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diff --git a/old/55268-h/55268-h.htm b/old/55268-h/55268-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 5c8cff7..0000000 --- a/old/55268-h/55268-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12330 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - How it Flies, by Richard Ferris, B.S., C.E..--a Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -a {text-decoration: none; -} -a:hover {color: red; -} -a:visited {color: gray; -} - -blockquote { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em; -} - -small { - font-style: normal; - font-size: small; -} - -body { - padding: 4px; - margin: auto 10em; -} - -p { - text-align: justify; -} - -.small { - font-size: small; -} - -.medium { - font-size: medium; -} - -.large { - font-size: large; -} - -.x-large { - font-size: x-large; -} - -.xx-large { - font-size: xx-large; -} - -h1, h2 { - page-break-before: always; -} - -h1, h2, h3 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - font-weight: normal; - clear: both; - margin: 2em auto 1em auto; -} - -p.drop:first-letter { - float: left; - clear: left; - font-size: 300%; - line-height: 70%; - padding: 2px 6px 0 6px; -} - -p.drop { - text-indent: -6px; -} - -.uppercase { - text-transform: uppercase; -} - -hr { - padding: 0; - border: none; - border-top: medium double #333; - color: #333; - text-align: center; -} -hr:after { - content: "§"; - display: inline-block; - position: relative; - top: -0.7em; - padding: 0 0.25em; - background: white; -} - -hr.tb { - width: 45%; margin: 2em 27.5%; -} - -hr.chap { - width: 65%; margin: 2em 17.5%; -} - -/* Tables */ -#cloudform td { - text-align: right; - padding: 0 1em -} - -#cloudform td:first-child { - text-align: left; -} - -#velocity td:first-child { - text-align: right; - padding: 0 2em -} - -.images td { - vertical-align: middle; - text-indent: 0; - padding: 0 -} - -.decimal { - white-space: nowrap; - text-align: center; -} -.decimal span.left { - width: 3em; - display: inline-block; - text-align: left; -} -.decimal span.right { - width: 3em; - display: inline-block; - text-align: right; -} - -.table { - display: table; - margin: 1em auto; -} - -.tcell { - display: table-cell; -} - -table { - margin: 2em auto; -} - -th { - padding: 5px 1em; -} - -.tdl { - text-align: left; -} - -.tdr { - text-align: right; -} - -.tdr3 { - vertical-align: bottom; - text-align: right; -} - -.tdc { - text-indent: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; -} - -.bbox { - border-collapse: collapse; - border: solid 2px; -} - -.bbox td { - border: solid 1px; -} - -.bbox th { - border: solid 1px; -} -/* End Tables */ - -.copy { - font-size: small; - text-align: center; -} - -.smcap { - font-style: normal; - font-variant: small-caps; -} - -.caption { - text-align: center; -} - -.w50 {width: 50%; -} -.w100 {width: 100%; -} - -/* Images */ -img { - border: none; - max-width: 100%; -} - -.figcenter { - clear: both; - display: table; - margin: 2em auto; - text-align: center -} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - color: #004200; - position: absolute; - right: 5px; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-size: small; - text-align: right; -} -/* page numbers */ - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - border: #000 solid 1px; - color: black; - margin: 1em auto; - padding: 1em; -} - -@media handheld { - p.drop:first-letter { - float: left; - clear: left; - } -} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air, by Richard Ferris - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air - The Story of Man's Endeavors to Fly and of the Inventions - by which He Has Succeeded - -Author: Richard Ferris - -Release Date: August 5, 2017 [EBook #55268] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW IT FLIES OR, CONQUEST OF AIR *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ORVILLE WRIGHT IN THE 80-MILE-AN-HOUR “BABY WRIGHT” RACER. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span></p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h1> -How It Flies<br /> - -<small>or,</small><br /> - -<span class="x-large">THE CONQUEST OF THE AIR</span><br /> - -<span class="large table">The Story of Man’s Endeavors to Fly and of the<br /> -Inventions by which He Has Succeeded</span><br /> - -<small>By</small><br /> - -RICHARD FERRIS, B.S., C.E.<br /> - -<span class="medium table">Illustrated by Over One Hundred and Fifty Half-tones and Line<br /> -Drawings, Showing the Stages of Development from the<br /> -Earliest Balloon to the Latest Monoplane and Biplane</span><br /> - -<span class="medium table">New York<br /> -THOMAS NELSON AND SONS<br /> -381-385 Fourth Avenue</span></h1> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> - -<p class="copy table">Copyright, 1910, by<br /> - -THOMAS NELSON & SONS</p> - -<p class="caption">THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">In</span> these pages, by means of simple language and -suitable pictures, the author has told the story of -the Ships of the Air. He has explained the laws of -their flight; sketched their development to the present -day; shown how to build the flying machine and -the balloon, and how to operate them; recounted -what man has done, and what he hopes to do with -their aid. In a word, all the essential facts that -enter into the Conquest of the Air have been gathered -into orderly form, and are here presented to -the public.</p> - -<p>We who live to-day have witnessed man’s great -achievement; we have seen his dream of ages come -true. Man has learned to <i>fly</i>!</p> - -<p>The air which surrounds us, so intangible and so -commonplace that it seldom arrests our attention, is -in reality a vast, unexplored ocean, fraught with -future possibilities. Even now, the pioneers of a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -countless fleet are hovering above us in the sky, while -steadily, surely these wonderful possibilities are -unfolded.</p> - -<p>The Publishers take pleasure in acknowledging -their indebtedness to the <i>Scientific American</i> for -their courtesy in permitting the use of many of the -illustrations appearing in this book.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">New York</span>, October 20, 1910. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> - -<table> - <tr class="small"> - <td class="tdr">CHAPTER</td> - <td /> - <td class="tdr3">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td /> - <td><a href="#PREFACE"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_I"><span class="smcap">Introductory</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_II"><span class="smcap">The Air</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_III"><span class="smcap">Laws of Flight</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_IV"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_V"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: The Biplane</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">78</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_VI"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: The Monoplane</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_VII"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: Other Forms</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">141</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_VIII"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: How to Operate</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">151</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_IX"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: How to Build</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">174</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_X"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: Motors</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">193</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XI"><span class="smcap">Model Flying Machines</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">215</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XII"><span class="smcap">The Glider</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">241</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XIII"><span class="smcap">Balloons</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">257<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIV.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XIV"><span class="smcap">Balloons: The Dirigible</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">296</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XV.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XV"><span class="smcap">Balloons: How to Operate</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">340</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVI.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XVI"><span class="smcap">Balloons: How to Make</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">351</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVII.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XVII"><span class="smcap">Military Aeronautics</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">363</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVIII.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XVIII"><span class="smcap">Biographies of Prominent Aeronauts</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">379</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIX.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XIX"><span class="smcap">Chronicle of Aviation Achievements</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">407</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XX.</td> - <td><a href="#Chapter_XX"><span class="smcap">Explanation of Aeronautical Terms</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr3">452</td> - </tr></table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p> - -<h2 class="xx-large" id="HOW_IT_FLIES">HOW IT FLIES</h2> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2 id="Chapter_I">Chapter I.<br /> - -INTRODUCTORY.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The sudden awakening—Early successes—Influence of the gasoline -engine on aeroplanes—On dirigible balloons—Interested -inquiry—Some general terms defined.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">In</span> the year 1908 the world awakened suddenly to -the realization that at last the centuries of man’s -endeavor to fly mechanically had come to successful -fruition.</p> - -<p>There had been a little warning. In the late -autumn of 1906, Santos-Dumont made a flight of -720 feet in a power-driven machine. There was an -exclamation of wonder, a burst of applause—then a -relapse into unconcern.</p> - -<p>In August, 1907, Louis Bleriot sped free of the -ground for 470 feet; and in November, Santos-Dumont -made two flying leaps of barely 500 feet. -That was the year’s record, and it excited little comment. -It is true that the Wright brothers had been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -making long flights, but they were in secret. There -was no public knowledge of them.</p> - -<p>In 1908 came the revelation. In March, Delagrange -flew in a Voisin biplane 453 feet, carrying -Farman with him as a passenger. Two weeks later -he flew alone nearly 2½ miles. In May he flew -nearly 8 miles. In June his best flight was 10½ -miles. Bleriot came on the scene again in July with -a monoplane, in which he flew 3¾ miles. In September, -Delagrange flew 15 miles—in less than 30 minutes. -In the same month the Wrights began their -wonderful public flights. Wilbur, in France, made -records of 41, 46, 62, and 77 miles, while Orville -flew from 40 to 50 miles at Fort Myer, Va. Wilbur -Wright’s longest flight kept him in the air 2 hours -and 20 minutes.</p> - -<p>The goal had been reached—men had achieved the -apparently impossible. The whole world was roused -to enthusiasm.</p> - -<p>Since then, progress has been phenomenally rapid, -urged on by the striving of the inventors, the competition -of the aircraft builders, and the contests for -records among the pilots.</p> - -<p>By far the largest factor in the triumph of the -aeroplane is the improved gasoline engine, designed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -originally for automobiles. Without this wonderful -type of motor, delivering a maximum of power with -a minimum of weight, from concentrated fuel, the -flying machine would still be resting on the earth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Renard and Krebs airship <i>La France</i>, at Chalais-Meudon.</p></div> - -<p>Nor has the influence of the gasoline motor been -much less upon that other great class of aircraft, the -dirigible balloon. After 1885, when Renard and -Krebs’ airship <i>La France</i> made its two historic -voyages from Chalais-Meudon to Paris, returning -safely to its shed, under the propulsion of an electric -motor, the problem of the great airship lay dormant, -waiting for the discovery of adequate motive power. -If the development of the dirigible balloon seems -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -less spectacular than that of the aeroplane, it is -because the latter had to be created; the dirigible, -already in existence, had only to be revivified.</p> - -<p>Confronted with these new and strange shapes in -the sky, some making stately journeys of hundreds -of miles, others whirring hither and thither with the -speed of the whirlwind, wonder quickly gives way -to the all-absorbing question: <i>How do they fly?</i> To -answer fully and satisfactorily, it seems wise, for -many readers, to recall in the succeeding chapters -some principles doubtless long since forgotten.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>As with every great advance in civilization, this -expansion of the science of aeronautics has had its -effect upon the language of the day. Terms formerly -in use have become restricted in application, and -other terms have been coined to convey ideas so entirely -new as to find no suitable word existent in our -language. It seems requisite, therefore, first to acquaint -the reader with clear definitions of the more -common terms that are used throughout this book.</p> - -<p><i>Aeronautics</i> is the word employed to designate the -entire subject of aerial navigation. An <i>aeronaut</i> is -a person who sails, or commands, any form of aircraft, -as distinguished from a passenger. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span></p> - -<p><i>Aviation</i> is limited to the subject of flying by machines -which are not floated in the air by gas. An -<i>aviator</i> is an operator of such machine.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_015.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A free balloon, with parachute.</p></div> - -<p>Both aviators and aeronauts are often called -<i>pilots</i>.</p> - -<p>A <i>balloon</i> is essentially an envelope or bag filled -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -with some gaseous substance which is lighter, bulk -for bulk, than the air at the surface of the earth, and -which serves to float the apparatus in the air. In its -usual form it is spherical, with a car or basket suspended -below it. It is a <i>captive balloon</i> if it is attached -to the ground by a cable, so that it may not -rise above a certain level, nor float away in the wind. -It is a <i>free balloon</i> if not so attached or anchored, -but is allowed to drift where the wind may carry it, -rising and falling at the will of the pilot.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A dirigible balloon.</p></div> - -<p>A <i>dirigible balloon</i>, sometimes termed simply a -dirigible, usually has its gas envelope elongated in -form. It is fitted with motive power to propel it, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -and steering mechanism to guide it. It is distinctively -the <i>airship</i>.</p> - -<p><i>Aeroplanes</i> are those forms of flying machines -which depend for their support in the air upon the -spread of surfaces which are variously called wings, -sails, or planes. They are commonly driven by propellers -actuated by motors. When not driven by -power they are called <i>gliders</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_017.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A biplane glider.</p></div> - -<p>Aeroplanes exist in several types: the <i>monoplane</i>, -with one spread of surface; the <i>biplane</i>, with two -spreads, one above the other; the <i>triplane</i>, with three -spreads, or decks; the <i>multiplane</i>, with more than -three. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p> - -<p>The <i>tetrahedral plane</i> is a structure of many small -cells set one upon another.</p> - -<p><i>Ornithopter</i> is the name given to a flying machine -which is operated by flapping wings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A parachute descending.</p></div> - -<p><i>Helicopter</i> is used to designate machines which -are lifted vertically and sustained in the air by propellers -revolving in a horizontal plane, as distinguished -from the propellers of the aeroplane, which -revolve in vertical planes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span></p> - -<p>A <i>parachute</i> is an umbrella-like contrivance by -which an aeronaut may descend gently from a balloon -in mid-air, buoyed up by the compression of the -air under the umbrella.</p> - -<p>For the definition of other and more technical -terms the reader is referred to the carefully prepared -Glossary toward the end of the book. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_II">Chapter II.<br /> - -THE AIR.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Intangibility of air—Its substance—Weight—Extent—Density—Expansion -by heat—Alcohol fire—Turbulence of the air—Inertia—Elasticity—Viscosity—Velocity -of winds—Aircurrents—Cloud -levels—Aerological stations—High altitudes—Practical -suggestions—The ideal highway.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> air about us seems the nearest approach to -nothingness that we know of. A pail is commonly -said to be empty—to have nothing in it—when -it is filled only with air. This is because our -senses do not give us any information about air. We -cannot see it, hear it, touch it.</p> - -<p>When air is in motion (wind) we hear the noises -it makes as it passes among other objects more substantial; -and we feel it as it blows by us, or when we -move rapidly through it.</p> - -<p>We get some idea that it exists as a substance -when we see dead leaves caught up in it and whirled -about; and, more impressively, when in the violence -of the hurricane it seizes upon a body of great size -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -and weight, like the roof of a house, and whisks it -away as though it were a feather, at a speed exceeding -that of the fastest railroad train.</p> - -<p>In a milder form, this invisible and intangible air -does some of our work for us in at least two ways -that are conspicuous: it moves ships upon the ocean, -and it turns a multitude of windmills, supplying the -cheapest power known.</p> - -<p>That this atmosphere is really a fluid ocean, having -a definite substance, and in some respects resembling -the liquid ocean upon which our ships sail, and -that we are only crawling around on the bottom of -it, as it were, is a conception we do not readily -grasp. Yet this conception must be the foundation -of every effort to sail, to fly, in this aerial ocean, if -such efforts are to be crowned with success.</p> - -<p>As a material substance the air has certain physical -properties, and it is the part of wisdom for the -man who would fly to acquaint himself with these -properties. If they are helpful to his flight, he wants -to use them; if they hinder, he must contrive to overcome -them.</p> - -<p>In general, it may be said that the air, being in -a gaseous form, partakes of the properties of all gases—and -these may be studied in any text-book on -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -physics, Here we are concerned only with those -qualities which affect conditions under which we -strive to fly.</p> - -<p>Of first importance is the fact that air has <i>weight</i>. -That is, in common with all other substances, it is -attracted by the mass of the earth exerted through -the force we call gravity. At the level of the sea, -this attraction causes the air to press upon the earth -with a weight of nearly fifteen pounds (accurately, -14.7 lbs.) to the square inch, when the temperature -is at 32° F. That pressure is the weight of a column -of air one inch square at the base, extending upward -to the outer limit of the atmosphere—estimated to -be about 38 miles (some say 100 miles) above sea-level. -The practical fact is that normal human -life cannot exist above the level of 15,000 feet, -or a little less than three miles; and navigation -of the air will doubtless be carried on at a much -lower altitude, for reasons which will appear as we -continue.</p> - -<p>The actual weight of a definite quantity of dry -air—for instance, a cubic foot—is found by weighing -a vessel first when full of air, and again after the -air has been exhausted from it with an air-pump. In -this way it has been determined that a cubic foot of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -dry air, at the level of the sea, and at a temperature -of 32° F., weighs 565 grains—about 0.0807 lb. At a -height above the level of the sea, a cubic foot of air -will weigh less than the figure quoted, for its density -decreases as we go upward, the pressure being less -owing to the diminished attraction of the earth at -the greater distance. For instance, at the height of -a mile above sea-level a cubic foot of air will weigh -about 433 grains, or 0.0619 lb. At the height of -five miles it will weigh about 216 grains, or 0.0309 -lb. At thirty-eight miles it will have no weight at -all, its density being so rare as just to balance the -earth’s attraction. It has been calculated that the -whole body of air above the earth, if it were all of -the uniform density of that at sea-level, would extend -only to the height of 26,166 feet. Perhaps a -clearer comprehension of the weight and pressure of -the ocean of air upon the earth may be gained by -recalling that the pressure of the 38 miles of atmosphere -is just equal to balancing a column of water -33 feet high. The pressure of the air, therefore, is -equivalent to the pressure of a flood of water 33 feet -deep.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Comparative Elevations of Earth and Air.</p></div> - -<p>But air is seldom dry. It is almost always mingled -with the vapor of water, and this vapor weighs -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -only 352 grains per cubic foot at sea-level. Consequently -the mixture—damp air—is lighter than dry -air, in proportion to the moisture it contains.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Apparatus to show effects of heat on air currents. <i>a</i>, alcohol lamp; -<i>b</i>, ice. The arrows show direction of currents.</p></div> - -<p>Another fact very important to the aeronaut is -that the air is in <i>constant motion</i>. Owing to its -ready expansion by heat, a body of air occupying one -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -cubic foot when at a temperature of 32° F. will -occupy more space at a higher temperature, and less -space at a lower temperature. Hence, heated air will -flow upward until it reaches a point where the natural -density of the atmosphere is the same as its expanded -density due to the heating. Here another -complication comes into play, for ascending air is -cooled at the rate of one degree for every 183 feet it -rises; and as it cools it grows denser, and the speed -of its ascension is thus gradually checked. After -passing an altitude of 1,000 feet the decrease in temperature -is one degree for each 320 feet of ascent. -In general, it may be stated that air is expanded one-tenth -of its volume for each 50° F. that its temperature -is raised.</p> - -<p>This highly unstable condition under ordinary -changes of temperature causes continual movements -in the air, as different portions of it are constantly -seeking that position in the atmosphere where their -density at that moment balances the earth’s attraction.</p> - -<p>Sir Hiram Maxim relates an incident which aptly -illustrates the effect of change of temperature upon -the air. He says: “On one occasion, many years -ago, I was present when a bonded warehouse in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -New York containing 10,000 barrels of alcohol was -burned.... I walked completely around the fire, -and found things just as I expected. The wind was -blowing a perfect hurricane through every street in -the direction of the fire, although it was a dead calm -everywhere else; the flames mounted straight in the -air to an enormous height, and took with them a -large amount of burning wood. When I was fully -500 feet from the fire, a piece of partly burned one-inch -board, about 8 inches wide and 4 feet long, fell -through the air and landed near me. This board had -evidently been taken up to a great height by the -tremendous uprush of air caused by the burning -alcohol.”</p> - -<p>That which happened on a small scale, with a violent -change of temperature, in the case of the alcohol -fire, is taking place on a larger scale, with milder -changes in temperature, all over the world. The -heating by the sun in one locality causes an expansion -of air at that place, and cooler, denser air rushes -in to fill the partial vacuum. In this way winds are -produced.</p> - -<p>So the air in which we are to fly is in a state of -constant motion, which may be likened to the rush -and swirl of water in the rapids of a mountain torrent. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -The tremendous difference is that the perils -of the water are in plain sight of the navigator, and -may be guarded against, while those of the air are -wholly invisible, and must be met as they occur, -without a moment’s warning.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>The solid arrows show the directions of a cyclonic wind on the earth’s surface. -At the centre the currents go directly upward. In the upper air above the -cyclone the currents have the directions of the dotted arrows.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>Next in importance, to the aerial navigator, is the -air’s <i>resistance</i>. This is due in part to its density at -the elevation at which he is flying, and in part to the -direction and intensity of its motion, or the wind. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -While this resistance is far less than that of water -to the passage of a ship, it is of serious moment to -the aeronaut, who must force his fragile machine -through it at great speed, and be on the alert every -instant to combat the possibility of a fall as he passes -into a rarer and less buoyant stratum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Diagram showing disturbance of wind currents by inequalities of the ground, -and the smoother currents of the upper air. Note the increase of density -at A and B, caused by compression against the upper strata.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>Three properties of the air enter into the sum total -of its resistance—inertia, elasticity, and viscosity. -Inertia is its tendency to remain in the condition in -which it may be: at rest, if it is still; in motion, if -it is moving. Some force must be applied to disturb -this inertia, and in consequence when the inertia is -overcome a certain amount of force is used up in the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -operation. Elasticity is that property by virtue of -which air tends to reoccupy its normal amount of -space after disturbance. An illustration of this tendency -is the springing back of the handle of a bicycle -pump if the valve at the bottom is not open, and the -air in the pump is simply compressed, not forced into -the tire. Viscosity may be described as “stickiness”—the -tendency of the particles of air to cling together, -to resist separation. To illustrate: molasses, -particularly in cold weather, has greater viscosity -than water; varnish has greater viscosity than turpentine. -Air exhibits some viscosity, though vastly -less than that of cold molasses. However, though -relatively slight, this viscosity has a part in the resistance -which opposes the rapid flight of the airship -and aeroplane; and the higher the speed, the greater -the retarding effect of viscosity.</p> - -<p>The inertia of the air, while in some degree it -blocks the progress of his machine, is a benefit to the -aeronaut, for it is inertia which gives the blades of -his propeller “hold” upon the air. The elasticity of -the air, compressed under the curved surfaces of the -aeroplane, is believed to be helpful in maintaining -the lift. The effect of viscosity may be greatly reduced -by using surfaces finished with polished varnish—just -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -as greasing a knife will permit it to be -passed with less friction through thick molasses.</p> - -<p>In the case of winds, the inertia of the moving -mass becomes what is commonly termed “wind pressure” -against any object not moving with it at an -equal speed. The following table gives the measurements -of wind pressure, as recorded at the station on -the Eiffel Tower, for differing velocities of wind:</p> - -<table id="velocity" class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>Velocity<br />in Miles<br />per Hour</th> - <th>Velocity<br />in Feet<br />per Second</th> - <th>Pressure <br />in Pounds on<br />a Square Foot</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>2</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">2</span>.<span class="left">9</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">012</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>4</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">5</span>.