’s great object, and it was only in subservience to this that he -ventured to introduce what in his hands might be considered a novelty in -this department. That novelty was the historic air he often gave his -portraits, by happy allusions to some important circumstance in the life -of the individual. His consummate knowledge of effect enabled him to do -this by means which never interfere with the mere portrait, a difficulty -which had been in a great measure evaded by preceding painters. It will -be remembered that in most of the portraits even of Titian and Vandyck -the attention is literally confined to the individual pourtrayed (after -all, the subject of the picture), and it was not lightly or -inconsiderately that Reynolds occasionally departed from this judicious -practice. If ever a painter could depend on the mere character and -expression of his heads, to say nothing of the charm of their execution, -Reynolds undoubtedly would have been secure of the public approbation on -those grounds alone; and it was only where historic interest happened to -coincide or to interfere but little with picturesque effect, that he -ventured on the additions alluded to. A better instance perhaps cannot -be given than the portrait of Lord Heathfield (celebrated for his -defence of Gibraltar), in the National Gallery; in the background of -which a cannon pointed downwards indicates, by its angle of depression, -the elevation of the spot where the veteran stands, grasping the keys of -the fortress which he defended so bravely. In his allegorical portraits, -such as Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy, Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic -Muse, &c., Reynolds encountered a much greater difficulty, and it may be -questioned whether any painter who has yet appeared would have succeeded -better. The mixture of real and imaginary beings, of individual and -abstract personifications, the treatment of which would seem to require -so different a style, was so managed by Reynolds as to satisfy, in this -respect, the most fastidious taste. The secret of the greatness of his -style in these subjects, and indeed in most of his portraits, is to be -sought in his colouring, the idea of which is large and general; and -under its dignified influence the individuality of forms and locality of -dress are rendered with all sufficient fidelity without offending. It is -thus we find in many Venetian, Flemish, and Dutch pictures, where the -subject and forms are most homely, an air of refined taste, and even of -grandeur, which seems unaccountable, till we discover that the colouring -is true to the largest idea of nature; and thus, to a certain extent, -the art is raised by raising its characteristic quality. In short, to -return to the question of his imitation of Michael Angelo, we should -find that, keeping the main requisites and attainable excellences of -portrait painting in view, Reynolds contrived to infuse into it as much -elevation as was calculated to improve it without injuring its -character; and when we find that he applied this even to execution, and -that his breadth of manner, his disdain of non-essentials, is evidently -inspired by the same feeling, we shall no longer wonder at his -admiration of the highest style of art, or doubt the sincerity of his -recorded professions on the subject. The very _indirectness_ of his -imitation, in which the whole mystery lies, so sure a proof of his -having penetrated the principle of the great master, establishes his -claim to originality as well as to consummate judgment and taste. - -In 1768 the Royal Academy was instituted, and Mr. Reynolds, holding -unquestionably the first rank in his profession, was elected President. -On his elevation to this office he received the honour of knighthood. As -President he delivered to the students and professors those celebrated -discourses, which have reflected so much lustre on his name. Their -excellence in a theoretical point of view, the elegance of their -composition, and on the other hand the apparent contradictions they -sometimes contain, have been the theme of frequent observation and -discussion. The other writings of Sir Joshua are the ‘Tour to Flanders -and Holland,’ consisting of notes on the paintings seen by him in those -countries in the year 1781; ‘Notes on Du Fresnoy’s Poem;’ and three -papers in the Idler. Among the last, the Essay on Beauty was not so -original as is generally supposed, the same theory having been -previously promulgated by the Père Buffier in his ‘Cours des Sciences -par des principes nouveaux. Paris, 1732.’ Among the historical and -mythological pictures produced by Sir Joshua, that of the Infant -Hercules strangling the Serpents, executed in 1786 for the Empress of -Russia, is one of the most considerable: it is pretty closely copied, as -to invention and composition, from a description of an antique painting -of the same subject in Philostratus. This work, so different from the -taste of the Russian painters and connoisseurs, was long treated with -neglect; but in consequence of the enquiries of English travellers it -has lately been cleaned, and placed in the gallery of the Hermitage. It -is said to be in a fine state of preservation, and one of the best works -of Reynolds. The celebrated picture of Ugolino was produced by an -accidental circumstance. The subject was suggested to Sir Joshua by -Goldsmith, or, according to others, by Burke, who was struck with the -expression of an old emaciated head, among the unfinished studies of the -painter, and observed that it corresponded exactly with Dante’s -description of Count Ugolino. The head was inserted in a larger canvas, -and the rest of the composition added. For the Shakspeare Gallery Sir -Joshua painted three pictures,—the Death of Cardinal Beaufort, the -Cauldron Scene in Macbeth, and Puck from Midsummer Night’s Dream. The -designs for the window of the New College Chapel in Oxford are among the -finest of his sacred compositions. - -In 1789, finding his eyesight begin to fail, Sir Joshua was compelled to -give up the practice of his art. In December, 1790, he pronounced his -farewell Address at the Royal Academy, and on that occasion repeated and -confirmed, as with his dying voice, his admiration of Michael Angelo. -His infirmities confined him much during the short remaining portion of -his life, and he died at his house in Leicester Fields, February 23, -1792. He was buried in the crypt of the cathedral of St. Paul, near the -tomb of Sir Christopher Wren. The honours of his funeral, as may be -imagined, corresponded with his justly-earned fame; and the day after -his death a well-known eulogium by Burke appeared in the public papers, -so characteristic both of the writer and the great artist to whose -memory it was dedicated, that it was called the panegyric of Apelles, -pronounced by Pericles. It concludes thus:—“His talents of every kind, -powerful from nature, and not meanly cultivated by letters, his social -virtues in all the relations and all the habitudes of life, rendered him -the centre of a very great and unparalleled variety of agreeable -societies, which will be dissipated by his death. He had too much merit -not to excite some jealousy, too much innocence to provoke any enmity. -The loss of no man of his time can be felt with more sincere, general, -and unmixed sorrow.” - -For a list of the pictures of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and ample details of -his life, the memoir of him by Northcote, who had been his scholar, may -be consulted; as well as the accounts prefixed to the various editions -of his literary works; and that by Allan Cunningham, in his Lives of the -most eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects. - -[Illustration: [Sketch for the picture of Mr. Eliot and his family.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by B. Holl._ - - SWIFT. - - _From the Picture in the Bodleian Library, Oxford._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - SWIFT. - - -Jonathan Swift, by an account in his own handwriting, was the son of an -attorney in the city of Dublin. He was born in 1667. Some doubt has been -felt concerning his origin, in consequence of his own angry or -capricious declaration, when out of humour with Ireland,—“I am not of -this vile country; I am an Englishman;” and Sir William Temple has been -said to be his real father. This piece of scandal, however, is disproved -by circumstances of time and place. Swift was placed at Trinity College, -Dublin, at the age of fourteen. Whether through idleness, or contempt of -the prescribed studies, at the end of four years he could only obtain -his Bachelor’s degree _speciali gratiâ_; a term denoting want of merit. -This disgrace so affected him, that for the following seven years he -studied eight hours a day. In 1688 Sir William Temple, whose lady was -related to Swift’s mother, took him under his protection, and paid the -expenses of his residence at Oxford for a Master’s degree. On quitting -that University, Swift lived with Temple as his domestic companion. To a -long illness contracted during this period in consequence of a surfeit -he ascribed that frequently recurring giddiness which annoyed him -through life, and sent him to the grave deprived of reason. - -While under Sir William Temple’s roof, Swift rendered material -assistance in the revision of his patron’s works, and corrected and -improved his own ‘Tale of a Tub,’ which had been sketched out previously -to his quitting Dublin. It was published in 1704. He never avowed -himself its author; but he did not deny it when Archbishop Sharpe and -the Duchess of Somerset, according to some accounts, showed it to Queen -Anne, and thereby debarred him from a bishopric. From Temple’s -conversation Swift much increased his political knowledge; and his early -impressions were naturally in favour of the Whigs: but he suspected his -patron of neglecting to provide for him, from a desire of retaining his -services. This produced a quarrel, and the friends parted in 1694. Swift -took orders, and obtained a prebend in the north of Ireland; but at -Temple’s earnest request he soon resigned that preferment, and returned -to England. A sincere reconciliation took place, and they lived together -in the utmost harmony till Sir William’s death in 1699. Swift, in -testimony of his esteem, wrote ‘The Battle of the Books,’ of which his -friend is the hero; and Temple by his will left him a legacy in money, -and the profit as well as care of his posthumous works. Swift had -indulged hopes, not without good reason, of being well provided for in -the English church, through Temple’s interest. Failing in these hopes, -he accepted the post of private secretary and chaplain to the Earl of -Berkeley, on the appointment of that nobleman to be one of the Lords -Justices of Ireland. By this new patron he seems to have been ill used. -He was soon displaced from his post, on the plea of its unfitness for a -clergyman. He was then promised the rich deanery of Derry; but that -preferment was bestowed on another person, and Swift could only procure -the livings of Laracor and Rathbeggin, which together did not amount to -more than half the value of the deanery. During his residence at -Laracor, he performed the duties of a parish priest with punctuality and -devotion, notwithstanding some occasional sallies of no very decorous or -well-timed humour, which coupled with the suspicions founded on the -anonymous ‘Tale of a Tub,’ fixed on him an imputation of insincerity in -his Christian profession, from which the opinion of posterity seems to -have absolved him. - -During his incumbency at Laracor, he invited to Ireland a lady with whom -he became acquainted while with Sir William Temple. She was the daughter -of Temple’s steward, whose name was Johnson. About the year 1701, at the -age of eighteen, she went to Ireland, to reside near Swift, accompanied -by Mrs. Dingley, a lady fifteen years older than herself. Miss Johnson -was Swift’s celebrated Stella. Whether Swift’s first impulse in giving -this invitation had a view to marriage, or the cultivation of friendship -only, is uncertain. His whole conduct with respect to women was most -mysterious: apparently highly capricious, and, whatever might be its -secret motive, utterly unwarrantable. The reason assigned by the two -ladies for transferring their residence to Ireland was, “that the -interest of money was higher than in England, and provisions cheap.” -Every possible precaution was taken to prevent scandal: Swift and Miss -Johnson did not live together, nor were they ever known to meet except -in presence of a third person. Owing to this scrupulous prudence, the -lady’s fame, during fifteen years, was never questioned, nor was her -society avoided by the most scrupulous. In 1716 they were privately -married, but with no change in their mode of life: she never lodged in -the Deanery, except during those fits of giddiness and approaching -mental aberration, during which a woman, then of middle age, might -venture without breach of decorum to nurse an elderly man. - -In 1701 Swift had published his ‘Dissensions in Athens and Rome;’ his -first political work, in behalf of King William and his ministers, -against the violent proceedings of the House of Commons. According to -Lord Orrery, from that year to 1708 he did not write any political -pamphlet; but he made frequent journeys to England during the whole of -Queen Anne’s reign. Between 1708 and 1710 he changed his politics, -worked hard against the Whigs among whom he had been educated, and -plunged into political controversy, with a view to open the road to -power for the Tories. The year 1710 produced the ‘Examiner,’ of which he -wrote thirty-three papers. In that year commenced his acquaintance with -Harley, who introduced him to St. John and the rest of the ministers. At -this period he dined every Saturday at Harley’s, with the Lord Keeper, -Mr. Secretary St. John, and Lord Rivers, to the exclusion of all other -persons. He may, therefore, be considered at this time as the -confidential friend of the ministry, and almost a member of their -cabinet. The company was afterwards enlarged to sixteen, including -Swift; all men of the first class in society. He now put forth all his -strength in support of the Tory party, in pamphlets, periodical papers, -and political poems. Amidst all this political agitation, he wrote down -the occurrences of every day, whether consisting of conferences with -ministers, or quarrels with his own servant, in a regular journal to -Stella. - -In 1712, ten days before the meeting of parliament, he published a -pamphlet, entitled ‘The Conduct of the Allies,’ to facilitate peace, on -which the stability, almost the personal safety of the ministers, seemed -to depend. He professes that this piece cost him much pains, and no -writer was ever more successful. A sale of eleven thousand copies in two -months was in those days unprecedented: the Tory members in both houses -drew their arguments from it, and the resolutions of parliament were -little more than a string of quotations. During that year and the next -he continued to exert himself with unwearied diligence. In 1713 he -carried to the then latest date the first sketch of the ‘History of the -last four Years of Queen Anne.’ Lord Bolingbroke, when called on for his -opinion, was sincere enough to speak of it as “a seasonable pamphlet for -the administration, but a dishonour to just history.” Swift himself was -proud of it, but professed his willingness to sacrifice it to his -friend’s opinion. It was, however, published, but with no addition to -the author’s fame. - -The Queen is said to have intended to promote him to a bishopric; but -the story is involved in obscurity. That Archbishop Sharpe had dissuaded -her from so doing by representing his belief in Christianity as -questionable, is not ascertained by any satisfactory evidence; but -whether that were so or not, Johnson’s suggestion seems probable, that -the difficulty arose from those clerical supporters of the ministry, -“who were not yet reconciled to the author of the ‘Tale of a Tub,’ and -would not, without much discontent and indignation, have borne to see -him installed in an English cathedral.” The deanery of St. Patrick, in -Dublin, was therefore offered to him, and he accepted it. With high -pretensions to independent equality with the ministers, and a -disinterested support of their measures, it cannot be doubted that he -viewed this Irish preferment as a sentence of exile, and was bitterly -disappointed. But his temper was too intractable to submit to play the -part of a courtier; and it is probable that his English friends were not -ill pleased to promote him to competence and dignity at a distance. His -feelings are characteristically expressed in one of his letters: “I use -the ministry like dogs, because I expect they will use me so. I never -knew a ministry do anything for those whom they made companions of their -pleasures; but I care not.” - -He had indeed little reason to rejoice at first in the land where his -lot had fallen: on his arrival in Ireland to take possession of his -deanery, he found the country under the strongest excitement of party -violence. The populace looked on him as a Jacobite, and threw stones at -him as he walked the streets. His chapter received him with reluctance, -and thwarted him in whatever he proposed. Ordinary talents and firmness -must have sunk under such general hostility. But the revolutions of the -Dean’s life were strange; and he, who began with the hatred of the Irish -mob, lived to govern them with the authority of a despot. - -He had not been in Ireland more than a fortnight when he returned to -England for the purpose of attempting, but in vain, a reconciliation -between the Lords Oxford and Bolingbroke. While in England, he wrote his -‘Free Thoughts on the Present State of Affairs.’ He was probably still -watching the issues of time or chance; but the Queen’s death sealed his -political and clerical doom, and he returned to Ireland. To the interval -between 1714 and 1720 Lord Orrery ascribes ‘Gulliver’s Travels.’ His -mind was at this time much engrossed by a remarkable circumstance. He -had formed an intimacy in England with the family of a Dutch merchant, -named Vanhomrigh. The eldest daughter, strangely enough, became -enamoured of Swift’s mind, for it could not be of a most homely person, -nearly fifty years of age. She proposed marriage: this he declined, and -wrote his poem of ‘Cadenus and Vanessa’ on the occasion. On her mother’s -death, the young lady and her sister followed him to Ireland; the -intercourse was continued, and the proposal renewed on her part. This it -was absolutely necessary to decline, as the Dean was already married; -but he lived with Stella on the same distant footing as before, and was -reluctant either to inflict pain, or to forego his own pleasure, by an -avowal of the insuperable obstacle. Vanessa continued to receive his -visits, but so guardedly as not absolutely to forfeit her good name. She -became however more and more urgent; and peremptorily pressed him to -accept or reject her as his wife. Failing to obtain a direct answer, she -addressed a note to Miss Johnson, desiring to know whether she were -married to him, or not. Stella sent this note to Swift, who in a -paroxysm of anger rode to Vanessa’s house, threw a paper containing her -own note on the table, and quitted her without a word. This blow she did -not survive many weeks. She died in 1723, having first cancelled a will -in the Dean’s favour. - -Vanessa by will ordered her correspondence with Swift to be published, -as well as ‘Cadenus and Vanessa,’ in which he had proclaimed her -excellence and confessed his love. The letters were suppressed; the poem -was published. This, whether meant as an apology for herself, or as a -posthumous triumph over her more successful rival, occasioned a great -shock and distress both to Stella and the Dean. It is said that at -length, probably as a softening to the mortification incident to the -public discovery of his passion for Vanessa, he desired that Stella -might be publicly owned as his wife; but her health was rapidly -declining. She said, perhaps petulantly, “It is too late,” and insisted -that they should continue to live as before. To this the Dean consented, -and allowed her to dispose of her fortune, by her own name, in public -charity. She died in 1727. - -By Stella’s death Swift’s happiness was deeply affected. He became by -degrees more misanthropic, and ungovernable in temper; and more miserly -in his personal habits, while at the same time he devoted to charity a -large part, it is said one-third, of his income. In 1736 his deafness -and giddiness became alarming, and his mental powers gradually declined. -In 1741 his friends found it necessary that guardians should be -appointed over his person and estate. In 1742 his reason was entirely -overthrown; he became lethargic and, except at short intervals, -speechless. On the 30th of November his housekeeper told him that the -customary preparations were making to celebrate his birthday: he found -words to answer, “It is all folly; they had better let it alone.” He -died the latter end of October, 1745; in his seventy-eighth year. With -the exception of some few legacies, he left his fortune, amounting to -about twelve thousand pounds, to the building of an hospital for idiots -and lunatics. - -The extent and variety of Swift’s writings render it necessary to -confine our notice to two or three of his most curious productions. Of -the ‘Tale of a Tub,’ which, being regarded as an attack upon all -religion, brought down a weight of censure on the author, against which -he protested in the preface to a later edition, Dr. Johnson says that -“it has little resemblance to his other pieces. It exhibits a vehemence -and rapidity of mind, a copiousness of images, and vivacity of diction, -such as he afterwards never possessed or never exerted. It is a mode so -distinct and peculiar, that it must be considered by itself; what is -true of that is not true of anything else which he has written. In his -other works is found an equable tenor of easy language, which rather -trickles than flows.” - -‘Gulliver’s Travels’ are now probably better known to the public than -any other of his productions. That work is a moral and political -romance, exhibiting a wonderful specimen of irregular genius. Not only -are human actions placed in the most unfavourable light, but human -nature itself is libelled. His wayward temper and his ill-concealed -disappointment had put him out of conceit with the world; misanthropy -had made some inroad into his heart, and, with his pen in his hand, he -indulged in the expression of it with affected exaggeration. But however -offensive to good feeling the satire might be, the imagination and wit -which pervade this extraordinary work will always attract some readers, -while the simple, circumstantial air of truth with which such -extravagant fictions are related is a source of amusement to less -refined tastes. - -Neither are the ‘Drapier’s Letters,’ written in 1724, less remarkable, -although the temporary nature of the subject has divested them of all -interest, except as samples of the powers of his mind and the character -of his style. Lord Orrery calls them “those brazen monuments of his -fame.” A patent had been taken out by one Wood for a copper coinage for -Ireland, to the amount of one hundred and eighty thousand pounds in -halfpence and farthings, by which the projector, at least as was alleged -by the opponents of the ministry, would have gained exorbitant profit, -and the nation would of course have incurred proportionate loss. The -Dean, in the character of a Drapier, wrote a series of letters, exposing -the folly and mischief of giving gold and silver for a debased coin -probably not worth a third of its nominal value. He urged the people to -refuse this copper money; and the nation acted on the Drapier’s advice. -The government took the alarm at this seditious resistance to the King’s -patent, and offered three hundred pounds reward for the discovery of the -author of the fourth letter; but his precautions were so well taken, and -his popularity so universal, that, though known to be the author, the -proclamation failed to touch him. The popular indignation rose to such a -height that Wood was compelled to withdraw his patent, and the base -money was totally suppressed. From this time forward the Dean, who at -his first arrival in Ireland had been most unpopular, possessed -unlimited influence; he was consulted on all measures of domestic -policy; persons of all ranks either courted or feared him; national -gratitude was expressed by all ranks in their various ways; the Drapier -was a toast at every convivial meeting, and the sign of his head insured -custom to an ale-house. - -His letters are remarkable for the pure English of their style: there is -little of solid information to be derived from them; but the most -trifling anecdotes of distinguished men find ready acceptation with a -large class of readers. - -As a poet, in the higher sense of the word, we rank Swift’s claims to -honour very humbly. But he possessed uncommon power of correct, easy, -and familiar versification; which, with his racy vein of humour, will -secure him admirers among those who can pardon his offensive grossness. - -Delany, an Irishman to the backbone, gives the following character of -him: “No man ever deserved better of any country, than Swift did of his; -a steady, persevering, inflexible friend; a wise, a watchful, and a -faithful counsellor, under many severe trials and bitter persecutions, -to the manifest hazard both of his liberty and fortune.” With respect to -his conversation and private economy some particulars may be worth -mentioning. His rule never to speak more than a minute at a time, and to -wait for others to take up the conversation, it were well if professed -talkers would adopt. He excelled in telling a story, but told the same -too often; an infirmity which grew on him, as it does on others, in -advancing life. He was churlish to his servants, but in the main a kind -and generous master. He was unceremonious and overbearing, sometimes -brutal; but in company which he respected, not coarse, although his -politeness was in a form peculiar to himself. He considered wealth as -the pledge of independence; but his frugality towards the close of his -life amounted to avarice. As we have represented some features of his -character in no very amiable light, we will conclude with an anecdote -which shows the kindly portion of his nature to advantage. In the high -tide of his influence, he was often rallied by the ministers for never -coming to them without a Whig in his sleeve: whatever might have been -his expectations from the unsolicited gratitude of his party, he never -pressed his own claims personally; but he often solicited favours from -Lord Oxford in behalf of Addison, Congreve, Rowe, and Steele. Personal -merit rather than political principles directed his choice of friends. -His intimacy with Addison was formed when they used to meet at the -parties of Lord Halifax or Lord Somers, who were leaders of the Whigs; -but it continued unabated when the Tories had gained the ascendency. - -Swift’s works have gone through many editions in various forms. The -latest and best is that of Sir Walter Scott. That man must be considered -fortunate in his biographers, of whom memoirs have been handed down, -with more or less detail, by Lord Orrery, Dr. Delany, Dr. Hawkesworth, -Dr. Sheridan, Dr. Johnson, and Sir W. Scott. - -[Illustration: [Gulliver in Lilliput, from a Design by Stothard.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Posselwhite._ - - LOCKE. - - _From the original Picture by Sir G. Kneller in the Hall of Christ - Church, Oxford._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - LOCKE. - - -John Locke was born August 29, 1632, at Wrington, a village of -Somersetshire, about eight miles from Bristol. He was the eldest of two -sons of John Locke, a man of some property, who had been bred to the -law, but became afterwards a captain under Cromwell. In those turbulent -times he met with losses which diminished his fortune, and he left an -inconsiderable inheritance to his son. Locke received his education at -Westminster School, and Christ Church, Oxford. While an undergraduate he -was chosen to write a welcome on the occasion of a visit which Cromwell -paid to that University, just after the conclusion of his peace with the -Dutch. This he did in a laudatory copy of verses in English and Latin, -comparing the great Protector to Julius for warlike, and to Augustus for -peaceful, accomplishments. This and some Latin verses, prefixed to a -work of Sydenham’s, are Locke’s only poetical attempts. There is little -merit in either. He was a great admirer of the meagre verse of Sir -Richard Blackmore, which is no great evidence of his poetical taste. -Between the degrees of Bachelor and Master of Arts he was elected -Student of his college. From that time he applied himself diligently, -for many years, to the study of medicine, without, however, practising -it as a matter of gain. The weakness of his health probably gave this -turn to his thoughts: his brother died of consumption; and he himself -was apprehensive through life of falling a victim to the same disease. -In 1664 he went abroad as secretary to Sir W. Swan, envoy to the court -of Brandenburg; and on his return to Oxford the year following, he -applied himself to the discovery of the effects of the air on the human -frame. His first work, published in 1667, was a register of the -variations in the atmosphere, determined between certain periods by the -common instruments, as a supplement to a work by Boyle. - -He was amusing himself with such enquiries, when one of the slight but -important accidents of life brought him an acquaintance, whose influence -determined his future course. A friend, being obliged to take a journey, -desired Locke to make his excuses to Lord Ashley (afterwards Earl of -Shaftesbury) for not having procured for him some mineral waters against -his arrival in Oxford. When Lord Ashley did arrive, Locke carried this -message to him. They were mutually pleased with each other, and this -acquaintance speedily grew up into a strict friendship. Locke’s advice -determined Lord Ashley to submit to a surgical operation, by which, it -is said, the life of the patient was saved; and he was received into the -house, and practised his profession in the family and amongst a few -private friends of his noble patron. While living in this way, his -thoughts were turned into the channel of politics by the advice of his -new associates; and, taking up that study earnestly, he was soon able to -advise and assist Ashley in all his plans of state, becoming at the same -time the referee of his private affairs. This warm friendship is -singular, considering the purity of Locke’s life, and the notoriously -bad character, public and private, of his noble patron. But the latter -was an eloquent orator, and an admirable talker; and it was probably -this latter quality which attached Locke so much. He had so great an -esteem for good conversation, as to give it a first place in the -formation of a man’s mind, calling books the raw material, and social -talk, with meditation, the true architects of our mental constructions. -In 1668 Locke attended the Earl and Countess of Northumberland to -France. But some accident caused him soon to return to his old residence -with Shaftesbury, for whom he drew up the fundamental laws of Carolina, -which had just been granted to him and other lords. Two of the articles -of this settlement gave great offence to the clergy, and were expunged. -They are remarkable, and should be mentioned. One was, “That no man that -doth not acknowledge a God, and that God publicly worshipped, should be -a freeman or inhabitant of Carolina.” The other was a proposition, that -any seven persons agreeing in a form of worship should be esteemed a -church, and be supported by the state. The Church of England, however, -was alone established in that colony. In 1671 Locke began to form his -great Essay on the Human Understanding; but his engagements with -Shaftesbury prevented its immediate completion. The year following, his -patron becoming Chancellor, Locke was made secretary of presentations, -which office he speedily lost on the partial disgrace of the Earl, who, -still remaining President of the Board of Trade, appointed him secretary -to a commission of inquiry into the state of trade, and the colonial -plantations. This office he also lost in the same manner, upon Lord -Shaftesbury’s total disgrace in 1674. - -Having retained his studentship, Locke then retired to Oxford, partly -for his health’s sake, and partly to pursue his old medical studies. He -took the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in this year. It appears that he -continued to pay some attention to these studies until an advanced age: -for in 1697 he communicated to the Royal Society the history of a -curious case which he had seen at the great hospital of La Charité, -during his residence in Paris. In 1675, in hope of obtaining relief from -an asthmatical complaint, he went to Montpellier. There was also another -reason for this journey. He had just published an anonymous pamphlet for -Shaftesbury, blaming the conduct of the House of Lords in the matter of -the Test Act, containing a vehement abuse of the bishops, and of what he -called their favourite doctrine, “the divine right” of kings and -priests. This pamphlet does not appear in the folio edition of his -works; it was anonymous, like most of his other productions. The odium -consequent upon it made his absence from England expedient, if not -necessary. During his stay abroad Locke kept a journal of what he saw, -did, and thought. In it we find the heads of many of his future works, -which are very concise and valuable; but the narrative is dry, and the -attempts at humour not very successful: he seems however to have been as -observant of what relates to the external world, as he was of the -intellectual. In 1679, Shaftesbury, on being made President of the -Council, summoned Locke to England. But the old statesman’s favour was -short lived: he was committed to the Tower in July, 1681, and soon after -his release, retired to Holland, where he died in January, 1683. Locke -accompanied him, and continued his faithful services until death. For -seventeen years he had been Shaftesbury’s constant partizan and adviser; -and the odium attached to that nobleman clung to himself, and prevented -his return to England for many years. In 1683 he was reported by the -English envoy at the Hague to be on terms of intimacy with the -malcontents in Holland; upon which the secretary (Sunderland) wrote to -Dr. Fell, the Dean of Christ Church, ordering his expulsion from -college. This mandate was not immediately complied with: the Dean -declared that for many years he had watched the conduct of Locke, and -even tried to entrap him into an exposure of his political sentiments, -but had always found him too wary. He allowed Locke time to come and -defend himself, which he would not do, and then expelled him from his -studentship. - -On the accession of James II., William Penn, the quaker of Pennsylvania, -being in some favour with the King, would have procured a pardon for -Locke, but he refused the offer, through a friend, as having been guilty -of no crime. In May, 1685, the English ambassador demanded him of the -States-General, of the pretext that he was concerned in the unsuccessful -expedition of the Duke of Monmouth. It is supposed that he owed this bad -turn partly to the malice of the envoy himself, as his name did not -appear in the list of those required which was sent from England. He -neither liked the person nor the invasion of the duke, and was at -Utrecht when the armament of that unfortunate nobleman sailed from the -Texel. Locke was not given up, but was obliged to hide himself for about -a year in the house of his friend M. Veen, at Amsterdam, receiving -assurance from the local authorities that timely warning should be given -him of pressing danger. He was obliged to conceal himself so closely as -only to take his exercise during the night. It is probable that the real -cause of this persecution was his first letter on Toleration, written in -Latin about this time, and addressed to his friend Limborch, the -sentiments of which were peculiarly offensive to the English court. - -Locke had now time to attend to his own affairs, being no longer taken -up with those of a patron. He busied himself in the completion of his -Essay concerning Human Understanding, which was not, however, printed -till 1689. The extracting of passages from various works for reviewal in -Le Clerc’s literary journal, the Bibliothèque Universelle, the formation -and continuation of a small society for the weekly discussion of all -subjects, the members of which were his friends Le Clerc, Limborch, -Guenelon, and others, and the abridgment of his Essay, served to fill up -his time during the remainder of his stay in Holland. In 1689 he -published a second letter on Toleration, and early in the same year -returned to his native country in the fleet which conducted the Princess -of Orange to the throne of England. The Revolution had completely -changed the face of affairs in Locke’s favour; he was considered a -martyr to its principles, and was esteemed accordingly by its authors. -On his return he immediately petitioned William to cause him to be -reinstated in his studentship; but the College refused to restore him, -offering at the same time to make him a supernumerary student. This he -would not accept; because he felt it not to be a full reparation of the -injustice he had suffered. He allowed the matter to drop. - -If Locke had been ambitious, his path to political advancement was now -open. William offered him the ambassadorship to the Imperial Court, or -to that of Brandenburg. He refused both these high appointments; but -accepted a Commissionership of Appeals from his friend Lord Mordaunt, -afterwards Earl of Peterborough. This office was worth only £200 a year. -His friends Sir Francis and Lady Masham (a daughter of the celebrated -Cudworth) prevailed on him to take apartments in their house at Oates in -Essex; between which place and his office in London he spent the -remainder of his life. In 1690 Locke published his Treatise on Civil -Government. The folio edition of his Essay, and a Letter on Education, -appeared in the latter part of the same year. In 1692 he produced a -third Letter on Toleration. The state of the coinage being a subject of -great importance at that time, he took it into consideration, and -published ‘Certain Thoughts on the State of English Silver Money, &c.,’ -in a letter to a member of parliament. This treatise was thought so -good, that when the matter was inquired into by the government, Locke -was consulted, and his advice taken with respect to the new coinage. In -consequence of this important assistance, he received from William III. -a Commissionership of Foreign Trade and Plantations, the value of which -was £1000 a year. The King was exceedingly desirous of a comprehension -with the dissenters, and to forward his views Locke wrote his -‘Reasonableness of Christianity.’ This book involved him in a religious -controversy with Dr. Edwards, who attacked its opinions in his ‘Socinian -Unmasked,’ to which Locke replied by two vindications, each of them -longer than the original work. No sooner had he finished this labour -than he was called upon to encounter a fresh and more able antagonist. -Toland and some other Unitarians having turned to their own use some of -the arguments in Locke’s Essay, Dr. Stillingfleet, the learned Bishop of -Worcester, confounded Locke with that party. In his defence of the -doctrine of the Trinity the Bishop severely censured various passages of -Locke’s great work, as tending to subvert some of the fundamental -doctrines of Christianity; Locke replied, and there was an alternation -of answers between them till the Bishop’s death. That event took place -soon after Locke’s third answer, which was the last thing he ever -published. These replies of Locke are reputed to be most finished -specimens of a grave and subtle irony, too refined perhaps to be -generally perceived by the uninitiated eye. - -In 1700 Locke’s weak state of health induced him to retire from public -life. He resigned his situation in a personal interview with the King, -giving no previous notice of his intention to the conductors of the -government, and refusing the pension which his master wished him to -accept. He took up his residence at Oates, where he passed the remainder -of his life in reading and contemplating the Scriptures. He often -regretted that he had not more occupied himself in this study. The piety -of his latter years was without formality or ostentation, not arising -from that sense of disappointment, or irksomeness for want of -employment, which often leads men to seek refuge in a late devotion. -Neither Locke’s mental nor bodily senses failed him to his last moments, -though the year before his death was passed in extreme weakness. On -taking the sacrament he declared “that he was in peace with all men, and -in sincere union with the Church of Christ, by whatever name -distinguished.” The affectionate attentions of Lady Masham softened the -pain of his last illness, and he died gently in his chair while she was -reading to him one of the Psalms of David, October 28, 1704, in his -seventy-third year. He died, unmarried, from the natural decay of an -originally weak constitution. He was buried in the churchyard at High -Laver, near Oates, under a decent monument. His epitaph had been written -some years before, by himself, in Latin[3]. He left behind him many -unpublished works, among which his ‘Conduct of the Understanding’ stands -highest. ‘An Examination of Malebranche’s opinion of seeing all things -in God; ‘A Discourse of Miracles;’ part of a fourth letter on the -subject of Toleration; some imperfect memorial sketches of the life of -the Earl of Shaftesbury; a new method for a commonplace-book; and -paraphrases of several of the epistles of St. Paul, make up the list of -his posthumous works, almost all of which were translated into French by -Le Clerc and others, and appeared (together with those published by -himself) in three folio volumes, not many years after his death. A great -many of his letters to his friends Molyneux and Limborch are also -published in this edition. There remain many more which have been given -to the world by various hands, addressed to the Earl of Peterborough, -Dr. Mapletoft, &c., and to Newton. In Lord King’s life of Locke his -correspondence with the latter is given at full length, and is very -curious,—chiefly relating to subjects they were both engaged in, the -prophecies and miracles. - -Footnote 3: - - “Siste, viator; juxta situs est J. L. Si qualis fuerit rogas, - mediocritate suâ contentum se vixisse respondet. Literis innutritus - eousque tantum profecit ut veritati unicà studeret. Hoc ex scriptis - illius disce; quæ, quod de eo reliquum est, majori fide tibi - exhibebunt, quam epitaphii suspecta elogia. Virtutis si quas habuit, - minores sane quam quas sibi laudi, tibi in exemplum proponeret. Vitia - una sepeliantur. Morum exemplum si quæras, in evangelio habes - (vitiorum utinam nusquam), mortalis certè quod prosit hic et ubique. - Natum . . . . Mortuum . . . . Memorat hac tabula brevi et ipsa - interitura.” - -That which has assured to Locke imperishable fame is the ‘Essay -concerning Human Understanding.’ This great work, however, met with -considerable obloquy at first: the heads of colleges at Oxford even -endeavoured to prevent its being read in their University. The Essay is -in the hands of all; the writings of its opponents, comparatively -speaking, are forgotten. It will be generally admitted, that in it Locke -laid the foundation of modern metaphysical philosophy. - -Two of Locke’s chief works, the ‘Treatise on Civil Government,’ and -‘Essay on Education,’ are more capable of a short analysis. The former -may be taken as an expression of his own opinions in defence of the -Revolution. It is divided into two parts. The first contains an exposure -of the fallacies of Sir Robert Filmer’s ‘Patriarcha,’ arguing that Adam -had not such natural or gifted right of dominion as Filmer pretends; -that if he had, his heirs had not; that if they had, yet there is no -general law, divine or human, which determines the right of succession, -much less of bearing rule; lastly, that if such right had been -determined, yet the eldest line from Adam being unknown, no man can -pretend more than another to that right of inheritance; consequently, -that some other source of political power must be found than “Adam’s -private dominion and paternal jurisdiction.” Locke proceeds in the -second part to declare his opinion as to what this other source may be. -He argues, that originally the executive power was in the hands of each -individual; but, by mutual consent, for mutual benefit, as men grew into -societies, political power was created, and given to persons chosen from -the whole body by the major part of such societies. He protests against -absolute power, as not expressing the will of the majority; but defends -prerogative, as a discretionary power lodged in the hands of the -executive government. He maintains that this compact must be held -sacred, but reverts to the society if its duration was declared -temporary, or upon the misconduct of rulers or delegates. When -forfeited, the will of the society may create new forms of government; -or, under the old form, continue it in other hands. - -The Essay on Education is expressly for the use of gentlemen, since “if -that class be properly tended the rest will follow of course.” The -child, he says, should have much air and exercise, should be accustomed -to little sleep and early habits. That superstitious terrors, and the -frequent use of the rod should be carefully avoided; that the boy should -be used to suffer pain gradually, to harden him, but not as a -punishment; that the parents’ authority should be perfect over the -child, and be gradually taken off, till the relation between them -becomes a confiding friendship; that particular attention be paid to his -manners, so that his courage, learning, wit, plainness, and good-nature, -do not turn to brutality, pedantry, buffoonery, rusticity, and fawning. -He says, that the child’s curiosity should be encouraged; that he should -learn by games, and his attainments never be forced; that he should not -be left to flounder in difficulties, but helped through them. Locke -prefers a careful tutor to a public school: he says that a boy stands a -better chance of being both virtuous and well-bred under the care of the -former. What he should know is Latin, Greek, a little mathematics, how -to keep accounts; the less of logic the better; he should write a good -hand; and a virtuous youth so bred, “one may turn loose into the world -with great assurance that he will find employment and esteem -everywhere.” He further recommends that the boy should travel between -the ages of eight and sixteen, rather than between sixteen and twenty -one; and that when he comes of age he had better not marry according to -the usual custom, but wait some years, that his children “may not tread -too closely on his heels.” - -The habit of Locke’s mind was perhaps originally severe; but from -constant social intercourse with men of all characters and opinions, was -rendered mild and equable. Nothing seems to have provoked him into a -loss of temper so much as being forced into argument with professed -logicians. He calls the logical method taught at Oxford an ill, if not -the worst way of acquiring knowledge and seeking truth. He was fond of -the society of children, and would enter into the enjoyments of riper -youth with facility. He was entrusted by his patron with the education -and marriage of his son, who was the father of the author of the -‘Characteristics.’ The latter nobleman (the third Earl of Shaftesbury) -owed much to Locke’s care, and was his eulogist. - -Locke was of a cautious if not timid disposition. This appears from many -of his letters, and may be inferred from the anonymous publication of -most of his writings. His weak health, the political persecution to -which he was exposed during great part of his life, and the discipline -to which he was subjected in childhood, which was strict and severe, in -some measure account for this failing. His friendships were very steady; -witness his close adherence to his patron Shaftesbury. Sydenham’s -contemporary and friendly character of Locke is remarkable: he says, in -a prefatory letter to one of his works, that “if we consider his genius, -his penetrating and exact judgment, and the strictness of his morals, he -has scarcely any superior, and few equals now living.” - -[Illustration: [Reverse of a French Medal of Locke.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by Rob^t. Hart._ - - SELDEN. - - _From a Picture attributed to Sir Peter Lely in the Bodleian Library, - Oxford._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - SELDEN. - - -John Selden was born at Salvington, a hamlet of Tarring, near Worthing, -in the county of Sussex, December 16, 1584 (O.S.). His father, according -to Wood, “was a sufficient plebeian,” who, through some skill in music, -obtained as his wife Margaret Baker, a daughter of a knightly family of -the county of Kent. The baptism of his eminent son, as well as his own -musical talents, are noticed in an existing parish registry in these -words: “1584.—Johnne, sonne of John Selden, the minstrell, was baptised -the XXX^{th} day of December.” The house in which the family lived was -called Lacies, and the estate of the father consisted, in 1606, of -eighty-one acres, of the annual value of about twenty-three pounds. John -Selden, the son, received his early education at the Free Grammar-School -of Chichester. At the age of fourteen he entered at Hart Hall, Oxford. -After residing four years at the University, he was admitted, in 1602, a -member of Clifford’s Inn, one of the dependencies of the greater inns of -court, in which students of law were formerly accustomed to commence -their legal education. He removed in May, 1604, to the Inner Temple. His -attention appears to have been early drawn to the study of civil and -legal history, and antiquities; he did not court the more active -business of his profession, and his employment at the bar was limited. -In 1607, he prepared for the press his first work, entitled ‘Analectωn -Anglo-Britannicωn,’ being a collection of civil and ecclesiastical -matters relating to Britain, of a date anterior to the Norman conquest. -This was soon followed by three other works of a similar character, and -in 1614 he printed his ‘Treatise upon Titles of Honour.’ The last of -these works has been considered in our courts of law to be of great -authority, and has been usually spoken of with much commendation. -Pursuing his legal inquiries, he edited, in 1616, two treatises, one of -Sir John Fortescue, the other of Sir Ralph Hengham, and in the same year -wrote a ‘Discourse on the Office of Lord Chancellor.’ In the next year -he printed a work, ‘De Diis Syris,’ which added to his celebrity, but is -not compiled with that attention to the value of the respective -authorities cited, so essentially necessary to the accurate -consideration of historical questions. His next work was a ‘History of -Tithes,’ printed in 1618, which excited against him the bitter hostility -of the clergy. The doctrine of divine right, as the foundation of many -ecclesiastical claims, was at this time jealously maintained, and was -considered to be peculiarly connected with the right of the clergy to -tithes. Selden drew no direct conclusion against the divine nature of -the right to tithes, but he had so arranged his authorities as to render -such a conclusion inevitable. The nature only of the title was -contested, and so far from the clergy having had any reason to look upon -Selden as an enemy, he in fact strengthened their claim to tithes by -placing it upon the same footing as any ordinary title to property. As -soon as the ‘History’ appeared it was attacked. The High Commission -Court summoned Selden before it, and to this tribunal he was compelled -to apologise. The terms of his submission very accurately state the -offence, and are expressive of regret that “he had offered any occasion -of argument against any right of maintenance _jure divino_ of the -ministers of the gospel.” The work received several answers, but Selden -was forbidden by James I., under a threat of imprisonment, to notice -them. “All that will,” said he, “have liberty, and some use it, to write -and preach what they will against me, to abuse my name, my person, my -profession, with as many falsehoods as they please, and my hands are -tied: I must not so much as answer their calumnies. I am so far from -writing more, that I have scarce ventured for my own safety so much as -to say they abuse me, though I know it.” - -Hardly had this storm passed, when he became involved in the disputes -between the Crown and the House of Commons. One of the earliest steps of -that body, upon the convocation of Parliament in 1621, was to present a -remonstrance on the state of public affairs. This was succeeded by the -memorable protestation of December 18, in which the liberty of the -subject was asserted, and the right of the Commons to offer advice to -the Crown was insisted on. This protestation was erased from the -journals of the House by the King’s own hands, and the parliament was -dissolved. Selden, whose advice, though he was not then a member, had -been requested by the House in this dispute, was in consequence -imprisoned, and detained in confinement five weeks. His release was -owing to the intercession of Bishop Williams, who represented him to be -“a man who hath excellent parts, which might be diverted from an -affectation of pleasing idle people to do some good and useful service -to his Majesty.” On his release, he dedicated to Williams his edition of -Eadmer’s contemporary ‘History of England, from the Norman Conquest to -the death of Henry I.,’ which he had prepared for the press during his -confinement. - -When the next parliament assembled in 1624, Selden sat in it as member -for the borough of Lancaster. Though nominated upon several committees, -he took no active share in the general business of the House. About this -time also he was appointed one of the readers of the Inner Temple; but -he refused the office, and was in consequence for some time disabled to -be advanced to the rank of a bencher of the inn. Upon the accession of -Charles I. a new parliament was called, in which Selden sat for the -borough of Great Bedwin. This parliament was almost immediately -dissolved, and another summoned, to which Selden was again returned for -the same borough as before. The Commons immediately entered upon a -consideration of the conduct of the Duke of Buckingham, and his -impeachment being resolved on, Selden was one of the members appointed -to prepare the articles, and was named a manager for their prosecution. -These proceedings were stopped by another dissolution of parliament in -June, 1626. But the necessities of the Crown requiring those supplies -which parliament refused without a redress of grievances, forced loans -were resorted to in the exercise of certain pretended owners of the -prerogative. In several instances these loans were refused; among others -by Sir Edward Hampden, who was imprisoned in consequence: and the -illegality of his commitment was very ably argued by Selden in the -King’s Bench. In the third parliament, called by Charles I. in 1628, -Selden sat for the borough of Ludgershall; and in the debates which -immediately took place upon illegal commitments, the levy of tonnage and -poundage, and the preparation of the Petition of Rights, he took a very -active share. The attack upon the Duke of Buckingham was renewed, and it -was proposed by Selden, that judgment should be demanded against him -upon the impeachment of the former parliament. As affecting a great -constitutional question, only finally determined in 1791, of the -continuance of impeachments, notwithstanding a dissolution of -parliament, the suggestion was remarkable. Further proceedings were, -however, stopped by the assassination of the Duke. - -During the prorogation of parliament, Selden again devoted himself to -literary pursuits. The Earl of Arundel, a great lover and promoter of -the arts, had received from the east many ancient marbles, having on -them Greek inscriptions. At the request of Sir Robert Cotton, these -inscriptions were transcribed under the superintendence of Selden, and -were published under the title of ‘Marmora Arundeliana.’ In January, -1629, parliament again assembled, and the debates upon public grievances -were renewed. The goods of several merchants, in the interval of the -meeting of parliament, had been seized by the Crown, to satisfy a claim -to the duty of tonnage and poundage. Among the sufferers was Rolls, a -member of the House. It was moved, that the seizure of his goods was a -breach of privilege. When the question was to be put, the Speaker said -“he durst not, for that the King had commanded to the contrary.” Selden -immediately rose, and vehemently complained of this conduct: “Dare you -not, Mr. Speaker, to put the question when we command you. If you will -not put it, we must sit still: thus, we shall never be able to do any -thing. They that come after you may say, that they have the King’s -commands not to do it. We sit here by the command of the King under the -great seal, and you are, by his Majesty, sitting in his royal chair -before both houses, appointed for our Speaker, and now refuse to do your -office.” The House then adjourned in a state of great excitement. When -it re-assembled, the Speaker was called upon to put the question, and -again refused. On this Holles and Valentine thrust the Speaker into the -chair, and held him down, while Sir Miles Hobart locked the door of the -house and took possession of the key. A declaration was then produced by -Sir John Elliot, which Colonel Stroud moved should be read, and himself -put the question. The motion was declared to be carried; and the -Speaker, refusing to act upon it, was charged by Sir P. Heyman with -cutting up the liberty of the subject by the roots. Selden moved that -the declaration should be read by the clerk, which was agreed to. The -House then adjourned to a day, previous to which the King came to the -House of Lords and dissolved the parliament, on account of “the -undutiful and seditious carriage of the Lower House,” without the -attendance of the Commons. Selden, and the other members concerned in -the violence offered to the Speaker, were committed to prison. This was -his last and most rigorous confinement. For some time he was denied the -use of pens, ink, paper, and books. When, after many weeks had elapsed, -he was brought up with the other prisoners before the King’s Bench upon -a writ of _habeas corpus_, their discharge was offered upon condition of -their finding bail for their good behaviour. “We demand,” said Selden, -“to be bailed in point of right; and if it be not grantable of right, we -do not demand it. But finding sureties for good behaviour is a point of -discretion merely, and we cannot assent to it without great offence to -the parliament where these matters, which are surmised by the return, -were acted.” They were remanded, and remained for a long time in prison, -where Elliot, one of the ablest members of the popular party, fell a -victim to his confinement. In 1634, Selden was suffered to go at large -upon bail, which was discontinued upon his petition to the Crown. During -his imprisonment he wrote a treatise, ‘De Successionibus in Bona -Defuncti ad Leges Ebræorum,’ and another, ‘De Successione in -Pontificatum Ebræorum.’ Both those works he dedicated to Archbishop -Laud; probably upon account of his being indebted to the Archbishop for -the loan of books. Not long after the recovery of his liberty, Selden -obtained the favour of Charles I., and dedicated to him his celebrated -essay on the ‘Mare Clausum,’ an argument in favour of the dominion of -the English over the four seas, copies of which were, by order of the -Privy Council, directed to be placed in the council chest, the Court of -Exchequer, and the Court of Admiralty. - -To the Long Parliament, which commenced its sittings in 1640, Selden was -unanimously returned by the University of Oxford; but neither this new -connexion with the clergy, nor the favour of Charles, appears to have -affected his opinions. Upon the first day of the sitting of parliament -he was nominated a member of the committee to inquire into the abuses of -the Earl Marshal’s Court, and was appointed with others to draw up a -remonstrance upon the state of the nation. He also sat upon the -committees which conducted the measures preparatory to the impeachment -of the Earl of Strafford, but he was not one of the managers before the -House of Lords; and his name was posted in Old Palace Yard as one of -“the enemies of justice,” a title given to those who were regarded as -favourable to the Earl. It is not very clear what his opinions upon the -impeachment were. That he should have been satisfied with all the steps -taken by his party is not possible, for his opinions were undoubtedly -moderate, and his studious habits must have checked any disposition to -violence. He was also nominated to frame the articles of impeachment -against Laud, and was a party to the resolutions against the legislative -powers of the bishops. The court, however, appears to have considered -him favourable to its interests, until he spoke against the commission -of array. Upon this question, Clarendon represents the influence of his -opinion upon the public to have been very prejudicial to Charles I. -About this time the great seal was offered to him. He declined it, -according to Clarendon, on account of his love of ease, and “that he -would not have made a journey to York or have been out of his own bed -for any preferment.” The reason which he himself assigned for refusing -it, was the impossibility of his rendering any service to the Crown. He -sat as member of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, and took the -covenant; yet he was not well affected to the Puritans, and declared -that “he was neither mad enough nor fool enough to deserve the name of -Puritan.” Upon the death of Dr. Eden, Master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, -in August, 1645, Selden was elected his successor, but declined to -accept the office. About this time he appears to have gradually -withdrawn from public business. His fondness of ease and his increasing -age, and the silence he preserved upon many important events, all -contribute to leave the inference of his approval or disapproval of much -of the conduct of the parliamentary leaders open to adverse parties. He -certainly never openly abandoned the popular side, nor does he appear to -have forfeited its respect; and yet at the same time he continued to be -esteemed by many of the leading Royalists. - -The studies of Selden were continued to the latest period of his life, -and he was near the age of seventy when his last work was published. The -influence he possessed with the parliamentary leaders was frequently -exerted in favour of letters. When Archbishop Laud’s endowment of the -professorship of Arabic in the University of Oxford, was seized, on the -attainder of that prelate, he procured its restitution. Archbishop Usher -having preached against the divines of Westminster, and excited their -anger, was punished by the confiscation of his library. Selden -interfered, and saved it from sale and dispersion. When prelacy was -abolished, the library attached to the see of Canterbury was by his -efforts transferred to the University of Cambridge, where it remained -until the Restoration. Through his entreaties, Whitelocke was induced to -accept the charge of the medals and books at St. James’s, and thus -secured their preservation. The services which he rendered to the -University of Oxford were no less valuable, and were acknowledged in -grateful terms by that learned body; and it was through his interference -that the papers and instruments of Graves, the Professor of Mathematics, -which had been seized by a party of soldiers, were restored. - -Selden died November 30, 1654, and was buried in the Temple church. He -left behind him no immediate relations, and he bequeathed nearly the -whole of his fortune, amounting to nearly 40,000_l._, to his four -executors, giving only one hundred pounds to each of the children of his -sister, the wife of John Barnard, of Goring. His books and manuscripts -he had originally given by his will to the University of Oxford; but -that body having demanded of him a heavy bond for the restitution of a -book which he desired to borrow from the public library, the bequest was -struck out, and they were directed to be placed “in some convenient -public library or college in one of the universities.” Sir M. Hale and -his other executors, considering that they were the executors “of his -will, and not of his passion,” transferred them to the Bodleian Library -at Oxford. - -To learned men Selden was liberal and generous; and there is a letter -from Casaubon in Parr’s ‘Life of Archbishop Usher,’ in which that -distinguished scholar with great feeling says, “I was with Mr. Selden -after I had been with your Grace, whom, upon some intimation of my -present condition and necessities, I found so noble, as that he did not -only presently furnish me with a very considerable sum of money, but was -so free and forward in his expressions, as that I could not find in my -heart to tell him much (somewhat I did) of my intention of selling, lest -it should sound as a farther pressing upon him of whom I had received so -much.” - -Milton terms Selden “the chief of learned men reputed in this land;” and -Whitelocke states, “that his mind was as great as his learning, being -very generous and hospitable.” Clarendon, who could not regard Selden -with any political partiality, though he had in early life been on terms -of intimacy with him, describes him to have been “a person whom no -character can flatter or transmit in any expressions equal to his merit -or virtue. He was of so stupendous learning in all kinds and in all -languages (as may appear in his excellent and transcendent writings), -that a man would have thought he had been entirely conversant among -books, and had never spent an hour but in reading and writing; yet his -humanity, courtesy, and affability were such, that he would have been -thought to have been bred in the best courts, but that his good nature, -charity, and delight in doing good, and in communicating all he knew, -exceeded that breeding.” - -The motto adopted by Selden was περὶ παντὸς τὴν ἐλευθερίαν (above all -things, liberty), and it is to be found neatly written upon the first -page of many of his MSS. Its spirit he extended to religious questions; -and there are many bold and vigorous passages in his writings in which -the necessity of freedom of inquiry upon all subjects is strongly -insisted on. Noticing upon one occasion a certain class of ancient -philosophers, he remarks, “He who takes to himself their liberty of -inquiry, is in the only way that, in all kinds of studies, leads and -lies open even to the sanctuary of truth; while others, that are servile -to common opinion and vulgar suppositions, can rarely hope to be -admitted nearer than into the base-court of her temple, which too -speciously often counterfeits her innermost sanctuary.” His religious -opinions have, with much impropriety, been the subject of dispute. They -have been chiefly inferred from several passages of a work published -after his death, entitled ‘Selden’s Table Talk.’ From the nature of his -studies, his writings are far from being popular, and are, in -consequence, now but little read. They obtained, however, for their -author, during an age abounding with illustrious and learned men, an -honourable reputation, among the most distinguished literary men of -continental Europe, as well as among those of his own country. His works -were edited by Dr. Wilkins, in 3 vols. folio, in 1726, to which a Latin -‘Life of the Author’ is prefixed. - -[Illustration: [Gallery of the Arundel Marbles.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - A. PARÉ. - - _From the original Picture, in “L’École de Médecine,” at Paris._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - PARÉ. - - -Ambroise Paré, the father of French surgery, and one of the most useful -as well as the earliest of the innovators upon that art as practised by -the ancients, was born at Laval, in the district of Maine, in the year -1509. After going through the rudiments of education, he was placed at -an early age under the tuition of the chaplain Orsoy, in his native -town, to be instructed in the classics; but the means of his family -appear to have been very narrow, or the economy with which they were -supplied must have been strict; for we find that the worthy chaplain was -obliged to make use of the services of his pupil in grooming his mule -and other menial capacities, in order to eke out the scanty remuneration -he received for his instructions. In truth, these do not appear to have -been great; for Paré never achieved a knowledge of Greek, and was but -superficially acquainted with the Latin language; and it is probable -that even this small amount of classical acquirement was made at a late -period of his life, when, being an author, he wished to quote. - -On leaving his tutor, he was placed with a barber-surgeon at Laval, -named Vialot, who is recorded to have taught him how to bleed. Not long -after this change in his pursuits, the lithotomist, Laurent Colot, came -to Laval to undertake the treatment of one of the chaplain’s -ecclesiastical brethren: on this occasion, Paré was present, and -zealously assisted at the operation. This accidental circumstance -appears to have suggested to him the ambitious project of following the -higher departments of surgery; and he contrived to leave the shop of his -master in phlebotomy, and repaired to Paris, where he availed himself -with so much diligence of the advantages afforded by that city, as a -school of anatomy and medicine, that he was soon entrusted with the -subordinate charge of the patients of Goupil, who then held the surgical -chair in the college of France. From this discerning tutor he learned -not only all the knowledge which could at that time be obtained from -secondary sources, but the art of expressing himself well, and -acquitting himself of his duties with neatness and grace. The talents -thus acquired were of the greatest service to him in his after-life, -which was chiefly passed among the great; and gave him that ease of -manner and power of gaining confidence, which stood him so frequently in -stead as court-surgeon to four successive monarchs, and, aiding the -natural frankness of his character, carried him safely through many an -intrigue and cabal, dangerous not only to his reputation and fortunes, -but even to his life. He was never a member of the community of -barber-surgeons, but derived his legal qualification to practise from a -degree in surgery taken at the college of St. Edme, of which he was -afterwards Provost. - -Having passed upwards of three years as a student, residing actually -within the walls of the Hotel Dieu at Paris, he was appointed -Staff-surgeon, in 1536, when twenty-seven years old, to the Mareschal -René de Monte-jean, who commanded the infantry under the Constable -Montmorenci in the campaign of Piedmont. In this capacity, Paré was -present at the siege and capture of Turin. - -From this time is to be dated the commencement of his acquaintance with -military surgery, for which he afterwards did so much. “I was then,” he -says, “very raw and inexperienced, having never seen the treatment of -gunshot wounds. It is true that I had read in the Treatise of Jean de -Vigo on wounds in general, that those inflicted by fire-arms partake of -a poisonous nature on account of the powder, and that they should be -treated with hot oil of elder mixed with a little theriacum. Seeing, -therefore, that such an application must needs put the patient to -extreme pain, to assure myself before I should make use of this boiling -oil, I desired to see how it was employed by the other surgeons. I found -their method was to apply it, at the first dressing, as hot as possible, -within the wound with tents and setons: and this I made bold to do -likewise. At length my oil failed me, and I was fain to substitute a -digestive, made of the yolks of eggs, rose-oil, and turpentine. At night -I could not rest in my bed in peace, fearing that I should find the -wounded, in whose cases I had been compelled to abstain from using this -cautery, dead of poison: this apprehension made me rise very early in -the morning to visit them; but beyond all my hopes, I found those to -whom I had applied the digestive suffering little pain, and their wounds -free from inflammation; and they had been refreshed by sleep in the -night. On the contrary, I found those to whom the aforesaid oil had been -applied, feverish, in great pain, and with swelling and inflammation -round their wounds. I resolved, therefore, that I would never burn -unfortunate sufferers from gunshot in that cruel manner again.” - -Such was the casual origin of one of Paré’s greatest improvements in -surgery,—the substitution of a mild treatment for the cautery in gunshot -wounds; a principle which he afterwards successfully extended to other -injuries at that time deemed poisonous. The improvement seems as obvious -as it was important: yet the adherents of the old practice gave him much -trouble, and even made it necessary for him to defend his wholesome -innovation long afterwards before Charles IX. in person. - -Yet with all his sound sense, Ambroise Paré was not by any means free -from the credulity of his age. For instance, he relates, in his account -of this siege, an amusing story of the court he paid to an Italian quack -doctor, who lived at Turin, to wheedle him out of the secret of a -dressing for fresh gunshot wounds, for which he had great fame. This was -found to consist of a mixture of bruised worms, the grease of puppies -boiled down alive, and other absurd ingredients, constituting the -celebrated _oleum catellorum_, the only merit of which consists in its -harmlessness. He is erroneously praised by Dr. Ballingall for having -banished this unguent from practice, whereas, on the contrary, he -introduced it; and he shows, by his frequent reference to it in his -works, that he had no small faith in its virtues, and was exceedingly -proud of having been the means of its publication. - -The death of his patron, the Mareschal, soon after the fall of Turin, -induced him to return to Paris, though tempted by large offers to remain -in the camp. - -In 1543, he accompanied the Duc de Rohan into Britanny, where Francis I. -commanded in person against the English; and the next year he followed -that monarch in his expedition to throw supplies into Landrecy. In 1545, -he was with the camp at Boulogne, where he cured the general of the -royal army, Francis Duke of Guise, of a very dangerous wound, which -gained him great reputation. - -In 1552, he attended the Duc de Rohan in his campaign in Germany. During -this expedition occurred one of those instances of combined humanity and -skill, which made Paré the favourite of the French army. He thus tells -the story: “A party had gone out to attack a church, where the peasants -of the country had fortified themselves, hoping to get some provisions, -but they came back very soundly beaten; and one especially, a -captain-lieutenant of the company of the Duke, returned with seven -gashes in his head, the least of which had penetrated to the inner table -of the skull, besides four sabre wounds in the arm, and one across the -shoulder, which divided the shoulder-blade in half. When he was brought -to quarters, the Duke judged him to be so desperately wounded, that he -absolutely proposed, as they were to march by daylight, to dig a trench -for him, and throw him into it, saying, that it was as well that the -peasants should finish him. But being moved with pity, I told him (says -Paré), that the captain might yet be cured: many gentlemen of the -company joined with me in begging that he might be allowed to go with -the baggage, since I was willing to dress and cure him. This was -accordingly granted: I dressed him, and put him into a small -well-covered bed in a cart drawn by one horse. I was at once physician, -surgeon, apothecary, and cook to him; and, thank God, I did cure him in -the end, to the admiration of all the troops: and out of their first -booty, the men-at-arms gave me a crown a-piece, and the archers -half-a-crown each.” - -His reputation was now so high, that no expedition of importance, -especially if generalled by a prince of the blood, or one of the higher -nobility, was considered complete without his presence. This was -accordingly solicited by the old King of Navarre, more commonly called -the Duc de Vendôme, on an occasion of that kind. But being tired of a -military life, and disgusted with its cruelties and horrors, he -endeavoured to evade the proposal, alleging the illness of his wife, and -other excuses: but the Duke would take no denial; and at last he -consented to accompany him to the siege of Chateau le Comte. There he -acquitted himself so well, that upon the warm encomiums of the Duke he -was received into the service of Henry the Second, in 1552, being then -but thirty-three years old. From this time he lived at the court, where, -with other advantages, obtained not less by his behaviour and wit than -his skill, he enjoyed, though a Huguenot, the especial favour of the -Queen, Catherine de’ Medici, who was fond of conversing with him in her -own language, with which Paré had become well acquainted in his Italian -campaign. She served him powerfully on several important occasions. - -Paré, however, still continued to frequent the camp, when any emergency -seemed to demand his services. Such an occasion occurred at the renowned -siege of Metz, in the winter of 1552, conducted by Charles V. in person, -with the Duke of Alva and 120,000 men, against a garrison of 6000, which -ended, after two months, in the disastrous retreat of the besiegers. The -defence was most gallantly carried on by the flower of the French army, -headed by many of the higher noblesse, and several of the princes of the -blood, under the Duke of Guise. It has been already mentioned that -gunshot wounds were at that time thought to have something poisonous -about them; and the severe cold, and other circumstances of that siege, -being such as unusually to depress and harass the garrison, their wounds -proved almost uniformly fatal; and the idea arose and gained ground, -that Charles had ordered his bullets to be actually poisoned. Paré alone -was thought able to meet the necessity of the case in such an extremity; -and the demand for his assistance became so pressing in the dispirited -garrison, that at the instance of the Duke of Guise the King was induced -to send him. He was stealthily introduced by the treachery of one of -Charles’s captains, for a bribe of 1500 crowns, and his appearance on -the ramparts was hailed by the troops with the most extravagant -expressions of joy. “Now that Paré is with us,” they cried, “we shall -not perish of our wounds.” Their spirits revived, and the successful -issue of their arduous struggle is generally ascribed to the presence of -Paré. - -Upon the raising of the siege, of which, as is usual in his writings, he -gives a most lively and humorous account, Paré returned to court. In -1553 he was sent on a like errand to the siege of Hesdin, which, after a -vigorous defence, and against the faith of a capitulation, was pillaged -by the troops of the Duke of Savoy. Paré was himself one of the -prisoners, but escaped in disguise after various adventures, and -returned to Paris; notwithstanding the tempting offers of the Duke of -Savoy, who had witnessed his skill, though kept in ignorance of his -name. - -He was sent upon many other missions of the same kind; as to the fields -of St. Quentin and Moncontour; to Rouen, where he attended the Duc de -Vendôme on occasion of the wound of which he died; and to St. Denys, -where he performed the same unwelcome duty for the Constable. The long -intervals of these services he always passed at court, in the enjoyment -of his well-earned reputation and favour. - -On the death of Henry II. in 1559, occasioned by an accident at a -tournament, Francis II., his eldest son by Catherine de’ Medici, -succeeded to the crown. He immediately confirmed Paré in his situation -of surgeon in ordinary and counsellor. It will not be supposed that he -could enjoy this constant favour and good fortune without the usual -drawback in the excited jealousy of his professional rivals. Their -rancour was at length carried to such a pitch, that they gravely accused -him of causing the premature death of Francis in 1560, by injecting -poison into his ear under the pretext of treating him for an -inflammation seated there, of which he died. Catherine, however, -shielded him from this attack, expressing her complete reliance on his -integrity as well as his skill, in words which the historians of the -period have preserved. A similar accusation was brought against him as -unsuccessfully in the case of Henry III., who was afflicted with the -same disorder: on which occasion the Queen-Mother again stood forward in -his behalf, and his innocence was fully attested by the physicians whom -she had placed about her son, and who had witnessed every application he -made. - -On the death of Francis II. in 1560, Paré maintained his place in the -household of Charles IX., to whom it was thought he had rendered -essential service after an injury inflicted on one of the nerves of the -arm by an unlucky phlebotomist. This misfortune of his humbler brother -was of great use to Paré, who, though a courtier during the predominance -of the Guises, openly professed the Protestant faith; for it was -probably the means of procuring him in Charles the only protector -powerful enough to save him from being included in the general massacre -of the Huguenots on St. Bartholomew’s Day. Brantôme and Sully each -connect his name with that event. The words of the former are as -follows: “Le Roi quand il fût jour, ayant mis la tête a la fenêtre de sa -chambre, et qu’il voyait aucuns dans le fauxbourg St. Germain qui se -remuoient, et se sauvoient, il prit une grande arquebuse de chasse qu’il -avoit, et en tira tout plein de coups à eux; mais en vain, car -l’arquebuse ne tiroit si loin; incessamment crioit, ‘Tuez, tuez,’ en -n’en vouloit sauver aucun si non Maître Ambroise Paré, son premier -chirurgien, et le premier de la Chrestienté, et l’envoya querir et venir -le soir dans sa chambre et garde robbe, commandant de n’en bouger; et -disoit qu’il n’etoit raisonnable qu’un qui pouvoit servir à tout un -petit monde, fûst ainsi massacré.” - -“De tous ceux,” says Sully, “qui approchoient ce prince (Charles IX.) il -n’y avoit personne qui eut tant de part à sa confiance qu’ Ambroise -Paré. Cet homme qui n’etoit que son chirurgien, avoit pris avec lui une -si grande familiarité, quoiqu’il fût Huguenot, que ce prince lui ayant -dit le jour du massacre que c’etoit à cette heure qu’il falloit que tout -le monde se fît catholique, Paré lui répondit sans s’étonner, ‘Par la -lumière de Dieu, Sire, je crois qu’il vous souvient m’avoir promis de ne -me commander jamais quatre choses; sçavoir, de rentre dans le ventre de -ma mère, de me trouver à un jour de bataille, de quitter votre service, -et d’aller à la messe.’” - -Paré still retained his situation after the accession of Henry III. in -1574; but he seems to have resigned the cares of active life about that -time, and we hear little more of him. He died December 2, 1590, in the -eighty-first year of his life, and was buried in the church of St. André -des Arcs in Paris. - -Paré appears to have been a man of quick and independent observation -rather than of reflection or genius. His constitution was vigorous, and -fitted no less for social enjoyments than active business: his person -was manly and graceful, his spirits buoyant, and his disposition -remarkably amiable and attractive; hence he was a universal favourite, -particularly in a despotic court, of which the dullness was agreeably -relieved by his frankness, and his powers of humour and repartee. The -amusing and well-told anecdotes and lively descriptions that teem in all -his writings, which, it may be observed, are equal in point of style to -any of the time, sufficiently attest his possession of those qualities, -even if the stories and bon-mots that are related of him be questioned. -His ‘Apology,’ as he calls one of his later pieces, containing an -account of his various campaigns and journeys, is full of humour, and -well worth the perusal of the general reader. It was published by way of -answer to an attack upon his treatment of contused wounds and -hæmorrhages, made by an obscure Parisian lecturer, whose name he does -not mention; and he diverts himself exceedingly at the expense of the -critic, for his presumption in pretending to teach a surgeon whose -experience had been gathered from twenty sieges and fields of battle, -through an active professional life of forty years. The raillery he -employs is often very keen and pointed, but never ill-natured, and -indicates the infinite superiority he felt, and had a right to feel, -over his merely book-learned adversary. - -His conduct throughout life appears to have been remarkably upright and -sincere, though tinctured by the adulation which, in that age of -violence and despotism, was always exacted by the great from those who -were more humbly born. - -He was a bold and good operator, and his general skill and success in -the practice of his profession is unquestionable; in that day it must -have been wonderful. As a surgical writer, his fame principally rests -upon his introduction of a soothing method of treating gunshot and other -contused wounds, and his discovery or rather restoration of the method -of arresting hæmorrhage, by the ligature of the bleeding vessel, instead -of searing with hot iron, and other insufficient and painful means. But -he made many other novel and useful remarks which only do not deserve -the name of discoveries, because they relate to more trivial points, and -do not involve important principles: and, upon the whole, much as -surgery has been improved since his time, there have been few writers to -whom it has owed so much as to him, especially in the military -department. The whole body of his writings on that subject, though -diffuse, merit the perusal of professional men. The same praise cannot -be given without exception and reserve to those of his writings which -were less the records of his personal experience, than compilations from -other sources. His remarks upon the subjects of Physiology, Medical -Diseases, the Composition of Remedies, Natural History, and Obstetrics, -are not free from error, credulity, and even indelicacy. The latter -charge was successfully urged against him by the contemporary Parisian -physicians, who were jealous of his encroachments upon what they -considered their own domain, and he was obliged to alter the original -editions. - -He was too much occupied by his practice to engage deeply in the study -of anatomy: hence his knowledge of it was rather sufficient than -accurate; and though he wrote upon it at some length, and even added new -facts to that science, his success in advancing it can only be -considered as a proof of the imperfect information of the time. He lived -before the discovery of the circulation of the blood. - -His first publication, on Gunshot Wounds, in 1545, was incorporated with -his other writings, comprising altogether twenty-six treatises, and -printed at Paris in one large folio volume in 1561. This, with some -posthumous additions, has been often reprinted, and there are -translations of it in Latin and other languages. The first English -edition was by Thomas Johnson in 1634. - -[Illustration: [Medal of Paré.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Mollison._ - - ADMIRAL BLAKE. - - _From the Picture in the Hall of Wadham College, Oxford._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - BLAKE. - - -Robert Blake is believed to have been born at Plansfield, in the parish -of Spaxton, Somersetshire, near Bridgewater, in which town his father -was a merchant; but the place is not so well ascertained as the date of -his birth, which was August, 1598. He was educated in the Free School of -Bridgewater, whence in due time he removed to Oxford, and became -successively a member of St. Alban’s Hall and Wadham College. His -character was studious, yet he was fond of field-sports and other -violent exercises; and we may infer that he had at least a decent share -of scholastic learning, from his having been a candidate, though -unsuccessfully, for a studentship at Christchurch, and a fellowship at -Merton College. He returned to Bridgewater when about twenty-five years -old, and lived quietly on his paternal estate till 1640, with the -character of a blunt, bold man, of ready humour and fearless expression -of his sentiments, which, both in politics and religion, were adverse to -the pretensions of the court. These qualities gained for him the -confidence of the Presbyterian party in Bridgewater, by whom he was -returned to the parliament of April, 1640. The speedy dissolution of -that assembly gave him no opportunity of trying his powers as a debater; -and in the next parliament he was not re-elected. But on the breaking -out of the civil war, he displayed his principles by entering the -Parliamentary army. - -We have no certain information concerning the time or the capacity in -which he began to serve; but in 1643 we find him intrusted with the -command of a fort at Bristol, when the city was besieged by the -Royalists. Here his impetuous temper had nearly brought him to an -untimely death; for, having maintained his fort and killed some of the -king’s soldiers after the garrison had surrendered, Prince Rupert was -with difficulty induced to spare his life, which was held to have been -forfeited by this violation of the laws of war. Blake served afterwards -in the west of England with good repute, and in 1644 was appointed -Governor of Taunton, a place of great consequence, being the only -Parliamentary fortress in that quarter. In that capacity he -distinguished himself by the skill, courage, and constancy with which, -during two successive sieges, he maintained the town against the -Royalists in 1645; an important service, for which the parliament voted -£2000 to the garrison, and £500 to the governor. It is recorded that he -disapproved of the extremity to which matters were pushed against -Charles, and that he was frequently heard to say, that he would as -freely venture his life to save the King’s, as he had ever done it in -the service of the Parliament. - -In February, 1649, Colonel Blake, in conjunction with two officers of -the same rank, Deane and Popham, was appointed to command the fleet. It -may be taken as a proof that, notwithstanding the fame of our early -navigators, the King’s service at sea had never been treated with much -attention, that, down to later times than those of which we now write, -the chief command of a fleet seems never to have been given to a man of -naval education and habits. It is probable that the sea service then -held out no inducements strong enough to tempt men of high birth to -submit to its inconveniences, and that the command of a fleet was -esteemed too great a post to be conferred on a man of humble origin. For -this new employment Blake soon showed signal capacity. When the embers -of the war were stirred up after the King’s death, he was ordered to the -Irish seas in pursuit of Prince Rupert, whom he blockaded in the harbour -of Kinsale for several months. Despair of relief induced the Prince at -last to make a daring effort to break through the Parliamentary -squadron, in which he succeeded; but with the loss of three ships. Blake -pursued him to the Tagus, where being denied liberty to attack his enemy -by the King of Portugal, in revenge he captured and sent home a number -of ships richly laden, on their way from Brazil. In January, 1651, he -attacked and, with the exception of two ships, destroyed the Royalist -fleet, in the neutral harbour of Malaga; a breach of national law, which -can only be justified on the alleged ground that Rupert had destroyed -British ships in the same harbour. These services were recompensed by -the Parliament with the post of Warden of the Cinque Ports; and in March -an act was passed constituting Blake, with his colleagues Deane and -Popham, admirals and generals of the fleet for the year ensuing. In that -capacity, he took Jersey, Guernsey, and the Scilly Islands from the -Royalists; a service, for which he was again thanked by Parliament. In -this year he was elected a member of the Council of State. - -March 25, 1652, Blake was appointed sole admiral for nine months, in -expectation of a war with the Dutch. The United States and England were -at this time the two most powerful maritime countries in the world; and -it is hard to find any better reason than national rivalry for the -bloody war which broke out between them in the spring of this year; a -war which seems to have been begun on a point of etiquette, at the -discretion of the admirals, without orders for hostilities being known -to be given by the governments on either side. On May 18, a fleet of -forty-two Dutch ships, commanded by the celebrated Van Tromp, appeared -off the Goodwin Sands. Being challenged by Major Bourne, who commanded a -squadron in the Downs, they professed to have been driven from their -anchorage off Dunkirk by stress of weather; but instead of drawing off -the coast as they were required to do, they sailed to Dover and cast -anchor, in a manner which showed the deliberate design of insulting the -British flag. Blake lay some distance to the westward in Rye Bay. -Intelligence was immediately sent to him, and on his approach the Dutch -weighed anchor, and seemed about to retreat, but, changing their course, -they sailed direct for the English fleet. When within musket shot, Blake -ordered a single gun to be fired at the Dutch admiral’s flag, which was -done thrice. Van Tromp returned a broadside, and a hot and -well-contested action ensued, and was maintained till nightfall. Under -cover of the darkness the Dutch retreated, losing two ships (one sunk, -the other taken), and leaving the possession of the field and the honour -of the victory in the hands of the English. The States appear neither to -have authorised nor approved of the conduct of their admiral; for they -left no means untried to satisfy the English government; and when they -found the demands of the latter so high as to preclude accommodation, -they dismissed Van Tromp, and intrusted the command of their fleet to De -Ruyter and De Witt. Meanwhile, Blake’s activity was unremitting. He -gained a rich harvest of prizes among the Dutch homeward-bound -merchantmen, which were pursuing their way without suspicion of danger; -and when he had sent home forty good prizes and effectually cleared the -Channel, he sailed to the northward, dispersed the fleet engaged in the -herring fishery, and captured a hundred of the vessels composing it, -together with a squadron of twelve ships of war sent out to protect -them. The hostile fleets again came to an engagement, September 28, in -which the advantage was decidedly in favour of the English, the -rear-admiral of the Dutch being taken, and three or four of their ships -disabled. Night put an end to the action; and, though for two days the -English maintained the pursuit, the lightness and uncertainty of the -wind prevented them from closing with the enemy, who escaped into Goree. -After this battle the drafting off of detachments on various services -reduced the English fleet to forty sail, and those, it is said, in -consequence of the negligence or jealousy of the executive government, -were ill provided with men and ammunition, and other requisite supplies. -Thus weakly furnished, Blake lay in the Downs, when Van Tromp again -stood over to the English coast with eighty men-of-war. Of that -undaunted spirit which usually prompts the British seaman to refuse no -odds Blake had an ample share; indeed, he did much to infuse that spirit -into the service. But there are odds for which no spirit can make up, -and as he had a brave and skilful enemy, the result of his rashness was -that he was well beaten. Not more than half the ships on either side -were engaged; but out of this small number of English vessels two were -taken, and four destroyed; the rest were so shattered that they were -glad to run for shelter into the river Thames. The Dutch remained -masters of the narrow seas; and Van Tromp, in an idle bravado, sailed -through the Channel with a broom at his mast-head, as if he had swept it -clear of English ships. However, neither the admiral nor the nation were -of a temper to submit to this indignity; and great diligence having been -used in refitting and recruiting the fleet, Blake put to sea again in -February, 1653, with eighty ships. On the 18th he fell in with Van -Tromp, with nearly equal force, conducting a large convoy of merchantmen -up the Channel. A running battle ensued, which was continued during -three consecutive days, until, on the 20th, the Dutch ships, which, to -suit the nature of their coast, were built with a smaller draught of -water than the English, obtained shelter in the shallow waters of -Calais. In this long and obstinate fight, the Dutch lost only eleven -men-of-war and thirty merchant vessels; but the number killed is said to -have amounted to 1500 on either side; a loss of life of most unusual -amount in naval engagements. - -Another great battle took place on the 3rd and 4th of June, between Van -Tromp and Generals Deane and Monk. On the first day the Dutch seem to -have had somewhat the advantage: on the second Blake arrived with a -reinforcement of eighteen sail, which turned the scale in favour of the -English. Bad health obliged him then to quit the sea, so that he was not -present at the last great victory of July 29, in which Van Tromp was -killed. But out of respect for his services the Parliament presented him -with a gold chain, as well as the admirals who had actually commanded in -the battle. When Cromwell dissolved the Long Parliament, and assumed the -office of Protector, Blake, though in his principles a republican, did -not refuse to acknowledge the new administration. In conjunction with -Deane and Monk he published a declaration of their resolution, -“notwithstanding the late change, to proceed in the performance of their -duties, and the trust reposed in them against the enemies of the -Commonwealth.” He is reported to have said to his officers, “It is not -our business to mind state-affairs, but to keep foreigners from fooling -us.” He sat in the two first Parliaments summoned by the Protector, who -always treated him with great respect. Nor was Cromwell’s acknowledged -sagacity in the choice of men at fault, when he chose Blake to command a -strong fleet, sent into the Mediterranean in November, 1654, to uphold -the honour of the English flag, and to demand reparation for the slights -and injuries done to the nation during that stormy period of civil war, -when our own discord had made others daring against us. In better hands -such a mission could not have been placed. Dutch, French, and Spaniards -alike concurred in rendering unusual honours to his flag. The Duke of -Tuscany and the Order of Malta made compensation for injuries done to -the English commerce. The piratical states of Algiers and Tripoli were -terrified into submission, and promised to abstain from further -violence. The Dey of Tunis held out, confident in the strength of his -fortifications. “Here,” he said, “are our castles of Goletta and Porto -Ferino: do your worst; do you think we fear your fleet?” Blake took the -same course as, in our own time, Lord Exmouth did against Algiers: he -bore right into the bay of Porto Ferino; engaged the fortress within -musket shot, and in less than two hours silenced or dismounted its guns; -and sending a detachment of boats into the harbour, burnt the shipping -which lay there. After this example he found no more difficulty in -dealing with the African states. - -War having been declared between Spain and England, in 1656, Blake took -his station to blockade the bay of Cadiz. At this period his -constitution was much broken, insomuch that, in the expectation of a -speedy death, he sent home a request that some person proper to be his -successor might be joined in commission with him. General Montague was -accordingly sent out with a strong squadron. Being obliged to quit the -coast of Spain in September to obtain water for his fleet, Blake left -Captain Stayner with seven ships to watch the enemy. In this interval -the Spanish Plate fleet appeared. Stayner captured four ships richly -laden with bullion; the rest escaped. Montague conducted the prizes -home, so that Blake was again left alone in the Mediterranean. In the -ensuing spring, having learnt that another Plate fleet had put into the -island of Teneriffe, he sailed thither, and arrived in the road of Santa -Cruz, April 20. The bay was strongly fortified, with a formidable castle -at the entrance, and a connected chain of minor forts all round it. The -naval force collected there was also considerable, and strongly posted, -the smaller vessels being placed under the guns of the forts, the -galleons strongly moored with their broadsides to the sea; insomuch that -the Spanish Governor, a man of courage and ability, felt perfectly at -ease as to the security of his charge. The master of a Dutch ship, which -was lying in the harbour, was less satisfied, and went to the Governor -to request leave to quit the harbour; “For I am sure,” he said, “that -Blake will presently be among you.” The Governor made a confident reply. -“Begone if you will, and let Blake come if he dares.” Daring was the -last thing wanting; nor did the Admiral hesitate, as a wise man might -well have done, about the real difficulties of the enterprise in which -he was about to engage. The wind blowing into the bay, he sent in -Captain Stayner with a squadron to attack the shipping, placed others in -such a manner as to take off, and, as far as possible, to silence the -fire of the castle and the forts, and himself following, assisted -Stayner in capturing the galleons, which, though inferior in number, -were superior in size and force to the English ships. This was completed -by two o’clock in the afternoon, the engagement having commenced at -eight in the morning. Hopeless of being able to carry the prizes out of -the bay against an adverse wind, and a still active enemy, Blake gave -orders to burn them: and it is probable that he himself might have found -some difficulty in beating out of the bay under the fire of the castle, -which was still lively, when on a sudden, the wind which had blown -strong into the bay, suddenly veered round to the south-west, and -favoured his retreat, as it had favoured his daring approach. Of this, -the most remarkable, as it was the last exploit of Blake’s life, -Clarendon says, “The whole action was so incredible, that all men who -knew the place wondered that any sober man, with what courage soever -endowed, would ever have undertaken it; and they could hardly persuade -themselves to believe what they had done: while the Spaniards comforted -themselves with the belief, that they were devils and not men who had -destroyed them in such a manner. So much a strong resolution of bold and -courageous men can bring to pass, that no resistance or advantage of -ground can disappoint them; and it can hardly be imagined how small a -loss the English sustained in this unparalleled action, not one ship -being left behind, and the killed and wounded not exceeding two hundred -men; when the slaughter on board the Spanish ships and on shore was -incredible.” - -It will be recollected with interest that, on the same spot, Nelson lost -his arm, in an unsuccessful night-attempt to capture Santa Cruz with an -armed force in boats. - -For this service the thanks of Parliament were voted to the officers and -seamen engaged, with a diamond ring to the Admiral worth 500_l._ Blake -returned to his old station off Cadiz; but the increase of his -disorders, which were dropsy and scurvy, raised a desire in him to -return to England, which, however, he did not live to fulfil. He died as -he was entering Plymouth Sound, August 17, 1657. His body was -transported to London, and buried with great pomp in Westminster Abbey, -at the public expense. After the Revolution it was thought unworthy to -remain in that treasure-house of England’s departed greatness; and with -the bones of others who had found a resting-place there during the short -period of the Commonwealth, it was transferred to St. Margaret’s -churchyard. It has been disputed whether this was done with more or less -of indecency; but the matter is little worth inquiry. The real indecency -and folly lay in thinking that any ground, however sanctified by the -reverent associations of centuries, could be polluted by the tomb of a -man whose leading passion was the glory of his country, and who made the -name and flag of that country respected wheresoever he carried it: a man -of whom not one mean or interested action is recorded, and whose great -qualities extorted praise even from the Royalists. Bate, in his -‘Elenchus Motuum,’ speaks of him as a man “blameable in this only, that -he joined with the _parricides_;” and it may be remarked that Dr. Bate’s -horror of a parricide did not prevent his being physician to Cromwell, -as well as to Charles I. and II. - -We conclude with Clarendon’s character of this great man. “He was of -private extraction, yet had enough left him by his father to give him a -good education, which his own inclination disposed him to receive in the -University of Oxford, where he took the degree of a Master of Arts, and -was enough versed in books for a man who intended not to be of any -profession, having sufficient of his own to maintain him in the plenty -he affected, and having then no appearance of ambition to be a greater -man than he was. He was of a melancholic and sullen nature, and spent -his time most with good fellows, who liked his moroseness, and a freedom -he used in inveighing against the licence of the time and the power of -the court. They who knew him inwardly, discovered that he had an -anti-monarchical spirit, when few men thought the government in any -danger.” After a short sketch of Blake’s actions in the civil war, the -noble author continues, “He then betook himself wholly to the sea, and -quickly made himself signal there. He was the first man that declined -the old track, and made it manifest that the science might be attained -in less time than was imagined, and despised those rules which had long -been in practice, to keep his ship and his men out of danger; which had -been held in former times a point of great ability and circumspection, -as if the principal art requisite in the captain of a ship had been to -be sure to come safe home again. He was the first man who brought the -ships to contemn castles on shore, which had been thought ever very -formidable, and were discovered by him to make a noise only, and to -fright those who could be rarely hurt by them. He was the first who -infused that proportion of courage into the seamen, by making them see -by experience what mighty things they could do, if they were resolved, -and taught them to fight in fire as well as upon water, and though he -has been very well imitated and followed, he was the first that gave the -example of that kind of naval courage, and bold and resolute -achievements.” - -The earliest life of Blake which we have seen is in the second volume of -a collection entitled ‘Lives English and Foreign,’ published at the -beginning of the last century. Clarendon’s History of the Rebellion, -Heath’s Chronicle of the Civil Wars, the Memoirs of Ludlow, Whitelock, -and other contemporary authorities, will furnish minute accounts of the -many battles of which we have here only made short mention. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by R. Woodman._ - - L’HÔPITAL. - - _From the original by Janet, in the Musée Royal, Paris._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - L’HÔPITAL. - - -Michel de l’Hôpital was born at Aigueperse in Auvergne. The date of his -birth he himself declares, in his testament, to be uncertain, but at the -same time he refers it to the year 1505. His father was the domestic -physician, the faithful friend, and trusted counsellor of the Constable -of Bourbon, and still followed his patron’s fortunes, when that ill-used -and misguided prince took up arms against France in 1523. Michel de -l’Hôpital, then a student at the University of Toulouse, was arrested as -the son of one of Bourbon’s partizans; but after a short time he was set -at liberty by the express order of Francis I., and after the lapse of -two or three years was permitted to rejoin his father in Italy. He -completed his education during a residence of six years at the -celebrated University of Padua. Quitting that University with high -credit for his acquirements both in polite literature and legal -knowledge, he took up his abode at Rome with his father, and soon -obtained the favourable notice both of the Emperor Charles V. and the -French ambassador, Cardinal de Grammont. But preferring the hope of -re-establishment in his native country to the prospects of advancement -held out in a foreign land, he returned to France in the train of the -Cardinal; was present at the espousal of Catherine de Medici with the -Dauphin, afterwards Henry II., in 1583; and laid a stepping-stone -towards his fortunes by attracting the notice of his future queen. The -death of the Cardinal however in the following year overclouded his -prospects. His father was unable to procure a reversal of the sentence -of exile and confiscation passed on him for his adherence to Bourbon; -and Michel de l’Hôpital, without means or friends, betook himself to the -practice of the law in the courts of Paris. Fortunately, his merits -procured a discerning friend in Jean Morin, a high legal functionary, -who gave him his daughter in marriage in 1537, with the judicial office -of _Conseiller_ for her dowry. - -L’Hôpital filled this office during nine years. It was one in which he -found no pleasure; for though attached to the philosophical study of the -law (and he mentions it as one of the evils of his situation that he had -been obliged to abandon a project for collecting into one body the laws -of France, both written and resting on judicial decisions), he found the -daily routine of trying causes extremely irksome. His letters are full -of complaints of this drudgery, as he esteemed it, and express in lively -terms the pleasure which he felt in escaping during the vacations into -the country, and renewing his literary pursuits. He numbered the most -intellectual and learned men of France among his friends, nor was he -backward in seeking to conciliate the great and powerful. It is worth -noting, as indicative of the manners of the age, that his favourite -method of addressing such persons was in Latin hexameters. Accounts of -his way of life, statements of his wishes, petitions, &c., are conveyed -in that form; and he composed with fluency, and with a competent share -of elegance, without great attention to correctness. One of his frequent -correspondents, to whose favour he owed in great measure his future -rise, was Cardinal Lorraine. The Chancellor Olivier, a man of no common -virtue, was another of his best friends, and to him L’Hôpital was -indebted for being withdrawn from the hated bustle of the law, by his -appointment as envoy to the Council of Bologna. This proved a sinecure; -and he employed his time in wandering about the neighbourhood of that -city, and writing letters to the Chancellor, full of poetical -descriptions, and requests for a more permanent provision away from the -tumult of the law courts. - -Early in 1549 L’Hôpital was recalled, after remaining upwards of a year -in Italy. He found the Chancellor in disgrace; but his acknowledged -merit obtained the notice of Margaret of Valois, daughter of Francis I., -a steady patroness of learning, herself devoted to literary as well as -religious study. Being created Duchess of Berri, she appointed him her -Chancellor, to manage the affairs of the province; and one of his first -steps in that capacity was the establishment of a new law-school at -Bourges, to which he endeavoured to attract the most eminent teachers. -Her influence, added to that of Cardinal Lorraine, procured for him the -high financial appointment of Superintendent of the Chamber of Accounts, -in 1554. His conduct in that station was firm and honest. He laboured to -put a stop to numberless abuses, which had prevailed both in the -collection and disposition of the revenue; and his zeal is testified by -the ill-will which it brought upon him, and which twice endangered the -loss of his place. His independence in this respect is ill contrasted by -his obsequiousness in supporting the edict known in French history by -the name of the _Semestre_. This requires a few words of explanation. No -legislative body was recognised by the French constitution. Even the -States-General could not enact: the power of making laws resided solely -in the sovereign. But by the practice of the land, the edicts of the -monarch required to be registered by the body of lawyers called the -Parliament of Paris, before they could possess validity as law: a -wholesome practice, which often served as a check upon the court. It was -probably with the intention of rendering that body more subject to -control, that Henry II., or his ministers, introduced the -above-mentioned edict, by which it was proposed to divide the Parliament -into two bodies, to relieve each other every six months. Under this -arrangement it would have been easy to collect the refractory spirits -into one body, and then to bring measures forward for registration in -whichever half year might best suit the views of the crown. L’Hôpital’s -accession to this measure has been palliated by alleging, that, as the -price of it, he stipulated for the abolition of a custom which -prevailed, for suitors to offer fees to the judges before whom their -causes were to be tried, under the name of _spices_ (_épices_),—a ready -means of corruption, for yielding to which, or something not much worse, -Bacon, about half a century later, was removed with disgrace from the -chancellorship of England. The whole tenor of L’Hôpital’s policy in -after times tended to depress the Parliament; and this furnishes a -presumption that his conduct in this particular instance was honest. But -it is strange that he should not have perceived any inroad on the -independence of the judicial body to be a still greater evil than even -that from which he endeavoured to free it. After all, the scheme failed, -and he was deeply mortified at the obloquy which his accession to it -incurred. - -The accession of Francis II., by bringing the house of Guise into power, -proved the means of L’Hôpital’s advancement. One of the first acts of -the new government was to restore to the office of chancellor Olivier, a -man of tried integrity, and a friend to toleration. But while the -princes of Guise availed themselves of his high character to court -popularity, they had no thought of acting by his advice; and Olivier, -compelled to be the unwilling instrument of a policy which he detested, -and afraid or unable to resign, was hastened by vexation to his grave. -L’Hôpital was selected to be his successor in June, 1560. The Guises and -the Queen Mother are said to have been actuated by different views in -agreeing upon this appointment. The former thought that from an old -adherent and petitioner of Cardinal Lorraine they had no opposition to -fear: the latter is said to have been influenced by the hope that -L’Hôpital’s patriotism would lead him to be a check on the over-powerful -house of Lorraine. - -The circumstances under which he became Chancellor were such as might -fairly breed suspicion of his honesty. None but a bold man could have -hoped to do good after the example of Olivier; none but a dexterous man -could have succeeded. And such dexterity is seldom joined with that -sincerity and purity of purpose, which is one of the most valuable -qualities of a statesman, or any man. There are sometimes seasons in -which an honest man may take office, with the certainty not only that he -will not be permitted to do much that he would wish, but also that he -will be obliged to do a good deal that he disapproves. But such -compromises are of bad example and evil influence, and can only be -excused by the necessity of the times, and by the good results which -ensue. By this test, L’Hôpital’s conduct is vindicated. He conferred a -signal benefit on France at his first entrance upon office, by -dexterously contriving to prevent the establishment of the Inquisition, -which had been resolved on. He obtained the convocation of an Assembly -of Notables at Fontainebleau, in which, through his influence, -conciliatory measures were adopted towards the Protestants, and it was -resolved to summon a meeting of the States-General. But the Guises, by -working on the young king’s fears, turned that measure to their own -advantage. Condé no sooner appeared than he was arrested, tried, and -condemned to death. The King of Navarre was threatened with a similar -fate; and but for the opportune death of Francis II., the kingdom -probably would have been plunged at once into the utmost fury of a -religious war. But the succession of Charles IX., a minor, in December -1560, threw the regency into the hands of Catherine; and she, encouraged -by L’Hôpital, asserted her independence of the Guises, and, to -conciliate the support of a powerful party, released Condé, and allied -herself with the King of Navarre. - -At first, the Chancellor’s liberal measures seemed to prosper. As if in -compliance with the demands of the States, he published the celebrated -Ordonnance of Orleans, which embodied most of his views for the -reformation of the state, and introduced a variety of bold and important -changes into the church, the courts of justice, and the financial -system. One portion of it is expressly directed against the oppressive -rights claimed and exercised by the nobility. But the spirit of the age -was not ripe for such extensive reforms: they were too far in advance to -produce a lasting influence. And in attempting to overcome an interested -and prejudiced opposition, the Chancellor was led to an act unworthy of -his real zeal for the welfare of his country. His legal improvements had -not conciliated the good will of the lawyers; and, foreseeing that the -Parliament of Paris might probably refuse to register his edicts, he -took it on himself to dispatch them to the provinces, without ever -having submitted them to that body. To justify such a step, it is not -enough to say that his views were enlarged and noble, theirs bigoted and -illiberal; for it is seldom or never that any object can be of -importance enough to justify a constitutional statesman in breaking down -a constitutional security. Nor had he even the bad excuse of success. -The Parliament were justly incensed, and probably became still more -hostile to the measures adopted in defiance of its authority; and the -high Catholic party prevailed in obtaining a new Assembly of Notables, -at which all was undone which the Chancellor had been labouring to do, -and the persecuting edicts against the Protestants were re-established -in full force. - -This blow to his system of toleration the Chancellor contrived to -obviate. He had no assembly, no body of recognised authority on which to -lean for support. The Parliament of Paris was against him; the Assembly -of Notables, composed of lawyers and nobility, was against him; the -States-General were tedious to convoke, and were paralysed by their -division into three orders. In this difficulty he bethought himself of -calling an assembly of deputies from the provincial Parliaments of the -kingdom; and fortified by their recommendation, he promulgated and -obtained registration of the celebrated edict of January, 1562, which, -under certain restrictions, permitted the open profession of the -Protestant faith. Upon this the furious bigotry of the Duke of Guise -broke into open violence, and kindled the first of those religious wars -which long desolated France. Strengthened by the adhesion of the -Constable Montmorenci, and by possession of the persons of the King, and -Queen Regent, the brothers of Lorraine usurped the conduct of affairs, -and excluded L’Hôpital from the council. It is remarkable, considering -his resolute opposition to their policy, that they did not deprive him -of his office; and this may be taken as an evidence either of the -consummate prudence with which, without betraying his own principles, he -avoided giving personal offence to his opponents; or that his character -stood so high as to render his opponents unwilling to incur the odium of -displacing him. - -The assassination of the Duke of Guise, in February, 1563, restored to -Catherine her own free-will, and L’Hôpital to power; and he immediately -availed himself of it to lay the basis of peace by fresh edicts in -favour of toleration, which as usual were opposed by the Parliament. In -the following year, Charles IX. having reached the age of fourteen, the -Chancellor revived an old law which fixed the majority of Kings of -France at that age, and declared the King’s majority before the -Parliament of Rouen. Soon after, he was engaged in a quarrel with his -old patron, Cardinal Lorraine, relative to the privileges of the -Gallican Church. The question was, whether or not the decrees of the -Council of Trent should be admitted as authority in France. The -Chancellor opposed this, and he carried his point. - -To amuse Charles, and to avoid some of the evils which usually beset a -court, the Chancellor conducted his young sovereign on a tour to the -southern provinces of France. This was attended with unforeseen and evil -consequences. At Bayonne Charles was met by his sister, the Queen of -Spain, attended by the Duke of Alva and other Spanish noblemen. Alva -acquired the confidence of Catherine, whom he persuaded that in the -hands of L’Hôpital she really had no more freedom of action than under -the control of the Guises; and as in her opposition to them she had been -actuated by no love of toleration, she had little to unlearn under the -tuition of that bigoted and able partizan of the papacy. L’Hôpital soon -perceived that his power was shaken. He laboured to make up for the lost -confidence of Catherine, by attaching himself more and more to Charles -IX.; and for a time he succeeded in retaining influence over that -prince, who, during the years 1565 and 1566, was kept in a state of -vacillation between those who pleaded for peace and toleration, and -those who would have exterminated Protestantism at all hazards and by -all means. The religious war was renewed in 1567. Peace was concluded in -1568; but L’Hôpital was not employed to manage it. His only hold upon -power was now in the reverence of the King; and this was shaken by the -artful representations of Catherine. It shows, however, in a strong -light, the ascendancy which L’Hôpital had acquired over Charles’s mind, -that the joint influence of Catherine and the House of Guise could not -induce him absolutely to dismiss his faithful minister. In 1568 he sent -to request the Chancellor to give up the seals for a time, with a -promise of returning them. L’Hôpital says in his Testament, that “he -judged it better to yield to the necessity of the state, and to its new -governors, than to contend with them.” He retired to his estate at -Vignay, near Etampes, where he returned with avidity to his literary -pursuits, and to the amusements and occupations of the country, to which -his letters represent him as devotedly attached. - -The Chancellor had not amassed wealth in his various high employments; -but his pensions were continued by the King; and Catherine herself did -not forget his former services. Even in the dreadful massacre of St. -Bartholomew’s they interfered to protect him; though his family were -Protestants, and he himself, though a Catholic by profession and in -observances, was so suspected by the bigot party, who did not understand -how sincerity and tolerance could go together, that it passed into a -sort of proverb, ‘Lord deliver us from the Chancellor’s mass.’ A troop -of horse was sent from court to preserve his mansion from insult. His -domestics were alarmed, and proposed to shut the gates. “No,” said the -Chancellor; “but if the small gate is not enough, open the great one.” -His daughter, then in Paris, was in imminent danger, and escaped only -through the intervention of the Duchess of Guise. - -The Chancellor did not long survive this signal proof that his labours -had been in vain. “I have lived too long,” he said, “since I have seen -what has occurred in my last days,—a youth changed from a mild king into -a merciless tyrant.” He died, March 13, 1573; and was buried in his -parish church of Champmoteux. His monument is among those which have -been collected at Paris, in the Musée des Petits-Augustins. - -Brantôme has described the person of L’Hôpital. He wore a long white -beard; his face was pale, his demeanor grave, and he resembled the -pictures of St. Jerome, by which name he was known at court. He and the -Constable Montmorenci were famous as _rabroueurs_, or reprimanders, and -were joint terrors to the idle courtiers; and this harshness, if we may -trust his own representations, was not natural, but assumed as a -necessary qualification for his office. His private habits were very -simple and frugal, and he regarded the increase of luxury as the bane of -France. Brantôme says that once, when he paid the Chancellor a visit -with Maréchal Strozzi, their host gave them for dinner a single dish of -_bouillie_, and that his whole stock of plate consisted of one silver -saltcellar. He adds an amusing account of the way in which the -Chancellor rated two newly appointed functionaries, who came to present -themselves, and who could not pass satisfactorily through a legal -examination, which he bestowed upon them. - -The leading objects of L’Hôpital’s political life were to obtain the -reformation of abuses, to establish the independence of the Gallican -church against the usurpations of Rome, and to procure toleration for -the Protestants. He is, we believe, the first minister who laid down the -principle of toleration, and proclaimed the impossibility and absurdity -of making force the rule of reason; and he has thus gained an -indefeasible title to the reverence, not only of his countrymen, but of -mankind. “What laws,” he said, in his inaugurative speech to the -Parliament of Paris, “have not been promulgated on this point of -religion? What judgments and punishments, of which even the magistrates -of the Parliament have been victims? To what purpose have served such -continued armaments and combats in Germany, in England, and in Scotland? -The ancient religion has been shaken by these combats, and the new -confirmed. The mistake lies in treating the maladies of the mind as if -they were those of the body. Experience teaches us that it is the force -of reason, the gentle persuasion of words alone, which can win hearts, -and cure diseased spirits.” - -This great man has another claim to notice, as one of the most -distinguished jurists and reformers of France. He has been classed with -Charlemagne and St. Louis, as one of the three principal legislators of -that country; and his eminent successor D’Aguesseau bore testimony to -the merits of his edicts, as the foundation of the most useful laws -which were afterwards enacted. His constitutional views were directed -towards raising the royal authority, at the expense of the nobility and -the Parliament. We have expressed our belief that in the latter instance -his conduct was wrong. His views of reform are embodied in the -Ordonnance of Orleans (January, 1561), and that of Moulins (February, -1566), which De Thou describes as being the complement of the former. Of -the contents of the Ordonnance of Orleans we have already given such -notice as our space allows; that of Moulins pertains rather to legal and -judicial reforms; it limits and defines the powers of judicial officers, -and determines the law on various points, relative to entails, arrests -for debt, sales, &c. In short, these two edicts provide for the removal -of most of those evils which, unredressed, produced the first -Revolution. - -It is much to be regretted that L’Hôpital’s essay towards a work on -French law is lost. There is a volume extant of his Poetical Epistles, -of which the best edition is that of Amsterdam, 1732. To these, and to -his Testament, which is printed in the Bibliothèque Choisie of Colomiès, -and in Brantôme (article of the Constable Montmorenci), we may refer for -authentic details of his life; of which numerous particulars will be -found in the history of De Thou, the Memoirs of Brantôme, the Letters of -Pasquier, the Eloges of Thevet, and other contemporary writers. His -speeches before the States of Orleans have been published; and a -Collection of Memoirs, consisting of various State Papers, printed at -Cologne, 1672, has been ascribed to him. The Eloge of L’Hôpital was -proposed as a prize by the French Academy in 1777. Slight accounts of -him will be found in the various biographical dictionaries; but no -publication, so far as we know, has appeared either in French or -English, which can dispense with the necessity of consulting the -original authorities, on the part of those who wish to obtain more than -a superficial acquaintance with the history of this illustrious -statesman. - -[Illustration: - - [The Conciergerie at Paris, from whence the Huguenot prisoners were - liberated by L’Hôpital himself,—from a Print in the British Museum.] -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - MRS. SIDDONS. - - -The light esteem in which the theatrical profession has commonly been -held renders it probable that the introduction of an actress among the -few female names included in our Gallery may seem to some persons -uncalled for and injudicious. That there are few players entitled to -such admission we allow: but for one who studied acting as a branch of -art, discarding every unworthy species of stage trickery; and who, by -profound study, and a rare union of mental and bodily excellence, has -inseparably connected her name and memory with the masterpieces of the -British drama, we do claim a place (to which her eminent brother is -almost equally entitled) among the master-minds of the fine arts. - -Sarah Kemble came of a theatrical stock. Her father was manager of a -provincial company of actors; her mother was the daughter of a -provincial manager. Both parents maintained a high character for moral -rectitude; and the latter is said to have been distinguished by a -strength of mind, and stateliness of demeanour, which may have had some -influence upon the character and manners of her celebrated children. -Sarah, their eldest daughter, was born at Brecon, July 5, 1755. From an -early period of childhood she was trained to the stage. She was scarcely -more than seventeen when her affections were engaged by an actor of her -father’s company, named Siddons, to whom, after some opposition on the -part of her parents, she was married, November 26, 1773. Her early -married life was beset with difficulties. Mr. Siddons possessed little -merit as an actor; and during nine years, which elapsed before Mrs. -Siddons established a metropolitan reputation, she had to endure hard -work and low pay. The first encouragement which she received in her -career was from the notice of the Hon. Miss Boyle, afterwards Lady -O’Neil, a lady possessed of high mental qualities, as well as birth and -beauty, who was so much struck - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - M^{RS}. SIDDONS. - - _After the Picture by Sir Joshua Reynolds._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - -by the young actress’s performance of Belvidera at Cheltenham in 1774, -that she sought her out in her obscurity, and there commenced a warm and -lasting friendship. Through this connection Mrs. Siddons seems to have -been introduced to Garrick, by whom she was engaged at Drury Lane -theatre. Her first appearance was in the character of Portia, December -29, 1775. She was received with indifference; and during the remainder -of the season she did not establish herself in the favour of the London -audiences, nor did she appear in any first-rate part. Garrick professed -high admiration for her, and on quitting the stage, which he did towards -the close of that season, promised to procure for her an advantageous -engagement with his successors in the management. In this promise he -failed, for during the summer of 1776 she received an abrupt dismissal -from Drury Lane. Her failure to produce a sensation in the first -instance does not seem to have weighed much on her mind. She knew her -powers, but was conscious that they were immature; and she was deeply -sensible through life how necessary, even to the greatest powers, are -cultivation and study. But this dismissal affected her in a very -different manner. In her own words, quoted from the autograph -‘Recollections’ intrusted to her friend and biographer, Mr. Campbell, -“it was a stunning and cruel blow, overwhelming all my ambitious hopes, -and involving peril, even to the very subsistence of my helpless babes.” - -Her fears were soothed, and her mortification relieved by her success at -several of the provincial theatres. She received her dismissal from -Drury Lane while at Birmingham, where she was engaged during the summer -to perform the highest characters; and where she laid the foundation of -her fame, by acquiring the good opinion of the actor Henderson, who -pronounced, within a year of her expulsion from Drury Lane, that she was -an actress who never had an equal, nor would ever have a superior. -Through his recommendation, in the following year she obtained a -permanent engagement at Bath, where she was received with distinguished -favour, and where she remained until her increasing reputation procured -for her an invitation to return to Drury Lane. She chose the part of -Isabella, in the ‘Fatal Marriage,’ for her debut, October 10, 1782. The -anxiety with which she approached this second trial is described in an -interesting manner in her own memoranda. On this occasion her hopes were -fully gratified. She played Isabella eight times between October 10, and -October 30, when she appeared in her second character, Euphrasia, in the -‘Grecian Daughter.’ Her other parts, during this first season, were Jane -Shore, Calista, Belvidera, and Zara in the ‘Mourning Bride.’ - -We propose in this sketch of Mrs. Siddons’s theatrical life to notice -only the most remarkable of her characters, reserving to the end a -complete list of them, together with a few remarks on her style of -acting. In November, 1783, she played Isabella in ‘Measure for Measure,’ -with entire success; and thus solved the real or pretended doubts of a -few persons, who questioned her courage or capacity to represent the -masterpieces of Shakspeare to a London audience. No one could do more -justice to the pure, uncompromising, clear-sighted virtue of Isabella, -so consonant to her own honest and high-souled simplicity: nor was she -at fault in attempting, during the same season, Constance, in ‘King -John,’ a character of more varied emotion, and far greater demand on the -resources of the player. Of this part she says, in an elaborate -criticism, worthy of being read with attention by all persons, and -especially by actors, “I cannot conceive in the whole range of dramatic -character a greater difficulty than that of representing this grand -creature.” Those who remember her performance of it in the meridian of -her powers, bear testimony, with Mr. Campbell, to the depth of her -maternal affection, her queen-like majesty, and her tremendous power of -invective and sarcasm: when first revived for her the play seems to have -been coldly received. - -The celebrated portrait of Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse was painted -by Reynolds in 1783. The character was suggested by the painter: the -attitude is that in which the sitter first placed herself, by which -Reynolds was so struck that he at once adopted it. - -An interesting anecdote relative to Mrs. Siddons’s first country -performance of Lady Macbeth, is told in the Memoranda from which we have -already quoted. “It was my custom to study my characters at night, when -the domestic cares and business of the day were over. On the night -preceding that in which I was to appear for the first time, I shut -myself up, as usual, when all the family were retired, and commenced my -study of _Lady Macbeth_. As the character is very short, I thought I -should soon accomplish it. Being then only twenty years of age, I -believed, as many do believe, that little more was necessary than to get -the words into my head; for the necessity of discrimination, and the -development of character, at that time of my life, had scarcely entered -into my imagination. But, to proceed, I went on with tolerable composure -in the silence of the night, (a night I can never forget,) till I came -to the assassination scene, when the horrors of the scene rose to a -degree that made it impossible for me to get farther. I snatched up my -candle, and hurried out of the room, in a paroxysm of terror. My dress -was of silk, and the rustling of it, as I ascended the stairs to go to -bed, seemed to my panic-struck fancy like the movement of a spectre -pursuing me. At last I reached my chamber, where I found my husband fast -asleep. I clapt my candlestick down upon the table, without the power of -putting the candle out; and I threw myself on my bed, without daring to -stay even to take off my clothes. At peep of day I rose to resume my -task; but so little did I know of my part when I appeared in it at -night, that my shame and confusion cured me of procrastinating my -business for the remainder of my life.” - -“About six years afterwards I was called upon to act the same character -in London. By this time I had perceived the difficulty of assuming a -personage with whom no one feeling of common general nature was -congenial or assistant. One’s own heart could prompt one to express with -some degree of truth the sentiments of a mother, a daughter, a wife, a -lover, a sister, &c.; but to adopt this character must be an effort of -the judgment alone.” - -In accordance with this, Mrs. Siddons has been known to say, that Lady -Macbeth gave her more trouble than any other of her characters, both in -settling her conception of the poet’s meaning, and determining the means -of giving effect to it. Her success however in the eyes of the public -was complete: in Mr. Campbell’s words, “the moment she seized the part -she identified her image with it in the minds of the living generation.” -She appeared in it for the first time in London, February 2, 1785. Smith -played Macbeth. As in the case of Constance, Mrs. Siddons has left, in -an elaborate essay on the character of Lady Macbeth, interesting -evidence of the deep study which she bestowed on her profession; a point -in which, as well as in general mental cultivation, the Kemble family -have been advantageously distinguished from others even of our -first-rate actors. It is scarcely possible to conceive ‘Macbeth’ so well -performed as when the principal characters were filled by Mrs. Siddons -and Kemble: the actors might have been thought born for the parts. The -same may be said of ‘Coriolanus,’ in which they appeared together for -the first time in February, 1789. But the season of 1785 is also -memorable for Mrs. Siddons’s first appearance in Desdemona, a character -as widely different from the Scottish Queen as can well be imagined. Yet -it is recorded to have been one of the actress’s most exquisite -performances; and this is one of the strongest proofs of her -extraordinary talent. Unsuitable as her person, voice, and general -demeanour may seem to those who knew her only in her later days, we have -the undeniable testimony of competent judges to the grace, loveliness, -and sweetness with which she personated the gentle Venetian. Her very -stature, Mr. Boaden says, seemed to be lowered. Ophelia she performed -once, and once only, for her benefit, May 15, 1786, to her brother’s -Hamlet; and, though a poor singer, she rendered the part deeply -affecting. Juliet she also performed, we believe once only, for her -benefit in 1789. Cordelia and Imogen are to be added to the list of -characters of the gentler cast. The former was not one of her most -popular, probably not one of her most effective, performances, for Lear -is said to have been almost the only play in which, when both were on -the stage, the brother made a stronger impression than the sister. The -pure, gentle dignity of Imogen must have found in her a most effective -representative. - -In the autumn of 1783, about a year before Dr. Johnson’s death, Mrs. -Siddons, at his own request, paid him a visit, which was several times -repeated. He expressed a strong desire to see her in Queen Katherine, -his favourite character among Shakspeare’s females. He was not so -gratified; for the play was not brought forward until November 28, 1788, -after an absence from the stage of near half a century. This, like Lady -Macbeth, we must regard as one of Mrs. Siddons’s peculiar characters. -“It was an era,” Mr. Campbell says, “not only in Mrs. Siddons’s history, -but in the fortune of the play as an acting piece; for certainly, in the -history of all female performance on the British stage, there is no -specific tradition of any excellence at all approaching to hers as Queen -Katherine.” The two principal scenes belonging to the part are -strikingly contrasted. The high mind and majestic deportment of the -actress, and the sarcasm which she pours out on the Cardinal, render the -Trial Scene one of the most effective on the stage; and it has -fortunately been preserved from oblivion by the pencil of Harlowe. But -the last scene, in the sick chamber, was among the strongest proofs of -Mrs. Siddons’s close adherence to nature, and one of her greatest -triumphs over the difficulties of her art, enhanced as they were by the -extravagant dimensions of the modern theatres. It may be mentioned to -show her confidence in her own judgment as to the truth of nature that, -though the audience in the gallery sometimes asked her to speak louder, -she never obeyed the call; but left the architect responsible for any -failure of effect, rather than herself overstep the bounds of propriety -in the most solemn event of human life. - -Mrs. Siddons quitted Drury Lane for the season 1789–90, in consequence -of the difficulty of obtaining her salary while the treasury was in the -hands of Sheridan. She was induced by promises to return in the -following season; but a weak state of health prevented her playing more -than seven nights, and she appeared in no new character; nor, during the -summer of 1791, did she act on any provincial stage. She returned to -Drury Lane in 1794, after the rebuilding of the theatre, and remained -there until 1802; when the impossibility of rescuing the reward of her -labours from that “drowning gulf,” as she justly calls Sheridan in one -of her letters, drove her away finally. The most remarkable of her new -characters, during this period of eight years, were Millwood, in ‘George -Barnwell,’ and Agnes, in ‘Fatal Curiosity,’ both plays of Lillo; Mrs. -Haller; Elvira in ‘Pizarro,’ which, in spite of the demerits of the -play, she rendered one of her most popular characters; and Hermione, in -the ‘Winter’s Tale,’ her last new part, which she acted for the first -time, March 25, 1802. The statue scene was one of her most extraordinary -performances, both for its illusion while she remained motionless, and -for the effect produced by her descent from the pedestal, and -recognition of her daughter Perdita. - -In one of her early performances of this character she met with an -accident which might well have ended fatally. The muslin draperies in -which she was enveloped caught fire from a lamp; fortunately, one of the -scene-men saw and extinguished it before it spread. Her gratitude for -his interposition is eloquently expressed in her correspondence; and her -warmth of feeling was subsequently evinced in the pains which she took -to procure for the man’s son, who had deserted from the army, remission -from what she justly calls “the horrid torture and disgrace of the -lash,” and in the lively pleasure which she expresses in the prospect of -succeeding. - -Upon her final departure from Drury Lane, Mrs. Siddons formed an -engagement at Covent Garden, where she appeared for the first time, -September 27, 1803. She continued there until June 29, 1812, on which -day she bid farewell to the stage. During this time she performed in no -new characters, nor is any circumstance which requires notice recorded -of this part of her professional life. In her last season we find that, -of her earlier characters, she performed Isabella, in ‘The Fatal -Marriage,’ twice; Isabella, in ‘Measure for Measure,’ seven times; -Euphrasia, twice; Belvidera, six times; and Mrs. Beverley, four times. -It may perhaps be taken as an indication of that by which she wished -chiefly to be remembered, that she played Lady Macbeth ten times, and -chose it for her farewell. Queen Katherine she played six times; -Constance and Volumnia, four times each; Elvira, five times; Mrs. -Haller, twice; Hermione, four times. On her last appearance the house -was crowded to excess, and the excitement of the occasion was testified -by a general demand that the play should be stopped after Lady Macbeth’s -appearance in the sleeping scene. Mrs. Siddons returned to the boards on -various occasions, chiefly for her brother Charles’s benefit: her last -performance was in the part of Lady Randolph, June 9, 1819. - -In giving, in addition to what we have already said, a short general -notice of the professional merits of Mrs. Siddons, we shall confine our -remarks chiefly to those characters which better suited her maturer -years, in which alone a large majority of our readers can have seen her. -She was throughout the tragic department the unrivalled actress of her -time; though in such parts as Belvidera, Desdemona, Cordelia, &c., the -power of exciting the sympathy of an audience might have been shared -with her by Mrs. Cibber and other of her predecessors, or by her -successors, Miss O’Neil or Miss Kemble. But in one respect she stands -alone in her profession: she was the most intellectual of actresses. She -was a person of deep thought, and an habitual student of nature with a -view to the perfection of her art; and that as much, or more, in -advanced life, than when she had her reputation to make or to enjoy in -the first years of her celebrity. Mrs. Siddons sat day after day in her -study, looking at Shakspeare and whatever bore upon him, not as if he -were the mere poet of the stage, furnishing an outline to be filled up -by her peculiar powers, but as if he were the high priest and expositor -of human nature, whose lessons it was the serious business of her life -to learn, and having learned, to teach. - -We shall not add to what we have already said of her Queen Katherine, or -Lady Macbeth, except one circumstance, illustrative of the above -position. Mrs. Siddons, who repeatedly read ‘Macbeth’ before the most -competent judges, made a deeper and more lasting impression, not only in -her own part, but in the other characters, than did the representation -on the stage by her brother and herself, with all the advantages of -dress and the illusion of scenery. The audience, at her readings, -consisting of men and women of taste and literature, professed never to -have understood Shakspeare so thoroughly before. - -Her Isabella, in ‘Measure for Measure,’ claims a short notice. This play -in Garrick’s reign was acted occasionally to empty benches in the dull -part of the season; but neither the manager himself, nor his leading -performers, condescended to appear in so grave and sermonizing a piece. -Even when played by Kemble and his sister, it did not draw crowded -houses; but it ensured a critical and enlightened audience. The theatre -seldom contained so many men of the first reputation for taste and -literature as when that play was performed. John Kemble’s mind was -framed in the same mould with his sister’s; he gave to a sententious and -philosophic part dignity and interest, where an ordinary actor would -preach his audience to sleep. The scene between the Duke in the disguise -of a Confessor, and Isabella, excited neither tears nor rapturous -applause, but intense interest, and breathless attention. The Duke’s -exposition of his project is long, her intervening speeches short, and -not emphatic; so that such a scene bids fair to be called _prosing_. But -the intense and intelligent expression in her eyes, and more perhaps in -her mouth, the great seat of expression, filled up whatever was wanting: -the gradually increasing, but as yet far from complete comprehension of -the device, and of its consistency with her own purity, marked without -words what was passing in her mind: but when she exclaims “The image of -it gives me content already, and I trust it will grow to a most -prosperous perfection,” the burst of perfect understanding, the lighting -up of every feature, and the tones of sudden joy, produced a -corresponding effect in the spectators, which scenes of intense pathos -could scarcely surpass in effect. Mrs. Siddons’s power over the mind was -as great as over the passions. - -Another extraordinary performance was her Millwood, in ‘George -Barnwell.’ She took that part, which had never been played by a -first-rate actress, in hopes that she might be of service to her brother -Charles, then a young actor, who was to be brought forward as Barnwell. -In the early scenes the severity of her blandishments bordered on the -ludicrous; she was more like Barnwell’s mother than his mistress: but in -her scene of dissimulation with Thorowgood, and in her subsequent arrest -and diabolically triumphant avowal of the motive of her conduct through -life, the desire to revenge her wrongs on the opposite sex, she -pourtrayed wickedness with grand and appalling force. Her thundering -exclamation, “I know you, and I hate you all; I expect no mercy, and I -ask for none,” was made with a withering effect. The scene in ‘Fatal -Curiosity,’ in which Agnes suggests to her husband the murder of their -unknown son, was another of her wonderful exhibitions: in Mr. Campbell’s -words, “it made the flesh of the spectator creep.” - -Mrs. Siddons is said to have thought well of her own talents for comedy; -and her reading of Shakspeare’s characters of low humour was admirable. -She played at different times Katherine, in ‘The Taming of the Shrew,’ -and Rosalind; as well as Mrs. Oakley, and a few other characters of the -modern drama. There seems to have been nothing against her success in -genteel comedy but a deficiency of animal spirits. Her delivery of the -level conversation in tragedy was easy, graceful, and refined. Her -representation of the early scenes in ‘The Gamester,’ where she had -merely to personate an elegant and highbred woman, bearing up against -present anxiety and impending misfortune, was as attractive and as -finished as her deep tragedy in the sequel was pathetic and harrowing. -And in the first scenes of Mrs. Haller, the charm of her manners and -delivery imparted interest even to the dull detail of a housekeeper’s -weekly routine. - -We subjoin a list of the parts which Mrs. Siddons performed in London. -The reader will be surprised to find how many of them are in plays all -but forgotten, and utterly unworthy of her talents. In those marked (*) -she made her first appearance for her own benefit: in those marked (†), -for John Kemble’s. - - Characters. Plays. - - 1782–3. - - Isabella Fatal Marriage - - Euphrasia Grecian Daughter - - Jane Shore Jane Shore - - Calista Fair Penitent - - *Belvidera Venice Preserved - - *Zara Mourning Bride - - 1783–4. - - Isabella Measure for Measure - - Mrs. Beverley Gamester - - Constance King John - - *Lady Randolph Douglas - - Countess of Salisbury Countess of Salisbury (_Hartson._) - - *Sigismunda Tancred and Sigismunda - - 1784–5. - - Margaret of Anjou Earl of Warwick (_Franklin._) - - Zara Zara (_from Voltaire._) - - Matilda Carmelite (_Cumberland._) - - Camiola Maid of Honour - - *Lady Macbeth Macbeth - - Desdemona Othello - - Elfrida Elfrida (_Mason._) - - Rosalind As you like it - - 1785–6. - - The Duchess Duke of Braganza (_Jephson._) - - Mrs. Lovemore Way to keep Him - - *Hermione Distressed Mother - - *Ophelia, and the Lady in - Comus - - Malvina The Captives (_Delap._) - - Elwina Percy (_Miss H. More._) - - 1786–7. - - Cleone Cleone (_Dodsley._) - - Imogen Cymbeline - - Hortensia Count of Narbonne (_Jephson._) - - †Lady Restless All in the Wrong - - Julia Italian Lovers (_Jephson._) - - Alicia Jane Shore - - 1787–8. - - Cordelia Lear - - Cleonice Fall of Sparta (_Mrs. Cowley._) - - †Katherine Taming the Shrew - - Dionara Regent (_Greatheed._) - - *Cleopatra All for Love - - 1788–9. - - Queen Katherine Henry VIII. - - Volumnia Coriolanus - - *The Princess and Mrs. Riot Law of Lombardy (_Jephson._) - Lethe (_Farce. Garrick._) - - Mary Mary Queen of Scots (_St. John._) - - *Juliet Romeo and Juliet - - 1791–2. - - Queen Elizabeth Richard III. - - Mrs. Oakley Jealous Wife - - 1792–3. - - Ariadne Ariadne (_Murphy._) - - 1793–4. - - Countess Orsini Emilia Galotti (_from Lessing._) - - 1794–5. - - Horatia Roman Father (_Whitehead._) - - Elvira Edwyn and Elgiva (_Miss Burney._) - - Palmira Mahomet (_from Voltaire._) - - Emmeline Edgar and Emmeline (_Afterpiece._) - - 1795–6. - - Roxana Alexander the Great (_Lee._) - - Almeyda Queen of Granada (_Miss Lee._) - - Julia Such Things were (_Prince Hoare._) - - 1796–7. - - Eleanora Edwin and Eleonora (_Thomson._) - - Vitellia Conspiracy (_Jephson._) - - Millwood George Barnwell - - Athenais Force of Love (_Lee._) - - Aspasia Tamerlane (_Rowe._) - - Dido Queen of Carthage (_Reed._) - - Agnes Fatal Curiosity - - 1797–8. - - Julia Rivals - - Mrs. Haller Stranger - - 1798–9. - - Miranda Aurelio and Miranda (_Boaden._) - - Countess Castle of Montval (_Dr. Whalley._) - - Elvira Pizarro - - 1799–1800. - - Adelaide Adelaide (_Pye._) - - Lady Jane De Montfort - - 1800–1. - - Helena Antonio (_Godwin._) - - Agnes Julian and Agnes (_Sotheby._) - - 1802. - - Hermione Winter’s Tale - -Of Mrs. Siddons’s private life it is not necessary for us to speak at -length. She had a full share of domestic troubles; and suffered the most -poignant sorrow which could have befallen her affectionate temper, in -the successive deaths of two lovely daughters in the prime of youth, and -of her eldest son at a more advanced age. Nor was she exempted by her -brilliant success and large gains from great anxiety upon pecuniary -matters, and from the necessity of diligent labour at times when rest -would have been most grateful to a distressed spirit, and a body -weakened by frequent indisposition. And she made it her boast that she -had never wilfully disappointed either a manager or the public; and that -in point of punctuality, she had always been _an honest actress_. But -Mr. Siddons lost money in some unfortunate speculations; and this, -combined with the extreme difficulty of extracting from Sheridan her -salary, or even the proceeds of her benefits, kept Mrs. Siddons poor for -many years. It is however gratifying to know that the evening of her -life was spent in affluence. - -In social intercourse Mrs. Siddons commanded the respect of all, the -admiration and love of those who knew her intimately. To a -constitutional want of animal spirits, and to a fear of that -presumptuous intrusion to which actresses are often exposed, we may -attribute a gravity, not to say severity of manner, from which distant -observers sometimes inferred a corresponding severity of character. That -this was not the case, that she was benevolent, cheerful, and -affectionately interested in the welfare of all who enjoyed her -friendship, is shown by the testimony of many, and by the evidence of -her own actions. - -To be courted by the rich and noble is not the best proof or reward even -of professional merit; and no one ever was less disposed than Mrs. -Siddons to act the part of what is called _a lion_. But it should be -mentioned that her acquaintance was eagerly cultivated among the highest -of the land; and that she was personally esteemed by George III. and his -queen, and often summoned to attend on their private circle. She -possessed a still higher honour, and one which she is said to have -esteemed more highly, in the admiration and friendship of Johnson, -Reynolds, Burke, Fox, and other intellectual ornaments of the age. - -After quitting the stage, Mrs. Siddons gave public readings of poetry at -the Argyle Rooms, and also, by special invitation from the Universities, -at Cambridge and Oxford. At home her readings of Shakspeare were the -delight of large and frequent parties, till within a year or two of her -death. The latter years of her life were spent, the winter months at her -house in London, the summer months at some watering-place, and in visits -to her numerous friends. Time laid his touch gently on her noble face -and person; and to the end of life she looked some years younger than -her age, and preserved her mental powers unimpaired. She died June 8, -1831, in her seventy-sixth year. - -We need hardly refer to the Lives of Messrs. Boaden and Campbell. The -interest of the latter is much increased by the critical and other -writings of Mrs. Siddons, with which it is interspersed. - -[Illustration: [Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse, from Sir J. Reynolds.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by E. Scriven._ - - SIR W. HERSCHELL. - - _From a Crayon Picture by the late J. Russell, Esq^{re}. R.A. in the - possession of Sir John Herschell._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - HERSCHEL. - - -William Herschel was born at Hanover, November 15, 1738. His father was -a musician, and brought up his four sons to his own art, which in -Germany gave him better means of educating his children, than would have -fallen to the lot of a person holding the same station in England. The -subject of our memoir is said to have had a master who instructed him in -French, ethics, and metaphysics: but at the age of fourteen he was -placed in the band of the Hanoverian regiment of guards, and in 1758 or -1759 he accompanied a detachment of the regiment to England. Another -account states that he grew tired of his occupation, and came to England -alone. Here, after struggling with poverty for some time, he was chosen -by Lord Darlington to organize a band for the Durham militia; after -which he passed several years in the West Riding of Yorkshire, employed -in teaching music and studying languages. About 1765 he was elected -organist at Halifax, and employed himself in the study of harmony and -mathematics. Such at least is the statement of the ‘Obituary;’ but in -that respectable work we find no references to the sources from which -these minute particulars of Herschel’s early life are obtained. About -this time he is said to have visited Italy; and, without professing to -give credit to it, we may here insert a curious story which appears to -have been copied into English works from the ‘Dictionnaire des Auteurs -Vivans,’ &c., Paris, 1816. Being at Genoa, and not having wherewith to -pay his passage home to England, he procured from a M. L’Anglé the use -of some public rooms for a concert, at which he played a quartett, -alone, upon a harp, and two horns, one fastened to each shoulder. Those -who are in the least acquainted with wind instruments will hardly -believe that a horn fastened to the shoulder would be of much more use -than one growing out of the head, as a musical instrument; to say -nothing of the difficulty of blowing two horns at once, or of playing a -_quartett_ upon _three_ instruments. Remarkable characters are generally -made the subject of wonderful stories, of which each is fashioned in -accordance with the general habits of the inventor: the groom’s idea of -a wit was “a gentleman who could ride three horses at once;” surely two -horns and a harp are not too much to be played at once by a planetary -discoverer. - -About 1766, he is said to have been one of the Pump-room band at Bath, -and was shortly afterwards organist of the Octagon Chapel there. He -taught and read as before; and here he turned his attention to -astronomy. He borrowed a small reflecting telescope of a friend; and at -length, finding that the purchase of such an instrument was -(“fortunately,” as it has been well expressed,) above his means, he -endeavoured to construct one for himself. His first attempt was a -five-feet Newtonian reflector. It was some time before he perfected -himself in the method of forming mirrors: in one instance he is said to -have spoiled 200 before he succeeded. - -In 1781, he announced to the world the discovery of his new planet, of -which we shall presently speak. He was immediately appointed private -astronomer to the King, by George III., a post which, we believe, was -created for him, and died with him, with a salary of £400, and removed, -first to Datchet, afterwards to Slough, where he continued till his -death, August 23, 1822. During this period he ran that career of patient -and sagacious investigation, terminating in brilliant discovery, which -has made his name so well known to the world. Little has been published -concerning his private life; but the whole results of his mind are to be -found in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ between the years 1782 and -1818. - -We have not been able to find the dates of his knighthood, or of his -receiving the degree of Doctor of Civil Law from the University of -Oxford. He married (we cannot find the date) Mrs. Mary Pitt, a widow; -and his only son, Sir John Herschel, has selected from the many tasks to -which he is competent, that of developing and adding to his father’s -discoveries. - -In the space which we can devote to the astronomical and optical labours -of Herschel, we cannot attempt to furnish even the smallest detail of -their end and objects, since the catalogue of titles alone would occupy -more room than we have to give. We can do no more than address ourselves -to the impression which generally exists upon the subject, and which -supposes the inventor and the philosopher to be no more than an -industrious man with good eyes, clever at grinding mirrors for -reflecting telescopes, and lucky enough to point one at a new planet. -Such being the common notion, it is not possible to make any mere -description of Herschel’s papers an index of his merits. Nor have we -here understated the scientific knowledge of the public in general. When -Sir John Herschel lately set out for the Cape of Good Hope, the -newspapers announced his approaching departure, accompanied by the -information that “six waggon loads of telescopes” were on their way to -the ship, which was all that was said, except in publications expressly -scientific. That one principal object of the son’s voyage was to -complete a great branch of astronomy, by doing in the southern -hemisphere what the father had done in the northern, was not stated for -a very simple reason—that this portion of the father’s labours is hardly -known by name to any but astronomers. And it is to astronomers only that -Herschel is truly known. The notion entertained of him by others often -reminds us of the farmer, who came to him to know the proper time to cut -his hay. The philosopher replied by pointing to his own crop, which -happened to be rotting on the ground under a heavy rain. - -The planet which Herschel called after George III. (but which now goes -under the more appropriate name of Uranus) was discovered by him March -13, 1781; not accidentally, but as one of the fruits of a laborious -investigation, with a distinct and useful object. He was examining every -star with one telescope, that he might obtain a definite idea of -relative phenomena, which should enable him to distinguish changes -actually taking place, from differences of appearance caused by the use -of different telescopes: the whole being in furtherance of the design of -“throwing some new light upon the organization of the celestial bodies.” -The last words, which are part of the title of one of his subsequent -papers, aptly express the line of astronomy to which Herschel devoted -his life; and the discovery of the planet Uranus was not the chance work -of a moment, but the consequence of sagacity strengthened by habit, the -latter being formed with a perfect knowledge of what was wanted, as well -as of what would be useful in supplying it. Had he been merely -registering the places of the stars, he would probably (as others did -before him) have passed the planet, perhaps with some remark upon its -apparent _diskiness_: for though the stars have no well-defined discs, -yet some have so much more of the appearance of discs than others, that -a faint planet, viewed with a low power, might easily be taken for a -star. But being engaged upon the stars, expressly with a view to trying -how much of such a circumstance would be telescopic, and how much real, -he was thereby led to try higher powers, and, eventually, other -telescopes. The existence of the _planet_ was soon ascertained, and -forms one of the two great features of Herschel’s reputation in the eyes -of the world at large. - -The celebrated forty-foot telescope, first described to the Royal -Society by Herschel, June 2, 1795, was the result of a long series of -experiments on the construction of mirrors, begun at Bath, on telescopes -from two to twenty feet in length. And we may here remark, that “the -bulk of his fortune arose from the sale of telescopes of his own -construction, many of which were purchased for the chief observatories -of Europe,” and not from the salary of £400 a year which he received as -private astronomer to George III. See ‘Statement of Circumstances,’ &c., -a pamphlet printed on the occasion of the last election of a President -by the Royal Society. In 1785, George III. furnished Herschel with the -means of undertaking an instrument larger than any he had yet made. The -greatest difficulty (independent of the stand) was the obtaining a -mirror of sufficient size, which should not crack in cooling, and should -be strong enough not to bend under its own weight. This instrument has -been so frequently described that we shall say no more of it, except -that Herschel dates the completion of it from August 28, 1789, when he -discovered the sixth satellite of Saturn, and obtained his best view of -the spots on that planet. A month later, the seventh satellite was -discovered by Herschel. This telescope is now never used. Sir J. -Herschel prefers a twenty-foot reflector for his own observations. - -The first discovery of the satellites of Uranus was also in a minor -degree the work of thought. Such bodies were repeatedly looked for by -Herschel, but none were seen. A small change in the instrument, by which -the light was increased, suggested one more trial; and the result was -the establishment of the existence of the two first satellites, in -January, 1787. Two more were discovered by Herschel, in 1790, and two -more in 1794. These satellites cannot be seen but with an instrument of -first-rate power, and in a favourable position of the planet. No one has -observed the four last satellites except Herschel himself, or the two -first, except himself and Sir J. Herschel, who has confirmed his -father’s determination of their periods. See _Mem. Royal Astron. Soc._ -vol. viii. He found that their orbits were nearly perpendicular to the -plane of the ecliptic, and ascertained their retrograde motion, and some -remarkable relations between their mean distances. It has a brilliant -sound, but it is literally true as to the number of _known_ bodies -composing the solar system, that Herschel left it exactly half as large -again as he found it. To the Sun, Mercury, Venus, the Earth and Moon, -Mars, Jupiter and four satellites, Saturn and five satellites, and -Halley’s Comet, eighteen in all, he added nine, namely, two satellites -to Saturn, Uranus and six satellites. - -But not content with augmenting our own, it is to Herschel we owe the -discovery of other systems. That the fixed stars were each the centre of -a number of planets was suspected, perhaps rather prematurely, before -his observations were made known. But the first positive addition to our -knowledge of _systems_, that is of bodies which move in any degree of -connexion with each other, is to be found in his paper read to the Royal -Society, June 9, 1803, announcing that Castor, γ Leonis, ε Bootis, ζ -Herculis, δ Serpentis, γ Virginis, were most probably _binary_[4] stars. -The existence of such systems has been confirmed by Sir J. Herschel and -Professor Struve, and the duration of the periods given by Herschel has -been sufficiently confirmed to make the exactness of his observations -remarkable. But to new planets, and new systems, Herschel added new -universes; or, more properly speaking, showed that the universe -consisted of portions, each conveying as large an idea of extent and -number, as the whole of what was previously called _the universe_. His -great telescope furnished sufficient facts, and his mind was not slow to -draw a conjectural inference, which must be classed among the happiest -efforts of reasoning speculation. The resolution of the milky way into -stars proved that we are situated in a stratum of such bodies much -thicker in some directions than others: this led to the inference that -some or all of the nebulæ with which the sky is crowded might be similar -enormous groups of stars; and the resolution of some of the nebulæ into -detached portions was a first step towards the demonstration of the -conjecture. - -Footnote 4: - - _Double_ stars, those which are so near to each other as to appear one - to the naked eye: _binary_ systems, double stars which revolve round - each other. - -There is enough yet unmentioned,—in the discovery of the time of -rotation of Saturn—that of Jupiter’s satellites—that of the -refrangibility of heat—the experiments on colours—the enormous -collection of nebulæ—the experimental determination of the magnitude of -stars—the researches and conjectures on the physical constitution of the -sun—those on the qualities of telescopes, &c. &c.,—to form by itself no -ordinary title to the recollection of posterity. But we must refer to -Sir J. Herschel’s Astronomy, in which will be found such an account of -them as the plan of the work permitted, by one who has shown himself as -indisposed to exaggerate, as interested to explain. - -In the labours of his observatory Herschel was assisted by his sister, -Miss Caroline Herschel, with whose help he published, in 1798, his -catalogue of Flamsteed’s stars. This lady, whose exertions, both as an -observer and calculator, are well known to astronomers, is still living, -at a very advanced age, in Hanover. - -We do not know of any very trustworthy account of Herschel. ‘The -Obituary for 1822,’ the ‘Gentleman’s Magazine,’ the ‘Annual Register,’ -&c., do not state their authorities. We have followed the -first-mentioned work as to facts and dates in most of the particulars -here mentioned. - -[Illustration: [View of the great telescope erected at Slough.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by R. Woodman._ - - SIR S. ROMILLY. - - _From an Enamel after a Picture by Sir Thomas Lawrence._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - ROMILLY. - - -The grandfather of Sir Samuel Romilly, as we learn from the following -passage of a speech which he made at Bristol, “was born the heir to a -considerable landed estate at Montpellier, in the South of France. His -ancestors had early imbibed and adopted the principles and doctrines of -the Reformed Religion, and he had been educated himself in that -religious faith. He had the misfortune to live soon after the time when -the Edict of Nantes, the great Toleration Act of the Protestants of -France, was revoked by Louis XIV.; and he found himself exposed to all -the vexations and persecutions of a bigoted and tyrannical government -for worshipping God in the manner in which he believed was most -acceptable to Him. He determined to free himself from this bondage; he -abandoned his property, he tore himself from his connexions, and, -quitting the country and its tyrant, sought an asylum in this land of -liberty, where he had to support himself only by his own exertions. He -himself embarked in trade; he educated his sons to useful trades; and he -was contented, at his death, to leave them, instead of his original -patrimony, no other inheritance than the habits of industry he had given -them—the example of his own virtuous life, an hereditary detestation of -tyranny and injustice, and an ardent zeal in the cause of civil and -religious freedom.” One of these sons became eminent as a jeweller, and -married Miss Garnault, by whom he had a numerous family. Of these three -only lived to maturity, Thomas, Catherine, and Samuel. Samuel was the -youngest, and was born March 1, 1757. - -His father was a man of extreme benevolence, and strict integrity; warm -in his affections, and cheerful in his disposition. Under the influence -of his precepts and example the moral character of Samuel Romilly was -formed: for his mother, from an habitual state of bad health, was -incapable of superintending the early education of her children, which -was consequently much neglected. Samuel and his brother were sent to a -common day-school, the master of which pretended to teach Latin, -although really ignorant of that language. It was at one time -contemplated to train him to commercial business in the house of the -Fludyers, who were then considerable merchants in the city, and near -relations of his family: but the sudden death of both the partners of -that house put an end to these projects; and in the absence of other -occupation, his father employed him in keeping his accounts, and -sometimes receiving orders from customers. He had thus leisure to -cultivate tastes more congenial to his nature; and at the age of -fourteen he commenced that self-education, to which he owed all his -future success. Every volume of his father’s little collection, and of -the circulating libraries in the neighbourhood, was anxiously and -attentively perused. Ancient and modern history, treatises on science, -works of criticism, travels, and English poetry, were among his -favourite books. But a passion for poetry soon predominated over other -tastes; and from admiring the poetry of others he aspired at becoming a -poet himself. He wrote eclogues, songs, and satires, translated passages -from French poets, and imitated English ones; and resolving to devote -himself steadily to literature he hoped to acquire fame as an author. He -now set about learning Latin in earnest; and was soon able, by dint of -unremitting assiduity, and with some assistance from a private tutor, to -understand the easier Latin authors. In the course of about three years -he had read through Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus three times; he had -studied almost the whole of Cicero, as well as the principal poets; he -had gone through the Latin translations of the Greek historians, -orators, and philosophers; and had made numerous translations from the -Latin classics into English, which he retranslated into Latin. This -double exercise he found to be eminently useful in rendering him, what -he at length became, a very excellent scholar. In addition to these -studies, he attended lectures on natural philosophy, painting, -architecture, and anatomy. - -In the meanwhile he felt his father’s business become every day more -irksome; and it was definitively arranged that he should enter into some -branch of the law; a plan which he was enabled to execute by the -accession to the family of a considerable legacy. At the age of sixteen, -he was articled to Mr. Lally for five years, with a view of succeeding -to him as one of the six clerks in Chancery. The society, however, of -Mr. Lally and the pursuit of his literary tastes had greater attractions -for him than the regular occupation of the office; and although he -scrupulously performed the duties required of him, his favourite -classics engrossed a large portion of his time, and his mind was still -intent upon a life of peaceful retirement, and the prospect of literary -fame. - -At the expiration of the term of his apprenticeship, however, he -determined, much against the opinion of many of his friends, to study at -one of the inns of court, and to be called to the bar. His real motive -in deciding against a clerkship in chancery, which was then only to be -obtained by purchase, was little suspected at the time; it was, that he -might not be obliged to call for his share of the legacy just alluded -to, amounting to 2000_l._; which he knew it would be very inconvenient -to his father to pay. This trait of pious benevolence was, by a just -retribution, the pivot upon which his future fortunes more immediately -turned. - -It was not till he had attained his twenty-first year that he entered -upon these new studies; and they were pursued with so much persevering -assiduity, that at length he became seriously indisposed, and all -application was for months prohibited by his medical advisers. So -serious an interruption to his pursuits was likely to be most injurious -to him in his profession; when, fortunately, an opportunity occurred of -making an excursion to the continent. The Rev. John Roget, who had -recently married his sister, had been attacked with a pulmonary -complaint, which obliged him to remove with her to a southern climate, -leaving behind them in England their first and then only child. They -were no sooner settled at Lausanne, than they ardently desired to have -this child conveyed to them, and Mr. Romilly, from a deep sense of the -obligations he already owed to his brother-in-law for assisting him in -his studies, and supplying that judicious and well-timed encouragement, -which, on a susceptible and ardent mind, ever acts as the most powerful -incentive to exertion, readily undertook the charge. The change of air -and scene, the lively interest he took in visiting new countries, and -the consciousness of rendering no small service to relatives to whom he -was most affectionately attached, produced a rapid and favourable change -upon his health. Still more important was the effect produced on the -tone of his mind by this renewed intercourse with a friend, who had -early discerned his latent abilities and extraordinary capacity, and -who, on this occasion, placing before his view the wide field on which -those talents might be advantageously exercised, and the important -services he might thus be capable of rendering to his fellow-creatures, -produced impressions which were indelible, and which, as he himself has -often said, had a marked influence upon the subsequent events of his -life. - -On his return to England he resumed his studies with renovated strength -and with redoubled ardour. He was called to the bar in 1783. More than -ten years, however, elapsed before any real prospect of success opened -to him in his profession. It is true that he was employed in drawing -pleadings in chancery, and this business gradually increased; but it -never required him to open his lips in court; and although he regularly -attended the Midland circuit, he had no connexions on it, and it was not -until he commenced an attendance on the sessions that the circuit at -length became a source of some profit to him. In 1792 he appeared for -the first time as a leader: in a short time he was employed in almost -every case, and not many years passed before he was at the head of his -circuit. - -But we are anticipating a later period. In 1784 Mr. Romilly became -acquainted with Mirabeau, and through him with Lord Lansdowne. That -nobleman appreciated the knowledge and character of the rising lawyer, -and becoming intimate with him, did all in his power to encourage and -bring forth his talents. About the same time there was published a tract -by the Rev. Dr. Madan, entitled ‘Thoughts on Executive Justice.’ It had -attracted some attention, and was so much admired by Lord Lansdowne, -that he suggested to his friend the task of writing a treatise in the -same spirit. But Mr. Romilly was so much shocked at the principle upon -which it proceeded, namely, that of rigidly executing the criminal code -in all cases, barbarous and sanguinary as it then was, that, instead of -adopting its doctrines, he sat down to refute them. The triumphant reply -which he drew up and published anonymously did not meet with the success -it deserved. Nevertheless he had the satisfaction of hearing it praised -from the bench; and Lord Lansdowne himself had the singular candour to -acknowledge the merit of a production, which, although written at his -own suggestion, was at variance with the opinions he had desired to see -inculcated. - -Allusion has been made to Mr. Romilly’s acquaintance with Mirabeau. He -was one of those of whose talents Mirabeau had availed himself on more -than one occasion. It is unnecessary, however, to mention more than the -following instance, which is too characteristic to be omitted. During -one of Mr. Romilly’s visits to Paris, in 1788, curiosity led him to see -the prison of the Bicêtre, and on meeting Mirabeau the next day, he -described to him all the horror and disgust with which the place had -inspired him. Mirabeau, struck with the force of his description, begged -him to express it in writing, and to be allowed to use it. Mirabeau -translated and published this account in a pamphlet, which, in spite of -the title, ‘Lettre d’un Voyageur Anglais sur la Prison de Bicêtre,’ was -everywhere ascribed to him; while the real author, on his return to -England, printed his own MS. in the ‘Repository,’ as the translation, -although it was in fact the original. - -It was not till the autumn of 1796, when on a visit to Bowood, the -country-seat of Lord Lansdowne, that Mr. Romilly first met Miss Garbett, -to whom he was afterwards united, and who formed the charm of the -remainder of his existence. With such sacred inducements to renew his -efforts in his profession, his advancement was proportionably rapid. On -November 6, 1800, he was appointed king’s counsel; and it was soon clear -that he might aspire to the highest ranks of his profession. In 1806 he -was made Solicitor-general, under the administration of Mr. Fox and Lord -Grenville. He was, much against his will, knighted on his appointment; -and was brought into Parliament by the Government for Queenborough. Soon -after, he was called upon to sum up the evidence on the trial of Lord -Melville; a duty which he performed with consummate skill, though with a -feebleness of voice which deprived his most able speech of its just -effect in the vast hall where it was delivered. - -During the first session of his parliamentary career, Sir Samuel Romilly -confined himself principally to questions of law, and seldom addressed -the House, except in committee; but in the beginning of 1807 he took a -more prominent part, and made his first great speech in favour of the -abolition of the Slave-trade—a speech, which at once placed him on a -level with the most successful orators of the day. In this subject he -had always felt deep interest. From his earliest youth he had expressed -the warmest indignation against this infamous traffic; he had -translated, with a view to publication, Condorcet’s pamphlet against -West Indian slavery, and, at the beginning of the French Revolution, he -had written an eloquent paper against the Slave-trade, and had -transmitted it to his friend Dumont, from whom he trusted it would pass -to Mirabeau, and would remind him of the importance of the question, at -a time when a comparatively slight effort would have settled it in that -country for ever. These previous efforts had produced no effect; but he -had afterwards the satisfaction of belonging to the ministry to whom the -honour was due of abolishing the slave-trade, and of thus preparing the -way for putting an end to slavery itself. This ministry were soon after -dismissed from their offices, for not sacrificing their opinions in -favour of Catholic emancipation to the lamentable and persevering -prejudices entertained by George III. on that question, prejudices -adopted by his son and successor, to the infinite detriment of his -dominions. - -On the dissolution of parliament which followed, Sir Samuel Romilly, -having procured for himself a seat for Wareham, lost no time in -re-introducing a measure, which had been rejected in the former -parliament, to enable a creditor to obtain the payment of his debts from -the landed property of persons dying indebted. With a view to prevent -opposition, he had confined the operation of his measure to freehold -estates only. The bill, however, even in this modified form, met with -the greatest opposition. Its introduction by Sir Samuel was ascribed to -“his hereditary love of democracy;” it was denounced by Canning, “as the -first step of something that might end like the French Revolution, and -as a dangerous attack against the aristocracy, which was thus to be -sacrificed to the commercial interest;” and it was finally rejected by a -considerable majority. Rather than give up his object entirely, he -determined to make another concession to the prejudices of his -opponents; and a few days after the rejection of the measure, on -introducing a second bill on the same subject, he limited its operation -to the landed estates of _traders_. This expedient succeeded; the -aristocracy, caring little what became of traders’ estates, suffered the -bill to pass both houses without the slightest opposition, and it -received the Royal assent in August, 1807. After the lapse of seven -years, he made fresh attempts in favour of his original bill, but in -vain. It was indeed carried by the Commons, in 1814, by a majority of -nearly two to one; and again in the same house, in the two succeeding -years, without the slightest opposition; but on all these occasions it -was as regularly rejected by the House of Peers. The original measure, -including copyhold as well as freehold estates, has recently become part -of the law of the land. - -During the vacation of 1807 Sir Samuel Romilly prepared some of those -reforms in the criminal law, by which he is most known to the public. -For many years he had been intent on this subject, and had made it his -particular study. During repeated visits to the continent, he never -missed an opportunity of attending any important trial; and for the -sixteen years during which he attended the circuit, he had been in the -habit of noting down whatever appeared to him worthy of observation in -the criminal courts. Shocked at instances of judicial injustice, which -thus fell under his notice, he had secretly resolved that, if it should -ever be in his power, he would endeavour to provide a remedy for such -gross abuses. The principles of his intended reforms were contained in -his answer to Dr. Madan. He held that the prevention of crime is more -effectually accomplished by certainty than by severity of punishment; -that to approximate to certainty of punishment, it was necessary to -mitigate the severities of the penal code; that, unless this were done, -there would still be an indisposition on the part of the public to -prosecute, of witnesses to give evidence, of juries to convict, and even -of judges to put in execution the sentences they had themselves -passed;—that all these were so many chances of escape offered to a -culprit, operating rather as encouragements than as checks to crime. -These doctrines, then so new, although now received as axioms, made but -few converts at first; and it was not till they were again brought -before the public in the House of Commons, in 1808, that they attracted -some of that attention to which they were entitled. One of his first -bills, which repealed the punishment of death for stealing privately -from the person to the amount of five shillings, passed both houses with -but little opposition; but, as the number of prosecutions increased in -consequence, it was alleged that the crime itself had increased, and -that all similar reforms would be attended with similar mischief. -Romilly urged in vain that, when the measure was under consideration, he -had foretold that it would produce an increase of prosecutions; and that -this, far from being an argument against the mitigation of punishment, -was the best proof of its efficacy. In vain did he defend his principle, -with the varied stores of his knowledge, with the most powerful -arguments, and with the eloquence of deep conviction. The mature -reflections of above thirty years’ study and experience were treated as -the rash innovations of a wild theorist. The effect of government -circulars was too seldom counteracted by the attendance of his own -political friends; no party advantage could be gained from such -enlightened labours; there was no large and powerful body in the country -to second his efforts; and when, at length, after unremitting -perseverance, he occasionally succeeded in carrying a bill through the -Commons, it was rarely permitted to pass through the ordeal of the Upper -House. But these efforts were not thrown away. His views, ably and -diligently supported by Sir James Mackintosh and others, have since been -confirmed and acted on even by his political opponents. The credit which -was due to him who had sown the seed has since been claimed by those who -reaped it; but the harvest is not lost to the public. - -But Romilly did not shrink from taking an active part on questions more -generally interesting to the public, even though the avowal of his -opinions might endanger his advancement in life. A remarkable instance -of this kind occurred in the beginning of 1809, when the conduct of the -Duke of York was brought before the house by Colonel Wardle. He was -aware that to support this inquiry would not be less obnoxious to many -members of the former government than to those then in office. It had -been significantly intimated to him that the Prince of Wales would -consider any attack on the duke as an attack on himself; and he felt -under some obligation to the Prince for having formerly offered him a -seat in parliament, which, however, he had declined. Such was his -position; entertaining, however, a strong opinion on the subject, he -resolved not to abandon his duty; and he spoke and voted in favour of -the motion. He concluded his speech in these words: “The venerable -judge[5] who took an early part in the discussion of this question has -attested the sincerity of his vote by an affecting allusion to his age -and infirmities, to the few inducements which the remainder of his life -presented to him. I cannot say the same thing. Not labouring under the -same affliction, and not having arrived at the same period of life, I -may reasonably be allowed for myself, and for those who are most dear to -me, to indulge hopes of prosperity yet to come. Reflecting on the -vicissitudes of human life, I may entertain apprehensions of adversity -and persecution which perhaps await me. I have, however, the -satisfaction to reflect, that it is not possible for me to hope to -derive, in any way the most remote, advantages from the vote which upon -this occasion I shall give, and from the part which I have thought it my -duty to act.” - -Footnote 5: - - Mr. Barton, a Welsh judge, who was then at the age of nearly seventy, - and deprived of his sight. - -These anticipations were afterwards corroborated by several persons, who -told him, that after such a speech, he must give up all thoughts of ever -being Chancellor. The public also felt that he had made a sacrifice in -their cause. Thanks were voted to him in conjunction with Mr. Whitbread, -Lord Folkstone, and some others, from the City of London, Liverpool, -Carmarthen, Wiltshire, Bristol, Berwick, &c. &c.; and he was invited by -the Livery of London to a public dinner, as a mark of approbation of his -conduct. He declined, however, to accept the intended honour, and his -answers to the addresses were drawn up with that unaffected modesty, and -love of simple truth, which were so peculiarly characteristic of his -mind. Instead of dwelling upon his own merit, he drew the picture of -what would have been thought of him had he pursued an opposite course. -“Seeing the case,” he said in his answer to the Livery, “in the light in -which I saw it, to have acted otherwise than I did, I must have been -base enough to have deserted my public duty upon a most important -occasion, from the mean apprehension that to discharge my duty might be -attended with personal disadvantage to myself. If there be much merit in -not having been actuated by such unworthy motives, (which I cannot -think, but if there be,) that merit I certainly may pretend to, &c.” - -The course which he took in the year following on the imprisonment of -Gale Jones, and the alleged breach of privilege by Sir Francis Burdett, -was again at variance with that adopted by either of the two great -parties in the house. The Opposition as well as the Ministry, and all -the lawyers who took any part in the debate, concurred in thinking the -paper written by Sir Francis Burdett a breach of privilege, and -deserving of punishment of one kind or another; while Romilly maintained -that the house had no jurisdiction to take cognizance of the offence. He -did not dispute the right to imprison for a breach of privilege which -obstructed their proceedings, but he denied the right and the policy of -doing so for the publication of animadversions on matters already -concluded. He urged that these latter questions “ought not to be decided -on by the house, which thus constituted itself prosecutor, party, and -judge, without affording to the accused the opportunity of even hearing -the charges preferred against him; but they ought to be left to the -ordinary tribunals, the courts of law.” These arguments, disregarded at -the time, were amply justified by the events which followed. The folly -of the course adopted was proved by serious disturbances, attended with -the loss of life; petitions couched in the most disrespectful language -were sent up, and inserted on the Journals; and the question of the -privileges of the Commons came, in the first instance, before the courts -of law, and was finally decided by the House of Lords. Invitations to -public dinners were again sent to him, which he again declined; and -addresses of thanks were voted “for the stand he had made in favour of -the dominion of the law, against arbitrary discretion and undefined -privilege.” - -But it was not only in this way that the public showed how much they -appreciated his integrity and independence. In 1812 he was pressed to -allow himself to be put in nomination for several large constituencies; -amongst others for Liverpool, Chester, Middlesex, and Bristol. At -Bristol, his past political conduct was considered a sufficient -guarantee for the future; no pledge was required of him, he was to be -put to no expense, and it was agreed that he should be excused from -personal canvas. On terms so honourable he consented to be put in -nomination; and although a total stranger in the town, his reception was -most encouraging, and there seemed every prospect of success. -Nevertheless the common but dishonest maxim, of every thing being fair -at an election, being acted upon by the opposite party, it was soon -evident that he would not be returned; and on the seventh day he -resigned any further contest. - -Although his opinions were not as yet to receive the sanction of any -large and popular constituency, he did not relax his efforts in favour -of the rights and interests of the people. On being returned for -Horsham, during the six sessions which this parliament lasted, we find -him the same strenuous advocate for civil liberty and religious -toleration in the most extensive sense of the words, at home and abroad; -the same determined enemy to peculation and corruption, the same ardent -and judicious reformer of the laws; “incapable on every occasion of -being swerved from his duty by the threats of power, the allurements of -the great, the temptations of private interest, or even the seduction of -popular favour. All the toil, the pain, and the fatigue of his duties -were his own; all the advantage which resulted from his labours were for -the public.” - -He spoke and voted against military flogging, the game laws, the -punishment of the pillory, the poor laws, the law of libel, and -lotteries; against the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, Lord -Sidmouth’s circular letter, and the employment of spies and informers; -and against the persecution of the Protestants in France, and the Alien -bill at home; in favour of Catholic emancipation, the education of the -poor, and the liberty of the press. He was always a zealous advocate for -peace; against the system of the corn laws, and all restrictions on -commerce, and he was in favour of an extensive change in the -representation of the people, of shortening the duration of parliament, -and ensuring the free exercise of the elective franchise. He was also in -favour of the promulgation of laws, of allowing counsel to prisoners, of -giving compensation to those who had been unjustly accused, of greatly -extending the rules respecting the admission of evidence; of introducing -secondary punishments, and of instituting a public prosecutor; and all -this not more for the sake of humanity towards the guilty, than for the -great ends of justice, the prevention of crime, and the reform of -criminals. - -At the conclusion of this parliament in 1818, Sir Samuel Romilly, after -having again been invited to stand for several large constituencies, by -any of which he was assured he would be elected, was at length put in -nomination for Westminster; and although he was violently opposed by the -court on the one side, and by the ultra popular party on the other; -although, during the whole of the contest, he was calmly pursuing his -professional duties in the Court of Chancery, and never once appeared on -the hustings till the conclusion, he was returned at the head of the -poll. After his election, he did all in his power to avoid the ceremony -of chairing; but on his objections being over-ruled, his greatest -pleasure was when, after he had addressed the multitude from the windows -of Burlington House, he was able to escape by a back door and walk by -the less frequented streets to his home, there to receive -congratulations no less hearty, and more congenial to his temper and -taste. But he did not live to take his seat. A life of uninterrupted and -rarely equalled domestic happiness, and of great success in his -professional and political career, was suddenly embittered by the loss -of that being, to whom he had been deeply and devotedly attached for -above twenty years, and with whom he had ever considered his happiness -and prosperity as being indissolubly connected. He sank under this -calamity, and mankind was deprived of his services for ever[6]. - -Footnote 6: - - Strong symptoms of an incipient brain fever showed themselves, and - these increased so rapidly as to produce, before they could be - checked, a temporary delirium, as most frequently happens in that - malady; and in this paroxysm he terminated his existence, November 22, - 1818, three days after Lady Romilly’s death. - -Romilly was reserved and silent in general society, but affectionate, -entertaining, and instructive with his friends; and full of joyousness, -humour, and playfulness with his children, and in the bosom of his -family. He was endowed with a lively imagination, he was fond of -retirement, and was a passionate admirer of the beauties of nature. -Indefatigable in his profession and in parliament, he yet found time to -keep up with the literature of the day, to write criticisms on the books -which he read, to keep a regular diary of his political career, and to -compose essays on various branches of the criminal law. His eloquence -was of that kind which never fails to make a lasting impression: it was -full of earnest conviction and deep sensibility. He was a great master -of sarcasm, but he considered it an unfair weapon and rarely employed -it. So jealous was he of his independence, that when he was -solicitor-general, and one of his nephews was peculiarly anxious to be -placed in the Military Academy at Woolwich, he refused to lay himself -under any obligation, even for so slight a favour; and the application -was never made. Few ever gained so large a portion of public favour, and -yet so studiously avoided courting popularity; and no one ever rose -higher in the esteem of his political contemporaries. Unsullied in -character as a lawyer, as a politician, and as a man, his life, which -was prolonged to the age of sixty-one, was a life of happiness and of -honour. No statues are erected to his memory; no titles descend to his -children; but he has bequeathed a richer, a prouder, and a more lasting -inheritance, than any which the world can bestow: the recollection of -his virtues is still fresh in the minds of his countrymen, and the -sacrifices he made in the cause of humanity will not be forgotten by -mankind. - - - - -[Illustration] - - SHAKSPEARE. - - -The materials which we possess for the biography of Shakspeare are very -unsatisfactory. The earliest life is that by the poet Rowe, who, as if -aware of its scantiness, merely entitles it ‘Some Account.’ It contains -what little the author could collect, when no sources of information -were left open but the floating traditions of the theatre after the -lapse of nearly a century. Mr. Malone prefixed a new life to his -edition, extending to above 500 pages; but he only brings his author to -London, and as to his professional progress, adds nothing to Rowe’s -meagre tale, except some particles of information previously -communicated in notes by himself and Steevens. - -William Shakspeare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, -April 23, 1564. He was one of ten children. His father was a dealer in -wool, as it is generally said, but according to Malone, a glover, and -alderman in the corporation of Stratford. Our great poet received such -education as the lower forms of the Grammar School at Stratford could -give him; but he was removed from that establishment at an early age, to -serve as clerk in a country attorney’s office. This anecdote of his -boyhood receives confirmation from the frequent recurrence of technical -law-phrases in his plays; and it has been remarked that he derives none -of his allusions from other learned professions. Before he was eighteen -years of age he contracted a marriage with Anne Hathaway, a woman some -years older than himself, and the daughter of a substantial yeoman in -his own neighbourhood. He went to London about 1586, when he was but -twenty-two years of age, being obliged, as the common story goes, to fly -the country, in consequence of being detected in deer-stealing. This -tale is thought to be confirmed by the ridicule cast on his supposed -prosecutor, Sir Thomas Lucy, in the character of Justice Shallow, -pointed as it is by the - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by E. Scriven._ - - SHAKSPEARE. - - _From the Picture in the Possession of His Grace the Duke of - Buckingham, at Stowe._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street. June 1, 1835._ -] - -commendation of the “dozen white luces as a good coat.” But as this is -the only lawless action which tradition has imputed to one of the most -amiable and inoffensive of men, we may perhaps esteem the tale to be the -mere gossip of the tiring-room: indeed, Malone has adduced several -arguments to prove that it cannot be correctly told. It is not necessary -to suppose that Shakspeare was compelled to fly his native town because -he came to the metropolis; his emigration is sufficiently accounted for -by his father’s falling into distressed circumstances, and being obliged -in this very year, 1586, to resign his alderman’s gown on that account. -Another traditional anecdote, that Shakspeare’s first employment was to -wait at the play-house door, and hold the horses of those who had no -servants, is discredited by Mr. Steevens, who says, “That it was once -the general custom to ride on horseback to the play I am yet to learn. -The most popular of the theatres were on the Bankside; and we are told -by the satirical pamphleteers of that time that the usual mode of -conveyance to those places of amusement was by water; but not a single -writer so much as hints at the custom of riding to them, or at the -practice of having horses held during the hours of exhibition. Let it be -remembered too, that we receive this tale on no higher authority than -that of Cibber’s ‘Lives of the Poets.’” - -Nothing is authentically proved with respect to Shakspeare’s -introduction to the stage. His first play is dated by Malone in 1589, -three years after the time assigned for the author’s arrival in London. -It appears from the dedication to ‘Venus and Adonis,’ published in 1593, -in which he calls that poem “the first heir of his invention,” that his -earliest essays were not in dramatic composition. The ‘Lucrece,’ -published in 1594, and the collection of sonnets, entitled the -‘Passionate Pilgrim,’ published in 1599, also belong to an early period -of his poetical life. The ‘Lover’s Complaint,’ and a larger collection -of sonnets, were printed in 1609. It may be conjectured that he was led -to write for the stage in consequence of the advice and introduction of -Thomas Green, an eminent comedian of the day, who was his townsman, if -not his relation. Shakspeare trod the boards himself, but he never rose -to eminence as an actor: it is recorded that the Ghost in ‘Hamlet’ was -his masterpiece. But the instructions to the players in ‘Hamlet’ exhibit -a clear and delicate perception of what an actor ought to be, however -incompetent the writer might be to furnish the example in his own -person. - -The extent of Shakspeare’s learning has been much controverted. Dr. -Johnson speaks of it thus: “It is most likely that he had learned Latin -sufficiently to make him acquainted with construction, but that he never -advanced to an easy perusal of the Roman authors. Concerning his skill -in modern languages, I can find no sufficient ground of determination; -but as no imitations of French or Italian authors have been discovered, -though the Italian poetry was then high in esteem, I am inclined to -believe that he read little more than English, and chose for his fables -only such tales as he found translated.” Other writers have contended -that he must have been acquainted with the Greek and Roman classics: but -Dr. Farmer, in his ‘Essay on the Learning of Shakspeare,’ has accounted -in a very satisfactory manner for the frequent allusions to the facts -and fables of antiquity to be met with in Shakspeare’s writings, without -supposing that he read the classic authors in their original languages. -The supposition indeed is at variance with his whole history. Dr. Farmer -has particularly specified the English translations of the classics then -extant, and concludes on the whole, that the studies of Shakspeare were -confined to nature and his own language. - -The merit of Shakspeare did not escape the notice of Queen Elizabeth. He -evinced his gratitude for her patronage in that beautiful passage in the -‘Midsummer Night’s Dream,’ where he speaks of her as “a fair vestal, -throned in the west.” - -Sheffield, Duke of Buckinghamshire, is the relater of an anecdote which -shows the continuance of high favour to our author. It is expressed in -these words: that “the most learned prince and great patron of learning, -King James I., was pleased with his own hand to write an amicable letter -to Mr. Shakspeare;” and Dr. Farmer supposes, with apparent probability, -that this honour was conferred in return for the compliment paid to the -monarch in ‘Macbeth.’ Shakspeare also possessed the esteem of, and was -admitted to familiar intercourse with, the accomplished Earls of -Southampton and Essex; and enjoyed the friendship of his great -contemporary Ben Jonson. - -Of the poet’s career before the London public nothing authentic has come -down to us; and perhaps if more were known, it might not be worth -recording. But his retirement in 1611 or 1612, about four years before -his death, though it afford no story, furnishes a pleasing reflection. -He had left his native place, poor and almost unknown: he returned to -it, not rich, but with a competence and an unblemished character. His -good-natured wit made him a welcome member of private society when he no -longer set the theatre in a roar; and he ended his days in habits of -intimacy, and in some cases in the bonds of friendship, with the leading -gentlemen of the neighbourhood. He died on his birthday, April 23, 1616, -when he had completed his fifty-second year. If we look merely at the -state in which he left his productions, we should be apt to conclude -that he was insensible of their value. To quote the words of Dr. -Johnson, “It does not appear that Shakspeare thought his works worthy of -posterity; that he levied any ideal tribute upon future times, or had -any further prospect than that of present popularity and present -profit.” But the imperfect form in which they came before the public is -not necessarily to be accounted for by this extravagance of humility. It -is clear that any publication of his plays by himself would have -interfered at first with his own interest, and afterwards with the -interest of those to whom he made over his share in them; besides which, -such was the revulsion of the public taste, that the publication of his -works by Hemings and Condell was accounted a doubtful speculation. For -several years after his death the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher were -more frequently acted than those of Shakspeare; and the beautiful works -of the joint dramatists afterwards gave place to the rhyming rhapsodies -of Dryden and the bombast of Lee. Garrick brought back the public to -Shakspeare and every-day nature; Kemble exhibited him in the more -refined dress of classical taste and philosophy. - -Mr. Malone has observed, that our author’s prose compositions, should -they be discovered, would exhibit the same perspicuity, the same -cadence, the same elegance and vigour, which we find in his plays. In -1751, an attempt was made to impose on the public by a book entitled ‘A -Compendious or Brief Examination of certayne Ordinary Complaints of -divers of our Countrymen in these our Days, &c., by William Shakspeare, -Gentleman;’ the signature to which, in the original edition of 1581, was -“W. S., Gent.;” and Dr. Farmer has clearly proved the initials to mean -“William Stafford, Gent.” Another and more impudent forgery was -attempted by Ireland, who published in 1795 a volume, entitled -‘Shakspeare’s Manuscripts.’ The fraud met with partial success, and the -tragedy of ‘Vortigern’ was performed as one of Shakspeare’s, to the -great disgust, it is said, of John Kemble, who had to act in it much -against his will. Malone exposed the imposition in 1796, and Ireland -himself ultimately acknowledged it. With respect to the probable -character of Shakspeare’s prose compositions, it is needless to -speculate on it, as we have no reason to believe that he ever wrote any -prose, except for the stage. - -Some interesting criticisms of Mrs. Siddons on the chief female -characters of Shakspeare will be found in the life of that eminent -actress in this volume. We may here introduce another observation of -hers on Constance in ‘King John.’ She said that the intuition of -Shakspeare in delineating that character struck her as all but -supernatural: she could scarcely conceive the possibility of any man -possessing himself so thoroughly with the most intense and most inward -feelings of the other sex: had Shakspeare been a woman and a mother, he -must have felt neither less nor more than as he wrote. - -The two first folio editions are in great request among book-collectors, -and, owing to their scarcity, fetch high prices at auctions. They have -nothing to recommend them either as to accuracy or elegance of -typography, but are really valuable for the various readings which they -contain. The best modern editions are those of Johnson and Steevens, and -Malone. The last edition is the posthumous one of Malone, edited by -Boswell, and little room is left for any farther elucidation of our -great dramatist, as far as verbal criticism is concerned. But for the -higher branches of criticism, the works of such a poet are as -inexhaustible as those of Homer; and if his fame be equally immortal, -its fate is more singular. However ardent may be the admiration of Homer -on the part of modern scholars, and however profound their investigation -of his merits, far from pretending to discoveries unknown to the Grecian -critics and philosophers, they support their own views by constant -references to the ancients; but Shakspeare has found his most elaborate, -and with certain drawbacks, his best critics, among foreigners. In -England Shakspeare is the idol of those who read either for the -amusement of the imagination, or as students not of poetical or -metaphysical, but of every-day nature; and his English editors have -rather criticised down to the level of such readers, than aimed at -ripening their taste, or elevating their conceptions. We find eminent -men among them, such as Pope, Warburton, and Johnson, yet none well -qualified to perform the highest functions of a commentator. Johnson’s -Preface is highly valued for the justness of his general criticism, and -his vindication of the poet on the score of the unities is triumphantly -conclusive. But his remarks at the end of each play are so jejune and -superficial, that short as they are, no reader perhaps ever wished them -longer. One cannot help wondering that the acute, and in many instances -profound, though sometimes partial, critic of Cowley, Milton, Dryden, -Pope and Gray, should have skimmed so lightly over the surface of -Shakspeare. Not so his German translators and critics. No sooner did the -Germans take up the study of English literature, than they selected -Shakspeare on whom to try their powers; and they are thought to have -dived deeper into his mind than have his own countrymen, with their -apparently better opportunities. Nor is this wonderful: for they have -regarded the poet not merely as the minister of amusement to an admiring -audience, but as a metaphysical philosopher of nature’s forming, -possessed of deepest insight into the complex motives which move the -hearts, and stimulate the actions of mankind. And seeking with a -reverent attention to trace the workings of the _maker’s_ mind (for in -this instance there is a peculiar propriety in translating the Greek -word _poet_) they have succeeded in furnishing profound and satisfactory -explanations of much that less intellectual critics had treated as -instances of the author’s irregular and capricious genius. In this, as -in other branches of German literature, Goëthe stands pre-eminent: and -the translation of his ‘Wilhelm Meister’ has placed within the reach of -all readers a series of original and masterly criticisms, especially on -that stumbling-block of commentators, the character of Hamlet. We may -quote as a specimen his exposition of the principle upon which the -anomalies of the Prince of Denmark’s conduct are to be solved. “It is -clear to me that Shakspeare’s intention was to exhibit the effects of a -great action, imposed as a duty upon a mind too feeble for its -accomplishment. In this case I find the character consistent throughout. -Here is an oak tree planted in a china vase, proper only to receive the -most delicate flowers. The roots strike out and the vessel flies to -pieces. A pure, noble, highly moral disposition, but without that energy -of soul which constitutes the hero, sinks under a load which it can -neither support nor endure to abandon altogether. _All_ his obligations -are sacred to him; but this alone is above his powers! An impossibility -is required at his hands; not an impossibility in itself, but that which -is so to him. Observe, how he turns, shifts, hesitates, advances, and -recedes;—how he is continually reminded and reminding himself of his -real commission, which he nevertheless in the end seems almost entirely -to lose sight of, and this without ever recovering his former -tranquillity!” How different this from the praise of _variety_ allowed -to this tragedy by Johnson, to “the pretended madness, causing mirth,” -without any adequate cause for feigning it, and the objection that -through the whole piece he is “rather an instrument than an agent!” - -Malone’s “attempt to ascertain the order in which the plays of -Shakspeare were written” occupies 180 pages. Where so many words are -necessary, the arrangement to be justified may not be very certain; but -that of Malone is generally received. It runs thus: The First Part of -King Henry VI., 1589. Second and Third Parts, Two Gentlemen of Verona, -1591. Comedy of Errors, 1592. King Richard II. and III., 1593. Love’s -Labour’s Lost, Merchant of Venice, Midsummer Night’s Dream, 1594. Taming -of the Shrew, Romeo and Juliet, King John, 1596. First Part of King -Henry IV., 1597. Second Part, All’s well that ends well, 1598. King -Henry V., As You like it, 1599. Much ado about Nothing, Hamlet, 1600. -Merry Wives of Windsor, 1601. Troilus and Cressida, 1602. Measure for -Measure, King Henry VIII., 1603. Othello, 1604. King Lear, 1605. -Macbeth, 1606. Twelfth Night, Julius Cæsar, 1607. Antony and Cleopatra, -1608. Cymbeline, 1609. Coriolanus, Timon of Athens, 1610. Winter’s Tale, -1611. Tempest, 1612. Except the placing of the historical plays in -separate succession, the order of Malone’s edition follows the above -dates. Previous editions arranged the plays as comedies, histories, and -tragedies, beginning with the Tempest, the last written, and ending with -Othello. We must add to the list of plays ascribed to Shakspeare, and -included in the editions of his works, Pericles and Titus Andronicus, -which are now acknowledged not to be the composition of Shakspeare, -though perhaps retouched by him. The Yorkshire Tragedy, Lord Cromwell, -and others, have still less right to bear the honour of his name. - -[Illustration: [Shakspeare’s Monument at Stratford-upon-Avon.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by B. Holl._ - - EULER. - - _From a Picture by A. Lorgna in the Collection of the Institute of - France._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - EULER. - - -Leonard Euler[7] was born at Basle, April 15, 1707. His father was the -clergyman of Reichen, near Basle, and had himself been a pupil of James -Bernouilli. He intended his son for his own profession, and after having -been himself his first instructor in mathematics, sent him to the -university of Basle. John Bernouilli was at this time Professor, and his -sons, Nicolas and Daniel, two more of the _eight_ Bernouillis known to -the history of science, were under him. With the sons Euler contracted -an intimate friendship; and obtained such a degree of favour even with -their father, that the latter gave him a private lesson weekly, upon -points more advanced than those treated in the public course. This was a -strong mark of favour from John Bernouilli, who was of an unamiable -disposition, jealous of his brother, of his son, and finally of almost -every one who displayed a superior talent for mathematics. Euler at -first turned his attention to theology, in accordance with the wishes of -his father, but this was not of long continuance. At the age of -nineteen, besides obtaining a degree from his University, he had merited -the notice of the Academy of Sciences for a memoir on some points of -naval architecture. In the same year, he was an unsuccessful candidate -for a Professorship at Basle, an unlucky event, M. Condorcet observes, -for his country, inasmuch as a few days afterwards he left it for -Russia, and never returned. His friends the Bernouillis (Nicolas and -Daniel) had, two years before, accepted invitations from the Empress -Catherine; and he followed them in hopes of obtaining employment and -subsistence at St. Petersburgh. But by the time he arrived, both Nicolas -Bernouilli and the Empress were dead, the Academy of St. Petersburgh was -left without a patron, and Euler, a nameless stranger, could not for a -long time obtain any settled avocation. How he maintained himself we are -not told; but he was upon the point of entering the Russian service as a -sailor, when his prospects brightened, and he obtained the place of -Professor of Natural Philosophy. In 1733 he succeeded Daniel Bernouilli, -who returned to his own country, as Professor of Mathematics. In the -same year he married a young lady named Gsell, the daughter of an artist -of Basle, who had emigrated to Russia in the reign of Peter the Great. - -Footnote 7: - - We have followed the _éloge_ of Condorcet as to facts and dates. We - should have preferred that of M. Fuss, but have not had the - opportunity of seeing it. The mere biographical details of Euler’s - life are, however, of the simplest character. - -The despotism of the Russian government could not please the republican -born; but circumstances obliged him to endure it till 1741, when he -quitted Petersburgh for Berlin on the invitation of Frederic the Great. -To the necessity for continual reserve and government of the tongue -which was necessary in the Russian capital has been attributed his love -of silence and study, which exceeded all that is related of any of his -contemporaries. The mother of Frederic, who was as much attached to the -conversation of distinguished men as the King himself, could never -obtain more than a few syllables from Euler at any one time. On her -asking the reason why he would not speak, he is said to have replied, -“Madam, I have lived in a country where men who speak are hanged.” - -Euler remained at Berlin till 1766. In 1761 he lost his mother, who had -resided with him for eleven years. During this time he was not -considered as having abandoned his Russian engagements, and a part of -his salary was regularly paid. When the Russians invaded Brandenburg in -1760, a farm belonging to him was destroyed, but he was immediately more -than reimbursed, by the order of the Empress Elizabeth. On the -invitation of that princess he consented to return to Petersburgh in -1766. He had for some years suffered from weakness in the eyes; and not -long after his return to Russia he became so nearly blind, that he could -distinguish nothing except very large letters marked with chalk on a -slate. In this state he continued for the remainder of his life; and by -constant exercise he acquired a power of recollection, whether of -mathematical formulæ or figures, which would be totally incredible, if -it were not supported by strong evidence. He formed in his head, and -retained in his memory, a table of the first six powers of all numbers -up to 100, containing about 3000 figures. Two of his pupils had summed -seventeen terms of a converging series, and differed by a unit in the -fiftieth decimal of the result; Euler decided between them correctly by -a mental calculation[8]. His chief amusement during his deprivation was -the formation of artificial magnets, and the instruction of one of his -grandchildren in mathematics. His studies were in no degree relaxed by -it. In 1771 Euler’s house was destroyed by fire, together with a -considerable part of the city. He was himself saved by a -fellow-countryman named Grimm, and his manuscripts were also rescued. In -1776 he married the aunt of his first wife. No other event worthy of -special notice occurred before his death, which took place suddenly, -September 7, 1783. He had been employed in calculating the laws of the -ascent of balloons, which were then newly introduced; he afterwards -dined with his family and M. Lexell, his pupil, conversed with them on -the newly-discovered planet of Herschel, and was amusing himself with -one of his grandchildren; suddenly the pipe which he held in his hand -dropped on the ground, and it was found that[9] “life and calculation -were at an end.” He had thirteen children, of whom only three survived -him; one of them, John Albert Euler, was known as a mathematician. - -Footnote 8: - - We suspect some mistake in this account, which is constantly given. A - very surprising story ought to be consistent: now it is difficult to - believe that any series which was actually employed in practice (and - people do not sum series to fifty places for amusement) would converge - so quickly, as to give fifty places in seventeen terms. The well-known - series for the base of Napier’s logarithms is called a rapidly - converging series, and gives about fifteen places in seventeen terms. - We cannot help thinking, either that Euler settled one disputed term - only, or that there is some mistake about the number of figures. - -Footnote 9: - - Il cessa de calculer et de vivre.—CONDORCET. - -Of the scientific character of Euler it is impossible to speak in -detail, since even the _resumé_ of M. Condorcet, which is much longer -than any account we can here insert, is meagre in the extreme; and we -imagine that the reader would form no idea whatsoever of the man we are -describing, from any brief enumeration of discoveries for which we -should be able to allow room. In more than fifty years of incessant -thought, Euler wrote thirty separate works and more than seven hundred -memoirs: which could not altogether be contained in forty large quarto -volumes. These writings embrace every existing branch of mathematics, -and almost every conceivable application of them, to such an extent, -that there is no one among mathematicians, past or present, who can be -placed near to Euler in the enormous variety of the subjects which he -treated. And the contents of these volumes are without exception the -original fruit of his own brain; seeing that he left no subject as he -found it. He is not a diffuse writer, except in giving a large number of -examples, and this renders him in some respects the most instructive of -all writers. His works are full of the most original thoughts developed -in the most original manner; so that they have been a mine of -information for his successors, which is even now far from being -exhausted. Let a student be employed upon any subject connected with -mathematics, however remotely, and he has discovered but little if he -has not found out that Euler was there before him. - -Of all mathematical writers, Euler is one of the most simple, and this -in a manner which renders his writings not by any means a sound -preparation for future investigations. Difficulties seem to have -disappeared in the progress, or never to have been encountered; and the -student is rather made to feel that Euler could take him anywhere, than -furnished with the means of providing for himself, when his guide shall -have left him. Hence the writings of others, in every way inferior to -Euler in elegance and simplicity, are to be preferred, and have been -preferred, for the formation of mathematical power. - -Euler is to be measured by the assistance which he gave to his immediate -successors, and here it is well known that he paved the way for the -research of others in a more effectual manner than any of his -contemporaries. The incessant repetition of his name in later authors is -sufficient authority for this assertion. His writings are the first in -which the modern analysis is uniformly the instrument of investigation. -His predecessors, James and John Bernouilli, had perhaps the largest -share in bringing the infinitesimal analysis of Newton and Leibnitz to -the state of power required for extensive application. To Euler (besides -important extensions) belongs the distinct merit of showing how to apply -it to physical investigations, in conjunction with D’Alembert, who ran a -splendid and contemporary career of a similar character in this respect. -But though it would be perhaps admitted that there are individual -results of the latter which exceed anything done by the former, in -generality of application, there is no comparison whatsoever between the -extent of the labours of the two. - -Euler was a man of a simple, reserved, and benevolent mind; with a -strong sense of devotion, and a decided religious habit, according to -the Calvinism of the Established Church of his country. At the court of -Frederic, he himself conducted the devotions of his family every -evening; a practice which then and there implied much moral courage, and -insensibility to ridicule. But he possessed humour, for when he was -asked to calculate the horoscope of one of the Russian princes, he -quietly suggested that it was the official duty of the astronomer, and -imposed the duty upon a colleague, who doubtless did not feel very much -flattered by the application. - -There are few men whom the usual biographical formulæ as to moral -character and habits would better fit than Euler, according to every -account which has appeared of him. But such praises are no distinction; -and it will be more to the purpose to state that the only occasion in -which he was betrayed into printing a word which his eulogists have -regretted, was in the dispute between Maupertuis and himself against -others on the principle known by the name of _least action_, one of the -warmest and most angry discussions which ever took place. - -Perhaps it is to the quiet abstraction of his life that he owed the -perpetuity of his tenure of investigation. Many eminent mathematical -discoverers have run the brilliant part of their career while -comparatively young. Euler “ceased to calculate and to live” at once. -But it may be that this was a part of his natural constitution, and a -distinct feature of his mind. The nature of his writings rather confirms -the latter supposition. There is the same difference between them and -those of others, that there is between conversation and oratory. He -seems to be moving in his natural element, where others are swimming for -their lives. - -The best works of Euler for a young mathematician to read, in order to -get an idea of his style and methods, are the ‘_Analysis Infinitorum_,’ -and the ‘_Treatise on the Integral Calculus_.’ - - - - -[Illustration] - - SIR W. JONES. - - -William Jones, the most accomplished Oriental scholar of the last -century, an upright magistrate, and eminent benefactor of the native -subjects of our Indian dominions, was born in London on Michaelmas Eve, -1746. His father, a man esteemed by his contemporaries, a skilful -mathematician, and the friend of Newton, died in July, 1749. His mother -then devoted herself entirely to the education of this her only -surviving son; and to her careful and judicious culture of his infant -years, bestowed indeed upon a happy soil, is to be ascribed the early -development of that thirst for learning and faculty of profitable -application, which enabled Jones to accumulate in a short and busy life -a quantity and variety of abstruse knowledge, such as the same age does -not often see equalled. To the end of her life he acknowledged and -repaid her care and affection by ardent love and unchanging filial -respect. When only seven years old, he was sent to Harrow. His progress, -slow at first, afterwards became most rapid; and the head master, Dr. -Thackeray, a man not given to praise, spoke of him as “a boy of so -active a mind, that if he were left naked and friendless on Salisbury -Plain he would find the way to fame and riches.” - -At the time of his quitting school, besides a much deeper acquaintance -with the classical languages than usually falls to the lot of a -schoolboy, Jones had acquired the French and Italian languages, had -commenced the study of Hebrew, and (a thing only worth mention as -indicative of his tastes) had made himself acquainted with the Arabic -letters. Botany, the collection of fossils, and composition in English -verse, were his favourite amusements at this period. March 16, 1764, he -was entered as a student of University College, Oxford. He was elected a -scholar on the Bennett foundation, October 30, 1764; and fellow on the -same foundation, August 7, 1766, before he was of standing to proceed to -the degree of B.A., which he took in 1768. At an early period of his -residence he applied in earnest - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Posselwhite._ - - SIR WILLIAM JONES. - - _From the Picture in the Hall of University College, Oxford._ - - Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - -to the study of Arabic; and his zeal was such, that, though habitually -self-denying, and anxious not to trespass on his mother’s slender -income, he maintained at Oxford, at his own expense, a Syrian, with whom -he had become acquainted in London, for the benefit to be derived from -his instruction. From the Arabic he proceeded to learn the Persian -language. - -His residence was varied, though his favourite studies do not appear to -have been interrupted, by an invitation to undertake the care of the -late Lord Spencer, then a boy of seven years old. This was in 1765. The -next five years he spent with his pupil chiefly at Harrow, and -occasionally at Althorp, or in London, or on the continent. It appears -from the college books that he resided at Oxford very little in the -years 1766, 1767, and 1768. Wherever he was, his time was diligently -employed, not only in his severer studies, but in the pursuit of -personal accomplishments and the cultivation of valuable acquaintances, -especially with those who, like himself, were attached to the -investigation of Eastern languages and science. In 1768 he received a -high, but an unprofitable compliment, in being selected to render into -French a Persian Life of Nadir Shah, transmitted to the English -government by the King of Denmark for the purpose of translation. To -this performance, which was printed in 1770, Mr. Jones added a ‘Treatise -on Oriental Poetry,’ in which several of the odes of Hafiz are -translated into verse. This also was written in French; and it has -justly been observed by a French writer in the ‘Biographie Universelle,’ -that the occurrence of some imperfections of style ought not to -interfere with our forming a high estimate of the talents of a man who, -at the age of twenty-two, possessed the varied qualifications and -recondite acquirements displayed in this work. By the end of the same -year, 1770, the author finished his ‘Commentaries on Asiatic Poetry,’ a -Latin treatise, which for its style is commended by the competent -authority of Dr. Parr; and which has also obtained high praise for the -taste and judgment displayed in selecting and translating the passages -by which the text is illustrated. It was not printed till 1774. - -Not the least striking part of Mr. Jones’s character was an ardent love -of liberty, and a high and honourable feeling of independence in his own -person. The former was displayed in his open and fearless advocacy of -opinions calculated to close the road to preferment, such as an entire -disapprobation of the American war, and a strong feeling of the -necessity of reform in Parliament. It should also be noticed that at an -early period he denounced in energetic language the abomination of the -Slave Trade. His personal love of independence was at this time -manifested in his resolution to quit the certain road to ease and -competence which his connexion with the noble family of Spencer laid -before him, to embark in the brilliant but uncertain course of legal -adventure. Ambition was a prominent feature in Jones’s character; and it -was his hope and his earnest wish to distinguish himself in the House of -Commons as well as at the bar. He was admitted of the Middle Temple -November 19, 1770; and his Oriental studies, though not entirely -abandoned, especially at first, were thenceforth much curtailed until -the prospect of being appointed to a judicial office in India furnished -an adequate reason for the resumption of them. But he gave a proof that -his devotion to Oriental had not destroyed his taste for Grecian -learning, by publishing in 1778 a translation of the ‘Orations of -Isæus,’ relative to the laws of succession to property in Athens. The -subject appears to have interested him; for in 1782, when his attention -was again directed to the East, he published translations of two Arabian -poems; one on the Mohammedan law of succession to the property of -intestates, the other on the Mohammedan law of inheritance. About the -same time he translated the seven ancient Arabian poems, called -Moallakat, or ‘Suspended,’ because they had been hung up, in honour of -their merit, in the Temple of Mecca; and to show, perhaps, that his -attention had not been withdrawn from his immediate profession, he wrote -an ‘Essay on the Law of Bailments.’ - -Mr. Jones was called to the bar in 1774. Within two years’ space he -obtained a commissionership of bankrupts; by what influence does not -appear: it could not be from any professional eminence. A letter written -to Lord Althorp so early as October, 1778, intimates a wish to obtain -some judicial appointment in India, not only in consequence of the -interest which he had felt from an early age in every thing connected -with the East, but from a motive which has sent other eminent men to the -same unhealthy climate; a feeling that pecuniary independence was almost -essential to success in political life, and the hope of returning in the -prime of manhood with an honourable competence. - -In 1780 Mr. Jones became a candidate to represent the University of -Oxford. His political opinions were not calculated to win the favour of -that learned body, and though respectably supported, he did not find -encouragement to warrant him in coming to a poll. From this time forward -Mr. Jones’s mind was much occupied by the thought of going to India. His -letters contain frequent allusions to the subject, and express doubt -whether, notwithstanding the personal friendship of Lord North, his own -known views of politics, especially his often and strongly-declared -reprobation of the American war, would not interfere with his obtaining -the desired promotion. The event proved him to be right, for it was not -until after the formation of the Shelburne ministry that he received -information of his appointment to a seat in the Supreme Court of -Judicature at Calcutta, March 3, 1783. For this he was indebted to the -friendship of Lord Ashburton (Mr. Dunning). The state of uncertainty in -which he was so long retained interfered considerably with his attention -to his legal practice, which was rapidly increasing. He was the more -anxious on this subject, because he had been long attached to Miss -Shipley, daughter of the Bishop of St. Asaph; and his union with her was -only deferred until professional success should place him in a fit -station to support a family. His marriage took place in April, and in -the same month he embarked for India. It remains to be noticed, that in -1782 Mr. Jones had written an essay, entitled ‘The Principles of -Government,’ in a dialogue between a farmer and country gentleman, -intended to express in a cheap and simple form his own views on -constitutional questions. This was first printed by the Society for -Constitutional Information, of which Mr. Jones was a member: it was -reprinted by his brother-in-law, the Dean of St. Asaph, who was in -consequence indicted for libel. In the prosecution which ensued, Mr. -Erskine made one of his first and most remarkable appearances, and the -series of speeches which he delivered in this case prepared the way for -the Libel Bill of 1792. - -Sir William Jones arrived in Calcutta in September, and entered on his -judicial functions in December, 1783. One of his first employments was -the organization of a scientific association, under the title of the -Asiatic Society. The Governor-general, Warren Hastings, was requested to -become president; and on his declining to accept, as an honorary -distinction, an office the real duties of which he was unable to fulfil, -Sir William Jones was fitly placed at the head of that institution, -which, but for him, probably would not have existed. The transactions of -that society, under the name of ‘Asiatic Researches,’ were published -under his superintendence, and owe a large portion of their interest to -the labours of his pen. Another work, the ‘Asiatic Miscellany,’ was also -indebted to him for several valuable contributions. But the perfect -acquisition of the Sanscrit language was the chief employment of that -time which could be spared from his judicial labours; a task indeed -subsidiary to those labours, and performed with the benevolent design of -insuring to the Indian subjects of Britain a pure administration of -justice, by rendering the knowledge of their laws accessible to British -magistrates. Bound to adjudicate between the natives according to their -own native laws, and ignorant for the most part of the very language in -which those laws were written, the judges were obliged to have recourse -to native lawyers, called Pundits, who were regularly attached to the -courts as a species of assessors. Of these men Sir W. Jones, no harsh or -hasty reprover, says, “It would be unjust and absurd to pass -indiscriminate censure on so considerable a body of men; but my -experience justifies me in declaring that I could not, with an easy -conscience, concur in a decision merely on the written opinion of native -lawyers, in a case in which they could have the remotest interest in -misleading the court.” The obvious remedy was to obtain a trustworthy -digest of the Hindoo laws, which should then be accurately translated -into English. The scheme indeed had been already undertaken in part at -the desire of Mr. Hastings, by Mr. Halhed: but as the code of Hindoo -law, compiled by that gentleman, was merely a translation from a -defective Persian version of the original Sanscrit, it did not possess -the requisite correctness, or authority. It appears from Sir W. Jones’s -correspondence, that at an early period he had contemplated supplying -this great desideratum by his own labour and expense. But prudence did -not warrant such an uncalled-for act of liberality; and he addressed a -letter to Lord Cornwallis, dated March 19, 1788, in which the necessity -for such a work, and the means by which it might be executed, are fully -laid down. It was to be compiled by the Mohammedan or Hindoo lawyers, -working under the superintendence of a director and translator, who -should be qualified to check and correct intentional or careless error: -and a chief difficulty, in Sir W. Jones’s own words, was “to find a -person who, with a competent knowledge of the Sanscrit and Arabic, has a -general acquaintance with the principles of jurisprudence, and a -sufficient share even of legislative spirit, to arrange the plan of a -digest, superintend the compilation of it, and render the whole, as it -proceeds, into perspicuous English. Now (he continues), though I am -truly conscious of possessing a very moderate portion of those talents -which I should require in the superintendent of such a work, yet I may -without vanity profess myself equal to the labour of it;—and I cannot -but know that the qualifications required, even in the low degree in -which I possess them, are not often found united in the same person.” -The proposal of course was eagerly accepted. That he should have -acquired the necessary acquaintance, first with the language, then with -the law, in the space of four years and a half, is sufficiently -remarkable; and the method in which he proposed to execute it will -startle those who know the enervating influence of a tropical climate. -“I should be able,” he says, “if my health continued firm, to translate -every morning, before any other business is begun, as much as the -lawyers could compile, and the writers copy, in the preceding day.” The -quantity of work which Jones did in India was indeed astonishing; but he -was a severe economist of time, and even his hours of recreation were -rendered serviceable to the increase of knowledge. Botany especially was -a favourite pursuit of his more leisure hours; and his correspondence -with Banks and others shows at once the zeal with which, when duty would -permit, he followed that fascinating science, and the readiness with -which he communicated his own discoveries to his friends, and laboured -to answer their inquiries. Nor did he neglect poetry. Several odes to -Hindoo deities, originally published in the Asiatic Miscellany, will be -found in his works; and these, with an elegant and cultivated fancy, -display considerable power of composition. He projected a more serious -undertaking,—an epic poem, of which a Phœnician colonist of Britain was -to be the hero, and the Hindoo mythology was to furnish the machinery: -the whole being an allegorical panegyric on the British constitution, -and furnishing the character of a perfect King of England. But the -extravagant fictions of the Hindoo religion have never proved -permanently popular in an English dress; and there is no reason to -regret that this scheme never advanced beyond its first sketch. The -author made a more acceptable present to European literature in -translating ‘Sacontala, or the Fatal Ring,’ a very ancient Indian drama, -which contains a lively, simple, and pleasing picture of the manners of -Hindustan at a remote age. It is ascribed to the first century before -Christ. - -For a catalogue of Sir W. Jones’s works, we must refer to the edition -published by Lady Jones. We have only noticed a few of the most -important: to which are to be added, the series of anniversary -discourses addressed to the Asiatic Society, and the translation of the -‘Ordinances of Menu.’ The former, eleven in number, treat of the -History, Antiquities, Arts, &c. of Asia, and more especially of the -origin and connection of the chief nations among whom that quarter of -the globe is divided. His last work was the translation of the -‘Ordinances of Menu,’ “a system of duties” (we quote from the -translator’s preface) “religious and civil, and of law in all its -branches, which the Hindoos firmly believe to have been promulged in the -beginning of time by Menu, son or grandson of Brahma, or, in plain -language, the first of created beings, and not the oldest only, but the -holiest of legislators: a system so comprehensive, and so minutely -exact, that it may be considered as the Institutes of Hindoo law, -preparatory to the copious Digest which has lately been compiled by -Pundits of eminent learning.” This was his last work. It was begun in -1786, though not completed and published till 1794, a short time before -the author’s death. - -The private history of Sir William Jones, during the period of his life -which was spent in India, affords very little scope for narration. -During his first summer he nearly fell a victim to the climate; but an -absence of seven months spent in travelling recruited his strength, and -after his return to Calcutta, in February, 1785, he seemed to be -acclimated, and suffered little from serious illness till his last fatal -attack. His domestic habits are thus described by his biographer, Lord -Teignmouth. “The largest portion of each year was devoted to his -professional duties and studies; and all the time that could be saved -from these important avocations was dedicated to the cultivation of -science and literature. While business required the daily attendance of -Sir W. Jones in Calcutta, his usual residence was on the banks of the -Ganges, at the distance of five miles from the court; to this spot he -returned every evening after sunset, and in the morning rose so early as -to reach his apartments in town by walking, at the first appearance of -the dawn. The intervening period of each morning, until the opening of -the court, was regularly allotted and applied to distinct studies. He -passed the months of vacation at his retirement at Crishnagur (a villa -about fifty miles from Calcutta) in his usual pursuits.” Those portions -of his correspondence which are preserved in Lord Teignmouth’s life may -be read with pleasure; and indeed constitute the chief interest of the -latter part of the work. Busy, tranquil, and cheerful, his life afforded -little of material for the biographer: and but for the impaired health -of his wife, his residence in India would have been one of almost -unmixed happiness. Lady Jones was compelled to embark for England in -December, 1793. The mere desire of increasing a fortune, which he -professed to find already large enough for his moderate wishes, would -not have tempted Sir William Jones to remain alone in Bengal: but he -felt an earnest desire to complete the great work on Hindoo Law, which -he had originated; and no apprehension was felt on his account, as his -constitution seemed to have become inured to the climate. But in the -following spring he was attacked by inflammation of the liver, which ran -its fatal course with unusual rapidity. He died, April 27, 1794. The -‘Digest,’ to which he had thus sacrificed his life, was completed by Mr. -Colebrooke, and published in 1800. - -Blameless in his domestic relations, consistent and enlightened in his -political views, an honest and indefatigable magistrate, few men have -gone through life with more credit, or as far as it is possible to form -an opinion, with more happiness than Sir William Jones. As a scholar, -the circumstances of his life being considered, his acquirements were -extraordinary; and in this light the most remarkable feature of his -character was his singular facility in learning languages. A list, -preserved in his own handwriting, thus classes those with which he was -in any degree acquainted; they are twenty-eight in number. “Eight -languages studied critically—English, Latin, French, Italian, Greek, -Arabic, Persian, Sanscrit. Eight studied less perfectly, but all -intelligible with a dictionary—Spanish, Portuguese, German, Runic, -Hebrew, Bengali, Hindi, Turkish. Twelve studied less perfectly, but all -attainable: Thibetian, Pâli, Pahlair, Deri, Russian, Syriac, Ethiopic, -Coptic, Welsh, Swedish, Dutch, Chinese.” Besides law, which as his -profession, was his chief business through life, his writings embrace a -vast variety of subjects in the several classes of philology, botany, -zoology, poetry original and translated, political discussion, -geography, mythology, astronomy as applied to chronology, and history, -especially that of the Asiatic nations. And the praise of ‘adorning -everything that he touched’ is singularly due to him, for the elegance -of his style, and his power of throwing interest over the dry and -uncertain inquiries in which he took such delight. As far as England is -concerned, he was our great pioneer in Eastern learning; and if later -scholars, profiting in part by his labours, have found reason to dissent -from his opinions, it is to be recollected, as far as our estimate of -his powers is concerned, that most men, who have obtained eminence in -this recondite department of literature, have done so by the devotion of -their undivided powers: what Jones accomplished was performed, on the -contrary, in the intervals of those official labours, to which the best -hours and energies of his life were, as his first point of duty, -devoted. What he had meditated, if life and leisure had been granted, -may be inferred from the list of ‘Desiderata,’ which his biographer -(vol. ii., p. 301, it is not said on what authority) regards as -exhibiting his own literary projects. The following emphatic panegyric, -conceived in the warm language which affection naturally indulges in on -such an occasion, has been pronounced on him by his friend and -school-fellow, Dr. Bennet, Bishop of Cloyne. “I knew him from the early -age of eight or nine, and he was always an uncommon boy. Great -abilities, great particularity of thinking, fondness for writing verses -and plays of various kinds, and a degree of integrity and manly courage, -of which I remember many instances, distinguished him even at that -period. I loved and revered him, and though one or two years older than -he was, was always instructed by him from my earliest age. In a word, I -can only say of this wonderful man, that he had more virtues and less -faults than I ever yet saw in any human being; and that the goodness of -his head, admirable as it was, was exceeded by that of his heart. I have -never ceased to admire him from the moment I first saw him, and my -esteem for his great qualities and regret for his loss will only end -with my life.” - -Due honours were paid after death to this great man. The Court of -Directors placed a statue of him in St. Paul’s cathedral; and Lady Jones -erected a monument to him in the ante-chapel of University College, -Oxford. In conformity with his own expressed opinion, that “the best -monument that can be erected to a man of literary talent, is a good -edition of his works,” she caused them to be collected and printed in -1799, in six quarto volumes. They have been reprinted in octavo. A life -of Sir William Jones was afterwards written by Lord Teignmouth, his -intimate friend in India, at Lady Jones’s request. There is a memoir in -the Annual Obituary for 1817, which is chiefly devoted to set forth the -political opinions of Sir William Jones, in a stronger light than seemed -fitting to his noble biographer. - -[Illustration: [Statue of Sir W. Jones, by John Bacon, R.A., in St. -Paul’s.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by Rob^t. Hart._ - - ROUSSEAU. - - _From an original Picture by Latour, in the possession of M. Bordes, - at Paris._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - ROUSSEAU. - - -Jean Jacques Rousseau, the son of a watch-maker at Geneva, was born June -28, 1712. His mother dying while he was yet a child, his father took a -second wife; and he himself was placed at school at the village of -Bossey, near Geneva, where he learnt but little, and was afterwards -apprenticed to an engraver, a coarse, brutal man, whose treatment of him -tended to sour a temper already wilful and morose. He became addicted to -idleness, pilfering, and lying. The fear of punishment for some act of -especial misconduct induced him to run away from his master, and he -wandered into Savoy, where finding himself totally destitute, he applied -to the Bishop of Annecy, on the plea of wishing to be instructed in the -Catholic religion. The bishop recommended him to Madame de Warens, a -Swiss lady, herself a convert to Catholicism, who lived at Annecy. She -received the boy kindly, relieved his present wants, and afforded him -the means of proceeding to Turin, where he entered the College of -Catechumens, and after going through a preparatory course of -instruction, abjured the reformed religion, and became a Catholic. But -as he refused to enter into holy orders, on leaving the college he was -again thrown upon his own resources. He became a domestic servant; but -his want of self-control and discretion rendered him very unfit for his -employment: and in 1730 he returned to the house of Madame de Warens, -who received him kindly, and afforded him support and protection during -the next ten years. Of his foolish, profligate, and ungrateful course of -life during this period, we have neither space nor wish to give an -account: after many absences, and many returns, Rousseau quitted her -finally in 1740, receiving letters of introduction to some persons at -Lyons. Tutor, musician, and private secretary to the French Ambassador, -his restless temper and versatile mind led him successively from Lyons -to Paris and Venice. From the last-named city he returned to Paris in -1745; and alighting at an obscure inn, met with a servant girl, Therese -Levasseur, with whom he formed a connexion which lasted all the rest of -his life. He tried to compose music for the stage, but did not succeed -in his attempts. He was next employed as a clerk in the office of M. -Dupin, Fermier-général, but did not remain long in his new employment. -In 1748 he became acquainted with Madame d’Epinay, who proved afterwards -one of his steadiest and kindest friends. He frequented the society also -of D’Alembert, Diderot, and Condillac, and he was engaged to write the -articles on music for the Encyclopédie, which he did very ill, as he -himself acknowledges. One day he saw by chance in an advertisement, that -a prize had been offered by the Academy of Dijon, for the best essay on -the question, Whether the progress of sciences and of the arts has been -favourable to the morals of mankind? He at once resolved to write for -the prize, and apparently without having ever before considered the -subject, made up his mind to take the negative side of the question. -Diderot encouraged, but did not, as has been commonly said, originate -this determination. He supported his position, that science, literature, -and art, have been fatal to the virtues and happiness of mankind, with a -glowing eloquence; and the Academy awarded him the prize. His success -confirmed him in a turn for paradox and exaggeration; and he seems to -have adopted, as a general principle, the doctrine that the extreme -opposite to wrong must necessarily be right. At the same time his -reputation as an author became established, and in a few years after his -first essay, he was acknowledged to be one of the most, or rather the -most, eloquent writer among his contemporaries. Meantime he persevered -in his attempts at musical composition, and wrote ‘Le Devin du Village,’ -an opera which was played before the king at the Court Theatre of -Fontainebleau, and met with the royal approbation. Rousseau was in one -of the boxes with a gentleman belonging to the court. The king having -expressed a desire to see the composer of the opera, Rousseau became -alarmed or ashamed at the slovenly condition of his dress, and instead -of repairing to the royal presence, he ran out of the house and hastened -back to Paris. Naturally shy, he possessed neither ease of manners nor -facility of address, and he could never throughout life subdue his own -acute feeling of these deficiencies; a feeling which of course tended to -perpetuate and increase his awkwardness. This was the secret spring of -most of his eccentricities. In order to hide his imperfections, he -resorted to the plan of affecting to disregard manners altogether; he -put on the appearance of a cynic, of a misanthropist, which he was not -in reality. - -It was about the year 1750, soon after writing his dissertation for the -Dijon prize, that he made a total change in his habits and mode of -living. He gave up all refinement about his dress, laid aside his sword, -bag, and silk stockings, sold his watch, but kept his linen apparel, -which, however, was stolen from him shortly after. He spent one half of -the day in copying music as a means of subsistence, and he found -constant employment. Several persons who knew his circumstances offered -him three or four times the value of his labour, but he would never -accept more than the usual remuneration. In 1753 he wrote his ‘Lettre -sur la Musique Française,’ in which he asserted that the French had no -music deserving the name, that they could not possibly have any, and -then added, that “were they ever to have any it would be all the worse -for them;” a sentence unintelligible to his readers, and probably to -himself also. When years after this he heard Gluck, with whose music he -was delighted, he observed to some one, “this man is setting French -words to very good music, as if on purpose to contradict me;” and upon -this reflection he broke off acquaintance with Gluck. However, his -letter on French music sorely wounded the national vanity, and he was -exposed to a sort of petty persecution in consequence of it. Rousseau -wrote next his letter to D’Alembert, ‘sur les Spectacles,’ which led to -a controversy between them. He wrote also the ‘Discours sur l’Origine de -l’Inégalité parmi les Hommes,’ for another prize of the Academy of -Dijon, with a dedication to the magistrates of his native town Geneva, -which was much admired as a specimen of dignified eloquence. The -discourse itself is composed in his accustomed paradoxical vein. He -maintains that men are not intended to be sociable beings; that they -have a natural bias for a solitary existence; that the condition of the -savage, untutored and free in his native wilds, is the natural and -proper state of man; and that every system of society is an infraction -of man’s rights, and a subversion of the order of nature. He assumes -that men are all born equal by nature, disregarding the daily evidence -of the contrary, in respect both of their physical and moral powers. His -idea of the equal rights of men, which he afterwards developed in the -‘Contrat Social,’ instead of being founded upon enlightened reason, -religion, and morality, rests upon the base of his favourite theory, of -man’s equality in a state of nature; while we know from experience, that -those savage tribes who approach nearest to this imaginary natural -state, acknowledge no other right than that of the strongest. Most of -Rousseau’s paradoxes proceed from the false position assumed in his -first dissertation, that a savage, unsocial state, is the very -perfection of man’s existence. - -After the publication of this discourse Rousseau repaired to Geneva, -where he was well received by his countrymen. He there abjured -Catholicism and resumed the profession of the reformed religion. But he -soon returned to Paris; and, at the invitation of Madame d’Epinay, in -1756, took up his residence at the house called L’Hermitage, in the -valley of Montmorency, near Paris. It was in this pleasant retirement -that he began his celebrated novel ‘Julie, ou la Nouvelle Heloïse,’ -which he finished in 1759. As a work of imagination and invention it is -little worth; but as a model of impassioned eloquence, it will be -admired as long as the French language shall continue to be spoken or -read by men. Rousseau, while he wrote it, was himself under the -influence of a passion which he had conceived for the beautiful Madame -d’Houdetot, Madame d’Epinay’s sister-in-law, a love totally hopeless and -ridiculous on his part, but which no doubt inspired him while engaged in -the composition of this work. When it appeared, many people, especially -women, thought that Julie was a real living object of his attachment, -and the supposition being favourable to the popularity of the book and -its author, Rousseau was not very anxious to undeceive them. He esteemed -the fourth portion of the work the best. “The first two parts are but -the desultory verbiage of feverish excitement, and yet I could never -alter them after I had once written them. The fifth and the sixth are -comparatively weak, but I let them remain out of consideration of their -moral utility.... My imagination cannot embellish the objects I see; it -must create its own objects. If I am to paint the spring, I must do it -in winter; if to describe a landscape, I must be shut up within walls: -were I confined in the Bastille, I should then write best on the charms -of liberty. I never could write as a matter of business, I can only do -it through impulse or passion.” (Rousseau’s ‘Notes to the Nouvelle -Heloïse,’ in Mercier and Le Tourneur’s edition.) He had great difficulty -in constructing his periods; he turned them and he altered them -repeatedly in his head, often while in bed, before he attempted to put -them on paper. - -La Nouvelle Heloïse has been censured for the dangerous example it -affords, and for the interest it throws upon seduction and frailty. The -character of St. Preux is decidedly faulty, and even base, in spite of -all his sophistry, which however has probably led other young men placed -in a similar situation to forget the relative duties of society, and the -obligations of hospitality. Here we perceive also the influence of -Rousseau’s favourite paradox; for in a state of nature, such as Rousseau -has fancied it, the intimacy of St. Preux and Julie would have been -unobjectionable. But then the relative position of the teacher, his -pupil, and her parents, would not have been the same as in the novel, -for they would have been all savages together. Rousseau has however -redeemed the character of Julie after she becomes a wife, and he has -thus paid a sincere homage to the sacredness of the marriage bond, and -to the importance of conjugal duties, the basis of all society. Rousseau -was not a contemner of virtue; he felt its beauty, though his practice -was by no means modelled on its dictates. He tells us himself the -workings of his mind on this subject. “After much observation I thought -I perceived nothing but error and folly among philosophers, oppression -and misery in the social order. In the delusion of my foolish pride I -fancied myself born to dissipate all prejudices; but then I thought -that, in order to have my advice listened to, my conduct ought to -correspond to my principles. I had been till then good-hearted, I now -became virtuous. Whoever has the courage of showing himself such as he -is, must, if he be not totally depraved, become such as he ought to be.” -It was probably in compliance with his growing sense of moral duty, that -he married at last the woman he had so long been living with, when she -was forty-seven years of age, and, as he himself acknowledges, was not -possessed of any attractions of either mind or person, having nothing to -recommend her except her attention to him, especially in his frequent -fits of illness or despondency. He seems also to have bitterly repented, -in the latter years of his life, having in his youth sent his -illegitimate children to the foundling hospital. - -Rousseau’s next work was the ‘Emile, ou de l’Education,’ which appeared -in 1762. It contains many excellent precepts, especially in the first -part, although, as a whole system, it may be considered as -impracticable, at least in any state of society which has yet been -formed upon the earth. It was remarked at the time, that the author, -after having brought up his Emile to manhood, ought to create a new -world for him to live in. Rousseau himself seems to have been of this -opinion, for when a Mr. Angar introduced to him his son, whom he said he -had educated according to the principles of the Emile, Rousseau quickly -replied, “So much the worse for you, and for your son too.” The ‘Emile,’ -however, introduced some beneficial changes in the early treatment of -children. It discredited the absurd practice of swaddling infants like -mummies, to the manifest injury of their tender limbs; it induced -mothers of the higher ranks to suckle their children, instead of -committing them to the care of nurses; it corrected several wrong -principles of early education, such as that of ruling children through -fear, of considering them as slaves having no will of their own, and of -terrifying them by absurd stories and fables; it inculcated freedom of -body and mind, the necessity of amusement and relaxation, of appealing -to the feelings of children, of treating them like rational beings. -Rousseau may be truly called the benefactor of children. As he -proceeded, however, in his plan for boys grown older, Rousseau became -involved in some of his favourite speculations about religion and -metaphysics, which gave offence to both Catholics and Protestants. The -Parliament of Paris condemned the work. The Archbishop issued a -_mandement_ against it. The States-General of Holland likewise -proscribed the book. At Geneva, it was publicly burnt by the hand of the -executioner. The publication of the ‘Contrat Social, ou Principes du -Droit Politique,’ which appeared soon after, added to the storm against -the author. It contains much speculative truth, combined with much -ignorance of men’s nature and passions. The idea of a perfect and -universal model of government, without regard to local circumstances, -seems chimerical. It is a curious fact that Rousseau, after reading -Bernardin de St. Pierre’s political works, observed that they contained -projects which were impracticable on account of a fundamental error, out -of which the author was unable to extricate himself, namely, “that of -supposing that men in general and in all cases will conduct themselves -according to the dictates of reason and virtue, rather than according to -their passions.” Rousseau, in uttering these words, passed judgment on -his own ‘Contrat Social,’ which he afterwards also acknowledged having -written, “not for men but for angels.” In fact, he never meant it for -anything but a speculative treatise, and in his ‘Considérations sur le -Gouvernement de la Pologne,’ published some years after, having to write -for a practical purpose, he considerably modified his former principles. - -In consequence of the excitement produced by these works, Rousseau left -Paris for Switzerland in 1762. He went first to Yverdun, but the Senate -of Berne enjoined him to leave its territory. He then repaired to -Neuchatel, which was subject to the King of Prussia, and of which the -old Marshal Keith was Governor. Keith received him very kindly, and -Rousseau took up his residence at the village of Motiers, in the Val de -Travers. There he wrote a Reply to the Archbishop of Paris, and a Letter -to the Magistrates of Geneva, in which he renounced his rights of -citizenship. He next wrote the “Lettres de la Montagne,” which is a -series of severe strictures on the political government and church of -Geneva. It is curious as a sketch of the old institutions of that -republic, written by one of its own citizens. This work increased the -existing irritation against its author, a feeling which spread even to -the villagers of Motiers, who are said to have annoyed their eccentric -visiter in various ways. Rousseau, however, is suspected of having -greatly magnified, if not invented, some of the acts of aggression of -which he complains. He spoke of them as amounting to a regular -conspiracy against his person, and removed his abode to the little -island of St. Pierre, on the lake of Bienne. Thence, after a time, as if -to court notice, he wrote a letter to the Senate of Berne, requesting -permission to remain on the island. For answer he received an order to -quit the territory of the canton in twenty-four hours. At the invitation -of his former friend Marshal Keith, he meditated a visit to Berlin. But -the advice of some friends in Paris induced him to change his mind, and -accept the friendly offer of our historian Hume, who was anxious to -procure for him a safe asylum in England, where he might quietly attend -to his studies and live in peace. Rousseau arrived in London in January, -1766; and in the following March, went to his intended home at Wootton -in Derbyshire. Knowing the man he had to deal with, Hume, with the real -kindness of character which he possessed, had sought by every means to -avoid shocking the irritable delicacy or vanity of his protégé: and the -residence which he procured for him in the house of a man of fortune, -Mr. Davenport, is said to have been unexceptionable. But before long he -quarrelled with both Hume and Davenport, left Wootton abruptly, and -returned to France. The ostensible cause of all this was the publication -of a letter in the newspapers, bearing the King of Prussia’s name, and -reflecting severely upon Rousseau’s weaknesses and eccentricities. -Rousseau accused Hume, or some of his friends, of having written it. -Hume protested in vain that he knew nothing of the matter. At last -Horace Walpole acknowledged himself to be the author. Rousseau, however, -would not be pacified, and attributed to Hume the blackest designs -against him. The correspondence that passed between the parties on the -subject is curious, and is given in the complete editions of our -author’s works. He afterwards seemed to say that during his residence in -England he had been subject to fits of insanity. - -Returning to France, Rousseau led an unsettled life, with frequent -changes in his place of residence, until June, 1770. He then returned to -Paris, and took lodgings in the Rue Plâtrière, which has since been -called Rue J. J. Rousseau. It is to be noticed that in the interim he -had published his ‘Dictionnaire de Musique,’ a work which has the -reputation of being both imperfect and obscure. Indeed, notwithstanding -his passionate fondness for the art, he never attained to a profound -acquaintance with it. Passing through Lyons on his way to Paris, he -subscribed his mite towards the erection of a statue to Voltaire: thus -avenging himself for the coarse abuse which the latter had on many -occasions poured upon him, and which Rousseau never returned. Voltaire -is said to have been exceedingly annoyed at this. After his return to -the capital, he was overwhelmed with visits and invitations to dinner. -Though there was a prosecution pending against him for his ‘Emile,’ he -was left undisturbed: but at the same time he was cautioned not to -exhibit himself too conspicuously in public; advice which he utterly -disregarded. He soon relapsed into his former misanthropy, and became -subject to convulsive fits, which fearfully disfigured his features, and -gave a haggard expression to his looks. He fancied that every body was -conspiring against him, and he also complained of inward moral -sufferings which tortured his mind. - -Among other imaginary grievances he thought that the French ministers -had imposed restrictions upon him with respect to his writings. One of -his friends applied to the Duc de Choiseuil to ascertain the fact. The -Duke’s answer, dated 1772, is as follows: “If ever I have engaged M. -Rousseau not to publish anything without my previous knowledge, of which -fact however I have no remembrance, it could only have been in order to -save him from fresh squabbles and annoyance. However, now that I have no -longer the power of protecting him (the Duke had resigned his -premiership), I fully acquit him of any engagement of the kind.” - -As Rousseau was walking one day in the street Menil Montant, a large dog -that was running before the carriage of the President Saint Fargeau -tripped his legs, and he fell. The President alighted, expressed his -regret at the accident, and begged the sufferer to accept of his -carriage to return home. Rousseau, however, refused. The next day the -President sent to inquire after his health. “Tell your master to chain -up his dog,” was the only reply. - -Being old and infirm, the labour of copying music had become too irksome -for him: still he would accept of no assistance from his friends, though -all his income consisted of an annuity of 1450 livres. His wife was also -in bad health, and provisions were very dear at the time; he therefore -began to look out for a country residence. A friend mentioned this to -the Marquis de Girardin, who immediately offered Rousseau a permanent -habitation at his château of Ermenonville, near Chantilly. Rousseau -accepted the proposal, and chose for his residence a detached cottage -near the family mansion. He removed to it in May, 1778, and appeared -more calm and contented in his new abode. He was fond of botany, and -used to take long walks in quest of flowers with one of M. de Girardin’s -sons. On July 1st he went out as usual, but returned home fatigued and -ill: he however slept quietly that night. Next morning he rose early -according to his custom, and went out to see the sun rise; he came back -to breakfast, after which he went to his room to dress, as he intended -to pay a visit to Madame de Girardin. His wife happening to enter his -room shortly after, found him sitting with his elbow leaning on a chest -of drawers. He said he was very ill, and complained of cold shivering -and of violent pain in his head. Madame de Girardin being informed of -this, came at once to visit him; but Rousseau, thanking her for all her -kindness to him, begged of her to return home and leave him alone for -the present. He then having requested his wife to sit by him, begged her -forgiveness for any pain or displeasure of which he might have been the -cause, and said that his end was approaching, that he died in peace, as -he never had intended or wished evil to any human being, and that he -hoped in the mercy of God. He begged that M. de Girardin would allow him -to be buried in his park. He gave directions to his wife about his -papers, and requested her particularly to have his body opened, that the -cause of his death might be ascertained. He then asked her to open the -window, “that he might once more behold the beautiful green of the -fields.” “How pure and beautiful is the sky!” he then observed, “there -is not a cloud. I trust the Almighty will receive me there above.” In so -saying, he fell on his face to the floor, and on raising him, life was -found to be extinct. On opening the body, a considerable quantity of -serum was found between the brain and its integuments. His sudden death -was attributed by many persons to suicide: but there is no direct -evidence of which we know to prove this. On the other side there is the -positive assertion of the physician who examined the body, that his -death was natural. Rousseau was buried in an island shaded by poplars, -on the little lake of the park of Ermenonville. A plain marble monument -was raised to his memory. - -The first part of his ‘Confessions,’ which he had begun to write while -at Wootton, was published in 1781. He had himself fixed the year 1800 -for the publication of the second part, judging that, by that time, the -persons mentioned in the work would be dead; but, through an abuse of -confidence on the part of the depositories of the MSS., it was published -in 1788. His autobiography does not include the latter years of his -life. - -Rousseau was temperate and frugal in his habits, disinterested and -warm-hearted, and impressed with strong feelings against oppression and -injustice. He was not envious of the fame or success of his brother -authors. He never sneered at religion like Voltaire and others of his -contemporaries, although in his speculative works he expressed his -doubts concerning revelation, and brought forth the arguments that -occurred to him on that side of the question: but he had none of the -fanaticism of incredulity against Christianity. Of the morality of the -Gospel he was a sincere admirer, and a most eloquent eulogist. “I -acknowledge,” he says in his ‘Emile,’ “that the majesty of the -Scriptures astonishes me, that the holiness of the Gospel speaks to my -heart. Look at the books of the philosophers; with all their pomp, how -little they appear by the side of that one book! Can a book so sublime, -and yet so simple, be the work of man? How prejudiced, how blind that -man must be, who can compare the son of Sophroniscus (Socrates) to the -son of Mary!” With such sentiments Rousseau could not long agree with -Helvetius, Diderot, D’Holbach, and their coterie. They, on their side, -ridiculed and abused him, because he was too sincere and independent for -them. “I have spent my life,” says Rousseau, “among infidels, without -being seduced by them; I loved and esteemed several of them, and yet -their doctrine was to me insufferable. I told them repeatedly that I -could not believe them.... I leave to my friends the task of -constructing the world by chance. I find in the very architects of this -new-fangled world, and in spite of themselves and their arguments, fresh -proofs of the existence of a God, a Creator of all.” A very good -collection of the moral maxims scattered about Rousseau’s works was -published under the title of ‘Esprit, Maximes et Principes de J. J. -Rousseau,’ 8vo., Neuchatel, 1774. - -Rousseau set to music about 100 French romances, which he called -‘Consolations des Misères de ma Vie.’ Several editions of all his works -have been made at different times: that by Mercier and Le Tourneur, 38 -vols. 4to., has been long considered as one of the best. The edition of -Lefevre, 22 vols. 8vo., 1819–20, and that of Lequien, 21 vols. 8vo., -1821–2, are now preferred to all former ones. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - JOHN HARRISON. - - _From an Engraving by Tassaerts published in 1708 after a Painting by - King._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - HARRISON. - - -John Harrison was born in May, 1693, at Foulby, in Yorkshire. His -father, who was a joiner, trained him from an early age to the same -business; but he soon began to study machinery. He turned his attention -to the mechanism of clocks; and, to obviate the irregularities produced -in their rate of going by variations of temperature, he invented the -method of compensation, employed in what is now called the _gridiron_ -pendulum, before the year 1720. This contrivance consisted in -constructing a pendulum with bars of different metals, having different -rates of expansion so as to correct each other: it is described in all -popular treatises on physics. By this means it is stated that he had, -before the year above-mentioned, constructed two clocks which agreed -with each other within a second a month, and one of which did not vary, -on the whole, more than a minute in ten years.[10] - -Footnote 10: - - Folke’s Address to the Royal Society, Nov. 30, 1749. - -This success induced him to turn his attention to watches, or rather to -time-keepers for naval purposes. It would be impossible without the help -of plates to render intelligible the rise and progress of his methods, -for which we must refer the reader to treatises of Horology. His first -instrument was tried upon the Humber, in rough weather, and succeeded so -well that he was recommended to carry it to London, for the inspection -of the Commissioners of Longitude. - -The question of the discovery of the longitude had been considered of -national importance since the year 1714, when an Act was passed offering -10,000_l._, 15,000_l._, and 20,000_l._ for any method of discovering the -longitude within 60, 40, or 30 miles respectively. In 1735 Harrison -arrived in London with his time-piece, and showed it to several members -of the Royal Society. He obtained a certificate of its goodness, signed -by Halley, Smith, Bradley, Machin, and Graham, in consequence of which -he was allowed to proceed with it to Lisbon, in a king’s ship, in 1736. -The watch was found to correct the ship’s reckoning a degree and a half; -and the commissioners thereupon gave Harrison 500_l._, to enable him to -proceed. He finished a second time-piece in 1739, and a third in 1758, -each nearer to perfection than the former, and both abounding in -ingenious contrivances to overcome the effects of temperature, and of -the motion of a vessel at sea. In 1741 he obtained another certificate, -signed by almost every name of eminence in English science of the time. -In 1749 the gold medal of the Royal Society was awarded to him. In 1761, -having then a fourth time-piece in hand, but being convinced that the -third was sufficiently correct to come within the limits of the act of -parliament, he applied to the Commissioners for a trial of it. -Accordingly, in 1761 (Nov. 18), his son, William Harrison, was sent in a -king’s ship to Jamaica with the watch, and returned to Portsmouth, March -26, 1762. On arrival at Port Royal, Jan. 19, 1762, the watch was found -wrong only 5⅒ seconds; and at its return, only 1 minute 54½ seconds. -This was sufficient to determine the longitude within 18 miles; and -Harrison accordingly claimed 20,000_l._, in a petition to the House of -Commons, presented early in 1763. The Commissioners had awarded him -1,500_l._, and promised 1,000_l._ more after another voyage. Owing to -some doubt as to the method of equal altitudes employed in finding the -time at Port Royal, they do not appear to have been of opinion that the -first voyage was conclusive. In 1763 an act passed, by which, firstly, -no other person could become entitled to the reward until Harrison’s -claim was settled; and, secondly, 5,000_l._ was awarded to him on his -discovery of the structure of the instrument. But the Commissioners not -agreeing about the payment, another voyage was resolved on, and Mr. -William Harrison sailed again for Barbadoes, with Dr. Maskelyne, -afterwards the Astronomer Royal. The result was yet more satisfactory -than before; and in 1765 a new act was passed, awarding to Harrison the -whole sum of 20,000_l._: the first moiety upon the discovery of his -construction; the second, so soon as it should be found that others -could be made like it. In this act it is stated that the watch did not -lose more than ten miles of the longitude. But Harrison had by this time -been rendered unduly suspicious of the intentions of the Commissioners. -He imagined that Dr. Maskelyne had treated him unfairly, and was -desirous of having no method of finding the longitude except that of -lunar observations. An account of the subsequent proceedings, of which -the following is an abstract, was printed in self-defence by the -Commissioners:— - -May 28, 1765, Mr. Harrison’s son informs the Commissioners that he is -ready to deliver the drawings and explanations, and expects a -certificate that he is entitled to receive the first moiety of the -reward. The Commissioners are unanimously of opinion that verbal -explanations and experiments, in the presence of such persons as they -may appoint, will be necessary. May 30, Mr. Harrison attends in person, -and consents to the additional explanation; and certain men of science, -as well as watchmakers, are instructed to receive them. June 13, Mr. -Harrison, being present, is informed that the Board is ready to fix a -time to proceed, on which he denies ever having given his assent, and -refers to a letter which he had delivered at the last meeting. The -letter had not, says the Commissioners’ Minute, been delivered, but had -been left upon the table, unnoticed by any one. It was to the effect -that Harrison was willing to give further verbal explanation, but -requires to know to whom it must be given; “for,” says he, “I will never -attempt to explain it to the satisfaction of the Commissioners, and who -they may appoint; nor will I ever come under the directions of men of -theory.” He further refuses to make any experimental exhibition, and -ends by complaining of the usage he has received. He was then told by -the Board that he would only be asked for experiments in cases where -there were operations which could not be fully explained by words, such, -for instance, as the tempering of the springs; on which he left the -Board abruptly, declaring, “that he never would consent to it, as long -as he had a drop of English blood in his body.” The Commissioners -thereupon declined further dealing with him. - -The reason of the above absurd conduct we suspect to have been, that -Harrison desired, in addition to the large reward claimed by him, to -have a monopoly of the manufacture of his watches, such as would have -necessarily been created for his benefit, had he been allowed to keep -his actual methods of working a secret. For he offered, _upon receiving -the reward_, “to employ a sufficient number of hands, so as with all -possible speed to furnish his Majesty’s navy, &c. &c., not doubting but -the public will consider the charge of the outset of the undertaking.” -We quote here from the Biographia Britannica, in the last volume of -which, published in 1766, is an account of him, from materials avowedly -furnished by himself, and plainly written by a partisan. It is the only -instance we can find in which a memoir of a living person has been -inserted in that work. - -The next circumstance we find, (for there is no connected history of -this discussion, which exists only in a number of detached pamphlets,) -is the delivery of the watch to Dr. Maskelyne, at the Royal Observatory, -in May, 1766, that its rate of going might there be tried. The Report of -the Astronomer Royal states, that it could not be depended upon within a -degree of longitude in a voyage of six weeks; and a very angry pamphlet, -published by Harrison in the following year, accuses Maskelyne of having -treated the instrument unfairly. Many circumstances are stated which now -appear ludicrous, and some which, if true, would have reflected -discredit on the Commissioners. But nothing can be inferred, after the -refusal of Harrison to accede to the very reasonable demand of the -Commissioners, except that he was most probably as wrong in his -suspicions as he had been foolish in his dealings. The end of this -dispute was, that in 1767 Harrison complied with the conditions insisted -upon; and, it having been found that his improvements were such as -admitted of execution by another person, he received the whole sum -awarded to him by the Act of Parliament. - -Harrison was not a well-educated man, and was deficient in the power of -expressing his meaning clearly. It was easier for him, no doubt, to make -two watches than to explain one; and hence, perhaps, his aversion to -“men of theory,” who troubled him for descriptions and explanations. - -He died in 1776, at his house in Red Lion Square, having been engaged -during the latter years of his life in bringing his improvements still -nearer to perfection. His last work, which was tried in 1772, was found -to have erred only four seconds and a half in ten weeks. - -In his younger days, some church-bells, which were out of tune, set him -upon examining the musical scale, with a view to correct them. He -communicated his ideas on the subject to Dr. Smith, who confirmed and -extended them in his well-known work on Harmonics. In the Preface it is -stated that Harrison made the interval of the major-third bear to that -of the octave the proportion of the diameter of a circle to its -circumference. This, he said, he did on the authority of a friend, who -assured him it would give the best scale. Harrison himself wrote a -treatise on the scale, but we do not know whether it was published. - -He is, on the whole, a fine instance of the union of originality with -perseverance. The inventions, of which it takes so short a space to tell -the history, were the work of fifty years of labour, and to them the art -of constructing chronometers, and consequently the science of -navigation, is indebted for much of its present advanced state. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff._ - - MONTAIGNE. - - _From an original Picture at Paris, in the “Dépot des Archives du - Royaume.”_ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - MONTAIGNE. - - -Michel, Seigneur, or Lord, of MONTAIGNE, a feudal estate in the province -of Perigord, near the river Dordogne, was born February 28, 1533, of a -family said to have been originally from England. He was a younger son; -but, by the death of his elder brother, inherited the estate by the -title of which he is known. His father, a blunt feudal noble, who had -served in the wars of Francis I., placed him out at nurse in a village -of his domain, and directed that he should be treated in the same manner -as the children of the peasants. As soon as he could speak, he was -placed under the care of a German tutor, selected for his ignorance of -the French, and intimate acquaintance with the Greek and Latin -languages. All Montaigne’s intercourse with his preceptor was carried on -in Latin; and even his parents made a rule never to address him except -in that language, of which they picked up a sufficient number of words -for common purposes. The attendants were enjoined to follow the same -practice. “They all became latinized,” says Montaigne himself, “and even -the villagers around learnt words in that language, some of which took -root in the country, and became of common use among the people.” Thus, -without any formal course of scholastic teaching, Montaigne spoke Latin -long before he could speak French, which he was afterwards obliged to -learn as if it had been a foreign language. When, at a mature age, he -was writing his Essays, he professed to be still ignorant of grammar, -having learnt various languages by practice, and not knowing yet the -meaning of adjective, conjunctive, or ablative, (Essais, b. i. c. 48.) -This last assertion probably is not to be taken strictly to the letter. -He studied Greek also by way of pastime, rather than as a task. The -object of his father was to make him learn without constraint and from -his own wish; and, as an instance of the old soldier’s whimsical notions -on education, he caused his son to be awakened in the morning to the -sound of music, that his nervous system might not be injured by any -sudden shock. At six years old Montaigne was sent to the College of -Guienne, at Bordeaux, an establishment which then enjoyed a very high -reputation. He soon made his way to the higher classes; and at thirteen -years of age had completed his college education. Having no taste for -military life, which was then the usual career of young noblemen, he -studied the law; and in 1554 was made Councillor (or Judge) in the -Parliament of Bordeaux, in which capacity he acted for several years. He -went several times to Court, and enjoyed the favour of Henry II., by -whom, or as some say, by Charles IX., he was made a Gentleman of the -King’s Chamber, and Knight of the Order of St. Michel. Among his brother -councillors at Bordeaux there was a young man of distinguished merit, -called La Boëtie, for whom Montaigne conceived a feeling of the most -romantic friendship, which soon became reciprocal. The sentiments and -opinions of the two seem to have sympathized in an extraordinary degree. -La Boëtie died young, but his friend’s affection survived: a chapter of -the Essays is devoted to his memory, and in other parts of Montaigne’s -writings we find frequent recurrence to the same subject. - -Montaigne married Françoise de la Chassaigne when he was thirty-three -years of age; and this he did, as he says, in consequence of external -persuasions, and in order to please his friends rather than himself, for -he was not inclined to a married life; “but once married, although he -had been till then considered a licentious man, he observed the conjugal -laws more strictly than he had himself expected.” On succeeding to the -family estate, on which he generally resided, he took the management of -it into his own hands; and although his father, judging from his habits -of abstraction and seeming carelessness of worldly objects, had foretold -that he would ruin his patrimony, Montaigne, at his death, left the -property if not much better, certainly not worse than he found it. He -was not rich, for we are told, by Balzac, that his income did not exceed -6000 livres, which was no great revenue for a country gentleman even at -that time. In 1569 he translated into French a Latin work of Sebonde or -Sebon, in defence of the mysteries and doctrines of the Church of Rome, -against Luther and other Protestant writers. France was at that time -desolated by civil and religious war. Montaigne, although he evidently -disapproved of the conduct of the Court towards the Protestants, yet -remained loyal to the King. He lived in retirement, and took no part in -public affairs, except by exhorting both parties to moderation and -mutual charity. By this conduct he became, as it generally happens, -obnoxious to both factions, and he incurred some danger in consequence. -The massacre of St. Bartholomew plunged him into a deep melancholy. He -detested cruelty and the shedding of blood, and in several passages of -his Essays has animadverted in strong terms upon the atrocities -committed against the Protestants. It was about this dismal epoch of -1572, when, solitude and melancholy urging him to the task, he began to -write that celebrated work, of which we shall presently speak more at -length. It was first published in March, 1580; and had great success. -After some time, Montaigne printed a new edition of it, with additions; -but without making any alterations in the part which had appeared -before. The popularity of the book was such that in a few years there -was hardly a man of education in France who had not a copy of it. - -Soon after the first publication of his Essays, Montaigne undertook a -journey for the sake of his health. He went to Germany, Switzerland, -and, lastly, to Italy. He visited several bathing-places, among others, -Baden, and the baths of Lucca in Tuscany. He proceeded to Rome, where he -was well received by several Cardinals and other persons of distinction, -and was introduced to Pope Gregory XIII. Montaigne was delighted with -Rome; he found himself at home among those localities and monuments -which were connected with his earliest studies, and with the first -impressions of his childhood. His remarks on what he saw in the course -of his journey are those of a man of penetration, sincere and plain -spoken, and written in his peculiar antique style. His MS. journal, -after lying forgotten for nearly two centuries, was discovered in an old -chest in the château of his family, and published in 1775, by M. de -Querlon, under the following title, ‘Journal du Voyage de Michel de -Montaigne en Italie, par la Suisse et l’Allemagne, en 1580–1.’ It is one -of the earliest descriptions of Italy in a modern language. In this -journey, Montaigne received the freedom of the city of Rome, by a -special bull of the Pope, which he valued as the proudest distinction of -his life. - -While he was abroad, he was elected mayor of Bordeaux by the votes of -the citizens; an honour which he would have declined, but that the king, -Henry III., insisted on his accepting of it. This was a mere honorary -office, no emolument being attached to it. The appointment was for two -years; but Montaigne was re-elected at the expiration of that period, -which was a mark of public favour of rare occurrence. - -On retiring from his office, Montaigne returned to his estate. The -country was then ravaged by the war of the League. He had great -difficulty in saving his family and property in the midst of the -contending parties, and once narrowly escaped assassination in his -château. To add to the miseries of civil war, the plague broke out in -his neighbourhood in 1586; and he then, with his family, left his home -and became a wanderer, residing successively at several friends’ houses -in other parts of the country. He was at Paris in 1588, busy about a new -edition of his Essays. It appears from De Thou, that about this time he -was employed in negotiation with a view to mediate peace between Henry -of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV., and the Duke of Guise. At Paris, he -made the acquaintance of Mademoiselle de Gournay, a young lady, who had -conceived a kind of sentimental affection for him by reading his book. -In company with her mother, she visited and introduced herself to him, -and from that time he called her his “fille d’alliance,” or adopted -daughter, a title which she retained for the rest of her life, as she -never married. This attachment, which, though warm and reciprocal, has -every appearance of being of a purely platonic nature, is one of the -remarkable circumstances of Montaigne’s life. At the time of his death, -Mademoiselle de Gournay and her mother crossed one-half of France, in -spite of the civil troubles and the insecurity of the roads, to mix -their tears with those of his widow and daughter. - -On his return from Paris, in the latter part of 1588, Montaigne stopped -at Blois, with De Thou, Pasquier, and other friends. The famous -States-General were then assembled in that city, where the murder of the -Duke of Guise, and of his brother, the Cardinal, soon after took place -(23d and 24th December, 1588). Montaigne had long foreseen that the -civil dissensions could only terminate with the death of one of the -great party leaders; and he also said to De Thou that Henry of Navarre -was inclined to embrace the Catholic faith, were he not afraid of being -forsaken by his party; and that, on the other side, Guise himself would -not have been averse from adopting the Protestant religion, if he could -thereby have promoted his ambitious views. After these events, Montaigne -returned to his château. In the following year, he became acquainted -with Pierre Charron, a theological writer of considerable reputation. An -intimate friendship ensued between the two authors; and Charron, in his -book ‘De la Sagesse,’ borrowed many thoughts from the Essays, which he -held in high estimation. Montaigne, by his will, empowered Charron to -assume the coat of arms of his family, as he himself had no male issue. - -Montaigne’s health had been declining for some time; he was afflicted -with gravel and cholic, and he was obstinately resolved against -consulting physicians. In September, 1592, he fell ill of a malignant -quinsy, which kept him speechless for three days, during which he had -recourse to his pen to signify to his wife his last intentions. He -desired that several gentlemen of the neighbourhood should be requested -to come and take leave of him. When they were assembled in his room, a -priest said mass, and at the elevation of the host, Montaigne half -raised himself on his bed, with his hands joined together, and in that -attitude expired, September 13, 1592, in the sixtieth year of his age. -His body was buried at Bordeaux, in the church of the Feuillans, where a -monument was erected to him by his widow. He left an only daughter, -heiress of his property. - -Montaigne’s Essays have been the subject of much and very conflicting -criticism. If we consider the age and the intellectual condition of the -country in which the author was born, we must pronounce them a very -extraordinary work, not so much on account of the learning contained in -them, as for the philosophical spirit and the frank, independent, -liberal tone that pervades their pages. Civilization and literature were -then at a low ebb in France; the language was hardly formed, the country -was still torn by the rude turbulence, and subject to the oppression, of -feudal lords and feudal laws; and was, moreover, distracted by ignorant -fanaticism, by deadly intolerance, and by civil factions, rendered more -fierce by religious feuds. It is very remarkable that, in a remote -province of a country so situated, a country gentleman, himself -belonging to the feudal aristocracy, should have composed a work full of -moral maxims and precepts, conceived in the spirit of the philosophers -of Greece and Rome, and founded, not on the sanctions of revealed -religion, but on a sort of natural system of ethics, on the beauty of -virtue, on the innate sense of justice, on the lessons of history. It is -almost more remarkable that such a book should have been read with -avidity amidst the turmoil of factions, the din of civil war, the knell -of persecution and massacre. - -The morality of the Essays has been called, and justly so, a pagan -morality: it is not founded on the faith and the hopes of a Christian; -and its principles are in many respects widely different from those of -the Gospel. Scepticism was the bias of Montaigne’s mind; his philosophy -is, in great measure, that of Seneca, and other ancient writers, whose -books were the first that were put into his hands when a child. -Accordingly, Pascal, Nicole, Leclerc, and other Christian moralists, -while rendering full justice to Montaigne’s talents and the many good -sentiments scattered about the Essays, are very severe upon his ethics, -taken as a system. Yet he was not a determined infidel, for not only in -the Essays, but in the journal of his travels, which was not intended -for publication, he manifests Christian sentiments; and we have seen -that the mode of his death was that of a Christian. In his chapter on -prayers, (Essais, b. i. 56,) he recommends the use of the Lord’s Prayer -in terms evidently sincere; and in a preceding chapter, after speaking -of two sorts of ignorance, the one, that which precedes all instruction, -and the other, that which follows partial instruction, he says, that -“men of simple minds, devoid of curiosity and of learning, are -Christians through reverence and obedience; that minds of middle growth -and moderate capacities are the most prone to error and doubt; but that -higher intellects, more clear-sighted and better grounded in science, -form a superior class of believers, who, through long and religious -investigations, arrive at the fountain of light of the Scriptures, and -feel the mysterious and divine meaning of our ecclesiastical doctrines. -And we see some who reach this last stage, through the second, with -marvellous fruit and confirmation; and who, having attained the extreme -boundary of Christian intelligence, enjoy their success with modesty and -thanksgivings, accompanied by a total reformation of their morals, -unlike those men of another stamp, who, in order to clear themselves of -the suspicion of their past errors, become violent, indiscreet, unjust, -and throw discredit on the cause which they pretend to serve.” (Essais, -b. i. ch. 54.) And a few lines after, he modestly places himself in the -second rank, of those who, disdaining the first state of uninformed -simplicity, have not yet attained the third and last exalted stage, and -who, he says, are thereby rendered “inept, importunate, and troublesome -to society. But I, for my part, endeavour, as much as I can, to fall -back upon my first and natural condition, from which I have idly -attempted to depart.” Although we may not trust implicitly to the -sincerity of this modest admission, yet we clearly see from this and -other passages, that Montaigne’s mind was anything but dogmatical, and -that he felt the insecurity of his own philosophy, which was made up of -impulses and doubts, rather than of argumentation and conviction. - -Montaigne has been also censured for several licentious and some cynical -passages of his ‘Essais.’ This licentiousness, however, is rather in the -expressions than in the meaning of the author. He spoke plainly of -things which are not alluded to in a more refined state of society, but -he did so evidently without mischievous intentions, and as a thing of -common occurrence in his days. His early familiarity with the Latin -classics probably contributed to this habit. - -Notwithstanding these faults, Montaigne’s Essays are justly admired for -the sound sense, honesty, and beauty which abound in them. ‘The best -parts of them (says a French critic) are those in which he speaks of the -passions and inclinations of men; as for his learning, it is vague, not -methodical, and uncertain; and his philosophical maxims are often -dangerous.’ (Mélanges d’Histoire et de Litterature,’ Rouen, 1699, tom. -i. p. 133.) Montaigne combats most earnestly all the malignant feelings -inherent in man, inhumanity, injustice, oppression, uncharitableness; -cruelty he detests, his whole nature was averse from it. His chapters on -pedantry and on the education of children are remarkably good. He -throws, at times, considerable light on the state of society and manners -in France in his time, which may be considered as the last period of -feudal power in that country. In his chapter on the inequality among -men, he speaks of the independence of the French nobility, especially in -the provinces remote from the Court, as Britanny; where the feudal lords -living on their estates, surrounded by their vassals, their officers and -valets, their household conducted with an almost royal ceremonial, heard -of the king but once a-year as if he were some distant king or Sultan of -Persia, and only remembered him on the score of some distant -relationship, which they hold carefully registered among their ancestral -documents. - -Mademoiselle de Gournay edited Montaigne’s ‘Essais’ in 1635, and -dedicated the edition to the Cardinal de Richelieu. She wrote a long -preface to it, which is a zealous apology for Montaigne and his works -against the charges of the earlier critics. An edition of the ‘Essais’ -was published by Pierre Coste, 3 vols. 4to. London, 1724, enriched with -valuable notes and several letters of Montaigne at the end of the third -volume. The edition of Paris, 3 vols. 4to. 1725, is, in great measure, a -reprint of that of Coste, except that the publishers have added extracts -of the various judgments of the most distinguished critical writers -concerning the ‘Essais,’ and also two more letters of Montaigne’s at the -end. These additions render this Paris edition the most complete. The -ex-senator Vernier published in 1810, ‘Notices et Observations pour -faciliter la Lecture des Essais de Montaigne,’ Paris, 2 vols. 8vo. It is -a useful commentary. - - - - -[Illustration] - - POPE. - - -Alexander Pope was born in London, June S, 1688. His father was a -merchant, of good family, attached to the Roman Catholic religion; and -his own childish years were spent, first under the tuition of a priest, -then at a Roman Catholic Seminary at Twyford, near Winchester. He taught -himself to write by copying printed books, in the execution of which he -attained great neatness and exactness. When little more than eight years -old he accidentally met with Ogilby’s Translation of Homer. The -versification is insipid and lifeless; but the stirring events and -captivating character of the story so possessed his mind, that Ogilby -became a favourite book. When about ten years old he was removed from -Twyford to a school at Hyde Park Corner. He had there occasional -opportunities of frequenting the theatre; which suggested to him the -amusement of turning the chief events in Homer into a kind of play, -composed of a succession of speeches from Ogilby, strung together by -verses of his own. In these two schools he seems, instead of advancing, -to have lost what he had gained under his first tutor. When twelve years -old he went to live with his parents at Binfield, in Windsor Forest. He -there became acquainted with the writings of Spenser, Waller, and -Dryden. For the latter he conceived the greatest admiration. He saw him -once, and commemorates the event in his correspondence, under the words -“Virgilium tantum vidi:” but he was too young to have made acquaintance -with that master of English verse, who died in 1701. He studied Dryden’s -works with equal attention and pleasure, adopted them as a model of -rhythm, and copied the structure of that author’s periods. This was, -however, so far from a grovelling imitation, that it enabled him to -raise English rhyme to the most perfect melody of which it is capable. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Posselwhite._ - - POPE. - - _From the Picture by Hudson in the possession of His Grace the Duke of - Buckingham._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - -In the retirement of Binfield, Pope laboured successfully to make amends -for the loss of past time. At fourteen years of age he had written with -some elegance, and at fifteen had attained some knowledge of the Greek -and Latin languages, to which he soon added French and Italian. In 1704 -he began his pastorals, published in 1709, which introduced him, through -Wycherley, to the acquaintance of Walsh, who proved a sincere friend to -him. That gentleman discovered at once that Pope’s talent lay less in -striking out new thoughts of his own, than in easy versification, and in -improving what he borrowed from the ancients. Among other useful hints, -he pointed out that we had several great poets, but that none of them -were correct; he therefore admonished him to make that merit his own. -The advice was gratefully received; and Pope’s correspondence shows that -it was carefully followed. His melodious numbers, so marked a feature of -his style, were in a great measure the result of that suggestion. - -In the same year, 1704, he wrote the first part of his ‘Windsor Forest’: -the whole was not published till 1713. The fault charged on this poem -is, that few images are introduced which are not equally applicable to -any other sylvan scenery. It was dedicated to Lord Lansdowne, whom he -mentions as one of his earliest acquaintance. To those already named, -may be added Bolingbroke, Congreve, Garth, Swift, Atterbury, Talbot, -Somers, and Sheffield, whose friendship he had gained at sixteen or -seventeen years of age. Pope, to his credit be it set down, cultivated -friendships not only with the great, but with his brethren among the -poets. Wycherley indeed was infected with the weakness of the archbishop -in ‘Gil Blas,’ touching his own compositions, and the young poet was -imprudently caustic in his criticism on the old one. Their -correspondence was consequently dropped; and though renewed through the -mediation of a common friend, it was with no revival of cordiality. But -in 1728, some time after Wycherley’s death, his poems were republished; -and in the following year Pope printed several letters which had passed -between them, in vindication of Wycherley’s fame as a poet, in answer to -certain misrepresentations prefixed to that edition. This quarrel was a -trying affair in the outset of Pope’s career, and his conduct had been -above his years; but young as he was, his talents were now beginning to -ripen. His example confirms the truth of Lord Bacon’s remark, that -personal deformity acts as a spur to that improvement of the mind, which -is most likely to rescue him who is curtailed of his due proportion from -a sense of degradation. - -To this early period of Pope’s life belong the ‘Messiah,’ the ‘Ode for -St. Cecilia’s Day,’ ‘Verses to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady,’ and -other of Pope’s minor pieces, which were collected and published in a -small 8vo. volume in 1720. It is stated in a note to Dr. Johnson’s Life, -that Pope himself was the object of the passion commemorated in the -last-mentioned poem. The date of that most brilliant composition, -‘Eloisa to Abelard,’ is uncertain. The ‘Essay on Criticism’ was written -in 1709, “A work,” says Johnson, “which displays such extent of -comprehension, such nicety of distinction, such acquaintance with -mankind, and such knowledge both of ancient and modern learning, as are -not often attained by the maturest age and longest experience.” Pope’s -fame was carried to its height by the ‘Rape of the Lock.’ That poem -originated in an impertinence offered by Lord Petre to Mrs. Arabella -Fermor, which led to a quarrel between their respective families. Both -parties were among Pope’s acquaintance, and this lively piece was -written to produce a reconciliation, in which it succeeded. The -universal applause given to the first sketch induced the author to -enrich it with the machinery of the Sylphs. In that new dress the two -cantos, extended to five, came out in 1712, accompanied by a letter to -Mrs. Arabella Fermor, to whom he afterwards addressed another after her -marriage, in the spruce and courtly style of Voiture. A sentence or two -may be quoted as a sample of the poet’s epistolary manner. “Madam, you -are sensible, by this time, how much the tenderness of one man of merit -is to be preferred to the addresses of a thousand; and by this time, the -gentleman you have made choice of is sensible how great is the joy of -having all those charms and good qualities which have pleased so many, -now applied to please one only.... It may be expected, perhaps, that one -who has the title of being a wit should say something more polite upon -this occasion; but I am really more a well-wisher to your felicity, than -a celebrator of your beauty.... I hope you will think it but just that a -man, who will certainly be spoken of as your admirer after he is dead, -may have the happiness, while he is living, to be esteemed, Yours, &c.” -This letter is sometimes annexed to the poem, and not injudiciously, as -it completes the winding-up in the happy marriage of the heroine. In the -same year he published his ‘Temple of Fame,’ which, according to his -habitual caution, he had kept two years in his study. It appears from -one of his letters, that at that time he had made some progress in -translating the Iliad: in 1713, he circulated proposals for publishing -his translation by subscription. He had been pressed to this undertaking -some time before by several of his friends, and was now encouraged in -the design by others. The publication of the first four books, in 1715, -gave general satisfaction; and so materially improved the author’s -finances, that he resolved to come nearer to his friends in the capital. -With that view, the small estate at Binfield was sold, and he purchased -a house at Twickenham, whither he removed with his father and mother -before the end of the year 1715. While employed in the decoration of his -seat, he could not forbear doubling his pleasures by boasting of it in -his communications with his friends. In a letter to Mr. Blount he says, -in his customary tone of gallantry, “The young ladies may be assured -that I make nothing new in my gardens, without wishing to see them print -their fairy steps in every corner of them.... You’ll think I have been -very poetical in this description, but it is pretty nearly the truth.” -This letter was written in 1725. Warburton tells us that the improvement -of his celebrated grotto was the favourite amusement of his declining -years: not long before his death, by enlarging and ornamenting it with -ores and minerals of the richest and rarest kind, he had made it a most -elegant and romantic retirement. But modern taste will scarcely confirm -the reverend editor’s assertion, that “the beauty of his poetic genius, -in the disposition and ornaments of those romantic materials, appeared -to as much advantage as in any of his best-contrived poems.” - -Pope’s father survived his removal to Twickenham only two years. The old -gentleman had sometimes recommended to his son the study of medicine, as -the best method of increasing his scanty patrimony. Neglect of pecuniary -considerations was not among Pope’s weaknesses: he did not indeed engage -in the medical profession; but he took other opportunities of pushing -his fortune. With this view, he published an edition of his collected -poems in 1717; a proceeding as much suggested by profit as by fame. In -the like disposition, he undertook a new edition of Shakspeare, which -was published in 1721. The execution of it proved the editor’s unfitness -for the task which he had undertaken. Immediately after the completion -of the Iliad, in 1720, Pope engaged, for a considerable sum, to -undertake the Odyssey. Only twelve books, however, of the translation -proceeded from his own pen: the rest were done by Broome and Fenton -under his direction. The work was completed in 1725. The following year -was employed, in concert with Swift and Arbuthnot, in the publication of -miscellanies, of which the most remarkable is the celebrated ‘History of -Martinus Scriblerus.’ About this time, as he was returning home one day -in Lord Bolingbroke’s chariot, it was overturned on Chase Bridge, near -Twickenham, and thrown with the horses into the river. The glasses being -up, Pope was nearly drowned, and was extricated with difficulty from his -hazardous situation. He lost the use of two fingers, in consequence of a -severe cut from the broken glass. - -Having secured an independent fortune, Pope endeavoured to protect his -literary fame from all future attacks, by browbeating every one into -silence: this he hoped to accomplish by the poem of the ‘Dunciad,’ which -came out in 4to. in the year 1727. He somewhere says, that the life of -an author is a state of warfare: he now showed himself a master in -literary tactics, a great captain in offensive as well as defensive war. -The poem made its first appearance in Ireland, cautiously, as a masked -battery; nor was the triumph completed without the co-operation of an -Eugene with this satirical Marlborough in the person of Swift, who -furnished some of the materials in his own masterly style of sarcasm. -The improved edition was printed in London in 1728. Sir Robert Walpole -presented it to the King and Queen, and, probably at the same time, -offered to procure the author a pension; but Pope refused this, as he -had before, in 1714, rejected a similar proposal from Lord Halifax. In a -letter to Swift, written about this time, he expresses his feelings -thus: “I was once before displeased at you for complaining to Mr. —— of -my not having a pension; I am so again at your naming it to a certain -lord.” In 1710, Mr. Craggs had given him a subscription for one hundred -pounds in the South Sea Fund; but he made no use of it. These favours -must be understood to have been proffered for the purpose of estranging -him from his personal friends; and this repeated rejection of them is an -honourable proof of steadiness to his attachments. - -In 1729, the poet, by Lord Bolingbroke’s advice, turned his pen to moral -subjects; and, with the assistance of his friend, set to work upon the -‘Essay on Man.’ Bolingbroke writes thus to Swift: “Bid Pope talk to you -of the work he is about, I hope in good earnest; it is a fine one, and -will be, in his hands, an original.” Pope tells the dean, in his next -letter, what this work was. “The work Lord Bolingbroke speaks of with -such abundant partiality, is a system of ethics, in the Horatian way.” -In another letter, written probably at the beginning of the following -year, we trace the general aim which he at all events wished the public -to attribute to this work. “I am just now writing, or rather planning, a -book to bring mankind to look upon this life with comfort and pleasure, -and put morality in good humour.” This subject was well suited to his -genius. He found the performance more easy than he had expected, and -employed his leisure by following up the design in his Ethic Epistles, -which came out separately in the course of the two following years. The -fourth, addressed to the Earl of Burlington, did no good to the author’s -character, in consequence of the violent attack supposed to be made on -the Duke of Chandos, a beneficent and esteemed nobleman, under the name -of Timon. Pope loudly asserted that in drawing Timon’s character he had -not the Duke in view: but his denials have not obtained credence; and he -has thus incurred the charge of equivocation and falsehood, without -exculpating himself from that of ingratitude and wanton insolence. The -vexation caused by this business was somewhat softened by the rapid and -lucrative sale of the epistle, which very soon went through the press a -third time. In a letter to Lord Bolingbroke he says, “Certainly the -writer deserved more candour, even in those who knew him not, than to -promote a report, which, in regard to that noble person, was -impertinent; in regard to me, villainous. I have taken an opportunity of -the third edition, to declare his belief not only of my innocence, but -of their malignity; of the former of which my heart is as conscious as I -fear some of theirs must be of the latter. His humanity feels a concern -for the injury done to me, while his greatness of mind can bear with -indifference the insult offered to himself.” He concludes with a threat -of using real instead of fictitious names in his future works. How far -he carried that menace into effect will presently be seen. The -complaints made against the epistle in question by secret enemies -provoked him to write satire, in which he ventured to attack the -characters of some persons in high life: the affront was of course -resented, and he retaliated by renewing his invective against them, both -in prose and verse. In the imitation of the first satire of the second -book of Horace, he had described Lord Hervey and Lady Mary Wortley -Montague so characteristically, under the names of Lord Fanny and -Sappho, that those noble personages, besides fighting the aggressor with -his own weapons, used their interests to his injury, not only among the -nobility, but with the King and Queen. Pope remonstrated most strongly -against this last mode of revenge. He continued writing satires till the -year 1739, when he entertained some thoughts of undertaking an epic poem -on the pretended colonization of our island by the Trojan Brute. A -sketch of this project, which he never carried into effect, is given in -Ruffhead’s ‘Life of Pope,’ p. 410. - -Pope was an elaborate letter-writer; and many of his familiar epistles -found their way into the world without his privity. Under the plea of -self-defence he published a correct and genuine collection of them in -1737. About this time the weak state of his health drew him frequently -to Bath. Mr. Allen, a resident in the neighbourhood, having been pleased -with the letters, took occasion to form an acquaintance with the author, -which soon ripened into friendship. Hence arose Pope’s intimacy with -Warburton, who tells us that, before they knew each other, he had -written his ‘Commentary on the Art of Criticism, and on the Essay on -Man.’ One complaint against that essay had rested on its obscurity, of -which the author had previously been warned by Swift. But this was -comparatively a slight objection: the philosophic poet was charged with -having insidiously laid down a scheme of deism. A French translation, by -the Abbé Resnil, appeared at Paris in 1738, on which a German professor, -by name Crousaz, animadverted, as a system of ethics embodying the -doctrine of fatalism. Pope thus acknowledges his obligation to Warburton -for his defence: “You have made my system as clear as I ought to have -done, and could not; you understand me as well as I do myself, but you -express me better than I express myself.” The ‘Essay on Man’ was -republished with the Commentary annexed in 1740; and at the instance of -Warburton, a fourth book was added to the ‘Dunciad,’ and printed -separately in 1742. - -In the course of the following year the whole poem of the ‘Dunciad’ was -published together, as a specimen of a more correct edition of Pope’s -works, which the author had then resolved to give to the world; but he -did not live to complete it. He had through life been subject to an -habitual headache inherited from his mother, and this was now greatly -increased, with the addition of dropsical symptoms. He died on the 30th -of May, 1744, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Pursuant to his own -request, his body was laid in the same vault with those of his parents, -to whose memory he had erected a monument, with an inscription written -by himself, immediately on their respective deaths. To this, in -conformity with his will, the simple words, “Et sibi,” with the date of -his death, were added. He bequeathed to Warburton the property of such -of his works already printed as he had written, or should write, -commentaries upon, provided they had not been otherwise disposed of or -alienated; with this condition, that they were to be published without -future alterations. After he had made his will, he wrote a letter to -this legatee, announcing his legacy, and saying, “I own the late -encroachments upon my constitution make me willing to see the end of all -further care about me, or my works. I would rest for the one in a full -resignation of my being to be disposed of by the Father of all mercy; -and for the other (though indeed a trifle, yet a trifle may be some -example), I would commit them to the candour of a sensible and -reflecting judge, rather than to the malice of every shortsighted and -malevolent critic, or inadvertent and censorious reader. And no hand can -set them in so good a light, or so well can turn their best side to the -day, as your own.” In discharge of his trust, Warburton put forth a -complete edition of all Pope’s works in 1751; and, according to his own -persuasion, executed it conformably to the presumed wishes of the -author. In point of elegance, allowing for the state of typography at -the time, no objection could be made, nor could the poet’s orders have -been more faithfully obeyed, in forming the various pieces into a -collection. But some of Warburton’s remarks are in a less friendly tone -than might have been expected; and if not absolutely injurious to his -memory, are such as leave Pope’s moral character in a measure open to -attack. Many circumstances are related in the large biographies of Pope, -which our inclination would as little allow us as our limits to detail. -Some of them would not compensate in desirable information for the -tediousness of the narrative: others relate to defunct controversies. To -the latter of these classes may be referred Pope’s quarrel with Colley -Cibber, which loaded the press with vulgar indecency on both sides; -also, Bolingbroke’s charge of treachery brought against Pope in an -advertisement prefixed to a tract published by his lordship in 1749, -five years after the accused could no longer answer his accuser. - -We shall not devote any part of our confined space to an examination of -the faults and weaknesses of this eminent man: they have been fully -dwelt on in works of easy access. Some apology for many of them may be -found in his bodily infirmities, deformed frame, and extreme debility of -constitution. Pope’s person, character, and writings are treated of at -large by Dr. Warton, in his ‘Essay.’ Ruffhead’s ‘Life of Pope’ contains -much curious and entertaining matter. Dr. Johnson’s examination of -Pope’s works is among the most elaborate and best pieces of criticism in -his ‘Lives of the Poets.’ We cannot better conclude than with his -description of Pope’s appearance, and summing up of his poetical -character. “The person of Pope is well known not to have been formed by -the nicest model. He has, in his account of the ‘Little Club,’ compared -himself to a spider, and by another is described as protuberant before -and behind. He is said to have been beautiful in his infancy: but he was -of a constitution originally feeble and weak; and, as bodies of a tender -frame are easily distorted, his deformity was probably in part the -effect of his application. His stature was so low, that, to bring him to -a level with common tables, it was necessary to raise his seat. But his -face was not displeasing, and his eyes animated and vivid....” “It is -surely superfluous to answer the question that has once been asked, -whether Pope was a poet, otherwise than by asking, in return, if Pope be -not a poet, where is poetry to be found? To circumscribe poetry by a -definition will only show the narrowness of the definer, though a -definition which shall exclude Pope will not easily be made. Let us look -round upon the present time, and back upon the past; let us inquire to -whom the voice of mankind has decreed the wreath of poetry; let their -productions be examined, and their claims stated, and the pretensions of -Pope will be no more disputed. Had he given the world only his version, -the name of poet must have been allowed him: if the writer of the Iliad -were to class his successors, he would assign a very high place to his -translator, without requiring any other evidence of genius.” With -respect to the translation of the Iliad, it is fair to give Pope the -benefit of Dr. Johnson’s praise. But we are justified by the consentient -voice of almost all scholars, in condemning it as an unfaithful and -meretricious version, composed in a spirit totally different from that -of Homer, and bearing no resemblance to his manner. - -Our engraving is from a copy of the original picture by Hudson, made by -T. Uwins, A.R.A. - -[Illustration: [Entrance to Pope’s Grotto.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - BOLIVAR. - - _From an Engraving by Mr. H. Ponte._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - BOLIVAR. - - -The history of Bolivar is that of the revolutions in Columbia and Peru. -Nothing remarkable is related of his early life; and with respect to his -personal merits as a soldier and statesman, he has shared the common lot -of eminent men, in being extravagantly praised and violently censured. -He has been compared to Cæsar and Napoleon on the one hand; and he has -been accused of frivolity, incompetency, and even cowardice, on the -other. The time for forming a dispassionate opinion of his character is -not yet arrived. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves to a short -sketch of the establishment of independence on the Spanish Main, so far -as Bolivar was concerned in it; premising that we merely follow the -course of history in giving him the credit of those measures which were -carried into execution under his authority and ostensible guidance. - -Simon Bolivar was born in the city of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, -on the 24th or 25th of July, 1783. In early childhood he lost both his -parents, who were of noble family, and possessed of large estates. At -the age of fourteen or sixteen, he was sent to Spain for education. His -habits are said to have been dissipated; but he paid some attention to -the study of jurisprudence. After visiting Italy and France, he returned -to Madrid, married, and in 1809 returned to reside on his estates near -Caracas. It is positively asserted, and as positively denied, that -Bolivar had an active share in the decisive movement at Caracas, April -19, 1810, when the Spanish authorities were deposed. A congress was -summoned, which met March 2, 1811. Bolivar received a colonel’s -commission, and was sent to claim the protection of Great Britain. The -date of his return to South America we do not find: but he is said to -have been concerned in the first military operations of the patriots; -and in September, 1811, he was appointed governor of the strong sea-port -of Puerto Cabello. In March, 1812, a violent earthquake took place. The -clergy succeeded in producing a considerable reaction in favour of -royalist principles, by representing this calamity to be a manifestation -of God’s wrath against revolution. Monteverde, the royal general, then -advanced, and met with rapid success. The strong hold of Puerto Cabello, -the chief depôt of the patriots, was wrested from Bolivar by an -insurrection of the prisoners confined in it; the patriot army became -dispirited; and General Miranda, under the sanction of congress, -concluded a treaty, July 26, 1812, by which an amnesty was concluded, -and the province of Venezuela returned under the dominion of Spain. -Miranda was subsequently arrested on a futile charge of treachery to the -patriot cause, and delivered to the Spaniards, who kept him in prison to -the day of his death. In this unjustifiable transaction, Bolivar had a -principal share. - -Bolivar retired for a short time to his estate; but he soon became -uneasy at the frequency of arrests, and obtained a passport to quit the -country. He retired to Curaçoa. In the following September, his active -temper led him to seek employment in the patriot army of New Granada, -which had declared itself independent in 1811, and still held out, with -better fortune than Venezuela. He obtained a trifling command, not such -as to satisfy his ambition; and on his own responsibility, he undertook -an expedition against the Spaniards on the east bank of the river -Magdalena, in which he succeeded; clearing the country of Spanish posts -from Mompox, on the above named river, to the town of Ocaña, on the -frontier of Caracas. This exploit attracted public notice. He conceived -the bold plan of invading Venezuela with his small forces, and the -congress of New Granada consented to his making the attempt, and raised -him to the rank of brigadier. He crossed the frontier with little more -than 500 men; but the country rose in arms to second him; and after -several engagements, in which the patriots were successful, he defeated -Monteverde in person at the battle of Lastoguanes, and, finally, entered -Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, in triumph, August 4, 1813. - -At this time no regular government could be said to exist; but a -convention of the chief civil and military functionaries, held at -Caracas, January 2, 1814, conferred on Bolivar the title of Liberator of -Venezuela, and invested him with the office of Dictator, and the supreme -control over both branches of the executive. But these successes were -followed by a rapid reverse; and before the end of the year, he was -beaten out of Venezuela, and obliged to return to New Granada. That -country was harassed by the contests of numerous and discordant parties. -Bolivar was received with respect by the congress; and was entrusted -with the task of compelling the dissentient province of Santa Fe de -Bogotá, afterwards named Cundinamarca, to accede to the union of the -other provinces. He marched against the city of Bogotá in December, at -the head of 2000 men. It was not in a condition to resist, and -capitulated, after the suburbs had been taken by storm. It will afford -an instance of the difficulty of getting at the real character of -Bolivar, to say, that we find it stated in one account that his -behaviour at Bogotá received not only the thanks of Congress, but the -approbation of the citizens; while another author asserts, that -notwithstanding the capitulation, and in spite of the most urgent -remonstrances, he permitted the pillage of part of the city for the -space of forty-eight hours. He was then appointed to act against the -strong town of Santa Martha, which commands the mouth of the river -Magdalena. Unfortunately, private enmity between himself and Castillo, -the governor of Carthagena, led to dissensions which ended in the -investment of Carthagena, instead of Santa Martha, by Bolivar. During -this civil strife, which led to consequences most injurious to the -patriot cause, General Morillo arrived from Spain, now enabled by the -peace of 1814 to act with more vigour against her revolted colonies; and -Bolivar gave up his command, on the pretext that the harmony and -advantage of the army required it, and embarked for Jamaica, May 10, -1815. During his abode at Kingston, he narrowly escaped assassination at -the hands of a Spaniard, who stabbed to the heart a person who chanced -to occupy the bed in which Bolivar usually slept. From Jamaica, he went -to Hayti, where, with the help of the president Petion, and in -conjunction with a French officer, Commodore Brion, he drew together a -force, with which he again raised the standard of independence in the -province of Cumana, in May, 1816: but he was soon driven out of the -country, and returned to Hayti, whence, in December, he again sailed to -the island of Margarita, and he issued a proclamation convoking a -congress of the representatives of Venezuela. He then repaired to -Barcelona, and organised a provisional government. During the years 1817 -and 1818, the struggle was obstinate; but the patriot cause on the whole -gained a decided advantage. In February 1819, Bolivar summoned a -congress at Angostura, on the river Orinoco, and resigned his authority -into its hands. The assembly, however, continued to him the executive -power, with the title of Provisional President of Venezuela, until the -expulsion of the enemy should afford a prospect of more settled times. - -Bolivar rejoined the army in March, and soon after conducted his forces -to join the patriots in New Granada. Two battles, on the 1st and 23d of -July, were fought to the advantage of the patriots, whose cause obtained -a final triumph in the decisive victory won August 7, at Bojaca. Bolivar -advanced at once to Bogotá, where he was enthusiastically welcomed; and -within a short time, eleven provinces of New Granada announced their -adhesion to the cause of independence. He summoned a congress, by which -he was appointed President, and Captain-general of the Republic. -Meanwhile a party, jealous of his intentions, had obtained the -ascendancy in the Venezuela Congress held at Angostura; and Bolivar, -fearful of being supplanted, quitted the scene of war with his best -troops and marched to Angostura. His presence, with such a force, turned -the scale in favour of the party attached to his interest. It was -determined to summon a general convention from the independent provinces -of Venezuela and Granada; and December 17, 1819, the celebrated decree -was passed by which the two states were united, and entitled the -Republic of Columbia. Bolivar was appointed President. - -Strengthened by union, the patriots took the field in greater force than -they had hitherto been able to raise. The course of war during 1820 was -on the whole favourable to them. In November, an armistice for six -months was concluded. Soon after the renewal of hostilities, an -important victory was gained by the Columbian troops under Bolivar, at -Carabobo, not far from the city of Valencia, June 21, 1821, which may be -regarded as having closed the war in Venezuela. Before the end of the -year, Columbia was nearly cleared of Spanish troops, with the exception -of the province of Quito; and time was found to attend to the -establishment of civil order. The constitution of the short-lived -Columbian Republic was adopted, August 20, 1821, and Bolivar was -appointed First Constitutional President. - -The war was then directed against the Spaniards in the south. In -January, 1822, Bolivar himself conducted operations in the province of -Pasto, lying to the north of Quito, while General Sucre, who had been -sent previously to assist the cause of independence in Guayaquil, after -liberating the southern provinces of Loxa and Cuenca, advanced -northwards, and secured independence to the province of Quito by the -decisive victory of Pichincha, May 24, 1822. But though this portion of -Columbia was now cleared of enemies, there could be no security to the -frontier provinces while the Spaniards held Peru; and it was therefore -determined to send assistance to the patriots in that country. Bolivar -landed at Lima, September 1, 1823, and was invested with supreme power -as Dictator of Peru. It was not until the end of 1825, however, that the -war of independence was finished; and the honour of this, in a military -point of view, belongs rather to Sucre than to Bolivar. - -On the establishment of a separate republic in 1825, in the province -called by the Spaniards Upper Peru, the new state paid a high compliment -to the Liberator, by assuming the name of Bolivia, and requesting him to -draw up a constitution for its adoption. In compliance with the wish -thus expressed, he presented to the constituent congress in May, 1826, -the celebrated Bolivian Code; for an account of which we must refer to -the ‘Encyclopædia Americana,’ or the appendix to the ‘Memoirs of General -Miller.’ This forms a remarkable era in Bolivar’s life; for, out of the -institutions of this code, arose the first suspicions that the Liberator -was at heart indisposed to republican institutions. It was however -adopted; and Sucre was appointed President. Meanwhile, though the -deliverance of Peru was completed, Bolivar showed no intention of -leading home the Columbian troops. A congress summoned at Lima, in -February, 1825, continued to him, for another year, the dictatorial -power which he had received on his first entrance into the country. A -second congress, held in 1826, adopted the same course, adding a -recommendation that he should consult the provinces as to the form of -government which it might be desirable to establish. The result was, -that the Bolivian Code was declared to be adopted by Peru, and Bolivar -himself was nominated President. - -During the Liberator’s long absence in the south, the northern provinces -of Columbia became involved in civil confusion. The Vice-president, -General Santander, was a man of firmness and ability; but the -newly-formed government wanted consistency, and that habitual respect -which is paid to long recognised authority. In April, 1826, General -Paez, who commanded in Venezuela, being summoned before the senate of -Columbia to answer certain charges, refused obedience, trusting to the -devoted attachment of the troops under his command: and to this private -act of rebellion, something of a national character was given, by the -accession of many in Venezuela, who disapproved of the union with New -Granada, or distrusted the intentions of those who held the reins of -power. At the same time, the southern departments, which had formerly -composed the presidency of Quito, displayed a strong inclination to -adopt the Bolivian Code. Bolivar has not escaped the suspicion of having -fomented these troubles, with a view to convince all parties that -tranquillity could only be secured by strengthening the executive, by -appointing him Dictator of the Columbian Republic. Being recalled for -the suppression of these disturbances, he quitted Lima in September, -1826, and hastened to Caracas, where, instead of punishing, he met Paez -upon friendly terms, confirmed him in the office which he held, and -published a general amnesty on the submission of the insurgents. The -term for which he was elected President had now expired. He had been -re-elected, and should have gone through the forms of taking office at -the beginning of 1827; but in February, he announced his intention to -resign, and retire to his estates, in consequence of the imputations of -ambition cast upon him. The spring was spent by Congress in discussing -this matter; and at last, June 6, it was finally determined not to -accept his resignation, and a general convention was summoned to meet at -Ocaña, March 2, 1828, to revise the constitution. In September, Bolivar -again assumed the office of President. - -Meanwhile a speedy revolution had taken place in Peru. It is no great -argument of Bolivar’s purity of purpose, that, a year after the war was -finished, the Columbian auxiliaries were still retained by him in -Bolivia and Peru, one division being quartered in the former country, -and two in the latter. Many of them were strongly attached to their -general, and perhaps had no objection to becoming instruments of his -ambition, so far as Peru was concerned. But when he incurred the -suspicion of meditating the overthrow of the Columbian constitution, -they took fire. The division quartered at Lima matured a plan of revolt, -arrested their generals, who were personally attached to Bolivar, and -announced to the authorities of Lima their desire to relieve the -Peruvians from a constitution which had been forced upon them, and to -return home to defend their own country. Hereupon, in concurrence with -the generally declared wish of the people throughout Peru, the Bolivian -Code was thrown aside only a few weeks after it had been adopted; and in -June, 1827, a new congress was summoned, and a new President and -Vice-president of the republic were elected. The troops embarked; but on -their landing in Columbia, part placed themselves under the orders of -officers sent to take the command of them, and the rest were easily -reduced to obedience. - -The convention met at the appointed time. Bolivar opened the proceedings -with an address, in which he ascribed the internal troubles of Columbia -to the want of sufficient power in the executive department, and plainly -intimated his opinion that the constitution had been founded on views -too liberal to be adapted to the state of society existing in that -country. His speech was very much in accordance with the views developed -in the Bolivian Code, and furnished good reason for believing that he -was no less willing to accept supreme power than his friends were -disposed to invest him with it, as the only remedy for existing evils. -The majority of the convention, however, were suspicious of the -President’s intentions. Finding themselves in a minority, his friends -vacated their seats in the assembly, which being thus reduced below the -number necessary to give validity to its proceedings, became virtually -extinct. - -In this state of things, a meeting was convened at Bogotá, June 13, of -the principal civil and military residents, at which resolutions were -passed investing Bolivar with the most extensive powers as Supreme Chief -of Columbia. He himself was not present, but in the near neighbourhood; -and on receiving intimation of these resolutions, he made a solemn entry -into Bogotá, June 20, and assumed the powers thus gratuitously bestowed -upon him, not, it is to be observed, by the act of the convention, or of -any body authorised to interfere in any way with the existing -constitution. Great dissatisfaction was felt by those who were not -attached to the party of Bolivar; and in the following September, a -conspiracy was organised in the garrison of Bogotá, to which the -President’s life had nearly fallen a sacrifice. It was quelled however. -General Santander, the Vice-president, was accused of being concerned in -it, and was banished from Columbia. Partial insurrections subsequently -broke out in various places. Towards the close of 1829, the discontent -which had formerly appeared in Venezuela, manifested itself more -decidedly. Paez put himself at the head of the dissatisfied party; and -in a very short time, the whole province raised the standard of -independence, and expressed its determination to be merged no longer in -the Columbian Republic. In the midst of these tumults, Bolivar resolved -at length to retire from the eminent station in which he had been the -cause of so much offence. He had issued a proclamation, December 24, -1828, summoning a convention in January, 1830, to frame a new permanent -constitution for Columbia. It met at the appointed time. Bolivar, in -opening the deliberations, expressed his determination not to accept -again the chief magistracy of the state; but, as he had said the same -thing in equally strong terms before, nobody paid much attention to the -declaration. This time, however, he adhered to it. Besides the labour of -making a new constitution, the convention had to discuss the difficult -question of the secession of Venezuela: nor was this all, for as that -district had separated itself from the Columbian Republic, in a great -degree Owing to its distrust of Bolivar, so the southern provinces -refused to acknowledge the new constitution unless he were placed at its -head. The convention wisely resolved, with respect to Venezuela, that -every peaceful method should be tried to prevent its secession, but that -it would not be expedient or proper to attempt to maintain the union by -force. To anticipate a little the order of time, the Venezuelans were -resolved to have an independent government; and finally, in 1832, the -short-lived republic of Columbia was divided into three, bearing -respectively the titles of Venezuela, New Granada, and the Republic of -the Equator, which was formed out of the southern provinces of Quito, -Guayaquil, and Assuai. - -After the adoption of the new constitution of 1830, Bolivar retired to -the province of Carthagena, exhausted both in body and mind. He died at -Santa Martha, December 17, 1830, leaving a character on the merits of -which it is difficult to pronounce a decided opinion. His name will not -soon be forgotten, for it is indissolubly connected with the cause of -independence in South America: but, in reviewing the progress and -prospects of North and South America, it is impossible not to remark -Bolivar’s inferiority to Washington, both in talent and virtue, and not -to reflect with regret how different, in all probability, the conduct -and the prosperity of the South American republics would have been if -they had possessed such a leader as the first President of the United -States. - -The chief books which have been consulted for this sketch have been the -‘Annual Register,’ General Ducoudray Holstein’s ‘Memoirs of Bolivar,’ a -work evidently written under strong feelings of personal hostility, the -article Bolivar in the ‘Encyclopædia Americana,’ and a short account of -the Liberator in the ‘Memoirs of General Miller.’ In these works there -is so much discrepancy, not only of opinions, but of facts and dates, -that we do not venture to hope that we have escaped errors. A clear and -impartial history of the war of independence is still a desideratum. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Posselwhite._ - - ARKWRIGHT. - - _From a Picture by Wright of Derby._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - ARKWRIGHT. - - -In the history of trade there is nothing so remarkable as the rapid and -immense increase of the British cotton manufacture during the last -thirty years of the eighteenth century. Two nearly contemporaneous -discoveries concurred to produce that increase: the invention of -machinery for spinning; and the improvement, we might almost say -completion, of the steam-engine by James Watt. To his eminent merits we -have borne our testimony in the first volume of this work; and scarcely -less important, though less imposing, have been the services of the -ingenious men who contrived to spin thread without the use of the human -hand. We do not hesitate to take Arkwright as the representative of -those who wrought this great revolution in our manufacturing system, for -though recent evidence has refuted his claim to the invention, properly -speaking, of spinning by machinery, he was the first person who rendered -that invention profitable. - -By the year 1760, the manufacture of cotton goods, which had been -increasing slowly from the beginning of the century, had attained -considerable importance. In 1764, the declared value of British cotton -goods exported was upwards of 200,000_l._, having increased tenfold -within forty or fifty years. At this period the demand for them exceeded -the supply, in consequence of the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient -quantity of yarn for weaving. The one-thread spinning-wheel, now nearly -banished from our cottages, was then the sole source from which -spun-yarn could be obtained; and the trades of spinning and weaving were -commonly united in a humble manner—the man wove, while his wife and -daughters spun. If this domestic supply was insufficient, the weaver had -often to waste time and labour in collecting materials for his daily -work. Mr. Guest states, that “it was no uncommon thing for a weaver to -walk three or four miles in a morning, and call on five or six spinners, -before he could collect weft to serve him for the remainder of the day; -and when he wished to weave a piece in a shorter time than usual, a new -ribbon or a gown was necessary to quicken the exertions of the spinner.” -This check existing on the industry of the weaver, it is no wonder that -mechanical ingenuity was tasked to invent a quicker way of spinning. The -principle of the first plan by which this was effected may be easily -explained. Suppose a ribbon placed between two horizontal cylinders -which are in contact with each other; if the cylinders are made to -revolve, it is evident that they will draw the ribbon onwards in the -direction of their motion. Again, if the foremost end of it be presented -to a second pair of similar revolving cylinders, it will be drawn -through these also. If both pairs revolve with exactly the same -velocity, it will pass through them unaltered; but if the second pair -revolve with greater velocity than the first, there will be a certain -strain on the intermediate ribbon, which, if extensible, will be -stretched in the same degree that the velocity of the second pair of -rollers exceeds that of the first. Now cotton, after being cleaned and -carded, comes from the card in fleecy rolls, the fibres of which are -laid parallel, and so made fit to spin. To reduce these to thread or -yarn takes more than one operation: the first brings the _cardings_ into -thick, loosely twisted threads, called _rovings_; the subsequent ones -reduce the rovings into yarn fit for the loom. It is evident that both -the cardings and rovings are fitted by their texture for the process of -extension by rollers described above; and that they would be drawn out -twofold, fourfold, or in any greater or less degree, proportionate to -the difference of velocity between the first and second pair of rollers. -From the second pair the thread is delivered to a spindle, which gives -the due degree of twist; and it is finally wound on a bobbin: the whole -being set in motion by the same mechanical power. It is evident that -many spindles might be attached to, and many threads spun by, the same -combination of rollers. Arkwright claimed the merit of this invention. -It is proved, however, by the undeniable evidence of an existing patent, -printed by Mr. Baines in his History of the Cotton Manufacture, that -this principle of spinning by rollers was patented so early as the year -1738, by a foreigner named Lewis Paul; the real inventor was John Wyatt, -of Birmingham. In their hands however, though the invention did not -absolutely fail, it did not so succeed as to be brought into general -use, or even to become profitable to the inventors. Simple and obvious -as the _principle_ appears when once laid down, great difficulties were -to be overcome in forming this stretched cotton into a useful thread; as -may be conceived from reflecting on the great rapidity with which, to -make spinning profitable, parts of the machine must move, the perfect -regularity of motion requisite, and the slightness of the strain which a -few untwisted filaments of cotton will bear. For the apparently trivial -object of producing a uniform line of fine yarn, the utmost efforts of -mechanical ingenuity have been called forth, and some of the most -beautiful, delicate, and powerful machinery in existence has been -constructed. It was in overcoming these difficulties that the talent or -perseverance of Paul and Wyatt failed; the merit of conquering them, and -giving birth to a new system of manufacture, belongs to Arkwright. We -quote the following notice of his early life from Mr. Baines:— - -“Richard Arkwright rose by the force of his natural talents from a very -humble condition in society. He was born at Preston, December 23, 1732, -of poor parents. Being the youngest of thirteen children, his parents -could only afford to give him an education of the humblest kind, and he -was scarcely able to write. He was brought up to the trade of a barber, -at Kirkham and Preston, and established himself in that business at -Bolton, in 1760. Having become possessed of a chemical process for -dyeing human hair, which in that day, when wigs were universal, was of -considerable value, he travelled about collecting hair, and again -disposing of it when dyed. In 1761, he married a wife from Leigh, and -the connexions he thus formed in that town are supposed to have -afterwards brought him acquainted with Highs’s experiments in making -spinning machines. He himself manifested a strong bent for experiments -in mechanics, which he is stated to have followed with so much -devotedness as to have neglected his business and injured his -circumstances. His natural disposition was ardent, enterprising, and -stubbornly persevering; his mind was as coarse as it was bold and -active, and his manners were rough and unpleasing.” - -In the course of his travels in 1767, he fell in with a clockmaker, -named Kay, at Warrington, whom he employed as a workman in prosecuting -some of his mechanical experiments. Kay, according to his own account, -gave Arkwright some description of a machine contrived by one Highs, for -spinning by rollers. It is certain that from thenceforward Arkwright -abandoned his former pursuits, and applied himself, in conjunction with -Kay, to the construction of a spinning machine. One Smalley, a -liquor-merchant of Preston, assisted him with money; and the two, -fearing lest they might be endangered by a riotous spirit which had been -directed against machinery in Lancashire, went to settle at Nottingham. -There Arkwright obtained an introduction to Messrs. Need and Strutt, two -gentlemen largely engaged in the stocking manufactory, who appreciated -his talents, and entered into partnership with him. What became of Mr. -Smalley we do not hear. Arkwright took out a patent for his invention, -which was enrolled, July 15, 1769. The partners erected a mill near -Nottingham, which was turned by horse-power: but this was soon -superseded by a much larger establishment at Cromford in Derbyshire, on -the river Derwent, in which water-power was applied for the first time -to the purpose of spinning; and from that circumstance Arkwright’s -machine was called the _water-frame_. - -As the difficulty of meeting the weavers’ demand for yarn had led to the -invention of machines for spinning, so the rapid manufacture of yarn -rendered it indispensable to facilitate the prior operations in -preparing the raw material. Men’s minds had been turned to this object -for some time. The operation of carding, whether wool or cotton, was at -first done with hand-cards of small size. The first improvement was the -invention of stock-cards, one of which was fixed, and the other held in -the hand, or afterwards suspended from above, so that the workman could -manage a much larger card, and prepare more cotton in a given time. The -next and main improvement was placing cards lengthways upon a cylinder, -which worked within a concave half cylinder of the same diameter. This -process was patented by Paul in 1748. But he derived no profit from -this, any more than from his former patent; and it was not until after -the improvements in spinning that the method of carding by cylinders was -brought into use. Arkwright was not the first to revive it, but he had a -great share in perfecting the carding machinery when it had been -revived. The raw cotton being carded, an extension, or rather a new -application, of the principle of spinning by rollers converted the -cardings into rovings, which again were made into yarn fit for the loom -by the water-frame, or, as it is now called in an improved form, the -_throstle_. Arkwright took out his second patent, December 16, 1775; -this included the carding machine, drawing-frame, and roving-frame, a -series of engines by which the cotton, from its raw state, was rendered -fit for the last process of spinning. We shall not attempt to explain -the construction of these elaborate machines, which can hardly be -rendered intelligible even by the help of numerous plates. - -The process of turning cotton-wool into thread by machinery was thus -completed. Before we follow its effects upon Arkwright’s fortunes, it is -proper to say a few words concerning other improvements. About, or -somewhat earlier than, the time when Arkwright’s attention was first -turned to spinning, a weaver named James Hargreaves, of Stand Hill, near -Blackburn, invented a machine by which, according to the terms of the -patent, sixteen or more threads might be spun by one person at the same -time. This is the machine so well known under the name of the -_spinning-jenny_. Hargreaves’ patent was invaded, and invalidated on -technical grounds; so that his machine came rapidly into general use, -and for spinning the _weft_ was preferred to Arkwright’s water-frame, -from which it was entirely different in principle. Samuel Crompton, an -ingenious weaver resident near Bolton, between the years 1774 and 1779, -tried to unite the principles of both, and produced a machine which, on -that account, he called a _mule_. This, under different improved forms, -is the machine now generally used in spinning; but the water-frame, or -throstle, is still found to answer best for some kinds of work[11]. But -to return to the fortunes of Arkwright: the series of machines which he -invented or improved gave an amazing impulse to the cotton trade. -“Weavers could now obtain an unlimited quantity of yarn at a reasonable -price; manufacturers could use warps of cotton, which were much cheaper -than the linen warps formerly used. Cotton fabrics could be sold lower -than had ever before been known. The demand for them consequently -increased. The shuttle flew with fresh energy, and the weavers earned -immoderately high wages. Spinning-mills were erected to supply the -requisite quantity of yarn. The fame of Arkwright resounded through the -land, and capitalists flocked to him to buy his patent machines, or -permission to use them.” * * * - -Footnote 11: - - A third person has been mentioned as the inventor both of the jenny - and of roller-spinning, Thomas Highs, of Leigh, above-mentioned, whose - claims seem entitled to more courteous notice than they have met with - in the Edinburgh Review. There is nothing unreasonable in supposing - that both Highs and Arkwright may have heard of Wyatt’s method of - spinning by rollers, which was practised in two factories, one erected - at Birmingham, the other at Nottingham. - -“The factory system in England takes its rise from this period. Hitherto -the cotton manufacture had been carried on almost entirely in the houses -of the workmen: the hand or stock-cards, the spinning-wheel, and the -loom, required no larger apartment than that of a cottage. A -spinning-jenny of small size might also be used in a cottage, and in -many instances was so used; when the number of spindles was considerably -increased, adjacent workshops were used. But the water-frame, the -carding-engine, and the other machines which Arkwright brought out in a -finished state, required both more space than could be found in a -cottage, and more power than could be applied by the human arm. Their -weight also made it necessary to place them in strongly-built mills, and -they could not be advantageously turned by any power then known but that -of water.” - -“The use of machinery was accompanied by a greater division of labour -than existed in the primitive state of the manufacture; the material -went through many more processes, and of course the loss of time and the -risk of waste would have been much increased, if its removal from house -to house at every stage of the manufacture had been necessary. It became -obvious that there were several important advantages in carrying on the -numerous operations of an extensive manufacture in the same building. -Where water-power was required, it was economy to build one mill, and -put up one water-wheel, rather than several. This arrangement also -enabled the master-spinner himself to superintend every stage of the -manufacture; it gave him a greater security against the wasteful or -fraudulent consumption of the material; it saved time in the -transference of the work from hand to hand; and it prevented the extreme -inconvenience which would have resulted from the failure of one class of -workmen to perform their part, when several other classes of workmen -were dependent upon them. Another circumstance which made it -advantageous to have a large number of machines in one manufactory was, -that mechanics must be employed on the spot to construct and repair the -machinery, and that their time could not be fully occupied with only a -few machines.” - -“All these considerations drove the cotton-spinners to that important -change in the economy of English manufactures, the introduction of the -factory system; and when that system had once been adopted, such were -its pecuniary advantages that mercantile competition would have rendered -it impossible, even had it been desirable, to abandon it.” (Baines, -‘History of Cotton Manufacture,’ pages 183, 185.) - -It was not to be expected that Arkwright would enjoy undisturbed so -valuable a monopoly as that which he had created, and many persons -infringed his patents, in the belief that he was not the real owner of -the inventions which he claimed. An attempt was made in 1772 to set -aside his first patent for the water-frame; but this failed, and he -retained the enjoyment of that patent unquestioned till the expiration -of the fourteen years. To preserve his second patent, for the carding, -drawing, and roving machines, he brought several actions against -master-spinners, one of which, against Colonel Mordaunt, was tried in -1781, and a verdict was obtained for the defendant, setting aside the -patent. Arkwright for some time did not contest this decision. But in -1785, he made another attempt to establish his second patent before a -court of law; and in the first instance obtained a verdict in his own -favour, but on the cause being reheard, the patent was finally declared -invalid. - -Notwithstanding this defeat, Arkwright rapidly acquired a very large -fortune, through the magnitude of his concerns, and his industry, -penetration, and skill in business. On the dissolution of his -partnership with the Messrs. Strutt about 1783, the extensive works at -Cromford fell to his share. In 1786, he was High Sheriff of Derbyshire, -and was knighted, on occasion of presenting an address to the King. We -find no other record worth notice of the last years of his life. He -died, August 3, 1792, in his sixtieth year. - -Arkwright’s originality and honesty as an inventor have been violently -impugned by Mr. Guest, in his History of the Cotton Manufacture. The -arguments on the other side may be seen in the Edinburgh Review, No. 91, -to which Guest published a reply. Mr. Baines’s History of the Cotton -Manufacture, which we have chiefly followed and largely quoted from in -this account, contains the latest and fullest account which we have seen -of Arkwright’s character and history. There appears to have been some -alloy of selfishness and disingenuousness in his disposition, some -ground for the statement of counsel in the trial of 1785: “It is a -notorious story in the manufacturing counties; all men that have seen -Mr. Arkwright in a state of opulence have shaken their heads, and -thought of these poor men, Highs and Kay, and have thought, too, that -they were entitled to some participation of the profits.” Still it -becomes us to speak with gentleness of the faults of a person to whose -talents, nationally speaking, we owe so much: and there is much to be -said in extenuation of them, in consideration of the lowness of his -original calling, of the self-complacency and sensitive jealousy common -to almost all schemers, and the fascination of wealth when it flows -largely and unexpectedly upon a man bred in extreme poverty. As an -inventor Arkwright’s merit is undeniable. Mr. Baines, who seems to have -judged calmly and impartially, assigns to him the high praise, that “in -improving and perfecting mechanical inventions, in exactly adapting them -to the purposes for which they were intended, in arranging a -comprehensive system of manufacturing, and in conducting vast and -complicated concerns, he displayed a bold and fertile mind, and -consummate judgment, which, when his want of education, and the -influence of an employment so extremely unfavourable to mental expansion -as that of his previous life, are considered, must have excited the -astonishment of mankind. But the marvellous and ‘unbounded invention,’ -which he claimed for himself and which has been too readily accorded to -him—the _creative faculty_ which devised all that admirable mechanism, -so entirely new in its principles, and characteristic of the first order -of mechanical genius—which has given a new spring to the industry of the -world, and within half a century has reared up the most extensive -manufacture ever known—this did not belong to Arkwright.” * * * * * * * - -“The most marked traits in the character of Arkwright were his wonderful -ardour, energy, and perseverance. He commonly laboured in his -multifarious concerns from five o’clock in the morning till nine at -night; and when considerably more than fifty years of age, feeling that -the defects of his education placed him under great difficulty and -inconvenience in conducting his correspondence, and in the general -management of his business, he encroached upon his sleep, in order to -gain an hour each day to learn English grammar, and another hour to -improve his writing and orthography! He was impatient of whatever -interfered with his favourite pursuits; and the fact is too strikingly -characteristic not to be mentioned, that he separated from his wife not -many years after his marriage, because she, convinced that he would -starve his family by scheming when he should have been shaving, broke -some of his experimental models of machinery. Arkwright was a severe -economist of time; and, that he might not waste a moment, he generally -travelled with four horses, and at a very rapid speed. His concerns in -Derbyshire, Lancashire, and Scotland, were so extensive and numerous as -to show at once his astonishing power of transacting business, and his -all-grasping spirit. In many of these he had partners, but he generally -managed in such a way that, whoever lost, he himself was a gainer. So -unbounded was his confidence in the success of his machinery, and in the -national wealth to be produced by it, that he would make light of -discussions on taxation, and say that he would pay the national debt! -His speculative schemes were vast and daring; he contemplated entering -into the most extensive mercantile transactions, and buying up all the -cotton in the world, in order to make an enormous profit by the -monopoly; and from the extravagance of some of these designs, his -judicious friends were of opinion that, if he had tried to put them in -practice, he might have overset the whole fabric of his prosperity.” - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - COWPER. - - _From a Picture in the Possession of the Publisher._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - COWPER. - - -William Cowper was born at the rectory of Berkhampstead, in -Hertfordshire, Nov. 26, 1731. He was nearly related to the noble family -of that name, his great-uncle having been chancellor and first Earl -Cowper: his grandfather, the brother of the chancellor, was a judge of -the common pleas. Cowper’s mother died before he was six years old. Soon -afterwards he was sent to a country school, from which, at the age of -nine, he was removed to Westminster. It is probable that one cause among -others of his future unhappiness was the early loss of that tender -parent, whose “constant flow of love,” beautifully acknowledged in his -verses on receiving her picture, and in many parts of his -correspondence, made a deep and lasting impression on his infant mind. -Cowper was exactly the boy to require a mother’s care. His constitution -was delicate, his mind sensitive and timid; and he discovered a tendency -to dejection, which was aggravated by the tyranny then practised at our -public schools. Quitting Westminster at eighteen, with a good character -for talent and scholarship, he went at once into an attorney’s office; -where he spent three years, according to his own account, with very -little profit. He then became a member of the Inner Temple, intending to -practise at the bar. At this period of life he amused himself with -composition, and showed a strong predilection for polite literature and -agreeable society; but he had no taste for the law, and took no pains to -qualify himself for his profession. Long afterwards he deeply lamented -the loss of time during his early manhood, and earnestly warned his -young friends against a similar error. - -In 1763 Cowper was appointed to the lucrative office of reading clerk, -and clerk of the private committees of the House of Lords. The fairest -prospect of happiness now lay before him, for his union with one of his -cousins, it is said, had only been deferred until he should obtain a -satisfactory establishment. But the idea of reading in public was -intolerable to him; and he gave up this office for the less valuable one -of clerk of the journals, in which it was hoped that his personal -appearance before the House would not be required. Unfortunately it did -prove necessary that he should appear at the bar to qualify himself for -the post. “They whose spirits are formed like mine,” he thus expressed -himself in after-life, “to whom a public exhibition of themselves is -mortal poison, may have some ideas of the horrors of my situation: -others can have none.” He fought hard against this morbid feeling; but, -when the day arrived for entering upon his duties, such was his terror -and distress, that even his friends acquiesced in his abandoning the -attempt. But his mind had been disordered in the struggle, and he -shortly sank into deep religious despondency; so that it was found -necessary, in December, 1763, to place him in a lunatic asylum at St. -Albans, under the care of Dr. Cotton. - -Cowper’s insanity at this period, and the grievous dejection of the last -twenty-seven years of his life, have been imputed to the so-called -gloominess of his religious tenets. From that opinion we entirely -dissent. No sense of religious abasement can be conceived able to drive -a sane man to distraction at the thought of having to appear in a public -capacity before Parliament; and Cowper’s struggles and mental distress -on that occasion were anterior to his receiving any serious impressions -of religion. Moreover, it appears certain that his recovery was due to -more encouraging views of the doctrines of the Gospel, assisted by the -kind and judicious mental, as well as bodily, treatment of Dr. Cotton. -For eight years his religion was the source of unfailing cheerfulness -and active benevolence; and after he ceased to derive pleasure from it -in his own person, he was still mild and charitable in his conduct -towards others, and his opinions concerning them. The extent of Cowper’s -mental wandering on subjects unconnected with his own spiritual state is -not perhaps generally known. A remarkable instance of it occurs in a -letter to his esteemed friend, Mr. Newton, dated October 2, 1787, from -which it appears that, during thirteen years, Cowper had entertained -doubts of Mr. Newton’s personal identity. At this latter period, -therefore, there was hallucination of mind, as well as religious gloom. -Cowper’s recovery from his first illness is dated in July, 1764; but he -remained with his friendly and beloved physician nearly a year more, -after which he took lodgings at Huntingdon, directed by the wish of -being within easy reach of his brother, who was a resident Fellow of -Benet College, Cambridge. - -He soon became acquainted with a family, bearing the name of Unwin, -consisting of a clergyman, his wife and daughter, and one son, an -undergraduate of Cambridge. Struck by Cowper’s appearance, the latter -threw himself into the stranger’s way; and a feeling of mutual regard -and esteem led to Cowper’s establishing himself as a permanent inmate in -Mr. Unwin’s family in November, 1765. After the lapse of nearly two -years in tranquil happiness, the sudden death of Mr. Unwin led to the -family’s departure from Huntingdon to Olney in Buckinghamshire, in -October, 1767. But the foundation had been laid of a friendship which no -misfortune or change of circumstance could destroy; and Cowper and Mrs. -Unwin united their slender incomes, and continued to dwell under the -same roof. The first six years of their abode at Olney were spent in -domestic quiet and retirement almost unbroken, except by the society of -Mr. Newton, an eminent and exemplary divine, who was then curate on the -living. The well-known collection called the “Olney Hymns” were composed -by Cowper and Newton, for the most part, during this period. But in 1773 -Cowper’s mental disease returned in the dreadful shape of religious -despondency. He conceived himself to be set apart for eternal misery: -yet amid the deep gloom produced by the loss of that spiritual happiness -which he had enjoyed since his recovery from his first illness, he was -so entirely submissive that he was accustomed to say, “If holding up my -finger would save me from endless torments, I would not do it against -the will of God;” and in accordance with the belief that his own fate -was sealed, he ceased to pray, and absented himself entirely from divine -worship. The depth of his dejection was gradually cheered by the -affectionate, watchful, and judicious care of his guardian friend, Mrs. -Unwin. One of the first signs of improvement was a desire to tame some -leverets. He was soon supplied with three, which have obtained celebrity -in prose and verse, such as no other hares have enjoyed before or since. -He tried at different times gardening, drawing, and a variety of -trifling manual occupations, as methods of diverting his thoughts from -his own miseries. “Many arts I have exercised with this view,” he says -in a letter to Mrs. King, “for which nature never designed me, though -among them were some in which I arrived at considerable proficiency, by -mere dint of the most heroic perseverance. There is not a squire in all -this country who can boast of having made better squirrel houses, -hutches for rabbits, or bird-cages, than myself; and in the article of -cabbage-nets I had no superior. But gardening was, of all employments, -that in which I succeeded best, though even in this I did not suddenly -attain perfection.” (Oct. 11, 1788.) At last he devoted himself to -writing, “a whim,” he says elsewhere, “that has served me longest and -best, and will probably be my latest.” His first volume of poems, -containing “Table Talk,” &c. was published in the summer of 1781, having -been written chiefly in the preceding winter. It was undertaken at the -instance of Mrs. Unwin, who, on his recovery from a long fit of unusual -dejection, urged him to devote his attention to a work of some extent, -and such as should require a considerable share of application and -attention. At the same time she suggested as a subject the “Progress of -Error,” which is the second piece in the volume. Cowper had already -written many of his lighter pieces, and that at the times when he was -labouring under the severest depression. He accounts for this singular -phenomenon with his peculiar and playful humour. “The mind, long wearied -with the sameness of a dull, dreary prospect, will gladly fix its eyes -on anything that may make a little variety in its contemplations, though -it were but a kitten playing with its tail.” - -Early in 1780, Cowper lost a valued friend, and almost his only -associate, by the removal of Mr. Newton to London. In the following year -he became acquainted with Lady Austen, who, for a short time, fills a -prominent place in the poet’s history. We must refer to fuller memoirs -for the tale of her introduction, and the gradual growth of that strict -intimacy which ensued between herself, Mrs. Unwin, and Cowper. For some -time the three friends spent a considerable portion of every day in each -other’s society; and Cowper was indebted to Lady Austen’s liveliness in -conversation and varied accomplishments for a great alleviation of his -mental sufferings. The famous history of John Gilpin owes its birth to a -story told by her one evening, to rouse the poet out of a fit of -despondency; and it engaged his fancy so strongly, that in the course of -the night, during which he was kept awake by fits of laughter, he turned -it into verse. The ballad soon got abroad, and obtained unusual -popularity: it was long before the author was known. “The Task” was -composed at Lady Austen’s request. She saw the benefit which Cowper -derived from earnest literary employment, and often urged him to try his -strength in blank verse. After some pressing, he promised to comply, if -she would furnish him with a subject. “Oh, you can write on anything,” -she said; “write on this sofa.” The lively answer chimed in with his -peculiar humour, and he adopted it literally: his sofa forms the subject -of the poem; the first book of which is entitled “The Sofa,” and opens -with a history of the invention and merits of that piece of furniture, -which is unsurpassed in its peculiar vein of humour. But the author soon -rises into a higher strain, and in his discursive range paints the -beauty of the country with that fidelity and exquisite sense of natural -beauty which constitutes his chief poetic merit; describes the peculiar -appearances and occupations of the winter season; weighs the evils and -advantages attendant on a high state of civilization; exhibits, in -reproving the faults of the age, his power both in the lighter -skirmishing of satire, and in the stern outpouring of an honest -indignation; inculcates the doctrines of that religion of peace and love -from which it was his own singular and melancholy lot to derive no -peace; and all with a beauty and facility of versification, and power of -illustration, sufficient to attract many whom the grave nature of the -subjects to be discussed would rather deter. The scope and conduct of -the work is well described in the following lines from the conclusion, -in which, anticipating death, he says— - - It shall not grieve me then, that once, when call’d - To dress a sofa with the flowers of verse, - I played awhile, obedient to the fair, - With that light task: but soon, to please her more, - Whom flowers alone I knew would little please, - Let fall the unfinish’d wreath, and roved for fruit; - Roved far and gather’d much: some harsh, ’tis true, - Pick’d from the thorns and briers of reproof, - But wholesome, well digested, grateful some - To palates that can taste immortal truth; - Insipid else, and sure to be despised. - -“The Task” was accompanied by a shorter poem, entitled “Tirocinium,” -written expressly in dispraise of the existing system of public schools -in England; and prompted by Cowper’s bitter recollection of his -sufferings at Westminster. The volume was published in 1785. - -As soon as this was completed, Cowper engaged in another more laborious -undertaking, the translation of Homer. This also was suggested by Lady -Austen; and it had a most beneficial effect in furnishing the poet with -constant employment from this time forward to the end of his life, with -the exception of those periods in which the pressure of disease was too -severe to admit of any exertion. He spared no pains in the execution of -this great work; and after his version was made, subjected it to a most -careful revision, amounting nearly to a re-translation. It was published -in 1791, and was preceded by a list of subscribers, whose number and -individual eminence bear testimony to the high esteem in which Cowper -was then held. His translation, however, has never been popular: he has -avoided Pope’s errors, but he has failed in giving life and interest, -and in catching the vital spirit of his author. - -During the long period which the literary labours above-mentioned -occupied, Cowper’s domestic history is characterized by the same general -depression and the same seclusion as we have above described. In 1784 -his friendship with Lady Austen was interrupted by a disagreement -between her and Mrs. Unwin, who seems to have feared that the former -might obtain an influence over the poet paramount to her own; and to -have been justly hurt at the prospect of becoming second in the -affections of him, to whom, for so many years, she had devoted herself -with a zeal which merited the utmost return. Cowper felt this, and he -himself broke off his intercourse with Lady Austen, in a way which was -admitted by herself to do credit to his delicacy and judgment, no less -than to his generosity. In about a year after the termination of this -valuable friendship, he received the best amends that could be made, in -the renewal of intercourse, after it had been interrupted for -twenty-three years, with his cousin Lady Hesketh, to whom from childhood -he had been strongly attached. She visited Olney in June, 1786; and from -that time forwards her purse and her personal exertions were unsparingly -bestowed to promote the comfort of her beloved cousin. At her instance -his confined and ruinous abode at Olney was exchanged in November, 1786, -for a commodious house in the pretty neighbouring village of Weston, -which was especially recommended to Cowper as being the residence of his -esteemed friends Mr. and Mrs. Throckmorton. Here Lady Hesketh commonly -spent part of the year. The state of Cowper’s spirits during his -residence at Weston was variable; but he made a few new acquaintance, -and among them his correspondent, Mr. Rose, and his biographer, Mr. -Hayley. He also enjoyed a vivid pleasure in the renewal of intercourse -with his maternal relations, among whom his young cousin Johnson, who -afterwards became his tender and devoted guardian, obtained an especial -place in his affections. Still, however, his mental malady continued -unabated; and a new cause of uneasiness beset him in the growing -infirmities of Mrs. Unwin. In March, 1792, the disease which had been -for some time sapping her strength, manifested itself in a paralytic -attack, from which she never entirely recovered. From thenceforward -Cowper’s time and attention were devoted, as his primary object, to -contributing to her comfort and amusement. In her company he quitted his -home, the first time for twenty-seven years, to visit Mr. Hayley’s seat -at Eartham, in Sussex. Two important works had engaged his attention: -one a poem on the four ages of man’s life, the other an edition of -Milton. These, however, were successively laid aside; and such time as -his weak spirits and melancholy occupation allowed him, be employed in -revising his Homer for a second edition. But Mrs. Unwin became more and -more enfeebled in mind and body; and in the beginning of 1794 Cowper -relapsed into a gloom as deep as that which he had endured at the -commencement of his malady. To watch over him in this melancholy Lady -Hesketh made Weston her constant, instead of her occasional abode, until -the middle of the following year, when her health gave way under the -constant pressure of anxiety. Mr. Johnson, who had taken orders, and -resided at East Dereham in Norfolk, then undertook the charge of his -unhappy relation; removed him and Mrs. Unwin into his own neighbourhood, -and watched over their decline with the most unwearied and judicious -tenderness. But little could now be done to give Cowper pleasure. The -pathetic poem, “To Mary,” is supposed by Mr. Hayley to have been the -last thing written by him before quitting Weston; and the only original -verses which he composed afterwards were some Latin lines, which he -translated into English, on the appearance of some ice islands in the -German Sea, and the touching poem called the “Cast-away,” founded on the -loss of a man overboard in Anson’s voyage, and alluding in an affecting -strain to his own unfortunate condition. After his departure from -Weston, he who had been so diligent a correspondent only wrote three or -four letters; nor could he be excited to converse by the visits even of -his most intimate friends, as Mr. Rose and Sir John Throckmorton. In -January, 1800, his final illness, which was dropsy, commenced. He died -April 25th in the same year; nor to the last did one gleam of hope break -through the darkness which had surrounded him for twenty-seven years. - -It was Cowper’s especial merit as a poet to cultivate simplicity and -nature. He set the example of throwing aside conventional affectations -and unmeaning pomp of diction, and in consideration of this great -service may well be pardoned for occasionally incurring the opposite -fault of being tame and prosaic. His genius was truly original: all his -writings, whether moral, satirical, or descriptive, bear the legible -impress of his own peculiar constitution of mind and habits of thinking. -His minor and occasional poems are very happy, for his imagination could -extract a deep and beautiful moral from slight occurrences, which -commonly pass unnoticed in the bustle of life. Many of his letters are -published in Hayley’s Life of Cowper; and these are embodied with the -Private Correspondence afterwards given to the world by Mr. Johnson, in -the edition of Cowper’s works by Mr. Grimshawe now in the press. As a -letter writer Cowper appears to us to be unequalled in the English -language. His correspondence is the genuine intercourse of friend with -friend; full of wit and humour, but a humour that never vents itself in -the depreciation of others; and abounding in passages of graver beauty, -expressed in the most easy, yet elegant and correct language. When once -a man knows that his letters are admired, he is in great danger of -writing for admiration. Cowper was aware of this, and occasionally -alludes to the temptation in lively terms. “I love praise dearly, -especially from the judicious, and those who have so much delicacy -themselves as not to offend mine in giving it. But then I found this -consequence attending, or likely to attend, the eulogium you bestowed. -If my friend thought me witty before, he shall think me ten times more -witty hereafter; where I joked once, I will joke five times; and for -every sensible remark, I will send him a dozen. Now this foolish vanity -would have spoiled me quite, and have made me as disgusting a letter -writer as Pope, who seems to have thought that unless a sentence was -well turned, and every sentence pointed with some conceit, it was not -worth the carriage. I was willing therefore to wait until the impression -that your commendation had made on the foolish part of me was worn off, -that I might scribble away as usual, and write my uppermost thoughts, -and those only.” (June 8, 1780. To the Rev. W. Unwin.) No one ever -avoided this danger better. It is strange and wonderful that these -compositions, which bear the stamp of so much cheerfulness and -benevolence, should have been written, most of them, in his deepest -gloom, and avowedly for the purpose of withdrawing his thoughts from his -own misery. - -[Illustration: [Tomb of Cowper, in East Dereham Church, Norfolk.]] - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Changed “better” to “letter” on p. 28. - 2. Changed “the placing the” to “the placing of the” on p. 128. - 3. Silently corrected typographical errors. - 4. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - 5. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - 6. Superscripts are denoted by a carat before a single superscript - character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in - curly braces, e.g. M^r. or M^{ister}. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits: with -Memoirs. 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Vol -5 (of 7), by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Gallery of Portraits: with Memoirs. Vol 5 (of 7) - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: August 15, 2017 [EBook #55358] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GALLERY OF PORTRAITS, VOLUME 5 *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><em>UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.</em></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'><span class='small'>THE</span><br /> GALLERY OF PORTRAITS:<br /> <span class='xsmall'>WITH</span><br /> <span class='xlarge'>MEMOIRS.</span><br /> <br /> <span class='large'>VOLUME V.</span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>LONDON:</div> - <div>CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE-STREET.</div> - <div class='c003'>1835.</div> - <div class='c003'><span class='xsmall'>[PRICE ONE GUINEA, BOUND IN CLOTH.]</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div>LONDON:</div> - <div>PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,</div> - <div>Duke-Street, Lambeth.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PORTRAITS AND BIOGRAPHIES<br /> <span class='large'>CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME.</span></h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary='PORTRAITS AND BIOGRAPHIES CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME.'> - <tr> - <th class='c006'></th> - <th class='c007'> </th> - <th class='c008'>Page.</th> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>1.</td> - <td class='c007'>Taylor</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>2.</td> - <td class='c007'>Lavoisier</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>3.</td> - <td class='c007'>Sydenham</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>4.</td> - <td class='c007'>Clarendon</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>5.</td> - <td class='c007'>Reynolds</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>6.</td> - <td class='c007'>Swift</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>7.</td> - <td class='c007'>Locke</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>8.</td> - <td class='c007'>Selden</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>9.</td> - <td class='c007'>Paré</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>10.</td> - <td class='c007'>Blake</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>11.</td> - <td class='c007'>L’Hôpital</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_85'>85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>12.</td> - <td class='c007'>Mrs. Siddons</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>13.</td> - <td class='c007'>Herschel</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>14.</td> - <td class='c007'>Romilly</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>15.</td> - <td class='c007'>Shakspeare</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>16.</td> - <td class='c007'>Euler</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>17.</td> - <td class='c007'>Sir W. Jones</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>18.</td> - <td class='c007'>Rousseau</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>19.</td> - <td class='c007'>Harrison</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_153'>153</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>20.</td> - <td class='c007'>Montaigne</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>21.</td> - <td class='c007'>Pope</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>22.</td> - <td class='c007'>Bolivar</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>23.</td> - <td class='c007'>Arkwright</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_181'>181</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c006'>24.</td> - <td class='c007'>Cowper</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_001fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />JEREMY TAYLOR.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture in the Hall of All Souls College, Oxford.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> -<img src='images/i_001.jpg' alt='TAYLOR.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>TAYLOR.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>If this great ornament of our church did not boast of an exalted -lineage, he numbered among his forefathers one at least, the worthy -ancestor of such a descendant, Dr. Rowland Taylor, chaplain to -Cranmer, and rector of Hadleigh, distinguished among the divines -of the Reformation for his abilities, learning, and piety, as well as for -the courageous cheerfulness with which he suffered death at the stake -in the reign of Queen Mary. Jeremy Taylor was the son of a barber, resident -in Trinity parish, Cambridge; and was baptized in Trinity church, -August 15, 1613. He was “grounded in grammar and mathematics” -by his father, and entered as a sizar at Caius College, August 18, 1626. -Of his deportment, his studies, even of the honours and emoluments -of his academical life, we have no certain knowledge. It is stated by -Dr. Rust, in his Funeral Sermon, that Taylor was elected fellow: -but this is at least doubtful, for no record of the fact exists in the -registers of the college. He proceeded to the degree of M. A. -in 1633; and in the same year, though at the early age of twenty, we -find him in orders, and officiating as a divinity lecturer in St. Paul’s -Cathedral. His talents as a preacher attracted the notice of Archbishop -Laud, who sent for him to preach at Lambeth, and approved of his -performance, but thought him too young. Taylor begged his Grace’s -pardon for that fault, and promised that, if he lived, he would mend it. -By that prelate’s interest he was admitted to the degree of M. A. -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad eundem</span></i>, in University College, Oxford, October 20, 1635, and -shortly after nominated to a fellowship at All Souls College. It was -probably through the interest of the same powerful patron that he -obtained the rectory of Uppingham in Rutlandshire, tenable with his -fellowship, March 23, 1638. The fellowship, however, he vacated by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>his marriage with Phœbe Langsdale, May 27, 1639, who died in -little more than three years, leaving two sons.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Taylor attracted notice at Oxford by his talents as a preacher; but -he does not seem to have commenced, during this period of ease and -tranquillity, any of those great works which have rendered him illustrious -as one of the most laborious, eloquent, and persuasive of British -divines. The only sermon extant which we can distinctly refer to -this period, is one preached by command of the Vice-chancellor on the -anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot, 1638. This piece requires notice, -because it is connected with a report, circulated both during Taylor’s -residence at Oxford and afterwards, that he was secretly inclined to -Popery. It is even said that he “wished to be confirmed a member -of the church of Rome,” (Wood, Athenæ Oxon.) but was rejected -with scorn in consequence of the things advanced against that church -in this sermon. Of this whole statement Bishop Heber, in his ‘Life -of Taylor,’ has expressed his disbelief; and the arguments on which -his opinion is founded appear to us satisfactory. Not even during his -peaceable abode at Uppingham do Taylor’s great works appear to have -been projected, as if his amiable, affectionate, and zealous temper had -been fully occupied by domestic cares and pleasures, and by the constant -though quiet duties of a parish priest. The year 1642, as it -witnessed the overthrow of his domestic happiness by his wife’s death, -saw also the beginning of those troubles which cast him out of his -church preferment, a homeless man. We do not know the date of the -sequestration of his living; but as he joined Charles I. at Oxford in -the autumn of the year; published in the same year, by the King’s -command, his treatise ‘Of the sacred Order and Offices of Episcopacy, -&c.;’ was created D. D. by royal mandate; appointed chaplain -to the King, in which capacity he frequently preached at Oxford, and -attended the royal army in the wars; it is probable that he was among -the first of those who paid the penalty of adhering to the losing cause. -Little is known of this portion of Taylor’s history. It appears that he -quitted the army, and retired into Wales, where he married, became -again involved in the troubles of war, and was taken prisoner at Cardigan, -Feb. 4, 1644. We do not know the date of his release, or of -his marriage to his second wife, Joanna Bridges, a lady possessed of -some landed property at Mandinam, near Golden Grove, in the Vale -of Towy, in Carmarthenshire, who was commonly said to be a natural -daughter of Charles I., born before his marriage. But Heber conjectures -that Taylor’s marriage was anterior to his imprisonment, and that his -wife’s estate was amerced in a heavy fine, in consequence of his being -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>found engaged in the royal cause at Cardigan. It is at least certain -that until the Restoration he was very poor, and that he supported -himself during part of the time by keeping a school.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During this period of public confusion and domestic trouble, Taylor -composed an ‘Apology for authorized and set Forms of Liturgy,’ -published in 1646, and his great work, a ‘Discourse on the Liberty -of Prophesying,’ published in 1647, “the first attempt on record to -conciliate the minds of Christians to the reception of a doctrine which, -though now the rule of action professed by all Christian sects, was -then, by all sects alike, regarded as a perilous and portentous novelty.”<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c011'><sup>[1]</sup></a> -As such, it was received with distrust, if not disapprobation, by all -parties; and if it was intended to inculcate upon the Episcopalians the -propriety of conceding something to the prejudices of their opponents, -as well as to procure an alleviation of the oppression exercised on the -Episcopal church, we may see in the conduct of the government after the -Restoration, that Taylor preached a doctrine for which neither the one -nor the other were then ripe. It is the more to his honour that in this -important point of Christian charity he had advanced beyond his own -party, as well as those by whom his party was then persecuted. But -though his views were extended enough to meet with disapprobation -from his contemporaries, he gives a greater latitude to the civil power -in repressing error by penal means, than the general practice, at least -in Protestant countries, would now grant. “The forbearance which -he claims, he claims for those Christians only who unite in the confession -of the Apostles’ Creed,” and he advocates the drawing together -of all who will subscribe to that ancient and comprehensive form of -belief into one church, forgetting differences which do not involve the -fundamental points of Christianity. And he inculcates the “danger -and impropriety of driving men into schism by multiplying symbols -and subscriptions, and contracting the bounds of communion, and the -still greater wickedness of regarding all discrepant opinions as damnable -in the life to come, and in the present capital.” For a fuller -account of this remarkable work, we refer to the Life by Heber, -p. 201–218, or still better, to the original.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. </span>Heber’s Life of Taylor, p. xxvii.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>It was followed at no long interval by the ‘Great Exemplar of -Sanctity and Holy Life, described in the Life and Death of Jesus -Christ.’ This, the first of Taylor’s great works which became extensively -popular, is almost entirely practical in its tendency, having been -composed, as the author tells us, with the intention of drawing men’s -minds from controverted doctrines, to the vital points on which all men -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>are agreed, but which all men forget so easily. It is not an attempt to -connect the relations of the four Evangelists into one complete and -chronologically consistent account; but a “series of devout meditations -on the different events recorded in the New Testament, as well as on -the more remarkable traditions which have usually been circulated -respecting the Divine Author of our religion, his earthly parent, and -his followers,” set off by that majestic style, that store of illustrations -derived from the most recondite and miscellaneous learning, and, -above all, that fervent and poetical imagination, by which Taylor is -distinguished perhaps above all the prose writers in our language. -Such qualities, even without a digested plan and connected strain of -argument, which, requiring a more continuous and attentive perusal, -would not perhaps have made the book more acceptable or useful -to the bulk of readers, ensured for it a favourable reception; and the -author followed up the impression which he had produced, at no distant -period, by two other treatises of a similar practical tendency, which, -from their comparative shortness, are better known than any other of -Taylor’s works, and probably have been as extensively read as any -devotional books in the English language. We speak of the treatises -on Holy Living and on Holy Dying.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It has been mentioned that near Mandinam stood Golden Grove, the -seat of the Earl of Carbery, a nobleman distinguished by his abilities -and zeal in the Royal cause. He proved a constant and sincere friend -to Taylor; and the grateful scholar has conferred celebrity upon the -name and hospitality of Golden Grove by his ‘Guide to Infant -Devotion,’ or manual of daily prayers, which are called by the name -of that place, in which they, and many other of the author’s works, -were meditated; especially his Eniautos, or course of sermons for all -the Sundays in the year.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Considerable obscurity hangs over this portion of Taylor’s life: but -it appears that in the years 1654–5 he was twice imprisoned, in consequence -of his advocacy of the fallen causes of Episcopacy and Royalty. -At some time in 1654 he formed an acquaintance with Evelyn, which -proved profitable and honourable to both parties; for the layman, as is -evident from his Memoirs and Diary, highly valued and laid to heart -the counsels of the man whom he selected as his “ghostly father,” -and to whose poverty he liberally ministered in return out of his -own abundance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We learn from Evelyn’s Diary that Taylor was in London in the -spring of 1637, and his visits, if not annual, were at least frequent. -He made many friends, and among them the Earl of Conway, a nobleman -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>possessed of large estates in the north-east of Ireland, who conceived -the desire of securing Taylor’s eminent abilities for the service -of his own neighbourhood, and obtained for him a lectureship in the -small town of Lisburne. Taylor removed his family to Ireland in the -summer of 1658. He dwelt near Portmore, his patron’s splendid seat -on the banks of Lough Neagh; and some of the islands in that noble -lake, and in a smaller neighbouring piece of water called Lough Beg, -are still recorded, by the traditions of the peasantry, to have been his -favourite places of study and retirement. To this abode his letters -show him to have been much attached.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the spring of 1660 Taylor visited London, to superintend in its -passage through the press the ‘Rule of Conscience, or Ductor Dubitantium.’ -This, it appears from the author’s letters, was considerably -advanced so early as the year 1655. It was the fruit of much time, -much diligence, and much prayer; and that of all his writings concerning -the execution of which he seems to have felt most anxiety. -In this case, as it often happens, the author seems to have formed an erroneous -estimate of the comparative value of his works. Neither on its -first appearance, nor in later times, did the ‘Ductor Dubitantium’ -become extensively popular. Its object, which even at the first was accounted -obsolete, was to supply what the Romish church obtained by the -practice of confession, a set of rules by which a scrupulous conscience -may be guided in the variety of doubtful points of duty which may -occur. The abuses are well known, to which the casuistic subtlety of -the Romish doctors gave birth; and it may be doubted whether it were -wise to lay one stone towards rebuilding an edifice, which the general -diffusion of the Scriptures, a sufficient rule, if rightly studied, to solve all -doubts, had rendered unnecessary. The work, in spite of its passages -of eloquence and profusion of learning, is too prolix to be a favourite -in these latter days, but it is still, says his biographer, (p. ccxciii.) one -“which few can read without profit, and none, I think, without entertainment. -It resembles in some degree those ancient inlaid cabinets, -(such as Evelyn, Boyle, or Wilkins might have bequeathed to their -descendants,) whose multifarious contents perplex our choice, and offer -to the admiration or curiosity of a more accurate age a vast wilderness -of trifles and varieties with no arrangement at all, or an arrangement -on obsolete principles, but whose ebony drawers and perfumed recesses -contain specimens of every thing that is precious or uncommon, and -many things for which a modern museum might be searched in vain.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Taylor’s accidental presence in London at this period, when the -hopes of the Royalists were reviving, was probably serviceable to his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>future fortunes. He obtained by it the opportunity of joining in the -Royalist declaration of April 24; and he was among the first to derive -benefit from the restoration of that King and that Church, of whose -interests he had ever been a most zealous, able, and consistent supporter. -He was nominated Bishop of Down and Connor, August 6, -1660, and consecrated in St. Patrick’s Cathedral January 27, 1661. -In the interval he was appointed Vice-chancellor of the University of -Dublin, which during past troubles had been greatly dilapidated and -disordered, in respect both of its revenues and discipline. He was the -principal instrument in remodelling and completing the statutes, and -settling the University in its present form.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the spring of 1661 Taylor was made a member of the Irish Privy -Council, and the small diocese of Dromore, adjacent to Down, was -assigned to his charge, “on account,” in the words of the writ under -the Privy Seal, “of his virtue, wisdom, and industry.” This praise -was well deserved by his conduct in that difficult time, when those -who had displaced the episcopal clergy were apprehensive of being in -their turn obliged to give way, and religious differences were embittered -by thoughts of temporal welfare. Taylor had to deal chiefly with the -wilder and most enthusiastic party, and his advances towards an intercourse -of Christian charity were met with scorn and insult. But -his exemplary conduct, and persevering gentleness of demeanour, did -much to soften at least the laity of his opponents; for we are told that -the nobility and gentry of the three dioceses over which he presided -came over, with one exception, to the Bishop’s side.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His varied duties can now have left little time for the labour of the -pen; still he published sermons from time to time, and in 1664 completed -and published his last great work, a ‘Dissuasive from Popery,’ -undertaken by desire of the collective body of Irish bishops. He -continued after his elevation to reside principally at Portmore, occasionally -at Lisburne. Of his habits, and the incidents of this latter -part of his life, we know next to nothing; except that he suffered the -severest affliction which could befal a man of his sensibility and piety, -in the successive deaths of his three surviving sons, and the misconduct -of two of them. One died at Lisburne, in March, 1661; one fell in a -duel, his adversary also dying of his wounds; the third became the -favourite companion of the profligate Duke of Buckingham, and died -of a decline, August 2, 1667. Of the latter event the Bishop can -scarcely have heard, for he died on the 13th of the same month, after -ten days’ sickness. He was buried at Dromore. Two of his daughters -married in Ireland, into the families of Marsh and Harrison; and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>several Irish families of repute claim to be connected with the blood -of this exemplary prelate by the female line.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The materials for Bishop Taylor’s life are very scanty. The earliest -sketch of it is to be found in the funeral sermon preached by his -friend and successor in the see of Dromore, Dr. Rust, who sums up -the virtues of the deceased in a peroration of highly-wrought panegyric, -of which the following just eulogy is a part—“He was a person -of great humility; and notwithstanding his stupendous parts, and -learning, and eminency of place, he had nothing in him of pride and -humour, but was courteous and affable, and of easy access, and would -lend a ready ear to the complaints, yea, to the impertinence of the -meanest persons. His humility was coupled with an extraordinary -piety; and I believe he spent the greatest part of his time in heaven.... -To all his other virtues he added a large and diffusive charity; -and whoever compares his plentiful income with the inconsiderable -estate he left at his death, will be easily convinced that charity was -steward for a great proportion of his revenue. But the hungry that he -fed, and the naked that he clothed, and the distressed that he supplied, -and the fatherless that he provided for, the poor children that he put -to apprentice, and brought up at school, and maintained at the university, -will now sound a trumpet to that charity which he dispensed -with his right hand, but would not suffer his left hand to have any -knowledge of it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“To sum up all in a few words, this great prelate had the good -humour of a gentleman, the eloquence of an orator, the fancy of a poet, -the acuteness of a schoolman, the profoundness of a philosopher, the -wisdom of a counsellor, the sagacity of a prophet, the reason of an -angel, and the piety of a saint; he had devotion enough for a cloister, -learning enough for an university, and wit enough for a college of -virtuosi; and had his parts and endowments been parcelled out among -his poor clergy that he left behind him, it would perhaps have made -one of the best dioceses in the world. But, alas! ‘Our Father! our -Father! the horses of our Israel, and the chariot thereof!’ he is gone, -and has carried his mantle and his spirit along with him up to heaven; -and the sons of the prophets have lost all their beauty and lustre which -they enjoyed only from the reflection of his excellencies, which were -bright and radiant enough to cast a glory upon a whole order of men.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is a life of Taylor by Archdeacon Bonney; and a copious -memoir, enriched by a minute analysis of all the more remarkable -compositions of our author, is prefixed to Bishop Heber’s edition of -Taylor’s works. From this the materials of the present sketch are -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>taken. Nor can we better conclude than with the eloquent estimate -of Taylor’s merits, with which the accomplished biographer concludes -his work. “It is on devotional and moral subjects that the peculiar -character of Taylor’s mind is most, and most successfully, developed. -To this service he devotes his most glowing language; to this his -aptest illustrations, his thoughts, and his words, at once burst into a -flame, when touched by the coals of this altar; and whether he describes -the duties, or dangers, or hopes of man, or the mercy, power, and justice -of the Most High; whether he exhorts or instructs his brethren, or -offers up his supplications in their behalf to the common Father of all, -his conceptions and his expressions belong to the loftiest and most -sacred description of poetry, of which they only want, what they cannot -be said to need, the name and the metrical arrangement.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“It is this distinctive excellence, still more than the other qualifications -of learning and logical acuteness, which has placed him, even in -that age of gigantic talent, on an eminence superior to any of his -immediate contemporaries; and has seated him, by the almost unanimous -estimate of posterity, on the same lofty elevation with Hooker -and with Barrow.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Of such a triumvirate, who shall settle the precedence? Yet it -may, perhaps, be not far from the truth, to observe that Hooker claims -the foremost rank in sustained and classic dignity of style, in political -and pragmatical wisdom; that to Barrow the praise must be assigned -of the closest and clearest views, and of a taste the most controlled and -chastened; but that in imagination, in interest, in that which more -properly and exclusively deserves the name of genius, Taylor is to -be placed before either. The first awes most, the second convinces -most, the third persuades and delights most: and, according to the -decision of one whose own rank among the ornaments of English -literature yet remains to be determined by posterity (Dr. Parr), Hooker -is the object of our reverence, Barrow of our admiration, and Jeremy -Taylor of our love.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_009fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff.</em><br /><br />LAVOISIER.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by David in a Private Collection at Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span> -<img src='images/i_009.jpg' alt='LAVOISIER.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>LAVOISIER.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Antoine Laurent Lavoisier was born in Paris, August 26, 1743. -He was educated under the eye of his father, a man of opulence, with -discernment to appreciate his son’s abilities, and liberality to cultivate -them without regard to cost. Lavoisier early showed a decided -inclination for the physical sciences; and before he was twenty years -old, had made himself master of the principal branches of natural -philosophy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1764 the government proposed an extraordinary premium for -the best and cheapest project of lighting the streets of Paris, and -other large cities. To this subject, involving a knowledge of several -branches of science, Lavoisier immediately devoted his attention. He -produced so able a memoir, full of the most masterly, accurate, and -practical views, that the gold medal was awarded to him. This -production was the means of introducing him into the Academy of -Sciences, of which, after a severe contest, he was admitted a member, -May 13, 1768; and he proved himself through life one of its most -useful and valuable associates.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time the whole range of chemical and physico-chemical -science was in an extremely imperfect state; and the first steps to a -more improved system involved the necessity of clearing away a vast -mass of error which encumbered the path to truth. For instance, one -of the fanciful ideas, the offspring of the alchemy of the dark ages, -which still continued to haunt the regions of science, was the belief of -the conversion of water into earth by gradual consolidation. This -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>subject Lavoisier treated in the true spirit of the experimental method, -and clearly showed that the pretended conversion was either a deposition -of earthy particles, or a sediment arising from the action of the -water on the internal surface of the retort. He also laboured on the -analysis of the gypsum found in the neighbourhood of Paris, and on -the crystallization of salts. He discussed the project of conveying -water from L’Yvette to Paris, and the theory of congelation; and to -these researches added extensive observations on the phenomena of -thunder and the Aurora Borealis.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He next directed his attention more especially to mineralogy; and -made excursions, in conjunction with Guettard, into all parts of France, -endeavouring to form from different districts a complete collection of -their characteristic mineral productions. He made advances towards -a systematic classification of facts connected with the localities of -fossils, which afterwards served as the basis of his work on the revolutions -of the globe and the formation of successive strata, of which -two admirable abstracts were inserted in the Memoirs of the Academy -of Sciences, for 1772 and 1787.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Thus during the earlier part of his life, Lavoisier does not seem to -have devoted himself in particular to any one branch of science. But -about the year 1770 the announcement of the existence of more than -one species of gaseous matter, arising out of the successive researches -of Black, Scheele, Priestley, and Cavendish, had the effect of fixing his -attention to the subject of pneumatic chemistry. The invaluable discoveries -just alluded to had opened a new world to the inquirer into -nature; and the labours of those distinguished experimentalists had -conspired to commence a fresh era in science. Lavoisier was one of the -first to appreciate at once the importance of the results they had arrived -at, and the immense field of further research to which those results had -opened the way. He perceived by a sort of instinct the glorious career -which lay before him; and the influence which this new science thus, -as it were, created, must have over every sort of physical research. -Priestley possessed precisely those qualifications which are most -available for striking out new and brilliant discoveries of facts; a -boundless fertility of invention; a power of rapidly seizing remote -analogies; and an equal readiness in framing and in abandoning hypotheses, -which have no value, but as guides to experiment. Lavoisier, -less eminent in these respects, possessed in a more peculiar degree the -mental characteristics which enable their owner to advance to grand -generalizations and philosophical theories upon the sure basis of facts. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>He possessed, in its fullest sense, the true spirit of inductive caution, -and even geometrical rigour; and his observations, eminently precise -and luminous, always pointed to more general views.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1774, he published his ‘Opuscules Chimiques,’ in which, after -a full and truly philosophical examination of the labours of preceding -experimenters in the discovery of the gases and their characteristic -properties, he proceeds to describe his own beautiful and fundamentally -important researches, from which resulted the ‘True Theory of -Combustion,’ which may be termed the very sun and centre of the -whole modern system of chemistry.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To the vague dreams of the alchemist had succeeded the remarkable -theory of Hooke, who maintained that a certain ingredient of the -atmospheric air (which also enters as an ingredient into several other -bodies, especially nitre) was the <em>solvent</em> which absorbed a portion of -the combustible. This process was continued in proportion as more -of the solvent was supplied. The solution took place with such -rapidity, as to occasion those motions or pulsations in which Hooke -believed heat and light to consist.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This near approach to the truth was thrown into discredit by the -more brilliant and imposing theory of Stahl, who captivated the -imaginations of chemists by his doctrine of phlogiston, the principle -or element of fire, a sort of metaphysical something, which conferred -the property of being combustible. Stahl taught that the process of -combustion deprived bodies of their phlogiston, which, in the act of -separation, exhibited its latent energies in the evolution of light and -heat.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This wild chimera long maintained its ground, and received successive -modifications in the hands of several distinguished chemists, -the most important of which was that of Kirwan; but these all retained -the fundamental error that something was <em>abstracted from</em> the burning -body. Yet Rey, so early as 1630, and Bayer afterwards, had both -shown that metals by calcination <em>increase</em> in weight, or have something -<em>added</em> to them. Lavoisier turned his attention to the defects of the -existing theory about 1770; and the last-named experiments probably -directed him more specifically to the essential point of the inquiry. -He pursued his researches with unwearied industry; and by a long -series of experiments of the most laborious and precise nature, he -succeeded in determining that, in all cases of combustion, that substance -which is the <em>real</em> combustible invariably receives <em>an addition</em>, -or enters into a new combination; and the matter with which it combines -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>is in all cases that same substance which had now been shown -by Priestley to be one of the constituents of the atmosphere, and which -was then known by the name of <em>vital air</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was however long before Lavoisier gained a single convert. At -length M. Berthollet, at a meeting of the Academy in 1785, publicly -renounced the old opinions and declared himself a convert. Fourcroy -followed his example. In 1787, Morveau, during a visit to Paris, -became convinced, and declared the conclusions of Lavoisier irresistible. -The younger chemists speedily embraced the new views; and their -establishment was thus complete. There only remained some lurking -prejudices in England, where the Essay of Kirwan retained its credit. -Lavoisier and his coadjutors translated this essay into French, accompanying -each section by a refutation. So completely was this done, -that the author himself was convinced; and, with that candour which -distinguishes superior minds, gave up his views as untenable, and -declared himself a convert.</p> - -<p class='c000'>These discoveries introduced Lavoisier to the notice of the most -eminent persons in the State; and in 1776, Turgot engaged him to -superintend the manufacture of gunpowder for the Government. He -introduced many valuable improvements in the process, and many -judicious reforms into the establishment.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1778, Lavoisier having been incessantly engaged on the subject -of gases and combustion, announced another great discovery, “that -the respirable portion of the atmosphere is the constituent principle of -acids,” which he therefore denominated <em>oxygen</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The question as to “the acidifying principle” had long formed the -subject of discussion. The prevalent theory was that of Beccher with -various modifications, which made the acid principle a compound of -earth and water regarded as elements. Lavoisier found in the instance -of a great number of the acids, that they consisted of a combustible -principle united with oxygen. He showed this both analytically and -synthetically, and hence proceeded to the conclusion that oxygen is the -acidifying principle in all acids. Berthollet opposed this doctrine, and -contended that, in general, acidity depended on the manner and proportion -in which the constituents are combined. The fact is, that, in this -instance, Lavoisier had advanced a little too rapidly to his conclusion. -Had he contented himself with stating it as applying to a <em>great number</em> -of acids, it would have been strictly true; but he had certainly no -proof of its being <em>universally</em> the case. When Sir H. Davy, some -years after, showed that one of the most powerful acids (the muriatic) -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>does not contain a single particle of oxygen, and when the researches -of Guy Lussac and others had exhibited other proofs of the same thing, -it became evident that Lavoisier’s assertion required considerable modification. -And though <em>nearly</em> all acids have been since included under -the general law of containing <em>some supporter of combustion</em>, yet there -appear to be exceptions even to this; the cautious language of Berthollet -has been completely justified; and a perfect theory of acidity -is perhaps yet wanting. Nevertheless, Lavoisier’s discovery is one of -first-rate magnitude and importance, and with this qualification, certainly -forms the basis of all our present knowledge of the subject.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another important research in which Lavoisier engaged, in conjunction -with Laplace, was the determination of the specific heats of -bodies, by means of an ingenious apparatus, which they denominated -the calorimeter: these were by far the most precise experiments on the -subject which had as yet been made, though some inaccuracies in the -method have since been pointed out.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Lavoisier owed much, it must be owned, to those external advantages -of fortune, the absence of which, though it cannot confine the -flights of real genius, yet may seriously impair the value and efficiency -of its exertions; and the presence of which, though it cannot confer -the powers of intellect, may yet afford most invaluable aids to the prosecution -of research, and the dissemination of knowledge. In the instance -before us, these advantages were enjoyed to the full extent, and -turned to the best use. Lavoisier was enabled to command the most -unlimited resources of instrumental aid; he pursued his researches in -a laboratory furnished with the most costly apparatus, and was able to -put every suggestion to the test of experiment, by the assistance of the -most skilful artists, and instruments of the most perfect construction.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But as he could thus command these essential advantages for the -prosecution of his own investigations, he was equally mindful of the -extension of similar advantages to others: he always evinced himself -ready to assist the inquiries of those who had not the same means at -their disposal; and was no less liberal in aiding them by his stores of -information and able advice. Indeed no one could be more sensible -how much there is of mutual advantage in such intercourse between -those engaged in the same scientific labours; and this conviction, -joined with a full perception of the immense benefits accruing from -personal acquaintance among men of kindred pursuits, and the interchange -of social good offices, led him to the regular practice of opening -his house on two evenings in every week, for an assembly of all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>scientific men of the French capital; which very soon became a point -of general resort and reunion to the philosophers of Europe.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At these meetings general discourse and philosophic discussion were -agreeably intermingled; the opinions of the most eminent philosophers -were freely canvassed; the most striking and novel passages in the -publications of foreign countries were made known, recited, and animadverted -upon; and the progress of experiment was assisted by candid -comments and comparison with theory. In these assemblies might -be found, mingling in instructive and delightful conversation, all those -whose names made the last century memorable in the annals of science. -Priestley, Fontana, Landriani, Watt, Bolton, and Ingenhouz, were -associated with Laplace, Lagrange, Borda, Cousin, Monge, Morveau, -and Berthollet. There was also an incalculable advantage in bringing -into communication and intimacy men engaged in distinct branches -of science: the intercourse of the mathematician with the geologist, -of the astronomer with the chemist, of the computer with the -experimenter, and of the artist with the theorist, could not fail to be of -mutual advantage. In no instance were the beneficial effects of such -intercourse more strikingly displayed than in the chemical sciences; -which, from this sort of comparison of ideas and methods, began now -to assume a character of exactness from an infusion of the spirit of -geometry; and a department hitherto abandoned to the wildest speculations, -and encumbered with the most vague and undefined phraseology -(derived from the jargon of the alchemists), began to assume -something like arrangement and method in its ideas, and precision and -order in its nomenclature. This influence was strongly marked in -the physical memoirs produced in France from this period downwards. -The precision and severity of style, and the philosophical method of -the mathematicians, was insensibly transfused into the papers of the -physical and chemical philosophers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Lavoisier individually profited greatly by the sources of improvement -and information thus opened. Whenever any new result presented -itself to him, which, perhaps, from contradicting all received theories, -seemed paradoxical, or at variance with all principles hitherto recognised, -it was fully laid before these select assemblies of philosophers; -the experiment was exhibited in their presence, and they were invited -with the utmost candour to offer their criticisms and objections. In -perfect reliance on the mutual spirit of candour, they were not backward -in urging whatever difficulties occurred to them, and the truth -thus elicited acquired a firmness and stability in its public reception -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>proportioned to the severity of the test it had undergone. Lavoisier -seldom announced any discovery until it had passed this ordeal.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At length he combined his philosophical views into a connected -system, which he published in 1789, under the title of ‘Elements of -Chemistry:’ a beautiful model of scientific composition, clear and -logical in its arrangement, perspicuous and even elegant in its style -and manner. These perfections are rarely to be found in elementary -works written by original discoverers. The genius which qualifies a -man for enlarging the boundaries of science by his own inventions and -researches is of a very different class from that which confers the ability -to elucidate, in a simple and systematic course, the order and connexion -of elementary truths. But in Lavoisier these different species -of talent were most happily blended. He not only added profound -truths to science, but succeeded in adapting them to the apprehension -of students, and was able to render them attractive by his eloquence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1791 he entered upon extensive researches, having for their -object the application of pneumatic chemistry to the advancement of -medicine, in reference to the process of respiration. With this view -he examined in great detail the changes which the air undergoes, and -the products generated in that process of the animal economy. He -had previously, however, as far back as 1780, detailed a series of experiments -to determine the quantity of oxygen consumed and carbonic -acid generated by respiration, in a given time, in the Memoirs of the -French Academy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the twenty volumes of the Academy of Sciences, from 1772 to -1793, are not less than forty memoirs by Lavoisier, replete with all the -grand phenomena of the science:—the doctrine of combustion in all -its bearings; the nature and analysis of atmospheric air; the generation -and combinations of elastic fluids; the properties of heat; the -composition of acids; the decomposition and recomposition of water; -the solutions of metals; and the phenomena of vegetation, fermentation, -and animalization. These are some of the most important subjects of -his papers; and during the whole of this period he advanced steadily -in the course which was pointed out to him by the unerring rules of -inductive inquiry, to which his original genius supplied the commentary. -So well did he secure every point of the results to which he -ascended, that he never made a false step. It was only in one subject, -before alluded to, that he may be said to have gone a few steps too far. -Nor did he ever suffer himself to be discouraged, or his ardour to be -damped by the difficulties and obstacles which perpetually impeded his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>progress. He traced new paths for investigation, and founded a new -school of science; and his successors had ample employment in following -out the inquiries which he had indicated, and exploring those -recesses to which he had opened the way.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the relations of social and civil life Lavoisier was exemplary; and -he rendered essential service to the state in several capacities. He was -treasurer to the Academy, and introduced economy and order into its -finances: he was also a member of the board of consultation, and took -an active share in its business. When the new system of measures was -in agitation, and it was proposed to determine a degree of the meridian, -he made accurate experiments on the dilatation of metals, in conjunction -with Laplace (1782), to ascertain the corrections due to changes of -temperature in the substances used as measuring rods in those delicate -operations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By the National Convention he was consulted on the means of -improving the manufacture of assignats, and of increasing the difficulty -of forgery. He turned his attention to matters of rural economy, and, -by improved methods of cultivation, on scientific principles, he increased -the produce of an experimental farm nearly one half. In 1791 -he was invited by the Constituent Assembly to digest a plan for simplifying -the collection of taxes: the excellent memoir which he produced -on this subject was printed under the title of ‘The Territorial Riches -of France.’ He was likewise appointed a Commissioner of the National -Treasury, in which he effected some beneficial reforms.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the terrors of Robespierre’s tyranny, Lavoisier remarked that -he foresaw he should be stripped of all his property, and accordingly -would prepare to enter the profession of an apothecary, by which he -should be able to gain a livelihood. But the ignorant and brutal -ruffians who were then in power had already condemned him to the -scaffold, on which he was executed, May 8, 1794, for the pretended -crime of having adulterated snuff with ingredients destructive to the -health of the citizens! On being seized, he entreated at least to be -allowed time to finish some experiments in which he was engaged; -but the reply of Coffinhall, the president of the gang who condemned -him, was characteristic of the savage ignorance of those monsters in -human form:—“The Republic does not want savans or chemists, -and the course of justice cannot be suspended.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Lavoisier in person was tall and graceful, and of lively manners and -appearance. He was mild, sociable, and obliging; and in his habits -unaffectedly plain and simple. He was liberal in pecuniary assistance -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>to those in need of it; and his hatred of all ostentation in doing good -probably concealed greatly the real amount of his beneficence. He -married, in 1771, Marie-Anni-Pierrette Paulze, a lady of great talents -and accomplishments, who after his death became the wife of Count -Rumford.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span> -<img src='images/i_018.jpg' alt='SYDENHAM.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SYDENHAM.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The celebrated physician, Thomas Sydenham, in many respects the -most eminent that England has produced, was born in the year 1624, -at Wynford-Eagle, in Dorsetshire, where his father, William Sydenham, -enjoyed a considerable estate. The mansion in which he was -born is now converted into a farm-house, and stands on the property -of Lord Wynford.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the year 1642, when eighteen, he was admitted as a commoner -at Magdalen-Hall, Oxford; but quitted it in the same year, when that -city became the head quarters of the royal army, after the battle of -Edge-hill. He was probably induced to take this step by reasons of -a political nature; for we find that his family were active adherents of -the opposite party. Indeed he is said, though on doubtful authority, -to have held a commission himself under the Parliament during his -absence from Oxford; and his elder brother, William, is known to -have attained considerable rank in the republican army, and held important -commands under the Protectorate.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The political bias of his family is not without interest, as affording -a probable explanation of some circumstances in his life which would -otherwise be rather unaccountable,—such as the fact, that though he -reached the first eminence as a practising physician, he was never employed -at court, and was slighted by the college, who invested him -with none of their honours, nor even advanced him to the fellowship, -though a licentiate of their body, and qualified by the requisite -University education.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When Oxford was surrendered to the Parliament, Sydenham determined -to resume his academical studies; and passing through London</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_018fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />SYDENHAM.<br /><br /><em>From the Picture in the Hall of All Souls College, Oxford.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>on his way, he met accidentally with Dr. Thomas Coxe, a physician of -some repute at that time, who was attending his brother. The choice -of a profession became the subject of a conversation between them, -which determined him in favour of medicine; for in a letter addressed -to Dr. Mapletoft, thirty years after this time, which forms the preface -to one of his writings, he refers with much warmth to this conversation -as the origin of his professional zeal, and, consequently, of whatever -useful advances he had made in medicine. Thus his success, both in -the practice and reformation of his art, may show the advantage of -waiting till the faculties are fully matured, before they are exercised -in a study which requires independence as well as vigour in thinking: -for the circumstances of his family being sufficiently affluent to place -him above the necessity of choosing a profession early, he had not -turned his attention to physic till an age at which the medical education -is generally almost completed. We are not, however, to believe -in the justice of an accusation brought against him, that he had never -studied his profession till he began to practise it; for though we do -not know what particular line of study he pursued on his return to -Oxford, it is clear from many passages in his works that he had -studied the writings of the ancient physicians with no common care; -and as his own show no defect of acquaintance with whatever real -information had been collected before his time, we may reasonably -conclude that this contemporary censure was mistaken or malicious. -He certainly held the opinions of his modern predecessors in very -little respect, for he does not often mention them, even for the purpose -of confutation; and in the letter to Dr. Mapletoft already referred to, -he says that he had found the best, and, in fact, the only safe guide, -through the various perplexities he had met with in his practice, to be -the method of actual observation and experiment recommended by -Lord Bacon. This sentiment is often repeated in his works; but it -surely does not countenance the idea that he had begun to practise -without endeavouring to make what preparation he could, or would have -had others follow such an example; for the charge against him goes -to this length. The notion might arise from a foolish anecdote related -by his admirer, Sir Richard Blackmore, of his having recommended -Don Quixote as the best introduction he knew to the practice of -medicine, which Sydenham must have intended as a jest, or perhaps as -a sarcasm on the narrator himself.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At Oxford he formed a close friendship with John Locke, better -known afterwards as a philosopher than as a physician. Their intimacy, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>which lasted to the end of Sydenham’s life, probably contributed -not a little to give form to the disgust which he soon displayed at the -unsatisfactory and fluctuating state of medical opinion, and to the zeal -with which he sought to establish it on surer grounds; for he appeals, -as to the highest authority, in confirmation of some of his new views -on the treatment of fever, to the approval of his illustrious friend, -who even paid him the compliment of prefixing a eulogy in indifferent -Latin verse to the treatise in which these views are developed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the 14th of April, 1648, he took the degree of bachelor of -medicine, being then twenty-four years old; and in the same year -obtained a fellowship at All Souls College, by the interest of a -relation. The degree of doctor he subsequently took at Cambridge, -where, being among those who thought with him in politics, he probably -found himself more at his ease. After a visit of some length at -Montpellier, then considered the best practical school of medicine on -the continent, he settled in Westminster, and soon after married.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His progress to eminence in his profession must have been unusually -rapid, which might be owing, in some measure, to the call for men of -good capacity to the more stirring scenes of civil strife; for at thirty-six -he had succeeded in establishing a first-rate reputation, which he -continued to sustain in spite of much hostility and ill-health for upwards -of twenty years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He witnessed the breaking out of the plague in 1665, but when it -reached the house adjoining his own, he was induced to remove with -his family some miles out of town. Of this desertion of his post, -however, he seems to have repented; for he afterwards returned, and -occupied himself diligently in visiting the victims of that devastating -malady, and has left a short but interesting account of his opinions -respecting it, and of the treatment he adopted; for the comparative -success of which, he appeals to the physicians who had witnessed or -followed his practice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the age of 25, though a man of remarkably temperate and regular -habits, he became afflicted with gout and stone, from which he suffered -extreme torment with great resignation and patience for the rest -of his life. Of course he did not neglect the opportunity of studying -those diseases in his own person, and recording the result of his observations. -His account of gout, especially, is considered to be a -most accurate and able history of that disease.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He died, leaving a family, at his house in Pall-Mall, on the 29th of -December, 1689, in the 66th year of his age, and was buried in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>parish church of St. James, Westminster, where, in 1810, a tablet -was erected to his memory by the College of Physicians, who became, -as a body, tardily but fully convinced of his extraordinary merit -and eminent claims to the gratitude and respect of his profession.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He is said to have been a man of the most retiring and unobtrusive -disposition, and the utmost placidity of temper. In a biographical -sketch by Dr. Samuel Johnson, prefixed to an English edition of his -works by Swan, in 1742, it is remarked, that if he could not teach us -in his writings how to cure the painful disorders from which he suffered, -he has taught us by his example the nobler art to bear them -with serenity. Nor was he less patient of mental than of bodily -inflictions; for though he was the object of much asperity among the -physicians of his time, he made no reprisals upon the reputations of -those who slandered him: though he often speaks of their bitterness, -he never even mentions their names,—a forbearance to which, as his -biographer pungently remarks, they are indebted for their escape from -a discreditable immortality. His writings breathe throughout a spirit -of warm piety, candour, and benevolence: he is said to have been -extremely generous in his dealings with his patients; for which, with -other reasons, his practice though large was not very gainful, and he -did not leave much wealth behind him. He never was sought after by -the great, like his successor and disciple Radcliffe; and had none of the -talents by which that singular man was able to push his fortune and -establish a kind of professional despotism. Yet, whatever medical -skill the latter evinced seems to have been derived from Sydenham, -whose doctrines and treatment he contrived to bring into a much more -early and general repute in England than they would probably have -otherwise obtained. Each had his reward: the one will be long remembered -as the founder of a magnificent library; the other can never -be forgotten as the author of modern medicine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The bent of Sydenham’s mind was eminently practical; he thought -that the business of a physician is to acquire an accurate knowledge -of the causes and symptoms of diseases, and the effects of different -remedies upon them, that if he cannot prevent them, he may at -least recognise them with certainty, and apply with promptitude the -means most likely to cure them: with Hippocrates and the ancient -empirical physicians, whose tenets he professed to follow, he condemned -all curious speculations upon the intimate nature of disease, as -incapable of proof, and therefore always useless, and often hurtful; and -maintained that the only trustworthy source of opinion in medicine is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>experience resulting from observations frequently repeated, and experiments -cautiously varied; and that no theories worth attention can be -framed until the recorded experience of many observers, under many -different circumstances, and even through successive ages, shall be -embodied into one general system; and he boldly declared his belief -that every acute disease might then be cured. An instance, which -unfortunately as yet stands alone in support of this rather sanguine -expectation, may be taken from the history of small-pox. The observation -of its contagious nature led to the general practice of inoculation, -and this to the immortal discovery of Jenner, by which a disease -but yesterday the scourge of the earth has been almost extinguished. -It is remarkable that Sydenham, who first pointed out the important -difference between its distinct and confluent forms,—who so materially -improved the treatment by changing it from stifling to cooling,—and -who studied and has described it with a laborious accuracy hardly -paralleled in the history of medicine,—was not aware of this, to us, its -most striking characteristic of contagion. A person conversant with -such subjects will feel no surprise at this: to the general reader it -may be a sufficient explanation, that it lies dormant for ten days; and -that as it can only be taken once, and was always prevalent in London, -the number of persons susceptible at any given time, and in obvious -communication with each other, were comparatively few: so that -opportunities were not so likely to arise as might be imagined of -tracing its progress in single families or neighbourhoods from one -source of contagion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sydenham is justly celebrated for the happiness of his descriptions, and -his skilful application of simple methods of cure, which are as effectual -as they were novel in that age when a medical prescription sometimes -contained a hundred different substances; but he has merit of a higher -kind, as a discoverer of general laws. Among others, he was the first -to notice that there is a uniformity in the fevers prevailing at any one -time, which is subject to periodical changes; and that other acute -diseases often partake largely of the same general character, and -sometimes even merge in it altogether, as the plague is said to have -swallowed up all other diseases. This, which he ascribed to some peculiar -state of the atmosphere, he called its epidemic constitution; -and to be aware of its vicissitudes must of course be very important -to the physician as a guide to practice. The value of these laws, -which Sydenham deduced from a multitude of observations, has been -attested by almost every medical writer since his time.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>His works have been repeatedly printed in the original Latin, as -well as in English and the continental languages. The first was published -after he had been sixteen years in practice; the last he edited -himself, is dated three years before his death; and an elegant compendium -of his experience was published posthumously by his son. -They all appear to have been extorted by the importunity of his -friends or the misrepresentations of his enemies. It is said that -they were composed in English, and translated into Latin by his -friends Mapletoft and Havers: there is, however, little reason for -attaching credit to this report, as we are assured, on the authority -of Sir Hans Sloane, who knew him well, that Sydenham was an -excellent classical scholar, and perfectly capable of expressing himself -elegantly in Latin. They are most carefully written and clearly -expressed, and bear marks of the utmost truth and impartiality in -the narration of facts, and judgment in arranging them. They -are not voluminous, as he studiously refrained from overloading -them with trivial matter, and from entering into the detail of a -greater number of cases than might be sufficient to illustrate his -method of practice. His object was to confine himself to the results -of his own observation: to this he pretty strictly adhered, so that -little space is occupied in his writings by quotations or criticism. It -must be admitted that he occasionally lapses into theoretical discussion, -in violation of his own principles; but as he seldom or never permitted -his fancy to divert him from what was practically useful, he -may be pardoned, if in that age of speculation he could not entirely resist -the seduction. A graver charge against him is, that he overlooked -or undervalued the immense body of information to be obtained -from examining the effects of diseased actions after death, and devoted -himself too exclusively to the study of the symptoms during life, and -the effect of remedies upon them. It is hardly a sufficient justification -of a man of so much independence of spirit to reply, that such examinations -were opposed by the prejudices of the age in which he lived. -Others have overcome the same obstacles, and with them many of -those difficulties which perplexed and misled even the mind of -Sydenham. He had equal or greater difficulties to contend against -in the deep-rooted absurdities of the chemical and mechanical -schools, which in the early part of his life held an almost equally -divided sway in medicine: the former originated with Paracelsus -and his disciples, and had the advantage of a longer prescription; and -the latter had received a fresh accession of strength from the recent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>discoveries of Harvey: both, however, gave way before his energetic -appeal to fact and experience. Scarcely less credit is due to him for -his successful opposition to the popular superstition in favour of a host -of futile remedies, which are now happily consigned to oblivion with -the family receipt books and herbals in which their virtues were -paraded, than for his victory over false principles and dangerous rules -of practice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the whole, it may be safely advanced that medicine, as a practical -science, owes more to the closely-printed octavo, in which the -results of his toilsome exertions are comprised, than to any other single -source of information.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_025fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff.</em><br /><br />LORD CLARENDON.<br /><br /><em>From the Picture in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span> -<img src='images/i_025.jpg' alt='CLARENDON.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>CLARENDON.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, the third son of Henry Hyde, of -Dinton, Esquire, a younger branch of an ancient family long established -in Cheshire, was born at Dinton, near Salisbury, February 18, 1609. -The most valuable part of his early education he received from his -father, who was an excellent scholar: from his residence at Magdalen -Hall, Oxford, where he entered in 1622, and took his bachelor’s degree -in 1625, according to his own account he obtained little benefit. In -February 1627, he was entered at the Middle Temple. At the age -of twenty-one, he married his first wife, who died within six months -of their union. After the lapse of three years he was again married, -to the daughter of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests to the -King, by whom he left a numerous family. He was called to the bar -in Michaelmas term, 1633. To the study of law he entertained in -the first instance a strong dislike, and applied himself chiefly to history -and general literature. But from the time of his second marriage he -devoted himself steadily to the pursuit of his profession, in which he -early acquired considerable practice and reputation. His business was, -however, more frequent in the Court of Requests, in the Star Chamber, -than in the courts of common law, and his name rarely appears in the -reports of that period.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Soon after he was called to the bar, Mr. Hyde was concerned in a -transaction of considerable moment, which produced important consequences -in his future life, by introducing him to the favourable -notice of Archbishop Laud. It arose out of certain Custom-House -regulations, by which the London merchants found themselves aggrieved. -The leading men among them applied to Mr. Hyde, who, on -finding all remonstrances with the Lord Treasurer unavailing, advised -them to state their grievances in a petition to the King, which he drew -for them. On the death of the Lord Treasurer, the Earl of Portland, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>the affairs of the Treasury were placed under the management of -several commissioners, of whom Laud was one. The Archbishop soon -found occasion to investigate the complaint of the merchants; and in -consequence he sent for, and held several interviews with, Mr. Hyde: -to whom he became a valuable and efficient patron, noticing him particularly -when he appeared as counsel in the Star Chamber, and consulting -and employing him on many public occasions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Laud’s favour introduced Mr. Hyde to the Lord Keeper Coventry, -the Earl of Manchester, then Lord Privy Seal, and other political and -legal characters of high rank, of the court party. With the leaders of -the popular, or country party also he was upon friendly terms, “having,” -as he says, “that rare felicity, that even they who did not love many of -those upon whom he most depended, were yet very well pleased with -him and with his company.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon the summoning of what was called the Short Parliament, -which met April 3, 1640, Mr. Hyde was elected member for Wootton-Basset, -and for Shaftesbury. He chose to take his seat for the former -place. His first and only speech during the session was in the celebrated -debate on the subject of grievances, introduced by a motion of -Mr. Pym; on which occasion Mr. Hyde directed the attention of the -house to the enormous abuses of the Earl Marshal’s Court. Whitelocke -says that “he gained much credit by his conduct in this business.” In -the warm debate which took place in the House of Commons upon the -question of a supply, it was hinted by members of the house connected -with the court, that Charles, upon hearing of their proceedings, would -probably dissolve the parliament in displeasure. Mr. Hyde perceived -the injurious tendency of such a measure, and immediately went from -the house to Archbishop Laud, to entreat him to dissuade the King -from so injudicious a course. The Archbishop heard him as usual with -patience, but refused to interfere: and the Parliament was dissolved -in less than three weeks after its first meeting.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The necessities of the King compelled him to call the Long Parliament -in the following November, of which Mr. Hyde was also a member. -The elections having in general favoured the popular party, the -temper of this parliament was at its commencement decidedly more -opposed to the court than the last. At first, Mr. Hyde, whose familiarity -with Laud was well known, was an object of jealousy and -dislike. His conduct as chairman of the committee appointed to consider -the abuses of the Earl Marshal’s Court, which led to the total -abolition of that unauthorized jurisdiction, and his avowed disapprobation -of several obnoxious branches of the prerogative, restored him -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>in some degree to the good opinion of the house, while his influence -with the moderate party, both in the court and the parliament, daily -increased. Having given up his professional practice since the beginning -of the parliament, he was much employed in the ordinary business -of the house. He was chairman of the committee appointed to inquire -into the legality and expediency of the courts of the President and -Council of the North, commonly called the Courts of York; and in -April, 1641, he was commissioned to communicate to the House of -Lords the resolutions of the Commons against those courts. The -performance of this duty he accompanied by a speech, in which he -explained to the Lords, with much clearness and precision, the origin -and nature of this obnoxious jurisdiction, and which he says in his -History, “met with good approbation in both houses.” In July following -he was chairman of the committee for inquiring into the conduct -of the judges in the case of ship-money; and the management of the -impeachment of the Lord Chief Baron Davenport, Baron Weston, -and Baron Trevor, before the Lords, was afterwards entrusted to him. -Upon this occasion, he delivered an excellent speech, exhibiting, in -eloquent language, the destructive effects of the corruption of the -judges upon the liberty of the subject and the security of property. -During the same year, he appears from the Commons’ journals to have -been usually named on the most important committees both of a public -and private nature.