<span class="left">9</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">048</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>6</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">8</span>.<span class="left">8</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">108</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>8</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">11</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">192</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>10</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">14</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">300</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>15</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">22</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">675</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>20</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">29</span>.<span class="left">4</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">1</span>.<span class="left">200</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>25</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">36</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">1</span>.<span class="left">875</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>30</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">44</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">2</span>.<span class="left">700</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>35</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">51</span>.<span class="left">3</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">3</span>.<span class="left">675</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>40</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">58</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">4</span>.<span class="left">800</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>45</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">66</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">6</span>.<span class="left">075</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>50</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">73</span>.<span class="left">4</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">7</span>.<span class="left">500</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>60</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">88</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">10</span>.<span class="left">800</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>70</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">102</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">14</span>.<span class="left">700</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>80</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">117</span>.<span class="left">2</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">19</span>.<span class="left">200</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>90</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">132</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">24</span>.<span class="left">300</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>100</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">146</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">30</span>.<span class="left">000</span></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In applying this table, the velocity to be considered -is the net velocity of the movements of the airship -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -and of the wind. If the ship is moving 20 miles -an hour <i>against</i> a head wind blowing 20 miles an -hour, the net velocity of the wind will be 40 miles an -hour, and the pressure 4.8 lbs. a square foot of surface -presented. Therefore the airship will be standing -still, so far as objects on the ground are concerned. -If the ship is sailing 20 miles an hour <i>with</i> -the wind, which is blowing 20 miles an hour, the -pressure per square foot will be only 1.2 lbs.; while -as regards objects on the ground, the ship will be -travelling 40 miles an hour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Apparatus for the study of the action of air in motion; a blower at the farther -end of the great tube sends a “wind” of any desired velocity through it. -Planes and propellers of various forms are thus tested.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span></p> - -<p>Systematic study of the movements of the air -currents has not been widespread, and has not progressed -much beyond the gathering of statistics which -may serve as useful data in testing existing theories -or formulating new ones.</p> - -<p>It is already recognized that there are certain -“tides” in the atmosphere, recurring twice daily in -six-hour periods, as in the case of the ocean tides, -and perhaps from the same causes. Other currents -are produced by the earth’s rotation. Then there -are the five-day oscillations noted by Eliot in India, -and daily movements, more or less regular, due to the -sun’s heat by day and the lack of it by night. The -complexity of these motions makes scientific research -extremely difficult.</p> - -<p>Something definite has been accomplished in the -determination of wind velocities, though this varies -largely with the locality. In the United States the -average speed of the winds is 9½ miles per hour; in -Europe, 10⅓ miles; in Southern Asia, 6½ miles; in -the West Indies, 6⅕ miles; in England, 12 miles; -over the North Atlantic Ocean, 29 miles per hour. -Each of these average velocities varies with the time -of year and time of day, and with the distance -from the sea. The wind moves faster over water -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -and flat, bare land than over hilly or forest-covered -areas. Velocities increase as we go upward in the -air, being at 1,600 feet twice what they are at 100 -feet. Observations of the movements of cloud forms -at the Blue Hill Observatory, near Boston, give the -following results:</p> - -<table id="cloudform" class="bbox"> - <tr> - <th>Cloud Form</th> - <th>Height<br />in Feet</th> - <th>Average Speed<br />per Hour</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stratus</td> - <td>1,676</td> - <td>19 miles.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cumulus</td> - <td>5,326</td> - <td>24 miles.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alto-cumulus</td> - <td>12,724</td> - <td>34 miles.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cirro-cumulus</td> - <td>21,888</td> - <td>71 miles.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cirrus</td> - <td>29,317</td> - <td>78 miles.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In winter the speed of cirrus clouds may reach -96 miles per hour.</p> - -<p>There are forty-nine stations scattered over Germany -where statistics concerning winds are gathered -expressly for the use of aeronauts. At many of these -stations records have been kept for twenty years. -Dr. Richard Assman, director of the aerological observatory -at Lindenburg, has prepared a comprehensive -treatise of the statistics in possession of these -stations, under the title of <i>Die Winde in Deutschland</i>. -It shows for each station, and for each season -of the year, how often the wind blows from each -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -point of the compass; the average frequency of the -several degrees of wind; when and where aerial voyages -may safely be made; the probable drift of dirigibles, -etc. It is interesting to note that Friedrichshafen, -where Count Zeppelin’s great airship sheds -are located, is not a favorable place for such vessels, -having a yearly record of twenty-four stormy days, -as compared with but two stormy days at Celle, four -at Berlin, four at Cassel, and low records at several -other points.</p> - -<p>In practical aviation, a controlling factor is the -density of the air. We have seen that at an altitude -of five miles the density is about three-eighths the -density at sea-level. This means that the supporting -power of the air at a five-mile elevation is so small -that the area of the planes must be increased to more -than 2½ times the area suited to flying near the -ground, or that the speed must be largely increased. -Therefore the adjustments necessary for rising at the -lower level and journeying in the higher level are too -large and complex to make flying at high altitudes -practicable—leaving out of consideration the bitter -cold of the upper regions.</p> - -<p>Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch, director of the Blue Hill -Observatory, in his valuable book, <i>The Conquest of</i> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -<i>the Air</i>, gives this practical summary of a long -series of studious observations: “At night, however, -because there are no ascending currents, the wind is -much steadier than in the daytime, making night the -most favorable time for aerial navigation of all -kinds.... A suitable height in the daytime, unless -a strong westerly wind is sought, lies above the cumulus -clouds, at the height of about a mile; but at night -it is not necessary to rise so high; and in summer a -region of relatively little wind is found at a height of -about three-fourths of a mile, where it is also warmer -and drier than in the daytime or at the ground.”</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding all difficulties, the fact remains -that, once they are overcome, the air is the ideal highway -for travel and transportation. On the sea, a -ship may sail to right or left on one plane only. In -the air, we may steer not only to right or left, but -above and below, and obliquely in innumerable planes. -We shall not need to traverse long distances in a -wrong direction to find a bridge by which we may -cross a river, nor zigzag for toilsome miles up the -steep slopes of a mountain-side to the pass where we -may cross the divide. The course of the airship is -the proverbial bee-line—the most economical in time -as well as in distance. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_III">Chapter III.<br /> - -LAWS OF FLIGHT.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The bird—Nature’s models—Man’s methods—Gravity—The balloon—The -airship—Resistance of the air—Winds—The -kite—Laws of motion and force—Application to kite-flying—Aeroplanes.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">If</span> we were asked to explain the word “flying” to -some foreigner who did not know what it meant, -we should probably give as an illustration the bird. -This would be because the bird is so closely associated -in our thoughts with flying that we can hardly -think of the one without the other.</p> - -<p>It is natural, therefore, that since men first had -the desire to fly they should study the form and motions -of the birds in the air, and try to copy them. -Our ancestors built immense flopping wings, into the -frames of which they fastened themselves, and with -great muscular exertion of arms and legs strove to -attain the results that the bird gets by apparently -similar motions.</p> - -<p>However, this mental coupling of the bird with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -the laws of flight has been unfortunate for the -achievement of flight by man. And this is true even -to the present day, with its hundreds of successful -flying machines that are not in the least like a bird. -This wrongly coupled idea is so strong that scientific -publications print pages of research by eminent contributors -into the flight of birds, with the attempt to -deduce lessons therefrom for the instruction of the -builders and navigators of flying machines.</p> - -<p>These arguments are based on the belief that -Nature never makes a mistake; that she made the -bird to fly, and therefore the bird must be the most -perfect model for the successful flying machine. But -the truth is, the bird was not made primarily to fly, -any more than man was made to walk. Flying is an -incident in the life of a bird, just as walking is an -incident in the life of a man. Flying is simply a -bird’s way of getting about from place to place, on -business or on pleasure, as the case may be.</p> - -<p>Santos-Dumont, in his fascinating book, <i>My Air-Ships</i>, -points out the folly of blindly following Nature -by showing that logically such a procedure -would compel us to build our locomotives on the plan -of gigantic horses, with huge iron legs which would -go galloping about the country in a ridiculously terrible -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -fashion; and to construct our steamships on the -plan of giant whales, with monstrous flapping fins -and wildly lashing tails.</p> - -<p>Sir Hiram Maxim says something akin to this in -his work, <i>Artificial and Natural Flight</i>: “It appears -to me that there is nothing in Nature which is -more efficient, or gets a better grip on the water, than -a well-made screw propeller; and no doubt there -would have been fish with screw propellers, providing -Dame Nature could have made an animal in two -pieces. It is very evident that no living creature -could be made in two pieces, and two pieces are -necessary if one part is stationary and the other revolves; -however, the tails and fins very often approximate -to the action of propeller blades; they -turn first to the right and then to the left, producing -a sculling effect which is practically the same. This -argument might also be used against locomotives. In -all Nature we do not find an animal travelling on -wheels, but it is quite possible that a locomotive -might be made that would walk on legs at the rate -of two or three miles an hour. But locomotives with -wheels are able to travel at least three times as fast -as the fleetest animal with legs, and to continue -doing so for many hours at a time, even when attached -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -to a very heavy load. In order to build a flying -machine with flapping wings, to exactly imitate -birds, a very complicated system of levers, cams, -cranks, etc., would have to be employed, and these of -themselves would weigh more than the wings would -be able to lift.”</p> - -<p>As with the man-contrived locomotive, so the perfected -airship will be evolved from man’s understanding -of the obstacles to his navigation of the air, -and his overcoming of them by his inventive genius. -This will not be in Nature’s way, but in man’s own -way, and with cleverly designed machinery such as -he has used to accomplish other seeming impossibilities. -With the clearing up of wrong conceptions, the -path will be open to more rapid and more enduring -progress.</p> - -<p>When we consider the problem of flying, the first -obstacle we encounter is the attraction which the -earth has for us and for all other objects on its surface. -This we call weight, and we are accustomed -to measure it in pounds.</p> - -<p>Let us take, for example, a man whose body is attracted -by the earth with a force, or weight, of 150 -pounds. To enable him to rise into the air, means -must be contrived not only to counteract his weight, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -but to lift him—a force a little greater than 150 -pounds must be exerted. We may attach to him a -bag filled with some gas (as hydrogen) for which the -earth has less attraction than it has for air, and which -the air will push out of the way and upward until a -place above the earth is reached where the attraction -of air and gas is equal. A bag of this gas large -enough to be pushed upward with a force equal to -the weight of the man, plus the weight of the bag, -and a little more for lifting power, will carry the -man up. This is the principle of the ordinary -balloon.</p> - -<p>Rising in the air is not flying. It is a necessary -step, but real flying is to travel from place to place -through the air. To accomplish this, some mechanism, -or machinery, is needed to propel the man after -he has been lifted into the air. Such machinery will -have weight, and the bag of gas must be enlarged to -counterbalance it. When this is done, the man and -the bag of gas may move through the air, and with -suitable rudders he may direct his course. This combination -of the lifting bag of gas and the propelling -machinery constitutes the dirigible balloon, or airship.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Degen’s apparatus to lift the man and his flying mechanism with the aid of -a gas-balloon. See <a href="#Chapter_IV">Chapter IV</a>.</p></div> - -<p>The airship is affected equally with the balloon by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -prevailing winds. A breeze blowing 10 miles an -hour will carry a balloon at nearly that speed in the -direction in which it is blowing. Suppose the aeronaut -wishes to sail in the opposite direction? If the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -machinery will propel his airship only 10 miles an -hour in a calm, it will virtually stand still in the -10-mile breeze. If the machinery will propel his -airship 20 miles an hour in a calm, the ship will -travel 10 miles an hour—as related to places on the -earth’s surface—against the wind. But so far as the -air is concerned, his speed through it is 20 miles -an hour, and each increase of speed meets increased -resistance from the air, and requires a greater expenditure -of power to overcome. To reduce this resistance -to the least possible amount, the globular -form of the early balloon has been variously modified. -Most modern airships have a “cigar-shaped” -gas bag, so called because the ends look like the tip -of a cigar. As far as is known, this is the balloon -that offers less resistance to the air than any other.</p> - -<p>Another mechanical means of getting up into the -air was suggested by the flying of kites, a pastime -dating back at least 2,000 years, perhaps longer. -Ordinarily, a kite will not fly in a calm, but with -even a little breeze it will mount into the air by the -upward thrust of the rushing breeze against its inclined -surface, being prevented from blowing away -(drifting) by the pull of the kite-string. The same -effect will be produced in a dead calm if the operator, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -holding the string, runs at a speed equal to that -of the breeze—with this important difference: not -only will the kite rise in the air, but it will travel -in the direction in which the operator is running, a -part of the energy of the runner’s pull upon the -string producing a forward motion, provided he -holds the string taut. If we suppose the pull on the -string to be replaced by an engine and revolving propeller -in the kite, exerting the same force, we have -exactly the principle of the aeroplane.</p> - -<p>As it is of the greatest importance to possess a -clear understanding of the natural processes we propose -to use, let us refer to any text-book on physics, -and review briefly some of the natural laws relating -to motion and force which apply to the problem of -flight:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Force is that power which changes or -tends to change the position of a body, whether -it is in motion or at rest.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) A given force will produce the same effect, -whether the body on which it acts is acted -upon by that force alone, or by other forces -at the same time.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) A force may be represented graphically -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -by a straight line—the point at which the force -is applied being the beginning of the line; the -direction of the force being expressed by the direction -of the line; and the magnitude of the -force being expressed by the length of the line.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) Two or more forces acting upon a body -are called component forces, and the single -force which would produce the same effect is -called the resultant.</p> - -<p>(<i>e</i>) When two component forces act in different -directions the resultant may be found by -applying the principle of the parallelogram of -forces—the lines (<i>c</i>) representing the components -being made adjacent sides of a parallelogram, -and the diagonal drawn from the included -angle representing the resultant in -direction and magnitude.</p> - -<p>(<i>f</i>) Conversely, a resultant motion may be -resolved into its components by constructing a -parallelogram upon it as the diagonal, either -one of the components being known.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Deutsch de la Muerthe dirigible balloon <i>Ville-de-Paris</i>; an example of the “cigar-shaped” gas envelope.</p></div> - -<p>Taking up again the illustration of the kite flying -in a calm, let us construct a few diagrams to show -graphically the forces at work upon the kite. Let -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -the heavy line AB represent the centre line of the -kite from top to bottom, and C the point where the -string is attached, at which point we may suppose all -the forces concentrate their action upon the plane of -the kite. Obviously, as the flyer of the kite is running -in a horizontal direction, the line indicating the -pull of the string is to be drawn horizontal. Let it -be expressed by CD. The action of the air pressure -being at right angles to the plane of the kite, we -draw the line CE representing that force. But as -this is a <i>pressing</i> force at the point C, we may express -it as a <i>pulling</i> force on the other side of the -kite by the line CF, equal to CE and in the opposite -direction. Another force acting on the kite is its -weight—the attraction of gravity acting directly -downward, shown by CG. We have given, therefore, -the three forces, CD, CF, and CG. We now wish to -find the value of the pull on the kite-string, CD, in -two other forces, one of which shall be a lifting force, -acting directly upward, and the other a propelling -force, acting in the direction in which we desire the -kite to travel—supposing it to represent an aeroplane -for the moment.</p> - -<p>We first construct a parallelogram on CF and CG, -and draw the diagonal CH, which represents the resultant -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -of those two forces. We have then the two -forces CD and CH acting on the point C. To avoid -obscuring the diagram with too many lines, we draw -a second figure, showing just these two forces acting -on the point C. Upon these we construct a new parallelogram, -and draw the diagonal CI, expressing -their resultant. Again drawing a new diagram, -showing this single force CI acting upon the point -C, we resolve that force into two components—one, -CJ, vertically upward, representing the lift; the -other, CK, horizontal, representing the travelling -power. If the lines expressing these forces in the -diagrams had been accurately drawn to scale, the -measurement of the two components last found -would give definite results in pounds; but the weight -of a kite is too small to be thus diagrammed, and -only the principle was to be illustrated, to be used -later in the discussion of the aeroplane.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Nor is the problem as simple as the illustration -of the kite suggests, for the air is compressible, and -is moreover set in motion in the form of a current -by a body passing through it at anything like the ordinary -speed of an aeroplane. This has caused the -curving of the planes (from front to rear) of the -flying machine, in contrast with the flat plane of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> -kite. The reasoning is along this line: Suppose the -main plane of an aeroplane six feet in depth (from -front to rear) to be passing rapidly through the air, -inclined upward at a slight angle. By the time two -feet of this depth has passed a certain point, the air -at that point will have received a downward impulse -or compression which will tend to make it flow in the -direction of the angle of the plane. The second and -third divisions in the depth, each of two feet, will -therefore be moving with a partial vacuum beneath, -the air having been drawn away by the first segment. -At the same time, the pressure of the air -from above remains the same, and the result is that -only the front edge of the plane is supported, while -two-thirds of its depth is pushed down. This condition -not only reduces the supporting surface to -that of a plane two feet in depth, but, what is much -worse, releases a tipping force which tends to throw -the plane over backward.</p> - -<p>In order that the second section of the plane may -bear upon the air beneath it with a pressure equal -to that of the first, it must be inclined downward at -double the angle (with the horizon) of the first section; -this will in turn give to the air beneath it a -new direction. The third section of the plane must -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -then be set at a still deeper angle to give it support. -Connecting these several directions with a smoothly -flowing line without angles, we get the curved line -of section to which the main planes of aeroplanes are -bent.</p> - -<p>With these principles in mind, it is in order to -apply them to the understanding of how an aeroplane -flies. Wilbur Wright, when asked what kept his -machine up in the air—why it did not fall to the -ground—replied: “It stays up because it doesn’t -have time to fall.” Just what he meant by this may -be illustrated by referring to the common sport of -“skipping stones” upon the surface of still water. -A flat stone is selected, and it is thrown at a high -speed so that the flat surface touches the water. It -continues “skipping,” again and again, until its -speed is so reduced that the water where it touches -last has time to get out of the way, and the weight -of the stone carries it to the bottom. On the same -principle, a person skating swiftly across very thin -ice will pass safely over if he goes so fast that the -ice hasn’t time to break and give way beneath his -weight. This explains why an aeroplane must move -swiftly to stay up in the air, which has much less -density than either water or ice. The minimum -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -speed at which an aeroplane can remain in the air -depends largely upon its weight. The heavier it is, -the faster it must go—just as a large man must -move faster over thin ice than a small boy. At -some aviation contests, prizes have been awarded for -the slowest speed made by an aeroplane. So far, the -slowest on record is that of 21.29 miles an hour, -made by Captain Dickson at the Lanark meet, Scotland, -in August, 1910. As the usual rate of speed -is about 46 miles an hour, that is slow for an aeroplane; -and as Dickson’s machine is much heavier -than some others—the Curtiss machine, for instance—it -is remarkably slow for that type of aeroplane.</p> - -<p>Just what is to be gained by offering a prize for -slowest speed is difficult to conjecture. It is like -offering a prize to a crowd of boys for the one who -can skate slowest over thin ice. The minimum speed -is the most dangerous with the aeroplane as with the -skater. Other things being equal, the highest speed -is the safest for an aeroplane. Even when his engine -stops in mid-air, the aviator is compelled to keep up -speed sufficient to prevent a fall by gliding swiftly -downward until the very moment of landing.</p> - -<p>The air surface necessary to float a plane is spread -out in one area in the monoplane, and divided into -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -two areas, one above the other and 6 to 9 feet apart, -in the biplane; if closer than this, the disturbance -of the air by the passage of one plane affects the supporting -power of the other. It has been suggested -that better results in the line of carrying power -would be secured by so placing the upper plane that -its front edge is a little back of the rear edge of the -lower plane, in order that it may enter air that is -wholly free from any currents produced by the rushing -of the lower plane.</p> - -<p>As yet, there is a difference of opinion among the -principal aeroplane builders as to where the propeller -should be placed. All of the monoplanes have -it in front of the main plane. Most of the biplanes -have it behind the main plane; some have it between -the two planes. If it is in front, it works in undisturbed -air, but throws its wake upon the plane. If -it is in the rear, the air is full of currents caused -by the passage of the planes, but the planes have -smooth air to glide into. As both types of machine -are eminently successful, the question may not be so -important as it seems to the disputants.</p> - -<p>The exact form of curve for the planes has not -been decided upon. Experience has proven that of -two aeroplanes having the same surface and run at -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -the same speed, one may be able to lift twice as much -as the other because of the better curvature of its -planes. The action of the air when surfaces are -driven through it is not fully understood. Indeed, -the form of plane shown in the accompanying figure -is called the aeroplane paradox. If driven in either -direction it leaves the air with a <i>downward</i> trend, -and therefore exerts a proportional lifting power. -If half of the plane is taken away, the other half -is pressed downward. All of the lifting effect is in -the curving of the top side. It seems desirable, therefore, -that such essential factors should be thoroughly -worked out, understood, and applied.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Section of the “paradox” aeroplane. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_IV">Chapter IV.<br /> - -FLYING MACHINES.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Mythological—Leonardo da Vinci—Veranzio—John Wilkins—Besnier—Marquis -de Bacqueville—Paucton—Desforges—Meerwein—Stentzel—Henson—Von -Drieberg—Wenham—Horatio -Phillips—Sir Hiram Maxim—Lilienthal—Langley—Ader—Pilcher—Octave -Chanute—Herring—Hargrave—The -Wright brothers—Archdeacon—Santos-Dumont—Voisin—Bleriot.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> term Flying Machines is applied to all -forms of aircraft which are heavier than air, -and which lift and sustain themselves in the air by -mechanical means. In this respect they are distinguished -from balloons, which are lifted and sustained -in the air by the lighter-than-air gas which -they contain.</p> - -<p>From the earliest times the desire to fly in the air -has been one of the strong ambitions of the human -race. Even the prehistoric mythology of the ancient -Greeks reflected the idea in the story of Icarus, who -flew so near to the sun that the heat melted the wax -which fastened his wings to his body, and he fell -into the sea. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span></p> - -<p>Perhaps the first historical record in the line of -mechanical flight worthy of attention exists in the -remarkable sketches and plans for a flying mechanism -left by Leonardo da Vinci at his death in 1519. -He had followed the model of the flying bird as closely -as possible, although when the wings were outspread -they had an outline more like those of the bat. -While extremely ingenious in the arrangement of the -levers, the power necessary to move them fast enough -to lift the weight of a man was far beyond the muscular -strength of any human being.</p> - -<p>It was a century later, in 1617, that Veranzio, a -Venetian, proved his faith in his inventive ability -by leaping from a tower in Venice with a crude, -parachute-like contrivance. He alighted without injury.</p> - -<p>In 1684, an Englishman, John Wilkins, then -bishop of Chester, built a machine for flying in -which he installed a steam-engine. No record exists -of its performance.</p> - -<p>In 1678, a French locksmith by the name of Besnier -devised what seems now a very crude apparatus -for making descending flights, or glides, from elevated -points. It was, however, at that date considered -important enough to be described in the <i>Journal</i> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> -<i>of the Savants</i>. It was a wholly unscientific combination -of the “dog-paddle” motion in swimming, -with wing areas which collapsed on the upward motion -and spread out on the downward thrust. If -it was ever put to a test it must have failed completely.</p> - -<p>In 1742, the Marquis de Bacqueville constructed -an apparatus which some consider to have been -based on Besnier’s idea—which seems rather doubtful. -He fastened the surfaces of his aeroplane directly -to his arms and legs, and succeeded in making -a long glide from the window of his mansion -across the garden of the Tuileries, alighting upon -a washerwoman’s bench in the Seine without injury.</p> - -<p>Paucton, the mathematician, is credited with the -suggestion of a flying machine with two screw propellers, -which he called “pterophores”—a horizontal -one to raise the machine into the air, and an upright -one to propel it. These were to be driven by hand. -With such hopelessly inadequate power it is not surprising -that nothing came of it, yet the plan was a -foreshadowing of the machine which has in these -days achieved success.</p> - -<p>The Abbé Desforges gained a place in the annals -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -of aeronautics by inventing a flying machine of -which only the name “Orthoptere” remains.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Meerwein’s Flying Machine. <i>A</i>, shows the position of the man in the wings, -their comparative size, and the operating levers; <i>B</i>, position when in flight.</p></div> - -<p>About 1780, Karl Friedrich Meerwein, an architect, -and the Inspector of Public Buildings for -Baden, Germany, made many scientific calculations -and experiments on the size of wing surface needed -to support a man in the air. He used the wild duck -as a standard, and figured that a surface of 126 -square feet would sustain a man in the air. This -agrees with the later calculations of such experimenters -as Lilienthal and Langley. Other of Meerwein’s -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -conclusions are decidedly ludicrous. He held -that the build of a man favors a horizontal position -in flying, as his nostrils open in a direction which -would be away from the wind, and so respiration -would not be interfered with! Some of his reasoning -is unaccountably astray; as, for instance, his argument -that because the man hangs in the wings the -weight of the latter need not be considered. It is -almost needless to say that his practical trials were -a total failure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Plan of Degen’s apparatus.</p></div> - -<p>The next prominent step forward toward mechanical -flight was made by the Australian watchmaker -Degen, who balanced his wing surfaces with -a small gas balloon. His first efforts to fly not being -successful, he abandoned his invention and took to -ballooning.</p> - -<p>Stentzel, an engineer of Hamburg, came next with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -a machine in the form of a gigantic butterfly. From -tip to tip of its wings it measured 20 feet, and their -depth fore and aft was 5½ feet. The ribs of the -wings were of steel and the web of silk, and they -were slightly concave on the lower side. The rudder-tail -was of two intersecting planes, one vertical -and the other horizontal. It was operated by a carbonic-acid -motor, and made 84 flaps of the wings -per minute. The rush of air it produced was so -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -great that any one standing near it would be almost -swept off his feet. It did not reach a stage beyond -the model, for it was able to lift only 75 lbs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Stentzel’s machine.</p></div> - -<p>In 1843, the English inventor Henson built what -is admitted to be the first aeroplane driven by motive -power. It was 100 feet in breadth (spread) and 30 -feet long, and covered with silk. The front edge was -turned slightly upward. It had a rudder shaped like -the tail of a bird. It was driven by two propellers -run by a 20-horse-power engine. Henson succeeded -only in flying on a down grade, doubtless because of -the upward bend of the front of his plane. Later -investigations have proven that the upper surface of -the aeroplane must be convex to gain the lifting effect. -This is one of the paradoxes of flying planes -which no one has been able to explain.</p> - -<p>In 1845, Von Drieberg, in Germany, revived the -sixteenth-century ideas of flying, with the quite original -argument that since the legs of man were better -developed muscularly than his arms, flying should be -done with the legs. He built a machine on this plan, -but no successful flights are recorded.</p> - -<p>In 1868, an experimenter by the name of Wenham -added to the increasing sum of aeronautical -knowledge by discovering that the lifting power of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -a large supporting surface may be as well secured -by a number of small surfaces placed one above another. -Following up these experiments, he built a -flying machine with a series of six supporting planes -made of linen fabric. As he depended upon muscular -effort to work his propellers, he did not succeed -in flying, but he gained information which has been -valuable to later inventors.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_062a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Von Drieberg’s machine; view from above.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_062b.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Wenham’s arrangement of many narrow surfaces in six tiers, or decks. <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, -rigid framework; <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, levers working flapping wings; <i>e</i>, <i>e</i>, braces. The -operator is lying prone.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The history of flying machines cannot be written -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -without deferential mention of Horatio Phillips of -England. The machine that he made in 1862 resembled -a large Venetian blind, 9 feet high and over -21 feet long. It was mounted on a carriage which -travelled on a circular track 600 feet long, and it was -driven by a small steam engine turning a propeller. -It lifted unusually heavy loads, although not large -enough to carry a man. It seems to open the way -for experiments with an entirely new arrangement -of sustaining surfaces—one that has never since -been investigated. Phillips’s records cover a series -of most valuable experiments. Perhaps his most important -work was in the determination of the most -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -advantageous form for the surfaces of aeroplanes, -and his researches into the correct proportion of motive -power to the area of such surfaces. Much of -his results have not yet been put to practical use by -designers of flying machines.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Phillips’s Flying Machine—built of narrow slats like a Venetian blind.</p></div> - -<p>The year 1888 was marked by the construction by -Sir Hiram Maxim of his great aeroplane which -weighed three and one-half tons, and is said to have -cost over $100,000. The area of the planes was -3,875 square feet, and it was propelled by a steam -engine in which the fuel used was vaporized naphtha -in a burner having 7,500 jets, under a boiler of -small copper water tubes. With a steam pressure of -320 lbs. per square inch, the two compound engines -each developed 180 horse-power, and each turned a -two-bladed propeller 17½ feet in diameter. The machine -was used only in making tests, being prevented -from rising in the air by a restraining track. The -thrust developed on trial was 2,164 lbs., and the lifting -power was shown to have been in excess of 10,000 lbs. -The restraining track was torn to pieces, and -the machine injured by the fragments. The dynamometer -record proved that a dead weight of 4½ -tons, in addition to the weight of the machine and -the crew of 4 men, could have been lifted. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -stability, speed, and steering control were not tested. -Sir Hiram Maxim made unnumbered experiments -with models, gaining information which has been invaluable -in the development of the aeroplane.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">View of a part of Maxim’s aeroplane, showing one of the immense propellers. -At the top is a part of the upper plane.</p></div> - -<p>The experiments of Otto Lilienthal in gliding -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -with a winged structure were being conducted at this -period. He held that success in flying must be -founded upon proficiency in the art of balancing the -apparatus in the air. He made innumerable glides -from heights which he continually increased until he -was travelling distances of nearly one-fourth of a -mile from an elevation of 100 feet. He had reached -the point where he was ready to install motive power -to drive his glider when he met with a fatal accident. -Besides the inspiration of his daring personal experiments -in the air, he left a most valuable series -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -of records and calculations, which have been of the -greatest aid to other inventors in the line of artificial -flight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Lilienthal in his biplane glider.</p></div> - -<p>In 1896, Professor Langley, director of the Smithsonian -Institution at Washington, made a test of a -model flying machine which was the result of years -of experimenting. It had a span of 15 feet, and a -length of 8½ feet without the extended rudder. -There were 4 sails or planes, 2 on each side, 30 -inches in width (fore-and-aft measurement). Two -propellers revolving in opposite directions were driven -by a steam engine. The diameter of the propellers -was 3 feet, and the steam pressure 150 lbs. -per square inch. The weight of the machine was -28 lbs. It is said to have made a distance of 1 -mile in 1 minute 45 seconds. As Professor Langley’s -experiments were conducted in strict secrecy, -no authoritative figures are in existence. Later a -larger machine was built, which was intended to -carry a man. It had a spread of 46 feet, and was -35 feet in length. It was four years in building, -and cost about $50,000. In the first attempt to -launch it, from the roof of a house-boat, it plunged -into the Potomac River. The explanation given was -that the launching apparatus was defective. This -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> -was remedied, and a second trial made, but the same -result followed. It was never tried again. This -machine was really a double, or tandem, monoplane. -The framework was built of steel tubing almost as -thin as writing paper. Every rib and pulley was -hollowed out to reduce the weight. The total weight -of the engine and machine was 800 lbs., and the -supporting surface of the wings was 1,040 square -feet. The aeroplanes now in use average from 2 to -4 lbs. weight to the square foot of sustaining surface.</p> - -<p>About the same time the French electrician Ader, -after years of experimenting, with the financial aid -of the French Government, made some secret trials -of his machine, which had taken five years to build. -It had two bat-like wings spreading 54 feet, and was -propelled by two screws driven by a 4-cylinder -steam engine which has been described as a marvel -of lightness. The inventor claimed that he was able -to rise to a height of 60 feet, and that he made flights -of several hundred yards. The official tests, however, -were unsatisfactory, and nothing further was -done by either the inventor or the government to continue -the experiments. The report was that in every -trial the machines had been wrecked.</p> - -<p>The experiments of Lilienthal had excited an interest -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -in his ideas which his untimely death did not -abate. Among others, a young English marine engineer, -Percy S. Pilcher, took up the problem of -gliding flight, and by the device of using the power -exerted by running boys (with a five-fold multiplying -gear) he secured speed enough to float his glider horizontally -in the air for some distance. He then built -an engine which he purposed to install as motive -power, but before this was done he was killed by a -fall from his machine while in the air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_069.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Plan of Chanute’s movable-wing glider.</p></div> - -<p>Before the death of Lilienthal his efforts had attracted -the attention of Octave Chanute, a distinguished -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -civil engineer of Chicago, who, believing -that the real problem of the glider was the maintenance -of equilibrium in the air, instituted a series -of experiments along that line. Lilienthal had preserved -his equilibrium by moving his body about as -he hung suspended under the wings of his machine. -Chanute proposed to accomplish the same end by -moving the wings automatically. His attempts were -partially successful. He constructed several types of -gliders, one of these with two decks exactly in the -form of the present biplane. Others had three or -more decks. Upward of seven hundred glides were -made with Chanute’s machines by himself and assistants, -without a single accident. It is of interest -to note that a month before the fatal accident to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -Lilienthal, Chanute had condemned that form of -glider as unsafe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Chanute’s two-deck glider.</p></div> - -<p>In 1897, A. M. Herring, who had been one of -the foremost assistants of Octave Chanute, built a -double-deck (biplane) machine and equipped it with -a gasoline motor between the planes. The engine -failed to produce sufficient power, and an engine -operated by compressed air was tried, but without -the desired success.</p> - -<p>In 1898, Lawrence Hargrave of Sydney, New -South Wales, came into prominence as the inventor -of the cellular or box kite. Following the researches -of Chanute, he made a series of experiments upon -the path of air currents under variously curved -surfaces, and constructed some kites which, under -certain conditions, would advance against a wind believed -to be absolutely horizontal. From these results -Hargrave was led to assert that “soaring -sails” might be used to furnish propulsion, not only -for flying machines, but also for ships on the ocean -sailing against the wind. The principles involved -remain in obscurity.</p> - -<p>During the years 1900 to 1903, the brothers -Wright, of Dayton, Ohio, had been experimenting -with gliders among the sand dunes of Kitty Hawk, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -North Carolina, a small hamlet on the Atlantic -Coast. They had gone there because the Government -meteorological department had informed them that at -Kitty Hawk the winds blew more steadily than at -any other locality in the United States. Toward the -end of the summer of 1903, they decided that the -time was ripe for the installation of motive power, -and on December 17, 1903, they made their first -four flights under power, the longest being 853 feet -in 59 seconds—against a wind blowing nearly 20 -miles an hour, and from a starting point on level -ground.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Wilbur Wright gliding at Kitty Hawk, N. C., in 1903.</p></div> - -<p>During 1904 over one hundred flights were made, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -and changes in construction necessary to sail in circles -were devised. In 1905, the Wrights kept on -secretly with their practice and development of their -machine, first one and then the other making the -flights until both were equally proficient. In the -latter part of September and early part of October, -1905, occurred a series of flights which the Wrights -allowed to become known to the public. At a meeting -of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, -held in London on December 15, 1905, a letter from -Orville Wright to one of the members was read. -It was dated November 17, 1905, and an excerpt -from it is as follows:</p> - -<p>“During the month of September we gradually -improved in our practice, and on the 26th made a -flight of a little over 11 miles. On the 30th we increased -this to 12⅕th miles; on October 3, to 15⅓ -miles; on October 4, to 20¾ miles, and on October 5, -to 24¼ miles. All these flights were made at about -38 miles an hour, the flight of October 5 occupying -30 minutes 3 seconds. Landings were caused by the -exhaustion of the supply of fuel in the flights of -September 26 and 30, and October 8, and in those -of October 3 and 4 by the heating of the bearings -in the transmission, of which the oil cups had been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -omitted. But before the flight on October 5, oil cups -had been fitted to all the bearings, and the small -gasoline can had been replaced with one that carried -enough fuel for an hour’s flight. Unfortunately, we -neglected to refill the reservoir just before starting, -and as a result the flight was limited to 38 minutes....</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A Wright machine in flight.</p></div> - -<p>“The machine passed through all of these flights -without the slightest damage. In each of these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -flights we returned frequently to the starting point, -passing high over the heads of the spectators.”</p> - -<p>These statements were received with incredulity -in many parts of Europe, the more so as the -Wrights refused to permit an examination of their -machine, fearing that the details of construction -might become known before their patents were -secured.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Archdeacon machine on the Seine.</p></div> - -<p>During the summer of 1905, Captain Ferber and -Ernest Archdeacon of Paris had made experiments -with gliders. One of the Archdeacon machines -was towed by an automobile, having a bag of -sand to occupy the place of the pilot. It rose -satisfactorily in the air, but the tail became disarranged, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -and it fell and was damaged. It was rebuilt -and tried upon the waters of the Seine, being -towed by a fast motor-boat at a speed of 25 miles -an hour. The machine rose about 50 feet into the -air and sailed for about 500 feet.</p> - -<p>Archdeacon gathered a company of young men -about him who speedily became imbued with his enthusiasm. -Among them were Gabriel Voisin, Louis -Bleriot, and Leon Delagrange. The two former, -working together, built and flew several gliders, and -when Santos-Dumont made his historic flight of 720 -feet with his multiple-cell machine on November 13, -1906 (the first flight made in Europe), they were -spurred to new endeavors.</p> - -<p>Within a few months Voisin had finished his -first biplane, and Delagrange made his initial -flight with it—a mere hop of 30 feet—on March -16, 1907.</p> - -<p>Bleriot, however, had his own ideas, and on August -6, 1907, he flew for 470 feet in a monoplane -machine of the tandem type. He succeeded in steering -his machine in a curved course, a feat which had -not previously been accomplished in Europe.</p> - -<p>In October of the same year, Henri Farman, then -a well-known automobile driver, flew the second -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -Voisin biplane in a half circle of 253 feet—a notable -achievement at that date.</p> - -<p>But Santos-Dumont had been pushing forward -several different types of machines, and in November -he flew first a biplane 500 feet, and a few days later -a monoplane 400 feet.</p> - -<p>At this point in our story the past seems to give -place to the present. The period of early development -was over, and the year 1908 saw the first of -those remarkable exploits which are recorded in the -chapter near the end of this work entitled, “Chronicle -of Aviation Achievements.”</p> - -<p>It is interesting to note that the machines then -brought out are those of to-day. Practically, it may -be said that there has been no material change from -the original types. More powerful engines have -been put in them, and the frames strengthened in -proportion, but the Voisin, the Bleriot, and the -Wright types remain as they were at first. Other -and later forms are largely modifications and combinations -of their peculiar features. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_V">Chapter V.<br /> - -FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Successful types of aeroplanes—Distinguishing features—The -Wright biplane—Construction—New type—Five-passenger -machine—The Voisin biplane—New racing type—The Curtiss -biplane—The Cody biplane—The Sommer biplane—The -Baldwin biplane—New stabilizing plane—The Baddeck -No. 2—Self-sustaining radiator—The Herring biplane—Stabilizing -fins.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">In</span> the many contests for prizes and records, two -types of flying machines have won distinctive -places for themselves—the biplane and the monoplane. -The appearance of other forms has been -sporadic, and they have speedily disappeared without -accomplishing anything which had not been better -done by the two classes named.</p> - -<p>This fact, however, should not be construed as -proving the futility of all other forms, nor that the -ideal flying machine must be of one of these two -prominent types. It is to be remembered that record-making -and record-breaking is the most serious -business in which any machines have so far been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -engaged; and this, surely, is not the field of usefulness -to humanity which the ships of the air may be -expected ultimately to occupy. It may yet be proved -that, successful as these machines have been in what -they have attempted, they are but transition forms -leading up to the perfect airship of the future.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Wright biplane in flight.</p></div> - -<p>The distinguishing feature of the biplane is not -alone that it has two main planes, but that they are -placed one above the other. The double (or tandem) -monoplane also has two main planes, but they are on -the same level, one in the rear of the other.</p> - -<p>A review of the notable biplanes of the day must -begin with the Wright machine, which was not only -the first with which flights were made, but also the -inspiration and perhaps the pattern of the whole -succeeding fleet.</p> - -<h3>THE WRIGHT BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The Wright biplane is a structure composed of -two main surfaces, each 40 feet long and 6 feet 6 -inches wide, set one above the other, parallel, and -6 feet apart. The planes are held rigidly at this distance -by struts of wood, and the whole structure is -trussed with diagonal wire ties. It is claimed by -the Wrights that these dimensions have been proven -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -by their experiments to give the maximum lift with -the minimum weight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_081.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Diagram showing the construction of the Wright biplane. The lever <i>R</i> is connected by the bar <i>A</i> with the rudder gearing <i>C</i>, -and is pivoted at the bottom on a rolling shaft <i>B</i>, through which the warping wires <i>W</i><sup>1</sup>, <i>W</i><sup>2</sup> are operated. The semicircular -planes <i>F</i> aid in stabilizing the elevator system.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The combination of planes is mounted on two -rigid skids, or runners (similar to the runners of a -sleigh), which are extended forward and upward to -form a support for a pair of smaller planes in parallel, -used as the elevator (for directing the course -of the aeroplane upward or downward). It has been -claimed by the Wrights that a rigid skid under-structure -takes up the shock of landing, and checks -the momentum at that moment, better than any other -device. But it necessitated a separate starting apparatus, -and while the starting impulse thus received -enabled the Wrights to use an engine of less power -(to keep the machine going when once started), and -therefore of less dead weight, it proved a handicap -to their machines in contests where they were met by -competing machines which started directly with their -own power. A later model of the Wright biplane -is provided with a wheeled running gear, and an -engine of sufficient power to raise it in the air after -a short run on the wheels.</p> - -<p>Two propellers are used, run by one motor. They -are built of wood, are of the two-bladed type, and -are of comparatively large diameter—8 feet. They -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -revolve in opposite directions at a speed of 450 revolutions -per minute, being geared down by chain -drive from the engine speed of 1,500 revolutions per -minute.</p> - -<p>The large elevator planes in front have been a distinctive -feature of the Wright machine. They have -a combined area of 80 square feet, adding that much -more lifting surface to the planes in ascending, for -then the under side of their surfaces is exposed to -the wind. If the same surfaces were in the rear -of the main planes their top sides would have to be -turned to the wind when ascending, and a depressing -instead of a lifting effect would result.</p> - -<p>To the rear of the main planes is a rudder composed -of two parallel vertical surfaces for steering -to right or left.</p> - -<p>The feature essential to the Wright biplane, upon -which the letters patent were granted, is the flexible -construction of the tips of the main planes, in virtue -of which they may be warped up or down to restore -disturbed equilibrium, or when a turn is to be made. -This warping of the planes changes the angle of incidence -for the part of the plane which is bent. -(The angle of incidence is that which the plane -makes with the line in which it is moving. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -bending downward of the rear edge would enlarge the -angle of incidence, in that way increasing the compression -of the air beneath, and lifting that end of -the plane.) The wing-warping controls are actuated -by the lever at the right hand of the pilot, which -also turns the rudder at the rear—that which steers -the machine to right or to left. The lever at the left -hand of the pilot moves the elevating planes at the -front of the machine.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Sketch showing relative positions of planes and of the operator in the Wright -machine: <i>A</i>, <i>A</i>, the main planes; <i>B</i>, <i>B</i>, the elevator planes. The motor -is placed beside the operator.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The motor has 4 cylinders, and develops 25 to -30 horse-power, giving the machine a speed of 39 -miles per hour.</p> - -<p>A newer model of the Wright machine is built -without the large elevating planes in front, a single -elevating plane being placed just back of the rear -rudder. This arrangement cuts out the former lifting -effect described above, and substitutes the depressing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -effect due to exposing the top of a surface -to the wind.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="small"><i>Courtesy of N. Y. Times.</i></p> - -<p class="caption">The new model Wright biplane—without forward elevator.