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The course adopted by Mr. Hyde with reference to the Earl of -Strafford’s prosecution cannot be precisely ascertained. That he was -employed in arranging the preliminary steps for the impeachment, -appears from the journals; but in his History he does not explicitly -declare what part he took upon the introduction of the bill of attainder. -Some of his biographers state that he warmly opposed it; but no evidence -is given in support of the assertion; and it is quite clear that -neither his name, nor that of Lord Falkland, his political and personal -friend, appear amongst those which were posted as “Straffordians, -Betrayers of their Country,” for having voted against the measure. -Though he cordially acquiesced in many of the measures at this time -introduced by the popular leaders for the redress of grievances, his political -opinions, as well as his ultimate views and intentions, differed -widely from those of the predominant party. He strenuously opposed -a bill for depriving the bishops of their seats in parliament, which -passed the House of Commons, though it was rejected in the House -of Lords by a great majority. In no degree discouraged by this discomfiture, -the leaders of the Puritan party soon afterwards introduced -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>a measure for the total abolition of episcopacy, known by the title of -‘The Root and Branch Bill,’ which was read a first time and committed. -Mr. Hyde was appointed chairman of the committee, by -common consent of both parties; the one wishing to get rid of his opposition -in the committee, the other to secure a chairman of their own -views. The result proved the latter party to be in the right; for -Hyde contrived so to baffle the promoters of the measure, that they at -last thought proper to withdraw it, Sir Arthur Haselrig declaring in the -house, that “he would never hereafter put an enemy into the chair.” -His conduct respecting this measure was warmly approved by the -King; who before he went to Scotland in 1641, sent for Mr. Hyde, to -express how much he was beholden to him for his services, “for which -he thought fit to give him his own thanks, and to assure him that he -would remember it to his advantage.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Before the King left Whitehall, in consequence of the tumults -occasioned by his indiscretion in demanding the Five Members, he -charged Mr. Hyde, in conjunction with Lord Falkland and Sir John -Colepeper, to consult constantly together upon the state of affairs in -his absence, and to give him on every occasion their unreserved advice, -without which he declared solemnly that he would take no step in the -parliament. Though much discouraged by the previous conduct of -the King respecting the Five Members, which he had adopted without -consulting them, and entirely against their judgment, they undertook -and faithfully executed the charge imposed upon them; and after the -King had left London, they met every night at Mr. Hyde’s house in -Westminster, to communicate to each other their several intelligences -and observations, and to make such arrangements as they thought best -adapted to stay the falling fortunes of the royal cause.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Hyde’s good understanding with the leaders of the popular -party had rapidly declined, since his opposition to the proposed measure -for ejecting the bishops from the House of Lords; and after his conduct -in the committee for abolishing episcopacy he was regarded as a declared -enemy, and his nightly consultations with Falkland and Colepeper -were watched with the utmost jealousy. Though his situation at this -time was one of considerable danger, he remained at his post after the -King’s departure to York, and constantly took his seat in the House of -Commons. About the latter end of April, 1642, Mr. Hyde received a -letter<a id='t28'></a> from the King, requiring him immediately to repair to him at -York; with which requisition he complied in the course of the next -month, having first rendered a signal service to the royal cause by -persuading the Lord Keeper Littleton to send the Great Seal and also -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>to go himself to the King. In consequence of this step the House of -Commons passed a resolution, in August, 1642, disabling him from -sitting again in that parliament; and their indignation was raised to -such a degree, that Mr. Hyde was one of the few persons who were -excepted from the pardon which the Earl of Essex was afterwards -instructed to offer to those who might be induced to leave the King and -submit to the parliament. On joining the King at York, Mr. Hyde -continued to be one of his most confidential advisers, and was soon -afterwards knighted and made Chancellor of the Exchequer. In this -capacity he negotiated with the parliamentary commissioners sent to -Oxford in 1643; and in 1645 he acted as one of the King’s commissioners -at the treaty of Uxbridge. After the breaking off of that -treaty it was thought expedient to send the Prince of Wales into the -west of England, both to secure his person from the dangers with which -his father was environed, and to give encouragement to the Royalists in -that part of the country. Sir Edward Hyde accompanied him as one of -his council. The parliamentary successes in the west compelled the -Prince to migrate, first to Scilly, thence to Jersey, from which place he -departed into France in July, 1646. Hyde remained in Jersey for the -space of two years, devoting himself wholly to his History of the Rebellion, -which he had commenced in the Scilly Islands, and of which -he completed the four first books at that time. While engaged in this -manner, he received several letters from the King, expressive of his -approbation of his undertaking, and supplying him with a particular -relation of the occurrences which had taken place from the departure -of the Prince until the period of his joining the Scotch army.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In May, 1648, Hyde received the King’s commands to join the -Prince of Wales at Paris. On the way thither, he met Lord Cottington -and others at Rouen, where he learned that the Prince was -gone to Holland, and was ordered to follow him. After many difficulties -and dangers, Cottington and Hyde met their young master at -the Hague in the month of August, and were soon afterwards joined -by several other members of the King’s council.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the announcement of the execution of his father, Charles -despatched Sir Edward Hyde and Lord Cottington as his ambassadors -to Spain. After a fruitless negotiation of fifteen months, they received -a message from court shortly after the arrival of the news of Cromwell’s -victory at Dunbar, desiring them to quit the Spanish dominions. -Hyde then repaired to Antwerp, where he resided with his wife and -family, until, at the end of 1651, he was summoned to Paris, to meet -Charles II., after his memorable escape from the battle of Worcester. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>He resided at Paris with the exiled court for nearly three years, and -during this period enjoyed the unlimited confidence of his master, who -left the arduous and difficult task of corresponding and negotiating -with the English royalists entirely to his management. At this -period the exiled royalists were frequently reduced to great pecuniary -distress. The miserable dissensions and petty jealousies which prevailed -among them are fully described in the History of the Rebellion. -At length Charles, wearied and disgusted by the intrigues and broils -which perpetually disturbed his council, while subject to the interference -of the Queen Mother, determined to leave Paris; and accordingly -he quitted that city in June, 1654, and went to reside at Cologne, -Sir Edward Hyde and the rest of his court still following his humble -fortunes. Upon the execution of the treaty with Spain, Charles removed -from Cologne to Bruges in 1657, and in the course of that year -bestowed upon Sir Edward Hyde the then empty dignity of Lord High -Chancellor of England. Soon after this event the prospects of the -Royalists began to brighten. The government of Cromwell had been -for some time growing infirm, in consequence of domestic dissensions, -the exhausted state of the revenue, and the distrust entertained towards -the Protector, who had successively deceived and disappointed all -parties. These seeds of discord were sedulously cultivated by the -English royalists; and at last the death of that extraordinary man -led to a series of events which introduced the restoration of Charles II.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the Restoration Sir Edward Hyde was continued as Lord Chancellor; -and notwithstanding the constant hostility of the Queen -Mother and her faction at court, he maintained for some time a paramount -influence with the King, who treated him with the confidence -and friendship which his great industry and talents for business, and -his faithful attachment to himself and his father so well deserved. In -November, 1660, he was raised to the peerage, by the title of Baron -Hyde of Hindon in the county of Wilts, and in the spring of the following -year he was created Viscount Cornbury and Earl of Clarendon. -He was also about this time elected Chancellor of the University of -Oxford. Among the tribes of expectant cavaliers who now flocked to -the court of the restored monarch, all impatient to obtain something -in recompense for their alleged services and sufferings in the royal -cause, these honours and distinctions bestowed upon the Earl of Clarendon -raised a storm of envy and malice which eventually caused -his ruin. The King’s easiness of access, and, as Lord Clarendon -calls it, that “<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">imbecillitas frontis</span></i>, which kept him from denying,” together -with the moral cowardice which induced him to escape from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>the most troublesome importunities, by sending petitioners to the Chancellor -for their answers, necessarily increased the dislike with which -he was regarded. The discovery of the marriage of his daughter to -the Duke of York, afterwards James II., though it probably took -place without the knowledge of the Chancellor, gave ample opportunity -to the malice of his enemies. The King, however, behaved on -this occasion in a manner which did him credit. He not only required -the Duke to acknowledge his wife, on being certified that the -ceremony had been duly performed, but refused with passion the -proffered resignation of the Chancellor, who offered to reside in future -beyond seas, and conjured him “never more to think of those unreasonable -things, but to attend and prosecute his business with his usual -alacrity, since his kindness should never fail him.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first open act of hostility against Lord Clarendon was undertaken -by the Earl of Bristol, who, in 1663, exhibited articles of high -treason and other misdemeanors against him in the House of Lords. -These articles, which contained a great variety of vague and inconsistent -charges, were forwarded by the House of Lords to the King, who informed -them, that “he found several matters of fact charged, which -upon his own certain knowledge were untrue; and that the articles -contained many scandalous reflections upon himself and his family, -which he looked upon as libels against his person and government.” -Upon a reference by the House of Lords to the judges, they reported -that “the whole charge did not amount to treason though it were all -true;” and upon this the proceedings were abandoned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But it was at last the fate of Lord Clarendon to experience the proverbial -ingratitude of princes. From the period of the Restoration a -powerful union of discontented parties had gradually combined against -him. All hated him—the old cavaliers, because they thought he -neglected their just claims upon the bounty of the King; the papists -and the dissenters, because they found him an uncompromising opponent -of all concessions to those whom he regarded as enemies of the -established church; the licentious adherents of an unprincipled court, -because his honest endeavours to withdraw the King from his levity -and profligacy to serious considerations, thwarted their intentions and -interrupted their pleasures. Their united efforts erased from Charles’s -mind the recollection of services of no common value, and caused him -to abandon his best and most faithful counsellor, without having even -the appearance of a reason for his conduct, beyond what he called -“the Chancellor’s intolerable temper.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Great Seal was taken from Lord Clarendon in August, 1667; -and in the month of November following, after an angry debate, he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>was impeached by the Commons, in general terms, of high treason and -other crimes and misdemeanors; but the Lords, upon the impeachment -being carried up, refused to commit him, or to sequester him from -parliament, on the ground of the generality of the charge. Before the -formal articles of impeachment were prepared, Lord Clarendon left -England, in consequence of repeated messages from the King advising -him to take that course, having previously addressed to the Lords a -vindication of his conduct. Immediately after his departure a bill was -introduced into the House of Lords, and rapidly passed, by which he -was condemned to perpetual banishment, and declared to be for ever -incapable of bearing any public office or employment in England.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The charges made against Lord Clarendon at this time were scarcely -less multifarious and inconsistent than those which were instituted by -Lord Bristol a few years before. He was accused of designing to govern -by a standing army,—of accusing the King of popery,—of receiving -bribes for patents,—of selling offices,—of <em>acquiring a greater estate than -he could lawfully have gained in a short time</em>,—of advising the sale of -Dunkirk to the French,—of causing <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quo Warrantos</span> to be issued against -corporations in order that he might receive fines on renewals of -charters, and many other particulars of alleged corruption. From -most of these accusations Lord Clarendon vindicated himself in an -address delivered to the House of Lords upon his departure; but -during his retirement at Montpellier, he prepared, and transmitted to -his children in England a fuller apology, in which he answered each -article of the charges objected to him by the Commons.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After some hesitation, Lord Clarendon determined to reside at -Montpellier, where he arrived in July, 1668. He was treated with -much courtesy and respect by the governor of the city, as well as the -French and English inhabitants of all ranks. His first task was to write -the vindication of his conduct above-mentioned. During his retirement -he made himself master of French and Italian, and read the works of the -most eminent writers in both those languages. He also completed his -History of the Rebellion, and wrote an answer to Hobbes’s Leviathan, -an Historical Discourse on Papal Jurisdiction, a volume of Essays, -divine, moral, and political, and also those fragments of his Life, which -were first published by the University of Oxford in 1759. Engaged in -these pursuits he passed nearly three years at Montpellier in great -tranquillity and cheerfulness. He left that city in 1672, and went -first to Moulins, then to Rouen, where he died, December 9, 1673. -His remains were brought to England and interred in Westminster -Abbey.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The political conduct of Lord Clarendon, though variously described -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>by writers of opposite parties, appears to have been generally as consistent -and upright as can reasonably be expected from men of warm -tempers, deeply interested in the most violent civil dissensions. His -earliest impressions were decidedly in favour of the popular party; -and even after he had become familiar with Archbishop Laud, and -was favourably noticed by Charles I., he strenuously supported that -party in the removal of actual grievances, and resisted with -zeal and energy the encroachments of prerogative. That he afterwards -refused to join in the wild and intemperate actions committed -by the Parliament, and supported the royal cause against the continually -increasing demands of those with whom he had previously -acted, is not to be ascribed to inconsistency in his conduct, but -to the development of designs and measures at all times repugnant -to his principles. His advice to Charles I. and to Laud was always -temperate and wise, and was given with boldness and candour. -After the Restoration, in the height of his power and influence, -he displayed the same moderation in his opinions and conduct, and -acted upon the same principles of dislike to fundamental changes, -which had influenced him as a member of the Long Parliament. It -has been imputed to Lord Clarendon that he neglected to exert himself -for the relief of those unfortunate cavaliers whose attachment to the -King had involved them in penury and ruin. It is difficult to ascertain -the exact truth of this charge; but, whether true or false, such an accusation -was sure to be made in a case where the applicants for compensation -were numerous, and the means of satisfying them inconsiderable.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the discharge of the legal functions of his office of Lord Chancellor, -as presiding in the Court of Chancery, he was by no means distinguished; -he promoted some reforms in the practice of his court, -and continued the judicious improvements effected during the Commonwealth; -but Evelyn says “he was no considerable lawyer,” and -the circumstance that he never decided a case without requiring the -presence of two judges is, if true, a sufficient acknowledgment of his -judicial incompetency.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For his judicial appointments Lord Clarendon is entitled to unqualified -praise. Hale, Bridgeman, and other judges of the highest eminence -for learning and independence, were appointed by him immediately -after the Restoration, and contributed in a great degree to give -stability and moral strength to the new government, by the confidence -which their characters inspired in the due administration of the law.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As an historian Lord Clarendon was unquestionably careless and inexact -to a surprising degree, which may in some measure be excused -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>by the necessity of writing very much from recollection; and he was a -perpetual advocate and partisan of the Royal cause, though by no -means of most of its supporters. But though his narration constantly -betrays the bias of party, and cannot therefore be safely relied upon for -our historical conclusions, his misrepresentations arise from the avowed -partiality and intense concern he feels for the cause he is advocating, -and not from any design to suppress or distort facts. His style is -luxuriant and undisciplined, and his expression in the narrative parts -of his history is diffuse and inaccurate; but his fervent loyalty and -the warmth of his attachment to his political friends have infused a -richness of eloquence into his delineations of character, which has perhaps -never been surpassed in any language.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id003'> -<img src='images/i_034.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> -<table class='table1' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='50%' /> -<col width='50%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>[Medal of Clarendon.]</td> - <td class='c009'>[Medal in Commemoration of the Restoration.]</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_035fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by himself in his Majesty’s Collection.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span> -<img src='images/i_035.jpg' alt='SIR J. REYNOLDS.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SIR J. REYNOLDS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>“Sir Joshua Reynolds,” says Burke, “was the first Englishman -who added the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his -country.” Without staying to inquire how far the literal truth of -this assertion may be affected by the priority in date of Wilson and -Hogarth, not to mention their less illustrious predecessors, it may -safely be affirmed, not only that Reynolds was the founder of the -English school, but that the most valuable qualities in the art of -painting were almost lost sight of throughout Europe when he began -his career. In Holland, the rich manner of Rembrandt, feebly sustained -by his imitators, had been succeeded by no less opposite -a style than that of Vanderwerf; the still more laboured finish of -Denner, a native of Hamburgh, followed; while the minute perfection -which was in vogue found a more legitimate application in the flower-pieces -of Van Huysum. Reynolds was twenty-four years old at the -decease of Denner, who had twice visited London, and had been much -employed there. The French school about the middle of the last -century took its tone from Boucher, a name now almost forgotten, and -if remembered, synonymous with the extreme of affectation; he was -principal painter to Louis XV. The native country of Claude and -Poussin was indeed more illustrious during this time in the department -of landscape, as Vernet produced his views of sea-ports about the -period alluded to; but this example, however respectable, was itself -indicative of a declining taste, and the style of view-painting in the -hands of the foreign artists who practised it in Italy, with the Prussian -Hackert at their head, had the effect of extinguishing for a time all -invention in landscape. The academy at Berlin was under the direction -of a Frenchman; Oeser was the greatest name at Leipzic and Dresden; -and the south of Germany still imported imitations of the latest Italian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>styles in fashion. The state of the arts in Spain may be judged of by -the fact, that when, in 1761, Mengs, who was himself a native of -Germany, repaired to Madrid in the service of Charles III., the chief -painters established there were a Venetian and a Neapolitan, Tiepolo -and Corrado Giaquinto. The Venetian school, sometimes entirely -losing its original character, seemed at least to maintain a consistent -degeneracy in the styles of Sebastian Ricci and the above-named -Giambattista Tiepolo, both weak and mannered imitators of Paul -Veronese, but still preserving, at least the latter, some brilliancy of -colour and pleasing execution. With Tiepolo the characteristic merits -of the school seem however to have ceased altogether: towards the -latter part of the century, the chief employment of the Venetian -painters was the restoration of old pictures.<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c011'><sup>[2]</sup></a> A particular school was -established in 1778 for this purpose, and a description of the extraordinary -labours of the artists is preserved in the thirty-eighth volume -of Goëthe’s works. In Rome, the talents of Maratta and Sacchi, and -“the great but abused powers of Pietro da Cortona,” had been succeeded -by feebler efforts, descending or fluctuating through the styles -of Cignani, Trevisani, and others, till the time of Sebastian Conca, -and Pompeo Battoni. The last-named was approaching the zenith of -his short-lived reputation, and almost without a rival (for Mengs was -as yet young, and Conca already aged), when Reynolds visited Rome.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. </span>It is worthy of remark that about the same time the sculptors in Rome were as -exclusively employed in restoring antique statues.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Laborious detail on the one hand, and empty facility on the other, -formed the distinguishing characteristics of these different schools; -but however opposite in execution, mind was alike wanting in both. -Denner may be considered the representative of the microscopic style; -a style, if it deserves the name, which he applied even to heads the size -of life; and as mere finish never was, and probably never will be -carried to a more absurd length, his name, though comparatively -obscure, marks an epoch in the art. The same scrupulous minuteness -obtained about the same time in landscape; among the view-painters, -Hendrick Van Lint, surnamed Studio, may be named as the -most remarkable of his class. Reynolds alludes to him in one of -his discourses, as noted, when he knew him in Rome, for copying -every leaf of a tree. The opposite style, which aimed at quantity -and rapidity, was derived from the expert painters of galleries and -ceilings, called “Machinisti,” and more immediately from Luca -Giordano. Facility and despatch, at the expense of every solid quality -of art, were the characteristics of the school which was represented in -the earlier part of Reynolds’s career, principally by Sebastian Conca -in Italy, and by Corrado Giaquinto in Spain.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>The changes which took place in this state of things, towards the -latter part of the century, may be traced partly to the renewed appreciation -of the antique statues (a taste which, however beneficial to -sculpture, had an unfortunate influence on the sister art), and subsequently -to political circumstances. The fluctuations of taste, however -deliberately estimated by retrospective criticism, are indeed generally -the result of accident, and depend on causes but seldom derived from -a just definition of the nature and object of art. It appears, however, -that Reynolds, alone as he was, the founder rather than the follower -of a school, enjoyed the rare privilege of making the taste of his time -instead of being made by it; and although it would be absurd to -suppose that he could be independent of the accidents with which he -was brought in contact, it will not appear, upon a candid inquiry, that -this great artist was in any respect directly influenced by the practice -of his age.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Joshua Reynolds was born at Plympton, near Plymouth, in Devonshire, -July 16, 1723; he was the son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds, -who taught the grammar school of Plympton. The young artist’s -fondness for drawing manifested itself early, and at eight years of age -he had become so well acquainted with the “Jesuits’ Perspective,” as -to apply its principles with some effect in a drawing of his father’s -school, a building elevated on stone pillars. Among other books connected -with art to which he had access, Richardson’s ‘Treatise on -Painting’ had a powerful effect in exciting his ambition. The earliest -known picture he attempted is a portrait of the Rev. Thomas Smart, -who was the vicar of Maker, the parish in which Mount Edgecumbe -is situated. Reynolds, then a schoolboy about twelve years of age, -sketched the portrait of the vicar at church, and afterwards copied it -on canvass. This picture is now in the possession of John Boger, Esq., -of East Stonehouse near Plymouth. The taste of the young painter -becoming every day more decided, his father, urged by the advice of -some friends, placed him at the age of seventeen as a pupil with Hudson, -who had at that time the chief business in portrait painting, although a -very indifferent artist. In 1743 Reynolds returned to Devonshire, in -consequence of a disagreement with his master, and set up as a portrait -painter in the town of Plymouth Dock, since called Devonport. He -here painted various portraits, chiefly of naval officers. One of these -works, containing the portraits of Mr. and Mrs. Eliot and family, is -in the possession of the Earl of St. Germains. The composition of this -picture, the artist’s first attempt at a group, approaches the pyramidal -form, and Reynolds, after contemplating it when finished, observed, ‘I -see I must have read something about a pyramid, for there it is.’ Six other -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>pictures of the artist are preserved in the same collection, at Port Eliot -in Cornwall. An admirable picture of a boy reading by a reflected -light was also executed about this time. Many interesting works of -Reynolds, some of them belonging to his earlier practice, are preserved -in the immediate neighbourhood of Plymouth, in the collections of the -Earl of Morley, Mr. Pole Carew of Antony, Mr. Rosdew of Beechwood, -Mr. Lane of Coffleet, and others. The artist’s early works, -although sometimes carelessly drawn, are distinguished by breadth -of colour, by freedom of handling, and not unfrequently by great truth -of expression: in short, he seems to have contracted none of the defects -of Hudson, except, according to some of his biographers, a certain -stiffness and sameness in the attitudes of his portraits; defects which -he afterwards exchanged for such grace, spirit, and, above all, endless -variety, that it was said “his inventions will be the future grammar -of portrait painters.” The earliest portrait he painted of himself is in -the collection of Mr. Gwatkin of Plymouth, who married a niece of -Reynolds: the same gentleman also possesses the last portrait of the -artist by himself, together with many other interesting specimens of -his pencil. In 1747 Reynolds repaired again to London, and took -lodgings in St. Martin’s Lane, then and long afterwards the favourite -residence of artists. In 1749 he sailed to the Mediterranean, by the -invitation, and in the company of Captain (afterwards Lord) Keppel. -Reynolds spent two months in Minorca, where he painted several portraits -of military and naval officers, and proceeded thence, by way of -Leghorn, to Rome.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was fully alive to the sources of inspiration which this city of -the arts contained. In the midst of his enthusiasm, however, he was -secretly humiliated by discovering in himself an absence of all relish for -the grand works of Raffaelle in the Vatican. Richardson had inspired -him with the most exalted admiration of Raffaelle; and whatever may -be supposed, Reynolds could not be entirely unacquainted with the -subjects and designs of the works alluded to. Indeed, in some notes -of his own that have been preserved, he only confesses a feeling of -disappointment, and afterwards says, “In justice to myself, however, -I must add, that though disappointed and mortified at not finding -myself enraptured with the works of this great master, I did not for a -moment conceive or suppose that the name of Raffaelle, and these -admirable paintings in particular, owed their reputation to the ignorance -and prejudice of mankind: on the contrary, my not relishing -them, as I was conscious I ought to have done, was one of the most -humiliating circumstances that ever happened to me. I found myself -in the midst of works executed upon principles with which I was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>unacquainted; I felt my ignorance, and stood abashed; all the indigested -notions of painting which I had brought with me from England, -where art was in the lowest state it had ever been in (indeed it could -not be lower), were to be totally done away and eradicated from my -mind.” The union of candour and docility with good sense, which -the above account evinces, was the means of emancipating Reynolds -from the taste or fashion of the day. Instead of enrolling himself -among the scholars of Pompeo Battoni, as he was strongly recommended -to do before his departure from England by his kind patron -Lord Edgecumbe, he endeavoured during the practice of his art to -penetrate the principles on which the great works around him, -particularly those of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle, were produced. -His general theory will be found embodied in his writings, and if his -principles sometimes appear to be pushed too far, we may perhaps -attribute it to the wish to counteract certain prevailing errors among -his contemporaries. It is a general notion that, considering the difference -in style between the paintings of Reynolds and those of the great -models he professes to admire (Michael Angelo received his more -especial homage), he could not have been sincere in acknowledging so -thorough a conviction of their excellence. To decide fairly on this -difficult and often-discussed point, it is necessary to remember the state -of the arts when Reynolds formed his style. The great vice of the age -was a routine practice, seldom informed by any reference to the general -nature of the art, and as little remarkable for a just discrimination of -its various styles. In such a state of things it cannot excite surprise -that a sagacious and unprejudiced mind, in endeavouring to retrace the -leading principles of the art, should at the same time see the necessity -of modifying them in their application to a particular, and in some -respects a limited, department. As portrait painting, the imitation of -individuals, was to be Reynolds’s chief occupation, it certainly did not -occur to him that the abstract representations of Michael Angelo, or -even of Raffaelle, could be fit models for him to follow, as far as execution -was concerned. He saw however that these masters were -probably right even in this respect, when the dignity and purity of -their aim, and when subject, place, and dimensions are duly considered. -His imitation of them therefore began when he endeavoured -to define the end and object of the particular style of art which he himself -professed; and although he soon concluded that it required a widely -different treatment, he failed not to translate, if we may so say, the -causes of the grandeur he admired into the language which belonged -to his own department. What he considered the distinctive and desirable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>requisites of portrait painting to consist in, may be best learnt -from his own works. In the first place, the more delicate refinements -of colouring and chiaro-scuro, by no means essential in the grander -and more abstract department of the art, are indispensable where the -imitation is confined to a single and generally a defective person. -It is thus that Rembrandt made up the <em>sum</em> of beauty by the fascinations -of gradation and contrast, while the forms he had to deal with -were often of the most ordinary description. The just imitation of the -colour of flesh, the most beautiful and at the same time the most nameless -hue in nature, has ever been considered the triumph of imitative -art, and confers value and dignity on the <em>work</em> wherever it is fully -accomplished. Again, it must be remembered that the domain of -expression begins with the accidents of form; that it belongs to and -often recommends individuality and redeems deformity; and that its vivid -interest is to be sought less in the abstract personifications of Michael -Angelo, far less in the higher region of beauty which the Greeks justly -placed above the atmosphere of the passions, than in the varieties of -accidental nature. Reynolds seized on the delicacies of expression as -strictly harmonizing with the individual forms he had to copy: and, -while thus adding a charm to his class of art, he became at the same -time the abler portrait painter; for the character and expression of the -individual are the chief points which are demanded. Lastly, the conduct -and execution of his pictures were in strict conformity with the -same principles, and may be said to have been dictated by the largest -view of the nature and means of the art.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In his works the attention is always attracted by the important -objects, or diverted from them, when diverted, only to conceal the -artifice which thus commands the eye of the spectator. It is evident -that the general degree of completeness will depend on that of -the principal object; and assuming that Reynolds’s style of painting a -head was sufficiently elaborate (it is generally less so than Vandyck’s), -the <em>unfinish</em> of the accessories could hardly be otherwise than it is, consistently -with due subordination. The truth of this consistency of -style was ultimately acknowledged, and although so opposite from -what had before been in fashion, and so different in many respects from -what the vulgar admire, the pictures of Reynolds soon won the favour -of the public. If the admiration of his works had any ill effect, it was -that it tended to produce an imitation of the same mode rather than of -the same consistency.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On his return to England in 1752, which has been somewhat anticipated -in the foregoing remarks on his style, Reynolds repaired to his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>native county, and painted one or two pictures at Plymouth: perhaps -the earliest of the fine portraits of Mr. Zachary Mudge, Vicar of St. -Andrews, was one of these. He returned to London accompanied by -his sister Frances. For a short time he again occupied lodgings in -St. Martin’s Lane, and produced there the portrait of Giuseppe Marchi, -an Italian whom he had brought home as an assistant. This picture, -which was in the style of Rembrandt, attracted general admiration; -and when his former master Hudson saw it, he exclaimed, stung with -jealousy, “Reynolds, you don’t paint so well as when you left England!” -Soon after this, in consequence of his increased fame and employment, -Reynolds took a house in Great Newport Street, where he resided for -some years. The whole length portrait of Admiral Keppel was the next -work of importance which he produced: it exhibited such powers that -it completely established the fame of the artist, and he was generally -acknowledged to be the greatest painter England had seen since the time -of Vandyck. From this period his career was one of uninterrupted -success and improvement; for his reputation was never greater than -at the close of his laborious life. The detraction which such extraordinary -merit soon excited was compelled to vent itself in attempting -to undervalue the department of art in which he excelled: in consequence -of these insinuations, a defence of portrait painting, from -the pen of Dr. Johnson, appeared in the forty-fifth number of the -Idler. Johnson in that essay, after all, only proved that portrait -painting is interesting to a <em>few</em>—that in the hands of Reynolds -it was “employed in diffusing friendship, in renewing tenderness, in -quickening the affections of the absent, and continuing the presence of -the dead.” Reynolds himself, however, without forgetting these important -prerogatives, evidently took a more extended view of the -matter; he seems early to have felt that the chief difficulty of portrait -painting (a difficulty perhaps greater than any in the other branches -of art) is to make the representation <em>generally</em> interesting. It is quite -obvious that this end can only be attained (especially as beauty of form -is not always at command) by a high degree of perfection in all that -constitutes the charm of art; for no interest that attaches itself to the -individual pourtrayed, however celebrated, can be so universal or so -independently intelligible as that which arises from a large and true -imitation of nature, to which all are more or less alive. The perfection -of art as applicable to portrait painting, was therefore Reynolds’s great -object, and it was only in subservience to this that he ventured to -introduce what in his hands might be considered a novelty in this -department. That novelty was the historic air he often gave his portraits, -by happy allusions to some important circumstance in the life -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>of the individual. His consummate knowledge of effect enabled him -to do this by means which never interfere with the mere portrait, a -difficulty which had been in a great measure evaded by preceding -painters. It will be remembered that in most of the portraits even of -Titian and Vandyck the attention is literally confined to the individual -pourtrayed (after all, the subject of the picture), and it was not lightly -or inconsiderately that Reynolds occasionally departed from this judicious -practice. If ever a painter could depend on the mere character -and expression of his heads, to say nothing of the charm of their -execution, Reynolds undoubtedly would have been secure of the public -approbation on those grounds alone; and it was only where historic -interest happened to coincide or to interfere but little with picturesque -effect, that he ventured on the additions alluded to. A better instance -perhaps cannot be given than the portrait of Lord Heathfield (celebrated -for his defence of Gibraltar), in the National Gallery; in the background -of which a cannon pointed downwards indicates, by its angle -of depression, the elevation of the spot where the veteran stands, -grasping the keys of the fortress which he defended so bravely. In -his allegorical portraits, such as Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy, -Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse, &c., Reynolds encountered a much -greater difficulty, and it may be questioned whether any painter who -has yet appeared would have succeeded better. The mixture of real -and imaginary beings, of individual and abstract personifications, the -treatment of which would seem to require so different a style, was so -managed by Reynolds as to satisfy, in this respect, the most fastidious -taste. The secret of the greatness of his style in these subjects, and -indeed in most of his portraits, is to be sought in his colouring, the -idea of which is large and general; and under its dignified influence -the individuality of forms and locality of dress are rendered with all -sufficient fidelity without offending. It is thus we find in many -Venetian, Flemish, and Dutch pictures, where the subject and forms -are most homely, an air of refined taste, and even of grandeur, which -seems unaccountable, till we discover that the colouring is true to the -largest idea of nature; and thus, to a certain extent, the art is raised -by raising its characteristic quality. In short, to return to the question -of his imitation of Michael Angelo, we should find that, keeping the -main requisites and attainable excellences of portrait painting in view, -Reynolds contrived to infuse into it as much elevation as was calculated -to improve it without injuring its character; and when we find that he -applied this even to execution, and that his breadth of manner, his -disdain of non-essentials, is evidently inspired by the same feeling, we -shall no longer wonder at his admiration of the highest style of art, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>or doubt the sincerity of his recorded professions on the subject. The -very <em>indirectness</em> of his imitation, in which the whole mystery lies, -so sure a proof of his having penetrated the principle of the great -master, establishes his claim to originality as well as to consummate -judgment and taste.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1768 the Royal Academy was instituted, and Mr. Reynolds, -holding unquestionably the first rank in his profession, was elected -President. On his elevation to this office he received the honour of -knighthood. As President he delivered to the students and professors -those celebrated discourses, which have reflected so much lustre on his -name. Their excellence in a theoretical point of view, the elegance -of their composition, and on the other hand the apparent contradictions -they sometimes contain, have been the theme of frequent observation -and discussion. The other writings of Sir Joshua are the ‘Tour -to Flanders and Holland,’ consisting of notes on the paintings seen by -him in those countries in the year 1781; ‘Notes on Du Fresnoy’s -Poem;’ and three papers in the Idler. Among the last, the Essay on -Beauty was not so original as is generally supposed, the same theory -having been previously promulgated by the Père Buffier in his -‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours des Sciences par des principes nouveaux. Paris, 1732</span>.’ -Among the historical and mythological pictures produced by Sir Joshua, -that of the Infant Hercules strangling the Serpents, executed in 1786 -for the Empress of Russia, is one of the most considerable: it is -pretty closely copied, as to invention and composition, from a description -of an antique painting of the same subject in Philostratus. This -work, so different from the taste of the Russian painters and connoisseurs, -was long treated with neglect; but in consequence of the enquiries -of English travellers it has lately been cleaned, and placed in -the gallery of the Hermitage. It is said to be in a fine state of preservation, -and one of the best works of Reynolds. The celebrated -picture of Ugolino was produced by an accidental circumstance. The -subject was suggested to Sir Joshua by Goldsmith, or, according to -others, by Burke, who was struck with the expression of an old emaciated -head, among the unfinished studies of the painter, and observed -that it corresponded exactly with Dante’s description of Count Ugolino. -The head was inserted in a larger canvas, and the rest of the composition -added. For the Shakspeare Gallery Sir Joshua painted three -pictures,—the Death of Cardinal Beaufort, the Cauldron Scene in -Macbeth, and Puck from Midsummer Night’s Dream. The designs -for the window of the New College Chapel in Oxford are among -the finest of his sacred compositions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1789, finding his eyesight begin to fail, Sir Joshua was compelled -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>to give up the practice of his art. In December, 1790, he pronounced -his farewell Address at the Royal Academy, and on that occasion repeated -and confirmed, as with his dying voice, his admiration of Michael -Angelo. His infirmities confined him much during the short remaining -portion of his life, and he died at his house in Leicester Fields, -February 23, 1792. He was buried in the crypt of the cathedral of -St. Paul, near the tomb of Sir Christopher Wren. The honours of his -funeral, as may be imagined, corresponded with his justly-earned fame; -and the day after his death a well-known eulogium by Burke appeared -in the public papers, so characteristic both of the writer and the great -artist to whose memory it was dedicated, that it was called the panegyric -of Apelles, pronounced by Pericles. It concludes thus:—“His -talents of every kind, powerful from nature, and not meanly cultivated -by letters, his social virtues in all the relations and all the habitudes of -life, rendered him the centre of a very great and unparalleled variety of -agreeable societies, which will be dissipated by his death. He had -too much merit not to excite some jealousy, too much innocence to -provoke any enmity. The loss of no man of his time can be felt with -more sincere, general, and unmixed sorrow.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>For a list of the pictures of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and ample details -of his life, the memoir of him by Northcote, who had been his -scholar, may be consulted; as well as the accounts prefixed to the -various editions of his literary works; and that by Allan Cunningham, -in his Lives of the most eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and -Architects.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_044.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Sketch for the picture of Mr. Eliot and his family.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_045fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by B. Holl.</em><br /><br />SWIFT.<br /><br /><em>From the Picture in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span> -<img src='images/i_045.jpg' alt='SWIFT.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SWIFT.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Jonathan Swift, by an account in his own handwriting, was the -son of an attorney in the city of Dublin. He was born in 1667. -Some doubt has been felt concerning his origin, in consequence -of his own angry or capricious declaration, when out of humour with -Ireland,—“I am not of this vile country; I am an Englishman;” -and Sir William Temple has been said to be his real father. This -piece of scandal, however, is disproved by circumstances of time and -place. Swift was placed at Trinity College, Dublin, at the age of -fourteen. Whether through idleness, or contempt of the prescribed -studies, at the end of four years he could only obtain his Bachelor’s -degree <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">speciali gratiâ</span></i>; a term denoting want of merit. This disgrace -so affected him, that for the following seven years he studied eight -hours a day. In 1688 Sir William Temple, whose lady was related -to Swift’s mother, took him under his protection, and paid the expenses -of his residence at Oxford for a Master’s degree. On quitting that -University, Swift lived with Temple as his domestic companion. To -a long illness contracted during this period in consequence of a surfeit -he ascribed that frequently recurring giddiness which annoyed him -through life, and sent him to the grave deprived of reason.</p> - -<p class='c000'>While under Sir William Temple’s roof, Swift rendered material -assistance in the revision of his patron’s works, and corrected and improved -his own ‘Tale of a Tub,’ which had been sketched out previously -to his quitting Dublin. It was published in 1704. He never avowed -himself its author; but he did not deny it when Archbishop Sharpe -and the Duchess of Somerset, according to some accounts, showed it -to Queen Anne, and thereby debarred him from a bishopric. From -Temple’s conversation Swift much increased his political knowledge; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>and his early impressions were naturally in favour of the Whigs: but -he suspected his patron of neglecting to provide for him, from a desire -of retaining his services. This produced a quarrel, and the friends -parted in 1694. Swift took orders, and obtained a prebend in the north -of Ireland; but at Temple’s earnest request he soon resigned that preferment, -and returned to England. A sincere reconciliation took place, and -they lived together in the utmost harmony till Sir William’s death in -1699. Swift, in testimony of his esteem, wrote ‘The Battle of the -Books,’ of which his friend is the hero; and Temple by his will left -him a legacy in money, and the profit as well as care of his posthumous -works. Swift had indulged hopes, not without good reason, of being -well provided for in the English church, through Temple’s interest. -Failing in these hopes, he accepted the post of private secretary and -chaplain to the Earl of Berkeley, on the appointment of that nobleman -to be one of the Lords Justices of Ireland. By this new patron he seems -to have been ill used. He was soon displaced from his post, on the plea -of its unfitness for a clergyman. He was then promised the rich deanery -of Derry; but that preferment was bestowed on another person, and -Swift could only procure the livings of Laracor and Rathbeggin, which -together did not amount to more than half the value of the deanery. -During his residence at Laracor, he performed the duties of a parish -priest with punctuality and devotion, notwithstanding some occasional -sallies of no very decorous or well-timed humour, which coupled with -the suspicions founded on the anonymous ‘Tale of a Tub,’ fixed on -him an imputation of insincerity in his Christian profession, from -which the opinion of posterity seems to have absolved him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During his incumbency at Laracor, he invited to Ireland a lady -with whom he became acquainted while with Sir William Temple. -She was the daughter of Temple’s steward, whose name was Johnson. -About the year 1701, at the age of eighteen, she went to Ireland, to -reside near Swift, accompanied by Mrs. Dingley, a lady fifteen -years older than herself. Miss Johnson was Swift’s celebrated -Stella. Whether Swift’s first impulse in giving this invitation had -a view to marriage, or the cultivation of friendship only, is uncertain. -His whole conduct with respect to women was most mysterious: apparently -highly capricious, and, whatever might be its secret motive, -utterly unwarrantable. The reason assigned by the two ladies for -transferring their residence to Ireland was, “that the interest of -money was higher than in England, and provisions cheap.” Every -possible precaution was taken to prevent scandal: Swift and Miss Johnson -did not live together, nor were they ever known to meet except in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>presence of a third person. Owing to this scrupulous prudence, the -lady’s fame, during fifteen years, was never questioned, nor was her -society avoided by the most scrupulous. In 1716 they were privately -married, but with no change in their mode of life: she never lodged -in the Deanery, except during those fits of giddiness and approaching -mental aberration, during which a woman, then of middle age, might -venture without breach of decorum to nurse an elderly man.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1701 Swift had published his ‘Dissensions in Athens and -Rome;’ his first political work, in behalf of King William and his -ministers, against the violent proceedings of the House of Commons. -According to Lord Orrery, from that year to 1708 he did not write -any political pamphlet; but he made frequent journeys to England -during the whole of Queen Anne’s reign. Between 1708 and 1710 -he changed his politics, worked hard against the Whigs among whom -he had been educated, and plunged into political controversy, with a -view to open the road to power for the Tories. The year 1710 produced -the ‘Examiner,’ of which he wrote thirty-three papers. In -that year commenced his acquaintance with Harley, who introduced -him to St. John and the rest of the ministers. At this period he -dined every Saturday at Harley’s, with the Lord Keeper, Mr. Secretary -St. John, and Lord Rivers, to the exclusion of all other persons. -He may, therefore, be considered at this time as the confidential friend -of the ministry, and almost a member of their cabinet. The company -was afterwards enlarged to sixteen, including Swift; all men of the -first class in society. He now put forth all his strength in support of -the Tory party, in pamphlets, periodical papers, and political poems. -Amidst all this political agitation, he wrote down the occurrences of -every day, whether consisting of conferences with ministers, or quarrels -with his own servant, in a regular journal to Stella.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1712, ten days before the meeting of parliament, he published -a pamphlet, entitled ‘The Conduct of the Allies,’ to facilitate peace, -on which the stability, almost the personal safety of the ministers, -seemed to depend. He professes that this piece cost him much pains, -and no writer was ever more successful. A sale of eleven thousand -copies in two months was in those days unprecedented: the Tory -members in both houses drew their arguments from it, and the resolutions -of parliament were little more than a string of quotations. -During that year and the next he continued to exert himself with -unwearied diligence. In 1713 he carried to the then latest date the -first sketch of the ‘History of the last four Years of Queen Anne.’ -Lord Bolingbroke, when called on for his opinion, was sincere enough -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>to speak of it as “a seasonable pamphlet for the administration, but a -dishonour to just history.” Swift himself was proud of it, but professed -his willingness to sacrifice it to his friend’s opinion. It was, -however, published, but with no addition to the author’s fame.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Queen is said to have intended to promote him to a bishopric; -but the story is involved in obscurity. That Archbishop Sharpe -had dissuaded her from so doing by representing his belief in Christianity -as questionable, is not ascertained by any satisfactory evidence; -but whether that were so or not, Johnson’s suggestion seems probable, -that the difficulty arose from those clerical supporters of the ministry, -“who were not yet reconciled to the author of the ‘Tale of a Tub,’ -and would not, without much discontent and indignation, have borne -to see him installed in an English cathedral.” The deanery of St. -Patrick, in Dublin, was therefore offered to him, and he accepted it. -With high pretensions to independent equality with the ministers, and -a disinterested support of their measures, it cannot be doubted that he -viewed this Irish preferment as a sentence of exile, and was bitterly -disappointed. But his temper was too intractable to submit to play -the part of a courtier; and it is probable that his English friends were -not ill pleased to promote him to competence and dignity at a distance. -His feelings are characteristically expressed in one of his letters: “I -use the ministry like dogs, because I expect they will use me so. I -never knew a ministry do anything for those whom they made companions -of their pleasures; but I care not.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>He had indeed little reason to rejoice at first in the land where his -lot had fallen: on his arrival in Ireland to take possession of his -deanery, he found the country under the strongest excitement of party -violence. The populace looked on him as a Jacobite, and threw -stones at him as he walked the streets. His chapter received him -with reluctance, and thwarted him in whatever he proposed. Ordinary -talents and firmness must have sunk under such general hostility. -But the revolutions of the Dean’s life were strange; and he, who began -with the hatred of the Irish mob, lived to govern them with the -authority of a despot.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He had not been in Ireland more than a fortnight when he returned -to England for the purpose of attempting, but in vain, a reconciliation -between the Lords Oxford and Bolingbroke. While in England, he -wrote his ‘Free Thoughts on the Present State of Affairs.’ He was -probably still watching the issues of time or chance; but the Queen’s -death sealed his political and clerical doom, and he returned to Ireland. -To the interval between 1714 and 1720 Lord Orrery ascribes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>‘Gulliver’s Travels.’ His mind was at this time much engrossed by -a remarkable circumstance. He had formed an intimacy in England -with the family of a Dutch merchant, named Vanhomrigh. The -eldest daughter, strangely enough, became enamoured of Swift’s mind, -for it could not be of a most homely person, nearly fifty years of age. -She proposed marriage: this he declined, and wrote his poem of -‘Cadenus and Vanessa’ on the occasion. On her mother’s death, the -young lady and her sister followed him to Ireland; the intercourse -was continued, and the proposal renewed on her part. This it was -absolutely necessary to decline, as the Dean was already married; -but he lived with Stella on the same distant footing as before, and -was reluctant either to inflict pain, or to forego his own pleasure, by -an avowal of the insuperable obstacle. Vanessa continued to receive -his visits, but so guardedly as not absolutely to forfeit her good name. -She became however more and more urgent; and peremptorily pressed -him to accept or reject her as his wife. Failing to obtain a direct -answer, she addressed a note to Miss Johnson, desiring to know -whether she were married to him, or not. Stella sent this note to -Swift, who in a paroxysm of anger rode to Vanessa’s house, threw a -paper containing her own note on the table, and quitted her without a -word. This blow she did not survive many weeks. She died in 1723, -having first cancelled a will in the Dean’s favour.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Vanessa by will ordered her correspondence with Swift to be published, -as well as ‘Cadenus and Vanessa,’ in which he had proclaimed -her excellence and confessed his love. The letters were suppressed; -the poem was published. This, whether meant as an apology for -herself, or as a posthumous triumph over her more successful rival, -occasioned a great shock and distress both to Stella and the Dean. It -is said that at length, probably as a softening to the mortification incident -to the public discovery of his passion for Vanessa, he desired that -Stella might be publicly owned as his wife; but her health was rapidly -declining. She said, perhaps petulantly, “It is too late,” and insisted -that they should continue to live as before. To this the Dean consented, -and allowed her to dispose of her fortune, by her own name, -in public charity. She died in 1727.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By Stella’s death Swift’s happiness was deeply affected. He became -by degrees more misanthropic, and ungovernable in temper; -and more miserly in his personal habits, while at the same time -he devoted to charity a large part, it is said one-third, of his income. -In 1736 his deafness and giddiness became alarming, and his -mental powers gradually declined. In 1741 his friends found it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>necessary that guardians should be appointed over his person and -estate. In 1742 his reason was entirely overthrown; he became -lethargic and, except at short intervals, speechless. On the 30th of -November his housekeeper told him that the customary preparations -were making to celebrate his birthday: he found words to answer, -“It is all folly; they had better let it alone.” He died the latter end -of October, 1745; in his seventy-eighth year. With the exception of -some few legacies, he left his fortune, amounting to about twelve -thousand pounds, to the building of an hospital for idiots and lunatics.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The extent and variety of Swift’s writings render it necessary to -confine our notice to two or three of his most curious productions. -Of the ‘Tale of a Tub,’ which, being regarded as an attack upon all -religion, brought down a weight of censure on the author, against -which he protested in the preface to a later edition, Dr. Johnson -says that “it has little resemblance to his other pieces. It exhibits -a vehemence and rapidity of mind, a copiousness of images, and -vivacity of diction, such as he afterwards never possessed or never -exerted. It is a mode so distinct and peculiar, that it must be considered -by itself; what is true of that is not true of anything else -which he has written. In his other works is found an equable tenor -of easy language, which rather trickles than flows.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>‘Gulliver’s Travels’ are now probably better known to the public -than any other of his productions. That work is a moral and political -romance, exhibiting a wonderful specimen of irregular genius. Not -only are human actions placed in the most unfavourable light, but -human nature itself is libelled. His wayward temper and his ill-concealed -disappointment had put him out of conceit with the world; -misanthropy had made some inroad into his heart, and, with his pen -in his hand, he indulged in the expression of it with affected exaggeration. -But however offensive to good feeling the satire might be, -the imagination and wit which pervade this extraordinary work will -always attract some readers, while the simple, circumstantial air of -truth with which such extravagant fictions are related is a source of -amusement to less refined tastes.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Neither are the ‘Drapier’s Letters,’ written in 1724, less remarkable, -although the temporary nature of the subject has divested them of all -interest, except as samples of the powers of his mind and the character -of his style. Lord Orrery calls them “those brazen monuments of -his fame.” A patent had been taken out by one Wood for a copper -coinage for Ireland, to the amount of one hundred and eighty thousand -pounds in halfpence and farthings, by which the projector, at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>least as was alleged by the opponents of the ministry, would have -gained exorbitant profit, and the nation would of course have incurred -proportionate loss. The Dean, in the character of a Drapier, wrote -a series of letters, exposing the folly and mischief of giving gold -and silver for a debased coin probably not worth a third of its -nominal value. He urged the people to refuse this copper money; -and the nation acted on the Drapier’s advice. The government took -the alarm at this seditious resistance to the King’s patent, and offered -three hundred pounds reward for the discovery of the author of the -fourth letter; but his precautions were so well taken, and his popularity -so universal, that, though known to be the author, the proclamation -failed to touch him. The popular indignation rose to such a -height that Wood was compelled to withdraw his patent, and the base -money was totally suppressed. From this time forward the Dean, who -at his first arrival in Ireland had been most unpopular, possessed unlimited -influence; he was consulted on all measures of domestic policy; -persons of all ranks either courted or feared him; national gratitude -was expressed by all ranks in their various ways; the Drapier was a -toast at every convivial meeting, and the sign of his head insured -custom to an ale-house.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His letters are remarkable for the pure English of their style: -there is little of solid information to be derived from them; but the -most trifling anecdotes of distinguished men find ready acceptation with -a large class of readers.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As a poet, in the higher sense of the word, we rank Swift’s claims -to honour very humbly. But he possessed uncommon power of correct, -easy, and familiar versification; which, with his racy vein of humour, -will secure him admirers among those who can pardon his offensive -grossness.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Delany, an Irishman to the backbone, gives the following character -of him: “No man ever deserved better of any country, than -Swift did of his; a steady, persevering, inflexible friend; a wise, a -watchful, and a faithful counsellor, under many severe trials and -bitter persecutions, to the manifest hazard both of his liberty and -fortune.” With respect to his conversation and private economy -some particulars may be worth mentioning. His rule never to speak -more than a minute at a time, and to wait for others to take up the -conversation, it were well if professed talkers would adopt. He excelled -in telling a story, but told the same too often; an infirmity which -grew on him, as it does on others, in advancing life. He was churlish -to his servants, but in the main a kind and generous master. He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>was unceremonious and overbearing, sometimes brutal; but in company -which he respected, not coarse, although his politeness was in a -form peculiar to himself. He considered wealth as the pledge of independence; -but his frugality towards the close of his life amounted -to avarice. As we have represented some features of his character in -no very amiable light, we will conclude with an anecdote which shows -the kindly portion of his nature to advantage. In the high tide of his -influence, he was often rallied by the ministers for never coming to -them without a Whig in his sleeve: whatever might have been his expectations -from the unsolicited gratitude of his party, he never pressed -his own claims personally; but he often solicited favours from Lord -Oxford in behalf of Addison, Congreve, Rowe, and Steele. Personal -merit rather than political principles directed his choice of friends. -His intimacy with Addison was formed when they used to meet at -the parties of Lord Halifax or Lord Somers, who were leaders of -the Whigs; but it continued unabated when the Tories had gained -the ascendency.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Swift’s works have gone through many editions in various forms. -The latest and best is that of Sir Walter Scott. That man must be -considered fortunate in his biographers, of whom memoirs have been -handed down, with more or less detail, by Lord Orrery, Dr. Delany, -Dr. Hawkesworth, Dr. Sheridan, Dr. Johnson, and Sir W. Scott.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_052.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Gulliver in Lilliput, from a Design by Stothard.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_053fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />LOCKE.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by Sir G. Kneller in the Hall of Christ Church, Oxford.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span> -<img src='images/i_053.jpg' alt='LOCKE.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>LOCKE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>John Locke was born August 29, 1632, at Wrington, a village of -Somersetshire, about eight miles from Bristol. He was the eldest of -two sons of John Locke, a man of some property, who had been bred -to the law, but became afterwards a captain under Cromwell. In -those turbulent times he met with losses which diminished his fortune, -and he left an inconsiderable inheritance to his son. Locke received -his education at Westminster School, and Christ Church, Oxford. -While an undergraduate he was chosen to write a welcome on the -occasion of a visit which Cromwell paid to that University, just after -the conclusion of his peace with the Dutch. This he did in a laudatory -copy of verses in English and Latin, comparing the great Protector to -Julius for warlike, and to Augustus for peaceful, accomplishments. -This and some Latin verses, prefixed to a work of Sydenham’s, are -Locke’s only poetical attempts. There is little merit in either. He -was a great admirer of the meagre verse of Sir Richard Blackmore, -which is no great evidence of his poetical taste. Between the degrees -of Bachelor and Master of Arts he was elected Student of his college. -From that time he applied himself diligently, for many years, to the -study of medicine, without, however, practising it as a matter of gain. -The weakness of his health probably gave this turn to his thoughts: -his brother died of consumption; and he himself was apprehensive -through life of falling a victim to the same disease. In 1664 he went -abroad as secretary to Sir W. Swan, envoy to the court of Brandenburg; -and on his return to Oxford the year following, he applied -himself to the discovery of the effects of the air on the human frame. -His first work, published in 1667, was a register of the variations -in the atmosphere, determined between certain periods by the common -instruments, as a supplement to a work by Boyle.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was amusing himself with such enquiries, when one of the -slight but important accidents of life brought him an acquaintance, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>whose influence determined his future course. A friend, being obliged -to take a journey, desired Locke to make his excuses to Lord Ashley -(afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury) for not having procured for him -some mineral waters against his arrival in Oxford. When Lord -Ashley did arrive, Locke carried this message to him. They were -mutually pleased with each other, and this acquaintance speedily grew -up into a strict friendship. Locke’s advice determined Lord Ashley -to submit to a surgical operation, by which, it is said, the life of the -patient was saved; and he was received into the house, and practised -his profession in the family and amongst a few private friends of his -noble patron. While living in this way, his thoughts were turned -into the channel of politics by the advice of his new associates; and, -taking up that study earnestly, he was soon able to advise and assist -Ashley in all his plans of state, becoming at the same time the referee -of his private affairs. This warm friendship is singular, considering -the purity of Locke’s life, and the notoriously bad character, public -and private, of his noble patron. But the latter was an eloquent -orator, and an admirable talker; and it was probably this latter quality -which attached Locke so much. He had so great an esteem for good -conversation, as to give it a first place in the formation of a man’s -mind, calling books the raw material, and social talk, with meditation, -the true architects of our mental constructions. In 1668 Locke attended -the Earl and Countess of Northumberland to France. But -some accident caused him soon to return to his old residence with -Shaftesbury, for whom he drew up the fundamental laws of Carolina, -which had just been granted to him and other lords. Two of the -articles of this settlement gave great offence to the clergy, and were -expunged. They are remarkable, and should be mentioned. One -was, “That no man that doth not acknowledge a God, and that -God publicly worshipped, should be a freeman or inhabitant of Carolina.” -The other was a proposition, that any seven persons agreeing -in a form of worship should be esteemed a church, and be supported -by the state. The Church of England, however, was alone established -in that colony. In 1671 Locke began to form his great Essay on the -Human Understanding; but his engagements with Shaftesbury prevented -its immediate completion. The year following, his patron -becoming Chancellor, Locke was made secretary of presentations, -which office he speedily lost on the partial disgrace of the Earl, who, -still remaining President of the Board of Trade, appointed him secretary -to a commission of inquiry into the state of trade, and the -colonial plantations. This office he also lost in the same manner, -upon Lord Shaftesbury’s total disgrace in 1674.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>Having retained his studentship, Locke then retired to Oxford, -partly for his health’s sake, and partly to pursue his old medical -studies. He took the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in this year. -It appears that he continued to pay some attention to these studies -until an advanced age: for in 1697 he communicated to the Royal -Society the history of a curious case which he had seen at the great -hospital of La Charité, during his residence in Paris. In 1675, in -hope of obtaining relief from an asthmatical complaint, he went to -Montpellier. There was also another reason for this journey. He -had just published an anonymous pamphlet for Shaftesbury, blaming -the conduct of the House of Lords in the matter of the Test Act, containing -a vehement abuse of the bishops, and of what he called their -favourite doctrine, “the divine right” of kings and priests. This -pamphlet does not appear in the folio edition of his works; it was -anonymous, like most of his other productions. The odium consequent -upon it made his absence from England expedient, if not -necessary. During his stay abroad Locke kept a journal of what he -saw, did, and thought. In it we find the heads of many of his future -works, which are very concise and valuable; but the narrative is dry, -and the attempts at humour not very successful: he seems however to -have been as observant of what relates to the external world, as he -was of the intellectual. In 1679, Shaftesbury, on being made President -of the Council, summoned Locke to England. But the old statesman’s -favour was short lived: he was committed to the Tower in July, 1681, -and soon after his release, retired to Holland, where he died in January, -1683. Locke accompanied him, and continued his faithful services -until death. For seventeen years he had been Shaftesbury’s constant -partizan and adviser; and the odium attached to that nobleman clung -to himself, and prevented his return to England for many years. In -1683 he was reported by the English envoy at the Hague to be on -terms of intimacy with the malcontents in Holland; upon which the -secretary (Sunderland) wrote to Dr. Fell, the Dean of Christ Church, -ordering his expulsion from college. This mandate was not immediately -complied with: the Dean declared that for many years he had -watched the conduct of Locke, and even tried to entrap him into an -exposure of his political sentiments, but had always found him too -wary. He allowed Locke time to come and defend himself, which he -would not do, and then expelled him from his studentship.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the accession of James II., William Penn, the quaker of Pennsylvania, -being in some favour with the King, would have procured a -pardon for Locke, but he refused the offer, through a friend, as having -been guilty of no crime. In May, 1685, the English ambassador demanded -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>him of the States-General, of the pretext that he was concerned -in the unsuccessful expedition of the Duke of Monmouth. It -is supposed that he owed this bad turn partly to the malice of the -envoy himself, as his name did not appear in the list of those required -which was sent from England. He neither liked the person nor the -invasion of the duke, and was at Utrecht when the armament of that -unfortunate nobleman sailed from the Texel. Locke was not given -up, but was obliged to hide himself for about a year in the house of -his friend M. Veen, at Amsterdam, receiving assurance from the local -authorities that timely warning should be given him of pressing danger. -He was obliged to conceal himself so closely as only to take his -exercise during the night. It is probable that the real cause of this -persecution was his first letter on Toleration, written in Latin about -this time, and addressed to his friend Limborch, the sentiments of -which were peculiarly offensive to the English court.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Locke had now time to attend to his own affairs, being no longer -taken up with those of a patron. He busied himself in the completion -of his Essay concerning Human Understanding, which was not, -however, printed till 1689. The extracting of passages from -various works for reviewal in Le Clerc’s literary journal, the Bibliothèque -Universelle, the formation and continuation of a small -society for the weekly discussion of all subjects, the members of -which were his friends Le Clerc, Limborch, Guenelon, and others, -and the abridgment of his Essay, served to fill up his time during -the remainder of his stay in Holland. In 1689 he published a -second letter on Toleration, and early in the same year returned to his -native country in the fleet which conducted the Princess of Orange to -the throne of England. The Revolution had completely changed the -face of affairs in Locke’s favour; he was considered a martyr to its -principles, and was esteemed accordingly by its authors. On his -return he immediately petitioned William to cause him to be reinstated -in his studentship; but the College refused to restore him, offering at -the same time to make him a supernumerary student. This he would -not accept; because he felt it not to be a full reparation of the injustice -he had suffered. He allowed the matter to drop.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If Locke had been ambitious, his path to political advancement was -now open. William offered him the ambassadorship to the Imperial -Court, or to that of Brandenburg. He refused both these high -appointments; but accepted a Commissionership of Appeals from his -friend Lord Mordaunt, afterwards Earl of Peterborough. This office -was worth only £200 a year. His friends Sir Francis and Lady -Masham (a daughter of the celebrated Cudworth) prevailed on him -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>to take apartments in their house at Oates in Essex; between which -place and his office in London he spent the remainder of his life. In -1690 Locke published his Treatise on Civil Government. The folio -edition of his Essay, and a Letter on Education, appeared in the latter -part of the same year. In 1692 he produced a third Letter on Toleration. -The state of the coinage being a subject of great importance -at that time, he took it into consideration, and published ‘Certain -Thoughts on the State of English Silver Money, &c.,’ in a letter -to a member of parliament. This treatise was thought so good, -that when the matter was inquired into by the government, Locke -was consulted, and his advice taken with respect to the new coinage. -In consequence of this important assistance, he received from -William III. a Commissionership of Foreign Trade and Plantations, -the value of which was £1000 a year. The King was exceedingly -desirous of a comprehension with the dissenters, and to forward his -views Locke wrote his ‘Reasonableness of Christianity.’ This book -involved him in a religious controversy with Dr. Edwards, who -attacked its opinions in his ‘Socinian Unmasked,’ to which Locke replied -by two vindications, each of them longer than the original work. -No sooner had he finished this labour than he was called upon to encounter -a fresh and more able antagonist. Toland and some other Unitarians -having turned to their own use some of the arguments in Locke’s -Essay, Dr. Stillingfleet, the learned Bishop of Worcester, confounded -Locke with that party. In his defence of the doctrine of the Trinity -the Bishop severely censured various passages of Locke’s great work, -as tending to subvert some of the fundamental doctrines of Christianity; -Locke replied, and there was an alternation of answers between -them till the Bishop’s death. That event took place soon after Locke’s -third answer, which was the last thing he ever published. These -replies of Locke are reputed to be most finished specimens of a grave -and subtle irony, too refined perhaps to be generally perceived by the -uninitiated eye.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1700 Locke’s weak state of health induced him to retire from -public life. He resigned his situation in a personal interview with the -King, giving no previous notice of his intention to the conductors of the -government, and refusing the pension which his master wished him to -accept. He took up his residence at Oates, where he passed the remainder -of his life in reading and contemplating the Scriptures. He -often regretted that he had not more occupied himself in this study. -The piety of his latter years was without formality or ostentation, not -arising from that sense of disappointment, or irksomeness for want of -employment, which often leads men to seek refuge in a late devotion. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>Neither Locke’s mental nor bodily senses failed him to his last moments, -though the year before his death was passed in extreme weakness. -On taking the sacrament he declared “that he was in peace with -all men, and in sincere union with the Church of Christ, by whatever -name distinguished.” The affectionate attentions of Lady Masham -softened the pain of his last illness, and he died gently in his chair -while she was reading to him one of the Psalms of David, October 28, -1704, in his seventy-third year. He died, unmarried, from the -natural decay of an originally weak constitution. He was buried -in the churchyard at High Laver, near Oates, under a decent -monument. His epitaph had been written some years before, by -himself, in Latin<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c011'><sup>[3]</sup></a>. He left behind him many unpublished works, -among which his ‘Conduct of the Understanding’ stands highest. -‘An Examination of Malebranche’s opinion of seeing all things in -God; ‘A Discourse of Miracles;’ part of a fourth letter on the subject -of Toleration; some imperfect memorial sketches of the life of -the Earl of Shaftesbury; a new method for a commonplace-book; -and paraphrases of several of the epistles of St. Paul, make up the -list of his posthumous works, almost all of which were translated into -French by Le Clerc and others, and appeared (together with those -published by himself) in three folio volumes, not many years after his -death. A great many of his letters to his friends Molyneux and Limborch -are also published in this edition. There remain many more -which have been given to the world by various hands, addressed to the -Earl of Peterborough, Dr. Mapletoft, &c., and to Newton. In Lord -King’s life of Locke his correspondence with the latter is given at full -length, and is very curious,—chiefly relating to subjects they were both -engaged in, the prophecies and miracles.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. </span>“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Siste, viator; juxta situs est J. L. Si qualis fuerit rogas, mediocritate suâ contentum -se vixisse respondet. Literis innutritus eousque tantum profecit ut veritati unicà studeret. -Hoc ex scriptis illius disce; quæ, quod de eo reliquum est, majori fide tibi exhibebunt, -quam epitaphii suspecta elogia. Virtutis si quas habuit, minores sane quam -quas sibi laudi, tibi in exemplum proponeret. Vitia una sepeliantur. Morum exemplum -si quæras, in evangelio habes (vitiorum utinam nusquam), mortalis certè quod -prosit hic et ubique. Natum . . . . Mortuum . . . . Memorat hac tabula brevi et -ipsa interitura.</span>”</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>That which has assured to Locke imperishable fame is the ‘Essay -concerning Human Understanding.’ This great work, however, met -with considerable obloquy at first: the heads of colleges at Oxford -even endeavoured to prevent its being read in their University. The -Essay is in the hands of all; the writings of its opponents, comparatively -speaking, are forgotten. It will be generally admitted, that in -it Locke laid the foundation of modern metaphysical philosophy.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>Two of Locke’s chief works, the ‘Treatise on Civil Government,’ -and ‘Essay on Education,’ are more capable of a short analysis. The -former may be taken as an expression of his own opinions in defence -of the Revolution. It is divided into two parts. The first contains -an exposure of the fallacies of Sir Robert Filmer’s ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Patriarcha</span>,’ arguing -that Adam had not such natural or gifted right of dominion as -Filmer pretends; that if he had, his heirs had not; that if they had, yet -there is no general law, divine or human, which determines the right of -succession, much less of bearing rule; lastly, that if such right had -been determined, yet the eldest line from Adam being unknown, no -man can pretend more than another to that right of inheritance; consequently, -that some other source of political power must be found than -“Adam’s private dominion and paternal jurisdiction.” Locke proceeds -in the second part to declare his opinion as to what this other source -may be. He argues, that originally the executive power was in the -hands of each individual; but, by mutual consent, for mutual benefit, -as men grew into societies, political power was created, and given to -persons chosen from the whole body by the major part of such societies. -He protests against absolute power, as not expressing the will of the -majority; but defends prerogative, as a discretionary power lodged in -the hands of the executive government. He maintains that this compact -must be held sacred, but reverts to the society if its duration was -declared temporary, or upon the misconduct of rulers or delegates. -When forfeited, the will of the society may create new forms of government; -or, under the old form, continue it in other hands.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Essay on Education is expressly for the use of gentlemen, since -“if that class be properly tended the rest will follow of course.” The -child, he says, should have much air and exercise, should be accustomed -to little sleep and early habits. That superstitious terrors, and -the frequent use of the rod should be carefully avoided; that the boy -should be used to suffer pain gradually, to harden him, but not as a -punishment; that the parents’ authority should be perfect over the -child, and be gradually taken off, till the relation between them becomes -a confiding friendship; that particular attention be paid to his -manners, so that his courage, learning, wit, plainness, and good-nature, -do not turn to brutality, pedantry, buffoonery, rusticity, and -fawning. He says, that the child’s curiosity should be encouraged; -that he should learn by games, and his attainments never be forced; -that he should not be left to flounder in difficulties, but helped through -them. Locke prefers a careful tutor to a public school: he says that -a boy stands a better chance of being both virtuous and well-bred -under the care of the former. What he should know is Latin, Greek, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>a little mathematics, how to keep accounts; the less of logic the -better; he should write a good hand; and a virtuous youth so bred, -“one may turn loose into the world with great assurance that he will -find employment and esteem everywhere.” He further recommends -that the boy should travel between the ages of eight and sixteen, -rather than between sixteen and twenty one; and that when he comes -of age he had better not marry according to the usual custom, but wait -some years, that his children “may not tread too closely on his heels.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The habit of Locke’s mind was perhaps originally severe; but from -constant social intercourse with men of all characters and opinions, -was rendered mild and equable. Nothing seems to have provoked him -into a loss of temper so much as being forced into argument with professed -logicians. He calls the logical method taught at Oxford an ill, -if not the worst way of acquiring knowledge and seeking truth. He -was fond of the society of children, and would enter into the enjoyments -of riper youth with facility. He was entrusted by his patron -with the education and marriage of his son, who was the father of the -author of the ‘Characteristics.’ The latter nobleman (the third Earl -of Shaftesbury) owed much to Locke’s care, and was his eulogist.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Locke was of a cautious if not timid disposition. This appears -from many of his letters, and may be inferred from the anonymous -publication of most of his writings. His weak health, the political -persecution to which he was exposed during great part of his life, and -the discipline to which he was subjected in childhood, which was -strict and severe, in some measure account for this failing. His friendships -were very steady; witness his close adherence to his patron -Shaftesbury. Sydenham’s contemporary and friendly character of -Locke is remarkable: he says, in a prefatory letter to one of his -works, that “if we consider his genius, his penetrating and exact -judgment, and the strictness of his morals, he has scarcely any superior, -and few equals now living.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_060.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Reverse of a French Medal of Locke.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_061fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by Rob<sup>t</sup>. Hart.</em><br /><br />SELDEN.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture attributed to Sir Peter Lely in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span> -<img src='images/i_061.jpg' alt='SELDEN.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SELDEN.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>John Selden was born at Salvington, a hamlet of Tarring, near -Worthing, in the county of Sussex, December 16, 1584 (O.S.). -His father, according to Wood, “was a sufficient plebeian,” who, -through some skill in music, obtained as his wife Margaret Baker, a -daughter of a knightly family of the county of Kent. The baptism -of his eminent son, as well as his own musical talents, are noticed in -an existing parish registry in these words: “1584.—Johnne, sonne -of John Selden, the minstrell, was baptised the XXX<sup>th</sup> day of December.” -The house in which the family lived was called Lacies, and the -estate of the father consisted, in 1606, of eighty-one acres, of the annual -value of about twenty-three pounds. John Selden, the son, received -his early education at the Free Grammar-School of Chichester. At -the age of fourteen he entered at Hart Hall, Oxford. After residing -four years at the University, he was admitted, in 1602, a member of -Clifford’s Inn, one of the dependencies of the greater inns of court, -in which students of law were formerly accustomed to commence -their legal education. He removed in May, 1604, to the Inner -Temple. His attention appears to have been early drawn to the -study of civil and legal history, and antiquities; he did not court the -more active business of his profession, and his employment at the bar -was limited. In 1607, he prepared for the press his first work, -entitled ‘Analectωn Anglo-Britannicωn,’ being a collection of civil -and ecclesiastical matters relating to Britain, of a date anterior to the -Norman conquest. This was soon followed by three other works of a -similar character, and in 1614 he printed his ‘Treatise upon Titles -of Honour.’ The last of these works has been considered in our courts -of law to be of great authority, and has been usually spoken of with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>much commendation. Pursuing his legal inquiries, he edited, in 1616, -two treatises, one of Sir John Fortescue, the other of Sir Ralph -Hengham, and in the same year wrote a ‘Discourse on the Office of -Lord Chancellor.’ In the next year he printed a work, ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Diis Syris</span>,’ -which added to his celebrity, but is not compiled with that attention -to the value of the respective authorities cited, so essentially necessary -to the accurate consideration of historical questions. His next work -was a ‘History of Tithes,’ printed in 1618, which excited against him -the bitter hostility of the clergy. The doctrine of divine right, as the -foundation of many ecclesiastical claims, was at this time jealously -maintained, and was considered to be peculiarly connected with the -right of the clergy to tithes. Selden drew no direct conclusion against -the divine nature of the right to tithes, but he had so arranged his -authorities as to render such a conclusion inevitable. The nature only -of the title was contested, and so far from the clergy having had any -reason to look upon Selden as an enemy, he in fact strengthened -their claim to tithes by placing it upon the same footing as any ordinary -title to property. As soon as the ‘History’ appeared it was attacked. -The High Commission Court summoned Selden before it, and to this -tribunal he was compelled to apologise. The terms of his submission -very accurately state the offence, and are expressive of regret that “he -had offered any occasion of argument against any right of maintenance -<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">jure divino</span></i> of the ministers of the gospel.” The work received several -answers, but Selden was forbidden by James I., under a threat of -imprisonment, to notice them. “All that will,” said he, “have -liberty, and some use it, to write and preach what they will against -me, to abuse my name, my person, my profession, with as many falsehoods -as they please, and my hands are tied: I must not so much as -answer their calumnies. I am so far from writing more, that I have -scarce ventured for my own safety so much as to say they abuse me, -though I know it.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Hardly had this storm passed, when he became involved in the -disputes between the Crown and the House of Commons. One of -the earliest steps of that body, upon the convocation of Parliament in -1621, was to present a remonstrance on the state of public affairs. -This was succeeded by the memorable protestation of December 18, -in which the liberty of the subject was asserted, and the right of the -Commons to offer advice to the Crown was insisted on. This protestation -was erased from the journals of the House by the King’s own -hands, and the parliament was dissolved. Selden, whose advice, though -he was not then a member, had been requested by the House in this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>dispute, was in consequence imprisoned, and detained in confinement five -weeks. His release was owing to the intercession of Bishop Williams, -who represented him to be “a man who hath excellent parts, which -might be diverted from an affectation of pleasing idle people to do -some good and useful service to his Majesty.” On his release, he -dedicated to Williams his edition of Eadmer’s contemporary ‘History -of England, from the Norman Conquest to the death of Henry I.,’ -which he had prepared for the press during his confinement.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the next parliament assembled in 1624, Selden sat in it -as member for the borough of Lancaster. Though nominated upon -several committees, he took no active share in the general business of -the House. About this time also he was appointed one of the readers -of the Inner Temple; but he refused the office, and was in consequence -for some time disabled to be advanced to the rank of a bencher of the -inn. Upon the accession of Charles I. a new parliament was called, -in which Selden sat for the borough of Great Bedwin. This parliament -was almost immediately dissolved, and another summoned, to -which Selden was again returned for the same borough as before. The -Commons immediately entered upon a consideration of the conduct of -the Duke of Buckingham, and his impeachment being resolved on, -Selden was one of the members appointed to prepare the articles, -and was named a manager for their prosecution. These proceedings -were stopped by another dissolution of parliament in June, 1626. But -the necessities of the Crown requiring those supplies which parliament -refused without a redress of grievances, forced loans were resorted to -in the exercise of certain pretended owners of the prerogative. In -several instances these loans were refused; among others by Sir -Edward Hampden, who was imprisoned in consequence: and the illegality -of his commitment was very ably argued by Selden in the King’s -Bench. In the third parliament, called by Charles I. in 1628, Selden -sat for the borough of Ludgershall; and in the debates which immediately -took place upon illegal commitments, the levy of tonnage and -poundage, and the preparation of the Petition of Rights, he took a -very active share. The attack upon the Duke of Buckingham was -renewed, and it was proposed by Selden, that judgment should be -demanded against him upon the impeachment of the former parliament. -As affecting a great constitutional question, only finally determined in -1791, of the continuance of impeachments, notwithstanding a dissolution -of parliament, the suggestion was remarkable. Further proceedings -were, however, stopped by the assassination of the Duke.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the prorogation of parliament, Selden again devoted himself -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>to literary pursuits. The Earl of Arundel, a great lover and promoter -of the arts, had received from the east many ancient marbles, having -on them Greek inscriptions. At the request of Sir Robert Cotton, -these inscriptions were transcribed under the superintendence of -Selden, and were published under the title of ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Marmora Arundeliana</span>.’ -In January, 1629, parliament again assembled, and the debates upon -public grievances were renewed. The goods of several merchants, in -the interval of the meeting of parliament, had been seized by the -Crown, to satisfy a claim to the duty of tonnage and poundage. -Among the sufferers was Rolls, a member of the House. It was -moved, that the seizure of his goods was a breach of privilege. When -the question was to be put, the Speaker said “he durst not, for that -the King had commanded to the contrary.” Selden immediately rose, -and vehemently complained of this conduct: “Dare you not, Mr. -Speaker, to put the question when we command you. If you will not -put it, we must sit still: thus, we shall never be able to do any thing. -They that come after you may say, that they have the King’s commands -not to do it. We sit here by the command of the King under -the great seal, and you are, by his Majesty, sitting in his royal chair -before both houses, appointed for our Speaker, and now refuse to do -your office.” The House then adjourned in a state of great excitement. -When it re-assembled, the Speaker was called upon to put the question, -and again refused. On this Holles and Valentine thrust the Speaker -into the chair, and held him down, while Sir Miles Hobart locked the -door of the house and took possession of the key. A declaration was -then produced by Sir John Elliot, which Colonel Stroud moved should -be read, and himself put the question. The motion was declared to -be carried; and the Speaker, refusing to act upon it, was charged by -Sir P. Heyman with cutting up the liberty of the subject by the roots. -Selden moved that the declaration should be read by the clerk, which -was agreed to. The House then adjourned to a day, previous to which -the King came to the House of Lords and dissolved the parliament, on -account of “the undutiful and seditious carriage of the Lower House,” -without the attendance of the Commons. Selden, and the other -members concerned in the violence offered to the Speaker, were committed -to prison. This was his last and most rigorous confinement. -For some time he was denied the use of pens, ink, paper, and books. -When, after many weeks had elapsed, he was brought up with the -other prisoners before the King’s Bench upon a writ of <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">habeas corpus</span></i>, -their discharge was offered upon condition of their finding bail for -their good behaviour. “We demand,” said Selden, “to be bailed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>in point of right; and if it be not grantable of right, we do not demand -it. But finding sureties for good behaviour is a point of discretion -merely, and we cannot assent to it without great offence to the parliament -where these matters, which are surmised by the return, were -acted.” They were remanded, and remained for a long time in -prison, where Elliot, one of the ablest members of the popular party, -fell a victim to his confinement. In 1634, Selden was suffered to go -at large upon bail, which was discontinued upon his petition to the -Crown. During his imprisonment he wrote a treatise, ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Successionibus -in Bona Defuncti ad Leges Ebræorum</span>,’ and another, -‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Successione in Pontificatum Ebræorum</span>.’ Both those works he -dedicated to Archbishop Laud; probably upon account of his being -indebted to the Archbishop for the loan of books. Not long after the -recovery of his liberty, Selden obtained the favour of Charles I., and -dedicated to him his celebrated essay on the ‘Mare Clausum,’ an -argument in favour of the dominion of the English over the four seas, -copies of which were, by order of the Privy Council, directed to be -placed in the council chest, the Court of Exchequer, and the Court of -Admiralty.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To the Long Parliament, which commenced its sittings in 1640, -Selden was unanimously returned by the University of Oxford; but -neither this new connexion with the clergy, nor the favour of Charles, -appears to have affected his opinions. Upon the first day of the sitting -of parliament he was nominated a member of the committee to inquire -into the abuses of the Earl Marshal’s Court, and was appointed with -others to draw up a remonstrance upon the state of the nation. He also -sat upon the committees which conducted the measures preparatory to -the impeachment of the Earl of Strafford, but he was not one of the -managers before the House of Lords; and his name was posted in -Old Palace Yard as one of “the enemies of justice,” a title given to -those who were regarded as favourable to the Earl. It is not very -clear what his opinions upon the impeachment were. That he should -have been satisfied with all the steps taken by his party is not possible, -for his opinions were undoubtedly moderate, and his studious habits -must have checked any disposition to violence. He was also nominated -to frame the articles of impeachment against Laud, and was a party to -the resolutions against the legislative powers of the bishops. The court, -however, appears to have considered him favourable to its interests, -until he spoke against the commission of array. Upon this question, -Clarendon represents the influence of his opinion upon the public to -have been very prejudicial to Charles I. About this time the great -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>seal was offered to him. He declined it, according to Clarendon, on -account of his love of ease, and “that he would not have made a journey -to York or have been out of his own bed for any preferment.” The -reason which he himself assigned for refusing it, was the impossibility -of his rendering any service to the Crown. He sat as member of the -Assembly of Divines at Westminster, and took the covenant; yet he -was not well affected to the Puritans, and declared that “he was neither -mad enough nor fool enough to deserve the name of Puritan.” Upon -the death of Dr. Eden, Master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in August, -1645, Selden was elected his successor, but declined to accept the -office. About this time he appears to have gradually withdrawn -from public business. His fondness of ease and his increasing age, -and the silence he preserved upon many important events, all contribute -to leave the inference of his approval or disapproval of much -of the conduct of the parliamentary leaders open to adverse parties. -He certainly never openly abandoned the popular side, nor does he -appear to have forfeited its respect; and yet at the same time he continued -to be esteemed by many of the leading Royalists.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The studies of Selden were continued to the latest period of his life, -and he was near the age of seventy when his last work was published. -The influence he possessed with the parliamentary leaders was frequently -exerted in favour of letters. When Archbishop Laud’s -endowment of the professorship of Arabic in the University of Oxford, -was seized, on the attainder of that prelate, he procured its -restitution. Archbishop Usher having preached against the divines -of Westminster, and excited their anger, was punished by the confiscation -of his library. Selden interfered, and saved it from sale and -dispersion. When prelacy was abolished, the library attached to the -see of Canterbury was by his efforts transferred to the University of -Cambridge, where it remained until the Restoration. Through his -entreaties, Whitelocke was induced to accept the charge of the medals -and books at St. James’s, and thus secured their preservation. The -services which he rendered to the University of Oxford were no less -valuable, and were acknowledged in grateful terms by that learned -body; and it was through his interference that the papers and instruments -of Graves, the Professor of Mathematics, which had been seized -by a party of soldiers, were restored.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Selden died November 30, 1654, and was buried in the Temple -church. He left behind him no immediate relations, and he bequeathed -nearly the whole of his fortune, amounting to nearly 40,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, -to his four executors, giving only one hundred pounds to each of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>children of his sister, the wife of John Barnard, of Goring. His -books and manuscripts he had originally given by his will to the -University of Oxford; but that body having demanded of him a heavy -bond for the restitution of a book which he desired to borrow from -the public library, the bequest was struck out, and they were directed -to be placed “in some convenient public library or college -in one of the universities.” Sir M. Hale and his other executors, -considering that they were the executors “of his will, and not of his -passion,” transferred them to the Bodleian Library at Oxford.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To learned men Selden was liberal and generous; and there is a -letter from Casaubon in Parr’s ‘Life of Archbishop Usher,’ in which -that distinguished scholar with great feeling says, “I was with Mr. -Selden after I had been with your Grace, whom, upon some intimation -of my present condition and necessities, I found so noble, as -that he did not only presently furnish me with a very considerable -sum of money, but was so free and forward in his expressions, as -that I could not find in my heart to tell him much (somewhat I did) -of my intention of selling, lest it should sound as a farther pressing -upon him of whom I had received so much.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Milton terms Selden “the chief of learned men reputed in this -land;” and Whitelocke states, “that his mind was as great as his -learning, being very generous and hospitable.” Clarendon, who could -not regard Selden with any political partiality, though he had in early -life been on terms of intimacy with him, describes him to have been -“a person whom no character can flatter or transmit in any expressions -equal to his merit or virtue. He was of so stupendous learning in -all kinds and in all languages (as may appear in his excellent and -transcendent writings), that a man would have thought he had been -entirely conversant among books, and had never spent an hour but -in reading and writing; yet his humanity, courtesy, and affability -were such, that he would have been thought to have been bred in -the best courts, but that his good nature, charity, and delight in doing -good, and in communicating all he knew, exceeded that breeding.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The motto adopted by Selden was <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">περὶ παντὸς τὴν ἐλευθερίαν</span> -(above all things, liberty), and it is to be found neatly written upon the -first page of many of his MSS. Its spirit he extended to religious -questions; and there are many bold and vigorous passages in his -writings in which the necessity of freedom of inquiry upon all subjects -is strongly insisted on. Noticing upon one occasion a certain class of -ancient philosophers, he remarks, “He who takes to himself their -liberty of inquiry, is in the only way that, in all kinds of studies, leads -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>and lies open even to the sanctuary of truth; while others, that are -servile to common opinion and vulgar suppositions, can rarely hope to -be admitted nearer than into the base-court of her temple, which too -speciously often counterfeits her innermost sanctuary.” His religious -opinions have, with much impropriety, been the subject of dispute. -They have been chiefly inferred from several passages of a work -published after his death, entitled ‘Selden’s Table Talk.’ From the -nature of his studies, his writings are far from being popular, and -are, in consequence, now but little read. They obtained, however, -for their author, during an age abounding with illustrious and learned -men, an honourable reputation, among the most distinguished literary -men of continental Europe, as well as among those of his own country. -His works were edited by Dr. Wilkins, in 3 vols. folio, in 1726, to -which a Latin ‘Life of the Author’ is prefixed.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_068.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Gallery of the Arundel Marbles.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_069fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />A. PARÉ.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture, in “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’École de Médecine</span>,” at Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span> -<img src='images/i_069.jpg' alt='PARÉ.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>PARÉ.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Ambroise Paré, the father of French surgery, and one of the most -useful as well as the earliest of the innovators upon that art as practised -by the ancients, was born at Laval, in the district of Maine, in -the year 1509. After going through the rudiments of education, he -was placed at an early age under the tuition of the chaplain Orsoy, in -his native town, to be instructed in the classics; but the means of his -family appear to have been very narrow, or the economy with which -they were supplied must have been strict; for we find that the worthy -chaplain was obliged to make use of the services of his pupil in -grooming his mule and other menial capacities, in order to eke out the -scanty remuneration he received for his instructions. In truth, these -do not appear to have been great; for Paré never achieved a knowledge -of Greek, and was but superficially acquainted with the Latin language; -and it is probable that even this small amount of classical -acquirement was made at a late period of his life, when, being an -author, he wished to quote.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On leaving his tutor, he was placed with a barber-surgeon at Laval, -named Vialot, who is recorded to have taught him how to bleed. Not -long after this change in his pursuits, the lithotomist, Laurent Colot, -came to Laval to undertake the treatment of one of the chaplain’s -ecclesiastical brethren: on this occasion, Paré was present, and -zealously assisted at the operation. This accidental circumstance -appears to have suggested to him the ambitious project of following -the higher departments of surgery; and he contrived to leave the shop -of his master in phlebotomy, and repaired to Paris, where he availed -himself with so much diligence of the advantages afforded by that city, -as a school of anatomy and medicine, that he was soon entrusted with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>the subordinate charge of the patients of Goupil, who then held the -surgical chair in the college of France. From this discerning tutor -he learned not only all the knowledge which could at that time be -obtained from secondary sources, but the art of expressing himself -well, and acquitting himself of his duties with neatness and grace. -The talents thus acquired were of the greatest service to him in his -after-life, which was chiefly passed among the great; and gave him -that ease of manner and power of gaining confidence, which stood him -so frequently in stead as court-surgeon to four successive monarchs, -and, aiding the natural frankness of his character, carried him safely -through many an intrigue and cabal, dangerous not only to his reputation -and fortunes, but even to his life. He was never a member of -the community of barber-surgeons, but derived his legal qualification -to practise from a degree in surgery taken at the college of St. Edme, -of which he was afterwards Provost.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having passed upwards of three years as a student, residing actually -within the walls of the Hotel Dieu at Paris, he was appointed Staff-surgeon, -in 1536, when twenty-seven years old, to the Mareschal -René de Monte-jean, who commanded the infantry under the Constable -Montmorenci in the campaign of Piedmont. In this capacity, -Paré was present at the siege and capture of Turin.