</p></div> - -<p>The smallest of the Wright machines, popularly -called the “Baby Wright,” is built upon this plan, -and has proven to be the fastest of all the Wright -series.</p> - -<h3>THE VOISIN BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>While the Wrights were busily engaged in developing -their biplane in America, a group of enthusiasts -in France were experimenting with gliders of -various types, towing them with high speed automobiles -along the roads, or with swift motor-boats -upon the Seine. As an outcome of these experiments, -in which they bore an active part, the Voisin -brothers began building the biplanes which have -made them famous.</p> - -<p>As compared with the Wright machine, the Voisin -aeroplane is of much heavier construction. It -weighs 1,100 pounds. The main planes have a lateral -spread of 37 feet 9 inches, and a breadth of 7 -feet, giving a combined area of 540 square feet, the -same as that of the Wright machine. The lower -main plane is divided at the centre to allow the introduction -of a trussed girder framework which carries -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -the motor and propeller, the pilot’s seat, the -controlling mechanism, and the running gear below; -and it is extended forward to support the elevator. -This is much lower than in the Wright machine, -being nearly on the level of the lower plane. It is -a single surface, divided at the centre, half being -placed on each side of the girder. It has a combined -area of 42 square feet, about half of that of -the Wright elevator, and it is only 4 feet from the -front edge of the main planes, instead of 10 feet as -in the Wright machine. A framework nearly square -in section, and about 25 feet long, extends to the -rear, and supports a cellular, or box-like, tail, which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -forms a case in which is the rudder surface for steering -to right or to left.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_087.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram showing details of construction of the Voisin biplane. <i>C</i>, <i>C</i>, the -curtains forming the stabilizing cells.</p></div> - -<p>A distinctive feature of the Voisin biplane is the -use of four vertical planes, or curtains, between the -two main planes, forming two nearly square “cells” -at the ends of the planes.</p> - -<p>At the rear of the main planes, in the centre, is -the single propeller. It is made of steel, two-bladed, -and is 8 feet 6 inches in diameter. It is coupled -directly to the shaft of the motor, making with it -1,200 revolutions per minute. The motor is of the -V type, developing 50 horse-power, and giving a -speed of 37 miles per hour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Diagram showing the simplicity of control of the Voisin machine, all operations -being performed by the wheel and its sliding axis.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The controls are all actuated by a rod sliding back -and forth horizontally in front of the pilot’s seat, -having a wheel at the end. The elevator is fastened -to the rod by a crank lever, and is tilted up or down -as the rod is pushed forward or pulled back. Turning -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -the wheel from side to side moves the rudder in -the rear. There are no devices for controlling the -equilibrium. This is supposed to be maintained automatically -by the fixed vertical curtains.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Voisin biplanes at the starting line at Rheims in August, 1909. They were flown by Louis Paulhan, who won -third prize for distance, and Henri Rougier, who won fourth prize for altitude. In the elimination races -to determine the contestants for the Bennett Cup, Paulhan won second place with the Voisin machine, being -defeated only by Tissandier with a Wright machine. Other noted aviators who fly the Voisin machine are -M. Bunau-Varilla and the Baroness de la Roche.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The machine is mounted on two wheels forward, -and two smaller wheels under the tail.</p> - -<p>This description applies to the standard Voisin -biplane, which has been in much favor with many -of the best known aviators. Recently the Voisins -have brought out a new type in which the propeller -has been placed in front of the planes, exerting -a pulling force upon the machine, instead of -pushing it as in the earlier type. The elevating -plane has been removed to the rear, and combined -with the rudder.</p> - -<p>A racing type also has been produced, in which -the vertical curtains have been removed and a parallel -pair of long, narrow ailerons introduced between -the main planes on both sides of the centre. This -machine, it is claimed, has made better than 60 miles -per hour.</p> - -<p>The first Voisin biplane was built for Delagrange, -and was flown by him with success. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p> - -<h3>THE FARMAN BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The second biplane built by the Voisins went into -the hands of Henri Farman, who made many flights -with it. Not being quite satisfied with the machine, -and having an inventive mind, he was soon building -a biplane after his own designs, and the Farman biplane -is now one of the foremost in favor among -both professional and amateur aviators.</p> - -<p>It is decidedly smaller in area of surface than the -Wright and Voisin machines, having but 430 square -feet in the two supporting planes. It has a spread -of 33 feet, and the planes are 7 feet wide, and set 6 -feet apart. In the Farman machine the vertical curtains -of the Voisin have been dispensed with. The -forward elevator is there, but raised nearly to the -level of the upper plane, and placed 9 feet from the -front edge of the main planes. To control the equilibrium, -the two back corners of each plane are cut -and hinged so that they hang vertically when not in -flight. When in motion these flaps or ailerons -stream out freely in the wind, assuming such position -as the speed of the passing air gives them. They -are pulled down by the pilot at one end or the other, -as may be necessary to restore equilibrium, acting -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -in very much the same manner as the warping tips -of the Wright machine. A pair of tail planes are set -in parallel on a framework about 20 feet in the rear -of the main planes, and a double rudder surface behind -them. Another model has hinged ailerons on -these tail planes, and a single rudder surface set upright -between them. These tail ailerons are moved -in conjunction with those of the main planes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_092.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Farman biplane, showing the position of the hinged ailerons when at rest. At full speed these surfaces stream out in -the wind in line with the planes to which they are attached.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram of the Farman biplane. A later type has the hinged ailerons also -on the tail planes.</p></div> - -<p>The motor has 4 cylinders, and turns a propeller -made of wood, 8 feet 6 inches in diameter, at a speed -of 1,300 revolutions per minute—nearly three times -as fast as the speed of the Wright propellers, which -are about the same size. The propeller is placed just -under the rear edge of the upper main plane, the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -lower one being cut away to make room for the revolving -blades. The motor develops 45 to 50 horse-power, -and drives the machine at a speed of 41 miles -per hour.</p> - -<p>The “racing Farman” is slightly different, having -the hinged ailerons only on one of the main -planes. The reason for this is obvious. Every depression -of the ailerons acts as a drag on the air -flowing under the planes, increasing the lift at the -expense of the speed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sketch of Farman machine, showing position of operator. <i>A</i>, <i>A</i>, main planes; -<i>B</i>, elevator; <i>C</i>, motor; <i>P</i>, tail planes.</p></div> - -<p>The whole structure is mounted upon skids with -wheels attached by a flexible connection. In case -of a severe jar, the wheels are pushed up against the -springs until the skids come into play.</p> - -<p>The elevator and the wing naps are controlled by -a lever at the right hand of the pilot. This lever -moves on a universal joint, the side-to-side movement -working the flaps, and the forward-and-back -motion the elevator. Steering to right or left is -done with a bar operated by the feet. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Henri Farman carrying a passenger across country. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span></p></div> - -<p>Farman has himself made many records with -his machine, and so have others. With a slightly -larger and heavier machine than the one described, -Farman carried two passengers a distance of 35 -miles in one hour.</p> - -<h3>THE CURTISS BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>This American rival of the Wright biplane is the -lightest machine of this type so far constructed. The -main planes are but 29 feet in spread, and 4 feet 6 -inches in width, and are set not quite 5 feet apart. -The combined area of the two planes is 250 square -feet. The main planes are placed midway of the -length of the fore-and-aft structure, which is nearly -30 feet. At the forward end is placed the elevator, -and at the rear end is the tail—one small plane surface—and -the vertical rudder surface in two parts, -one above and the other below the tail plane. Equilibrium -is controlled by changing the slant of two -small balancing planes which are placed midway between -the main planes at the outer ends, and in line -with the front edges. These balancing planes are -moved by a lever standing upright behind the pilot, -having two arms at its upper end which turn forward -so as to embrace his shoulders. The lever is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> -moved to right or to left by the swaying of the pilot’s -body.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Glenn H. Curtiss in his machine ready to start. The fork of the balancing lever is plainly seen at his shoulders. Behind -him is the radiator, with the engine still further back.</p></div> - -<p>The motor is raised to a position where the shaft -of the propeller is midway between the levels of the -main planes, and within the line of the rear edges, -so that they have to be cut away to allow the passing -of the blades. The motor is of the V type, with 8 -cylinders. It is 30 horse-power and makes 1,200 -revolutions per minute. The propeller is of steel, -two-bladed, 6 feet in diameter, and revolves at the -same speed as the shaft on which it is mounted. -The high position of the engine permits a low running -gear. There are two wheels under the rear -edges of the main planes, and another is placed half-way -between the main planes and the forward rudder, -or elevator. A brake, operated by the pilot’s -foot, acts upon this forward wheel to check the speed -at the moment of landing.</p> - -<p>Another type of Curtiss machine has the ailerons -set in the rear of the main planes, instead of between -them.</p> - -<p>The Curtiss is the fastest of the biplanes, being -excelled in speed only by some of the monoplanes. -It has a record of 51 miles per hour. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span></p> - -<h3>THE CODY BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The Cody biplane has the distinction of being -the first successful British aeroplane. It was designed -and flown by Captain S. F. Cody, at one time -an American, but for some years an officer in the -British army.</p> - -<p>It is the largest and heaviest of all the biplanes, -weighing about 1,800 lbs., more than three times -the weight of the Curtiss machine. Its main planes -are 52 feet in lateral spread, and 7 feet 6 inches in -width, and are set 9 feet apart. The combined area -of these sustaining surfaces is 770 square feet. -The upper plane is arched, so that the ends of the -main planes are slightly closer together than at the -centre.</p> - -<p>The elevator is in two parts placed end to end, -about 12 feet in front of the main planes. They -have a combined area of 150 square feet. Between -them and above them is a small rudder for steering -to right or left in conjunction with the large rudder -at the rear of the machine. The latter has an area -of 40 square feet.</p> - -<p>There are two small balancing planes, set one at -each end of the main planes, their centres on the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> -rear corner struts, so that they project beyond the -tips of the planes and behind their rear lines.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Cody biplane in flight. Captain Cody has both hands raised above his head, showing the automatic stability of his machine.</p></div> - -<p>The biplane is controlled by a lever rod having -a wheel at the end. Turning the wheel moves the -rudders; pushing or pulling the wheel works the -elevator; moving the wheel from side to side moves -the balancing planes.</p> - -<p>There are two propellers, set one on each side of -the engine, and well forward between the main -planes. They are of wood, of the two-bladed type, -7 feet in diameter. They are geared down to make -600 revolutions per minute. The motor has 8 cylinders -and develops 80 horse-power at 1,200 revolutions -per minute.</p> - -<p>The machine is mounted on a wheeled running -gear, two wheels under the front edge of the main -planes and one a short distance forward in the centre. -There is also a small wheel at each extreme end of -the lower main plane.</p> - -<p>The Cody biplane has frequently carried a passenger, -besides the pilot, and is credited with a -speed of 38 miles per hour.</p> - -<p>The first aeroplane flights ever made in England -were by Captain Cody on this biplane, January 2, -1909. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span></p> - -<h3>THE SOMMER BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The Sommer biplane is closely similar to the Farman -machine, but has the hinged ailerons only on -the upper plane. Another difference is that the tail -has but one surface, and the rudder is hung beneath -it. Its dimensions are:—Spread of main planes, -34 feet; depth (fore-and-aft), 6 feet 8 inches; they -are set 6 feet apart. The area of the main planes -is 456 square feet; area of tail, 67 square feet; area -of rudder, 9 square feet. It is driven by a 50-horsepower -Gnome motor, turning an 8-foot, two-bladed -propeller.</p> - -<p>M. Sommer has flown with three passengers, a -total weight of 536 lbs., besides the weight of the -machine.</p> - -<h3>THE BALDWIN BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The Baldwin biplane, designed by Captain Thomas -S. Baldwin, the distinguished balloonist, resembles -the Farman type in some features, and the Curtiss -in others. It has the Curtiss type of ailerons, set -between the wings, but extending beyond them laterally. -The elevator is a single surface placed in -front of the machine, and the tail is of the biplane -type with the rudder between. The spread of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -main planes is 31 feet 3 inches, and their depth 4 -feet 6 inches. A balancing plane of 9 square feet -is set upright (like a fin) above the upper main -plane, on a swivel. This is worked by a fork fitting -on the shoulders of the pilot, and is designed to restore -equilibrium by its swinging into head-resistance -on one side or the other as may be necessary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_103.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Baldwin biplane, showing balancing plane above upper main plane.</p></div> - -<p>The motive power is a 4-cylinder Curtiss motor, -which turns a propeller 7 feet 6 inches in diameter, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -set just within the rear line of the main planes, which -are cut away to clear the propeller blades.</p> - -<h3>THE BADDECK BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The newest biplane of the Aerial Experiment Association -follows in general contour its successful -precursor, the “Silver Dart,” with which J. A. D. McCurdy -made many records. The “Baddeck No. 2” -is of the biplane type, and both the planes are arched -toward each other. They have a spread of 40 feet, -and are 7 feet in depth at the centre, rounding to 5 -feet at the ends, where the wing tips, 5 feet by 5 -feet, are hinged. The elevator is also of the biplane -type, two surfaces each 12 feet long and 28 inches -wide, set 30 inches apart. This is mounted 15 feet -in front of the main planes. The tail is mounted -11 feet in the rear of the main planes, and is the -same size and of the same form as the elevator.</p> - -<p>The controls are operated by the same devices as -in the Curtiss machine. The propeller is 7 feet 8 -inches in diameter, and is turned by a six-cylinder -automobile engine of 40 horse-power running at -1,400 revolutions per minute. The propeller is -geared down to run at 850 revolutions per minute. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -The motor is placed low down on the lower plane, -but the propeller shaft is raised to a position as -nearly as possible that of the centre of resistance of -the machine. The speed attained is 40 miles per -hour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_105.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The McCurdy biplane, “Baddeck No. 2.”</p></div> - -<p>A unique feature of the mechanism is the radiator, -which is built of 30 flattened tubes 7 feet 6 -inches long, and 3 inches wide, and very thin. They -are curved from front to rear like the main planes, -and give sufficient lift to sustain their own weight -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -and that of the water carried for cooling the cylinders. -The running gear is of three wheels placed -as in the Curtiss machine. The “Baddeck No. 2” -has made many satisfactory flights with one passenger -besides the pilot.</p> - -<h3>THE HERRING BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>At the Boston Aircraft Exhibition in February, -1910, the Herring biplane attracted much attention, -not only because of its superiority of mechanical -finish, but also on account of its six triangular stabilizing -fins set upright on the upper plane. Subsequent -trials proved that this machine was quite -out of the ordinary in action. It rose into the air -after a run of but 85 feet, and at a speed of only -22 miles per hour, and made a 40-degree turn at a -tipping angle of 20 degrees. As measured by the -inventor, the machine rose in the air with the pilot -(weighing 190 lbs.), with a thrust of 140 lbs., and -required only a thrust of from 80 to 85 lbs. to keep -it flying.</p> - -<p>The spread of the planes is 28 feet, and they are -4 feet in depth, with a total supporting surface of -220 feet. A 25 horse-power Curtiss motor turns a -4-bladed propeller of 6 feet diameter and 5-foot pitch -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -(designed by Mr. Herring) at the rate of 1,200 revolutions -per minute.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_107.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The L. A. W. (League of American Wheelmen) biplane at the Boston Aircraft Exhibition, February, 1910. Note the peculiar -curve of the divided planes. The motor is of the rotating type, of 50 horse-power.</p></div> - -<p>The elevator consists of a pair of parallel surfaces -set upon hollow poles 12 feet in front of the main -planes. The tail is a single surface.</p> - -<p>The stabilizing fins act in this manner: when the -machine tips to one side, it has a tendency to slide -down an incline of air toward the ground. The fins -offer resistance to this sliding, retarding the upper -plane, while the lower plane slides on and swings as -a pendulum into equilibrium again.</p> - -<h3>THE BREGUET BIPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The Breguet biplane is conspicuous in having a -biplane tail of so large an area as to merit for the -machine the title “tandem biplane.” The main -planes have a spread of 41 feet 8 inches, and an area -of 500 square feet. The tail spreads 24 feet, and -its area is about 280 square feet. The propeller is -three-bladed, 8 feet in diameter, and revolves at a -speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute. It is placed -in front of the main plane, after the fashion of the -monoplanes. The motive power is an 8-cylinder -R-E-P engine, developing 55 horse-power. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="small"><i>Courtesy of N. Y. Sun.</i></p> -<blockquote> - -<p class="caption">The Seddon tandem biplane, constructed by Lieutenant Seddon of the British Navy. The area of its planes is 2,000 square feet. -Compare its size with that of the monoplane in the background. It is intended to carry ten persons. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span></p></blockquote> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_110.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="table w100"> -<span class="tcell tdc">Wright biplane.</span> -<span class="tcell tdc">Curtiss biplane.</span> -</p> - -<p class="caption">Comparative build and area of prominent American biplanes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_111.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="table w100"> -<span class="tcell tdc">Voisin biplane.</span> -<span class="tcell tdc">Breguet biplane.</span> -</p> - -<p class="caption">Comparative build and area of prominent European biplanes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span></p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_VI">Chapter VI.<br /> - -FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The common goal—Interchanging features—The Bleriot machine—First -independent flyer—Construction and controls—The -“Antoinette”—Large area—Great stability—Santos-Dumont’s -monoplane—Diminutive size—R-E-P monoplane—encased -structure—Hanriot machine—Boat body—Sturdy -build—Pfitzner machine—Lateral type—Thrusting -propeller—Fairchild, Burlingame, Cromley, Chauviere, -Vendome, and Moisant monoplanes.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">In</span> all the ardent striving of the aviators to beat -each other’s records, a surprisingly small amount -of personal rivalry has been developed. Doubtless -this is partly because their efforts to perform definite -feats have been absorbing; but it must also be that -these men, who know that they face a possible fall in -every flight they make, realize that their competitors -are as brave as themselves in the face of the same -danger; and that they are actually accomplishing -marvellous wonders even if they do no more than just -escape disastrous failure. Certain it is that each, -realizing the tremendous difficulties all must overcome, -respects the others’ ability and attainments. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p> - -<p>Consequently we do not find among them two distinctly -divergent schools of adherents, one composed -of the biplanists, the other of the monoplanists. Nor -are the two types of machines separated in this book -for any other purpose than to secure a clearer understanding -of what is being achieved by all types in the -progress toward the one common goal—the flight of -man.</p> - -<p>The distinctive feature of the monoplane is that -it has but one main plane, or spread of surface, as -contrasted with the two planes, one above the other, -of the biplane. Besides the main plane, it has a secondary -plane in the rear, called the tail. The office -of this tail is primarily to secure longitudinal, or -fore-and-aft, balance; but the secondary plane has -been so constructed that it is movable on a horizontal -axis, and is used to steer the machine upward or -downward. While most of the biplanes now have a -horizontal tail-plane, they were not at first so provided, -but carried the secondary plane (or planes) in -front of the main planes. Even in the latest type -brought out by the conservative Wright brothers, the -former large-surfaced elevator in front has been removed, -and a much smaller tail-plane has been added -in the rear, performing the same function of steering -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> -the machine up or down, but also providing the fore-and-aft -stabilizing feature formerly peculiar to the -monoplane. Another feature heretofore distinctively -belonging to the monoplane has been adopted by some -of the newer biplanes, that of the traction propeller—pulling -the machine behind it through the air, instead -of pushing it along by a thrusting propeller -placed behind the main planes.</p> - -<p>The continual multiplication of new forms of the -monoplane makes it possible to notice only those -which exhibit the wider differences.</p> - -<h3>THE BLERIOT MONOPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The Bleriot monoplane has the distinction of -being the first wholly successful flying machine. -Although the Wright machine was making flights -years before the Bleriot had been built, it was still -dependent upon a starting device to enable it to leave -the ground. That is, the Wright machine was not -complete in itself, and was entirely helpless at even -a short distance from its starting tower, rail, and car, -which it was unable to carry along. Because of its -completeness, M. Bleriot was able to drive his machine -from Toury to Artenay, France (a distance of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> -8¾ miles) on October 31, 1908, make a landing, start -on the return trip, make a second landing, and again -continue his journey back to Toury, all under his -own unassisted power. This feat was impossible to -the Wright machine as it was then constructed, thus -leaving the Bleriot monoplane in undisputed pre-eminence -in the history of aviation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_115.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A Bleriot monoplane, “No. XI,” in flight.</p></div> - -<p>At a little distance, where the details of construction -are not visible, the Bleriot machine has the appearance -of a gigantic bird. The sustaining surface, -consisting of a single plane, is divided into two wings -made of a stiff parchment-like material, mounted one -on each side of a framework of the body, which is -built of mahogany and whitewood trussed with diagonal -ties of steel wire.</p> - -<p>The main plane has a lateral spread of 28 feet -and a depth of 6 feet, and is rounded at the ends. It -has an area of about 150 square feet, and is slightly -concave on the under side. The tail-plane is 6 feet -long and 2 feet 8 inches in depth; at its ends are -the elevators, consisting of pivoted wing tips each -about 2 feet 6 inches square with rounded extremities. -The rudder for steering to left or right is -mounted at the extreme rear end of the body, and has -an area of 9 square feet. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Bleriot “No. XII.,” showing new form of tail, and the complete encasing with fabric. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span></p></div> - -<p>The body is framed nearly square in front and -tapers to a wedge-like edge at the rear. It extends -far enough in front of the main plane to give room -for the motor and propeller. The seat for the pilot -is on a line with the rear edge of the main plane, and -above it. The forward part of the body is enclosed -with fabric.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_118.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Forward chassis of Bleriot monoplane, showing caster mounting of wheels. -The framing of the body is shown by the dotted lines.</p></div> - -<p>The machine is mounted on three wheels attached -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -to the body: two at the front, with a powerful spring -suspension and pivoted like a caster, and the other -rigidly at a point just forward of the rudders.</p> - -<p>The lateral balance is restored by warping the tips -of the main plane; if necessary, the elevator tips at -the rear may be operated to assist in this. All the -controls are actuated by a single lever and a drum -to which the several wires are attached.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_119.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Diagram of Bleriot “No. XI.,” from the rear. <i>A</i>, <i>A</i>, main plane; <i>B</i>, tail; <i>C</i>, -body; <i>D</i>, <i>D</i>, wing tips of tail; <i>E</i>, rudder; <i>H</i>, propeller; <i>M</i>, motor; <i>O</i>, axis -of wing tips; <i>R</i>, radiator; <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, spars of wings; <i>h</i>, <i>h</i>, guy wires; -<i>p</i>, <i>k</i>, truss.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The motors used on the Bleriot machines have varied -in type and power. In the “No. XI.,” with -which M. Bleriot crossed the English Channel, the -motor was a 3-cylinder Anzani engine, developing -24 horse-power at 1,200 revolutions per minute. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> -propeller was of wood, 2-bladed, and 6 feet 9 inches -in diameter. It was mounted directly on the shaft, -and revolved at the same speed, giving the machine -a velocity of 37 miles per hour. This model has -also been fitted with a 30 horse-power R-E-P (R. -Esnault-Pelterie) motor, having 7 cylinders. The -heavier type “No. XII.” has been fitted with the -50 horse-power Antoinette 8-cylinder engine, or the -7-cylinder rotating Gnome engine, also of 50 horse-power.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_120.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sketches showing relative size, construction, and position of pilot in the -Bleriot machines; “No. XI.” (the upper), and “No. XII.” (the lower). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span></p></div> - -<p>The total weight of the “No. XI.” monoplane is -462 pounds, without the pilot.</p> - -<h3>THE ANTOINETTE MONOPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The Antoinette is the largest and heaviest of the -monoplanes. It was designed by M. Levavasseur, -and has proved to be one of the most remarkable of -the aeroplanes by its performances under adverse conditions; -notably, the flight of Hubert Latham in a -gale of 40 miles per hour at Blackpool in October, -1909.</p> - -<p>The Antoinette has a spread of 46 feet, the surface -being disposed in two wings set at a dihedral -angle; that is, the outer ends of the wings incline -upward from their level at the body, so that at the -front they present the appearance of a very wide open -“V.” These wings are trapezoidal in form, with the -wider base attached to the body, where they are 10 -feet in depth (fore and aft). They are 7 feet in -depth at the tips, and have a total combined area of -377 square feet. The great depth of the wings requires -that they be made proportionally thick to be -strong enough to hold their form. Two trussed -spars are used in each wing, with a short mast on -each, half-way to the tip, reaching below the wing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> -as well as above it. To these are fastened guy wires, -making each wing an independent truss. A mast -on the body gives attachment for guys which bind -the whole into a light and rigid construction. The -framework of the wings is covered on both sides with -varnished fabric.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_122.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Antoinette monoplane in flight.</p></div> - -<p>The body is of triangular section. It is a long -girder; at the front, in the form of a pyramid, expanding -to a prism at the wings, and tapering toward -the tail. It is completely covered with the fabric, -which is given several coats of varnish to secure the -minimum of skin friction.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_123.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram showing construction of the Antoinette monoplane.</p></div> - -<p>The tail is 13 feet long and 9 feet wide, in the -form of a diamond-shaped kite. The rear part -of it is hinged to be operated as the elevator. There -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -is a vertical stabilizing fin set at right angles to the -rigid part of the tail. The rudder for steering to -right or left is in two triangular sections, one above -and the other below the tail-plane. The entire length -of the machine is 40 feet, and its weight is 1,045 -pounds.</p> - -<p>It is fitted with a motor of the “V” type, having -8 cylinders, and turning a 2-bladed steel propeller -1,100 revolutions per minute, developing from 50 -to 55 horse-power.</p> - -<p>The control of the lateral balance is by ailerons -attached to the rear edges of the wings at their outer -ends. These are hinged, and may be raised as well -as lowered as occasion demands, working in opposite -directions, and thus doubling the effect of similar -ailerons on the Farman machine, which can only be -pulled downward.</p> - -<p>The machine is mounted on two wheels under the -centre of the main plane, with a flexible wood skid -projecting forward. Another skid is set under the -tail.</p> - -<p>It is claimed for the Antoinette machine that its -inherent stability makes it one of the easiest of all -for the beginner in aviation. With as few as five -lessons many pupils have become qualified pilots, even -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -winning prizes against competitors of much wider -experience.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_125.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagrams showing comparative size and position of surfaces and structure of the Bleriot (left) and Antoinette -(right) monoplanes.</p></div> - -<h3>THE SANTOS-DUMONT MONOPLANE.</h3> - -<p>This little machine may be called the “runabout” -of the aeroplanes. It has a spread of only 18 feet, -and is but 20 feet in total length. Its weight is -about 245 pounds.</p> - -<p>The main plane is divided into two wings, which -are set at the body at a dihedral angle, but curve -downward toward the tips, forming an arch. The -depth of the wings at the tips is 6 feet. For a space -on each side of the centre they are cut away to 5 -feet in depth, to allow the propeller to be set within -their forward edge. The total area of the main plane -is 110 square feet.</p> - -<p>The tail-plane is composed of a vertical surface -and a horizontal surface intersecting. It is arranged -so that it may be tilted up or down to serve as an -elevator, or from side to side as a rudder. Its horizontal -surface has an area of about 12 square feet.</p> - -<p>The engine is placed above the main plane and the -pilot’s seat below it. The body is triangular in section, -with the apex uppermost, composed of three -strong bamboo poles with cross-pieces held in place by -aluminum sockets, and cross braced with piano wire. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Santos-Dumont’s <i>La Demoiselle</i> in flight.</p></div> - -<p>The motor is of the opposed type, made by Darracq, -weighing only 66 pounds, and developing 30 -horse-power at 1,500 revolutions per minute. The -propeller is of wood, 2-bladed, and being mounted -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> -directly on the shaft of the motor, revolves at the -same velocity. The speed of the Santos-Dumont -machine is 37 miles per hour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_128.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Darracq motor and propeller of the Santos-Dumont machine. The -conical tank in the rear of the pilot’s seat holds the gasoline.</p></div> - -<p>The lateral balance is preserved by a lever which -extends upward and enters a long pocket sewed on -the back of the pilot’s coat. His leaning from side -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> -to side warps the rear edges of the wings at their -tips. The elevator is moved by a lever, and the rudder -by turning a wheel.</p> - -<p>While this machine has not made any extended -flights, Santos-Dumont has travelled in the aggregate -upward of 2,000 miles in one or another of this type.</p> - -<p>The plans, with full permission to any one to build -from them, he gave to the public as his contribution -to the advancement of aviation. Several manufacturers -are supplying them at a cost much below that -of an automobile.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sketch showing position of pilot in Santos-Dumont machine. <i>A</i>, main plane; -<i>B</i>, tail plane; <i>C</i>, motor.</p></div> - -<h3>THE R-E-P MONOPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The Robert Esnault-Pelterie (abbreviated by its -inventor to R-E-P) monoplane, viewed from above, -bears a striking resemblance to a bird with a fan-shaped -tail. It is much shorter in proportion to its -spread than any other monoplane, and the body being -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -entirely covered with fabric, it has quite a distinct -appearance.</p> - -<p>The plane is divided into two wings, in form very -much like the wings of the Antoinette machine. -Their spread, however, is but 35 feet. Their depth -at the body is 8 feet 6 inches, and at the tips, 5 feet. -Their total combined area is 226 square feet.</p> - -<p>The body of the R-E-P machine has much the appearance -of a boat, being wide at the top and coming -to a sharp keel below. The boat-like prow in front -adds to this resemblance. As the body is encased -in fabric, these surfaces aid in maintaining vertical -stability.</p> - -<p>A large stabilizing fin extends from the pilot’s seat -to the tail. The tail is comparatively large, having -an area of 64 square feet. Its rear edge may be -raised or lowered to serve as an elevator. The rudder -for steering to right or left is set below in the -line of the body, as in a boat. It is peculiar in that -it is of the “compensated” type; that is, pivoted -near the middle of its length, instead of at the forward -end.</p> - -<p>The control of the lateral balance is through warping -the wings. This is by means of a lever at the -left hand of the pilot, with a motion from side to side. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> -The same lever moved forward or backward controls -the elevator. The steering lever is in front of -the pilot’s seat, and moves to right or to left.</p> - -<table class="images"> - <tr> - <td class="w50"><img src="images/i_131a.jpg" alt="" /></td> - <td class="w50">Elevation, showing large stabilizing - fin; boat-like body encased in fabric; - and compensated rudder, pivoted - at the rear end of the fin.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="w50"><img src="images/i_131b.jpg" alt="" /></td> - <td class="w50">Plan, showing comparative spread - of surfaces, and the attachment of - wheels at the wing tips.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><p class="caption">Graphic sketch showing elevation and plan of the R-E-P monoplane.</p></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The motor is an invention of M. Esnault-Pelterie, -and may be of 5, 7, or 10 cylinders, according to -the power desired. The cylinders are arranged -in two ranks, one in the rear of the other, radiating -outward from the shaft like spokes in a wheel. -The propeller is of steel, 4-bladed, and revolves at -1,400 revolutions per minute, developing 35 horse-power, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -and drawing the machine through the air at -a speed of 47 miles per hour.</p> - -<h3>THE HANRIOT MONOPLANE.</h3> - -<p>Among the more familiar machines which have -been contesting for records at the various European -meets during the season of 1910, the Hanriot monoplane -earned notice for itself and its two pilots, one -of them the fifteen-year-old son of the inventor. At -Budapest the Hanriot machine carried off the honors -of the occasion with a total of 106 points for “best -performances,” as against 84 points for the Antoinette, -and 77 points for the Farman biplane. A -description of its unusual features will be of interest -by way of comparison.</p> - -<p>In general appearance it is a cross between the -Bleriot and the Antoinette, the wings being shaped -more like the latter, but rounded at the rear of the -tips like the Bleriot. Its chief peculiarity is in the -body of the machine, which is in form very similar -to a racing shell—of course with alterations to suit -the requirements of the aeroplane. Its forward -part is of thin mahogany, fastened upon ash ribs, -with a steel plate covering the prow. The rear part -of the machine is covered simply with fabric. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span></p> - -<p>The spread of the plane is 24 feet 7 inches, -and it has an area of 170 square feet. The length of -the machine, fore-and-aft, is 23 feet. Its weight is -463 pounds. It is mounted on a chassis having both -wheels and skids, somewhat like that of the Farman -running gear, but with two wheels instead of four.</p> - -<p>The Hanriot machine is sturdily built all the way -through, and has endured without damage some serious -falls and collisions which would have wrecked -another machine.</p> - -<p>It is fitted either with a Darracq or a Clerget motor, -and speeds at about 44 miles per hour.</p> - -<h3>THE PFITZNER MONOPLANE.</h3> - -<p>The Pfitzner monoplane has the distinction of -being the first American machine of the single-plane -type. It was designed and flown by the late Lieut. -A. L. Pfitzner, and, though meeting with many mishaps, -has proved itself worthy of notice by its performances, -through making use of an entirely new -device for lateral stability. This is the sliding wing -tip, by which the wing that tends to fall from its -proper level may be lengthened by 15 inches, the -other wing being shortened as much at the same time. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p> - -<p>There is no longitudinal structure, as in the other -monoplanes, the construction being transverse and -built upon four masts set in the form of a square, -6 feet apart, about the centre. These are braced -by diagonal struts, and tied with wires on the edges -of the squares. They also support the guys reaching -out to the tips of the wings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>The Pfitzner monoplane from the rear, showing the sliding wing tips; dihedral -angle of the wings; square body; and transverse trussed construction.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The plane proper is 31 feet in spread, to which -the wing tips add 2½ feet, and is 6 feet deep, giving -a total area of 200 square feet. A light framework -extending 10 feet in the rear carries a tail-plane 6 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> -feet in spread and 2 feet in depth. Both the elevator -and the rudder planes are carried on a similar framework, -14 feet in front of the main plane.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_135.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Pfitzner monoplane, showing the structure of the body; the two conical gasoline tanks above; -the propeller in the rear. Lieutenant Pfitzner at the wheel.</p></div> - -<p>The wings of the main plane incline upward from -the centre toward the tips, and are trussed by vertical -struts and diagonal ties.</p> - -<p>The motor is placed in the rear of the plane, instead -of in front, as in all other monoplanes. It is -a 4-cylinder Curtiss motor, turning a 6-foot propeller -at 1,200 revolutions per minute, and developing 25 -horse-power.</p> - -<p>The Pfitzner machine has proved very speedy, and -has made some remarkably sharp turns on an even -keel.</p> - -<h3>OTHER MONOPLANES.</h3> - -<p>Several machines of the monoplane type have been -produced, having some feature distinct from existing -forms. While all of these have flown successfully, -few of them have made any effort to be classed among -the contestants for honors at the various meets.</p> - -<p>One of these, the Fairchild monoplane, shows resemblances -to the R-E-P, the Antoinette, and the -Bleriot machines, but differs from them all in having -two propellers instead of one; and these revolve in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -the same direction, instead of in contrary directions, -as do those of all other aeroplanes so equipped. The -inventor claims that there is little perceptible gyroscopic -effect with a single propeller, and even less -with two. The propeller shafts are on the level of -the plane, but the motor is set about 5 feet below, -connections being made by a chain drive.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_137.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Beach type of the Antoinette, an American modification of the French -machine, at the Boston Exhibition, 1910.</p></div> - -<p>The Burlingame monoplane has several peculiarities. -Its main plane is divided into two wings, each -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -10 feet in spread and 5 feet in depth, and set 18 -inches apart at the body. They are perfectly rigid. -The tail is in two sections, each 4 feet by 5 feet, and -set with a gap of 6 feet between the sections, in which -the rudder is placed. Thus the spread of the tail -from tip to tip is 16 feet, as compared with the 21½ -foot spread of the main plane. The sections of the -tail are operated independently, and are made to serve -as ailerons to control the lateral balance, and also -as the elevator.</p> - -<p>The Cromley monoplane, another American machine, -is modelled after the Santos-Dumont <i>Demoiselle</i>. -It has a main plane divided into two wings, -each 9 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, with a gap of 2 feet -between at the body; the total area being 117 square -feet. At the rear of the outer ends are hinged -ailerons, like those of the Farman biplane, to control -the lateral balance. The tail is 12 feet in the rear, -and is of the “box” type, with two horizontal surfaces -and two vertical surfaces. This is mounted -with a universal joint, so that it can be moved in -any desired direction. The complete structure, without -the motor, weighs but 60 pounds.</p> - -<p>The Chauviere monoplane is distinct in having a -rigid spar for the front of the plane, but no ribs. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -The surface is allowed to spread out as a sail and -take form from the wind passing beneath. The rear -edges may be pulled down at will to control the lateral -balance. It is driven by twin screws set far back -on the body, nearly to the tail.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>The Morok monoplane at the Boston Exhibition. It has the body of the -Bleriot, the wings of the Santos-Dumont, and the sliding wing tips of -the Pfitzner.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The smallest and lightest monoplane in practical -use is that of M. Raoul Vendome. It is but 16 feet -in spread, and is 16 feet fore and aft. It is equipped -with a 12 horse-power motor, and flies at a speed of -nearly 60 miles per hour. Without the pilot, its -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -entire weight is but 180 pounds. The wings are -pivoted so that their whole structure may be tilted -to secure lateral balance.</p> - -<p>The new Moisant monoplane is built wholly of -metal. The structure throughout is of steel, and the -surfaces of sheet aluminum in a succession of small -arches from the centre to the tips. No authentic reports -of its performances are available.</p> - -<p>In the Tatin monoplane, also called the Bayard-Clement, -the main plane is oval in outline, and the -tail a smaller oval. The surfaces are curved upward -toward the tips for nearly half their length in both -the main plane and the tail. The propeller is 8½ feet -in diameter, and is turned by a Clerget motor, which -can be made to develop 60 horse-power for starting -the machine into the air, and then cut down to 30 -horse-power to maintain the flight. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_VII">Chapter VII.<br /> - -FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The triplane—The quadruplane—The multiplane—Helicopters—Their -principle—Obstacles to be overcome—The Cornu -helicopter—The Leger helicopter—The Davidson gyropter—The -Breguet gyroplane—The de la Hault ornithopter—The -Bell tetrahedrons—The Russ flyer.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">While</span> the efforts of inventors have been -principally along the lines of the successful -monoplanes and biplanes, genius and energy have -also been active in other directions. Some of these -other designs are not much more than variations -from prevailing types, however.</p> - -<p>Among these is the English Roe triplane, which is -but a biplane with an extra plane added; the depths -of all being reduced to give approximately the same -surface as the biplane of the same carrying power. -The tail is also of the triplane type, and has a combined -area of 160 square feet—just half that of the -main planes. The triplane type has long been familiar -to Americans in the three-decker glider used extensively -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> -by Octave Chanute in his long series of -experiments at Chicago.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_142.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Roe triplane in flight.</p></div> - -<p>The quadruplane of Colonel Baden-Powell, also -an English type, is practically the biplane with unusually -large forward and tail planes.</p> - -<p>The multiplane of Sir Hiram Maxim should also -be remembered, although he never permitted it to -have free flight. His new multiplane, modelled after -the former one, but equipped with an improved gasoline -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> -motor instead of the heavy steam-engine of the -first model, will doubtless be put to a practical test -when experiments with it are completed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sir Hiram Maxim standing beside his huge multiplane.</p></div> - -<p>Quite apart from these variants of the aeroplanes -are the helicopters, ornithopters, gyropters, gyroplanes, -and tetrahedral machines.</p> - -<h3>HELICOPTERS.</h3> - -<p>The result aimed at in the helicopter is the ability -to rise vertically from the starting point, instead of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -first running along the ground for from 100 to 300 -feet before sufficient speed to rise is attained, as the -aeroplanes do. The device employed to accomplish -this result is a propeller, or propellers, revolving horizontally -above the machine. After the desired altitude -is gained it is proposed to travel in any direction -by changing the plane in which the propellers -revolve to one having a small angle with the horizon.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>The force necessary to keep the aeroplane moving in its horizontal path is the -same as that required to move the automobile of equal weight up the same -gradient—much less than its total weight.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The great difficulty encountered with this type of -machine is that the propellers must lift the entire -weight. In the case of the aeroplane, the power of -the engine is used to slide the plane up an incline of -air, and for this much less power is required. For -instance, the weight of a Curtiss biplane with the -pilot on board is about 700 pounds, and this weight -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> -is easily slid up an inclined plane of air with a -propeller thrust of about 240 pounds.</p> - -<p>Another difficulty is that the helicopter screws, in -running at the start before they can attain speed sufficient -to lift their load, have established downward -currents of air with great velocity, in which the -screws must run with much less efficiency. With -the aeroplanes, on the contrary, their running gear -enables them to run forward on the ground almost -with the first revolution of the propeller, and as they -increase their speed the currents—technically called -the “slip”—become less and less as the engine speed -increases.</p> - -<p>In the Cornu helicopter, which perhaps has come -nearer to successful flight than any other, these -downward currents are checked by interposing -planes below, set at an angle determined by the operator. -The glancing of the currents of air from the -planes is expected to drive the helicopter horizontally -through the air. At the same time these planes offer -a large degree of resistance, and the engine power -must be still further increased to overcome this, -while preserving the lift of the entire weight. With -an 8-cylinder Antoinette motor, said to be but 24 -horse-power, turning two 20-foot propellers, the machine -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> -is reported as lifting itself and two persons—a -total weight of 723 pounds—to a height of 5 -feet, and sustaining itself for 1 minute. Upon the -interposing of the planes to produce the horizontal -motion the machine came immediately to the ground.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_146.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram showing principle of the Cornu helicopter. <i>P</i>, <i>P</i>, propelling planes. -The arrow shows direction of travel with planes at angle shown.</p></div> - -<p>This performance must necessarily be compared -with that of the aeroplanes, as, for instance, the -Wright machine, which, with a 25 to 30 horse-power -motor operating two 8-foot propellers, raises a weight -of 1,050 pounds and propels it at a speed of 40 miles -an hour for upward of 2 hours.</p> - -<p>Another form of helicopter is the Leger machine, -so named after its French inventor. It has two propellers -which revolve on the same vertical axis, the -shaft of one being tubular, encasing that of the other. -By suitable gearing this vertical shaft may be inclined -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -after the machine is in the air in the direction -in which it is desired to travel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Vitton-Huber helicopter at the Paris aeronautical salon in 1909. It has the double concentric axis of -the Leger helicopter and the propelling planes of the Cornu machine.</p></div> - -<p>The gyropter differs from the Cornu type of helicopter -in degree rather than in kind. In the Scotch -machine, known as the Davidson gyropter, the propellers -have the form of immense umbrellas made up -of curving slats. The frame of the structure has the -shape of a T, one of the gyropters being attached to -each of the arms of the T. The axes upon which the -gyropters revolve may be inclined so that their power -may be exerted to draw the apparatus along in a horizontal -direction after it has been raised to the desired -altitude.</p> - -<p>The gyropters of the Davidson machine are 28 -feet in diameter, the entire structure being 67 feet -long, and weighing 3 tons. It has been calculated -that with the proposed pair of 50 horse-power engines -the gyropters will lift 5 tons. Upon a trial with a -10 horse-power motor connected to one of the gyropters, -that end of the apparatus was lifted from the -ground at 55 revolutions per minute—the boiler -pressure being 800 lbs. to the square inch, at which -pressure it burst, wrecking the machine.</p> - -<p>An example of the gyroplane is the French Breguet -apparatus, a blend of the aeroplane and the helicopter. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> -It combines the fixed wing-planes of the one -with the revolving vanes of the other. The revolving -surfaces have an area of 82 square feet, and the fixed -surfaces 376 square feet. The total weight of machine -and operator is about 1,350 lbs. Fitted with -a 40 horse-power motor, it rose freely into the air.</p> - -<p>The ornithopter, or flapping-wing type of flying -machine, though the object of experiment and research -for years, must still be regarded as unsuccessful. -The apparatus of M. de la Hault may be taken -as typical of the best effort in that line, and it is yet -in the experimental stage. The throbbing beat of the -mechanism, in imitation of the bird’s wings, has -always proved disastrous to the structure before sufficient -power was developed to lift the apparatus.</p> - -<p>The most prominent exponent of the tetrahedral -type—that made up of numbers of small cells set -one upon another—is the <i>Cygnet</i> of Dr. Alexander -Graham Bell, which perhaps is more a kite than a -true flying machine. The first <i>Cygnet</i> had 3,000 -cells, and lifted its pilot to a height of 176 feet. The -<i>Cygnet II</i>. has 5,000 tetrahedral cells, and is propelled -by a 50 horse-power motor. It has yet to -make its record.</p> - -<p>One of the most recently devised machines is that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -known as the Fritz Russ flyer. It has two wings, -each in the form of half a cylinder, the convex curve -upward. It is driven by two immense helical screws, -or spirals, set within the semi-cylinders. No details -of its performances are obtainable. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_VIII">Chapter VIII.<br /> - -FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Instinctive balance—When the motor skips—Progressive experience—Plum -Island School methods—Lilienthal’s conclusions—The -Curtiss mechanism and controls—Speed records—Cross-country -flying—Landing—Essential qualifications—Ground -practice—Future relief.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">Any</span> one who has learned to ride a bicycle will -recall the great difficulty at first experienced -to preserve equilibrium. But once the knack was -gained, how simple the matter seemed! Balancing -became a second nature, which came into play instinctively, -without conscious thought or effort. On -smooth roads it was not even necessary to grasp the -handle-bars. The swaying of the body was sufficient -to guide the machine in the desired direction.</p> - -<p>Much of this experience is paralleled by that of -the would-be aviator. First, he must acquire the art -of balancing himself and his machine in the air -without conscious effort. Unfortunately, this is even -harder than in the case of the bicycle. The cases -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -would be more nearly alike if the road beneath and -ahead of the bicyclist were heaving and falling as in -an earthquake, with no light to guide him; for the -air currents on which the aviator must ride are in -constant and irregular motion, and are as wholly invisible -to him as would be the road at night to the -rider of the wheel.</p> - -<p>And there are other things to distract the attention -of the pilot of an aeroplane—notably the roar -of the propeller, and the rush of wind in his face, -comparable only to the ceaseless and breath-taking -force of the hurricane.</p> - -<p>The well-known aviator, Charles K. Hamilton, -says:—“So far as the air currents are concerned, -I rely entirely on instinctive action; but my ear is -always on the alert. The danger signal of the aviator -is when he hears his motor miss an explosion. -Then he knows that trouble is in store. Sometimes -he can speed up his engine, just as an automobile -driver does, and get it to renew its normal action. -But if he fails in this, and the motor stops, he must -dip his deflecting planes, and try to negotiate a landing -in open country. Sometimes there is no preliminary -warning from the motor that it is going to -cease working. That is the time when the aviator -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -must be prepared to act quickly. Unless the deflecting -planes are manipulated instantly, aviator -and aeroplane will rapidly land a tangled mass on -the ground.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Result of a failure to deflect the planes quickly enough when the engine stopped. -The operator fortunately escaped with but a few bruises.</p></div> - -<p>At the same time, Mr. Hamilton says: “Driving -an aeroplane at a speed of 120 miles an hour is not -nearly so difficult a task as driving an automobile -60 miles an hour. In running an automobile at high -speed the driver must be on the job every second. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -Nothing but untiring vigilance can protect him from -danger. There are turns in the road, bad stretches -of pavement, and other like difficulties, and he can -never tell at what moment he is to encounter some -vehicle, perhaps travelling in the opposite direction. -But with an aeroplane it is a different proposition. -Once a man becomes accustomed to aeroplaning, it -is a matter of unconscious attention.... He has -no obstacles to encounter except cross-currents of air. -Air and wind are much quicker than a man can -think and put his thought into action. Unless experience -has taught the aviator to maintain his equilibrium -instinctively, he is sure to come to grief.”</p> - -<p>The Wright brothers spent years in learning the -art of balancing in the air before they appeared in -public as aviators. And their method of teaching -pupils is evidence that they believe the only road to -successful aviation is through progressive experience, -leading up from the use of gliders for short -flights to the actual machines with motors only after -one has become an instinctive equilibrist.</p> - -<p>At the Plum Island school of the Herring-Burgess -Company the learner is compelled to begin at -the beginning and work the thing out for himself. -He is placed in a glider which rests on the ground. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> -The glider is locked down by a catch which may be -released by pulling a string. To the front end of the -glider is attached a long elastic which may be -stretched more or less, according to the pull desired. -The beginner starts with the elastic stretched but a -little. When all is ready he pulls the catch free, and -is thrown forward for a few feet. As practice gains -for him better control, he makes a longer flight; and -when he can show a perfect mastery of his craft for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -a flight of 300 feet, and not till then, he is permitted -to begin practice with a motor-driven machine.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_155.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A French apparatus for instructing pupils in aviation.</p></div> - -<p>The lamented Otto Lilienthal, whose experience -in more than 2,000 flights gives his instructions -unquestionable weight, urges that the “gradual development -of flight should begin with the simplest apparatus -and movements, and without the complication -of dynamic means. With simple wing surfaces -... man can carry out limited flights ... by -gliding through the air from elevated points in paths -more or less descending. The peculiarities of wind -effects can best be learned by such exercises.... -The maintenance of equilibrium in forward flight -is a matter of practice, and can be learned only by -repeated personal experiment.... Actual practice -in individual flight presents the best prospects for -developing our capacity until it leads to perfected -free flight.”</p> - -<p>The essential importance of thorough preparation -in the school of experience could scarcely be made -plainer or stronger. If it seems that undue emphasis -has been laid upon this point, the explanation -must be found in the deplorable death record among -aviators from accidents in the air. With few exceptions, -the cause of accident has been reported as, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -“The aviator seemed to lose control of his machine.” -If this is the case with professional flyers, the need -for thorough preliminary training cannot be too -strongly insisted upon.</p> - -<p>Having attained the art of balancing, the aviator -has to learn the mechanism by which he may control -his machine. While all of the principal machines -are but different embodiments of the same principles, -there is a diversity of design in the arrangement of -the means of control. We shall describe that of the -Curtiss biplane, as largely typical of them all.</p> - -<p>In general, the biplane consists of two large sustaining -planes, one above the other. Between the -planes is the motor which operates a propeller located -in the rear of the planes. Projecting behind -the planes, and held by a framework of bamboo rods, -is a small horizontal plane, called the tail. The rudder -which guides the aeroplane to the right or the -left is partially bisected by the tail. This rudder -is worked by wires which run to a steering wheel located -in front of the pilot’s seat. This wheel is similar -in size and appearance to the steering wheel of -an automobile, and is used in the same way for -guiding the aeroplane to the right or left. (See <a href="#Chapter_V">illustration -of the Curtiss machine in Chapter V</a>.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span></p> - -<p>In front of the planes, supported on a shorter projecting -framework, is the altitude rudder, a pair -of planes hinged horizontally, so that their front -edges may tip up or down. When they tilt up, the -air through which the machine is passing catches on -the under sides and lifts them up, thus elevating -the front of the whole aeroplane and causing it -to glide upward. The opposite action takes place -when these altitude planes are tilted downward. -This altitude rudder is controlled by a long rod -which runs to the steering wheel. By pushing on the -wheel the rod is shoved forward and turns the altitude -planes upward. Pulling the wheel turns the -rudder planes downward. This rod has a backward -and forward thrust of over two feet, but the -usual movement in ordinary wind currents is rarely -more than an inch. In climbing to high levels or -swooping down rapidly the extreme play of the rod -is about four or five inches.</p> - -<p>Thus the steering wheel controls both the horizontal -and vertical movements of the aeroplane. More -than this, it is a feeler to the aviator, warning him -of the condition of the air currents, and for this reason -must not be grasped too firmly. It is to be held -steady, yet loosely enough to transmit any wavering -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -force in the air to the sensitive touch of the pilot, -enabling him instinctively to rise or dip as the current -compels.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_159.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="small"><i>Courtesy N. Y. Times.</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>View of the centre of the new Wright machine, showing method of operating. Archibald Hoxsey in the pilot’s -seat. In his right hand he holds a lever with two handles, one operating the warping of the wing tips, -and the other the rudder. Both handles may be grasped at once, operating both rudder and wing tips -at the same moment. In his left hand Hoxsey grasps the lever operating the elevating plane—at the -rear in this type. The passenger’s seat is shown at the pilot’s right.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The preserving of an even keel is accomplished -in the Curtiss machine by small planes hinged between -the main planes at the outer ends. They -serve to prevent the machine from tipping over sideways. -They are operated by arms, projecting from -the back of the aviator’s seat, which embrace his -shoulders on each side, and are moved by the swaying -of his body. In a measure, they are automatic -in action, for when the aeroplane sags downward -on one side, the pilot naturally leans the other way -to preserve his balance, and that motion swings the -ailerons (as these small stabilizing planes are called) -in such a way that the pressure of the wind restores -the aeroplane to an even keel. The wires which connect -them with the back of the seat are so arranged -that when one aileron is being pulled down at its -rear edge the rear of the other one is being raised, -thus doubling the effect. As the machine is righted -the aviator comes back to an upright position, and -the ailerons become level once more.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_161.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Starting a Wright machine. When the word is given both assistants pull vigorously downward on the propeller blades.</p></div> - -<p>There are other controls which the pilot must -operate consciously. In the Curtiss machine these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> -are levers moved by the feet. With a pressure of the -right foot he short-circuits the magneto, thus cutting -off the spark in the engine cylinders and stopping -the motor. This lever also puts a brake on the forward -landing wheels, and checks the speed of the -machine as it touches the ground. The right foot -also controls the pump which forces the lubricating -oil faster or slower to the points where it is needed.</p> - -<p>The left foot operates the lever which controls the -throttle by which the aviator can regulate the flow -of gas to the engine cylinders. The average speed -of the 7-foot propeller is 1,100 revolutions per minute. -With the throttle it may be cut down to 100 -revolutions per minute, which is not fast enough to -keep afloat, but will help along when gliding.</p> - -<p>Obviously, travelling with the wind enables the -aviator to make his best speed records, for the speed -of the wind is added to that of his machine through -the air. Again, since the wind is always slower near -the ground, the aviator making a speed record will -climb up to a level where the surface currents no -longer affect his machine. But over hilly and wooded -country the air is often flowing or rushing in conflicting -channels, and the aviator does not know what -he may be called upon to face from one moment to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -the next. If the aeroplane starts to drop, it is only -necessary to push the steering wheel forward a little—perhaps -half an inch—to bring it up again. -Usually, the machine will drop on an even keel. -Then, in addition to the motion just described, the -aviator will lean toward the higher side, thus moving -the ailerons by the seat-back, and at the same -time he will turn the steering wheel toward the lower -side. This movement of the seat-back is rarely -more than 2 inches.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_163.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Diagram showing action of wind on flight of aeroplane. The force and direction -of the wind being represented by the line <i>A B</i>, and the propelling -force and steered direction being <i>A C</i>, the actual path travelled will be <i>A D</i>.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>In flying across country a sharp lookout is kept -on the land below. If it be of a character unfit for -landing, as woods, or thickly settled towns, the aviator -must keep high up in the air, lest his engine -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -stop and he be compelled to glide to the earth. A -machine will glide forward 3 feet for each foot that -it drops, if skilfully handled. If he is up 200 feet, -he will have to find a landing ground within 600 -feet. If he is up 500 feet, he may choose his alighting -ground anywhere within 1,500 feet. Over a city -like New York, a less altitude than 1,500 feet would -hardly be safe, if a glide became necessary.</p> - -<p>Mr. Clifford B. Harmon, who was an aeronaut -of distinction before he became an aviator, under the -instruction of Paulhan, has this to say: “It is like -riding a bicycle, or running an automobile. You -have to try it alone to really learn how. When one -first handles a flying machine it is advisable to keep -on the ground, just rolling along. This is a harder -mental trial than you will imagine. As soon as one -is seated in a flying machine he wishes to fly. It is -almost impossible to submit to staying near the earth. -But until the manipulation of the levers and the -steering gear has become second nature, this must be -done. It is best to go very slow in the beginning. -Skipping along the ground will teach a driver much. -When one first gets up in the air it is necessary to -keep far from all obstacles, like buildings, trees, or -crowds. There is the same tendency to run into -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> -them that an amateur bicycle rider has in regard -to stones and ruts on the ground. When he keeps -his eye on them and tries with all his might to steer -clear of them, he runs right into them.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_165.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Practicing with a monoplane, 20 feet above the ground.</p></div> - -<p>When asked what he regarded the fundamental -requirements in an aviator, Mr. Harmon said: -“First, he must be muscularly strong; so that he -will not tire. Second, he should have a thorough -understanding of the mechanism of the machine he -drives. Third, mental poise—the ability to think -quick and to act instantly upon your thought. -Fourth, a feeling of confidence in the air, so that -he will not feel strange or out of place. This familiarity -with the air can be best obtained by first -being a passenger in a balloon, then by controlling -one alone, and lastly going up in a flying machine.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_167.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Grahame-White on his Bleriot No. XII. The lever in front of him operates -all the controls through the movement of the drum at its base.</p></div> - -<p>Mr. Claude Grahame-White, the noted English -aviator, has this to say of his first experience with -his big “No. XII.” Bleriot monoplane—which differs -in many important features from the “No. -XI.” machine in which M. Bleriot crossed the English -Channel: “After several disappointments, I -eventually obtained the delivery of my machine in -working order.... As I had gathered a good deal -of information from watching the antics and profiting -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> -by the errors made by other beginners on Bleriot -monoplanes, I had a good idea of what <i>not</i> to do -when the engine was started up and we were ready -for our first trial.... It was a cold morning, but -the engine started up at the first quarter turn. After -many warnings from M. Bleriot’s foreman not on -any account to accelerate my engine too much, I -mounted the machine along with my friend as passenger, -and immediately gave the word to let go, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -we were soon speeding along the ground at a good -sixty kilometers (about 37 miles) per hour.... -Being very anxious to see whether the machine would -lift off the ground, I gave a slight jerk to the elevating -plane, and soon felt the machine rise into the -air; but remembering the warnings of the foreman, -and being anxious not to risk breaking the machine, -I closed the throttle and contented myself with running -around on the ground to familiarize myself with -the handling of the machine.... The next day we -got down to Issy about five o’clock in the morning, -some two hours before the Bleriot mechanics turned -up. However, we got the machine out, and tied it -to some railings, and then I had my first experience -of starting an engine, which to a novice at first sight -appears a most hazardous undertaking; for unless -the machine is either firmly held by several men, or -is strongly tied up, it has a tendency to immediately -leap forward. We successfully started the engine, -and then rigged up a leash, and when we had -mounted the machine, we let go; and before eight -o’clock we had accomplished several very successful -flights, both with and against the wind. These experiences -we continued throughout the day, and by -nightfall I felt quite capable of an extended flight, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> -if only the ground had been large enough.... The -following day M. Bleriot returned, and he sent for -me and strongly urged me not to use the aeroplane -any more at Issy, as he said the ground was far too -small for such a powerful machine.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_169.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Diagram of Bleriot monoplane, showing controlling lever <i>L</i> and bell-shaped -drum <i>C</i>, to which all controlling wires are attached. When the bell is -rocked back and forward the elevator tips on the rear plane are moved; -rocking from side to side moves the stabilizing tips of the main plane. -Turning the bell around moves the rudder.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span></p> - -<table class="images"> - <tr> - <td class="w50"><img src="images/i_170.jpg" alt="" /></td> - <td>The Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum, - devised to secure - automatic stability of aeroplanes. - The wheels are - driven by the aeroplane motor - at high speed. The pendulum - rod is extended upward - above the axis and - carries a vane which is engaged - by any gust of wind - from either side of the aeroplane, - tending to tilt the - pendulum, and bringing its - gyroscopic resistance into - play to warp the wings, or - operate ailerons.</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The caution shown by these experienced aviators -cannot be too closely followed by a novice. These -men do not say that their assiduous practice on the -ground was the fruit of timidity. On the contrary, -although they are long past the preliminary stages, -their advice to beginners is uniformly in the line of -caution and thorough practice. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_171.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>When the aeroplane is steered to the left, the pendulum swings to the right and -depresses the right side of the plane, as in (<i>c</i>). The reaction of the air -raises the right side of the plane until both surfaces are perpendicular -to the inclined pendulum, as in (<i>d</i>).</p></blockquote> - -<p class="caption">Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.</p> -</div> - -<p>Even after one has become an expert, the battle -is not won, by any means. While flying in calm -weather is extremely pleasurable, a protracted flight -is very fatiguing; and when it is necessary to wrestle -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> -with gusts of high wind and fickle air currents, the -strain upon the strongest nerve is a serious source -of danger in that the aviator is liable to be suddenly -overcome by weariness when he most needs to be -on the alert.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_172.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>In that inclined position the aeroplane makes the turn, and when the course -again becomes straight, both the gyroscopic and centrifugal forces cease, -and the pendulum under the influence of gravity becomes vertical. In -this position it is inclined to the left with respect to the planes, on which -its effect is to depress the left wing and so right the aeroplane, as in (<i>e</i>).</p></blockquote> - -<p class="caption">Diagram showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.</p></div> - -<p>Engine troubles are much fewer than they used -to be, and a more dependable form of motor relieves -the mind of the aviator from such mental disturbance. -Some device in the line of a wind-shield -would be a real boon, for even in the best weather -there is the ceaseless rush of air into one’s face at -45 to 50 miles an hour. The endurance of this for -hours is of itself a tax upon the most vigorous -physique. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span></p> - -<p>With the passing of the present spectacular stage -of the art of flying there will doubtless come a more -reliable form of machine, with corresponding relief -to the operator. Automatic mechanism will supplant -the intense and continual mental attention now -demanded; and as this demand decreases, the joys of -flying will be considerably enhanced.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_173.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>If, when pursuing a straight course, the aeroplane is tilted by a sideways wind -(<i>b</i>), the action of the pendulum as described above restores it to an even -keel, as in (<i>a</i>).</p></blockquote> - -<p class="caption">Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_IX">Chapter IX.<br /> - -FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Santos-Dumont’s gift—<i>La Demoiselle</i>—Mechanical skill required—Preparatory -practice—General dimensions—The -frame—The motor—The main planes—The rudder-tail—The -propeller—Shaping the blades—Maxim’s experience—The -running gear—The controls—Scrupulous workmanship.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">When</span> Santos-Dumont in 1909 gave to the -world the unrestricted privilege of building -monoplanes after the plans of his famous No. 20—afterward -named <i>La Demoiselle</i>—he gave not only -the best he knew, but as much as any one knows -about the building of flying machines. Santos-Dumont -has chosen the monoplane for himself because -his long experience commends it above others, -and <i>La Demoiselle</i> was the crowning achievement -of years spent in the construction and operation of -airships of all types. In view of Santos-Dumont’s -notable successes in his chosen field of activity, no -one will go astray in following his advice. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span></p> - -<p>Of course, the possession of plans and specifications -for an aeroplane does not make any man a -skilled mechanic. It is well to understand at the -start that a certain degree of mechanical ability is -required in building a machine which will be entirely -safe. Nor does the possession of a successful machine -make one an aeronaut. As in the case of bicycling, -there is no substitute for actual experience, while in -the airship the art of balancing is of even greater -importance than on the bicycle.</p> - -<p>The would-be aviator is therefore advised to put -himself through a course of training of mind and -body.</p> - -<p>Intelligent experimenting with some one of the -models described in Chapter XI. will teach much of -the action of aeroplanes in calms and when winds are -blowing; and practice with an easily constructed -glider (see <a href="#Chapter_XII">Chapter XII</a>.) will give experience in -balancing which will be of the greatest value when -one launches into the air for the first time with a -power-driven machine. An expert acquaintance with -gasoline motors and magnetos is a prime necessity. -In short, every bit of information on the subject of -flying machines and their operation cannot fail to be -useful in some degree. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span></p> - -<p>The dimensions of the various parts of the Santos-Dumont -monoplane are given on the original -plans according to the metric system. In reducing -these to “long measure” inches, all measurements -have been given to the nearest eighth of an inch.</p> - -<p>In general, we may note some of the peculiarities -of <i>La Demoiselle</i>. The spread of the plane is -18 feet from tip to tip, and it is 20 feet over all -from bow to stern. In height, it is about 4 feet 2 -inches when the propeller blades are in a horizontal -position. The total weight of the machine is 265 -lbs., of which the engine weighs about 66 lbs. The -area of the plane is 115 square feet, so that the total -weight supported by each square foot with Santos-Dumont -(weighing 110 lbs.) on board is a trifle -over 3 lbs.</p> - -<p>The frame of the body of the monoplane is largely -of bamboo, the three main poles being 2 inches in -diameter at the front, and tapering to about 1 inch -at the rear. They are jointed with brass sockets -just back of the plane, for convenience of taking -apart for transportation. Two of these poles extend -from the axle of the wheels backward and slightly -upward to the rudder-post. The third extends from -the middle of the plane between the wings, backward -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -and downward to the rudder-post. In cross-section -the three form a triangle with the apex at -the top. These bamboo poles are braced about every -2 feet with struts of steel tubing of oval section, -and the panels so formed are tied by diagonals of -piano wire fitted with turn-buckles to draw them -taut.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_177.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Side view of the Santos-Dumont monoplane. <i>MP</i>, main plane with radiator, <i>R</i>, hung underneath; <i>RP</i>, rudder plane worked by -wires <i>HC</i>, attached to lever <i>L</i>; <i>VC</i>, vertical control wires; <i>WT</i>, tube through which run the warping wires worked by lever -<i>K</i>, in a pocket of the pilot’s coat; <i>B</i>, <i>B</i>, bamboo poles of frame; <i>S</i>, <i>S</i>, brass, or aluminum sockets; <i>D</i>, <i>D</i>, struts of bicycle tubing; -<i>G</i>, gasoline; <i>RG</i>, reserve gasoline; <i>M</i>, motor; <i>P</i>, propeller; <i>Q</i>, <i>Q</i>, outer rib of plane, showing camber; <i>N</i>, skid.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>In the Santos-Dumont machine a 2-cylinder, -opposed Darracq motor of 30 horse-power was used. -It is of the water-cooled type, the cooling radiator -being a gridiron of very thin ⅛-inch copper tubing, -and hung up on the under side of the plane on either -side of the engine. The cylinders have a bore of -about 4⅛ inches, and a stroke of about 4¾ inches. -The propeller is 2-bladed, 6½ feet across, and is -run at 1,400 revolutions per minute, at which speed -it exerts a pull of 242 lbs.</p> - -<p>Each wing of the main plane is built upon 2 -transverse spars extending outward from the upper -bamboo pole, starting at a slight angle upward and -bending downward nearly to the horizontal as they -approach the outer extremities. These spars are of -ash, 2 inches wide, and tapering in thickness from -1⅛ inches at the central bamboo to about ⅞ inch at -the tips of the wings. They are bent into shape by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> -immersion in hot water, and straining them around -blocks nailed to the floor of the workshop, in the -form shown at QQ, p. 177.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_179.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Front view of the Santos-Dumont monoplane, showing position of tubular struts supporting the engine and the wings; also the -guys, and warping wires entering the tubes inside the wheels. <i>MP</i>, the main plane; <i>TP</i>, tail plane in the rear; <i>R</i>, radiators; -<i>M</i>, motor; <i>P</i>, propeller, the arrow showing direction of revolution.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The front spar is set about 9 inches back from the -front edge of the plane, and the rear one about 12 -inches forward of the back edge of the plane. Across -these spars, and beneath them, running fore and aft, -are bamboo rods about ¾ of an inch in diameter -at the forward end, and tapering toward the rear. -They are set 8½ inches apart (centre to centre), except -at the tips of the wings. The two outer panels -are 10¼ inches from centre to centre of the rods, to -give greater elasticity in warping. These fore-and-aft -rods are 6 feet 5 inches long, except directly -back of the propeller, where they are 5 feet 8 inches -long; they are bound to the spars with brass wire -No. 25, at the intersections. They also are bent to -a curved form, as shown in the plans, by the aid of -the hot-water bath. Diagonal guys of piano wire are -used to truss the frame in two panels in each wing.</p> - -<p>Around the outer free ends of the rods runs a -piano wire No. 20, which is let into the tips of the -rods in a slot ⅜ inch deep. To prevent the splitting -of the bamboo, a turn or two of the brass wire may -be made around the rod just back of the slot; but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> -it is much better to provide thin brass caps for the -ends of the rods, and to cut the slots in the metal -as well as in the rods. Instead of caps, ferrules will -do. When the slots are cut, let the tongue formed -in the cutting be bent down across the bamboo to -form the floor to the slot, upon which the piano wire -may rest. The difference in weight and cost is very -little, and the damage that may result from a split -rod may be serious.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_181.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Plan and details of construction of <i>La Demoiselle</i>.</p></div> - -<p>After the frame of the plane is completed it is -to be covered with cloth on both sides, so as entirely -to enclose the frame, except only the tips of the rods, -as shown in the plans. In the Santos-Dumont monoplane -the cloth used is of closely woven silk, but a -strong, unbleached muslin will do—the kind made -especially for aeroplanes is best.</p> - -<p>Both upper and lower surfaces must be stretched -taut, the edges front and back being turned over the -piano wire, and the wire hemmed in. The upper -and lower surfaces are then sewed together—“through -and through,” as a seamstress would say—along -both sides of each rod, so that the rods are -practically in “pockets.” Nothing must be slighted, -if safety in flying is to be assured.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_183a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sectional diagram of 2-cylinder Darracq opposed motor.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_183b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram of 4-cylinder Darracq opposed motor.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_183c.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram of 3-cylinder Anzani motor.