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From this time is to be dated the commencement of his acquaintance -with military surgery, for which he afterwards did so much. -“I was then,” he says, “very raw and inexperienced, having never -seen the treatment of gunshot wounds. It is true that I had read in -the Treatise of Jean de Vigo on wounds in general, that those inflicted -by fire-arms partake of a poisonous nature on account of the powder, -and that they should be treated with hot oil of elder mixed with a little -theriacum. Seeing, therefore, that such an application must needs put -the patient to extreme pain, to assure myself before I should make -use of this boiling oil, I desired to see how it was employed by the -other surgeons. I found their method was to apply it, at the first -dressing, as hot as possible, within the wound with tents and setons: -and this I made bold to do likewise. At length my oil failed me, and -I was fain to substitute a digestive, made of the yolks of eggs, rose-oil, -and turpentine. At night I could not rest in my bed in peace, -fearing that I should find the wounded, in whose cases I had been -compelled to abstain from using this cautery, dead of poison: this -apprehension made me rise very early in the morning to visit them; -but beyond all my hopes, I found those to whom I had applied the -digestive suffering little pain, and their wounds free from inflammation; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>and they had been refreshed by sleep in the night. On the -contrary, I found those to whom the aforesaid oil had been applied, -feverish, in great pain, and with swelling and inflammation round their -wounds. I resolved, therefore, that I would never burn unfortunate -sufferers from gunshot in that cruel manner again.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Such was the casual origin of one of Paré’s greatest improvements -in surgery,—the substitution of a mild treatment for the cautery in -gunshot wounds; a principle which he afterwards successfully extended -to other injuries at that time deemed poisonous. The improvement -seems as obvious as it was important: yet the adherents of the -old practice gave him much trouble, and even made it necessary for -him to defend his wholesome innovation long afterwards before -Charles IX. in person.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Yet with all his sound sense, Ambroise Paré was not by any means -free from the credulity of his age. For instance, he relates, in his account -of this siege, an amusing story of the court he paid to an Italian -quack doctor, who lived at Turin, to wheedle him out of the secret of -a dressing for fresh gunshot wounds, for which he had great fame. -This was found to consist of a mixture of bruised worms, the grease -of puppies boiled down alive, and other absurd ingredients, constituting -the celebrated <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">oleum catellorum</span></i>, the only merit of which consists in its -harmlessness. He is erroneously praised by Dr. Ballingall for having -banished this unguent from practice, whereas, on the contrary, he -introduced it; and he shows, by his frequent reference to it in his -works, that he had no small faith in its virtues, and was exceedingly -proud of having been the means of its publication.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The death of his patron, the Mareschal, soon after the fall of Turin, -induced him to return to Paris, though tempted by large offers to -remain in the camp.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1543, he accompanied the Duc de Rohan into Britanny, where -Francis I. commanded in person against the English; and the next -year he followed that monarch in his expedition to throw supplies into -Landrecy. In 1545, he was with the camp at Boulogne, where he -cured the general of the royal army, Francis Duke of Guise, of a very -dangerous wound, which gained him great reputation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1552, he attended the Duc de Rohan in his campaign in -Germany. During this expedition occurred one of those instances of -combined humanity and skill, which made Paré the favourite of the -French army. He thus tells the story: “A party had gone out to -attack a church, where the peasants of the country had fortified themselves, -hoping to get some provisions, but they came back very soundly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>beaten; and one especially, a captain-lieutenant of the company of the -Duke, returned with seven gashes in his head, the least of which had -penetrated to the inner table of the skull, besides four sabre wounds -in the arm, and one across the shoulder, which divided the shoulder-blade -in half. When he was brought to quarters, the Duke judged -him to be so desperately wounded, that he absolutely proposed, as they -were to march by daylight, to dig a trench for him, and throw him -into it, saying, that it was as well that the peasants should finish -him. But being moved with pity, I told him (says Paré), that the -captain might yet be cured: many gentlemen of the company joined -with me in begging that he might be allowed to go with the baggage, -since I was willing to dress and cure him. This was accordingly -granted: I dressed him, and put him into a small well-covered bed in -a cart drawn by one horse. I was at once physician, surgeon, apothecary, -and cook to him; and, thank God, I did cure him in the end, to -the admiration of all the troops: and out of their first booty, the men-at-arms -gave me a crown a-piece, and the archers half-a-crown each.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>His reputation was now so high, that no expedition of importance, -especially if generalled by a prince of the blood, or one of the higher -nobility, was considered complete without his presence. This was -accordingly solicited by the old King of Navarre, more commonly -called the Duc de Vendôme, on an occasion of that kind. But being -tired of a military life, and disgusted with its cruelties and horrors, -he endeavoured to evade the proposal, alleging the illness of his wife, -and other excuses: but the Duke would take no denial; and at last -he consented to accompany him to the siege of Chateau le Comte. -There he acquitted himself so well, that upon the warm encomiums of -the Duke he was received into the service of Henry the Second, in -1552, being then but thirty-three years old. From this time he lived -at the court, where, with other advantages, obtained not less by his -behaviour and wit than his skill, he enjoyed, though a Huguenot, the -especial favour of the Queen, Catherine de’ Medici, who was fond of -conversing with him in her own language, with which Paré had -become well acquainted in his Italian campaign. She served him -powerfully on several important occasions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Paré, however, still continued to frequent the camp, when any -emergency seemed to demand his services. Such an occasion occurred -at the renowned siege of Metz, in the winter of 1552, conducted -by Charles V. in person, with the Duke of Alva and 120,000 -men, against a garrison of 6000, which ended, after two months, in -the disastrous retreat of the besiegers. The defence was most gallantly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>carried on by the flower of the French army, headed by -many of the higher noblesse, and several of the princes of the -blood, under the Duke of Guise. It has been already mentioned -that gunshot wounds were at that time thought to have something -poisonous about them; and the severe cold, and other circumstances -of that siege, being such as unusually to depress and harass -the garrison, their wounds proved almost uniformly fatal; and the -idea arose and gained ground, that Charles had ordered his bullets -to be actually poisoned. Paré alone was thought able to meet the -necessity of the case in such an extremity; and the demand for his -assistance became so pressing in the dispirited garrison, that at the -instance of the Duke of Guise the King was induced to send him. -He was stealthily introduced by the treachery of one of Charles’s -captains, for a bribe of 1500 crowns, and his appearance on the ramparts -was hailed by the troops with the most extravagant expressions -of joy. “Now that Paré is with us,” they cried, “we shall not perish -of our wounds.” Their spirits revived, and the successful issue of -their arduous struggle is generally ascribed to the presence of Paré.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon the raising of the siege, of which, as is usual in his writings, -he gives a most lively and humorous account, Paré returned to court. -In 1553 he was sent on a like errand to the siege of Hesdin, which, -after a vigorous defence, and against the faith of a capitulation, was -pillaged by the troops of the Duke of Savoy. Paré was himself one -of the prisoners, but escaped in disguise after various adventures, and -returned to Paris; notwithstanding the tempting offers of the Duke -of Savoy, who had witnessed his skill, though kept in ignorance of -his name.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was sent upon many other missions of the same kind; as to the -fields of St. Quentin and Moncontour; to Rouen, where he attended -the Duc de Vendôme on occasion of the wound of which he died; -and to St. Denys, where he performed the same unwelcome duty for -the Constable. The long intervals of these services he always passed -at court, in the enjoyment of his well-earned reputation and favour.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the death of Henry II. in 1559, occasioned by an accident at a -tournament, Francis II., his eldest son by Catherine de’ Medici, succeeded -to the crown. He immediately confirmed Paré in his situation -of surgeon in ordinary and counsellor. It will not be supposed that -he could enjoy this constant favour and good fortune without the usual -drawback in the excited jealousy of his professional rivals. Their -rancour was at length carried to such a pitch, that they gravely accused -him of causing the premature death of Francis in 1560, by injecting -poison into his ear under the pretext of treating him for an inflammation -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>seated there, of which he died. Catherine, however, shielded -him from this attack, expressing her complete reliance on his integrity -as well as his skill, in words which the historians of the period have -preserved. A similar accusation was brought against him as unsuccessfully -in the case of Henry III., who was afflicted with the same -disorder: on which occasion the Queen-Mother again stood forward -in his behalf, and his innocence was fully attested by the physicians -whom she had placed about her son, and who had witnessed every -application he made.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the death of Francis II. in 1560, Paré maintained his place in -the household of Charles IX., to whom it was thought he had rendered -essential service after an injury inflicted on one of the nerves of -the arm by an unlucky phlebotomist. This misfortune of his humbler -brother was of great use to Paré, who, though a courtier during the -predominance of the Guises, openly professed the Protestant faith; for -it was probably the means of procuring him in Charles the only protector -powerful enough to save him from being included in the general -massacre of the Huguenots on St. Bartholomew’s Day. Brantôme and -Sully each connect his name with that event. The words of the former -are as follows: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Roi quand il fût jour, ayant mis la tête a la -fenêtre de sa chambre, et qu’il voyait aucuns dans le fauxbourg St. -Germain qui se remuoient, et se sauvoient, il prit une grande arquebuse -de chasse qu’il avoit, et en tira tout plein de coups à eux; mais -en vain, car l’arquebuse ne tiroit si loin; incessamment crioit, ‘Tuez, -tuez,’ en n’en vouloit sauver aucun si non Maître Ambroise Paré, son -premier chirurgien, et le premier de la Chrestienté, et l’envoya querir -et venir le soir dans sa chambre et garde robbe, commandant de n’en -bouger; et disoit qu’il n’etoit raisonnable qu’un qui pouvoit servir à -tout un petit monde, fûst ainsi massacré.</span>”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De tous ceux</span>,” says Sully, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">qui approchoient ce prince (Charles -IX.) il n’y avoit personne qui eut tant de part à sa confiance qu’ Ambroise -Paré. Cet homme qui n’etoit que son chirurgien, avoit pris avec -lui une si grande familiarité, quoiqu’il fût Huguenot, que ce prince lui -ayant dit le jour du massacre que c’etoit à cette heure qu’il falloit que -tout le monde se fît catholique, Paré lui répondit sans s’étonner, ‘Par -la lumière de Dieu, Sire, je crois qu’il vous souvient m’avoir promis -de ne me commander jamais quatre choses; sçavoir, de rentre dans le -ventre de ma mère, de me trouver à un jour de bataille, de quitter -votre service, et d’aller à la messe.’</span>”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Paré still retained his situation after the accession of Henry III. in -1574; but he seems to have resigned the cares of active life about -that time, and we hear little more of him. He died December 2, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>1590, in the eighty-first year of his life, and was buried in the church -of St. André des Arcs in Paris.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Paré appears to have been a man of quick and independent observation -rather than of reflection or genius. His constitution was -vigorous, and fitted no less for social enjoyments than active business: -his person was manly and graceful, his spirits buoyant, and his disposition -remarkably amiable and attractive; hence he was a universal -favourite, particularly in a despotic court, of which the dullness was -agreeably relieved by his frankness, and his powers of humour and -repartee. The amusing and well-told anecdotes and lively descriptions -that teem in all his writings, which, it may be observed, are equal -in point of style to any of the time, sufficiently attest his possession of -those qualities, even if the stories and bon-mots that are related of him -be questioned. His ‘Apology,’ as he calls one of his later pieces, -containing an account of his various campaigns and journeys, is full of -humour, and well worth the perusal of the general reader. It was -published by way of answer to an attack upon his treatment of contused -wounds and hæmorrhages, made by an obscure Parisian lecturer, whose -name he does not mention; and he diverts himself exceedingly at the -expense of the critic, for his presumption in pretending to teach a -surgeon whose experience had been gathered from twenty sieges and -fields of battle, through an active professional life of forty years. The -raillery he employs is often very keen and pointed, but never ill-natured, -and indicates the infinite superiority he felt, and had a right to feel, -over his merely book-learned adversary.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His conduct throughout life appears to have been remarkably upright -and sincere, though tinctured by the adulation which, in that age of -violence and despotism, was always exacted by the great from those -who were more humbly born.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was a bold and good operator, and his general skill and success -in the practice of his profession is unquestionable; in that day it -must have been wonderful. As a surgical writer, his fame principally -rests upon his introduction of a soothing method of treating gunshot -and other contused wounds, and his discovery or rather restoration of -the method of arresting hæmorrhage, by the ligature of the bleeding -vessel, instead of searing with hot iron, and other insufficient and -painful means. But he made many other novel and useful remarks -which only do not deserve the name of discoveries, because they relate -to more trivial points, and do not involve important principles: and, -upon the whole, much as surgery has been improved since his time, -there have been few writers to whom it has owed so much as to him, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>especially in the military department. The whole body of his writings -on that subject, though diffuse, merit the perusal of professional men. -The same praise cannot be given without exception and reserve to -those of his writings which were less the records of his personal -experience, than compilations from other sources. His remarks upon -the subjects of Physiology, Medical Diseases, the Composition of -Remedies, Natural History, and Obstetrics, are not free from error, -credulity, and even indelicacy. The latter charge was successfully -urged against him by the contemporary Parisian physicians, who were -jealous of his encroachments upon what they considered their own -domain, and he was obliged to alter the original editions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He was too much occupied by his practice to engage deeply in the -study of anatomy: hence his knowledge of it was rather sufficient -than accurate; and though he wrote upon it at some length, and even -added new facts to that science, his success in advancing it can only -be considered as a proof of the imperfect information of the time. He -lived before the discovery of the circulation of the blood.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His first publication, on Gunshot Wounds, in 1545, was incorporated -with his other writings, comprising altogether twenty-six treatises, -and printed at Paris in one large folio volume in 1561. This, -with some posthumous additions, has been often reprinted, and there -are translations of it in Latin and other languages. The first English -edition was by Thomas Johnson in 1634.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_076.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Medal of Paré.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_077fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Mollison.</em><br /><br />ADMIRAL BLAKE.<br /><br /><em>From the Picture in the Hall of Wadham College, Oxford.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span> -<img src='images/i_077.jpg' alt='BLAKE.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>BLAKE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Robert Blake is believed to have been born at Plansfield, in the -parish of Spaxton, Somersetshire, near Bridgewater, in which town -his father was a merchant; but the place is not so well ascertained -as the date of his birth, which was August, 1598. He was -educated in the Free School of Bridgewater, whence in due time he -removed to Oxford, and became successively a member of St. Alban’s -Hall and Wadham College. His character was studious, yet he was -fond of field-sports and other violent exercises; and we may infer that -he had at least a decent share of scholastic learning, from his having -been a candidate, though unsuccessfully, for a studentship at Christchurch, -and a fellowship at Merton College. He returned to Bridgewater -when about twenty-five years old, and lived quietly on his paternal -estate till 1640, with the character of a blunt, bold man, of ready -humour and fearless expression of his sentiments, which, both in -politics and religion, were adverse to the pretensions of the court. -These qualities gained for him the confidence of the Presbyterian -party in Bridgewater, by whom he was returned to the parliament of -April, 1640. The speedy dissolution of that assembly gave him no -opportunity of trying his powers as a debater; and in the next parliament -he was not re-elected. But on the breaking out of the civil -war, he displayed his principles by entering the Parliamentary army.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have no certain information concerning the time or the capacity -in which he began to serve; but in 1643 we find him intrusted with -the command of a fort at Bristol, when the city was besieged by the -Royalists. Here his impetuous temper had nearly brought him to an -untimely death; for, having maintained his fort and killed some of the -king’s soldiers after the garrison had surrendered, Prince Rupert was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>with difficulty induced to spare his life, which was held to have been -forfeited by this violation of the laws of war. Blake served afterwards -in the west of England with good repute, and in 1644 was appointed -Governor of Taunton, a place of great consequence, being the only -Parliamentary fortress in that quarter. In that capacity he distinguished -himself by the skill, courage, and constancy with which, during -two successive sieges, he maintained the town against the Royalists in -1645; an important service, for which the parliament voted £2000 to -the garrison, and £500 to the governor. It is recorded that he disapproved -of the extremity to which matters were pushed against -Charles, and that he was frequently heard to say, that he would as -freely venture his life to save the King’s, as he had ever done it in the -service of the Parliament.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In February, 1649, Colonel Blake, in conjunction with two officers -of the same rank, Deane and Popham, was appointed to command the -fleet. It may be taken as a proof that, notwithstanding the fame of our -early navigators, the King’s service at sea had never been treated with -much attention, that, down to later times than those of which we now -write, the chief command of a fleet seems never to have been given to -a man of naval education and habits. It is probable that the sea service -then held out no inducements strong enough to tempt men of high birth -to submit to its inconveniences, and that the command of a fleet was -esteemed too great a post to be conferred on a man of humble origin. -For this new employment Blake soon showed signal capacity. When -the embers of the war were stirred up after the King’s death, he was -ordered to the Irish seas in pursuit of Prince Rupert, whom he blockaded -in the harbour of Kinsale for several months. Despair of -relief induced the Prince at last to make a daring effort to break -through the Parliamentary squadron, in which he succeeded; but -with the loss of three ships. Blake pursued him to the Tagus, where -being denied liberty to attack his enemy by the King of Portugal, in -revenge he captured and sent home a number of ships richly laden, on -their way from Brazil. In January, 1651, he attacked and, with the -exception of two ships, destroyed the Royalist fleet, in the neutral -harbour of Malaga; a breach of national law, which can only be justified -on the alleged ground that Rupert had destroyed British ships -in the same harbour. These services were recompensed by the Parliament -with the post of Warden of the Cinque Ports; and in March -an act was passed constituting Blake, with his colleagues Deane and -Popham, admirals and generals of the fleet for the year ensuing. In -that capacity, he took Jersey, Guernsey, and the Scilly Islands from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>the Royalists; a service, for which he was again thanked by Parliament. -In this year he was elected a member of the Council of State.</p> - -<p class='c000'>March 25, 1652, Blake was appointed sole admiral for nine months, -in expectation of a war with the Dutch. The United States and -England were at this time the two most powerful maritime countries -in the world; and it is hard to find any better reason than national -rivalry for the bloody war which broke out between them in the -spring of this year; a war which seems to have been begun on a -point of etiquette, at the discretion of the admirals, without orders for -hostilities being known to be given by the governments on either side. -On May 18, a fleet of forty-two Dutch ships, commanded by the -celebrated Van Tromp, appeared off the Goodwin Sands. Being challenged -by Major Bourne, who commanded a squadron in the Downs, -they professed to have been driven from their anchorage off Dunkirk -by stress of weather; but instead of drawing off the coast as they were -required to do, they sailed to Dover and cast anchor, in a manner -which showed the deliberate design of insulting the British flag. -Blake lay some distance to the westward in Rye Bay. Intelligence -was immediately sent to him, and on his approach the Dutch weighed -anchor, and seemed about to retreat, but, changing their course, they -sailed direct for the English fleet. When within musket shot, Blake -ordered a single gun to be fired at the Dutch admiral’s flag, which -was done thrice. Van Tromp returned a broadside, and a hot and -well-contested action ensued, and was maintained till nightfall. Under -cover of the darkness the Dutch retreated, losing two ships (one sunk, -the other taken), and leaving the possession of the field and the honour -of the victory in the hands of the English. The States appear neither -to have authorised nor approved of the conduct of their admiral; for -they left no means untried to satisfy the English government; and -when they found the demands of the latter so high as to preclude -accommodation, they dismissed Van Tromp, and intrusted the command -of their fleet to De Ruyter and De Witt. Meanwhile, Blake’s -activity was unremitting. He gained a rich harvest of prizes among -the Dutch homeward-bound merchantmen, which were pursuing their -way without suspicion of danger; and when he had sent home forty -good prizes and effectually cleared the Channel, he sailed to the northward, -dispersed the fleet engaged in the herring fishery, and captured -a hundred of the vessels composing it, together with a squadron of -twelve ships of war sent out to protect them. The hostile fleets -again came to an engagement, September 28, in which the advantage -was decidedly in favour of the English, the rear-admiral of the Dutch -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>being taken, and three or four of their ships disabled. Night put an -end to the action; and, though for two days the English maintained -the pursuit, the lightness and uncertainty of the wind prevented them -from closing with the enemy, who escaped into Goree. After this battle -the drafting off of detachments on various services reduced the English -fleet to forty sail, and those, it is said, in consequence of the negligence -or jealousy of the executive government, were ill provided with men -and ammunition, and other requisite supplies. Thus weakly furnished, -Blake lay in the Downs, when Van Tromp again stood over to the -English coast with eighty men-of-war. Of that undaunted spirit which -usually prompts the British seaman to refuse no odds Blake had an -ample share; indeed, he did much to infuse that spirit into the service. -But there are odds for which no spirit can make up, and as he -had a brave and skilful enemy, the result of his rashness was that -he was well beaten. Not more than half the ships on either side -were engaged; but out of this small number of English vessels -two were taken, and four destroyed; the rest were so shattered that -they were glad to run for shelter into the river Thames. The Dutch -remained masters of the narrow seas; and Van Tromp, in an idle -bravado, sailed through the Channel with a broom at his mast-head, -as if he had swept it clear of English ships. However, neither the -admiral nor the nation were of a temper to submit to this indignity; and -great diligence having been used in refitting and recruiting the fleet, -Blake put to sea again in February, 1653, with eighty ships. On the -18th he fell in with Van Tromp, with nearly equal force, conducting -a large convoy of merchantmen up the Channel. A running battle -ensued, which was continued during three consecutive days, until, on -the 20th, the Dutch ships, which, to suit the nature of their coast, -were built with a smaller draught of water than the English, obtained -shelter in the shallow waters of Calais. In this long and obstinate -fight, the Dutch lost only eleven men-of-war and thirty merchant -vessels; but the number killed is said to have amounted to 1500 on -either side; a loss of life of most unusual amount in naval engagements.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another great battle took place on the 3rd and 4th of June, between -Van Tromp and Generals Deane and Monk. On the first day the -Dutch seem to have had somewhat the advantage: on the second Blake -arrived with a reinforcement of eighteen sail, which turned the scale -in favour of the English. Bad health obliged him then to quit the -sea, so that he was not present at the last great victory of July 29, in -which Van Tromp was killed. But out of respect for his services the -Parliament presented him with a gold chain, as well as the admirals -<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>who had actually commanded in the battle. When Cromwell dissolved -the Long Parliament, and assumed the office of Protector, -Blake, though in his principles a republican, did not refuse to acknowledge -the new administration. In conjunction with Deane -and Monk he published a declaration of their resolution, “notwithstanding -the late change, to proceed in the performance of -their duties, and the trust reposed in them against the enemies -of the Commonwealth.” He is reported to have said to his officers, -“It is not our business to mind state-affairs, but to keep foreigners -from fooling us.” He sat in the two first Parliaments summoned -by the Protector, who always treated him with great respect. -Nor was Cromwell’s acknowledged sagacity in the choice of men -at fault, when he chose Blake to command a strong fleet, sent into -the Mediterranean in November, 1654, to uphold the honour of the -English flag, and to demand reparation for the slights and injuries -done to the nation during that stormy period of civil war, when our -own discord had made others daring against us. In better hands such -a mission could not have been placed. Dutch, French, and Spaniards -alike concurred in rendering unusual honours to his flag. The Duke -of Tuscany and the Order of Malta made compensation for injuries -done to the English commerce. The piratical states of Algiers and -Tripoli were terrified into submission, and promised to abstain from -further violence. The Dey of Tunis held out, confident in the strength -of his fortifications. “Here,” he said, “are our castles of Goletta -and Porto Ferino: do your worst; do you think we fear your fleet?” -Blake took the same course as, in our own time, Lord Exmouth did -against Algiers: he bore right into the bay of Porto Ferino; engaged -the fortress within musket shot, and in less than two hours -silenced or dismounted its guns; and sending a detachment of boats -into the harbour, burnt the shipping which lay there. After this -example he found no more difficulty in dealing with the African -states.</p> - -<p class='c000'>War having been declared between Spain and England, in 1656, -Blake took his station to blockade the bay of Cadiz. At this period -his constitution was much broken, insomuch that, in the expectation -of a speedy death, he sent home a request that some person proper to -be his successor might be joined in commission with him. General -Montague was accordingly sent out with a strong squadron. Being -obliged to quit the coast of Spain in September to obtain water for his -fleet, Blake left Captain Stayner with seven ships to watch the enemy. -In this interval the Spanish Plate fleet appeared. Stayner captured -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>four ships richly laden with bullion; the rest escaped. Montague -conducted the prizes home, so that Blake was again left alone in the -Mediterranean. In the ensuing spring, having learnt that another -Plate fleet had put into the island of Teneriffe, he sailed thither, and -arrived in the road of Santa Cruz, April 20. The bay was strongly -fortified, with a formidable castle at the entrance, and a connected chain -of minor forts all round it. The naval force collected there was also -considerable, and strongly posted, the smaller vessels being placed -under the guns of the forts, the galleons strongly moored with their -broadsides to the sea; insomuch that the Spanish Governor, a man of -courage and ability, felt perfectly at ease as to the security of his -charge. The master of a Dutch ship, which was lying in the harbour, -was less satisfied, and went to the Governor to request leave to quit -the harbour; “For I am sure,” he said, “that Blake will presently be -among you.” The Governor made a confident reply. “Begone if -you will, and let Blake come if he dares.” Daring was the last thing -wanting; nor did the Admiral hesitate, as a wise man might well -have done, about the real difficulties of the enterprise in which he was -about to engage. The wind blowing into the bay, he sent in Captain -Stayner with a squadron to attack the shipping, placed others in such -a manner as to take off, and, as far as possible, to silence the fire of the -castle and the forts, and himself following, assisted Stayner in capturing -the galleons, which, though inferior in number, were superior in size -and force to the English ships. This was completed by two o’clock -in the afternoon, the engagement having commenced at eight in the -morning. Hopeless of being able to carry the prizes out of the bay -against an adverse wind, and a still active enemy, Blake gave orders -to burn them: and it is probable that he himself might have found -some difficulty in beating out of the bay under the fire of the castle, -which was still lively, when on a sudden, the wind which had blown -strong into the bay, suddenly veered round to the south-west, and -favoured his retreat, as it had favoured his daring approach. Of -this, the most remarkable, as it was the last exploit of Blake’s life, -Clarendon says, “The whole action was so incredible, that all men -who knew the place wondered that any sober man, with what courage -soever endowed, would ever have undertaken it; and they could -hardly persuade themselves to believe what they had done: while -the Spaniards comforted themselves with the belief, that they were -devils and not men who had destroyed them in such a manner. So -much a strong resolution of bold and courageous men can bring -to pass, that no resistance or advantage of ground can disappoint -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>them; and it can hardly be imagined how small a loss the English -sustained in this unparalleled action, not one ship being left behind, -and the killed and wounded not exceeding two hundred men; when -the slaughter on board the Spanish ships and on shore was incredible.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>It will be recollected with interest that, on the same spot, Nelson lost -his arm, in an unsuccessful night-attempt to capture Santa Cruz with -an armed force in boats.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For this service the thanks of Parliament were voted to the officers -and seamen engaged, with a diamond ring to the Admiral worth 500<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> -Blake returned to his old station off Cadiz; but the increase of his -disorders, which were dropsy and scurvy, raised a desire in him to -return to England, which, however, he did not live to fulfil. He died -as he was entering Plymouth Sound, August 17, 1657. His body was -transported to London, and buried with great pomp in Westminster -Abbey, at the public expense. After the Revolution it was thought unworthy -to remain in that treasure-house of England’s departed greatness; -and with the bones of others who had found a resting-place there during -the short period of the Commonwealth, it was transferred to St. Margaret’s -churchyard. It has been disputed whether this was done with -more or less of indecency; but the matter is little worth inquiry. The -real indecency and folly lay in thinking that any ground, however -sanctified by the reverent associations of centuries, could be polluted -by the tomb of a man whose leading passion was the glory of his -country, and who made the name and flag of that country respected -wheresoever he carried it: a man of whom not one mean or interested -action is recorded, and whose great qualities extorted praise even from -the Royalists. Bate, in his ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Elenchus Motuum</span>,’ speaks of him as a -man “blameable in this only, that he joined with the <em>parricides</em>;” and -it may be remarked that Dr. Bate’s horror of a parricide did not prevent -his being physician to Cromwell, as well as to Charles I. and II.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We conclude with Clarendon’s character of this great man. “He -was of private extraction, yet had enough left him by his father to give -him a good education, which his own inclination disposed him to -receive in the University of Oxford, where he took the degree of a -Master of Arts, and was enough versed in books for a man who intended -not to be of any profession, having sufficient of his own to -maintain him in the plenty he affected, and having then no appearance -of ambition to be a greater man than he was. He was of a melancholic -and sullen nature, and spent his time most with good fellows, -who liked his moroseness, and a freedom he used in inveighing against -the licence of the time and the power of the court. They who knew -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>him inwardly, discovered that he had an anti-monarchical spirit, when -few men thought the government in any danger.” After a short -sketch of Blake’s actions in the civil war, the noble author continues, -“He then betook himself wholly to the sea, and quickly made -himself signal there. He was the first man that declined the old -track, and made it manifest that the science might be attained in less -time than was imagined, and despised those rules which had long -been in practice, to keep his ship and his men out of danger; which -had been held in former times a point of great ability and circumspection, -as if the principal art requisite in the captain of a ship had -been to be sure to come safe home again. He was the first man who -brought the ships to contemn castles on shore, which had been thought -ever very formidable, and were discovered by him to make a noise -only, and to fright those who could be rarely hurt by them. He was -the first who infused that proportion of courage into the seamen, by -making them see by experience what mighty things they could do, if -they were resolved, and taught them to fight in fire as well as upon -water, and though he has been very well imitated and followed, he was -the first that gave the example of that kind of naval courage, and bold -and resolute achievements.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The earliest life of Blake which we have seen is in the second -volume of a collection entitled ‘Lives English and Foreign,’ published -at the beginning of the last century. Clarendon’s History of the -Rebellion, Heath’s Chronicle of the Civil Wars, the Memoirs of -Ludlow, Whitelock, and other contemporary authorities, will furnish -minute accounts of the many battles of which we have here only made -short mention.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_085fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by R. Woodman.</em><br /><br />L’HÔPITAL.<br /><br /><em>From the original by Janet, in the Musée Royal, Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span> -<img src='images/i_085.jpg' alt='L’HÔPITAL.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>L’HÔPITAL.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Michel de l’Hôpital was born at Aigueperse in Auvergne. The -date of his birth he himself declares, in his testament, to be uncertain, -but at the same time he refers it to the year 1505. His father was -the domestic physician, the faithful friend, and trusted counsellor of -the Constable of Bourbon, and still followed his patron’s fortunes, when -that ill-used and misguided prince took up arms against France in -1523. Michel de l’Hôpital, then a student at the University of Toulouse, -was arrested as the son of one of Bourbon’s partizans; but after -a short time he was set at liberty by the express order of Francis I., -and after the lapse of two or three years was permitted to rejoin his -father in Italy. He completed his education during a residence of six -years at the celebrated University of Padua. Quitting that University -with high credit for his acquirements both in polite literature and -legal knowledge, he took up his abode at Rome with his father, and -soon obtained the favourable notice both of the Emperor Charles V. -and the French ambassador, Cardinal de Grammont. But preferring -the hope of re-establishment in his native country to the prospects of -advancement held out in a foreign land, he returned to France in -the train of the Cardinal; was present at the espousal of Catherine -de Medici with the Dauphin, afterwards Henry II., in 1583; and laid -a stepping-stone towards his fortunes by attracting the notice of his -future queen. The death of the Cardinal however in the following -year overclouded his prospects. His father was unable to procure a -reversal of the sentence of exile and confiscation passed on him for his -adherence to Bourbon; and Michel de l’Hôpital, without means or -friends, betook himself to the practice of the law in the courts of Paris. -Fortunately, his merits procured a discerning friend in Jean Morin, -a high legal functionary, who gave him his daughter in marriage -in 1537, with the judicial office of <em>Conseiller</em> for her dowry.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>L’Hôpital filled this office during nine years. It was one in -which he found no pleasure; for though attached to the philosophical -study of the law (and he mentions it as one of the evils of his situation -that he had been obliged to abandon a project for collecting into one -body the laws of France, both written and resting on judicial decisions), -he found the daily routine of trying causes extremely irksome. His -letters are full of complaints of this drudgery, as he esteemed it, and -express in lively terms the pleasure which he felt in escaping during -the vacations into the country, and renewing his literary pursuits. He -numbered the most intellectual and learned men of France among his -friends, nor was he backward in seeking to conciliate the great and -powerful. It is worth noting, as indicative of the manners of the age, -that his favourite method of addressing such persons was in Latin -hexameters. Accounts of his way of life, statements of his wishes, -petitions, &c., are conveyed in that form; and he composed with -fluency, and with a competent share of elegance, without great attention -to correctness. One of his frequent correspondents, to whose -favour he owed in great measure his future rise, was Cardinal Lorraine. -The Chancellor Olivier, a man of no common virtue, was another -of his best friends, and to him L’Hôpital was indebted for being -withdrawn from the hated bustle of the law, by his appointment as -envoy to the Council of Bologna. This proved a sinecure; and he -employed his time in wandering about the neighbourhood of that city, -and writing letters to the Chancellor, full of poetical descriptions, and -requests for a more permanent provision away from the tumult of the -law courts.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Early in 1549 L’Hôpital was recalled, after remaining upwards -of a year in Italy. He found the Chancellor in disgrace; but his -acknowledged merit obtained the notice of Margaret of Valois, -daughter of Francis I., a steady patroness of learning, herself devoted -to literary as well as religious study. Being created Duchess of -Berri, she appointed him her Chancellor, to manage the affairs of -the province; and one of his first steps in that capacity was the -establishment of a new law-school at Bourges, to which he endeavoured -to attract the most eminent teachers. Her influence, added -to that of Cardinal Lorraine, procured for him the high financial -appointment of Superintendent of the Chamber of Accounts, in 1554. -His conduct in that station was firm and honest. He laboured to put -a stop to numberless abuses, which had prevailed both in the collection -and disposition of the revenue; and his zeal is testified by the ill-will -which it brought upon him, and which twice endangered the loss -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>of his place. His independence in this respect is ill contrasted by his -obsequiousness in supporting the edict known in French history by the -name of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Semestre</span></i>. This requires a few words of explanation. No -legislative body was recognised by the French constitution. Even the -States-General could not enact: the power of making laws resided -solely in the sovereign. But by the practice of the land, the edicts of -the monarch required to be registered by the body of lawyers called -the Parliament of Paris, before they could possess validity as law: a -wholesome practice, which often served as a check upon the court. It -was probably with the intention of rendering that body more subject to -control, that Henry II., or his ministers, introduced the above-mentioned -edict, by which it was proposed to divide the Parliament into -two bodies, to relieve each other every six months. Under this arrangement -it would have been easy to collect the refractory spirits into one -body, and then to bring measures forward for registration in whichever -half year might best suit the views of the crown. L’Hôpital’s -accession to this measure has been palliated by alleging, that, as the -price of it, he stipulated for the abolition of a custom which prevailed, -for suitors to offer fees to the judges before whom their causes were to -be tried, under the name of <em>spices</em> (<em>épices</em>),—a ready means of corruption, -for yielding to which, or something not much worse, Bacon, -about half a century later, was removed with disgrace from the chancellorship -of England. The whole tenor of L’Hôpital’s policy in after -times tended to depress the Parliament; and this furnishes a presumption -that his conduct in this particular instance was honest. But -it is strange that he should not have perceived any inroad on the independence -of the judicial body to be a still greater evil than even that -from which he endeavoured to free it. After all, the scheme failed, -and he was deeply mortified at the obloquy which his accession to it incurred.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The accession of Francis II., by bringing the house of Guise into -power, proved the means of L’Hôpital’s advancement. One of the first -acts of the new government was to restore to the office of chancellor -Olivier, a man of tried integrity, and a friend to toleration. But -while the princes of Guise availed themselves of his high character to -court popularity, they had no thought of acting by his advice; and -Olivier, compelled to be the unwilling instrument of a policy which he -detested, and afraid or unable to resign, was hastened by vexation to -his grave. L’Hôpital was selected to be his successor in June, 1560. -The Guises and the Queen Mother are said to have been actuated by -different views in agreeing upon this appointment. The former thought -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>that from an old adherent and petitioner of Cardinal Lorraine they -had no opposition to fear: the latter is said to have been influenced by -the hope that L’Hôpital’s patriotism would lead him to be a check -on the over-powerful house of Lorraine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The circumstances under which he became Chancellor were such as -might fairly breed suspicion of his honesty. None but a bold man -could have hoped to do good after the example of Olivier; none but a -dexterous man could have succeeded. And such dexterity is seldom -joined with that sincerity and purity of purpose, which is one of the -most valuable qualities of a statesman, or any man. There are sometimes -seasons in which an honest man may take office, with the certainty -not only that he will not be permitted to do much that he would -wish, but also that he will be obliged to do a good deal that he disapproves. -But such compromises are of bad example and evil influence, -and can only be excused by the necessity of the times, and by the good -results which ensue. By this test, L’Hôpital’s conduct is vindicated. -He conferred a signal benefit on France at his first entrance upon -office, by dexterously contriving to prevent the establishment of the -Inquisition, which had been resolved on. He obtained the convocation -of an Assembly of Notables at Fontainebleau, in which, through his -influence, conciliatory measures were adopted towards the Protestants, -and it was resolved to summon a meeting of the States-General. But -the Guises, by working on the young king’s fears, turned that measure -to their own advantage. Condé no sooner appeared than he was -arrested, tried, and condemned to death. The King of Navarre was -threatened with a similar fate; and but for the opportune death of -Francis II., the kingdom probably would have been plunged at once -into the utmost fury of a religious war. But the succession of Charles -IX., a minor, in December 1560, threw the regency into the hands -of Catherine; and she, encouraged by L’Hôpital, asserted her independence -of the Guises, and, to conciliate the support of a powerful -party, released Condé, and allied herself with the King of Navarre.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At first, the Chancellor’s liberal measures seemed to prosper. As -if in compliance with the demands of the States, he published the -celebrated Ordonnance of Orleans, which embodied most of his views -for the reformation of the state, and introduced a variety of bold and -important changes into the church, the courts of justice, and the financial -system. One portion of it is expressly directed against the -oppressive rights claimed and exercised by the nobility. But the -spirit of the age was not ripe for such extensive reforms: they were -too far in advance to produce a lasting influence. And in attempting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>to overcome an interested and prejudiced opposition, the Chancellor -was led to an act unworthy of his real zeal for the welfare of his -country. His legal improvements had not conciliated the good will of -the lawyers; and, foreseeing that the Parliament of Paris might probably -refuse to register his edicts, he took it on himself to dispatch -them to the provinces, without ever having submitted them to that -body. To justify such a step, it is not enough to say that his -views were enlarged and noble, theirs bigoted and illiberal; for it is -seldom or never that any object can be of importance enough to justify -a constitutional statesman in breaking down a constitutional security. -Nor had he even the bad excuse of success. The Parliament were -justly incensed, and probably became still more hostile to the measures -adopted in defiance of its authority; and the high Catholic party -prevailed in obtaining a new Assembly of Notables, at which all was -undone which the Chancellor had been labouring to do, and the persecuting -edicts against the Protestants were re-established in full force.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This blow to his system of toleration the Chancellor contrived to -obviate. He had no assembly, no body of recognised authority on which -to lean for support. The Parliament of Paris was against him; the -Assembly of Notables, composed of lawyers and nobility, was against -him; the States-General were tedious to convoke, and were paralysed -by their division into three orders. In this difficulty he bethought -himself of calling an assembly of deputies from the provincial Parliaments -of the kingdom; and fortified by their recommendation, he promulgated -and obtained registration of the celebrated edict of January, -1562, which, under certain restrictions, permitted the open profession -of the Protestant faith. Upon this the furious bigotry of the Duke of -Guise broke into open violence, and kindled the first of those religious -wars which long desolated France. Strengthened by the adhesion of -the Constable Montmorenci, and by possession of the persons of the -King, and Queen Regent, the brothers of Lorraine usurped the conduct -of affairs, and excluded L’Hôpital from the council. It is -remarkable, considering his resolute opposition to their policy, that -they did not deprive him of his office; and this may be taken as -an evidence either of the consummate prudence with which, without -betraying his own principles, he avoided giving personal offence to -his opponents; or that his character stood so high as to render his -opponents unwilling to incur the odium of displacing him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The assassination of the Duke of Guise, in February, 1563, restored -to Catherine her own free-will, and L’Hôpital to power; and he -immediately availed himself of it to lay the basis of peace by fresh -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>edicts in favour of toleration, which as usual were opposed by the -Parliament. In the following year, Charles IX. having reached the -age of fourteen, the Chancellor revived an old law which fixed the -majority of Kings of France at that age, and declared the King’s -majority before the Parliament of Rouen. Soon after, he was engaged -in a quarrel with his old patron, Cardinal Lorraine, relative to -the privileges of the Gallican Church. The question was, whether or -not the decrees of the Council of Trent should be admitted as -authority in France. The Chancellor opposed this, and he carried his -point.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To amuse Charles, and to avoid some of the evils which usually -beset a court, the Chancellor conducted his young sovereign on a tour -to the southern provinces of France. This was attended with unforeseen -and evil consequences. At Bayonne Charles was met by his -sister, the Queen of Spain, attended by the Duke of Alva and other -Spanish noblemen. Alva acquired the confidence of Catherine, whom -he persuaded that in the hands of L’Hôpital she really had no more -freedom of action than under the control of the Guises; and as in her -opposition to them she had been actuated by no love of toleration, she -had little to unlearn under the tuition of that bigoted and able partizan -of the papacy. L’Hôpital soon perceived that his power was shaken. -He laboured to make up for the lost confidence of Catherine, by -attaching himself more and more to Charles IX.; and for a time he -succeeded in retaining influence over that prince, who, during the years -1565 and 1566, was kept in a state of vacillation between those who -pleaded for peace and toleration, and those who would have exterminated -Protestantism at all hazards and by all means. The religious -war was renewed in 1567. Peace was concluded in 1568; but -L’Hôpital was not employed to manage it. His only hold upon power -was now in the reverence of the King; and this was shaken by the -artful representations of Catherine. It shows, however, in a strong -light, the ascendancy which L’Hôpital had acquired over Charles’s -mind, that the joint influence of Catherine and the House of Guise -could not induce him absolutely to dismiss his faithful minister. In -1568 he sent to request the Chancellor to give up the seals for a time, -with a promise of returning them. L’Hôpital says in his Testament, -that “he judged it better to yield to the necessity of the state, and to -its new governors, than to contend with them.” He retired to his -estate at Vignay, near Etampes, where he returned with avidity to his -literary pursuits, and to the amusements and occupations of the country, -to which his letters represent him as devotedly attached.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>The Chancellor had not amassed wealth in his various high employments; -but his pensions were continued by the King; and -Catherine herself did not forget his former services. Even in the -dreadful massacre of St. Bartholomew’s they interfered to protect -him; though his family were Protestants, and he himself, though a -Catholic by profession and in observances, was so suspected by the -bigot party, who did not understand how sincerity and tolerance could -go together, that it passed into a sort of proverb, ‘Lord deliver us from -the Chancellor’s mass.’ A troop of horse was sent from court to preserve -his mansion from insult. His domestics were alarmed, and proposed -to shut the gates. “No,” said the Chancellor; “but if the -small gate is not enough, open the great one.” His daughter, then -in Paris, was in imminent danger, and escaped only through the intervention -of the Duchess of Guise.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The Chancellor did not long survive this signal proof that his -labours had been in vain. “I have lived too long,” he said, “since -I have seen what has occurred in my last days,—a youth changed -from a mild king into a merciless tyrant.” He died, March 13, 1573; -and was buried in his parish church of Champmoteux. His monument -is among those which have been collected at Paris, in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Musée des -Petits-Augustins</span>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Brantôme has described the person of L’Hôpital. He wore a long -white beard; his face was pale, his demeanor grave, and he resembled -the pictures of St. Jerome, by which name he was known at court. -He and the Constable Montmorenci were famous as <em>rabroueurs</em>, or -reprimanders, and were joint terrors to the idle courtiers; and this -harshness, if we may trust his own representations, was not natural, but -assumed as a necessary qualification for his office. His private habits -were very simple and frugal, and he regarded the increase of luxury -as the bane of France. Brantôme says that once, when he paid the -Chancellor a visit with Maréchal Strozzi, their host gave them for -dinner a single dish of <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bouillie</span></i>, and that his whole stock of plate consisted -of one silver saltcellar. He adds an amusing account of the way -in which the Chancellor rated two newly appointed functionaries, who -came to present themselves, and who could not pass satisfactorily -through a legal examination, which he bestowed upon them.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The leading objects of L’Hôpital’s political life were to obtain the -reformation of abuses, to establish the independence of the Gallican -church against the usurpations of Rome, and to procure toleration for -the Protestants. He is, we believe, the first minister who laid down -the principle of toleration, and proclaimed the impossibility and absurdity -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>of making force the rule of reason; and he has thus gained an -indefeasible title to the reverence, not only of his countrymen, but of -mankind. “What laws,” he said, in his inaugurative speech to the -Parliament of Paris, “have not been promulgated on this point of -religion? What judgments and punishments, of which even the -magistrates of the Parliament have been victims? To what purpose -have served such continued armaments and combats in Germany, in -England, and in Scotland? The ancient religion has been shaken -by these combats, and the new confirmed. The mistake lies in -treating the maladies of the mind as if they were those of the -body. Experience teaches us that it is the force of reason, the gentle -persuasion of words alone, which can win hearts, and cure diseased -spirits.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>This great man has another claim to notice, as one of the most distinguished -jurists and reformers of France. He has been classed with -Charlemagne and St. Louis, as one of the three principal legislators of -that country; and his eminent successor D’Aguesseau bore testimony -to the merits of his edicts, as the foundation of the most useful laws -which were afterwards enacted. His constitutional views were directed -towards raising the royal authority, at the expense of the nobility and -the Parliament. We have expressed our belief that in the latter instance -his conduct was wrong. His views of reform are embodied in -the Ordonnance of Orleans (January, 1561), and that of Moulins -(February, 1566), which De Thou describes as being the complement -of the former. Of the contents of the Ordonnance of Orleans we have -already given such notice as our space allows; that of Moulins pertains -rather to legal and judicial reforms; it limits and defines the -powers of judicial officers, and determines the law on various points, -relative to entails, arrests for debt, sales, &c. In short, these two -edicts provide for the removal of most of those evils which, unredressed, -produced the first Revolution.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is much to be regretted that L’Hôpital’s essay towards a work -on French law is lost. There is a volume extant of his Poetical -Epistles, of which the best edition is that of Amsterdam, 1732. To -these, and to his Testament, which is printed in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bibliothèque -Choisie</span> of Colomiès, and in Brantôme (article of the Constable Montmorenci), -we may refer for authentic details of his life; of which -numerous particulars will be found in the history of De Thou, the -Memoirs of Brantôme, the Letters of Pasquier, the Eloges of Thevet, -and other contemporary writers. His speeches before the States of -Orleans have been published; and a Collection of Memoirs, consisting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>of various State Papers, printed at Cologne, 1672, has been -ascribed to him. The Eloge of L’Hôpital was proposed as a prize -by the French Academy in 1777. Slight accounts of him will be -found in the various biographical dictionaries; but no publication, so -far as we know, has appeared either in French or English, which can -dispense with the necessity of consulting the original authorities, on -the part of those who wish to obtain more than a superficial acquaintance -with the history of this illustrious statesman.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_093.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[The Conciergerie at Paris, from whence the Huguenot prisoners were liberated by L’Hôpital himself,—from a Print in the British Museum.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span> -<img src='images/i_094.jpg' alt='MRS. SIDDONS.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>MRS. SIDDONS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The light esteem in which the theatrical profession has commonly been -held renders it probable that the introduction of an actress among the -few female names included in our Gallery may seem to some persons -uncalled for and injudicious. That there are few players entitled to -such admission we allow: but for one who studied acting as a branch -of art, discarding every unworthy species of stage trickery; and who, by -profound study, and a rare union of mental and bodily excellence, has -inseparably connected her name and memory with the masterpieces of -the British drama, we do claim a place (to which her eminent brother -is almost equally entitled) among the master-minds of the fine arts.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sarah Kemble came of a theatrical stock. Her father was manager -of a provincial company of actors; her mother was the daughter of a provincial -manager. Both parents maintained a high character for moral -rectitude; and the latter is said to have been distinguished by a strength -of mind, and stateliness of demeanour, which may have had some influence -upon the character and manners of her celebrated children. -Sarah, their eldest daughter, was born at Brecon, July 5, 1755. From -an early period of childhood she was trained to the stage. She was -scarcely more than seventeen when her affections were engaged by an -actor of her father’s company, named Siddons, to whom, after some -opposition on the part of her parents, she was married, November 26, -1773. Her early married life was beset with difficulties. Mr. -Siddons possessed little merit as an actor; and during nine years, -which elapsed before Mrs. Siddons established a metropolitan reputation, -she had to endure hard work and low pay. The first encouragement -which she received in her career was from the notice of the -Hon. Miss Boyle, afterwards Lady O’Neil, a lady possessed of high -mental qualities, as well as birth and beauty, who was so much struck</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_094fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />M<sup>RS</sup>. SIDDONS.<br /><br /><em>After the Picture by Sir Joshua Reynolds.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>by the young actress’s performance of Belvidera at Cheltenham in -1774, that she sought her out in her obscurity, and there commenced a -warm and lasting friendship. Through this connection Mrs. Siddons -seems to have been introduced to Garrick, by whom she was engaged -at Drury Lane theatre. Her first appearance was in the character of -Portia, December 29, 1775. She was received with indifference; and -during the remainder of the season she did not establish herself in the -favour of the London audiences, nor did she appear in any first-rate -part. Garrick professed high admiration for her, and on quitting the -stage, which he did towards the close of that season, promised to procure -for her an advantageous engagement with his successors in the -management. In this promise he failed, for during the summer of -1776 she received an abrupt dismissal from Drury Lane. Her failure -to produce a sensation in the first instance does not seem to have -weighed much on her mind. She knew her powers, but was conscious -that they were immature; and she was deeply sensible through life -how necessary, even to the greatest powers, are cultivation and study. -But this dismissal affected her in a very different manner. In her -own words, quoted from the autograph ‘Recollections’ intrusted to -her friend and biographer, Mr. Campbell, “it was a stunning and cruel -blow, overwhelming all my ambitious hopes, and involving peril, even -to the very subsistence of my helpless babes.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Her fears were soothed, and her mortification relieved by her success -at several of the provincial theatres. She received her dismissal from -Drury Lane while at Birmingham, where she was engaged during the -summer to perform the highest characters; and where she laid the -foundation of her fame, by acquiring the good opinion of the actor -Henderson, who pronounced, within a year of her expulsion from Drury -Lane, that she was an actress who never had an equal, nor would ever -have a superior. Through his recommendation, in the following year -she obtained a permanent engagement at Bath, where she was received -with distinguished favour, and where she remained until her increasing -reputation procured for her an invitation to return to Drury Lane. -She chose the part of Isabella, in the ‘Fatal Marriage,’ for her debut, -October 10, 1782. The anxiety with which she approached this -second trial is described in an interesting manner in her own memoranda. -On this occasion her hopes were fully gratified. She played -Isabella eight times between October 10, and October 30, when -she appeared in her second character, Euphrasia, in the ‘Grecian -Daughter.’ Her other parts, during this first season, were Jane Shore, -Calista, Belvidera, and Zara in the ‘Mourning Bride.’</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>We propose in this sketch of Mrs. Siddons’s theatrical life to notice -only the most remarkable of her characters, reserving to the end a -complete list of them, together with a few remarks on her style of -acting. In November, 1783, she played Isabella in ‘Measure for -Measure,’ with entire success; and thus solved the real or pretended -doubts of a few persons, who questioned her courage or capacity to -represent the masterpieces of Shakspeare to a London audience. No -one could do more justice to the pure, uncompromising, clear-sighted -virtue of Isabella, so consonant to her own honest and high-souled simplicity: -nor was she at fault in attempting, during the same season, -Constance, in ‘King John,’ a character of more varied emotion, and -far greater demand on the resources of the player. Of this part she -says, in an elaborate criticism, worthy of being read with attention by -all persons, and especially by actors, “I cannot conceive in the whole -range of dramatic character a greater difficulty than that of representing -this grand creature.” Those who remember her performance -of it in the meridian of her powers, bear testimony, with Mr. Campbell, -to the depth of her maternal affection, her queen-like majesty, and her -tremendous power of invective and sarcasm: when first revived for -her the play seems to have been coldly received.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The celebrated portrait of Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse was -painted by Reynolds in 1783. The character was suggested by the -painter: the attitude is that in which the sitter first placed herself, by -which Reynolds was so struck that he at once adopted it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>An interesting anecdote relative to Mrs. Siddons’s first country performance -of Lady Macbeth, is told in the Memoranda from which we -have already quoted. “It was my custom to study my characters at -night, when the domestic cares and business of the day were over. -On the night preceding that in which I was to appear for the first -time, I shut myself up, as usual, when all the family were retired, and -commenced my study of <em>Lady Macbeth</em>. As the character is very -short, I thought I should soon accomplish it. Being then only twenty -years of age, I believed, as many do believe, that little more was necessary -than to get the words into my head; for the necessity of discrimination, -and the development of character, at that time of my life, -had scarcely entered into my imagination. But, to proceed, I went on -with tolerable composure in the silence of the night, (a night I can -never forget,) till I came to the assassination scene, when the horrors -of the scene rose to a degree that made it impossible for me to -get farther. I snatched up my candle, and hurried out of the room, -in a paroxysm of terror. My dress was of silk, and the rustling of it, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>as I ascended the stairs to go to bed, seemed to my panic-struck fancy -like the movement of a spectre pursuing me. At last I reached my -chamber, where I found my husband fast asleep. I clapt my candlestick -down upon the table, without the power of putting the candle -out; and I threw myself on my bed, without daring to stay even to -take off my clothes. At peep of day I rose to resume my task; but -so little did I know of my part when I appeared in it at night, that my -shame and confusion cured me of procrastinating my business for the -remainder of my life.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“About six years afterwards I was called upon to act the same -character in London. By this time I had perceived the difficulty of -assuming a personage with whom no one feeling of common general -nature was congenial or assistant. One’s own heart could prompt -one to express with some degree of truth the sentiments of a mother, -a daughter, a wife, a lover, a sister, &c.; but to adopt this character -must be an effort of the judgment alone.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In accordance with this, Mrs. Siddons has been known to say, that -Lady Macbeth gave her more trouble than any other of her characters, -both in settling her conception of the poet’s meaning, and determining -the means of giving effect to it. Her success however in the eyes of -the public was complete: in Mr. Campbell’s words, “the moment she -seized the part she identified her image with it in the minds of the -living generation.” She appeared in it for the first time in London, -February 2, 1785. Smith played Macbeth. As in the case of Constance, -Mrs. Siddons has left, in an elaborate essay on the character of -Lady Macbeth, interesting evidence of the deep study which she bestowed -on her profession; a point in which, as well as in general -mental cultivation, the Kemble family have been advantageously distinguished -from others even of our first-rate actors. It is scarcely -possible to conceive ‘Macbeth’ so well performed as when the principal -characters were filled by Mrs. Siddons and Kemble: the actors -might have been thought born for the parts. The same may be said of -‘Coriolanus,’ in which they appeared together for the first time in -February, 1789. But the season of 1785 is also memorable for Mrs. -Siddons’s first appearance in Desdemona, a character as widely different -from the Scottish Queen as can well be imagined. Yet it is -recorded to have been one of the actress’s most exquisite performances; -and this is one of the strongest proofs of her extraordinary talent. -Unsuitable as her person, voice, and general demeanour may seem to -those who knew her only in her later days, we have the undeniable -testimony of competent judges to the grace, loveliness, and sweetness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>with which she personated the gentle Venetian. Her very stature, -Mr. Boaden says, seemed to be lowered. Ophelia she performed -once, and once only, for her benefit, May 15, 1786, to her brother’s -Hamlet; and, though a poor singer, she rendered the part deeply -affecting. Juliet she also performed, we believe once only, for her -benefit in 1789. Cordelia and Imogen are to be added to the list of -characters of the gentler cast. The former was not one of her most -popular, probably not one of her most effective, performances, for Lear -is said to have been almost the only play in which, when both were on -the stage, the brother made a stronger impression than the sister. -The pure, gentle dignity of Imogen must have found in her a -most effective representative.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the autumn of 1783, about a year before Dr. Johnson’s death, -Mrs. Siddons, at his own request, paid him a visit, which was several -times repeated. He expressed a strong desire to see her in Queen -Katherine, his favourite character among Shakspeare’s females. He -was not so gratified; for the play was not brought forward until -November 28, 1788, after an absence from the stage of near half -a century. This, like Lady Macbeth, we must regard as one of -Mrs. Siddons’s peculiar characters. “It was an era,” Mr. Campbell -says, “not only in Mrs. Siddons’s history, but in the fortune of the -play as an acting piece; for certainly, in the history of all female -performance on the British stage, there is no specific tradition of any -excellence at all approaching to hers as Queen Katherine.” The two -principal scenes belonging to the part are strikingly contrasted. The -high mind and majestic deportment of the actress, and the sarcasm -which she pours out on the Cardinal, render the Trial Scene one of -the most effective on the stage; and it has fortunately been preserved -from oblivion by the pencil of Harlowe. But the last scene, in the -sick chamber, was among the strongest proofs of Mrs. Siddons’s close -adherence to nature, and one of her greatest triumphs over the difficulties -of her art, enhanced as they were by the extravagant dimensions -of the modern theatres. It may be mentioned to show her confidence -in her own judgment as to the truth of nature that, though the -audience in the gallery sometimes asked her to speak louder, she -never obeyed the call; but left the architect responsible for any failure -of effect, rather than herself overstep the bounds of propriety in the -most solemn event of human life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mrs. Siddons quitted Drury Lane for the season 1789–90, in consequence -of the difficulty of obtaining her salary while the treasury was -in the hands of Sheridan. She was induced by promises to return in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>the following season; but a weak state of health prevented her playing -more than seven nights, and she appeared in no new character; nor, -during the summer of 1791, did she act on any provincial stage. -She returned to Drury Lane in 1794, after the rebuilding of the -theatre, and remained there until 1802; when the impossibility of -rescuing the reward of her labours from that “drowning gulf,” as -she justly calls Sheridan in one of her letters, drove her away finally. -The most remarkable of her new characters, during this period -of eight years, were Millwood, in ‘George Barnwell,’ and Agnes, -in ‘Fatal Curiosity,’ both plays of Lillo; Mrs. Haller; Elvira in -‘Pizarro,’ which, in spite of the demerits of the play, she rendered -one of her most popular characters; and Hermione, in the ‘Winter’s -Tale,’ her last new part, which she acted for the first time, March 25, -1802. The statue scene was one of her most extraordinary performances, -both for its illusion while she remained motionless, and for the -effect produced by her descent from the pedestal, and recognition of -her daughter Perdita.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In one of her early performances of this character she met with an -accident which might well have ended fatally. The muslin draperies -in which she was enveloped caught fire from a lamp; fortunately, one -of the scene-men saw and extinguished it before it spread. Her gratitude -for his interposition is eloquently expressed in her correspondence; -and her warmth of feeling was subsequently evinced in the pains -which she took to procure for the man’s son, who had deserted from -the army, remission from what she justly calls “the horrid torture -and disgrace of the lash,” and in the lively pleasure which she expresses -in the prospect of succeeding.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon her final departure from Drury Lane, Mrs. Siddons formed -an engagement at Covent Garden, where she appeared for the first -time, September 27, 1803. She continued there until June 29, 1812, -on which day she bid farewell to the stage. During this time she performed -in no new characters, nor is any circumstance which requires -notice recorded of this part of her professional life. In her last -season we find that, of her earlier characters, she performed Isabella, -in ‘The Fatal Marriage,’ twice; Isabella, in ‘Measure for Measure,’ -seven times; Euphrasia, twice; Belvidera, six times; and Mrs. -Beverley, four times. It may perhaps be taken as an indication of -that by which she wished chiefly to be remembered, that she played -Lady Macbeth ten times, and chose it for her farewell. Queen -Katherine she played six times; Constance and Volumnia, four times -each; Elvira, five times; Mrs. Haller, twice; Hermione, four times. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>On her last appearance the house was crowded to excess, and the -excitement of the occasion was testified by a general demand that the -play should be stopped after Lady Macbeth’s appearance in the sleeping -scene. Mrs. Siddons returned to the boards on various occasions, -chiefly for her brother Charles’s benefit: her last performance was in -the part of Lady Randolph, June 9, 1819.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In giving, in addition to what we have already said, a short general -notice of the professional merits of Mrs. Siddons, we shall confine our -remarks chiefly to those characters which better suited her maturer -years, in which alone a large majority of our readers can have seen -her. She was throughout the tragic department the unrivalled actress -of her time; though in such parts as Belvidera, Desdemona, Cordelia, -&c., the power of exciting the sympathy of an audience might have -been shared with her by Mrs. Cibber and other of her predecessors, -or by her successors, Miss O’Neil or Miss Kemble. But in one -respect she stands alone in her profession: she was the most intellectual -of actresses. She was a person of deep thought, and an habitual -student of nature with a view to the perfection of her art; and that as -much, or more, in advanced life, than when she had her reputation to -make or to enjoy in the first years of her celebrity. Mrs. Siddons sat -day after day in her study, looking at Shakspeare and whatever bore -upon him, not as if he were the mere poet of the stage, furnishing an -outline to be filled up by her peculiar powers, but as if he were the -high priest and expositor of human nature, whose lessons it was the -serious business of her life to learn, and having learned, to teach.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We shall not add to what we have already said of her Queen Katherine, -or Lady Macbeth, except one circumstance, illustrative of the -above position. Mrs. Siddons, who repeatedly read ‘Macbeth’ before -the most competent judges, made a deeper and more lasting impression, -not only in her own part, but in the other characters, than -did the representation on the stage by her brother and herself, with -all the advantages of dress and the illusion of scenery. The audience, -at her readings, consisting of men and women of taste and literature, -professed never to have understood Shakspeare so thoroughly -before.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Her Isabella, in ‘Measure for Measure,’ claims a short notice. -This play in Garrick’s reign was acted occasionally to empty benches -in the dull part of the season; but neither the manager himself, nor -his leading performers, condescended to appear in so grave and sermonizing -a piece. Even when played by Kemble and his sister, it -did not draw crowded houses; but it ensured a critical and enlightened -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>audience. The theatre seldom contained so many men of the first -reputation for taste and literature as when that play was performed. -John Kemble’s mind was framed in the same mould with his sister’s; -he gave to a sententious and philosophic part dignity and interest, -where an ordinary actor would preach his audience to sleep. The -scene between the Duke in the disguise of a Confessor, and Isabella, -excited neither tears nor rapturous applause, but intense interest, and -breathless attention. The Duke’s exposition of his project is long, her -intervening speeches short, and not emphatic; so that such a scene -bids fair to be called <em>prosing</em>. But the intense and intelligent expression -in her eyes, and more perhaps in her mouth, the great seat of -expression, filled up whatever was wanting: the gradually increasing, -but as yet far from complete comprehension of the device, and of its -consistency with her own purity, marked without words what was -passing in her mind: but when she exclaims “The image of it gives -me content already, and I trust it will grow to a most prosperous -perfection,” the burst of perfect understanding, the lighting up of -every feature, and the tones of sudden joy, produced a corresponding -effect in the spectators, which scenes of intense pathos could scarcely -surpass in effect. Mrs. Siddons’s power over the mind was as great -as over the passions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another extraordinary performance was her Millwood, in ‘George -Barnwell.’ She took that part, which had never been played by a first-rate -actress, in hopes that she might be of service to her brother Charles, -then a young actor, who was to be brought forward as Barnwell. In -the early scenes the severity of her blandishments bordered on the -ludicrous; she was more like Barnwell’s mother than his mistress: but -in her scene of dissimulation with Thorowgood, and in her subsequent -arrest and diabolically triumphant avowal of the motive of her conduct -through life, the desire to revenge her wrongs on the opposite sex, she -pourtrayed wickedness with grand and appalling force. Her thundering -exclamation, “I know you, and I hate you all; I expect no -mercy, and I ask for none,” was made with a withering effect. The -scene in ‘Fatal Curiosity,’ in which Agnes suggests to her husband -the murder of their unknown son, was another of her wonderful exhibitions: -in Mr. Campbell’s words, “it made the flesh of the spectator -creep.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mrs. Siddons is said to have thought well of her own talents for -comedy; and her reading of Shakspeare’s characters of low humour -was admirable. She played at different times Katherine, in ‘The -Taming of the Shrew,’ and Rosalind; as well as Mrs. Oakley, and a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>few other characters of the modern drama. There seems to have been -nothing against her success in genteel comedy but a deficiency of animal -spirits. Her delivery of the level conversation in tragedy was easy, -graceful, and refined. Her representation of the early scenes in ‘The -Gamester,’ where she had merely to personate an elegant and highbred -woman, bearing up against present anxiety and impending misfortune, -was as attractive and as finished as her deep tragedy in -the sequel was pathetic and harrowing. And in the first scenes of -Mrs. Haller, the charm of her manners and delivery imparted interest -even to the dull detail of a housekeeper’s weekly routine.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We subjoin a list of the parts which Mrs. Siddons performed in -London. The reader will be surprised to find how many of them are -in plays all but forgotten, and utterly unworthy of her talents. In -those marked (*) she made her first appearance for her own benefit: -in those marked (†), for John Kemble’s.</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='c012'>Characters.</th> - <th class='c008'>Plays.</th> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1782–3.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Isabella</td> - <td class='c015'>Fatal Marriage</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Euphrasia</td> - <td class='c015'>Grecian Daughter</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Jane Shore</td> - <td class='c015'>Jane Shore</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Calista</td> - <td class='c015'>Fair Penitent</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*Belvidera</td> - <td class='c015'>Venice Preserved</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*Zara</td> - <td class='c015'>Mourning Bride</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1783–4.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Isabella</td> - <td class='c015'>Measure for Measure</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Mrs. Beverley</td> - <td class='c015'>Gamester</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Constance</td> - <td class='c015'>King John</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*Lady Randolph</td> - <td class='c015'>Douglas</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Countess of Salisbury</td> - <td class='c015'>Countess of Salisbury (<em>Hartson.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*Sigismunda</td> - <td class='c015'>Tancred and Sigismunda</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1784–5.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Margaret of Anjou</td> - <td class='c015'>Earl of Warwick (<em>Franklin.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Zara</td> - <td class='c015'>Zara (<em>from Voltaire.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Matilda</td> - <td class='c015'>Carmelite (<em>Cumberland.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Camiola</td> - <td class='c015'>Maid of Honour</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*Lady Macbeth</td> - <td class='c015'>Macbeth</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Desdemona</td> - <td class='c015'>Othello</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Elfrida</td> - <td class='c015'>Elfrida (<em>Mason.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Rosalind</td> - <td class='c015'>As you like it</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1785–6.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>The Duchess</td> - <td class='c015'>Duke of Braganza (<em>Jephson.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Mrs. Lovemore</td> - <td class='c015'>Way to keep Him</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*Hermione</td> - <td class='c015'>Distressed Mother</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*Ophelia, and the Lady in Comus</td> - <td class='c015'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Malvina</td> - <td class='c015'>The Captives (<em>Delap.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Elwina</td> - <td class='c015'>Percy (<em>Miss H. More.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1786–7.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Cleone</td> - <td class='c015'>Cleone (<em>Dodsley.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Imogen</td> - <td class='c015'>Cymbeline</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Hortensia</td> - <td class='c015'>Count of Narbonne (<em>Jephson.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>†Lady Restless</td> - <td class='c015'>All in the Wrong</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Julia</td> - <td class='c015'>Italian Lovers (<em>Jephson.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Alicia</td> - <td class='c015'>Jane Shore</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1787–8.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Cordelia</td> - <td class='c015'>Lear</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Cleonice</td> - <td class='c015'>Fall of Sparta (<em>Mrs. Cowley.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>†Katherine</td> - <td class='c015'>Taming the Shrew</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Dionara</td> - <td class='c015'>Regent (<em>Greatheed.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*Cleopatra</td> - <td class='c015'>All for Love</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1788–9.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Queen Katherine</td> - <td class='c015'>Henry VIII.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Volumnia</td> - <td class='c015'>Coriolanus</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*The Princess and Mrs. Riot</td> - <td class='c015'>Law of Lombardy (<em>Jephson.</em>)<br /> Lethe (<em>Farce. Garrick.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Mary</td> - <td class='c015'>Mary Queen of Scots (<em>St. John.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>*Juliet</td> - <td class='c015'>Romeo and Juliet</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1791–2.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Queen Elizabeth</td> - <td class='c015'>Richard III.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Mrs. Oakley</td> - <td class='c015'>Jealous Wife</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1792–3.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Ariadne</td> - <td class='c015'>Ariadne (<em>Murphy.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1793–4.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Countess Orsini</td> - <td class='c015'>Emilia Galotti (<em>from Lessing.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1794–5.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Horatia</td> - <td class='c015'>Roman Father (<em>Whitehead.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>Elvira</td> - <td class='c015'>Edwyn and Elgiva (<em>Miss Burney.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Palmira</td> - <td class='c015'>Mahomet (<em>from Voltaire.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Emmeline</td> - <td class='c015'>Edgar and Emmeline (<em>Afterpiece.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1795–6.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Roxana</td> - <td class='c015'>Alexander the Great (<em>Lee.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Almeyda</td> - <td class='c015'>Queen of Granada (<em>Miss Lee.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Julia</td> - <td class='c015'>Such Things were (<em>Prince Hoare.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1796–7.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Eleanora</td> - <td class='c015'>Edwin and Eleonora (<em>Thomson.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Vitellia</td> - <td class='c015'>Conspiracy (<em>Jephson.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Millwood</td> - <td class='c015'>George Barnwell</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Athenais</td> - <td class='c015'>Force of Love (<em>Lee.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Aspasia</td> - <td class='c015'>Tamerlane (<em>Rowe.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Dido</td> - <td class='c015'>Queen of Carthage (<em>Reed.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Agnes</td> - <td class='c015'>Fatal Curiosity</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1797–8.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Julia</td> - <td class='c015'>Rivals</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Mrs. Haller</td> - <td class='c015'>Stranger</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1798–9.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Miranda</td> - <td class='c015'>Aurelio and Miranda (<em>Boaden.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Countess</td> - <td class='c015'>Castle of Montval (<em>Dr. Whalley.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Elvira</td> - <td class='c015'>Pizarro</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1799–1800.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Adelaide</td> - <td class='c015'>Adelaide (<em>Pye.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Lady Jane</td> - <td class='c015'>De Montfort</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1800–1.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Helena</td> - <td class='c015'>Antonio (<em>Godwin.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Agnes</td> - <td class='c015'>Julian and Agnes (<em>Sotheby.</em>)</td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'>1802.</td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c014'>Hermione</td> - <td class='c015'>Winter’s Tale</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c000'>Of Mrs. Siddons’s private life it is not necessary for us to speak at -length. She had a full share of domestic troubles; and suffered the -most poignant sorrow which could have befallen her affectionate -temper, in the successive deaths of two lovely daughters in the prime -of youth, and of her eldest son at a more advanced age. Nor was she -exempted by her brilliant success and large gains from great anxiety -upon pecuniary matters, and from the necessity of diligent labour at -times when rest would have been most grateful to a distressed spirit, -and a body weakened by frequent indisposition. And she made it -her boast that she had never wilfully disappointed either a manager or -the public; and that in point of punctuality, she had always been <em>an -honest actress</em>. But Mr. Siddons lost money in some unfortunate -speculations; and this, combined with the extreme difficulty of extracting -from Sheridan her salary, or even the proceeds of her benefits, -kept Mrs. Siddons poor for many years. It is however gratifying to -know that the evening of her life was spent in affluence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In social intercourse Mrs. Siddons commanded the respect of all, -the admiration and love of those who knew her intimately. To a -constitutional want of animal spirits, and to a fear of that presumptuous -intrusion to which actresses are often exposed, we may attribute -a gravity, not to say severity of manner, from which distant observers -sometimes inferred a corresponding severity of character. That this -was not the case, that she was benevolent, cheerful, and affectionately -interested in the welfare of all who enjoyed her friendship, is shown -by the testimony of many, and by the evidence of her own actions.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To be courted by the rich and noble is not the best proof or reward -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>even of professional merit; and no one ever was less disposed than -Mrs. Siddons to act the part of what is called <em>a lion</em>. But it should -be mentioned that her acquaintance was eagerly cultivated among the -highest of the land; and that she was personally esteemed by -George III. and his queen, and often summoned to attend on their -private circle. She possessed a still higher honour, and one which -she is said to have esteemed more highly, in the admiration and -friendship of Johnson, Reynolds, Burke, Fox, and other intellectual -ornaments of the age.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After quitting the stage, Mrs. Siddons gave public readings of -poetry at the Argyle Rooms, and also, by special invitation from the -Universities, at Cambridge and Oxford. At home her readings of -Shakspeare were the delight of large and frequent parties, till within -a year or two of her death. The latter years of her life were spent, -the winter months at her house in London, the summer months at -some watering-place, and in visits to her numerous friends. Time -laid his touch gently on her noble face and person; and to the end of -life she looked some years younger than her age, and preserved her -mental powers unimpaired. She died June 8, 1831, in her seventy-sixth -year.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We need hardly refer to the Lives of Messrs. Boaden and Campbell. -The interest of the latter is much increased by the critical and other -writings of Mrs. Siddons, with which it is interspersed.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_104.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse, from Sir J. Reynolds.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_105fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />SIR W. HERSCHELL.<br /><br /><em>From a Crayon Picture by the late J. Russell, Esq<sup>re</sup>. R.A. in the possession of Sir John Herschell.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span> -<img src='images/i_105.jpg' alt='HERSCHEL.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>HERSCHEL.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>William Herschel was born at Hanover, November 15, 1738. -His father was a musician, and brought up his four sons to his own -art, which in Germany gave him better means of educating his -children, than would have fallen to the lot of a person holding -the same station in England. The subject of our memoir is said -to have had a master who instructed him in French, ethics, and -metaphysics: but at the age of fourteen he was placed in the -band of the Hanoverian regiment of guards, and in 1758 or 1759 -he accompanied a detachment of the regiment to England. Another -account states that he grew tired of his occupation, and came to -England alone. Here, after struggling with poverty for some time, -he was chosen by Lord Darlington to organize a band for the Durham -militia; after which he passed several years in the West Riding of -Yorkshire, employed in teaching music and studying languages. -About 1765 he was elected organist at Halifax, and employed himself -in the study of harmony and mathematics. Such at least is the statement -of the ‘Obituary;’ but in that respectable work we find no -references to the sources from which these minute particulars of -Herschel’s early life are obtained. About this time he is said to -have visited Italy; and, without professing to give credit to it, we -may here insert a curious story which appears to have been copied -into English works from the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire des Auteurs Vivans</span>,’ &c., -Paris, 1816. Being at Genoa, and not having wherewith to pay his -passage home to England, he procured from a M. L’Anglé the use of -some public rooms for a concert, at which he played a quartett, alone, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>upon a harp, and two horns, one fastened to each shoulder. Those -who are in the least acquainted with wind instruments will hardly -believe that a horn fastened to the shoulder would be of much more use -than one growing out of the head, as a musical instrument; to say -nothing of the difficulty of blowing two horns at once, or of playing a -<em>quartett</em> upon <em>three</em> instruments. Remarkable characters are generally -made the subject of wonderful stories, of which each is fashioned in -accordance with the general habits of the inventor: the groom’s idea -of a wit was “a gentleman who could ride three horses at once;” -surely two horns and a harp are not too much to be played at once by -a planetary discoverer.</p> - -<p class='c000'>About 1766, he is said to have been one of the Pump-room band -at Bath, and was shortly afterwards organist of the Octagon Chapel -there. He taught and read as before; and here he turned his attention -to astronomy. He borrowed a small reflecting telescope of a -friend; and at length, finding that the purchase of such an instrument -was (“fortunately,” as it has been well expressed,) above his -means, he endeavoured to construct one for himself. His first attempt -was a five-feet Newtonian reflector. It was some time before he perfected -himself in the method of forming mirrors: in one instance he -is said to have spoiled 200 before he succeeded.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1781, he announced to the world the discovery of his new planet, -of which we shall presently speak. He was immediately appointed -private astronomer to the King, by George III., a post which, we -believe, was created for him, and died with him, with a salary of -£400, and removed, first to Datchet, afterwards to Slough, where he -continued till his death, August 23, 1822. During this period he -ran that career of patient and sagacious investigation, terminating in -brilliant discovery, which has made his name so well known to the -world. Little has been published concerning his private life; but -the whole results of his mind are to be found in the ‘Philosophical -Transactions’ between the years 1782 and 1818.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We have not been able to find the dates of his knighthood, or of his -receiving the degree of Doctor of Civil Law from the University of -Oxford. He married (we cannot find the date) Mrs. Mary Pitt, a -widow; and his only son, Sir John Herschel, has selected from the -many tasks to which he is competent, that of developing and adding -to his father’s discoveries.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the space which we can devote to the astronomical and optical -labours of Herschel, we cannot attempt to furnish even the smallest -detail of their end and objects, since the catalogue of titles alone -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>would occupy more room than we have to give. We can do no -more than address ourselves to the impression which generally exists -upon the subject, and which supposes the inventor and the philosopher -to be no more than an industrious man with good eyes, clever -at grinding mirrors for reflecting telescopes, and lucky enough to -point one at a new planet. Such being the common notion, it is not -possible to make any mere description of Herschel’s papers an index -of his merits. Nor have we here understated the scientific knowledge -of the public in general. When Sir John Herschel lately set out for -the Cape of Good Hope, the newspapers announced his approaching -departure, accompanied by the information that “six waggon loads -of telescopes” were on their way to the ship, which was all that was -said, except in publications expressly scientific. That one principal -object of the son’s voyage was to complete a great branch of astronomy, -by doing in the southern hemisphere what the father had done -in the northern, was not stated for a very simple reason—that this -portion of the father’s labours is hardly known by name to any but -astronomers. And it is to astronomers only that Herschel is truly -known. The notion entertained of him by others often reminds us of -the farmer, who came to him to know the proper time to cut his hay. -The philosopher replied by pointing to his own crop, which happened -to be rotting on the ground under a heavy rain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The planet which Herschel called after George III. (but which -now goes under the more appropriate name of Uranus) was discovered -by him March 13, 1781; not accidentally, but as one of -the fruits of a laborious investigation, with a distinct and useful object. -He was examining every star with one telescope, that he might obtain a -definite idea of relative phenomena, which should enable him to distinguish -changes actually taking place, from differences of appearance -caused by the use of different telescopes: the whole being in furtherance -of the design of “throwing some new light upon the organization -of the celestial bodies.” The last words, which are part of the title of -one of his subsequent papers, aptly express the line of astronomy -to which Herschel devoted his life; and the discovery of the planet -Uranus was not the chance work of a moment, but the consequence of -sagacity strengthened by habit, the latter being formed with a perfect -knowledge of what was wanted, as well as of what would be useful in -supplying it. Had he been merely registering the places of the stars, -he would probably (as others did before him) have passed the planet, -perhaps with some remark upon its apparent <em>diskiness</em>: for though -the stars have no well-defined discs, yet some have so much more of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>appearance of discs than others, that a faint planet, viewed with a low -power, might easily be taken for a star. But being engaged upon the -stars, expressly with a view to trying how much of such a circumstance -would be telescopic, and how much real, he was thereby led to -try higher powers, and, eventually, other telescopes. The existence of -the <em>planet</em> was soon ascertained, and forms one of the two great features -of Herschel’s reputation in the eyes of the world at large.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The celebrated forty-foot telescope, first described to the Royal -Society by Herschel, June 2, 1795, was the result of a long series of -experiments on the construction of mirrors, begun at Bath, on telescopes -from two to twenty feet in length. And we may here remark, -that “the bulk of his fortune arose from the sale of telescopes of his -own construction, many of which were purchased for the chief observatories -of Europe,” and not from the salary of £400 a year which he -received as private astronomer to George III. See ‘Statement of -Circumstances,’ &c., a pamphlet printed on the occasion of the last -election of a President by the Royal Society. In 1785, George III. -furnished Herschel with the means of undertaking an instrument -larger than any he had yet made. The greatest difficulty (independent -of the stand) was the obtaining a mirror of sufficient size, which should -not crack in cooling, and should be strong enough not to bend under -its own weight. This instrument has been so frequently described -that we shall say no more of it, except that Herschel dates the completion -of it from August 28, 1789, when he discovered the sixth -satellite of Saturn, and obtained his best view of the spots on that -planet. A month later, the seventh satellite was discovered by Herschel. -This telescope is now never used. Sir J. Herschel prefers a -twenty-foot reflector for his own observations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first discovery of the satellites of Uranus was also in a minor -degree the work of thought. Such bodies were repeatedly looked for by -Herschel, but none were seen. A small change in the instrument, by -which the light was increased, suggested one more trial; and the result -was the establishment of the existence of the two first satellites, in -January, 1787. Two more were discovered by Herschel, in 1790, -and two more in 1794. These satellites cannot be seen but with an -instrument of first-rate power, and in a favourable position of the -planet. No one has observed the four last satellites except Herschel -himself, or the two first, except himself and Sir J. Herschel, who has -confirmed his father’s determination of their periods. See <em>Mem. Royal -Astron. Soc.</em> vol. viii. He found that their orbits were nearly perpendicular -to the plane of the ecliptic, and ascertained their retrograde -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>motion, and some remarkable relations between their mean distances. -It has a brilliant sound, but it is literally true as to the number of -<em>known</em> bodies composing the solar system, that Herschel left it exactly -half as large again as he found it. To the Sun, Mercury, Venus, the -Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter and four satellites, Saturn and five -satellites, and Halley’s Comet, eighteen in all, he added nine, namely, -two satellites to Saturn, Uranus and six satellites.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But not content with augmenting our own, it is to Herschel we owe -the discovery of other systems. That the fixed stars were each the -centre of a number of planets was suspected, perhaps rather prematurely, -before his observations were made known. But the first -positive addition to our knowledge of <em>systems</em>, that is of bodies -which move in any degree of connexion with each other, is to -be found in his paper read to the Royal Society, June 9, 1803, -announcing that Castor, γ Leonis, ε Bootis, ζ Herculis, δ Serpentis, -γ Virginis, were most probably <em>binary</em><a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c011'><sup>[4]</sup></a> stars. The existence of such -systems has been confirmed by Sir J. Herschel and Professor Struve, -and the duration of the periods given by Herschel has been sufficiently -confirmed to make the exactness of his observations remarkable. But -to new planets, and new systems, Herschel added new universes; or, -more properly speaking, showed that the universe consisted of portions, -each conveying as large an idea of extent and number, as the -whole of what was previously called <em>the universe</em>. His great telescope -furnished sufficient facts, and his mind was not slow to draw -a conjectural inference, which must be classed among the happiest -efforts of reasoning speculation. The resolution of the milky way -into stars proved that we are situated in a stratum of such bodies -much thicker in some directions than others: this led to the inference -that some or all of the nebulæ with which the sky is crowded might -be similar enormous groups of stars; and the resolution of some of -the nebulæ into detached portions was a first step towards the demonstration -of the conjecture.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. </span><em>Double</em> stars, those which are so near to each other as to appear one to the naked -eye: <em>binary</em> systems, double stars which revolve round each other.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>There is enough yet unmentioned,—in the discovery of the time of -rotation of Saturn—that of Jupiter’s satellites—that of the refrangibility -of heat—the experiments on colours—the enormous collection -of nebulæ—the experimental determination of the magnitude of stars—the -researches and conjectures on the physical constitution of the -sun—those on the qualities of telescopes, &c. &c.,—to form by itself -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>no ordinary title to the recollection of posterity. But we must refer to -Sir J. Herschel’s Astronomy, in which will be found such an account -of them as the plan of the work permitted, by one who has shown -himself as indisposed to exaggerate, as interested to explain.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the labours of his observatory Herschel was assisted by his sister, -Miss Caroline Herschel, with whose help he published, in 1798, his -catalogue of Flamsteed’s stars. This lady, whose exertions, both as -an observer and calculator, are well known to astronomers, is still -living, at a very advanced age, in Hanover.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We do not know of any very trustworthy account of Herschel. -‘The Obituary for 1822,’ the ‘Gentleman’s Magazine,’ the ‘Annual -Register,’ &c., do not state their authorities. We have followed the -first-mentioned work as to facts and dates in most of the particulars -here mentioned.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_110.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[View of the great telescope erected at Slough.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_111fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by R. Woodman.</em><br /><br />SIR S. ROMILLY.<br /><br /><em>From an Enamel after a Picture by Sir Thomas Lawrence.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span> -<img src='images/i_111.jpg' alt='ROMILLY.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>ROMILLY.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The grandfather of Sir Samuel Romilly, as we learn from the -following passage of a speech which he made at Bristol, “was -born the heir to a considerable landed estate at Montpellier, in -the South of France. His ancestors had early imbibed and adopted -the principles and doctrines of the Reformed Religion, and he had -been educated himself in that religious faith. He had the misfortune -to live soon after the time when the Edict of Nantes, the great Toleration -Act of the Protestants of France, was revoked by Louis XIV.; -and he found himself exposed to all the vexations and persecutions of -a bigoted and tyrannical government for worshipping God in the -manner in which he believed was most acceptable to Him. He determined -to free himself from this bondage; he abandoned his property, -he tore himself from his connexions, and, quitting the country and its -tyrant, sought an asylum in this land of liberty, where he had to support -himself only by his own exertions. He himself embarked in -trade; he educated his sons to useful trades; and he was contented, -at his death, to leave them, instead of his original patrimony, no other -inheritance than the habits of industry he had given them—the example -of his own virtuous life, an hereditary detestation of tyranny and injustice, -and an ardent zeal in the cause of civil and religious freedom.” -One of these sons became eminent as a jeweller, and married Miss -Garnault, by whom he had a numerous family. Of these three only -lived to maturity, Thomas, Catherine, and Samuel. Samuel was the -youngest, and was born March 1, 1757.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His father was a man of extreme benevolence, and strict integrity; -warm in his affections, and cheerful in his disposition. Under the -influence of his precepts and example the moral character of Samuel -Romilly was formed: for his mother, from an habitual state of bad -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>health, was incapable of superintending the early education of her -children, which was consequently much neglected. Samuel and his -brother were sent to a common day-school, the master of which -pretended to teach Latin, although really ignorant of that language. -It was at one time contemplated to train him to commercial -business in the house of the Fludyers, who were then considerable -merchants in the city, and near relations of his family: but -the sudden death of both the partners of that house put an end to these -projects; and in the absence of other occupation, his father employed -him in keeping his accounts, and sometimes receiving orders from -customers. He had thus leisure to cultivate tastes more congenial to -his nature; and at the age of fourteen he commenced that self-education, -to which he owed all his future success. Every volume of his -father’s little collection, and of the circulating libraries in the neighbourhood, -was anxiously and attentively perused. Ancient and modern -history, treatises on science, works of criticism, travels, and English -poetry, were among his favourite books. But a passion for poetry -soon predominated over other tastes; and from admiring the poetry of -others he aspired at becoming a poet himself. He wrote eclogues, -songs, and satires, translated passages from French poets, and imitated -English ones; and resolving to devote himself steadily to literature -he hoped to acquire fame as an author. He now set about learning -Latin in earnest; and was soon able, by dint of unremitting assiduity, -and with some assistance from a private tutor, to understand the -easier Latin authors. In the course of about three years he had -read through Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus three times; he had studied -almost the whole of Cicero, as well as the principal poets; he had -gone through the Latin translations of the Greek historians, orators, -and philosophers; and had made numerous translations from the Latin -classics into English, which he retranslated into Latin. This double -exercise he found to be eminently useful in rendering him, what he at -length became, a very excellent scholar. In addition to these studies, -he attended lectures on natural philosophy, painting, architecture, and -anatomy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the meanwhile he felt his father’s business become every day -more irksome; and it was definitively arranged that he should enter -into some branch of the law; a plan which he was enabled to execute -by the accession to the family of a considerable legacy. At the age -of sixteen, he was articled to Mr. Lally for five years, with a view of -succeeding to him as one of the six clerks in Chancery. The society, -however, of Mr. Lally and the pursuit of his literary tastes had greater -attractions for him than the regular occupation of the office; and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>although he scrupulously performed the duties required of him, his -favourite classics engrossed a large portion of his time, and his mind -was still intent upon a life of peaceful retirement, and the prospect of -literary fame.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the expiration of the term of his apprenticeship, however, he -determined, much against the opinion of many of his friends, to study -at one of the inns of court, and to be called to the bar. His real -motive in deciding against a clerkship in chancery, which was then -only to be obtained by purchase, was little suspected at the time; it -was, that he might not be obliged to call for his share of the legacy -just alluded to, amounting to 2000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>; which he knew it would be very -inconvenient to his father to pay. This trait of pious benevolence was, -by a just retribution, the pivot upon which his future fortunes more -immediately turned.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was not till he had attained his twenty-first year that he entered -upon these new studies; and they were pursued with so much persevering -assiduity, that at length he became seriously indisposed, and -all application was for months prohibited by his medical advisers. -So serious an interruption to his pursuits was likely to be most injurious -to him in his profession; when, fortunately, an opportunity -occurred of making an excursion to the continent. The Rev. John -Roget, who had recently married his sister, had been attacked with a -pulmonary complaint, which obliged him to remove with her to a -southern climate, leaving behind them in England their first and then -only child. They were no sooner settled at Lausanne, than they -ardently desired to have this child conveyed to them, and Mr. Romilly, -from a deep sense of the obligations he already owed to his brother-in-law -for assisting him in his studies, and supplying that judicious and -well-timed encouragement, which, on a susceptible and ardent mind, -ever acts as the most powerful incentive to exertion, readily undertook -the charge. The change of air and scene, the lively interest he took -in visiting new countries, and the consciousness of rendering no small -service to relatives to whom he was most affectionately attached, -produced a rapid and favourable change upon his health. Still more -important was the effect produced on the tone of his mind by this -renewed intercourse with a friend, who had early discerned his latent -abilities and extraordinary capacity, and who, on this occasion, placing -before his view the wide field on which those talents might be advantageously -exercised, and the important services he might thus be -capable of rendering to his fellow-creatures, produced impressions -which were indelible, and which, as he himself has often said, had a -marked influence upon the subsequent events of his life.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>On his return to England he resumed his studies with renovated -strength and with redoubled ardour. He was called to the bar in -1783. More than ten years, however, elapsed before any real prospect -of success opened to him in his profession. It is true that he was -employed in drawing pleadings in chancery, and this business gradually -increased; but it never required him to open his lips in court; -and although he regularly attended the Midland circuit, he had no -connexions on it, and it was not until he commenced an attendance on -the sessions that the circuit at length became a source of some profit -to him. In 1792 he appeared for the first time as a leader: in a short -time he was employed in almost every case, and not many years passed -before he was at the head of his circuit.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But we are anticipating a later period. In 1784 Mr. Romilly -became acquainted with Mirabeau, and through him with Lord Lansdowne. -That nobleman appreciated the knowledge and character of -the rising lawyer, and becoming intimate with him, did all in his power -to encourage and bring forth his talents. About the same time there -was published a tract by the Rev. Dr. Madan, entitled ‘Thoughts on -Executive Justice.’ It had attracted some attention, and was so -much admired by Lord Lansdowne, that he suggested to his friend the -task of writing a treatise in the same spirit. But Mr. Romilly was -so much shocked at the principle upon which it proceeded, namely, -that of rigidly executing the criminal code in all cases, barbarous -and sanguinary as it then was, that, instead of adopting its doctrines, -he sat down to refute them. The triumphant reply which he drew -up and published anonymously did not meet with the success it deserved. -Nevertheless he had the satisfaction of hearing it praised -from the bench; and Lord Lansdowne himself had the singular -candour to acknowledge the merit of a production, which, although -written at his own suggestion, was at variance with the opinions -he had desired to see inculcated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Allusion has been made to Mr. Romilly’s acquaintance with Mirabeau. -He was one of those of whose talents Mirabeau had availed -himself on more than one occasion. It is unnecessary, however, to -mention more than the following instance, which is too characteristic -to be omitted. During one of Mr. Romilly’s visits to Paris, in 1788, -curiosity led him to see the prison of the Bicêtre, and on meeting -Mirabeau the next day, he described to him all the horror and disgust -with which the place had inspired him. Mirabeau, struck with the -force of his description, begged him to express it in writing, and to -be allowed to use it. Mirabeau translated and published this account -in a pamphlet, which, in spite of the title, ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lettre d’un Voyageur -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>Anglais sur la Prison de Bicêtre</span>,’ was everywhere ascribed to him; -while the real author, on his return to England, printed his own -MS. in the ‘Repository,’ as the translation, although it was in fact -the original.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was not till the autumn of 1796, when on a visit to Bowood, the -country-seat of Lord Lansdowne, that Mr. Romilly first met Miss -Garbett, to whom he was afterwards united, and who formed the charm -of the remainder of his existence. With such sacred inducements to -renew his efforts in his profession, his advancement was proportionably -rapid. On November 6, 1800, he was appointed king’s counsel; -and it was soon clear that he might aspire to the highest ranks of his -profession. In 1806 he was made Solicitor-general, under the administration -of Mr. Fox and Lord Grenville. He was, much against -his will, knighted on his appointment; and was brought into Parliament -by the Government for Queenborough. Soon after, he was -called upon to sum up the evidence on the trial of Lord Melville; a -duty which he performed with consummate skill, though with a feebleness -of voice which deprived his most able speech of its just effect in -the vast hall where it was delivered.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the first session of his parliamentary career, Sir Samuel -Romilly confined himself principally to questions of law, and seldom -addressed the House, except in committee; but in the beginning of -1807 he took a more prominent part, and made his first great speech -in favour of the abolition of the Slave-trade—a speech, which at once -placed him on a level with the most successful orators of the day. In -this subject he had always felt deep interest. From his earliest youth -he had expressed the warmest indignation against this infamous traffic; -he had translated, with a view to publication, Condorcet’s pamphlet -against West Indian slavery, and, at the beginning of the French -Revolution, he had written an eloquent paper against the Slave-trade, -and had transmitted it to his friend Dumont, from whom he trusted it -would pass to Mirabeau, and would remind him of the importance of -the question, at a time when a comparatively slight effort would have -settled it in that country for ever. These previous efforts had produced -no effect; but he had afterwards the satisfaction of belonging to the -ministry to whom the honour was due of abolishing the slave-trade, -and of thus preparing the way for putting an end to slavery itself. -This ministry were soon after dismissed from their offices, for not sacrificing -their opinions in favour of Catholic emancipation to the lamentable -and persevering prejudices entertained by George III. on that -question, prejudices adopted by his son and successor, to the infinite -detriment of his dominions.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>On the dissolution of parliament which followed, Sir Samuel -Romilly, having procured for himself a seat for Wareham, lost no time -in re-introducing a measure, which had been rejected in the former -parliament, to enable a creditor to obtain the payment of his debts -from the landed property of persons dying indebted. With a view -to prevent opposition, he had confined the operation of his measure -to freehold estates only. The bill, however, even in this modified -form, met with the greatest opposition. Its introduction by Sir -Samuel was ascribed to “his hereditary love of democracy;” it was -denounced by Canning, “as the first step of something that might -end like the French Revolution, and as a dangerous attack against -the aristocracy, which was thus to be sacrificed to the commercial -interest;” and it was finally rejected by a considerable majority. -Rather than give up his object entirely, he determined to make another -concession to the prejudices of his opponents; and a few days after -the rejection of the measure, on introducing a second bill on the same -subject, he limited its operation to the landed estates of <em>traders</em>. -This expedient succeeded; the aristocracy, caring little what became -of traders’ estates, suffered the bill to pass both houses without the -slightest opposition, and it received the Royal assent in August, 1807. -After the lapse of seven years, he made fresh attempts in favour of his -original bill, but in vain. It was indeed carried by the Commons, in -1814, by a majority of nearly two to one; and again in the same house, -in the two succeeding years, without the slightest opposition; but on -all these occasions it was as regularly rejected by the House of Peers. -The original measure, including copyhold as well as freehold estates, -has recently become part of the law of the land.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the vacation of 1807 Sir Samuel Romilly prepared some of -those reforms in the criminal law, by which he is most known to the -public. For many years he had been intent on this subject, and had -made it his particular study. During repeated visits to the continent, -he never missed an opportunity of attending any important trial; and -for the sixteen years during which he attended the circuit, he had been -in the habit of noting down whatever appeared to him worthy of observation -in the criminal courts. Shocked at instances of judicial injustice, -which thus fell under his notice, he had secretly resolved that, if -it should ever be in his power, he would endeavour to provide a -remedy for such gross abuses. The principles of his intended reforms -were contained in his answer to Dr. Madan. He held that the prevention -of crime is more effectually accomplished by certainty than -by severity of punishment; that to approximate to certainty of punishment, -it was necessary to mitigate the severities of the penal code; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>that, unless this were done, there would still be an indisposition on -the part of the public to prosecute, of witnesses to give evidence, -of juries to convict, and even of judges to put in execution the -sentences they had themselves passed;—that all these were so -many chances of escape offered to a culprit, operating rather as -encouragements than as checks to crime. These doctrines, then so -new, although now received as axioms, made but few converts at first; -and it was not till they were again brought before the public in -the House of Commons, in 1808, that they attracted some of that -attention to which they were entitled. One of his first bills, which -repealed the punishment of death for stealing privately from the person -to the amount of five shillings, passed both houses with but little -opposition; but, as the number of prosecutions increased in consequence, -it was alleged that the crime itself had increased, and that -all similar reforms would be attended with similar mischief. Romilly -urged in vain that, when the measure was under consideration, he had -foretold that it would produce an increase of prosecutions; and that -this, far from being an argument against the mitigation of punishment, -was the best proof of its efficacy. In vain did he defend -his principle, with the varied stores of his knowledge, with the most -powerful arguments, and with the eloquence of deep conviction. The -mature reflections of above thirty years’ study and experience were -treated as the rash innovations of a wild theorist. The effect of government -circulars was too seldom counteracted by the attendance of his -own political friends; no party advantage could be gained from such -enlightened labours; there was no large and powerful body in the -country to second his efforts; and when, at length, after unremitting -perseverance, he occasionally succeeded in carrying a bill through the -Commons, it was rarely permitted to pass through the ordeal of the -Upper House. But these efforts were not thrown away. His views, -ably and diligently supported by Sir James Mackintosh and others, -have since been confirmed and acted on even by his political opponents. -The credit which was due to him who had sown the seed has -since been claimed by those who reaped it; but the harvest is not lost -to the public.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But Romilly did not shrink from taking an active part on questions -more generally interesting to the public, even though the avowal of -his opinions might endanger his advancement in life. A remarkable -instance of this kind occurred in the beginning of 1809, when the conduct -of the Duke of York was brought before the house by Colonel -Wardle. He was aware that to support this inquiry would not be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>less obnoxious to many members of the former government than to -those then in office. It had been significantly intimated to him that -the Prince of Wales would consider any attack on the duke as an -attack on himself; and he felt under some obligation to the Prince -for having formerly offered him a seat in parliament, which, however, -he had declined. Such was his position; entertaining, however, a -strong opinion on the subject, he resolved not to abandon his duty; -and he spoke and voted in favour of the motion. He concluded his -speech in these words: “The venerable judge<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c011'><sup>[5]</sup></a> who took an early -part in the discussion of this question has attested the sincerity of his -vote by an affecting allusion to his age and infirmities, to the few inducements -which the remainder of his life presented to him. I cannot -say the same thing. Not labouring under the same affliction, and not -having arrived at the same period of life, I may reasonably be allowed -for myself, and for those who are most dear to me, to indulge hopes -of prosperity yet to come. Reflecting on the vicissitudes of human -life, I may entertain apprehensions of adversity and persecution which -perhaps await me. I have, however, the satisfaction to reflect, that -it is not possible for me to hope to derive, in any way the most remote, -advantages from the vote which upon this occasion I shall give, and -from the part which I have thought it my duty to act.”</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. </span>Mr. Barton, a Welsh judge, who was then at the age of nearly seventy, and deprived -of his sight.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>These anticipations were afterwards corroborated by several persons, -who told him, that after such a speech, he must give up all thoughts -of ever being Chancellor. The public also felt that he had made a -sacrifice in their cause. Thanks were voted to him in conjunction with -Mr. Whitbread, Lord Folkstone, and some others, from the City of -London, Liverpool, Carmarthen, Wiltshire, Bristol, Berwick, &c. &c.; -and he was invited by the Livery of London to a public dinner, as a -mark of approbation of his conduct. He declined, however, to accept -the intended honour, and his answers to the addresses were drawn up -with that unaffected modesty, and love of simple truth, which were so -peculiarly characteristic of his mind. Instead of dwelling upon his own -merit, he drew the picture of what would have been thought of him -had he pursued an opposite course. “Seeing the case,” he said in his -answer to the Livery, “in the light in which I saw it, to have acted -otherwise than I did, I must have been base enough to have deserted -my public duty upon a most important occasion, from the mean apprehension -that to discharge my duty might be attended with personal -disadvantage to myself. If there be much merit in not having been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>actuated by such unworthy motives, (which I cannot think, but if there -be,) that merit I certainly may pretend to, &c.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>The course which he took in the year following on the imprisonment -of Gale Jones, and the alleged breach of privilege by -Sir Francis Burdett, was again at variance with that adopted by -either of the two great parties in the house. The Opposition as well -as the Ministry, and all the lawyers who took any part in the debate, -concurred in thinking the paper written by Sir Francis Burdett -a breach of privilege, and deserving of punishment of one kind or another; -while Romilly maintained that the house had no jurisdiction to -take cognizance of the offence. He did not dispute the right to imprison -for a breach of privilege which obstructed their proceedings, -but he denied the right and the policy of doing so for the publication -of animadversions on matters already concluded. He urged that these -latter questions “ought not to be decided on by the house, which thus -constituted itself prosecutor, party, and judge, without affording to the -accused the opportunity of even hearing the charges preferred against -him; but they ought to be left to the ordinary tribunals, the courts of -law.” These arguments, disregarded at the time, were amply justified -by the events which followed. The folly of the course adopted was -proved by serious disturbances, attended with the loss of life; petitions -couched in the most disrespectful language were sent up, and inserted -on the Journals; and the question of the privileges of the Commons -came, in the first instance, before the courts of law, and was finally -decided by the House of Lords. Invitations to public dinners were -again sent to him, which he again declined; and addresses of thanks -were voted “for the stand he had made in favour of the dominion -of the law, against arbitrary discretion and undefined privilege.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>But it was not only in this way that the public showed how much -they appreciated his integrity and independence. In 1812 he was -pressed to allow himself to be put in nomination for several large -constituencies; amongst others for Liverpool, Chester, Middlesex, and -Bristol. At Bristol, his past political conduct was considered a sufficient -guarantee for the future; no pledge was required of him, he was -to be put to no expense, and it was agreed that he should be excused -from personal canvas. On terms so honourable he consented to be -put in nomination; and although a total stranger in the town, his -reception was most encouraging, and there seemed every prospect of -success. Nevertheless the common but dishonest maxim, of every -thing being fair at an election, being acted upon by the opposite party, -it was soon evident that he would not be returned; and on the seventh -day he resigned any further contest.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>Although his opinions were not as yet to receive the sanction of any -large and popular constituency, he did not relax his efforts in favour -of the rights and interests of the people. On being returned for -Horsham, during the six sessions which this parliament lasted, we -find him the same strenuous advocate for civil liberty and religious -toleration in the most extensive sense of the words, at home and -abroad; the same determined enemy to peculation and corruption, the -same ardent and judicious reformer of the laws; “incapable on every -occasion of being swerved from his duty by the threats of power, the -allurements of the great, the temptations of private interest, or even -the seduction of popular favour. All the toil, the pain, and the fatigue -of his duties were his own; all the advantage which resulted from his -labours were for the public.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>He spoke and voted against military flogging, the game laws, -the punishment of the pillory, the poor laws, the law of libel, and -lotteries; against the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, Lord -Sidmouth’s circular letter, and the employment of spies and informers; -and against the persecution of the Protestants in France, and the -Alien bill at home; in favour of Catholic emancipation, the education -of the poor, and the liberty of the press. He was always a zealous advocate -for peace; against the system of the corn laws, and all restrictions -on commerce, and he was in favour of an extensive change in -the representation of the people, of shortening the duration of parliament, -and ensuring the free exercise of the elective franchise. He -was also in favour of the promulgation of laws, of allowing counsel -to prisoners, of giving compensation to those who had been unjustly -accused, of greatly extending the rules respecting the admission of -evidence; of introducing secondary punishments, and of instituting a -public prosecutor; and all this not more for the sake of humanity -towards the guilty, than for the great ends of justice, the prevention -of crime, and the reform of criminals.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the conclusion of this parliament in 1818, Sir Samuel Romilly, -after having again been invited to stand for several large constituencies, -by any of which he was assured he would be elected, was at length put -in nomination for Westminster; and although he was violently opposed -by the court on the one side, and by the ultra popular party on the -other; although, during the whole of the contest, he was calmly pursuing -his professional duties in the Court of Chancery, and never once -appeared on the hustings till the conclusion, he was returned at the -head of the poll. After his election, he did all in his power to avoid -the ceremony of chairing; but on his objections being over-ruled, his -greatest pleasure was when, after he had addressed the multitude from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>the windows of Burlington House, he was able to escape by a back -door and walk by the less frequented streets to his home, there to receive -congratulations no less hearty, and more congenial to his temper -and taste. But he did not live to take his seat. A life of uninterrupted -and rarely equalled domestic happiness, and of great success in -his professional and political career, was suddenly embittered by the -loss of that being, to whom he had been deeply and devotedly attached -for above twenty years, and with whom he had ever considered his -happiness and prosperity as being indissolubly connected. He sank -under this calamity, and mankind was deprived of his services for ever<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c011'><sup>[6]</sup></a>.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. </span>Strong symptoms of an incipient brain fever showed themselves, and these increased -so rapidly as to produce, before they could be checked, a temporary delirium, as most -frequently happens in that malady; and in this paroxysm he terminated his existence, -November 22, 1818, three days after Lady Romilly’s death.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Romilly was reserved and silent in general society, but affectionate, -entertaining, and instructive with his friends; and full of joyousness, -humour, and playfulness with his children, and in the bosom of his -family. He was endowed with a lively imagination, he was fond of -retirement, and was a passionate admirer of the beauties of nature. -Indefatigable in his profession and in parliament, he yet found time -to keep up with the literature of the day, to write criticisms on the -books which he read, to keep a regular diary of his political career, -and to compose essays on various branches of the criminal law. His -eloquence was of that kind which never fails to make a lasting impression: -it was full of earnest conviction and deep sensibility. He -was a great master of sarcasm, but he considered it an unfair weapon -and rarely employed it. So jealous was he of his independence, that -when he was solicitor-general, and one of his nephews was peculiarly -anxious to be placed in the Military Academy at Woolwich, he refused -to lay himself under any obligation, even for so slight a favour; and -the application was never made. Few ever gained so large a portion -of public favour, and yet so studiously avoided courting popularity; -and no one ever rose higher in the esteem of his political contemporaries. -Unsullied in character as a lawyer, as a politician, and -as a man, his life, which was prolonged to the age of sixty-one, was -a life of happiness and of honour. No statues are erected to his -memory; no titles descend to his children; but he has bequeathed a -richer, a prouder, and a more lasting inheritance, than any which the -world can bestow: the recollection of his virtues is still fresh in the -minds of his countrymen, and the sacrifices he made in the cause of -humanity will not be forgotten by mankind.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span> -<img src='images/i_122.jpg' alt='SHAKSPEARE.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SHAKSPEARE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The materials which we possess for the biography of Shakspeare are -very unsatisfactory. The earliest life is that by the poet Rowe, who, -as if aware of its scantiness, merely entitles it ‘Some Account.’ It -contains what little the author could collect, when no sources of information -were left open but the floating traditions of the theatre -after the lapse of nearly a century. Mr. Malone prefixed a new life -to his edition, extending to above 500 pages; but he only brings his -author to London, and as to his professional progress, adds nothing -to Rowe’s meagre tale, except some particles of information previously -communicated in notes by himself and Steevens.</p> - -<p class='c000'>William Shakspeare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, -April 23, 1564. He was one of ten children. His father was -a dealer in wool, as it is generally said, but according to Malone, a -glover, and alderman in the corporation of Stratford. Our great poet -received such education as the lower forms of the Grammar School at -Stratford could give him; but he was removed from that establishment -at an early age, to serve as clerk in a country attorney’s office. This -anecdote of his boyhood receives confirmation from the frequent recurrence -of technical law-phrases in his plays; and it has been remarked -that he derives none of his allusions from other learned professions. -Before he was eighteen years of age he contracted a marriage with -Anne Hathaway, a woman some years older than himself, and the -daughter of a substantial yeoman in his own neighbourhood. He went -to London about 1586, when he was but twenty-two years of age, being -obliged, as the common story goes, to fly the country, in consequence -of being detected in deer-stealing. This tale is thought to be confirmed -by the ridicule cast on his supposed prosecutor, Sir Thomas -Lucy, in the character of Justice Shallow, pointed as it is by the</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_122fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />SHAKSPEARE.<br /><br /><em>From the Picture in the Possession of His Grace the Duke of Buckingham, at Stowe.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street. June 1, 1835.</em></p> -</div> -</div> -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>commendation of the “dozen white luces as a good coat.” But as -this is the only lawless action which tradition has imputed to one of -the most amiable and inoffensive of men, we may perhaps esteem the -tale to be the mere gossip of the tiring-room: indeed, Malone has -adduced several arguments to prove that it cannot be correctly told. -It is not necessary to suppose that Shakspeare was compelled -to fly his native town because he came to the metropolis; his emigration -is sufficiently accounted for by his father’s falling into distressed -circumstances, and being obliged in this very year, 1586, to -resign his alderman’s gown on that account. Another traditional -anecdote, that Shakspeare’s first employment was to wait at the -play-house door, and hold the horses of those who had no servants, -is discredited by Mr. Steevens, who says, “That it was once the -general custom to ride on horseback to the play I am yet to learn. -The most popular of the theatres were on the Bankside; and we are -told by the satirical pamphleteers of that time that the usual mode -of conveyance to those places of amusement was by water; but not a -single writer so much as hints at the custom of riding to them, or -at the practice of having horses held during the hours of exhibition. -Let it be remembered too, that we receive this tale on no higher authority -than that of Cibber’s ‘Lives of the Poets.’”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Nothing is authentically proved with respect to Shakspeare’s introduction -to the stage. His first play is dated by Malone in 1589, three -years after the time assigned for the author’s arrival in London. It appears -from the dedication to ‘Venus and Adonis,’ published in 1593, in -which he calls that poem “the first heir of his invention,” that his earliest -essays were not in dramatic composition. The ‘Lucrece,’ published -in 1594, and the collection of sonnets, entitled the ‘Passionate Pilgrim,’ -published in 1599, also belong to an early period of his poetical -life. The ‘Lover’s Complaint,’ and a larger collection of sonnets, -were printed in 1609. It may be conjectured that he was led to write -for the stage in consequence of the advice and introduction of Thomas -Green, an eminent comedian of the day, who was his townsman, if not -his relation. Shakspeare trod the boards himself, but he never rose to -eminence as an actor: it is recorded that the Ghost in ‘Hamlet’ was -his masterpiece. But the instructions to the players in ‘Hamlet’ -exhibit a clear and delicate perception of what an actor ought to -be, however incompetent the writer might be to furnish the example -in his own person.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The extent of Shakspeare’s learning has been much controverted. -Dr. Johnson speaks of it thus: “It is most likely that he had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>learned Latin sufficiently to make him acquainted with construction, -but that he never advanced to an easy perusal of the Roman authors. -Concerning his skill in modern languages, I can find no sufficient -ground of determination; but as no imitations of French or Italian -authors have been discovered, though the Italian poetry was then high -in esteem, I am inclined to believe that he read little more than English, -and chose for his fables only such tales as he found translated.” Other -writers have contended that he must have been acquainted with the -Greek and Roman classics: but Dr. Farmer, in his ‘Essay on the -Learning of Shakspeare,’ has accounted in a very satisfactory manner -for the frequent allusions to the facts and fables of antiquity to be met -with in Shakspeare’s writings, without supposing that he read the -classic authors in their original languages. The supposition indeed -is at variance with his whole history. Dr. Farmer has particularly -specified the English translations of the classics then extant, and -concludes on the whole, that the studies of Shakspeare were confined -to nature and his own language.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The merit of Shakspeare did not escape the notice of Queen Elizabeth. -He evinced his gratitude for her patronage in that beautiful -passage in the ‘Midsummer Night’s Dream,’ where he speaks of her -as “a fair vestal, throned in the west.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sheffield, Duke of Buckinghamshire, is the relater of an anecdote -which shows the continuance of high favour to our author. It is expressed -in these words: that “the most learned prince and great -patron of learning, King James I., was pleased with his own hand to -write an amicable letter to Mr. Shakspeare;” and Dr. Farmer supposes, -with apparent probability, that this honour was conferred in -return for the compliment paid to the monarch in ‘Macbeth.’ -Shakspeare also possessed the esteem of, and was admitted to -familiar intercourse with, the accomplished Earls of Southampton -and Essex; and enjoyed the friendship of his great contemporary Ben -Jonson.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Of the poet’s career before the London public nothing authentic -has come down to us; and perhaps if more were known, it might not -be worth recording. But his retirement in 1611 or 1612, about four -years before his death, though it afford no story, furnishes a pleasing -reflection. He had left his native place, poor and almost unknown: -he returned to it, not rich, but with a competence and an unblemished -character. His good-natured wit made him a welcome member of -private society when he no longer set the theatre in a roar; and he -ended his days in habits of intimacy, and in some cases in the bonds -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>of friendship, with the leading gentlemen of the neighbourhood. He -died on his birthday, April 23, 1616, when he had completed his fifty-second -year. If we look merely at the state in which he left his productions, -we should be apt to conclude that he was insensible of their -value. To quote the words of Dr. Johnson, “It does not appear that -Shakspeare thought his works worthy of posterity; that he levied any -ideal tribute upon future times, or had any further prospect than that -of present popularity and present profit.” But the imperfect form in -which they came before the public is not necessarily to be accounted -for by this extravagance of humility. It is clear that any publication -of his plays by himself would have interfered at first with his own -interest, and afterwards with the interest of those to whom he made -over his share in them; besides which, such was the revulsion of the -public taste, that the publication of his works by Hemings and Condell -was accounted a doubtful speculation. For several years after his -death the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher were more frequently acted -than those of Shakspeare; and the beautiful works of the joint dramatists -afterwards gave place to the rhyming rhapsodies of Dryden and -the bombast of Lee. Garrick brought back the public to Shakspeare -and every-day nature; Kemble exhibited him in the more refined dress -of classical taste and philosophy.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Malone has observed, that our author’s prose compositions, -should they be discovered, would exhibit the same perspicuity, the -same cadence, the same elegance and vigour, which we find in his -plays. In 1751, an attempt was made to impose on the public by a -book entitled ‘A Compendious or Brief Examination of certayne -Ordinary Complaints of divers of our Countrymen in these our Days, -&c., by William Shakspeare, Gentleman;’ the signature to which, in -the original edition of 1581, was “W. S., Gent.;” and Dr. Farmer -has clearly proved the initials to mean “William Stafford, Gent.” -Another and more impudent forgery was attempted by Ireland, who -published in 1795 a volume, entitled ‘Shakspeare’s Manuscripts.’ -The fraud met with partial success, and the tragedy of ‘Vortigern’ -was performed as one of Shakspeare’s, to the great disgust, it is -said, of John Kemble, who had to act in it much against his will. -Malone exposed the imposition in 1796, and Ireland himself ultimately -acknowledged it. With respect to the probable character of -Shakspeare’s prose compositions, it is needless to speculate on it, as -we have no reason to believe that he ever wrote any prose, except for -the stage.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Some interesting criticisms of Mrs. Siddons on the chief female -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>characters of Shakspeare will be found in the life of that eminent -actress in this volume. We may here introduce another observation -of hers on Constance in ‘King John.’ She said that the intuition of -Shakspeare in delineating that character struck her as all but supernatural: -she could scarcely conceive the possibility of any man possessing -himself so thoroughly with the most intense and most inward -feelings of the other sex: had Shakspeare been a woman and a mother, -he must have felt neither less nor more than as he wrote.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The two first folio editions are in great request among book-collectors, -and, owing to their scarcity, fetch high prices at auctions. -They have nothing to recommend them either as to accuracy or -elegance of typography, but are really valuable for the various readings -which they contain. The best modern editions are those of -Johnson and Steevens, and Malone. The last edition is the posthumous -one of Malone, edited by Boswell, and little room is left for any farther -elucidation of our great dramatist, as far as verbal criticism is concerned. -But for the higher branches of criticism, the works of such a -poet are as inexhaustible as those of Homer; and if his fame be equally -immortal, its fate is more singular. However ardent may be the admiration -of Homer on the part of modern scholars, and however profound -their investigation of his merits, far from pretending to discoveries -unknown to the Grecian critics and philosophers, they support their own -views by constant references to the ancients; but Shakspeare has found -his most elaborate, and with certain drawbacks, his best critics, among -foreigners. In England Shakspeare is the idol of those who read -either for the amusement of the imagination, or as students not of -poetical or metaphysical, but of every-day nature; and his English -editors have rather criticised down to the level of such readers, than -aimed at ripening their taste, or elevating their conceptions. We find -eminent men among them, such as Pope, Warburton, and Johnson, -yet none well qualified to perform the highest functions of a commentator. -Johnson’s Preface is highly valued for the justness of his -general criticism, and his vindication of the poet on the score of the -unities is triumphantly conclusive. But his remarks at the end of each -play are so jejune and superficial, that short as they are, no reader -perhaps ever wished them longer. One cannot help wondering that -the acute, and in many instances profound, though sometimes partial, -critic of Cowley, Milton, Dryden, Pope and Gray, should have -skimmed so lightly over the surface of Shakspeare. Not so his -German translators and critics. No sooner did the Germans take up -the study of English literature, than they selected Shakspeare on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>whom to try their powers; and they are thought to have dived deeper -into his mind than have his own countrymen, with their apparently -better opportunities. Nor is this wonderful: for they have regarded -the poet not merely as the minister of amusement to an admiring audience, -but as a metaphysical philosopher of nature’s forming, possessed -of deepest insight into the complex motives which move the hearts, -and stimulate the actions of mankind. And seeking with a reverent -attention to trace the workings of the <em>maker’s</em> mind (for in this instance -there is a peculiar propriety in translating the Greek word <em>poet</em>) they -have succeeded in furnishing profound and satisfactory explanations of -much that less intellectual critics had treated as instances of the author’s -irregular and capricious genius. In this, as in other branches -of German literature, Goëthe stands pre-eminent: and the translation -of his ‘Wilhelm Meister’ has placed within the reach of all readers -a series of original and masterly criticisms, especially on that stumbling-block -of commentators, the character of Hamlet. We may quote as a -specimen his exposition of the principle upon which the anomalies of -the Prince of Denmark’s conduct are to be solved. “It is clear to me -that Shakspeare’s intention was to exhibit the effects of a great action, -imposed as a duty upon a mind too feeble for its accomplishment. In -this case I find the character consistent throughout. Here is an oak -tree planted in a china vase, proper only to receive the most delicate -flowers. The roots strike out and the vessel flies to pieces. A pure, -noble, highly moral disposition, but without that energy of soul -which constitutes the hero, sinks under a load which it can neither -support nor endure to abandon altogether. <em>All</em> his obligations are -sacred to him; but this alone is above his powers! An impossibility -is required at his hands; not an impossibility in itself, but that which -is so to him. Observe, how he turns, shifts, hesitates, advances, and -recedes;—how he is continually reminded and reminding himself -of his real commission, which he nevertheless in the end seems -almost entirely to lose sight of, and this without ever recovering his -former tranquillity!” How different this from the praise of <em>variety</em> -allowed to this tragedy by Johnson, to “the pretended madness, -causing mirth,” without any adequate cause for feigning it, and the -objection that through the whole piece he is “rather an instrument -than an agent!”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Malone’s “attempt to ascertain the order in which the plays of -Shakspeare were written” occupies 180 pages. Where so many -words are necessary, the arrangement to be justified may not be very -certain; but that of Malone is generally received. It runs thus: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>The First Part of King Henry VI., 1589. Second and Third Parts, -Two Gentlemen of Verona, 1591. Comedy of Errors, 1592. King -Richard II. and III., 1593. Love’s Labour’s Lost, Merchant of -Venice, Midsummer Night’s Dream, 1594. Taming of the Shrew, -Romeo and Juliet, King John, 1596. First Part of King Henry IV., -1597. Second Part, All’s well that ends well, 1598. King Henry V., -As You like it, 1599. Much ado about Nothing, Hamlet, 1600. -Merry Wives of Windsor, 1601. Troilus and Cressida, 1602. Measure -for Measure, King Henry VIII., 1603. Othello, 1604. King Lear, -1605. Macbeth, 1606. Twelfth Night, Julius Cæsar, 1607. Antony -and Cleopatra, 1608. Cymbeline, 1609. Coriolanus, Timon -of Athens, 1610. Winter’s Tale, 1611. Tempest, 1612. Except -the placing of the<a id='t128'></a> historical plays in separate succession, the order of -Malone’s edition follows the above dates. Previous editions arranged -the plays as comedies, histories, and tragedies, beginning with the -Tempest, the last written, and ending with Othello. We must add to -the list of plays ascribed to Shakspeare, and included in the editions of -his works, Pericles and Titus Andronicus, which are now acknowledged -not to be the composition of Shakspeare, though perhaps retouched -by him. The Yorkshire Tragedy, Lord Cromwell, and others, -have still less right to bear the honour of his name.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_128.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Shakspeare’s Monument at Stratford-upon-Avon.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_129fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by B. Holl.</em><br /><br />EULER.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by A. Lorgna in the Collection of the Institute of France.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span> -<img src='images/i_129.jpg' alt='EULER.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>EULER.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Leonard Euler<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c011'><sup>[7]</sup></a> was born at Basle, April 15, 1707. His father -was the clergyman of Reichen, near Basle, and had himself been -a pupil of James Bernouilli. He intended his son for his own -profession, and after having been himself his first instructor in -mathematics, sent him to the university of Basle. John Bernouilli -was at this time Professor, and his sons, Nicolas and Daniel, two more -of the <em>eight</em> Bernouillis known to the history of science, were under -him. With the sons Euler contracted an intimate friendship; and -obtained such a degree of favour even with their father, that the latter -gave him a private lesson weekly, upon points more advanced than -those treated in the public course. This was a strong mark of favour -from John Bernouilli, who was of an unamiable disposition, jealous -of his brother, of his son, and finally of almost every one who displayed -a superior talent for mathematics. Euler at first turned his -attention to theology, in accordance with the wishes of his father, -but this was not of long continuance. At the age of nineteen, -besides obtaining a degree from his University, he had merited the -notice of the Academy of Sciences for a memoir on some points of -naval architecture. In the same year, he was an unsuccessful candidate -for a Professorship at Basle, an unlucky event, M. Condorcet -observes, for his country, inasmuch as a few days afterwards he left it -for Russia, and never returned. His friends the Bernouillis (Nicolas -and Daniel) had, two years before, accepted invitations from the -Empress Catherine; and he followed them in hopes of obtaining -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>employment and subsistence at St. Petersburgh. But by the time he -arrived, both Nicolas Bernouilli and the Empress were dead, the -Academy of St. Petersburgh was left without a patron, and Euler, a -nameless stranger, could not for a long time obtain any settled avocation. -How he maintained himself we are not told; but he was upon -the point of entering the Russian service as a sailor, when his prospects -brightened, and he obtained the place of Professor of Natural -Philosophy. In 1733 he succeeded Daniel Bernouilli, who returned -to his own country, as Professor of Mathematics. In the same year -he married a young lady named Gsell, the daughter of an artist of -Basle, who had emigrated to Russia in the reign of Peter the Great.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. </span>We have followed the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">éloge</span></i> of Condorcet as to facts and dates. We should -have preferred that of M. Fuss, but have not had the opportunity of seeing it. The -mere biographical details of Euler’s life are, however, of the simplest character.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The despotism of the Russian government could not please the -republican born; but circumstances obliged him to endure it till 1741, -when he quitted Petersburgh for Berlin on the invitation of Frederic -the Great. To the necessity for continual reserve and government of -the tongue which was necessary in the Russian capital has been -attributed his love of silence and study, which exceeded all that -is related of any of his contemporaries. The mother of Frederic, -who was as much attached to the conversation of distinguished men as -the King himself, could never obtain more than a few syllables from -Euler at any one time. On her asking the reason why he would not -speak, he is said to have replied, “Madam, I have lived in a country -where men who speak are hanged.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Euler remained at Berlin till 1766. In 1761 he lost his mother, -who had resided with him for eleven years. During this time he was -not considered as having abandoned his Russian engagements, and a -part of his salary was regularly paid. When the Russians invaded -Brandenburg in 1760, a farm belonging to him was destroyed, but he -was immediately more than reimbursed, by the order of the Empress -Elizabeth. On the invitation of that princess he consented to return -to Petersburgh in 1766. He had for some years suffered from weakness -in the eyes; and not long after his return to Russia he became so -nearly blind, that he could distinguish nothing except very large -letters marked with chalk on a slate. In this state he continued -for the remainder of his life; and by constant exercise he acquired -a power of recollection, whether of mathematical formulæ or figures, -which would be totally incredible, if it were not supported by strong -evidence. He formed in his head, and retained in his memory, a table -of the first six powers of all numbers up to 100, containing about -3000 figures. Two of his pupils had summed seventeen terms of -a converging series, and differed by a unit in the fiftieth decimal of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>result; Euler decided between them correctly by a mental calculation<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c011'><sup>[8]</sup></a>. -His chief amusement during his deprivation was the formation -of artificial magnets, and the instruction of one of his grandchildren -in mathematics. His studies were in no degree relaxed by it. -In 1771 Euler’s house was destroyed by fire, together with a considerable -part of the city. He was himself saved by a fellow-countryman -named Grimm, and his manuscripts were also rescued. In 1776 he -married the aunt of his first wife. No other event worthy of special -notice occurred before his death, which took place suddenly, September -7, 1783. He had been employed in calculating the laws of the -ascent of balloons, which were then newly introduced; he afterwards -dined with his family and M. Lexell, his pupil, conversed with them -on the newly-discovered planet of Herschel, and was amusing himself -with one of his grandchildren; suddenly the pipe which he held in his -hand dropped on the ground, and it was found that<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c011'><sup>[9]</sup></a> “life and -calculation were at an end.” He had thirteen children, of whom -only three survived him; one of them, John Albert Euler, was -known as a mathematician.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. </span>We suspect some mistake in this account, which is constantly given. A very -surprising story ought to be consistent: now it is difficult to believe that any series -which was actually employed in practice (and people do not sum series to fifty places for -amusement) would converge so quickly, as to give fifty places in seventeen terms. The -well-known series for the base of Napier’s logarithms is called a rapidly converging -series, and gives about fifteen places in seventeen terms. We cannot help thinking, -either that Euler settled one disputed term only, or that there is some mistake about the -number of figures.</p> -</div> - -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. </span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Il cessa de calculer et de vivre.</span>—<span class='sc'>Condorcet.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Of the scientific character of Euler it is impossible to speak in -detail, since even the <em>resumé</em> of M. Condorcet, which is much longer -than any account we can here insert, is meagre in the extreme; and we -imagine that the reader would form no idea whatsoever of the man we -are describing, from any brief enumeration of discoveries for which we -should be able to allow room. In more than fifty years of incessant -thought, Euler wrote thirty separate works and more than seven -hundred memoirs: which could not altogether be contained in forty -large quarto volumes. These writings embrace every existing branch -of mathematics, and almost every conceivable application of them, -to such an extent, that there is no one among mathematicians, past or -present, who can be placed near to Euler in the enormous variety -of the subjects which he treated. And the contents of these volumes -are without exception the original fruit of his own brain; seeing that -he left no subject as he found it. He is not a diffuse writer, except -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>in giving a large number of examples, and this renders him in some -respects the most instructive of all writers. His works are full of the -most original thoughts developed in the most original manner; so -that they have been a mine of information for his successors, which is -even now far from being exhausted. Let a student be employed upon -any subject connected with mathematics, however remotely, and he has -discovered but little if he has not found out that Euler was there -before him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Of all mathematical writers, Euler is one of the most simple, -and this in a manner which renders his writings not by any means -a sound preparation for future investigations. Difficulties seem -to have disappeared in the progress, or never to have been encountered; -and the student is rather made to feel that Euler could -take him anywhere, than furnished with the means of providing -for himself, when his guide shall have left him. Hence the writings -of others, in every way inferior to Euler in elegance and simplicity, are -to be preferred, and have been preferred, for the formation of -mathematical power.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Euler is to be measured by the assistance which he gave to -his immediate successors, and here it is well known that he paved the -way for the research of others in a more effectual manner than any of -his contemporaries. The incessant repetition of his name in later -authors is sufficient authority for this assertion. His writings are -the first in which the modern analysis is uniformly the instrument -of investigation. His predecessors, James and John Bernouilli, had -perhaps the largest share in bringing the infinitesimal analysis of -Newton and Leibnitz to the state of power required for extensive -application. To Euler (besides important extensions) belongs the distinct -merit of showing how to apply it to physical investigations, -in conjunction with D’Alembert, who ran a splendid and contemporary -career of a similar character in this respect. But though it would be -perhaps admitted that there are individual results of the latter which -exceed anything done by the former, in generality of application, -there is no comparison whatsoever between the extent of the labours of -the two.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Euler was a man of a simple, reserved, and benevolent mind; with -a strong sense of devotion, and a decided religious habit, according to -the Calvinism of the Established Church of his country. At the -court of Frederic, he himself conducted the devotions of his family -every evening; a practice which then and there implied much moral -courage, and insensibility to ridicule. But he possessed humour, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>for when he was asked to calculate the horoscope of one of the -Russian princes, he quietly suggested that it was the official duty of -the astronomer, and imposed the duty upon a colleague, who doubtless -did not feel very much flattered by the application.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There are few men whom the usual biographical formulæ as -to moral character and habits would better fit than Euler, according to -every account which has appeared of him. But such praises are -no distinction; and it will be more to the purpose to state that -the only occasion in which he was betrayed into printing a word -which his eulogists have regretted, was in the dispute between -Maupertuis and himself against others on the principle known by the -name of <em>least action</em>, one of the warmest and most angry discussions -which ever took place.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Perhaps it is to the quiet abstraction of his life that he owed the -perpetuity of his tenure of investigation. Many eminent mathematical -discoverers have run the brilliant part of their career while comparatively -young. Euler “ceased to calculate and to live” at once. -But it may be that this was a part of his natural constitution, -and a distinct feature of his mind. The nature of his writings rather -confirms the latter supposition. There is the same difference between -them and those of others, that there is between conversation and -oratory. He seems to be moving in his natural element, where others -are swimming for their lives.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The best works of Euler for a young mathematician to read, -in order to get an idea of his style and methods, are the ‘<cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Analysis -Infinitorum</span></cite>,’ and the ‘<cite>Treatise on the Integral Calculus</cite>.’</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span> -<img src='images/i_134.jpg' alt='SIR W. JONES.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>SIR W. JONES.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>William Jones, the most accomplished Oriental scholar of the last -century, an upright magistrate, and eminent benefactor of the native -subjects of our Indian dominions, was born in London on Michaelmas -Eve, 1746. His father, a man esteemed by his contemporaries, a -skilful mathematician, and the friend of Newton, died in July, -1749. His mother then devoted herself entirely to the education -of this her only surviving son; and to her careful and judicious -culture of his infant years, bestowed indeed upon a happy soil, -is to be ascribed the early development of that thirst for learning and -faculty of profitable application, which enabled Jones to accumulate in -a short and busy life a quantity and variety of abstruse knowledge, -such as the same age does not often see equalled. To the end of her -life he acknowledged and repaid her care and affection by ardent love -and unchanging filial respect. When only seven years old, he was -sent to Harrow. His progress, slow at first, afterwards became most -rapid; and the head master, Dr. Thackeray, a man not given to praise, -spoke of him as “a boy of so active a mind, that if he were left naked -and friendless on Salisbury Plain he would find the way to fame and -riches.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the time of his quitting school, besides a much deeper acquaintance -with the classical languages than usually falls to the lot of a -schoolboy, Jones had acquired the French and Italian languages, had -commenced the study of Hebrew, and (a thing only worth mention as -indicative of his tastes) had made himself acquainted with the Arabic -letters. Botany, the collection of fossils, and composition in English -verse, were his favourite amusements at this period. March 16, -1764, he was entered as a student of University College, Oxford. -He was elected a scholar on the Bennett foundation, October 30, -1764; and fellow on the same foundation, August 7, 1766, before -he was of standing to proceed to the degree of B.A., which he took -in 1768. At an early period of his residence he applied in earnest</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_134fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />SIR WILLIAM JONES.<br /><br /><em>From the Picture in the Hall of University College, Oxford.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>to the study of Arabic; and his zeal was such, that, though habitually -self-denying, and anxious not to trespass on his mother’s slender -income, he maintained at Oxford, at his own expense, a Syrian, -with whom he had become acquainted in London, for the benefit -to be derived from his instruction. From the Arabic he proceeded -to learn the Persian language.</p> - -<p class='c000'>His residence was varied, though his favourite studies do not appear -to have been interrupted, by an invitation to undertake the care of the -late Lord Spencer, then a boy of seven years old. This was in 1765. -The next five years he spent with his pupil chiefly at Harrow, and -occasionally at Althorp, or in London, or on the continent. It appears -from the college books that he resided at Oxford very little in the -years 1766, 1767, and 1768. Wherever he was, his time was diligently -employed, not only in his severer studies, but in the pursuit of -personal accomplishments and the cultivation of valuable acquaintances, -especially with those who, like himself, were attached to the investigation -of Eastern languages and science. In 1768 he received a high, -but an unprofitable compliment, in being selected to render into French -a Persian Life of Nadir Shah, transmitted to the English government -by the King of Denmark for the purpose of translation. To this performance, -which was printed in 1770, Mr. Jones added a ‘Treatise -on Oriental Poetry,’ in which several of the odes of Hafiz are translated -into verse. This also was written in French; and it has justly -been observed by a French writer in the ‘Biographie Universelle,’ -that the occurrence of some imperfections of style ought not to interfere -with our forming a high estimate of the talents of a man who, at the -age of twenty-two, possessed the varied qualifications and recondite -acquirements displayed in this work. By the end of the same year, -1770, the author finished his ‘Commentaries on Asiatic Poetry,’ a -Latin treatise, which for its style is commended by the competent authority -of Dr. Parr; and which has also obtained high praise for the -taste and judgment displayed in selecting and translating the passages -by which the text is illustrated. It was not printed till 1774.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Not the least striking part of Mr. Jones’s character was an ardent -love of liberty, and a high and honourable feeling of independence in -his own person. The former was displayed in his open and fearless -advocacy of opinions calculated to close the road to preferment, such as -an entire disapprobation of the American war, and a strong feeling of -the necessity of reform in Parliament. It should also be noticed that -at an early period he denounced in energetic language the abomination -of the Slave Trade. His personal love of independence was at this time -manifested in his resolution to quit the certain road to ease and competence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>which his connexion with the noble family of Spencer laid before -him, to embark in the brilliant but uncertain course of legal adventure. -Ambition was a prominent feature in Jones’s character; and it was his -hope and his earnest wish to distinguish himself in the House of Commons -as well as at the bar. He was admitted of the Middle Temple -November 19, 1770; and his Oriental studies, though not entirely -abandoned, especially at first, were thenceforth much curtailed until -the prospect of being appointed to a judicial office in India furnished an -adequate reason for the resumption of them. But he gave a proof that -his devotion to Oriental had not destroyed his taste for Grecian learning, -by publishing in 1778 a translation of the ‘Orations of Isæus,’ -relative to the laws of succession to property in Athens. The subject -appears to have interested him; for in 1782, when his attention was -again directed to the East, he published translations of two Arabian -poems; one on the Mohammedan law of succession to the property of -intestates, the other on the Mohammedan law of inheritance. About -the same time he translated the seven ancient Arabian poems, called -Moallakat, or ‘Suspended,’ because they had been hung up, in honour -of their merit, in the Temple of Mecca; and to show, perhaps, that his -attention had not been withdrawn from his immediate profession, he -wrote an ‘Essay on the Law of Bailments.’</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mr. Jones was called to the bar in 1774. Within two years’ space -he obtained a commissionership of bankrupts; by what influence does -not appear: it could not be from any professional eminence. A letter -written to Lord Althorp so early as October, 1778, intimates a wish -to obtain some judicial appointment in India, not only in consequence -of the interest which he had felt from an early age in every thing connected -with the East, but from a motive which has sent other eminent -men to the same unhealthy climate; a feeling that pecuniary independence -was almost essential to success in political life, and the hope -of returning in the prime of manhood with an honourable competence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1780 Mr. Jones became a candidate to represent the University -of Oxford. His political opinions were not calculated to win the -favour of that learned body, and though respectably supported, he did -not find encouragement to warrant him in coming to a poll. From -this time forward Mr. Jones’s mind was much occupied by the -thought of going to India. His letters contain frequent allusions to -the subject, and express doubt whether, notwithstanding the personal -friendship of Lord North, his own known views of politics, especially -his often and strongly-declared reprobation of the American war, -would not interfere with his obtaining the desired promotion. The -event proved him to be right, for it was not until after the formation of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>the Shelburne ministry that he received information of his appointment -to a seat in the Supreme Court of Judicature at Calcutta, March 3, -1783. For this he was indebted to the friendship of Lord Ashburton -(Mr. Dunning). The state of uncertainty in which he was so long -retained interfered considerably with his attention to his legal -practice, which was rapidly increasing. He was the more anxious on -this subject, because he had been long attached to Miss Shipley, -daughter of the Bishop of St. Asaph; and his union with her was -only deferred until professional success should place him in a fit station -to support a family. His marriage took place in April, and in the -same month he embarked for India. It remains to be noticed, that in -1782 Mr. Jones had written an essay, entitled ‘The Principles of -Government,’ in a dialogue between a farmer and country gentleman, -intended to express in a cheap and simple form his own views on constitutional -questions. This was first printed by the Society for Constitutional -Information, of which Mr. Jones was a member: it was -reprinted by his brother-in-law, the Dean of St. Asaph, who was in -consequence indicted for libel. In the prosecution which ensued, -Mr. Erskine made one of his first and most remarkable appearances, -and the series of speeches which he delivered in this case prepared the -way for the Libel Bill of 1792.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Sir William Jones arrived in Calcutta in September, and entered -on his judicial functions in December, 1783. One of his first employments -was the organization of a scientific association, under the title -of the Asiatic Society. The Governor-general, Warren Hastings, was -requested to become president; and on his declining to accept, as an -honorary distinction, an office the real duties of which he was unable to -fulfil, Sir William Jones was fitly placed at the head of that institution, -which, but for him, probably would not have existed. The transactions -of that society, under the name of ‘Asiatic Researches,’ were -published under his superintendence, and owe a large portion of their -interest to the labours of his pen. Another work, the ‘Asiatic Miscellany,’ -was also indebted to him for several valuable contributions. -But the perfect acquisition of the Sanscrit language was the chief employment -of that time which could be spared from his judicial labours; -a task indeed subsidiary to those labours, and performed with the -benevolent design of insuring to the Indian subjects of Britain a pure -administration of justice, by rendering the knowledge of their laws -accessible to British magistrates. Bound to adjudicate between the -natives according to their own native laws, and ignorant for the most -part of the very language in which those laws were written, the judges -were obliged to have recourse to native lawyers, called Pundits, who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>were regularly attached to the courts as a species of assessors. Of -these men Sir W. Jones, no harsh or hasty reprover, says, “It -would be unjust and absurd to pass indiscriminate censure on so -considerable a body of men; but my experience justifies me in declaring -that I could not, with an easy conscience, concur in a decision -merely on the written opinion of native lawyers, in a case in which -they could have the remotest interest in misleading the court.” The -obvious remedy was to obtain a trustworthy digest of the Hindoo laws, -which should then be accurately translated into English. The scheme -indeed had been already undertaken in part at the desire of Mr. Hastings, -by Mr. Halhed: but as the code of Hindoo law, compiled by -that gentleman, was merely a translation from a defective Persian version -of the original Sanscrit, it did not possess the requisite correctness, -or authority. It appears from Sir W. Jones’s correspondence, that at -an early period he had contemplated supplying this great desideratum -by his own labour and expense. But prudence did not warrant such -an uncalled-for act of liberality; and he addressed a letter to Lord -Cornwallis, dated March 19, 1788, in which the necessity for such -a work, and the means by which it might be executed, are fully laid down. -It was to be compiled by the Mohammedan or Hindoo lawyers, working -under the superintendence of a director and translator, who should be -qualified to check and correct intentional or careless error: and a chief -difficulty, in Sir W. Jones’s own words, was “to find a person who, -with a competent knowledge of the Sanscrit and Arabic, has a general -acquaintance with the principles of jurisprudence, and a sufficient -share even of legislative spirit, to arrange the plan of a digest, superintend -the compilation of it, and render the whole, as it proceeds, into -perspicuous English. Now (he continues), though I am truly conscious -of possessing a very moderate portion of those talents which I -should require in the superintendent of such a work, yet I may without -vanity profess myself equal to the labour of it;—and I cannot but -know that the qualifications required, even in the low degree in which -I possess them, are not often found united in the same person.” The -proposal of course was eagerly accepted. That he should have acquired -the necessary acquaintance, first with the language, then with the law, -in the space of four years and a half, is sufficiently remarkable; and the -method in which he proposed to execute it will startle those who know -the enervating influence of a tropical climate. “I should be able,” he -says, “if my health continued firm, to translate every morning, before -any other business is begun, as much as the lawyers could compile, and -the writers copy, in the preceding day.” The quantity of work which -Jones did in India was indeed astonishing; but he was a severe economist -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>of time, and even his hours of recreation were rendered serviceable -to the increase of knowledge. Botany especially was a favourite -pursuit of his more leisure hours; and his correspondence with Banks -and others shows at once the zeal with which, when duty would permit, -he followed that fascinating science, and the readiness with which -he communicated his own discoveries to his friends, and laboured to -answer their inquiries. Nor did he neglect poetry. Several odes to -Hindoo deities, originally published in the Asiatic Miscellany, will be -found in his works; and these, with an elegant and cultivated fancy, -display considerable power of composition. He projected a more -serious undertaking,—an epic poem, of which a Phœnician colonist of -Britain was to be the hero, and the Hindoo mythology was to furnish -the machinery: the whole being an allegorical panegyric on the British -constitution, and furnishing the character of a perfect King of England. -But the extravagant fictions of the Hindoo religion have never proved -permanently popular in an English dress; and there is no reason to -regret that this scheme never advanced beyond its first sketch. The -author made a more acceptable present to European literature in translating -‘Sacontala, or the Fatal Ring,’ a very ancient Indian drama, -which contains a lively, simple, and pleasing picture of the manners of -Hindustan at a remote age. It is ascribed to the first century before -Christ.</p> - -<p class='c000'>For a catalogue of Sir W. Jones’s works, we must refer to the -edition published by Lady Jones. We have only noticed a few of the -most important: to which are to be added, the series of anniversary -discourses addressed to the Asiatic Society, and the translation of the -‘Ordinances of Menu.’ The former, eleven in number, treat of the -History, Antiquities, Arts, &c. of Asia, and more especially of the -origin and connection of the chief nations among whom that quarter -of the globe is divided. His last work was the translation of the -‘Ordinances of Menu,’ “a system of duties” (we quote from the translator’s -preface) “religious and civil, and of law in all its branches, -which the Hindoos firmly believe to have been promulged in the beginning -of time by Menu, son or grandson of Brahma, or, in plain -language, the first of created beings, and not the oldest only, but the -holiest of legislators: a system so comprehensive, and so minutely -exact, that it may be considered as the Institutes of Hindoo law, preparatory -to the copious Digest which has lately been compiled by -Pundits of eminent learning.” This was his last work. It was begun -in 1786, though not completed and published till 1794, a short time -before the author’s death.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>The private history of Sir William Jones, during the period of his -life which was spent in India, affords very little scope for narration. -During his first summer he nearly fell a victim to the climate; but an -absence of seven months spent in travelling recruited his strength, and -after his return to Calcutta, in February, 1785, he seemed to be acclimated, -and suffered little from serious illness till his last fatal attack. -His domestic habits are thus described by his biographer, Lord Teignmouth. -“The largest portion of each year was devoted to his professional -duties and studies; and all the time that could be saved from -these important avocations was dedicated to the cultivation of science -and literature. While business required the daily attendance of Sir -W. Jones in Calcutta, his usual residence was on the banks of the -Ganges, at the distance of five miles from the court; to this spot he -returned every evening after sunset, and in the morning rose so early -as to reach his apartments in town by walking, at the first appearance -of the dawn. The intervening period of each morning, until the opening -of the court, was regularly allotted and applied to distinct studies. -He passed the months of vacation at his retirement at Crishnagur (a -villa about fifty miles from Calcutta) in his usual pursuits.” Those -portions of his correspondence which are preserved in Lord Teignmouth’s -life may be read with pleasure; and indeed constitute the chief -interest of the latter part of the work. Busy, tranquil, and cheerful, -his life afforded little of material for the biographer: and but for the -impaired health of his wife, his residence in India would have been one -of almost unmixed happiness. Lady Jones was compelled to embark -for England in December, 1793. The mere desire of increasing -a fortune, which he professed to find already large enough for his -moderate wishes, would not have tempted Sir William Jones to remain -alone in Bengal: but he felt an earnest desire to complete the great -work on Hindoo Law, which he had originated; and no apprehension -was felt on his account, as his constitution seemed to have -become inured to the climate. But in the following spring he was -attacked by inflammation of the liver, which ran its fatal course with -unusual rapidity. He died, April 27, 1794. The ‘Digest,’ to which -he had thus sacrificed his life, was completed by Mr. Colebrooke, and -published in 1800.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Blameless in his domestic relations, consistent and enlightened in his -political views, an honest and indefatigable magistrate, few men have -gone through life with more credit, or as far as it is possible to form -an opinion, with more happiness than Sir William Jones. As a scholar, -the circumstances of his life being considered, his acquirements -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>were extraordinary; and in this light the most remarkable feature of -his character was his singular facility in learning languages. A list, -preserved in his own handwriting, thus classes those with which he -was in any degree acquainted; they are twenty-eight in number. -“Eight languages studied critically—English, Latin, French, Italian, -Greek, Arabic, Persian, Sanscrit. Eight studied less perfectly, but all -intelligible with a dictionary—Spanish, Portuguese, German, Runic, -Hebrew, Bengali, Hindi, Turkish. Twelve studied less perfectly, but -all attainable: Thibetian, Pâli, Pahlair, Deri, Russian, Syriac, Ethiopic, -Coptic, Welsh, Swedish, Dutch, Chinese.” Besides law, which as his -profession, was his chief business through life, his writings embrace a -vast variety of subjects in the several classes of philology, botany, -zoology, poetry original and translated, political discussion, geography, -mythology, astronomy as applied to chronology, and history, especially -that of the Asiatic nations. And the praise of ‘adorning everything -that he touched’ is singularly due to him, for the elegance of his style, -and his power of throwing interest over the dry and uncertain inquiries -in which he took such delight. As far as England is concerned, he -was our great pioneer in Eastern learning; and if later scholars, profiting -in part by his labours, have found reason to dissent from his -opinions, it is to be recollected, as far as our estimate of his powers is -concerned, that most men, who have obtained eminence in this recondite -department of literature, have done so by the devotion of their undivided -powers: what Jones accomplished was performed, on the contrary, -in the intervals of those official labours, to which the best hours -and energies of his life were, as his first point of duty, devoted. What -he had meditated, if life and leisure had been granted, may be inferred -from the list of ‘Desiderata,’ which his biographer (vol. ii., p. 301, it is not -said on what authority) regards as exhibiting his own literary projects. -The following emphatic panegyric, conceived in the warm language -which affection naturally indulges in on such an occasion, has been pronounced -on him by his friend and school-fellow, Dr. Bennet, Bishop of -Cloyne. “I knew him from the early age of eight or nine, and he was -always an uncommon boy. Great abilities, great particularity of thinking, -fondness for writing verses and plays of various kinds, and a degree of -integrity and manly courage, of which I remember many instances, -distinguished him even at that period. I loved and revered him, and -though one or two years older than he was, was always instructed by -him from my earliest age. In a word, I can only say of this wonderful -man, that he had more virtues and less faults than I ever yet saw in -any human being; and that the goodness of his head, admirable as it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>was, was exceeded by that of his heart. I have never ceased to admire -him from the moment I first saw him, and my esteem for his great -qualities and regret for his loss will only end with my life.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Due honours were paid after death to this great man. The Court -of Directors placed a statue of him in St. Paul’s cathedral; and Lady -Jones erected a monument to him in the ante-chapel of University College, -Oxford. In conformity with his own expressed opinion, that “the -best monument that can be erected to a man of literary talent, is a good -edition of his works,” she caused them to be collected and printed in -1799, in six quarto volumes. They have been reprinted in octavo. A -life of Sir William Jones was afterwards written by Lord Teignmouth, -his intimate friend in India, at Lady Jones’s request. There is a -memoir in the Annual Obituary for 1817, which is chiefly devoted to -set forth the political opinions of Sir William Jones, in a stronger -light than seemed fitting to his noble biographer.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_142.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Statue of Sir W. Jones, by John Bacon, R.A., in St. Paul’s.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_143fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by Rob<sup>t</sup>. Hart.</em><br /><br />ROUSSEAU.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture by Latour, in the possession of M. Bordes, at Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span> -<img src='images/i_143.jpg' alt='ROUSSEAU.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>ROUSSEAU.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Jean Jacques Rousseau, the son of a watch-maker at Geneva, was -born June 28, 1712. His mother dying while he was yet a child, his -father took a second wife; and he himself was placed at school at the -village of Bossey, near Geneva, where he learnt but little, and was -afterwards apprenticed to an engraver, a coarse, brutal man, whose -treatment of him tended to sour a temper already wilful and morose. -He became addicted to idleness, pilfering, and lying. The -fear of punishment for some act of especial misconduct induced him -to run away from his master, and he wandered into Savoy, where finding -himself totally destitute, he applied to the Bishop of Annecy, on -the plea of wishing to be instructed in the Catholic religion. The -bishop recommended him to Madame de Warens, a Swiss lady, herself -a convert to Catholicism, who lived at Annecy. She received the -boy kindly, relieved his present wants, and afforded him the means of -proceeding to Turin, where he entered the College of Catechumens, -and after going through a preparatory course of instruction, abjured -the reformed religion, and became a Catholic. But as he refused to -enter into holy orders, on leaving the college he was again thrown -upon his own resources. He became a domestic servant; but his -want of self-control and discretion rendered him very unfit for his -employment: and in 1730 he returned to the house of Madame -de Warens, who received him kindly, and afforded him support -and protection during the next ten years. Of his foolish, profligate, -and ungrateful course of life during this period, we have -neither space nor wish to give an account: after many absences, and -many returns, Rousseau quitted her finally in 1740, receiving letters -of introduction to some persons at Lyons. Tutor, musician, and private -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>secretary to the French Ambassador, his restless temper and versatile -mind led him successively from Lyons to Paris and Venice. -From the last-named city he returned to Paris in 1745; and alighting -at an obscure inn, met with a servant girl, Therese Levasseur, -with whom he formed a connexion which lasted all the rest of his life. -He tried to compose music for the stage, but did not succeed in his -attempts. He was next employed as a clerk in the office of M. -Dupin, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Fermier-général</span>, but did not remain long in his new employment. -In 1748 he became acquainted with Madame d’Epinay, who -proved afterwards one of his steadiest and kindest friends. He frequented -the society also of D’Alembert, Diderot, and Condillac, and he -was engaged to write the articles on music for the Encyclopédie, which -he did very ill, as he himself acknowledges. One day he saw by -chance in an advertisement, that a prize had been offered by the Academy -of Dijon, for the best essay on the question, Whether the progress -of sciences and of the arts has been favourable to the morals of -mankind? He at once resolved to write for the prize, and apparently -without having ever before considered the subject, made up his mind -to take the negative side of the question. Diderot encouraged, but -did not, as has been commonly said, originate this determination. He -supported his position, that science, literature, and art, have been fatal -to the virtues and happiness of mankind, with a glowing eloquence; -and the Academy awarded him the prize. His success confirmed him -in a turn for paradox and exaggeration; and he seems to have adopted, -as a general principle, the doctrine that the extreme opposite to wrong -must necessarily be right. At the same time his reputation as an -author became established, and in a few years after his first essay, he -was acknowledged to be one of the most, or rather the most, eloquent -writer among his contemporaries. Meantime he persevered in his attempts -at musical composition, and wrote ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Devin du Village</span>,’ an -opera which was played before the king at the Court Theatre of Fontainebleau, -and met with the royal approbation. Rousseau was in one -of the boxes with a gentleman belonging to the court. The king having -expressed a desire to see the composer of the opera, Rousseau became -alarmed or ashamed at the slovenly condition of his dress, and -instead of repairing to the royal presence, he ran out of the house and -hastened back to Paris. Naturally shy, he possessed neither ease of -manners nor facility of address, and he could never throughout life -subdue his own acute feeling of these deficiencies; a feeling which of -course tended to perpetuate and increase his awkwardness. This was -the secret spring of most of his eccentricities. In order to hide his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>imperfections, he resorted to the plan of affecting to disregard manners -altogether; he put on the appearance of a cynic, of a misanthropist, -which he was not in reality.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was about the year 1750, soon after writing his dissertation for -the Dijon prize, that he made a total change in his habits and mode -of living. He gave up all refinement about his dress, laid aside his -sword, bag, and silk stockings, sold his watch, but kept his linen apparel, -which, however, was stolen from him shortly after. He spent -one half of the day in copying music as a means of subsistence, and -he found constant employment. Several persons who knew his circumstances -offered him three or four times the value of his labour, but -he would never accept more than the usual remuneration. In 1753 he -wrote his ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lettre sur la Musique Française</span>,’ in which he asserted -that the French had no music deserving the name, that they could not -possibly have any, and then added, that “were they ever to have any -it would be all the worse for them;” a sentence unintelligible to his -readers, and probably to himself also. When years after this he heard -Gluck, with whose music he was delighted, he observed to some one, -“this man is setting French words to very good music, as if on purpose -to contradict me;” and upon this reflection he broke off acquaintance -with Gluck. However, his letter on French music sorely -wounded the national vanity, and he was exposed to a sort of petty -persecution in consequence of it. Rousseau wrote next his letter to -D’Alembert, ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sur les Spectacles</span>,’ which led to a controversy between -them. He wrote also the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Discours sur l’Origine de l’Inégalité parmi -les Hommes</span>,’ for another prize of the Academy of Dijon, with a dedication -to the magistrates of his native town Geneva, which was much -admired as a specimen of dignified eloquence. The discourse itself is -composed in his accustomed paradoxical vein. He maintains that men -are not intended to be sociable beings; that they have a natural bias -for a solitary existence; that the condition of the savage, untutored and -free in his native wilds, is the natural and proper state of man; and -that every system of society is an infraction of man’s rights, and a -subversion of the order of nature. He assumes that men are all born -equal by nature, disregarding the daily evidence of the contrary, in -respect both of their physical and moral powers. His idea of the -equal rights of men, which he afterwards developed in the ‘Contrat -Social,’ instead of being founded upon enlightened reason, religion, -and morality, rests upon the base of his favourite theory, of man’s -equality in a state of nature; while we know from experience, that -those savage tribes who approach nearest to this imaginary natural -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>state, acknowledge no other right than that of the strongest. Most -of Rousseau’s paradoxes proceed from the false position assumed in his -first dissertation, that a savage, unsocial state, is the very perfection of -man’s existence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After the publication of this discourse Rousseau repaired to Geneva, -where he was well received by his countrymen. He there abjured -Catholicism and resumed the profession of the reformed religion. But -he soon returned to Paris; and, at the invitation of Madame d’Epinay, -in 1756, took up his residence at the house called L’Hermitage, in the -valley of Montmorency, near Paris. It was in this pleasant retirement -that he began his celebrated novel ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Julie, ou la Nouvelle Heloïse</span>,’ -which he finished in 1759. As a work of imagination and invention it -is little worth; but as a model of impassioned eloquence, it will be -admired as long as the French language shall continue to be spoken -or read by men. Rousseau, while he wrote it, was himself under -the influence of a passion which he had conceived for the beautiful -Madame d’Houdetot, Madame d’Epinay’s sister-in-law, a love totally -hopeless and ridiculous on his part, but which no doubt inspired him -while engaged in the composition of this work. When it appeared, -many people, especially women, thought that Julie was a real living -object of his attachment, and the supposition being favourable to the -popularity of the book and its author, Rousseau was not very anxious -to undeceive them. He esteemed the fourth portion of the work the -best. “The first two parts are but the desultory verbiage of feverish -excitement, and yet I could never alter them after I had once written -them. The fifth and the sixth are comparatively weak, but I let them -remain out of consideration of their moral utility.... My imagination -cannot embellish the objects I see; it must create its own objects. -If I am to paint the spring, I must do it in winter; if to describe -a landscape, I must be shut up within walls: were I confined -in the Bastille, I should then write best on the charms of liberty. I -never could write as a matter of business, I can only do it through -impulse or passion.” (Rousseau’s ‘Notes to the Nouvelle Heloïse,’ -in Mercier and Le Tourneur’s edition.) He had great difficulty in -constructing his periods; he turned them and he altered them repeatedly -in his head, often while in bed, before he attempted to put -them on paper.</p> - -<p class='c000'>La Nouvelle Heloïse has been censured for the dangerous example -it affords, and for the interest it throws upon seduction and frailty. -The character of St. Preux is decidedly faulty, and even base, in spite -of all his sophistry, which however has probably led other young men -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>placed in a similar situation to forget the relative duties of society, and -the obligations of hospitality. Here we perceive also the influence of -Rousseau’s favourite paradox; for in a state of nature, such as Rousseau -has fancied it, the intimacy of St. Preux and Julie would have been -unobjectionable. But then the relative position of the teacher, his pupil, -and her parents, would not have been the same as in the novel, for they -would have been all savages together. Rousseau has however redeemed -the character of Julie after she becomes a wife, and he has thus paid a -sincere homage to the sacredness of the marriage bond, and to the importance -of conjugal duties, the basis of all society. Rousseau was -not a contemner of virtue; he felt its beauty, though his practice -was by no means modelled on its dictates. He tells us himself -the workings of his mind on this subject. “After much observation -I thought I perceived nothing but error and folly among philosophers, -oppression and misery in the social order. In the delusion -of my foolish pride I fancied myself born to dissipate all prejudices; -but then I thought that, in order to have my advice listened to, my -conduct ought to correspond to my principles. I had been till then -good-hearted, I now became virtuous. Whoever has the courage of -showing himself such as he is, must, if he be not totally depraved, -become such as he ought to be.” It was probably in compliance with his -growing sense of moral duty, that he married at last the woman he had -so long been living with, when she was forty-seven years of age, and, -as he himself acknowledges, was not possessed of any attractions of -either mind or person, having nothing to recommend her except her -attention to him, especially in his frequent fits of illness or despondency. -He seems also to have bitterly repented, in the latter years -of his life, having in his youth sent his illegitimate children to the -foundling hospital.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Rousseau’s next work was the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Emile, ou de l’Education</span>,’ which -appeared in 1762. It contains many excellent precepts, especially in -the first part, although, as a whole system, it may be considered as -impracticable, at least in any state of society which has yet been formed -upon the earth. It was remarked at the time, that the author, after -having brought up his Emile to manhood, ought to create a new world -for him to live in. Rousseau himself seems to have been of this opinion, -for when a Mr. Angar introduced to him his son, whom he said -he had educated according to the principles of the Emile, Rousseau -quickly replied, “So much the worse for you, and for your son too.” -The ‘Emile,’ however, introduced some beneficial changes in the early -treatment of children. It discredited the absurd practice of swaddling -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>infants like mummies, to the manifest injury of their tender limbs; it -induced mothers of the higher ranks to suckle their children, instead of -committing them to the care of nurses; it corrected several wrong -principles of early education, such as that of ruling children through -fear, of considering them as slaves having no will of their own, and of -terrifying them by absurd stories and fables; it inculcated freedom of -body and mind, the necessity of amusement and relaxation, of appealing -to the feelings of children, of treating them like rational beings. -Rousseau may be truly called the benefactor of children. As he proceeded, -however, in his plan for boys grown older, Rousseau became -involved in some of his favourite speculations about religion and metaphysics, -which gave offence to both Catholics and Protestants. The -Parliament of Paris condemned the work. The Archbishop issued a -<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mandement</span></i> against it. The States-General of Holland likewise proscribed -the book. At Geneva, it was publicly burnt by the hand of -the executioner. The publication of the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Contrat Social, ou Principes -du Droit Politique</span>,’ which appeared soon after, added to the -storm against the author. It contains much speculative truth, -combined with much ignorance of men’s nature and passions. The -idea of a perfect and universal model of government, without regard to -local circumstances, seems chimerical. It is a curious fact that Rousseau, -after reading Bernardin de St. Pierre’s political works, observed -that they contained projects which were impracticable on account of a -fundamental error, out of which the author was unable to extricate -himself, namely, “that of supposing that men in general and in all -cases will conduct themselves according to the dictates of reason and -virtue, rather than according to their passions.” Rousseau, in uttering -these words, passed judgment on his own ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Contrat Social</span>,’ which he -afterwards also acknowledged having written, “not for men but for -angels.” In fact, he never meant it for anything but a speculative -treatise, and in his ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Considérations sur le Gouvernement de la -Pologne</span>,’ published some years after, having to write for a practical -purpose, he considerably modified his former principles.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In consequence of the excitement produced by these works, Rousseau -left Paris for Switzerland in 1762. He went first to Yverdun, but -the Senate of Berne enjoined him to leave its territory. He then -repaired to Neuchatel, which was subject to the King of Prussia, and -of which the old Marshal Keith was Governor. Keith received him -very kindly, and Rousseau took up his residence at the village of -Motiers, in the Val de Travers. There he wrote a Reply to the -Archbishop of Paris, and a Letter to the Magistrates of Geneva, in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>which he renounced his rights of citizenship. He next wrote the -“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lettres de la Montagne</span>,” which is a series of severe strictures on -the political government and church of Geneva. It is curious as -a sketch of the old institutions of that republic, written by one of -its own citizens. This work increased the existing irritation against -its author, a feeling which spread even to the villagers of Motiers, who -are said to have annoyed their eccentric visiter in various ways. -Rousseau, however, is suspected of having greatly magnified, if not -invented, some of the acts of aggression of which he complains. He -spoke of them as amounting to a regular conspiracy against his person, -and removed his abode to the little island of St. Pierre, on the lake of -Bienne. Thence, after a time, as if to court notice, he wrote a letter -to the Senate of Berne, requesting permission to remain on the island. -For answer he received an order to quit the territory of the canton in -twenty-four hours. At the invitation of his former friend Marshal -Keith, he meditated a visit to Berlin. But the advice of some friends -in Paris induced him to change his mind, and accept the friendly offer -of our historian Hume, who was anxious to procure for him a safe -asylum in England, where he might quietly attend to his studies and -live in peace. Rousseau arrived in London in January, 1766; and in -the following March, went to his intended home at Wootton in Derbyshire. -Knowing the man he had to deal with, Hume, with the real -kindness of character which he possessed, had sought by every means -to avoid shocking the irritable delicacy or vanity of his protégé: and -the residence which he procured for him in the house of a man of -fortune, Mr. Davenport, is said to have been unexceptionable. But -before long he quarrelled with both Hume and Davenport, left -Wootton abruptly, and returned to France. The ostensible cause -of all this was the publication of a letter in the newspapers, bearing -the King of Prussia’s name, and reflecting severely upon Rousseau’s -weaknesses and eccentricities. Rousseau accused Hume, or -some of his friends, of having written it. Hume protested in vain -that he knew nothing of the matter. At last Horace Walpole acknowledged -himself to be the author. Rousseau, however, would not be -pacified, and attributed to Hume the blackest designs against him. -The correspondence that passed between the parties on the subject is -curious, and is given in the complete editions of our author’s works. -He afterwards seemed to say that during his residence in England he -had been subject to fits of insanity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Returning to France, Rousseau led an unsettled life, with frequent -changes in his place of residence, until June, 1770. He then returned -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>to Paris, and took lodgings in the Rue Plâtrière, which has since been -called Rue J. J. Rousseau. It is to be noticed that in the interim he had -published his ‘Dictionnaire de Musique,’ a work which has the reputation -of being both imperfect and obscure. Indeed, notwithstanding -his passionate fondness for the art, he never attained to a profound -acquaintance with it. Passing through Lyons on his way to Paris, -he subscribed his mite towards the erection of a statue to Voltaire: -thus avenging himself for the coarse abuse which the latter had on -many occasions poured upon him, and which Rousseau never returned. -Voltaire is said to have been exceedingly annoyed at this. -After his return to the capital, he was overwhelmed with visits and -invitations to dinner. Though there was a prosecution pending against -him for his ‘Emile,’ he was left undisturbed: but at the same time -he was cautioned not to exhibit himself too conspicuously in public; -advice which he utterly disregarded. He soon relapsed into his -former misanthropy, and became subject to convulsive fits, which fearfully -disfigured his features, and gave a haggard expression to his -looks. He fancied that every body was conspiring against him, and -he also complained of inward moral sufferings which tortured his mind.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Among other imaginary grievances he thought that the French -ministers had imposed restrictions upon him with respect to his -writings. One of his friends applied to the Duc de Choiseuil to -ascertain the fact. The Duke’s answer, dated 1772, is as follows: -“If ever I have engaged M. Rousseau not to publish anything -without my previous knowledge, of which fact however I have no -remembrance, it could only have been in order to save him from fresh -squabbles and annoyance. However, now that I have no longer the -power of protecting him (the Duke had resigned his premiership), -I fully acquit him of any engagement of the kind.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>As Rousseau was walking one day in the street Menil Montant, a -large dog that was running before the carriage of the President Saint -Fargeau tripped his legs, and he fell. The President alighted, -expressed his regret at the accident, and begged the sufferer to accept -of his carriage to return home. Rousseau, however, refused. The -next day the President sent to inquire after his health. “Tell your -master to chain up his dog,” was the only reply.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Being old and infirm, the labour of copying music had become too -irksome for him: still he would accept of no assistance from his friends, -though all his income consisted of an annuity of 1450 livres. His -wife was also in bad health, and provisions were very dear at the -time; he therefore began to look out for a country residence. A friend -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>mentioned this to the Marquis de Girardin, who immediately offered -Rousseau a permanent habitation at his château of Ermenonville, -near Chantilly. Rousseau accepted the proposal, and chose for his -residence a detached cottage near the family mansion. He removed to -it in May, 1778, and appeared more calm and contented in his new abode. -He was fond of botany, and used to take long walks in quest of flowers -with one of M. de Girardin’s sons. On July 1st he went out as usual, -but returned home fatigued and ill: he however slept quietly that night. -Next morning he rose early according to his custom, and went out to -see the sun rise; he came back to breakfast, after which he went to his -room to dress, as he intended to pay a visit to Madame de Girardin. -His wife happening to enter his room shortly after, found him -sitting with his elbow leaning on a chest of drawers. He said he -was very ill, and complained of cold shivering and of violent pain in his -head. Madame de Girardin being informed of this, came at once -to visit him; but Rousseau, thanking her for all her kindness to -him, begged of her to return home and leave him alone for the present. -He then having requested his wife to sit by him, begged her forgiveness -for any pain or displeasure of which he might have been the cause, -and said that his end was approaching, that he died in peace, as he never -had intended or wished evil to any human being, and that he hoped in -the mercy of God. He begged that M. de Girardin would allow him to -be buried in his park. He gave directions to his wife about his papers, -and requested her particularly to have his body opened, that the cause -of his death might be ascertained. He then asked her to open the window, -“that he might once more behold the beautiful green of the fields.” -“How pure and beautiful is the sky!” he then observed, “there -is not a cloud. I trust the Almighty will receive me there above.” -In so saying, he fell on his face to the floor, and on raising him, life -was found to be extinct. On opening the body, a considerable quantity -of serum was found between the brain and its integuments. His -sudden death was attributed by many persons to suicide: but there -is no direct evidence of which we know to prove this. On the other -side there is the positive assertion of the physician who examined the -body, that his death was natural. Rousseau was buried in an island -shaded by poplars, on the little lake of the park of Ermenonville. A -plain marble monument was raised to his memory.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The first part of his ‘Confessions,’ which he had begun to write -while at Wootton, was published in 1781. He had himself fixed the -year 1800 for the publication of the second part, judging that, by that -time, the persons mentioned in the work would be dead; but, through -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>an abuse of confidence on the part of the depositories of the MSS., it -was published in 1788. His autobiography does not include the latter -years of his life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Rousseau was temperate and frugal in his habits, disinterested and -warm-hearted, and impressed with strong feelings against oppression -and injustice. He was not envious of the fame or success of his brother -authors. He never sneered at religion like Voltaire and others of his -contemporaries, although in his speculative works he expressed his -doubts concerning revelation, and brought forth the arguments that -occurred to him on that side of the question: but he had none of the -fanaticism of incredulity against Christianity. Of the morality of the -Gospel he was a sincere admirer, and a most eloquent eulogist. “I -acknowledge,” he says in his ‘Emile,’ “that the majesty of the Scriptures -astonishes me, that the holiness of the Gospel speaks to my heart. -Look at the books of the philosophers; with all their pomp, how little -they appear by the side of that one book! Can a book so sublime, and -yet so simple, be the work of man? How prejudiced, how blind that -man must be, who can compare the son of Sophroniscus (Socrates) to -the son of Mary!” With such sentiments Rousseau could not long -agree with Helvetius, Diderot, D’Holbach, and their coterie. They, -on their side, ridiculed and abused him, because he was too sincere -and independent for them. “I have spent my life,” says Rousseau, -“among infidels, without being seduced by them; I loved and -esteemed several of them, and yet their doctrine was to me insufferable. -I told them repeatedly that I could not believe them.... -I leave to my friends the task of constructing the world by chance. I -find in the very architects of this new-fangled world, and in spite of -themselves and their arguments, fresh proofs of the existence of a -God, a Creator of all.” A very good collection of the moral maxims -scattered about Rousseau’s works was published under the title of -‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Esprit, Maximes et Principes de J. J. Rousseau</span>,’ 8vo., Neuchatel, -1774.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Rousseau set to music about 100 French romances, which he called -‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Consolations des Misères de ma Vie</span>.’ Several editions of all his -works have been made at different times: that by Mercier and Le -Tourneur, 38 vols. 4to., has been long considered as one of the best. -The edition of Lefevre, 22 vols. 8vo., 1819–20, and that of Lequien, -21 vols. 8vo., 1821–2, are now preferred to all former ones.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_153fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />JOHN HARRISON.<br /><br /><em>From an Engraving by Tassaerts published in 1708 after a Painting by King.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span> -<img src='images/i_153.jpg' alt='HARRISON.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>HARRISON.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>John Harrison was born in May, 1693, at Foulby, in Yorkshire. -His father, who was a joiner, trained him from an early age to the -same business; but he soon began to study machinery. He turned -his attention to the mechanism of clocks; and, to obviate the irregularities -produced in their rate of going by variations of temperature, he -invented the method of compensation, employed in what is now called -the <em>gridiron</em> pendulum, before the year 1720. This contrivance consisted -in constructing a pendulum with bars of different metals, -having different rates of expansion so as to correct each other: it -is described in all popular treatises on physics. By this means it -is stated that he had, before the year above-mentioned, constructed -two clocks which agreed with each other within a second a month, -and one of which did not vary, on the whole, more than a minute -in ten years.<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c011'><sup>[10]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f10'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. </span>Folke’s Address to the Royal Society, Nov. 30, 1749.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>This success induced him to turn his attention to watches, or rather -to time-keepers for naval purposes. It would be impossible without -the help of plates to render intelligible the rise and progress of his -methods, for which we must refer the reader to treatises of Horology. -His first instrument was tried upon the Humber, in rough weather, -and succeeded so well that he was recommended to carry it to London, -for the inspection of the Commissioners of Longitude.