</p> - -<p class="caption">Motors suitable for <i>La Demoiselle</i> monoplane.</p></div> - -<p>The tail of the monoplane is a rigid combination -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -of two planes intersecting each other at right angles -along a central bamboo pole which extends back 3 -feet 5½ inches from the rudder-post, to which it is -attached by a double joint, permitting it to move -upon either the vertical or the horizontal axis.</p> - -<p>Although this tail, or rudder, may seem at first -glance somewhat complicated in the plans, it will not -be found so if the frame of the upright or vertical -plane be first constructed, and that of the level or -horizontal plane afterward built fast to it at right -angles.</p> - -<p>As with the main plane, the tail is to be covered -on both sides with cloth, the vertical part first; the -horizontal halves on either side so covered that the -cloth of the latter may be sewed above and below -the central pole. All of the ribs in the tail are to be -stitched in with “pockets,” as directed for the rods -of the main plane.</p> - -<p>The construction of the motor is possible to an -expert machinist only, and the aeroplane builder will -save time and money by buying his engine from a -reliable maker. It is not necessary to send to -France for a Darracq motor. Any good gasoline -engine of equal power, and about the same weight, -will serve the purpose. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p> - -<p>The making of the propeller is practicable for a -careful workman. The illustrations will give a better -idea than words of how it should be done. It -should be remembered, however, that the safety of -the aviator depends as much upon the propeller as -upon any other part of the machine. The splitting -of the blades when in motion has been the cause of -serious accidents. The utmost care, therefore, should -be exercised in the selection of the wood, and in the -glueing of the several sections into one solid mass, -allowing the work to dry thoroughly under heavy -pressure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_185.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Diagram showing how the layers of wood are placed for glueing: <i>A</i>, at the hub; -<i>B</i>, half way to the tip of the blade; <i>C</i>, at the tip. The dotted lines show -the form of the blade at these points.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The forming of the blades requires a good deal of -skill, and some careful preliminary study. It is apparent -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -that the speed of a point at the tip of a revolving -blade is much greater than that of a point -near the hub, for it traverses a larger circle in the -same period of time. But if the propeller is to do -effective work without unequal strain, the twist in the -blade must be such that each point in the length of -the blade is exerting an equal pull on the air. It -is necessary, therefore, that the slower-moving part -of the blade, near the hub, or axis, shall cut “deeper” -into the air than the more swiftly moving tip of -the blade. Consequently the blade becomes continually -“flatter” (approaching the plane in which it -revolves) as we work from the hub outward toward -the tip. This “flattening” is well shown in the -nearly finished blade clamped to the bench at the -right of the illustration—which shows a four-bladed -propeller, instead of the two-bladed type needed for -the monoplane.</p> - -<p>The propeller used for propulsion in air differs -from the propeller-wheel used for ships in water, -in that the blades are curved laterally; the forward -face of the blade being convex, and the rearward -face concave. The object of this shaping is the same -as for curving the surface of the plane—to secure -smoother entry into the air forward, and a compression -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -in the rear which adds to the holding power on -the substance of the air. It is extremely difficult to -describe this complex shape, and the amateur builder -of a propeller will do well to inspect one made by a -professional, or to buy it ready made with his engine.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_187.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Forming a 4-blade propeller out of 8 layers of wood glued firmly together.</p></div> - -<p>The following quotation from Sir Hiram Maxim’s -account of his most effective propeller may aid the -ambitious aeroplane builder: “My large screws were -made with a great degree of accuracy; they were perfectly -smooth and even on both sides, the blades being -thin and held in position by a strip of rigid wood -on the back of the blade.... Like the small screws, -they were made of the very best kind of seasoned -American white pine, and when finished were varnished -on both sides with hot glue. When this was -thoroughly dry, they were sand-papered again, and -made perfectly smooth and even. The blades were -then covered with strong Irish linen fabric of the -smoothest and best make. Glue was used for attaching -the fabric, and when dry another coat of glue -was applied, the surface rubbed down again, and -then painted with zinc white in the ordinary way and -varnished. These screws worked exceedingly well.”</p> - -<p>The covering of the blades with linen glued fast -commends itself to the careful workman as affording -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> -precaution against the splintering of the blades -when in rapid motion. Some propellers have their -wooden blades encased with thin sheet aluminum to -accomplish the same purpose, but for the amateur -builder linen is far easier to apply.</p> - -<table class="images"> - <tr> - <td><blockquote> - - <p>This method of mounting the - wheels of the chassis has - been found the most satisfactory. - The spring takes - up the shock of a sudden - landing and the pivot working - in the hollow post allows - the entire mounting to swing - like a caster, and adapt itself - to any direction at which - the machine may strike the - ground.</p></blockquote></td> - <td class="w50"><img src="images/i_189.jpg" alt="" /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The wheels are of the bicycle type, with wire -spokes, but with hubs six inches long. The axle is -bent to incline upward at the ends, so that the wheels -incline outward at the ground, the better to take -the shock of a sideways thrust when landing. The -usual metal or wood rims may be used, but special -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> -tires of exceptionally light construction, made for -aeroplanes, should be purchased.</p> - -<p>The controlling wires or cords for moving the rudder -(or tail) and for warping the tips of the wings -are of flexible wire cable, such as is made for use -as steering rope on small boats. The cable controlling -the horizontal plane of the rudder-tail is fastened -to a lever at the right hand of the operator. The -cable governing the vertical plane of the rudder-tail -is attached to a wheel at the left hand of the operator. -The cables which warp the tips of the wings -are fastened to a lever which projects upward just -back of the operator’s seat, and which is slipped -into a long pocket sewed to the back of his coat, so -that the swaying of his body in response to the fling -of the tipping machine tends to restore it to an even -keel. Springs are attached to all of these controlling -wires, strong enough to bring them back to a normal -position when the operator removes his hands from -the steering apparatus.</p> - -<p>The brass sockets used in connecting the tubular -struts to the main bamboos and the rudder-post, and -in fastening the axle of the wheels to the lower bamboos -and elsewhere, should be thoroughly made and -brazed by a good mechanic, for no one should risk -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> -the chance of a faulty joint at a critical spot, when -an accident may mean the loss of life.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_191.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram of Bleriot monoplane showing sizes of parts, in metres. Reduced to -feet and inches these measurements are:</p> - -<table class="tdr"> - <tr> - <td>0.60 metres</td> - <td>1 ft.</td> - <td>11½ in.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1.50 metres</td> - <td>4 ft.</td> - <td>11 in.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>2.10 metres</td> - <td>6 ft.</td> - <td>10½ in.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>3.50 metres</td> - <td>11 ft.</td> - <td> 6 in.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>8.00 metres</td> - <td>26 ft.</td> - <td> 3 in.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>8.60 metres</td> - <td>28 ft.</td> - <td> 2½ in.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The diagram being drawn to scale other dimensions may be found. In both -the plan (upper figure) and elevation (lower figure), <i>A</i>, <i>A</i>, is the main plane; -<i>B</i>, tail plane; <i>C</i>, body; <i>D</i>, elevator wing-tips; <i>E</i>, rudder; <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, rigid spar; -<i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, flexible spar; <i>r</i>, <i>r</i>, points of attachment for warping-wires; <i>h</i>, <i>h</i>, guys; -<i>H</i>, propeller; <i>M</i>, motor; <i>R</i>, radiator; <i>S</i>, pilot’s seat; <i>P</i>, chassis.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>For the rest, it has seemed better to put the details -of construction on the plans themselves, where they -will be available to the aeroplane builder without the -trouble of continually consulting the text.</p> - -<p>Some of the work on an aeroplane will be found -simple and easy; some of it, difficult and requiring -much patience; and some impracticable to any one -but a trained mechanic. But in all of it, the worker’s -motto should be, “Fidelity in every detail.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_X">Chapter X.<br /> - -FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Early use of steam—Reliability necessary—The gasoline motor—Carburetion—Compression—Ignition—Air-cooling—Water-cooling—Lubrication—The -magneto—Weight—Types of -motors—The propeller—Form, size, and pitch—Slip—Materials—Construction.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> possibility of the existence of the flying -machine as we have it to-day has been ascribed -to the invention of the gasoline motor. While this -is not to be denied, it is also true that the gasoline -motors designed and built for automobiles and motor-boats -have had to be wellnigh revolutionized to make -them suitable for use in the various forms of aircraft. -And it is to be remembered, doubtless to their -greater credit, that Henson, Hargrave, Langley, and -Maxim had all succeeded in adapting steam to the -problem of the flight of models, the two latter using -gasoline to produce the steam.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the one predominant qualification demanded -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> -of the aeroplane motor is reliability. A -motor-car or motor-boat can be stopped, and engine -troubles attended to with comparatively little inconvenience. -The aeroplane simply cannot stop without -peril. It is possible for a skilful pilot to reach the -earth when his engine stops, if he is fortunately high -enough to have space for the downward glide which -will gain for him the necessary headway for steering. -At a lesser height he is sure to crash to the earth.</p> - -<p>An understanding of the principles on which the -gasoline motor works is essential to a fair estimate -of the comparative advantages of the different types -used to propel aeroplanes. In the first place, the radical -difference between the gasoline motor and other -engines is the method of using the fuel. It is not -burned in ordinary fashion, but the gasoline is first -vaporized and mixed with a certain proportion of air, -in a contrivance called a carburetor. This gaseous -mixture is pumped into the cylinder of the motor -by the action of the motor itself, compressed into -about one-tenth of its normal volume, and then exploded -by a strong electric spark at just the right -moment to have its force act most advantageously to -drive the machinery onward.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_195.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The “Fiat” 8-cylinder air-cooled motor, of the “V” type, made in France.</p></div> - -<p>It is apparent that there are several chances for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> -failure in this series. The carburetor may not do -its part accurately. The mixture of air and vapor -may not be in such proportions that it will explode; -in that case, the power from that stroke will be missing, -and the engine will falter and slow down. Or -a leakage in the cylinder may prevent the proper -compression of the mixture, the force from the explosion -will be greatly reduced, with a corresponding -loss of power and speed. Or the electric spark may -not be “fat” enough—that is, of sufficient volume -and heat to fire the mixture; or it may not “spark” -at just the right moment; if too soon, it will exert -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> -its force against the onward motion: if too late, it -will not deliver the full power of the explosion at the -time when its force is most useful. The necessity -for absolute perfection in these operations is obvious.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_196.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A near view of the Holmes engine from the driving side.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_197.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Holmes rotative engine, 7-cylinder 35 horse-power, weighing 160 pounds.<br /> -An American engine built in Chicago, Ill.</p></div> - -<p>Other peculiarities of the gasoline motor affect -considerably its use for aeroplanes. The continual -and oft-repeated explosions of the gaseous mixture -inside of the cylinder generate great heat, and this -not only interferes with its regularity of movement, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> -but within a very brief time checks it altogether. -To keep the cylinder cool enough to be serviceable, -two methods are in use: the air-cooling system and -the water-cooling system. In the first, flanges of -very thin metal are cast on the outside of the cylinder -wall. These flanges take up the intense heat, -and being spread out over a large surface in this -way, the rushing of the air through them as the machine -flies (or sometimes blown through them with -a rotary fan) cools them to some degree. With the -water-cooling system, the cylinder has an external -jacket, the space between being filled with water -which is made to circulate constantly by a small -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> -pump. In its course the water which has just taken -up the heat from the cylinder travels through a radiator -in which it is spread out very thin, and this -radiator is so placed in the machine that it receives -the full draught from the air rushing through the -machine as it flies. The amount of water required -for cooling a motor is about 1⅕ lbs. per horse-power. -With an 8-cylinder 50 horse-power motor, this water -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> -would add the very considerable item of 60 lbs. to the -weight the machine has to carry. As noted in a previous -chapter, the McCurdy biplane has its radiator -formed into a sustaining plane, and supports its own -weight when travelling in the air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_198.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The 180 horse-power engine of Sir Hiram Maxim; of the “opposed” type, -compound, and driven by steam.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_199.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>The Anzani motor and propeller which carried M. Bleriot across the English -Channel. The curved edge of the propeller blades is the entering edge, -the propeller turning from the right of the picture over to the left. The -Anzani is of the “radiant” type and is of French build.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>It is an unsettled point with manufacturers -whether the greater efficiency (generally acknowledged) -of the water-cooled engine more than compensates -for the extra weight of the water.</p> - -<p>Another feature peculiar to the gasoline motor is -the necessity for such continual oiling that it is styled -“lubrication,” and various devices have been invented -to do the work automatically, without attention -from the pilot further than the watching of his -oil-gauge to see that a full flow of oil is being pumped -through the oiling system.</p> - -<p>The electric current which produces the spark -inside of the cylinder is supplied by a magneto, a -machine formed of permanent magnets of horseshoe -form, between the poles of which a magnetized armature -is made to revolve rapidly by the machinery -which turns the propeller. This magneto is often -connected with a small storage battery, or accumulator, -which stores up a certain amount of current for -use when starting, or in case the magneto gives out. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_201.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Sectional drawings showing details of construction of the Anzani motor. The flanges of the air-cooling system are distinctly shown. The -section at the left is from the side; that at the right, from the front. All measurements are in millimètres. A millimètre is 0.039 inch. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span></p></blockquote></div> - -<p>The great rivalry of the builders of motors has -been in cutting down the weight per horse-power to -the lowest possible figure. It goes without saying -that useless weight is a disadvantage in an aeroplane, -but it has not been proven that the very lightest engines -have made a better showing than those of sturdier -build.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_202.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The “Gobron” engine of the “double opposed,” or cross-shaped type. -A water-cooled engine, with 8 cylinders.</p></div> - -<p>One of the items in the weight of an engine has -been the fly-wheel found necessary on all motors of -4 cylinders or less to give steadiness to the running. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> -With a larger number of cylinders, and a consequently -larger number of impulses in the circuit of -the propeller, the vibration is so reduced that the -fly-wheel has been dispensed with.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Emerson 6-cylinder aviation engine, of the “tandem” type, water-cooled; -60 horse-power; made at Alexandria, Va.</p></div> - -<p>There are several distinct types of aircraft engines, -based on the arrangement of the cylinders. -The “tandem” type has the cylinders standing upright -in a row, one behind another. There may be -as many as eight in a row. The Curtiss and Wright -engines are examples. Another type is the “opposed” -arrangement, the cylinders being placed in a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> -horizontal position and in two sets, one working opposite -the other. An example of this type is seen in -the Darracq motor used on the Santos-Dumont monoplane. -Another type is the “V” arrangement, the -cylinders set alternately leaning to right and to left, -as seen in the “Fiat” engine. Still another type -is the “radiant,” in which the cylinders are all above -the horizontal, and disposed like rays from the rising -sun. The 3-cylinder Anzani engine and the 5- and -7-cylinder R-E-P engines are examples. The “star” -type is exemplified in the 5 and 7-cylinder engines -in which the cylinders radiate at equal angles -all around the circle. The “double opposed” or -cross-shaped type is shown in the “Gobron” engine. -In all of these types the cylinders are stationary, -and turn the propeller shaft either by cranks or by -gearing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_204.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Elbridge engine, of the “tandem” type and water-cooled. It is an American engine, built -at Rochester, N. Y.</p></div> - -<p>An entirely distinct type of engine, and one which -has been devised solely for the aeroplane, is the rotative—often -miscalled the rotary, which is totally -different. The rotative type may be illustrated by -the Gnome motor. In this engine the seven cylinders -turn around the shaft, which is stationary. The -propeller is fastened to the cylinders, and revolves -with them. This ingenious effect is produced by an -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> -offset of the crank-shaft of half the stroke of the pistons, -whose rods are all connected with the crank-shaft. -The entire system revolves around the main -shaft as a centre, the crank-shaft being also stationary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_206.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>The famous Gnome motor; 50 horse-power, 7-cylinder, air-cooled; of the -rotative type; made in France. This illustration shows the Gnome steel -propeller.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_207a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sectional diagram of the 5-cylinder R-E-P motor; of the “radiant” type.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_207b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sectional diagram of the 5-cylinder Bayard-Clement motor; of the “star” -type.</p></div> - -<p>Strictly speaking, the propeller is not a part of the -motor of the flying machine, but it is so intimately -connected with it in the utilization of the power created -by the motor, that it will be treated of briefly -in this chapter.</p> - -<p>The form of the air-propeller has passed through -a long and varied development, starting with that of -the marine propeller, which was found to be very inefficient -in so loose a medium as air. On account of -this lack of density in the air, it was found necessary -to act on large masses of it at practically the same -time to gain the thrust needed to propel the aeroplane -swiftly, and this led to increasing the diameter -of the propeller to secure action on a proportionally -larger area of air. The principle involved is simply -the geometric rule that the areas of circles are to -each other as the squares of their radii. Thus the -surface of air acted on by two propellers, one of 6 -feet diameter and the other of 8 feet diameter, would -be in the proportion of 9 to 16; and as the central -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> -part of a propeller has practically no thrust effect, -the efficiency of the 8-foot propeller is nearly twice -that of the 6-foot propeller—other factors being -equal. But these other factors may be made to vary -widely. For instance, the number of revolutions -may be increased for the smaller propeller, thus engaging -more air than the larger one at a lower speed; -and, in practice, it is possible to run a small propeller -at a speed that would not be safe for a large -one. Another factor is the pitch of the propeller, -which may be described as the distance the hub of -the propeller would advance in one complete revolution -if the blades moved in an unyielding medium, as -a section of the thread of an ordinary bolt moves in -its nut. In the yielding mass of the air the propeller -advances only a part of its pitch, in some cases not -more than half. The difference between the theoretical -advance and the actual advance is called the -“slip.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_209.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>The Call Aviation Engine, of the opposed type; water-cooled. The cylinders are large and -few in number. The 100 horse-power engine has but 4 cylinders, and weighs only -250 pounds. (The Gnome 100 horse-power engine has 14 cylinders.) This is an -American engine, built at Girard, Kansas.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>In practical work the number of blades which have -been found to be most effective is two. More blades -than two seem to so disturb the air that there is no -hold for the propeller. In the case of slowly revolving -propellers, as in most airship mechanisms, four-bladed -propellers are used with good effect. But -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> -where the diameter of the propeller is about 8 feet, -and the number of revolutions about 1,200 per minute, -the two-bladed type is used almost exclusively.</p> - -<p>The many differing forms of the blades of the -propeller is evidence that the manufacturers have not -decided upon any definite shape as being the best. -Some have straight edges nearly or quite parallel; -others have the entering edge straight and the rear -edge curved; in others the entering edge is curved, -and the rear edge straight; or both edges may be -curved. The majority of the wooden propellers are -of the third-mentioned type, and the curve is fashioned -so that at each section of its length the blade -presents the same area of surface in the same time. -Hence the outer tip, travelling the fastest, is narrower -than the middle of the blade, and it is also -much thinner to lessen the centrifugal force acting -upon it at great speeds. Near the hub, however, -where the travel is slowest, the constructional problem -demands that the blade contract in width and -be made stout. In fact, it becomes almost round in -section.</p> - -<p>Many propellers are made of metal, with tubular -shanks and blades of sheet metal, the latter either -solid sheets or formed with a double surface and hollow -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> -inside. Still others have a frame of metal with -blades of fabric put on loosely, so that it may adapt -itself to the pressure of the air in revolving. That -great strength is requisite becomes plain when it is -considered that the speed of the tip of a propeller -blade often reaches seven miles a minute! And at -this velocity the centrifugal force excited—tending to -tear the blades to splinters—is prodigious.</p> - -<p>Just as the curved surface of the planes of an -aeroplane is more effective than a flat surface in -compressing the air beneath them, and thus securing -a firmer medium on which to glide, so the propeller -blades are curved laterally (across their width) to -compress the air behind them and thus secure a better -hold. The advancing side of the blade is formed -with a still greater curve, to gain the advantage due -to the unexplained lift of the paradox aeroplane.</p> - -<p>Where the propeller is built of wood it is made of -several layers, usually of different kinds of wood, -with the grain running in slightly different directions, -and all carefully glued together into a solid -block. Ash, spruce, and mahogany, in alternating -layers, are a favorite combination. In some instances -the wooden propeller is sheathed in sheet -aluminum; in others, it is well coated with glue -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> -which is sandpapered down very smooth, then varnished, -and then polished to the highest lustre—to -reduce the effect of the viscosity of the air to the -minimum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_213.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Two propellers, the one on the left of left-hand pitch; the other of right-hand -pitch. Both are thrusting propellers, and are viewed from the rear. -These fine models are of the laminated type, and are of American make; -the one to the left a Paragon propeller made in Washington, D. C.; the -other a Brauner propeller made in New York.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>In order to get the best results, the propeller and -the motor must be suited to each other. Some motors -which “race” with a propeller which is slightly -too small, work admirably with one a little heavier, -or with a longer diameter.</p> - -<p>The question as to whether one propeller, or two, -is the better practice, has not been decided. The -majority of aeroplanes have but one. The Wright -and the Cody machines have two. The certainty of -serious consequences to a machine having two, -should one of them be disabled, or even broken so -as to reduce the area, seems to favor the use of but -one. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XI">Chapter XI.<br /> - -MODEL FLYING MACHINES.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Awakened popular interest—The workshop’s share—Needed devices—Super-sensitive -inventions—Unsolved problems—Tools -and materials—A model biplane—The propeller—The -body—The steering plane—The main planes—Assembling -the parts—The motive power—Flying the model—A monoplane -model—Carving a propeller—Many ideas illustrated—Clubs -and competitions—Some remarkable records.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">It</span> is related of Benjamin Franklin that when he -went out with his famous kite with the wire -string, trying to collect electricity from the thundercloud, -he took a boy along to forestall the ridicule that -he knew would be meted out to him if he openly flew -the kite himself.</p> - -<p>Other scientific experimenters, notably those working -upon the problem of human flight in our own -time, have encountered a similar condition of the -public mind, and have chosen to conduct their trials -in secret rather than to contend with the derision, -criticism, and loss of reputation which a sceptical -world would have been quick to heap upon them. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span></p> - -<p>But such a complete revolution of thought has been -experienced in these latter days that groups of notable -scientific men gravely flying kites, or experimenting -with carefully made models of flying machines, -arouse only the deepest interest, and their -smallest discoveries are eagerly seized upon by the -daily press as news of the first importance.