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The question of the discovery of the longitude had been considered of -national importance since the year 1714, when an Act was passed offering -10,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, 15,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, and 20,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> for any method of discovering the -longitude within 60, 40, or 30 miles respectively. In 1735 Harrison -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>arrived in London with his time-piece, and showed it to several members -of the Royal Society. He obtained a certificate of its goodness, signed -by Halley, Smith, Bradley, Machin, and Graham, in consequence of -which he was allowed to proceed with it to Lisbon, in a king’s ship, -in 1736. The watch was found to correct the ship’s reckoning a -degree and a half; and the commissioners thereupon gave Harrison -500<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, to enable him to proceed. He finished a second time-piece in -1739, and a third in 1758, each nearer to perfection than the former, -and both abounding in ingenious contrivances to overcome the effects -of temperature, and of the motion of a vessel at sea. In 1741 he -obtained another certificate, signed by almost every name of eminence -in English science of the time. In 1749 the gold medal of the -Royal Society was awarded to him. In 1761, having then a fourth -time-piece in hand, but being convinced that the third was sufficiently -correct to come within the limits of the act of parliament, he applied -to the Commissioners for a trial of it. Accordingly, in 1761 -(Nov. 18), his son, William Harrison, was sent in a king’s ship to -Jamaica with the watch, and returned to Portsmouth, March 26, -1762. On arrival at Port Royal, Jan. 19, 1762, the watch was found -wrong only 5⅒ seconds; and at its return, only 1 minute 54½ seconds. -This was sufficient to determine the longitude within 18 miles; and -Harrison accordingly claimed 20,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, in a petition to the House -of Commons, presented early in 1763. The Commissioners had -awarded him 1,500<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, and promised 1,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> more after another voyage. -Owing to some doubt as to the method of equal altitudes employed in -finding the time at Port Royal, they do not appear to have been of -opinion that the first voyage was conclusive. In 1763 an act passed, -by which, firstly, no other person could become entitled to the reward -until Harrison’s claim was settled; and, secondly, 5,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> was -awarded to him on his discovery of the structure of the instrument. -But the Commissioners not agreeing about the payment, another -voyage was resolved on, and Mr. William Harrison sailed again for -Barbadoes, with Dr. Maskelyne, afterwards the Astronomer Royal. -The result was yet more satisfactory than before; and in 1765 a new -act was passed, awarding to Harrison the whole sum of 20,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>: the -first moiety upon the discovery of his construction; the second, so -soon as it should be found that others could be made like it. In this -act it is stated that the watch did not lose more than ten miles of the -longitude. But Harrison had by this time been rendered unduly suspicious -of the intentions of the Commissioners. He imagined that -Dr. Maskelyne had treated him unfairly, and was desirous of having -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>no method of finding the longitude except that of lunar observations. -An account of the subsequent proceedings, of which the following -is an abstract, was printed in self-defence by the Commissioners:—</p> - -<p class='c000'>May 28, 1765, Mr. Harrison’s son informs the Commissioners -that he is ready to deliver the drawings and explanations, and expects -a certificate that he is entitled to receive the first moiety of the -reward. The Commissioners are unanimously of opinion that verbal -explanations and experiments, in the presence of such persons as they -may appoint, will be necessary. May 30, Mr. Harrison attends in -person, and consents to the additional explanation; and certain men -of science, as well as watchmakers, are instructed to receive them. -June 13, Mr. Harrison, being present, is informed that the Board is -ready to fix a time to proceed, on which he denies ever having given his -assent, and refers to a letter which he had delivered at the last meeting. -The letter had not, says the Commissioners’ Minute, been delivered, -but had been left upon the table, unnoticed by any one. It was to -the effect that Harrison was willing to give further verbal explanation, -but requires to know to whom it must be given; “for,” says he, “I -will never attempt to explain it to the satisfaction of the Commissioners, -and who they may appoint; nor will I ever come under the directions -of men of theory.” He further refuses to make any experimental -exhibition, and ends by complaining of the usage he has received. He -was then told by the Board that he would only be asked for experiments -in cases where there were operations which could not be fully explained -by words, such, for instance, as the tempering of the springs; -on which he left the Board abruptly, declaring, “that he never would -consent to it, as long as he had a drop of English blood in his body.” -The Commissioners thereupon declined further dealing with him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The reason of the above absurd conduct we suspect to have been, -that Harrison desired, in addition to the large reward claimed by him, -to have a monopoly of the manufacture of his watches, such as would -have necessarily been created for his benefit, had he been allowed to keep -his actual methods of working a secret. For he offered, <em>upon receiving -the reward</em>, “to employ a sufficient number of hands, so as with -all possible speed to furnish his Majesty’s navy, &c. &c., not doubting -but the public will consider the charge of the outset of the undertaking.” -We quote here from the Biographia Britannica, in the last volume of -which, published in 1766, is an account of him, from materials avowedly -furnished by himself, and plainly written by a partisan. It is the only -instance we can find in which a memoir of a living person has been -inserted in that work.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>The next circumstance we find, (for there is no connected history -of this discussion, which exists only in a number of detached pamphlets,) -is the delivery of the watch to Dr. Maskelyne, at the Royal -Observatory, in May, 1766, that its rate of going might there be tried. -The Report of the Astronomer Royal states, that it could not be depended -upon within a degree of longitude in a voyage of six weeks; -and a very angry pamphlet, published by Harrison in the following -year, accuses Maskelyne of having treated the instrument unfairly. -Many circumstances are stated which now appear ludicrous, and some -which, if true, would have reflected discredit on the Commissioners. -But nothing can be inferred, after the refusal of Harrison to accede to -the very reasonable demand of the Commissioners, except that he was -most probably as wrong in his suspicions as he had been foolish in his -dealings. The end of this dispute was, that in 1767 Harrison complied -with the conditions insisted upon; and, it having been found -that his improvements were such as admitted of execution by another -person, he received the whole sum awarded to him by the Act of Parliament.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Harrison was not a well-educated man, and was deficient in the -power of expressing his meaning clearly. It was easier for him, no -doubt, to make two watches than to explain one; and hence, perhaps, -his aversion to “men of theory,” who troubled him for descriptions -and explanations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He died in 1776, at his house in Red Lion Square, having been -engaged during the latter years of his life in bringing his improvements -still nearer to perfection. His last work, which was tried in 1772, was -found to have erred only four seconds and a half in ten weeks.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In his younger days, some church-bells, which were out of tune, set -him upon examining the musical scale, with a view to correct them. -He communicated his ideas on the subject to Dr. Smith, who confirmed -and extended them in his well-known work on Harmonics. In the -Preface it is stated that Harrison made the interval of the major-third -bear to that of the octave the proportion of the diameter of a circle to its -circumference. This, he said, he did on the authority of a friend, who -assured him it would give the best scale. Harrison himself wrote a -treatise on the scale, but we do not know whether it was published.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He is, on the whole, a fine instance of the union of originality with -perseverance. The inventions, of which it takes so short a space to tell -the history, were the work of fifty years of labour, and to them the art -of constructing chronometers, and consequently the science of navigation, -is indebted for much of its present advanced state.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_157fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff.</em><br /><br />MONTAIGNE.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture at Paris, in the “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dépot des Archives du Royaume</span>.”</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span> -<img src='images/i_157.jpg' alt='MONTAIGNE.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>MONTAIGNE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Michel, Seigneur, or Lord, of <span class='sc'>Montaigne</span>, a feudal estate in the -province of Perigord, near the river Dordogne, was born February -28, 1533, of a family said to have been originally from England. He -was a younger son; but, by the death of his elder brother, inherited -the estate by the title of which he is known. His father, a blunt -feudal noble, who had served in the wars of Francis I., placed him out -at nurse in a village of his domain, and directed that he should be -treated in the same manner as the children of the peasants. As soon -as he could speak, he was placed under the care of a German tutor, -selected for his ignorance of the French, and intimate acquaintance -with the Greek and Latin languages. All Montaigne’s intercourse -with his preceptor was carried on in Latin; and even his parents made -a rule never to address him except in that language, of which they -picked up a sufficient number of words for common purposes. The -attendants were enjoined to follow the same practice. “They all -became latinized,” says Montaigne himself, “and even the villagers -around learnt words in that language, some of which took root in the -country, and became of common use among the people.” Thus, -without any formal course of scholastic teaching, Montaigne spoke -Latin long before he could speak French, which he was afterwards -obliged to learn as if it had been a foreign language. When, at -a mature age, he was writing his Essays, he professed to be still -ignorant of grammar, having learnt various languages by practice, and -not knowing yet the meaning of adjective, conjunctive, or ablative, -(Essais, b. i. c. 48.) This last assertion probably is not to be taken -strictly to the letter. He studied Greek also by way of pastime, -rather than as a task. The object of his father was to make him learn -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>without constraint and from his own wish; and, as an instance of the old -soldier’s whimsical notions on education, he caused his son to be -awakened in the morning to the sound of music, that his nervous -system might not be injured by any sudden shock. At six years old -Montaigne was sent to the College of Guienne, at Bordeaux, an -establishment which then enjoyed a very high reputation. He soon -made his way to the higher classes; and at thirteen years of age -had completed his college education. Having no taste for military -life, which was then the usual career of young noblemen, he studied -the law; and in 1554 was made Councillor (or Judge) in the -Parliament of Bordeaux, in which capacity he acted for several -years. He went several times to Court, and enjoyed the favour of -Henry II., by whom, or as some say, by Charles IX., he was made a -Gentleman of the King’s Chamber, and Knight of the Order of -St. Michel. Among his brother councillors at Bordeaux there was -a young man of distinguished merit, called La Boëtie, for whom -Montaigne conceived a feeling of the most romantic friendship, which -soon became reciprocal. The sentiments and opinions of the two -seem to have sympathized in an extraordinary degree. La Boëtie -died young, but his friend’s affection survived: a chapter of the -Essays is devoted to his memory, and in other parts of Montaigne’s -writings we find frequent recurrence to the same subject.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Montaigne married Françoise de la Chassaigne when he was -thirty-three years of age; and this he did, as he says, in consequence -of external persuasions, and in order to please his friends rather than -himself, for he was not inclined to a married life; “but once married, -although he had been till then considered a licentious man, he observed -the conjugal laws more strictly than he had himself expected.” -On succeeding to the family estate, on which he generally resided, he -took the management of it into his own hands; and although his father, -judging from his habits of abstraction and seeming carelessness of -worldly objects, had foretold that he would ruin his patrimony, Montaigne, -at his death, left the property if not much better, certainly not -worse than he found it. He was not rich, for we are told, by Balzac, -that his income did not exceed 6000 livres, which was no great revenue -for a country gentleman even at that time. In 1569 he translated into -French a Latin work of Sebonde or Sebon, in defence of the mysteries -and doctrines of the Church of Rome, against Luther and other Protestant -writers. France was at that time desolated by civil and religious -war. Montaigne, although he evidently disapproved of the -conduct of the Court towards the Protestants, yet remained loyal to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>the King. He lived in retirement, and took no part in public affairs, -except by exhorting both parties to moderation and mutual charity. -By this conduct he became, as it generally happens, obnoxious to both -factions, and he incurred some danger in consequence. The massacre -of St. Bartholomew plunged him into a deep melancholy. He detested -cruelty and the shedding of blood, and in several passages of -his Essays has animadverted in strong terms upon the atrocities committed -against the Protestants. It was about this dismal epoch of -1572, when, solitude and melancholy urging him to the task, he began -to write that celebrated work, of which we shall presently speak more -at length. It was first published in March, 1580; and had great -success. After some time, Montaigne printed a new edition of it, -with additions; but without making any alterations in the part which -had appeared before. The popularity of the book was such that in a -few years there was hardly a man of education in France who had not -a copy of it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Soon after the first publication of his Essays, Montaigne undertook -a journey for the sake of his health. He went to Germany, -Switzerland, and, lastly, to Italy. He visited several bathing-places, -among others, Baden, and the baths of Lucca in Tuscany. He proceeded -to Rome, where he was well received by several Cardinals -and other persons of distinction, and was introduced to Pope Gregory -XIII. Montaigne was delighted with Rome; he found himself -at home among those localities and monuments which were connected -with his earliest studies, and with the first impressions of his childhood. -His remarks on what he saw in the course of his journey are -those of a man of penetration, sincere and plain spoken, and written -in his peculiar antique style. His MS. journal, after lying forgotten -for nearly two centuries, was discovered in an old chest in the château -of his family, and published in 1775, by M. de Querlon, under the -following title, ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Journal du Voyage de Michel de Montaigne en Italie, -par la Suisse et l’Allemagne, en 1580–1</span>.’ It is one of the earliest -descriptions of Italy in a modern language. In this journey, Montaigne -received the freedom of the city of Rome, by a special bull of -the Pope, which he valued as the proudest distinction of his life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>While he was abroad, he was elected mayor of Bordeaux by the -votes of the citizens; an honour which he would have declined, but -that the king, Henry III., insisted on his accepting of it. This was -a mere honorary office, no emolument being attached to it. The -appointment was for two years; but Montaigne was re-elected at the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>expiration of that period, which was a mark of public favour of rare -occurrence.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On retiring from his office, Montaigne returned to his estate. The -country was then ravaged by the war of the League. He had great -difficulty in saving his family and property in the midst of the contending -parties, and once narrowly escaped assassination in his château. -To add to the miseries of civil war, the plague broke out in his -neighbourhood in 1586; and he then, with his family, left his home -and became a wanderer, residing successively at several friends’ houses -in other parts of the country. He was at Paris in 1588, busy about -a new edition of his Essays. It appears from De Thou, that about -this time he was employed in negotiation with a view to mediate peace -between Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV., and the Duke of -Guise. At Paris, he made the acquaintance of Mademoiselle de -Gournay, a young lady, who had conceived a kind of sentimental -affection for him by reading his book. In company with her mother, -she visited and introduced herself to him, and from that time he called -her his “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fille d’alliance</span>,” or adopted daughter, a title which she retained -for the rest of her life, as she never married. This attachment, -which, though warm and reciprocal, has every appearance of -being of a purely platonic nature, is one of the remarkable circumstances -of Montaigne’s life. At the time of his death, Mademoiselle -de Gournay and her mother crossed one-half of France, in spite of -the civil troubles and the insecurity of the roads, to mix their tears -with those of his widow and daughter.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On his return from Paris, in the latter part of 1588, Montaigne -stopped at Blois, with De Thou, Pasquier, and other friends. The -famous States-General were then assembled in that city, where the -murder of the Duke of Guise, and of his brother, the Cardinal, soon -after took place (23d and 24th December, 1588). Montaigne had -long foreseen that the civil dissensions could only terminate with the -death of one of the great party leaders; and he also said to De Thou -that Henry of Navarre was inclined to embrace the Catholic faith, -were he not afraid of being forsaken by his party; and that, on the -other side, Guise himself would not have been averse from adopting -the Protestant religion, if he could thereby have promoted his ambitious -views. After these events, Montaigne returned to his château. -In the following year, he became acquainted with Pierre Charron, a -theological writer of considerable reputation. An intimate friendship -ensued between the two authors; and Charron, in his book ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la -<span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>Sagesse</span>,’ borrowed many thoughts from the Essays, which he held in -high estimation. Montaigne, by his will, empowered Charron to assume -the coat of arms of his family, as he himself had no male issue.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Montaigne’s health had been declining for some time; he was -afflicted with gravel and cholic, and he was obstinately resolved -against consulting physicians. In September, 1592, he fell ill of a -malignant quinsy, which kept him speechless for three days, during -which he had recourse to his pen to signify to his wife his last intentions. -He desired that several gentlemen of the neighbourhood should -be requested to come and take leave of him. When they were -assembled in his room, a priest said mass, and at the elevation of the -host, Montaigne half raised himself on his bed, with his hands joined -together, and in that attitude expired, September 13, 1592, in the -sixtieth year of his age. His body was buried at Bordeaux, in the -church of the Feuillans, where a monument was erected to him by his -widow. He left an only daughter, heiress of his property.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Montaigne’s Essays have been the subject of much and very conflicting -criticism. If we consider the age and the intellectual condition -of the country in which the author was born, we must pronounce -them a very extraordinary work, not so much on account of the -learning contained in them, as for the philosophical spirit and the -frank, independent, liberal tone that pervades their pages. Civilization -and literature were then at a low ebb in France; the language was -hardly formed, the country was still torn by the rude turbulence, -and subject to the oppression, of feudal lords and feudal laws; -and was, moreover, distracted by ignorant fanaticism, by deadly intolerance, -and by civil factions, rendered more fierce by religious feuds. -It is very remarkable that, in a remote province of a country so -situated, a country gentleman, himself belonging to the feudal aristocracy, -should have composed a work full of moral maxims and precepts, -conceived in the spirit of the philosophers of Greece and Rome, -and founded, not on the sanctions of revealed religion, but on a sort -of natural system of ethics, on the beauty of virtue, on the innate sense -of justice, on the lessons of history. It is almost more remarkable -that such a book should have been read with avidity amidst the -turmoil of factions, the din of civil war, the knell of persecution and -massacre.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The morality of the Essays has been called, and justly so, a -pagan morality: it is not founded on the faith and the hopes of a -Christian; and its principles are in many respects widely different -from those of the Gospel. Scepticism was the bias of Montaigne’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>mind; his philosophy is, in great measure, that of Seneca, and other -ancient writers, whose books were the first that were put into his -hands when a child. Accordingly, Pascal, Nicole, Leclerc, and other -Christian moralists, while rendering full justice to Montaigne’s talents -and the many good sentiments scattered about the Essays, are very -severe upon his ethics, taken as a system. Yet he was not a determined -infidel, for not only in the Essays, but in the journal of his -travels, which was not intended for publication, he manifests Christian -sentiments; and we have seen that the mode of his death was that of a -Christian. In his chapter on prayers, (Essais, b. i. 56,) he recommends -the use of the Lord’s Prayer in terms evidently sincere; and in -a preceding chapter, after speaking of two sorts of ignorance, the one, -that which precedes all instruction, and the other, that which follows -partial instruction, he says, that “men of simple minds, devoid of -curiosity and of learning, are Christians through reverence and obedience; -that minds of middle growth and moderate capacities are the -most prone to error and doubt; but that higher intellects, more clear-sighted -and better grounded in science, form a superior class of believers, -who, through long and religious investigations, arrive at the -fountain of light of the Scriptures, and feel the mysterious and divine -meaning of our ecclesiastical doctrines. And we see some who reach -this last stage, through the second, with marvellous fruit and confirmation; -and who, having attained the extreme boundary of Christian -intelligence, enjoy their success with modesty and thanksgivings, accompanied -by a total reformation of their morals, unlike those men of -another stamp, who, in order to clear themselves of the suspicion of -their past errors, become violent, indiscreet, unjust, and throw discredit -on the cause which they pretend to serve.” (Essais, b. i. ch. 54.) And -a few lines after, he modestly places himself in the second rank, of those -who, disdaining the first state of uninformed simplicity, have not yet -attained the third and last exalted stage, and who, he says, are thereby -rendered “inept, importunate, and troublesome to society. But I, for -my part, endeavour, as much as I can, to fall back upon my first and -natural condition, from which I have idly attempted to depart.” -Although we may not trust implicitly to the sincerity of this modest -admission, yet we clearly see from this and other passages, that Montaigne’s -mind was anything but dogmatical, and that he felt the insecurity -of his own philosophy, which was made up of impulses and -doubts, rather than of argumentation and conviction.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Montaigne has been also censured for several licentious and some -cynical passages of his ‘Essais.’ This licentiousness, however, is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>rather in the expressions than in the meaning of the author. He -spoke plainly of things which are not alluded to in a more refined -state of society, but he did so evidently without mischievous intentions, -and as a thing of common occurrence in his days. His early familiarity -with the Latin classics probably contributed to this habit.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Notwithstanding these faults, Montaigne’s Essays are justly -admired for the sound sense, honesty, and beauty which abound in -them. ‘The best parts of them (says a French critic) are those -in which he speaks of the passions and inclinations of men; as for -his learning, it is vague, not methodical, and uncertain; and his -philosophical maxims are often dangerous.’ (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mélanges d’Histoire et de -Litterature</span>,’ Rouen, 1699, tom. i. p. 133.) Montaigne combats most -earnestly all the malignant feelings inherent in man, inhumanity, -injustice, oppression, uncharitableness; cruelty he detests, his whole -nature was averse from it. His chapters on pedantry and on the -education of children are remarkably good. He throws, at times, -considerable light on the state of society and manners in France in -his time, which may be considered as the last period of feudal power in -that country. In his chapter on the inequality among men, he speaks -of the independence of the French nobility, especially in the provinces -remote from the Court, as Britanny; where the feudal lords living on -their estates, surrounded by their vassals, their officers and valets, -their household conducted with an almost royal ceremonial, heard of -the king but once a-year as if he were some distant king or Sultan -of Persia, and only remembered him on the score of some distant -relationship, which they hold carefully registered among their ancestral -documents.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Mademoiselle de Gournay edited Montaigne’s ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essais</span>’ in 1635, -and dedicated the edition to the Cardinal de Richelieu. She wrote a -long preface to it, which is a zealous apology for Montaigne and his -works against the charges of the earlier critics. An edition of the -‘Essais’ was published by Pierre Coste, 3 vols. 4to. London, 1724, -enriched with valuable notes and several letters of Montaigne at the -end of the third volume. The edition of Paris, 3 vols. 4to. 1725, -is, in great measure, a reprint of that of Coste, except that the publishers -have added extracts of the various judgments of the most distinguished -critical writers concerning the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essais</span>,’ and also two more -letters of Montaigne’s at the end. These additions render this Paris -edition the most complete. The ex-senator Vernier published in -1810, ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Notices et Observations pour faciliter la Lecture des Essais -de Montaigne</span>,’ Paris, 2 vols. 8vo. It is a useful commentary.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span> -<img src='images/i_164.jpg' alt='POPE.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>POPE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Alexander Pope was born in London, June S, 1688. His father -was a merchant, of good family, attached to the Roman Catholic religion; -and his own childish years were spent, first under the tuition of -a priest, then at a Roman Catholic Seminary at Twyford, near -Winchester. He taught himself to write by copying printed books, -in the execution of which he attained great neatness and exactness. -When little more than eight years old he accidentally met with -Ogilby’s Translation of Homer. The versification is insipid and lifeless; -but the stirring events and captivating character of the story so -possessed his mind, that Ogilby became a favourite book. When -about ten years old he was removed from Twyford to a school at -Hyde Park Corner. He had there occasional opportunities of -frequenting the theatre; which suggested to him the amusement of -turning the chief events in Homer into a kind of play, composed -of a succession of speeches from Ogilby, strung together by verses -of his own. In these two schools he seems, instead of advancing, to -have lost what he had gained under his first tutor. When twelve -years old he went to live with his parents at Binfield, in Windsor -Forest. He there became acquainted with the writings of Spenser, -Waller, and Dryden. For the latter he conceived the greatest -admiration. He saw him once, and commemorates the event in -his correspondence, under the words “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Virgilium tantum vidi</span>:” but -he was too young to have made acquaintance with that master of -English verse, who died in 1701. He studied Dryden’s works with -equal attention and pleasure, adopted them as a model of rhythm, -and copied the structure of that author’s periods. This was, however, -so far from a grovelling imitation, that it enabled him to raise -English rhyme to the most perfect melody of which it is capable.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_164fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />POPE.<br /><br /><em>From the Picture by Hudson in the possession of His Grace the Duke of Buckingham.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>In the retirement of Binfield, Pope laboured successfully to make -amends for the loss of past time. At fourteen years of age he -had written with some elegance, and at fifteen had attained some -knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages, to which he soon added -French and Italian. In 1704 he began his pastorals, published in -1709, which introduced him, through Wycherley, to the acquaintance -of Walsh, who proved a sincere friend to him. That gentleman discovered -at once that Pope’s talent lay less in striking out new thoughts -of his own, than in easy versification, and in improving what he borrowed -from the ancients. Among other useful hints, he pointed out -that we had several great poets, but that none of them were correct; -he therefore admonished him to make that merit his own. The advice -was gratefully received; and Pope’s correspondence shows that it was -carefully followed. His melodious numbers, so marked a feature of -his style, were in a great measure the result of that suggestion.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the same year, 1704, he wrote the first part of his ‘Windsor -Forest’: the whole was not published till 1713. The fault charged -on this poem is, that few images are introduced which are not equally -applicable to any other sylvan scenery. It was dedicated to Lord Lansdowne, -whom he mentions as one of his earliest acquaintance. To -those already named, may be added Bolingbroke, Congreve, Garth, -Swift, Atterbury, Talbot, Somers, and Sheffield, whose friendship he -had gained at sixteen or seventeen years of age. Pope, to his credit -be it set down, cultivated friendships not only with the great, but -with his brethren among the poets. Wycherley indeed was infected -with the weakness of the archbishop in ‘Gil Blas,’ touching his own -compositions, and the young poet was imprudently caustic in his criticism -on the old one. Their correspondence was consequently dropped; -and though renewed through the mediation of a common friend, it was -with no revival of cordiality. But in 1728, some time after Wycherley’s -death, his poems were republished; and in the following year -Pope printed several letters which had passed between them, in vindication -of Wycherley’s fame as a poet, in answer to certain misrepresentations -prefixed to that edition. This quarrel was a trying affair in -the outset of Pope’s career, and his conduct had been above his years; -but young as he was, his talents were now beginning to ripen. His -example confirms the truth of Lord Bacon’s remark, that personal -deformity acts as a spur to that improvement of the mind, which is -most likely to rescue him who is curtailed of his due proportion from -a sense of degradation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To this early period of Pope’s life belong the ‘Messiah,’ the ‘Ode -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>for St. Cecilia’s Day,’ ‘Verses to the Memory of an Unfortunate -Lady,’ and other of Pope’s minor pieces, which were collected and -published in a small 8vo. volume in 1720. It is stated in a note to -Dr. Johnson’s Life, that Pope himself was the object of the passion -commemorated in the last-mentioned poem. The date of that most -brilliant composition, ‘Eloisa to Abelard,’ is uncertain. The ‘Essay -on Criticism’ was written in 1709, “A work,” says Johnson, “which -displays such extent of comprehension, such nicety of distinction, such -acquaintance with mankind, and such knowledge both of ancient and -modern learning, as are not often attained by the maturest age and -longest experience.” Pope’s fame was carried to its height by the -‘Rape of the Lock.’ That poem originated in an impertinence offered -by Lord Petre to Mrs. Arabella Fermor, which led to a quarrel between -their respective families. Both parties were among Pope’s acquaintance, -and this lively piece was written to produce a reconciliation, in -which it succeeded. The universal applause given to the first sketch -induced the author to enrich it with the machinery of the Sylphs. -In that new dress the two cantos, extended to five, came out in 1712, -accompanied by a letter to Mrs. Arabella Fermor, to whom he afterwards -addressed another after her marriage, in the spruce and courtly -style of Voiture. A sentence or two may be quoted as a sample of -the poet’s epistolary manner. “Madam, you are sensible, by this time, -how much the tenderness of one man of merit is to be preferred to the -addresses of a thousand; and by this time, the gentleman you have -made choice of is sensible how great is the joy of having all those -charms and good qualities which have pleased so many, now applied to -please one only.... It may be expected, perhaps, that one who has -the title of being a wit should say something more polite upon this -occasion; but I am really more a well-wisher to your felicity, than a -celebrator of your beauty.... I hope you will think it but just that -a man, who will certainly be spoken of as your admirer after he is -dead, may have the happiness, while he is living, to be esteemed, -Yours, &c.” This letter is sometimes annexed to the poem, and not -injudiciously, as it completes the winding-up in the happy marriage -of the heroine. In the same year he published his ‘Temple of Fame,’ -which, according to his habitual caution, he had kept two years in his -study. It appears from one of his letters, that at that time he had -made some progress in translating the Iliad: in 1713, he circulated -proposals for publishing his translation by subscription. He had been -pressed to this undertaking some time before by several of his friends, -and was now encouraged in the design by others. The publication of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>the first four books, in 1715, gave general satisfaction; and so materially -improved the author’s finances, that he resolved to come nearer -to his friends in the capital. With that view, the small estate at Binfield -was sold, and he purchased a house at Twickenham, whither he -removed with his father and mother before the end of the year 1715. -While employed in the decoration of his seat, he could not forbear -doubling his pleasures by boasting of it in his communications with his -friends. In a letter to Mr. Blount he says, in his customary tone of -gallantry, “The young ladies may be assured that I make nothing new -in my gardens, without wishing to see them print their fairy steps in -every corner of them.... You’ll think I have been very poetical in -this description, but it is pretty nearly the truth.” This letter was -written in 1725. Warburton tells us that the improvement of his -celebrated grotto was the favourite amusement of his declining years: -not long before his death, by enlarging and ornamenting it with ores -and minerals of the richest and rarest kind, he had made it a most -elegant and romantic retirement. But modern taste will scarcely confirm -the reverend editor’s assertion, that “the beauty of his poetic -genius, in the disposition and ornaments of those romantic materials, -appeared to as much advantage as in any of his best-contrived poems.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Pope’s father survived his removal to Twickenham only two years. -The old gentleman had sometimes recommended to his son the study -of medicine, as the best method of increasing his scanty patrimony. -Neglect of pecuniary considerations was not among Pope’s weaknesses: -he did not indeed engage in the medical profession; but he -took other opportunities of pushing his fortune. With this view, he -published an edition of his collected poems in 1717; a proceeding as -much suggested by profit as by fame. In the like disposition, he undertook -a new edition of Shakspeare, which was published in 1721. The -execution of it proved the editor’s unfitness for the task which he had -undertaken. Immediately after the completion of the Iliad, in 1720, -Pope engaged, for a considerable sum, to undertake the Odyssey. Only -twelve books, however, of the translation proceeded from his own pen: -the rest were done by Broome and Fenton under his direction. The -work was completed in 1725. The following year was employed, in -concert with Swift and Arbuthnot, in the publication of miscellanies, -of which the most remarkable is the celebrated ‘History of Martinus -Scriblerus.’ About this time, as he was returning home one day in -Lord Bolingbroke’s chariot, it was overturned on Chase Bridge, near -Twickenham, and thrown with the horses into the river. The glasses -being up, Pope was nearly drowned, and was extricated with difficulty -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>from his hazardous situation. He lost the use of two fingers, in consequence -of a severe cut from the broken glass.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Having secured an independent fortune, Pope endeavoured to -protect his literary fame from all future attacks, by browbeating every -one into silence: this he hoped to accomplish by the poem of the -‘Dunciad,’ which came out in 4to. in the year 1727. He somewhere -says, that the life of an author is a state of warfare: he now showed -himself a master in literary tactics, a great captain in offensive as well -as defensive war. The poem made its first appearance in Ireland, -cautiously, as a masked battery; nor was the triumph completed without -the co-operation of an Eugene with this satirical Marlborough in -the person of Swift, who furnished some of the materials in his own masterly -style of sarcasm. The improved edition was printed in London -in 1728. Sir Robert Walpole presented it to the King and Queen, -and, probably at the same time, offered to procure the author a pension; -but Pope refused this, as he had before, in 1714, rejected a similar -proposal from Lord Halifax. In a letter to Swift, written about this -time, he expresses his feelings thus: “I was once before displeased at -you for complaining to Mr. —— of my not having a pension; I am -so again at your naming it to a certain lord.” In 1710, Mr. Craggs -had given him a subscription for one hundred pounds in the South Sea -Fund; but he made no use of it. These favours must be understood -to have been proffered for the purpose of estranging him from his -personal friends; and this repeated rejection of them is an honourable -proof of steadiness to his attachments.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1729, the poet, by Lord Bolingbroke’s advice, turned his pen to -moral subjects; and, with the assistance of his friend, set to work upon -the ‘Essay on Man.’ Bolingbroke writes thus to Swift: “Bid Pope -talk to you of the work he is about, I hope in good earnest; it is a fine -one, and will be, in his hands, an original.” Pope tells the dean, in his -next letter, what this work was. “The work Lord Bolingbroke -speaks of with such abundant partiality, is a system of ethics, in the -Horatian way.” In another letter, written probably at the beginning -of the following year, we trace the general aim which he at all events -wished the public to attribute to this work. “I am just now writing, -or rather planning, a book to bring mankind to look upon this life with -comfort and pleasure, and put morality in good humour.” This subject -was well suited to his genius. He found the performance more -easy than he had expected, and employed his leisure by following up -the design in his Ethic Epistles, which came out separately in the course -of the two following years. The fourth, addressed to the Earl of Burlington, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>did no good to the author’s character, in consequence of the -violent attack supposed to be made on the Duke of Chandos, a beneficent -and esteemed nobleman, under the name of Timon. Pope loudly -asserted that in drawing Timon’s character he had not the Duke in -view: but his denials have not obtained credence; and he has thus incurred -the charge of equivocation and falsehood, without exculpating -himself from that of ingratitude and wanton insolence. The vexation -caused by this business was somewhat softened by the rapid and lucrative -sale of the epistle, which very soon went through the press a third time. -In a letter to Lord Bolingbroke he says, “Certainly the writer deserved -more candour, even in those who knew him not, than to promote a -report, which, in regard to that noble person, was impertinent; in -regard to me, villainous. I have taken an opportunity of the third -edition, to declare his belief not only of my innocence, but of their -malignity; of the former of which my heart is as conscious as I fear -some of theirs must be of the latter. His humanity feels a concern -for the injury done to me, while his greatness of mind can bear with -indifference the insult offered to himself.” He concludes with a threat -of using real instead of fictitious names in his future works. How -far he carried that menace into effect will presently be seen. The -complaints made against the epistle in question by secret enemies provoked -him to write satire, in which he ventured to attack the characters -of some persons in high life: the affront was of course resented, -and he retaliated by renewing his invective against them, both in -prose and verse. In the imitation of the first satire of the second -book of Horace, he had described Lord Hervey and Lady Mary -Wortley Montague so characteristically, under the names of Lord -Fanny and Sappho, that those noble personages, besides fighting the -aggressor with his own weapons, used their interests to his injury, -not only among the nobility, but with the King and Queen. -Pope remonstrated most strongly against this last mode of revenge. -He continued writing satires till the year 1739, when he entertained -some thoughts of undertaking an epic poem on the pretended colonization -of our island by the Trojan Brute. A sketch of this project, -which he never carried into effect, is given in Ruffhead’s ‘Life of -Pope,’ p. 410.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Pope was an elaborate letter-writer; and many of his familiar -epistles found their way into the world without his privity. Under -the plea of self-defence he published a correct and genuine collection -of them in 1737. About this time the weak state of his health -drew him frequently to Bath. Mr. Allen, a resident in the neighbourhood, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>having been pleased with the letters, took occasion to form an -acquaintance with the author, which soon ripened into friendship. -Hence arose Pope’s intimacy with Warburton, who tells us that, before -they knew each other, he had written his ‘Commentary on the -Art of Criticism, and on the Essay on Man.’ One complaint -against that essay had rested on its obscurity, of which the author -had previously been warned by Swift. But this was comparatively -a slight objection: the philosophic poet was charged with having -insidiously laid down a scheme of deism. A French translation, -by the Abbé Resnil, appeared at Paris in 1738, on which a German -professor, by name Crousaz, animadverted, as a system of ethics -embodying the doctrine of fatalism. Pope thus acknowledges his -obligation to Warburton for his defence: “You have made my -system as clear as I ought to have done, and could not; you understand -me as well as I do myself, but you express me better than I -express myself.” The ‘Essay on Man’ was republished with the -Commentary annexed in 1740; and at the instance of Warburton, a -fourth book was added to the ‘Dunciad,’ and printed separately in 1742.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the course of the following year the whole poem of the ‘Dunciad’ -was published together, as a specimen of a more correct edition of -Pope’s works, which the author had then resolved to give to the world; -but he did not live to complete it. He had through life been subject -to an habitual headache inherited from his mother, and this was now -greatly increased, with the addition of dropsical symptoms. He died -on the 30th of May, 1744, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Pursuant -to his own request, his body was laid in the same vault with those of -his parents, to whose memory he had erected a monument, with an -inscription written by himself, immediately on their respective deaths. -To this, in conformity with his will, the simple words, “Et sibi,” with -the date of his death, were added. He bequeathed to Warburton the -property of such of his works already printed as he had written, or -should write, commentaries upon, provided they had not been otherwise -disposed of or alienated; with this condition, that they were to be -published without future alterations. After he had made his will, he -wrote a letter to this legatee, announcing his legacy, and saying, “I -own the late encroachments upon my constitution make me willing to -see the end of all further care about me, or my works. I would rest -for the one in a full resignation of my being to be disposed of by the -Father of all mercy; and for the other (though indeed a trifle, yet a -trifle may be some example), I would commit them to the candour of -a sensible and reflecting judge, rather than to the malice of every shortsighted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>and malevolent critic, or inadvertent and censorious reader. -And no hand can set them in so good a light, or so well can turn -their best side to the day, as your own.” In discharge of his trust, -Warburton put forth a complete edition of all Pope’s works in 1751; -and, according to his own persuasion, executed it conformably to -the presumed wishes of the author. In point of elegance, allowing -for the state of typography at the time, no objection could be made, -nor could the poet’s orders have been more faithfully obeyed, in -forming the various pieces into a collection. But some of Warburton’s -remarks are in a less friendly tone than might have been -expected; and if not absolutely injurious to his memory, are such as -leave Pope’s moral character in a measure open to attack. Many circumstances -are related in the large biographies of Pope, which our -inclination would as little allow us as our limits to detail. Some of -them would not compensate in desirable information for the tediousness -of the narrative: others relate to defunct controversies. To the -latter of these classes may be referred Pope’s quarrel with Colley -Cibber, which loaded the press with vulgar indecency on both sides; -also, Bolingbroke’s charge of treachery brought against Pope in an -advertisement prefixed to a tract published by his lordship in 1749, -five years after the accused could no longer answer his accuser.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We shall not devote any part of our confined space to an examination -of the faults and weaknesses of this eminent man: they have -been fully dwelt on in works of easy access. Some apology for many -of them may be found in his bodily infirmities, deformed frame, and -extreme debility of constitution. Pope’s person, character, and writings -are treated of at large by Dr. Warton, in his ‘Essay.’ Ruffhead’s -‘Life of Pope’ contains much curious and entertaining matter. -Dr. Johnson’s examination of Pope’s works is among the most -elaborate and best pieces of criticism in his ‘Lives of the Poets.’ We -cannot better conclude than with his description of Pope’s appearance, -and summing up of his poetical character. “The person of Pope is -well known not to have been formed by the nicest model. He has, in his -account of the ‘Little Club,’ compared himself to a spider, and by -another is described as protuberant before and behind. He is said -to have been beautiful in his infancy: but he was of a constitution -originally feeble and weak; and, as bodies of a tender frame are -easily distorted, his deformity was probably in part the effect of his -application. His stature was so low, that, to bring him to a level -with common tables, it was necessary to raise his seat. But his face -was not displeasing, and his eyes animated and vivid....” “It is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>surely superfluous to answer the question that has once been asked, -whether Pope was a poet, otherwise than by asking, in return, if -Pope be not a poet, where is poetry to be found? To circumscribe -poetry by a definition will only show the narrowness of the definer, -though a definition which shall exclude Pope will not easily be made. -Let us look round upon the present time, and back upon the past; -let us inquire to whom the voice of mankind has decreed the wreath -of poetry; let their productions be examined, and their claims stated, -and the pretensions of Pope will be no more disputed. Had he given -the world only his version, the name of poet must have been allowed -him: if the writer of the Iliad were to class his successors, he would -assign a very high place to his translator, without requiring any other -evidence of genius.” With respect to the translation of the Iliad, it -is fair to give Pope the benefit of Dr. Johnson’s praise. But we are -justified by the consentient voice of almost all scholars, in condemning -it as an unfaithful and meretricious version, composed in a spirit -totally different from that of Homer, and bearing no resemblance to -his manner.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Our engraving is from a copy of the original picture by Hudson, -made by T. Uwins, A.R.A.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_172.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Entrance to Pope’s Grotto.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_173fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />BOLIVAR.<br /><br /><em>From an Engraving by Mr. H. Ponte.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span> -<img src='images/i_173.jpg' alt='BOLIVAR.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>BOLIVAR.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The history of Bolivar is that of the revolutions in Columbia and -Peru. Nothing remarkable is related of his early life; and with -respect to his personal merits as a soldier and statesman, he has shared -the common lot of eminent men, in being extravagantly praised and -violently censured. He has been compared to Cæsar and Napoleon -on the one hand; and he has been accused of frivolity, incompetency, -and even cowardice, on the other. The time for forming a dispassionate -opinion of his character is not yet arrived. We shall, therefore, -confine ourselves to a short sketch of the establishment of independence -on the Spanish Main, so far as Bolivar was concerned in it; -premising that we merely follow the course of history in giving him -the credit of those measures which were carried into execution under -his authority and ostensible guidance.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Simon Bolivar was born in the city of Caracas, the capital of -Venezuela, on the 24th or 25th of July, 1783. In early childhood -he lost both his parents, who were of noble family, and possessed of -large estates. At the age of fourteen or sixteen, he was sent to Spain -for education. His habits are said to have been dissipated; but he -paid some attention to the study of jurisprudence. After visiting -Italy and France, he returned to Madrid, married, and in 1809 returned -to reside on his estates near Caracas. It is positively asserted, -and as positively denied, that Bolivar had an active share in the decisive -movement at Caracas, April 19, 1810, when the Spanish authorities -were deposed. A congress was summoned, which met March -2, 1811. Bolivar received a colonel’s commission, and was sent to -claim the protection of Great Britain. The date of his return to -South America we do not find: but he is said to have been concerned -in the first military operations of the patriots; and in September, 1811, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>he was appointed governor of the strong sea-port of Puerto Cabello. -In March, 1812, a violent earthquake took place. The clergy -succeeded in producing a considerable reaction in favour of royalist -principles, by representing this calamity to be a manifestation of God’s -wrath against revolution. Monteverde, the royal general, then advanced, -and met with rapid success. The strong hold of Puerto -Cabello, the chief depôt of the patriots, was wrested from Bolivar by -an insurrection of the prisoners confined in it; the patriot army -became dispirited; and General Miranda, under the sanction of -congress, concluded a treaty, July 26, 1812, by which an amnesty -was concluded, and the province of Venezuela returned under the -dominion of Spain. Miranda was subsequently arrested on a futile -charge of treachery to the patriot cause, and delivered to the -Spaniards, who kept him in prison to the day of his death. In this -unjustifiable transaction, Bolivar had a principal share.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Bolivar retired for a short time to his estate; but he soon became -uneasy at the frequency of arrests, and obtained a passport to quit the -country. He retired to Curaçoa. In the following September, his -active temper led him to seek employment in the patriot army of New -Granada, which had declared itself independent in 1811, and still -held out, with better fortune than Venezuela. He obtained a trifling -command, not such as to satisfy his ambition; and on his own responsibility, -he undertook an expedition against the Spaniards on the east -bank of the river Magdalena, in which he succeeded; clearing the -country of Spanish posts from Mompox, on the above named river, to -the town of Ocaña, on the frontier of Caracas. This exploit attracted -public notice. He conceived the bold plan of invading Venezuela -with his small forces, and the congress of New Granada consented to -his making the attempt, and raised him to the rank of brigadier. He -crossed the frontier with little more than 500 men; but the country -rose in arms to second him; and after several engagements, in which -the patriots were successful, he defeated Monteverde in person at the -battle of Lastoguanes, and, finally, entered Caracas, the capital of -Venezuela, in triumph, August 4, 1813.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At this time no regular government could be said to exist; but a -convention of the chief civil and military functionaries, held at Caracas, -January 2, 1814, conferred on Bolivar the title of Liberator of Venezuela, -and invested him with the office of Dictator, and the supreme -control over both branches of the executive. But these successes were -followed by a rapid reverse; and before the end of the year, he was -beaten out of Venezuela, and obliged to return to New Granada. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>That country was harassed by the contests of numerous and discordant -parties. Bolivar was received with respect by the congress; and -was entrusted with the task of compelling the dissentient province of -Santa Fe de Bogotá, afterwards named Cundinamarca, to accede to -the union of the other provinces. He marched against the city of -Bogotá in December, at the head of 2000 men. It was not in a condition -to resist, and capitulated, after the suburbs had been taken by -storm. It will afford an instance of the difficulty of getting at the real -character of Bolivar, to say, that we find it stated in one account that -his behaviour at Bogotá received not only the thanks of Congress, but -the approbation of the citizens; while another author asserts, that notwithstanding -the capitulation, and in spite of the most urgent remonstrances, -he permitted the pillage of part of the city for the space of -forty-eight hours. He was then appointed to act against the strong -town of Santa Martha, which commands the mouth of the river Magdalena. -Unfortunately, private enmity between himself and Castillo, -the governor of Carthagena, led to dissensions which ended in the investment -of Carthagena, instead of Santa Martha, by Bolivar. During -this civil strife, which led to consequences most injurious to the patriot -cause, General Morillo arrived from Spain, now enabled by the peace -of 1814 to act with more vigour against her revolted colonies; and -Bolivar gave up his command, on the pretext that the harmony and -advantage of the army required it, and embarked for Jamaica, May 10, -1815. During his abode at Kingston, he narrowly escaped assassination -at the hands of a Spaniard, who stabbed to the heart a person -who chanced to occupy the bed in which Bolivar usually slept. From -Jamaica, he went to Hayti, where, with the help of the president Petion, -and in conjunction with a French officer, Commodore Brion, he drew -together a force, with which he again raised the standard of independence -in the province of Cumana, in May, 1816: but he was soon -driven out of the country, and returned to Hayti, whence, in December, -he again sailed to the island of Margarita, and he issued a proclamation -convoking a congress of the representatives of Venezuela. He -then repaired to Barcelona, and organised a provisional government. -During the years 1817 and 1818, the struggle was obstinate; but the -patriot cause on the whole gained a decided advantage. In February -1819, Bolivar summoned a congress at Angostura, on the river -Orinoco, and resigned his authority into its hands. The assembly, -however, continued to him the executive power, with the title of -Provisional President of Venezuela, until the expulsion of the enemy -should afford a prospect of more settled times.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>Bolivar rejoined the army in March, and soon after conducted his -forces to join the patriots in New Granada. Two battles, on the 1st -and 23d of July, were fought to the advantage of the patriots, whose -cause obtained a final triumph in the decisive victory won August 7, -at Bojaca. Bolivar advanced at once to Bogotá, where he was enthusiastically -welcomed; and within a short time, eleven provinces of -New Granada announced their adhesion to the cause of independence. -He summoned a congress, by which he was appointed President, and -Captain-general of the Republic. Meanwhile a party, jealous of his -intentions, had obtained the ascendancy in the Venezuela Congress -held at Angostura; and Bolivar, fearful of being supplanted, quitted -the scene of war with his best troops and marched to Angostura. -His presence, with such a force, turned the scale in favour of the -party attached to his interest. It was determined to summon a general -convention from the independent provinces of Venezuela and Granada; -and December 17, 1819, the celebrated decree was passed by which -the two states were united, and entitled the Republic of Columbia. -Bolivar was appointed President.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Strengthened by union, the patriots took the field in greater force -than they had hitherto been able to raise. The course of war during -1820 was on the whole favourable to them. In November, an -armistice for six months was concluded. Soon after the renewal of -hostilities, an important victory was gained by the Columbian troops -under Bolivar, at Carabobo, not far from the city of Valencia, June -21, 1821, which may be regarded as having closed the war in Venezuela. -Before the end of the year, Columbia was nearly cleared of -Spanish troops, with the exception of the province of Quito; and -time was found to attend to the establishment of civil order. The constitution -of the short-lived Columbian Republic was adopted, August -20, 1821, and Bolivar was appointed First Constitutional President.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The war was then directed against the Spaniards in the south. In -January, 1822, Bolivar himself conducted operations in the province -of Pasto, lying to the north of Quito, while General Sucre, who had -been sent previously to assist the cause of independence in Guayaquil, -after liberating the southern provinces of Loxa and Cuenca, advanced -northwards, and secured independence to the province of Quito by the -decisive victory of Pichincha, May 24, 1822. But though this portion -of Columbia was now cleared of enemies, there could be no security -to the frontier provinces while the Spaniards held Peru; and it -was therefore determined to send assistance to the patriots in that -country. Bolivar landed at Lima, September 1, 1823, and was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>invested with supreme power as Dictator of Peru. It was not until -the end of 1825, however, that the war of independence was finished; -and the honour of this, in a military point of view, belongs rather to -Sucre than to Bolivar.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the establishment of a separate republic in 1825, in the province -called by the Spaniards Upper Peru, the new state paid a high compliment -to the Liberator, by assuming the name of Bolivia, and requesting -him to draw up a constitution for its adoption. In compliance -with the wish thus expressed, he presented to the constituent congress -in May, 1826, the celebrated Bolivian Code; for an account of which -we must refer to the ‘Encyclopædia Americana,’ or the appendix to -the ‘Memoirs of General Miller.’ This forms a remarkable era in -Bolivar’s life; for, out of the institutions of this code, arose the first -suspicions that the Liberator was at heart indisposed to republican institutions. -It was however adopted; and Sucre was appointed President. -Meanwhile, though the deliverance of Peru was completed, Bolivar -showed no intention of leading home the Columbian troops. A congress -summoned at Lima, in February, 1825, continued to him, for -another year, the dictatorial power which he had received on his first -entrance into the country. A second congress, held in 1826, adopted -the same course, adding a recommendation that he should consult the -provinces as to the form of government which it might be desirable to -establish. The result was, that the Bolivian Code was declared to be -adopted by Peru, and Bolivar himself was nominated President.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the Liberator’s long absence in the south, the northern -provinces of Columbia became involved in civil confusion. The Vice-president, -General Santander, was a man of firmness and ability; but -the newly-formed government wanted consistency, and that habitual -respect which is paid to long recognised authority. In April, 1826, -General Paez, who commanded in Venezuela, being summoned before -the senate of Columbia to answer certain charges, refused obedience, -trusting to the devoted attachment of the troops under his command: -and to this private act of rebellion, something of a national character -was given, by the accession of many in Venezuela, who disapproved -of the union with New Granada, or distrusted the intentions of those -who held the reins of power. At the same time, the southern departments, -which had formerly composed the presidency of Quito, displayed -a strong inclination to adopt the Bolivian Code. Bolivar has -not escaped the suspicion of having fomented these troubles, with a -view to convince all parties that tranquillity could only be secured by -strengthening the executive, by appointing him Dictator of the Columbian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>Republic. Being recalled for the suppression of these disturbances, -he quitted Lima in September, 1826, and hastened to Caracas, -where, instead of punishing, he met Paez upon friendly terms, confirmed -him in the office which he held, and published a general amnesty on the -submission of the insurgents. The term for which he was elected -President had now expired. He had been re-elected, and should have -gone through the forms of taking office at the beginning of 1827; but -in February, he announced his intention to resign, and retire to his -estates, in consequence of the imputations of ambition cast upon him. -The spring was spent by Congress in discussing this matter; and at -last, June 6, it was finally determined not to accept his resignation, -and a general convention was summoned to meet at Ocaña, March 2, -1828, to revise the constitution. In September, Bolivar again assumed -the office of President.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Meanwhile a speedy revolution had taken place in Peru. It is no -great argument of Bolivar’s purity of purpose, that, a year after the war -was finished, the Columbian auxiliaries were still retained by him in -Bolivia and Peru, one division being quartered in the former country, -and two in the latter. Many of them were strongly attached to their -general, and perhaps had no objection to becoming instruments of his -ambition, so far as Peru was concerned. But when he incurred the -suspicion of meditating the overthrow of the Columbian constitution, -they took fire. The division quartered at Lima matured a plan of -revolt, arrested their generals, who were personally attached to Bolivar, -and announced to the authorities of Lima their desire to relieve the -Peruvians from a constitution which had been forced upon them, and -to return home to defend their own country. Hereupon, in concurrence -with the generally declared wish of the people throughout Peru, -the Bolivian Code was thrown aside only a few weeks after it had -been adopted; and in June, 1827, a new congress was summoned, -and a new President and Vice-president of the republic were elected. -The troops embarked; but on their landing in Columbia, part placed -themselves under the orders of officers sent to take the command of -them, and the rest were easily reduced to obedience.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The convention met at the appointed time. Bolivar opened the -proceedings with an address, in which he ascribed the internal -troubles of Columbia to the want of sufficient power in the executive -department, and plainly intimated his opinion that the constitution had -been founded on views too liberal to be adapted to the state of society -existing in that country. His speech was very much in accordance -with the views developed in the Bolivian Code, and furnished good -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>reason for believing that he was no less willing to accept supreme -power than his friends were disposed to invest him with it, as the only -remedy for existing evils. The majority of the convention, however, -were suspicious of the President’s intentions. Finding themselves in -a minority, his friends vacated their seats in the assembly, which -being thus reduced below the number necessary to give validity to its -proceedings, became virtually extinct.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In this state of things, a meeting was convened at Bogotá, June 13, -of the principal civil and military residents, at which resolutions were -passed investing Bolivar with the most extensive powers as Supreme -Chief of Columbia. He himself was not present, but in the near -neighbourhood; and on receiving intimation of these resolutions, he -made a solemn entry into Bogotá, June 20, and assumed the powers -thus gratuitously bestowed upon him, not, it is to be observed, by the -act of the convention, or of any body authorised to interfere in any -way with the existing constitution. Great dissatisfaction was felt by -those who were not attached to the party of Bolivar; and in the following -September, a conspiracy was organised in the garrison of -Bogotá, to which the President’s life had nearly fallen a sacrifice. It -was quelled however. General Santander, the Vice-president, was -accused of being concerned in it, and was banished from Columbia. -Partial insurrections subsequently broke out in various places. Towards -the close of 1829, the discontent which had formerly appeared -in Venezuela, manifested itself more decidedly. Paez put himself at -the head of the dissatisfied party; and in a very short time, the whole -province raised the standard of independence, and expressed its determination -to be merged no longer in the Columbian Republic. In -the midst of these tumults, Bolivar resolved at length to retire from -the eminent station in which he had been the cause of so much offence. -He had issued a proclamation, December 24, 1828, summoning a convention -in January, 1830, to frame a new permanent constitution for -Columbia. It met at the appointed time. Bolivar, in opening the -deliberations, expressed his determination not to accept again the chief -magistracy of the state; but, as he had said the same thing in equally -strong terms before, nobody paid much attention to the declaration. -This time, however, he adhered to it. Besides the labour of making -a new constitution, the convention had to discuss the difficult question -of the secession of Venezuela: nor was this all, for as that district -had separated itself from the Columbian Republic, in a great degree -Owing to its distrust of Bolivar, so the southern provinces refused to -acknowledge the new constitution unless he were placed at its head. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>The convention wisely resolved, with respect to Venezuela, that every -peaceful method should be tried to prevent its secession, but that it -would not be expedient or proper to attempt to maintain the union by -force. To anticipate a little the order of time, the Venezuelans were -resolved to have an independent government; and finally, in 1832, -the short-lived republic of Columbia was divided into three, bearing -respectively the titles of Venezuela, New Granada, and the Republic -of the Equator, which was formed out of the southern provinces of -Quito, Guayaquil, and Assuai.</p> - -<p class='c000'>After the adoption of the new constitution of 1830, Bolivar retired -to the province of Carthagena, exhausted both in body and mind. -He died at Santa Martha, December 17, 1830, leaving a character on -the merits of which it is difficult to pronounce a decided opinion. His -name will not soon be forgotten, for it is indissolubly connected with -the cause of independence in South America: but, in reviewing the -progress and prospects of North and South America, it is impossible -not to remark Bolivar’s inferiority to Washington, both in talent and -virtue, and not to reflect with regret how different, in all probability, -the conduct and the prosperity of the South American republics would -have been if they had possessed such a leader as the first President of -the United States.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The chief books which have been consulted for this sketch have -been the ‘Annual Register,’ General Ducoudray Holstein’s ‘Memoirs -of Bolivar,’ a work evidently written under strong feelings of personal -hostility, the article Bolivar in the ‘Encyclopædia Americana,’ and a -short account of the Liberator in the ‘Memoirs of General Miller.’ -In these works there is so much discrepancy, not only of opinions, but -of facts and dates, that we do not venture to hope that we have escaped -errors. A clear and impartial history of the war of independence is -still a desideratum.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_181fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />ARKWRIGHT.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by Wright of Derby.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span> -<img src='images/i_181.jpg' alt='ARKWRIGHT.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>ARKWRIGHT.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>In the history of trade there is nothing so remarkable as the rapid -and immense increase of the British cotton manufacture during the -last thirty years of the eighteenth century. Two nearly contemporaneous -discoveries concurred to produce that increase: the invention of -machinery for spinning; and the improvement, we might almost say -completion, of the steam-engine by James Watt. To his eminent -merits we have borne our testimony in the first volume of this work; -and scarcely less important, though less imposing, have been the -services of the ingenious men who contrived to spin thread without -the use of the human hand. We do not hesitate to take Arkwright as -the representative of those who wrought this great revolution in our -manufacturing system, for though recent evidence has refuted his claim -to the invention, properly speaking, of spinning by machinery, he -was the first person who rendered that invention profitable.</p> - -<p class='c000'>By the year 1760, the manufacture of cotton goods, which had been -increasing slowly from the beginning of the century, had attained considerable -importance. In 1764, the declared value of British cotton -goods exported was upwards of 200,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, having increased tenfold -within forty or fifty years. At this period the demand for them exceeded -the supply, in consequence of the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient -quantity of yarn for weaving. The one-thread spinning-wheel, -now nearly banished from our cottages, was then the sole source from -which spun-yarn could be obtained; and the trades of spinning and -weaving were commonly united in a humble manner—the man wove, -while his wife and daughters spun. If this domestic supply was -insufficient, the weaver had often to waste time and labour in collecting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>materials for his daily work. Mr. Guest states, that “it was no uncommon -thing for a weaver to walk three or four miles in a morning, -and call on five or six spinners, before he could collect weft to serve -him for the remainder of the day; and when he wished to weave a -piece in a shorter time than usual, a new ribbon or a gown was -necessary to quicken the exertions of the spinner.” This check existing -on the industry of the weaver, it is no wonder that mechanical -ingenuity was tasked to invent a quicker way of spinning. The -principle of the first plan by which this was effected may be easily -explained. Suppose a ribbon placed between two horizontal cylinders -which are in contact with each other; if the cylinders are made to -revolve, it is evident that they will draw the ribbon onwards in the -direction of their motion. Again, if the foremost end of it be presented -to a second pair of similar revolving cylinders, it will be drawn -through these also. If both pairs revolve with exactly the same -velocity, it will pass through them unaltered; but if the second pair -revolve with greater velocity than the first, there will be a certain -strain on the intermediate ribbon, which, if extensible, will be -stretched in the same degree that the velocity of the second pair -of rollers exceeds that of the first. Now cotton, after being cleaned -and carded, comes from the card in fleecy rolls, the fibres of which are -laid parallel, and so made fit to spin. To reduce these to thread or -yarn takes more than one operation: the first brings the <em>cardings</em> into -thick, loosely twisted threads, called <em>rovings</em>; the subsequent ones reduce -the rovings into yarn fit for the loom. It is evident that both the -cardings and rovings are fitted by their texture for the process of extension -by rollers described above; and that they would be drawn out -twofold, fourfold, or in any greater or less degree, proportionate to the -difference of velocity between the first and second pair of rollers. -From the second pair the thread is delivered to a spindle, which -gives the due degree of twist; and it is finally wound on a bobbin: -the whole being set in motion by the same mechanical power. -It is evident that many spindles might be attached to, and many -threads spun by, the same combination of rollers. Arkwright claimed -the merit of this invention. It is proved, however, by the undeniable -evidence of an existing patent, printed by Mr. Baines in his History -of the Cotton Manufacture, that this principle of spinning by rollers -was patented so early as the year 1738, by a foreigner named Lewis -Paul; the real inventor was John Wyatt, of Birmingham. In their -hands however, though the invention did not absolutely fail, it did -not so succeed as to be brought into general use, or even to become -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>profitable to the inventors. Simple and obvious as the <em>principle</em> appears -when once laid down, great difficulties were to be overcome -in forming this stretched cotton into a useful thread; as may be conceived -from reflecting on the great rapidity with which, to make spinning -profitable, parts of the machine must move, the perfect regularity -of motion requisite, and the slightness of the strain which a few untwisted -filaments of cotton will bear. For the apparently trivial object -of producing a uniform line of fine yarn, the utmost efforts of -mechanical ingenuity have been called forth, and some of the most -beautiful, delicate, and powerful machinery in existence has been -constructed. It was in overcoming these difficulties that the talent -or perseverance of Paul and Wyatt failed; the merit of conquering -them, and giving birth to a new system of manufacture, belongs -to Arkwright. We quote the following notice of his early life from -Mr. Baines:—</p> - -<p class='c000'>“Richard Arkwright rose by the force of his natural talents from a -very humble condition in society. He was born at Preston, December -23, 1732, of poor parents. Being the youngest of thirteen children, -his parents could only afford to give him an education of the humblest -kind, and he was scarcely able to write. He was brought up to the -trade of a barber, at Kirkham and Preston, and established himself in -that business at Bolton, in 1760. Having become possessed of a -chemical process for dyeing human hair, which in that day, when -wigs were universal, was of considerable value, he travelled about -collecting hair, and again disposing of it when dyed. In 1761, he -married a wife from Leigh, and the connexions he thus formed in that -town are supposed to have afterwards brought him acquainted with -Highs’s experiments in making spinning machines. He himself manifested -a strong bent for experiments in mechanics, which he is stated -to have followed with so much devotedness as to have neglected his -business and injured his circumstances. His natural disposition was -ardent, enterprising, and stubbornly persevering; his mind was as -coarse as it was bold and active, and his manners were rough and -unpleasing.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>In the course of his travels in 1767, he fell in with a clockmaker, -named Kay, at Warrington, whom he employed as a workman in -prosecuting some of his mechanical experiments. Kay, according to -his own account, gave Arkwright some description of a machine -contrived by one Highs, for spinning by rollers. It is certain that -from thenceforward Arkwright abandoned his former pursuits, and -applied himself, in conjunction with Kay, to the construction of a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>spinning machine. One Smalley, a liquor-merchant of Preston, -assisted him with money; and the two, fearing lest they might be -endangered by a riotous spirit which had been directed against machinery -in Lancashire, went to settle at Nottingham. There Arkwright -obtained an introduction to Messrs. Need and Strutt, two -gentlemen largely engaged in the stocking manufactory, who appreciated -his talents, and entered into partnership with him. What became -of Mr. Smalley we do not hear. Arkwright took out a patent -for his invention, which was enrolled, July 15, 1769. The partners -erected a mill near Nottingham, which was turned by horse-power: -but this was soon superseded by a much larger establishment at -Cromford in Derbyshire, on the river Derwent, in which water-power -was applied for the first time to the purpose of spinning; and from -that circumstance Arkwright’s machine was called the <em>water-frame</em>.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As the difficulty of meeting the weavers’ demand for yarn had led -to the invention of machines for spinning, so the rapid manufacture of -yarn rendered it indispensable to facilitate the prior operations in -preparing the raw material. Men’s minds had been turned to this -object for some time. The operation of carding, whether wool or -cotton, was at first done with hand-cards of small size. The first -improvement was the invention of stock-cards, one of which was fixed, -and the other held in the hand, or afterwards suspended from above, -so that the workman could manage a much larger card, and prepare -more cotton in a given time. The next and main improvement was -placing cards lengthways upon a cylinder, which worked within a -concave half cylinder of the same diameter. This process was patented -by Paul in 1748. But he derived no profit from this, any more than -from his former patent; and it was not until after the improvements -in spinning that the method of carding by cylinders was brought into -use. Arkwright was not the first to revive it, but he had a great share -in perfecting the carding machinery when it had been revived. The -raw cotton being carded, an extension, or rather a new application, of -the principle of spinning by rollers converted the cardings into rovings, -which again were made into yarn fit for the loom by the water-frame, -or, as it is now called in an improved form, the <em>throstle</em>. Arkwright -took out his second patent, December 16, 1775; this included the -carding machine, drawing-frame, and roving-frame, a series of engines -by which the cotton, from its raw state, was rendered fit for the last -process of spinning. We shall not attempt to explain the construction -of these elaborate machines, which can hardly be rendered intelligible -even by the help of numerous plates.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>The process of turning cotton-wool into thread by machinery was -thus completed. Before we follow its effects upon Arkwright’s fortunes, -it is proper to say a few words concerning other improvements. -About, or somewhat earlier than, the time when Arkwright’s attention -was first turned to spinning, a weaver named James Hargreaves, of -Stand Hill, near Blackburn, invented a machine by which, according -to the terms of the patent, sixteen or more threads might be spun by -one person at the same time. This is the machine so well known -under the name of the <em>spinning-jenny</em>. Hargreaves’ patent was invaded, -and invalidated on technical grounds; so that his machine came -rapidly into general use, and for spinning the <em>weft</em> was preferred to -Arkwright’s water-frame, from which it was entirely different in principle. -Samuel Crompton, an ingenious weaver resident near Bolton, -between the years 1774 and 1779, tried to unite the principles of both, -and produced a machine which, on that account, he called a <em>mule</em>. -This, under different improved forms, is the machine now generally used -in spinning; but the water-frame, or throstle, is still found to answer -best for some kinds of work<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c011'><sup>[11]</sup></a>. But to return to the fortunes of Arkwright: -the series of machines which he invented or improved gave -an amazing impulse to the cotton trade. “Weavers could now obtain -an unlimited quantity of yarn at a reasonable price; manufacturers -could use warps of cotton, which were much cheaper than the -linen warps formerly used. Cotton fabrics could be sold lower than -had ever before been known. The demand for them consequently -increased. The shuttle flew with fresh energy, and the weavers -earned immoderately high wages. Spinning-mills were erected to -supply the requisite quantity of yarn. The fame of Arkwright resounded -through the land, and capitalists flocked to him to buy his -patent machines, or permission to use them.” * * *</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f11'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. </span>A third person has been mentioned as the inventor both of the jenny and of -roller-spinning, Thomas Highs, of Leigh, above-mentioned, whose claims seem entitled -to more courteous notice than they have met with in the Edinburgh Review. There -is nothing unreasonable in supposing that both Highs and Arkwright may have heard of -Wyatt’s method of spinning by rollers, which was practised in two factories, one erected -at Birmingham, the other at Nottingham.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>“The factory system in England takes its rise from this period. -Hitherto the cotton manufacture had been carried on almost entirely -in the houses of the workmen: the hand or stock-cards, the spinning-wheel, -and the loom, required no larger apartment than that of a cottage. -A spinning-jenny of small size might also be used in a cottage, and -in many instances was so used; when the number of spindles was considerably -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>increased, adjacent workshops were used. But the water-frame, -the carding-engine, and the other machines which Arkwright -brought out in a finished state, required both more space than could -be found in a cottage, and more power than could be applied by the -human arm. Their weight also made it necessary to place them in -strongly-built mills, and they could not be advantageously turned by -any power then known but that of water.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The use of machinery was accompanied by a greater division of -labour than existed in the primitive state of the manufacture; the -material went through many more processes, and of course the loss of -time and the risk of waste would have been much increased, if its -removal from house to house at every stage of the manufacture had -been necessary. It became obvious that there were several important -advantages in carrying on the numerous operations of an extensive -manufacture in the same building. Where water-power was required, -it was economy to build one mill, and put up one water-wheel, rather -than several. This arrangement also enabled the master-spinner -himself to superintend every stage of the manufacture; it gave him a -greater security against the wasteful or fraudulent consumption of the -material; it saved time in the transference of the work from hand to -hand; and it prevented the extreme inconvenience which would have -resulted from the failure of one class of workmen to perform their -part, when several other classes of workmen were dependent upon -them. Another circumstance which made it advantageous to have a -large number of machines in one manufactory was, that mechanics -must be employed on the spot to construct and repair the machinery, -and that their time could not be fully occupied with only a few -machines.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>“All these considerations drove the cotton-spinners to that important -change in the economy of English manufactures, the introduction of -the factory system; and when that system had once been adopted, such -were its pecuniary advantages that mercantile competition would have -rendered it impossible, even had it been desirable, to abandon it.” -(Baines, ‘History of Cotton Manufacture,’ pages 183, 185.)</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was not to be expected that Arkwright would enjoy undisturbed -so valuable a monopoly as that which he had created, and many persons -infringed his patents, in the belief that he was not the real owner -of the inventions which he claimed. An attempt was made in 1772 -to set aside his first patent for the water-frame; but this failed, and -he retained the enjoyment of that patent unquestioned till the expiration -of the fourteen years. To preserve his second patent, for the carding, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>drawing, and roving machines, he brought several actions against -master-spinners, one of which, against Colonel Mordaunt, was tried -in 1781, and a verdict was obtained for the defendant, setting aside -the patent. Arkwright for some time did not contest this decision. -But in 1785, he made another attempt to establish his second patent -before a court of law; and in the first instance obtained a verdict in -his own favour, but on the cause being reheard, the patent was finally -declared invalid.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Notwithstanding this defeat, Arkwright rapidly acquired a very -large fortune, through the magnitude of his concerns, and his industry, -penetration, and skill in business. On the dissolution of his partnership -with the Messrs. Strutt about 1783, the extensive works at Cromford -fell to his share. In 1786, he was High Sheriff of Derbyshire, -and was knighted, on occasion of presenting an address to the King. -We find no other record worth notice of the last years of his life. -He died, August 3, 1792, in his sixtieth year.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Arkwright’s originality and honesty as an inventor have been violently -impugned by Mr. Guest, in his History of the Cotton Manufacture. -The arguments on the other side may be seen in the Edinburgh -Review, No. 91, to which Guest published a reply. Mr. Baines’s -History of the Cotton Manufacture, which we have chiefly followed -and largely quoted from in this account, contains the latest and fullest -account which we have seen of Arkwright’s character and history. -There appears to have been some alloy of selfishness and disingenuousness -in his disposition, some ground for the statement of counsel -in the trial of 1785: “It is a notorious story in the manufacturing -counties; all men that have seen Mr. Arkwright in a state of opulence -have shaken their heads, and thought of these poor men, Highs -and Kay, and have thought, too, that they were entitled to some participation -of the profits.” Still it becomes us to speak with gentleness -of the faults of a person to whose talents, nationally speaking, we owe -so much: and there is much to be said in extenuation of them, in consideration -of the lowness of his original calling, of the self-complacency -and sensitive jealousy common to almost all schemers, and the fascination -of wealth when it flows largely and unexpectedly upon a man bred -in extreme poverty. As an inventor Arkwright’s merit is undeniable. -Mr. Baines, who seems to have judged calmly and impartially, assigns -to him the high praise, that “in improving and perfecting mechanical -inventions, in exactly adapting them to the purposes for which they were -intended, in arranging a comprehensive system of manufacturing, and -in conducting vast and complicated concerns, he displayed a bold and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>fertile mind, and consummate judgment, which, when his want of education, -and the influence of an employment so extremely unfavourable -to mental expansion as that of his previous life, are considered, must -have excited the astonishment of mankind. But the marvellous and -‘unbounded invention,’ which he claimed for himself and which has -been too readily accorded to him—the <em>creative faculty</em> which devised -all that admirable mechanism, so entirely new in its principles, and -characteristic of the first order of mechanical genius—which has given -a new spring to the industry of the world, and within half a century -has reared up the most extensive manufacture ever known—this did -not belong to Arkwright.” * * * * * * *</p> - -<p class='c000'>“The most marked traits in the character of Arkwright were his -wonderful ardour, energy, and perseverance. He commonly laboured -in his multifarious concerns from five o’clock in the morning till nine -at night; and when considerably more than fifty years of age, feeling -that the defects of his education placed him under great difficulty and -inconvenience in conducting his correspondence, and in the general -management of his business, he encroached upon his sleep, in order to -gain an hour each day to learn English grammar, and another hour -to improve his writing and orthography! He was impatient of whatever -interfered with his favourite pursuits; and the fact is too strikingly -characteristic not to be mentioned, that he separated from his -wife not many years after his marriage, because she, convinced that -he would starve his family by scheming when he should have been -shaving, broke some of his experimental models of machinery. Arkwright -was a severe economist of time; and, that he might not waste -a moment, he generally travelled with four horses, and at a very -rapid speed. His concerns in Derbyshire, Lancashire, and Scotland, -were so extensive and numerous as to show at once his astonishing -power of transacting business, and his all-grasping spirit. In many -of these he had partners, but he generally managed in such a way -that, whoever lost, he himself was a gainer. So unbounded was his -confidence in the success of his machinery, and in the national wealth -to be produced by it, that he would make light of discussions on -taxation, and say that he would pay the national debt! His speculative -schemes were vast and daring; he contemplated entering into the -most extensive mercantile transactions, and buying up all the cotton -in the world, in order to make an enormous profit by the monopoly; -and from the extravagance of some of these designs, his judicious -friends were of opinion that, if he had tried to put them in practice, -he might have overset the whole fabric of his prosperity.”</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_189fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />COWPER.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in the Possession of the Publisher.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Ludgate Street.</em></p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='figcenter id002'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span> -<img src='images/i_189.jpg' alt='COWPER.' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>COWPER.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>William Cowper was born at the rectory of Berkhampstead, in -Hertfordshire, Nov. 26, 1731. He was nearly related to the noble -family of that name, his great-uncle having been chancellor and first -Earl Cowper: his grandfather, the brother of the chancellor, was a -judge of the common pleas. Cowper’s mother died before he was six -years old. Soon afterwards he was sent to a country school, from -which, at the age of nine, he was removed to Westminster. It is -probable that one cause among others of his future unhappiness was -the early loss of that tender parent, whose “constant flow of love,” -beautifully acknowledged in his verses on receiving her picture, and -in many parts of his correspondence, made a deep and lasting impression -on his infant mind. Cowper was exactly the boy to require -a mother’s care. His constitution was delicate, his mind sensitive -and timid; and he discovered a tendency to dejection, which was -aggravated by the tyranny then practised at our public schools. -Quitting Westminster at eighteen, with a good character for talent -and scholarship, he went at once into an attorney’s office; where he -spent three years, according to his own account, with very little profit. -He then became a member of the Inner Temple, intending to practise -at the bar. At this period of life he amused himself with composition, -and showed a strong predilection for polite literature and agreeable -society; but he had no taste for the law, and took no pains to qualify -himself for his profession. Long afterwards he deeply lamented the -loss of time during his early manhood, and earnestly warned his young -friends against a similar error.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In 1763 Cowper was appointed to the lucrative office of reading -clerk, and clerk of the private committees of the House of Lords. The -fairest prospect of happiness now lay before him, for his union with one -of his cousins, it is said, had only been deferred until he should obtain -a satisfactory establishment. But the idea of reading in public was intolerable -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>to him; and he gave up this office for the less valuable one of -clerk of the journals, in which it was hoped that his personal appearance -before the House would not be required. Unfortunately it did prove -necessary that he should appear at the bar to qualify himself for the -post. “They whose spirits are formed like mine,” he thus expressed -himself in after-life, “to whom a public exhibition of themselves is -mortal poison, may have some ideas of the horrors of my situation: -others can have none.” He fought hard against this morbid feeling; -but, when the day arrived for entering upon his duties, such was his -terror and distress, that even his friends acquiesced in his abandoning -the attempt. But his mind had been disordered in the struggle, and -he shortly sank into deep religious despondency; so that it was found -necessary, in December, 1763, to place him in a lunatic asylum at -St. Albans, under the care of Dr. Cotton.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Cowper’s insanity at this period, and the grievous dejection of the -last twenty-seven years of his life, have been imputed to the so-called -gloominess of his religious tenets. From that opinion we entirely -dissent. No sense of religious abasement can be conceived able to -drive a sane man to distraction at the thought of having to appear in -a public capacity before Parliament; and Cowper’s struggles and -mental distress on that occasion were anterior to his receiving any -serious impressions of religion. Moreover, it appears certain that his -recovery was due to more encouraging views of the doctrines of the -Gospel, assisted by the kind and judicious mental, as well as bodily, -treatment of Dr. Cotton. For eight years his religion was the source -of unfailing cheerfulness and active benevolence; and after he ceased -to derive pleasure from it in his own person, he was still mild and -charitable in his conduct towards others, and his opinions concerning -them. The extent of Cowper’s mental wandering on subjects unconnected -with his own spiritual state is not perhaps generally known. -A remarkable instance of it occurs in a letter to his esteemed friend, -Mr. Newton, dated October 2, 1787, from which it appears that, during -thirteen years, Cowper had entertained doubts of Mr. Newton’s personal -identity. At this latter period, therefore, there was hallucination -of mind, as well as religious gloom. Cowper’s recovery from his -first illness is dated in July, 1764; but he remained with his friendly -and beloved physician nearly a year more, after which he took -lodgings at Huntingdon, directed by the wish of being within easy -reach of his brother, who was a resident Fellow of Benet College, -Cambridge.</p> - -<p class='c000'>He soon became acquainted with a family, bearing the name of -Unwin, consisting of a clergyman, his wife and daughter, and one son, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>an undergraduate of Cambridge. Struck by Cowper’s appearance, -the latter threw himself into the stranger’s way; and a feeling of -mutual regard and esteem led to Cowper’s establishing himself as a -permanent inmate in Mr. Unwin’s family in November, 1765. After -the lapse of nearly two years in tranquil happiness, the sudden death -of Mr. Unwin led to the family’s departure from Huntingdon to -Olney in Buckinghamshire, in October, 1767. But the foundation -had been laid of a friendship which no misfortune or change of circumstance -could destroy; and Cowper and Mrs. Unwin united their -slender incomes, and continued to dwell under the same roof. The -first six years of their abode at Olney were spent in domestic quiet -and retirement almost unbroken, except by the society of Mr. Newton, -an eminent and exemplary divine, who was then curate on the living. -The well-known collection called the “Olney Hymns” were composed -by Cowper and Newton, for the most part, during this period. But -in 1773 Cowper’s mental disease returned in the dreadful shape of -religious despondency. He conceived himself to be set apart for -eternal misery: yet amid the deep gloom produced by the loss of that -spiritual happiness which he had enjoyed since his recovery from his -first illness, he was so entirely submissive that he was accustomed to -say, “If holding up my finger would save me from endless torments, -I would not do it against the will of God;” and in accordance with the -belief that his own fate was sealed, he ceased to pray, and absented -himself entirely from divine worship. The depth of his dejection was -gradually cheered by the affectionate, watchful, and judicious care of his -guardian friend, Mrs. Unwin. One of the first signs of improvement -was a desire to tame some leverets. He was soon supplied with three, -which have obtained celebrity in prose and verse, such as no other -hares have enjoyed before or since. He tried at different times gardening, -drawing, and a variety of trifling manual occupations, as methods -of diverting his thoughts from his own miseries. “Many arts I have -exercised with this view,” he says in a letter to Mrs. King, “for which -nature never designed me, though among them were some in which -I arrived at considerable proficiency, by mere dint of the most heroic -perseverance. There is not a squire in all this country who can -boast of having made better squirrel houses, hutches for rabbits, or -bird-cages, than myself; and in the article of cabbage-nets I had no -superior. But gardening was, of all employments, that in which I -succeeded best, though even in this I did not suddenly attain perfection.” -(Oct. 11, 1788.) At last he devoted himself to writing, “a -whim,” he says elsewhere, “that has served me longest and best, and -will probably be my latest.” His first volume of poems, containing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>“Table Talk,” &c. was published in the summer of 1781, having been -written chiefly in the preceding winter. It was undertaken at the instance -of Mrs. Unwin, who, on his recovery from a long fit of unusual -dejection, urged him to devote his attention to a work of some extent, -and such as should require a considerable share of application and -attention. At the same time she suggested as a subject the “Progress -of Error,” which is the second piece in the volume. Cowper had -already written many of his lighter pieces, and that at the times when -he was labouring under the severest depression. He accounts for this -singular phenomenon with his peculiar and playful humour. “The -mind, long wearied with the sameness of a dull, dreary prospect, will -gladly fix its eyes on anything that may make a little variety in its -contemplations, though it were but a kitten playing with its tail.”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Early in 1780, Cowper lost a valued friend, and almost his only -associate, by the removal of Mr. Newton to London. In the following -year he became acquainted with Lady Austen, who, for a short -time, fills a prominent place in the poet’s history. We must refer to -fuller memoirs for the tale of her introduction, and the gradual growth -of that strict intimacy which ensued between herself, Mrs. Unwin, and -Cowper. For some time the three friends spent a considerable portion -of every day in each other’s society; and Cowper was indebted to -Lady Austen’s liveliness in conversation and varied accomplishments -for a great alleviation of his mental sufferings. The famous history -of John Gilpin owes its birth to a story told by her one evening, to -rouse the poet out of a fit of despondency; and it engaged his fancy -so strongly, that in the course of the night, during which he was -kept awake by fits of laughter, he turned it into verse. The -ballad soon got abroad, and obtained unusual popularity: it was long -before the author was known. “The Task” was composed at Lady -Austen’s request. She saw the benefit which Cowper derived from -earnest literary employment, and often urged him to try his strength -in blank verse. After some pressing, he promised to comply, if she -would furnish him with a subject. “Oh, you can write on anything,” -she said; “write on this sofa.” The lively answer chimed in with his -peculiar humour, and he adopted it literally: his sofa forms the subject -of the poem; the first book of which is entitled “The Sofa,” and -opens with a history of the invention and merits of that piece of furniture, -which is unsurpassed in its peculiar vein of humour. But the -author soon rises into a higher strain, and in his discursive range -paints the beauty of the country with that fidelity and exquisite sense -of natural beauty which constitutes his chief poetic merit; describes -the peculiar appearances and occupations of the winter season; weighs -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>the evils and advantages attendant on a high state of civilization; -exhibits, in reproving the faults of the age, his power both in the -lighter skirmishing of satire, and in the stern outpouring of an honest -indignation; inculcates the doctrines of that religion of peace and love -from which it was his own singular and melancholy lot to derive no -peace; and all with a beauty and facility of versification, and power of -illustration, sufficient to attract many whom the grave nature of the -subjects to be discussed would rather deter. The scope and conduct of -the work is well described in the following lines from the conclusion, -in which, anticipating death, he says—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c016'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>It shall not grieve me then, that once, when call’d</div> - <div class='line'>To dress a sofa with the flowers of verse,</div> - <div class='line'>I played awhile, obedient to the fair,</div> - <div class='line'>With that light task: but soon, to please her more,</div> - <div class='line'>Whom flowers alone I knew would little please,</div> - <div class='line'>Let fall the unfinish’d wreath, and roved for fruit;</div> - <div class='line'>Roved far and gather’d much: some harsh, ’tis true,</div> - <div class='line'>Pick’d from the thorns and briers of reproof,</div> - <div class='line'>But wholesome, well digested, grateful some</div> - <div class='line'>To palates that can taste immortal truth;</div> - <div class='line'>Insipid else, and sure to be despised.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>“The Task” was accompanied by a shorter poem, entitled “Tirocinium,” -written expressly in dispraise of the existing system of public -schools in England; and prompted by Cowper’s bitter recollection of -his sufferings at Westminster. The volume was published in 1785.</p> - -<p class='c000'>As soon as this was completed, Cowper engaged in another more -laborious undertaking, the translation of Homer. This also was suggested -by Lady Austen; and it had a most beneficial effect in furnishing -the poet with constant employment from this time forward to the -end of his life, with the exception of those periods in which the pressure -of disease was too severe to admit of any exertion. He spared no -pains in the execution of this great work; and after his version was -made, subjected it to a most careful revision, amounting nearly to a -re-translation. It was published in 1791, and was preceded by a list -of subscribers, whose number and individual eminence bear testimony -to the high esteem in which Cowper was then held. His translation, -however, has never been popular: he has avoided Pope’s errors, but -he has failed in giving life and interest, and in catching the vital spirit -of his author.</p> - -<p class='c000'>During the long period which the literary labours above-mentioned -occupied, Cowper’s domestic history is characterized by the same -general depression and the same seclusion as we have above described. -In 1784 his friendship with Lady Austen was interrupted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>by a disagreement between her and Mrs. Unwin, who seems to have -feared that the former might obtain an influence over the poet paramount -to her own; and to have been justly hurt at the prospect of -becoming second in the affections of him, to whom, for so many years, -she had devoted herself with a zeal which merited the utmost return. -Cowper felt this, and he himself broke off his intercourse with Lady -Austen, in a way which was admitted by herself to do credit to his -delicacy and judgment, no less than to his generosity. In about a -year after the termination of this valuable friendship, he received the -best amends that could be made, in the renewal of intercourse, after it -had been interrupted for twenty-three years, with his cousin Lady -Hesketh, to whom from childhood he had been strongly attached. -She visited Olney in June, 1786; and from that time forwards her -purse and her personal exertions were unsparingly bestowed to promote -the comfort of her beloved cousin. At her instance his confined -and ruinous abode at Olney was exchanged in November, 1786, for a -commodious house in the pretty neighbouring village of Weston, -which was especially recommended to Cowper as being the residence -of his esteemed friends Mr. and Mrs. Throckmorton. Here Lady -Hesketh commonly spent part of the year. The state of Cowper’s spirits -during his residence at Weston was variable; but he made a few new -acquaintance, and among them his correspondent, Mr. Rose, and his -biographer, Mr. Hayley. He also enjoyed a vivid pleasure in the renewal -of intercourse with his maternal relations, among whom his young -cousin Johnson, who afterwards became his tender and devoted guardian, -obtained an especial place in his affections. Still, however, his mental -malady continued unabated; and a new cause of uneasiness beset him -in the growing infirmities of Mrs. Unwin. In March, 1792, the -disease which had been for some time sapping her strength, manifested -itself in a paralytic attack, from which she never entirely recovered. -From thenceforward Cowper’s time and attention were -devoted, as his primary object, to contributing to her comfort and -amusement. In her company he quitted his home, the first time -for twenty-seven years, to visit Mr. Hayley’s seat at Eartham, in -Sussex. Two important works had engaged his attention: one a -poem on the four ages of man’s life, the other an edition of Milton. -These, however, were successively laid aside; and such time as his -weak spirits and melancholy occupation allowed him, be employed in -revising his Homer for a second edition. But Mrs. Unwin became -more and more enfeebled in mind and body; and in the beginning of -1794 Cowper relapsed into a gloom as deep as that which he had -endured at the commencement of his malady. To watch over him in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>this melancholy Lady Hesketh made Weston her constant, instead of -her occasional abode, until the middle of the following year, when -her health gave way under the constant pressure of anxiety. Mr. -Johnson, who had taken orders, and resided at East Dereham in -Norfolk, then undertook the charge of his unhappy relation; removed -him and Mrs. Unwin into his own neighbourhood, and watched -over their decline with the most unwearied and judicious tenderness. -But little could now be done to give Cowper pleasure. The -pathetic poem, “To Mary,” is supposed by Mr. Hayley to have -been the last thing written by him before quitting Weston; and the -only original verses which he composed afterwards were some Latin -lines, which he translated into English, on the appearance of some -ice islands in the German Sea, and the touching poem called the -“Cast-away,” founded on the loss of a man overboard in Anson’s voyage, -and alluding in an affecting strain to his own unfortunate condition. -After his departure from Weston, he who had been so diligent -a correspondent only wrote three or four letters; nor could he be excited -to converse by the visits even of his most intimate friends, as -Mr. Rose and Sir John Throckmorton. In January, 1800, his final -illness, which was dropsy, commenced. He died April 25th in the -same year; nor to the last did one gleam of hope break through the -darkness which had surrounded him for twenty-seven years.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It was Cowper’s especial merit as a poet to cultivate simplicity and -nature. He set the example of throwing aside conventional affectations -and unmeaning pomp of diction, and in consideration of this -great service may well be pardoned for occasionally incurring the -opposite fault of being tame and prosaic. His genius was truly original: -all his writings, whether moral, satirical, or descriptive, bear -the legible impress of his own peculiar constitution of mind and habits -of thinking. His minor and occasional poems are very happy, for his -imagination could extract a deep and beautiful moral from slight -occurrences, which commonly pass unnoticed in the bustle of life. -Many of his letters are published in Hayley’s Life of Cowper; and -these are embodied with the Private Correspondence afterwards given -to the world by Mr. Johnson, in the edition of Cowper’s works by -Mr. Grimshawe now in the press. As a letter writer Cowper appears -to us to be unequalled in the English language. His correspondence is -the genuine intercourse of friend with friend; full of wit and humour, -but a humour that never vents itself in the depreciation of others; and -abounding in passages of graver beauty, expressed in the most easy, -yet elegant and correct language. When once a man knows that his -letters are admired, he is in great danger of writing for admiration. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>Cowper was aware of this, and occasionally alludes to the temptation -in lively terms. “I love praise dearly, especially from the judicious, -and those who have so much delicacy themselves as not to offend mine -in giving it. But then I found this consequence attending, or likely -to attend, the eulogium you bestowed. If my friend thought me witty -before, he shall think me ten times more witty hereafter; where I -joked once, I will joke five times; and for every sensible remark, -I will send him a dozen. Now this foolish vanity would have spoiled -me quite, and have made me as disgusting a letter writer as Pope, who -seems to have thought that unless a sentence was well turned, and -every sentence pointed with some conceit, it was not worth the carriage. -I was willing therefore to wait until the impression that your -commendation had made on the foolish part of me was worn off, that I -might scribble away as usual, and write my uppermost thoughts, and -those only.” (June 8, 1780. To the Rev. W. Unwin.) No one -ever avoided this danger better. It is strange and wonderful that -these compositions, which bear the stamp of so much cheerfulness and -benevolence, should have been written, most of them, in his deepest -gloom, and avowedly for the purpose of withdrawing his thoughts from -his own misery.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_196.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>[Tomb of Cowper, in East Dereham Church, Norfolk.]</p> -</div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c005'>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2> -</div> - <ol class='ol_1 c002'> - <li>Changed “better” to “letter” on p. <a href='#t28'>28</a>. - - </li> - <li>Changed “the placing the” to “the placing of the” on p. <a href='#t128'>128</a>. - - </li> - <li>Silently corrected typographical errors. - - </li> - <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - </li> - </ol> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits: with -Memoirs. 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