</p> - -<p>So much remains to be learned in the field of -aeronautics that no builder and flyer of the little -model aeroplanes can fail to gain valuable information, -if that is his intention. On the other hand, -if it be the sport of racing these model aeroplanes -which appeals to him, the instruction given in the -pages following will be equally useful.</p> - -<p>The earnest student of aviation is reminded that -the progressive work in this new art of flying is -not being done altogether, nor even in large part, -by the daring operators who, with superb courage, are -performing such remarkable feats with the flying machines -of the present moment. Not one of them -would claim that his machine is all that could be desired. -On the contrary, these intrepid men more -than any others are fully aware of the many and -serious defects of the apparatus they use for lack of -better. The scientific student in his workshop, patiently -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -experimenting with his models, and working -to prove or disprove untested theories, is doubtless -doing an invaluable part in bringing about the sort -of flying which will be more truly profitable to humanity -in general, though less spectacular.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_217.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A model flying machine built and flown by Louis Paulhan, the noted aviator, at a prize contest for models in France. -The design is after Langley’s model, with tandem monoplane surfaces placed at a dihedral angle.</p></div> - -<p>One of the greatest needs of the present machines -is an automatic balancer which shall supersede the -concentrated attention which the operator is now -compelled to exercise in order to keep his machine -right side up. The discovery of the principle upon -which such a balancer must be built is undoubtedly -within the reach of the builder and flyer of models. -It has been asserted by an eminent scientific experimenter -in things aeronautic that “we cannot hope -to make a sensitive apparatus quick enough to take -advantage of the rising currents of the air,” etc. -With due respect to the publicly expressed opinion -of this investigator, it is well to reassure ourselves -against so pessimistic an outlook by remembering -that the construction of just such supersensitive -apparatus is a task to which man has frequently -applied his intellectual powers with signal success. -Witness the photomicroscope, which records faithfully -an enlarged view of objects too minute to be -even visible to the human eye; the aneroid barometer, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> -so sensitive that it will indicate the difference in -level between the table and the floor; the thermostat, -which regulates the temperature of the water flowing -in the domestic heating system with a delicacy impossible -to the most highly constituted human organism; -the seismograph, detecting, recording, and -almost locating earth tremors originating thousands -of miles away; the automatic fire sprinkler; the -safety-valve; the recording thermometer and other -meteorological instruments; and last, if not of least -importance, the common alarm-clock. And these are -but a few of the contrivances with which man does -by blind mechanism that which is impossible to his -sentient determination.</p> - -<p>Even if the nervous system could be schooled into -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> -endurance of the wear and tear of consciously balancing -an aeroplane for many hours, it is still imperative -that the task be not left to the exertion of -human wits, but controlled by self-acting devices -responding instantly to unforeseen conditions as they -occur.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_219.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram showing turbulent air currents produced when a flat plane is forced -through the air at a large angle of incidence in the direction A-B.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_220.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram showing smoothly flowing air currents caused by correctly shaped -plane at proper angle of incidence.</p></div> - -<p>Some of the problems of which the model-builder -may find the solution are: whether large screws revolving -slowly, or small screws revolving rapidly, -are the more effective; how many blades a propeller -should have, and their most effective shape; what is -the “perfect” material for the planes (Maxim found -that with a smooth wooden plane he could lift 2½ -times the weight that could be lifted with the best -made fabric-covered plane); whether the centre of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> -gravity of the aeroplane should be above or below -the centre of lift, or should coincide with it; new -formulas for the correct expression of the lift in -terms of the velocity, and angle of inclination—the -former formulas having been proved erroneous by -actual experience; how to take the best advantage of -the “tangential force” announced by Lilienthal, and -reasserted by Hargrave; and many others. And -there is always the “paradox aeroplane” to be explained—and -when explained it will be no longer a -paradox, but will doubtless open the way to the most -surprising advance in the art of flying.</p> - -<p>It is not assumed that every reader of this chapter -will become a studious experimenter, but it is unquestionably -true that every model-builder, in his -effort to produce winning machines, will be more -than likely to discover some fact of value in the -progress making toward the ultimate establishment -of the commercial navigation of the air.</p> - -<p>The tools and materials requisite for the building -of model aeroplanes are few and inexpensive. For -the tools—a small hammer; a small iron “block” -plane; a fine-cut half-round file; a pair of round-nose -pliers; three twist drills (as used for drilling metals), -the largest 1/16 inch diameter, and two smaller sizes, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> -with an adjustable brad-awl handle to hold them; -a sharp pocket knife; and, if practicable, a small -hand vise. The vise may be dispensed with, and -common brad-awls may take the place of the drills, -if necessary.</p> - -<p>For the first-described model—the simplest—the -following materials are needed: some thin whitewood, -1/16 inch thick (as prepared for fret-sawing); -some spruce sticks, ¼ inch square (sky-rocket sticks -are good); a sheet of heavy glazed paper; a bottle of -liquid glue; some of the smallest (in diameter) brass -screws, ¼ to ½ inch long; some brass wire, 1/20 inch in -diameter; 100 inches of square rubber (elastic) -“cord,” such as is used on return-balls, but 1/16 inch -square; and a few strips of draughtsman’s tracing -cloth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_223.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p><i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, blank from which propeller -is shaped; <i>P</i>, <i>P</i>, pencil lines at -centre of bend; <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, sections of -blade at points opposite; <i>E</i>, <i>G</i>, propeller -after twisting; <i>H</i>, view of -propeller endwise, showing outward -twist of tips; also shaft.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>As the propeller is the most difficult part to make, -it is best to begin with it. The flat blank is cut out -of the whitewood, and subjected to the action of -steam issuing from the spout of an actively boiling -tea-kettle. The steam must be hot; mere vapor will -not do the work. When the strip has become pliable, -the shaping is done by slowly bending and twisting -at the same time—perhaps “coaxing” would be the -better word, for it must be done gently and with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> -patience—and the steam must be playing on the wood -all the time, first on one side of the strip, then on -the other, at the point where the fibres are being bent. -The utmost care should be taken to have the two -blades bent exactly alike—although, of course, with -a contrary twist, the one to the right and the other to -the left, on each side of the centre. A lead-pencil -line across each blade at exactly the same distance -from the centre will serve to fix accurately the centre -of the bend. If two blocks are made with slots cut -at the angle of 1 inch rise to 2¼ inches base, and -nailed to the top of the work bench just far enough -apart to allow the tips of the screw to be slid into the -slots, the drying in perfect shape will be facilitated. -The centre may be held to a true upright by two other -blocks, one on each side of the centre. Some strips -of whitewood may be so rigid that the steam will not -make them sufficiently supple. In this case it may be -necessary to dip them bodily into the boiling water, -or even to leave them immersed for a few minutes; -afterward bending them in the hot steam. But a -wetted stick requires longer to dry and set in the screw -shape. When the propeller is thoroughly dry and set -in proper form, it should be worked into the finished -shape with the half-round file, according to the several -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> -sections shown beside the elevation for each part -of the blade. The two strengthening piece’s are then -to be glued on at the centre of the screw, and when -thoroughly dry, worked down smoothly to shape. -When all is dry and hard it should be smoothed with -the finest emery cloth and given a coat of shellac varnish, -which, in turn, may be rubbed to a polish with -rotten stone and oil.</p> - -<p>It may be remarked, in passing, that this is a crude -method of making a propeller, and the result cannot -be very good. It is given here because it is the easiest -way, and the propeller will work. A much better -way is described further on—and the better the propeller, -the better any model will fly. But for a novice, -no time will be lost in making this one, for the -experience gained will enable the model-builder to -do better work with the second one than he could do -without it.</p> - -<p>For the aeroplane body we get out a straight spar -of spruce, ¼ inch square and 15½ inches long. At the -front end of this—on the upper side—is to be glued -a small triangular piece of wood to serve as a support -for the forward or steering plane, tilting it up -at the front edge at the angle represented by a rise -of 1 in 8. This block should be shaped on its upper -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> -side to fit the curve of the under side of the steering-plane, -which will be screwed to it.</p> - -<p>The steering-plane is cut according to plan, out -of 1/16 inch whitewood, planed down gradually to be -at the ends about half that thickness. This plane is -to be steamed and bent to a curve (fore and aft) as -shown in the sectional view. The steam should play -on the <i>convex</i> side of the bend while it is being -shaped. To hold it in proper form until it is set, -blocks with curved slots may be used, or it may be -bound with thread to a moulding block of equal -length formed to the proper curve. When thoroughly -dry it is to be smoothed with the emery cloth, -and a strip of tracing cloth—glossy face out—is to -be glued across each end, to prevent breaking in case -of a fall. It is then to be varnished with shellac, -and polished, as directed for the propeller. Indeed, it -should be said once for all that every part of the -model should be as glossy as it is possible to make -it without adding to the weight, and that all “entering -edges” (those which push into and divide the air -when in flight) should be as sharp as is practicable -with the material used.</p> - -<p>The steering-plane is to be fastened in place by -a single screw long enough to pierce the plane and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> -the supporting block, and enter the spar. The hole -for this screw (as for all screws used) should be -drilled carefully, to avoid the least splitting of the -wood, and just large enough to have the screw “bite” -without forcing its way in. This screw which holds -the plane is to be screwed “home” but not too tight, -so that in case the flying model should strike upon -it in falling, the slender plane will swivel, and not -break. It will be noticed that while this screw passes -through the centre of the plane sideways, it is nearer -to the forward edge than to the rear edge.</p> - -<p>If the work has been accurate, the plane will balance -if the spar is supported—upon the finger, perhaps, -as that is sensitive to any tendency to tipping. -If either wing is too heavy, restore the balance by -filing a little from the tip of that wing.</p> - -<p>The main planes are next to be made. The lower -deck of the biplane is of the 1/16 inch whitewood, and -the upper one is of the glazed paper upon a skeleton -framework of wood. The upright walls are of paper. -The wooden deck is to be bent into the proper curve -with the aid of steam, and when dry and set in form -is to be finished and polished. The frame for the -upper deck is made of the thin whitewood, and is -held to its position by two diagonal struts of whitewood -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> -bent at the ends with steam, and two straight -upright struts or posts. It is better to bend all cross-pieces -into the curve of the plane with steam, but -they may be worked into the curve on the top side -with plane and file, and left flat on the lower side. -The drawings show full details of the construction, -drawn accurately to scale.</p> - -<p>It is best to glue all joints, and in addition to insert -tiny screws, where shown in the plans, at the time -of gluing.</p> - -<p>When all the wooden parts are in place the entire -outline of the upper plane and the upright walls is -to be formed of silk thread carried from point to -point, and tied upon very small pins (such as are -used in rolls of ribbon at the stores) inserted in the -wood. The glazed paper is put on double, glossy -side out. Cut the pieces twice as large (and a trifle -more) than is needed, and fold so that the smooth -crease comes to the front and the cut edges come together -at the rear. The two inner walls should be -put in place first, so as to enclose the thread front -and back, and the post, between the two leaves of the -folded paper. Cutting the paper half an inch too -long will give one fourth of an inch to turn flat top -and bottom to fasten to the upper and lower decks -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> -respectively. The two outer walls and the upper deck -may be cut all in one piece, the under leaf being slit -to pass on either side of the inner walls. A bit of -glue here and there will steady the parts to their -places. The cut edges at the rear of the deck and -walls should be caught together with a thin film of -glue, so as to enclose the rear threads.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_229.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p><i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, plan, and <i>C</i>, section, of steering plane; <i>H</i>, section of lower main plane; <i>L</i>, wood skeleton of upper -plane; <i>T</i>, <i>T</i>, silk thread; <i>O</i>, <i>O</i>, posts; <i>J</i>, <i>J</i>, braces; <i>E</i>, rubber strands; <i>D</i>, forward hook; <i>G</i>, shaft; -<i>F</i>, thrust-block; <i>K</i>, upper plane of paper; <i>M</i>, elevation of main planes, from the rear.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>When the biplane is completed it is to be fastened -securely to the spar in such a position that it is accurately -balanced—from side to side. The spar may -be laid on a table, and the biplane placed across it -in its approximate position. Then move the plane to -one side until it tips down, and mark the spot on the -rear edge of the plane. Repeat this operation toward -the other side, and the centre between the two marks -should be accurately fastened over the centre line of -the spar. Even with the greatest care there may still -be failure to balance exactly, but a little work with a -file on the heavy side, or a bit of chewing gum stuck -on the lighter side, will remedy the matter.</p> - -<p>The body of the aeroplane being now built, it is -in order to fit it with propelling mechanism. The -motive power to whirl the propeller we have already -prepared is to be the torsion, or twisting strain—in -this case the force of untwisting—of india rubber. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> -When several strands of pure rubber cord are twisted -up tight, their elasticity tends to untwist them with -considerable force. The attachment for the rubber -strands at the front end of the spar is a sort of bracket -made of the brass wire. The ends of the wire are -turned up just a little, and they are set into little -holes in the under side of the spar. Where the wire -turns downward to form the hook it is bound tightly -to the spar with silk thread. The hook-shaped tip is -formed of the loop of the wire doubled upon itself. -The rear attachment of the rubber strands is a loop -upon the propeller shaft itself. As shown in the -drawings, this shaft is but a piece of the brass wire. -On one end (the rear) an open loop is formed, and -into this is slipped the centre of the propeller. The -short end of the loop is then twisted around the -longer shank—very carefully, lest the wire cut into -and destroy the propeller. Two turns of the wire is -enough, and then the tip of the twisted end should -be worked down flat with the file, to serve as a bearing -for the propeller against the thrust-block. This -latter is made of a piece of sheet brass (a bit of -printers’ brass “rule” is just the thing) about 1/40 -of an inch thick. It should be ¼ of an inch wide -except at the forward end, where it is to be filed to a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> -long point and bent up a trifle to enter the wood of -the spar. The rear end is bent down (not too sharply, -lest it break) to form the bearing for the propeller, -a hole being drilled through it for the propeller shaft, -just large enough for the shaft to turn freely in it. -Another smaller hole is to be drilled for a little screw -to enter the rear end of the spar. Next pass the -straight end of the propeller shaft through the hole -drilled for it, and with the pliers form a round hook -for the rear attachment of the rubber strands. Screw -the brass bearing into place, and for additional -strength, wind a binding of silk thread around it -and the spar.</p> - -<p>Tie the ends of the rubber cord together, divide it -into ten even strands, and pass the loops over the two -hooks—and the machine is ready for flight.</p> - -<p>To wind up the rubber it will be necessary to turn -the propeller in the opposite direction to which it -will move when the model is flying. About 100 turns -will be required. After it is wound, hold the machine -by the rear end of the spar, letting the propeller -press against the hand so it cannot unwind. Raise -it slightly above the head, holding the spar level, -or inclined upward a little (as experience may dictate), -and launch the model by a gentle throw forward. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> -If the work has been well done it may fly -from 150 to 200 feet.</p> - -<p>Many experiments may be made with this machine. -If it flies too high, weight the front end of the spar; -if too low, gliding downward from the start, weight -the rear end. A bit of chewing gum may be enough -to cause it to ride level and make a longer and prettier -flight.</p> - -<p>A very graceful model is that of the monoplane -type illustrated in the accompanying reproductions -from photographs. The front view shows the little -machine just ready to take flight from a table. The -view from the rear is a snap-shot taken while it was -actually flying. This successful model was made by -Harold S. Lynn, of Stamford, Conn. Before discussing -the details of construction, let us notice some -peculiar features shown by the photographs. The -forward plane is arched; that is, the tips of the plane -bend slightly downward from the centre. On the -contrary, the two wings of the rear plane bend slightly -upward from the centre, making a dihedral angle, -as it is called; that is, an angle between two surfaces, -as distinguished from an angle between two lines. -The toy wheels, Mr. Lynn says, are put on principally -for “looks” but they are also useful in permitting -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> -a start to be made from a table or even from -the floor, instead of the usual way of holding the -model in the hands and giving it a slight throw -to get it started. However, the wheels add to the -weight, and the model will not fly quite so far with -them as without.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_234.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Front view of the Lynn model of the monoplane type, about to take flight.</p></div> - -<p>The wood from which this model was made was -taken from a bamboo fish-pole, such as may be -bought anywhere for a dime. The pole was split -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> -up, and the suitable pieces whittled and planed down -to the proper sizes, as given in the plans. In putting -the framework of the planes together, it is well to -notch very slightly each rib and spar where they -cross. Touch the joint with a bit of liquid glue, and -wind quickly with a few turns of sewing silk and tie -tightly. This must be done with delicacy, or the -frames will be out of true. If the work is done rapidly -the glue will not set until all the ties on the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> -plane are finished. Another way is to touch the joinings -with a drop of glue, place the ribs in position -on the spars, and lay a board carefully on the work, -leaving it there until all is dry, when the tying can be -done. It either case the joinings should be touched -again with the liquid glue and allowed to dry hard.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_235.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Lynn model monoplane in flight, from below and from the rear.</p></div> - -<p>The best material for covering these frames is the -thinnest of China silk. If this is too expensive, use -the thinnest cambric. But the model will not fly so -far with the cambric covering. The material is cut -one-fourth of an inch too large on every side, and -folded over, and the fold glued down. Care should -be taken that the frame is square and true before the -covering is glued on.</p> - -<p>The motive power is produced by twisting up rubber -tubing. Five and three-quarter feet of pure rubber -tubing are required. It is tied together with silk -so as to form a continuous ring. This is looped over -two screw-hooks of brass, one in the rear block and -the other constituting the shaft. This looped tubing -is twisted by turning the propeller backward about -two hundred turns. As it untwists it turns the propeller, -which, in this model, is a “traction” screw, -and pulls the machine after it as it advances through -the air. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_237.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Details and plans of the Harold Lynn model monoplane. <i>W</i>, tail block; <i>Y</i>, -thrust-block; <i>S</i>, mounting of propeller showing glass bead next the thrust-block, -and one leather washer outside the screw; <i>B</i>, glass bead; <i>C</i>, tin -washer; <i>M</i>, <i>M</i>, tin lugs holding axle of wheels.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span></p> - -<p>The propeller in this instance is formed from a -piece of very thin tin, such as is used for the tops of -cans containing condensed milk. Reference to the -many illustrations throughout this book showing propellers -of flying machines will give one a very good -idea of the proper way to bend the blades. The -mounting with the glass bead and the two leather -washers is shown in detail in the plans.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_238.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Method of forming propeller of the laminated, or layer, type. The layers -of wood are glued,in the position shown and the blades carved out according -to the sections. Only one blade is shown from the axle to the tip. -This will make a right hand propeller.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The wheels are taken from a toy wagon, and a -pair of tin ears will serve as bearings for the axle.</p> - -<p>The sport of flying model aeroplanes has led to the -formation of many clubs in this country as well as -in Europe. Some of the mechanisms that have been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span> -devised, and some of the contrivances to make the -models fly better and further, are illustrated in the -drawings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_239.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>At <i>A</i> is shown a method of mounting the propeller with a glass or china bead to -reduce friction, and a brass corner to aid in strengthening. <i>B</i> shows a -transmission of power by two spur wheels and chain. <i>C</i> is a device for -using two rubber twists acting on the two spur wheels <i>S</i>, <i>S</i>, which in turn are -connected with the propeller with a chain drive. <i>D</i> shows a launching -apparatus for starting. <i>W</i>, the model; <i>V</i>, the carriage; <i>F</i>, the trigger -guard; <i>T</i>, trigger; <i>E</i>, elastic cord for throwing the carriage forward to -the stop <i>K</i>.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>Records have been made which seem marvellous -when it is considered that 200 feet is a very good -flight for a model propelled by rubber. For instance, -at the contest of the Birmingham Aero Club (England) -in September, one of the contestants won the -prize with a flight of 447 feet, lasting 48 seconds. -The next best records for duration of flight were 39 -seconds and 38 seconds. A model aeroplane which -is “guaranteed to fly 1,000 feet,” according to the -advertisement in an English magazine, is offered for -sale at $15.</p> - -<p>The American record for length of flight is held -by Mr. Frank Schober, of New York, with a distance -of 215 feet 6 inches. His model was of the -Langley type of tandem monoplane, and very highly -finished. The problem is largely one of adequate -power without serious increase of weight. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XII">Chapter XII.<br /> - -THE GLIDER.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Aerial balancing—Practice necessary—Simplicity of the glider -Materials—Construction—Gliding—Feats with the Montgomery -glider—Noted experimenters—Glider clubs.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">It</span> is a matter of record that the Wright brothers -spent the better part of three years among the -sand dunes of the North Carolina sea-coast practising -with gliders. In this way they acquired that confidence -while in the air which comes from intimate acquaintance -with its peculiarities, and which cannot be -gained in any other way. It is true that the Wrights -were then developing not only themselves, but also -their gliders; but the latter work was done once for -all. To develop aviators, however, means the repeating -of the same process for each individual—just -as each for himself must be taught to read. And the -glider is the “First Reader” in aeronautics.</p> - -<p>The long trail of wrecks of costly aeroplanes marking -the progress in the art of flying marks also the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> -lack of preparatory training, which their owners -either thought unnecessary, or hoped to escape by -some royal road less wearisome than persistent personal -practice. But they all paid dearly to discover -that there is no royal road. Practice, more practice, -and still more practice—that is the secret of successful -aeroplane flight.</p> - -<p>For this purpose the glider is much superior to -the power-driven aeroplane. There are no controls -to learn, no mechanism to manipulate. One simply -launches into the air, and concentrates his efforts -upon balancing himself and the apparatus; not as two -distinct bodies, however, but as a united whole. When -practice has made perfect the ability to balance the -glider instinctively, nine-tenths of the art of flying -an aeroplane has been achieved. Not only this, but -a new sport has been laid under contribution; one -beside which coasting upon a snow-clad hillside is a -crude form of enjoyment.</p> - -<p>Fortunately for the multitude, a glider is easily -made, and its cost is even less than that of a bicycle. -A modest degree of skill with a few carpenter’s tools, -and a little “gumption” about odd jobs in general, -is all that is required of the glider builder.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_243.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A gliding slope with starting platform, erected for club use.</p></div> - -<p>The frame of the glider is of wood, and spruce is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> -recommended, as it is stronger and tougher for its -weight than other woods. It should be of straight -grain and free from knots; and as there is considerable -difference in the weight of spruce from different -trees, it is well to go over the pile in the lumber yard -and pick out the lightest boards. Have them planed -down smooth on both sides, and to the required thickness, -at the mill—it will save much toilsome hand -work. The separate parts may also be sawed out at -the mill, if one desires to avoid this labor.</p> - -<p>The lumber needed is as follows:</p> - -<table> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>4</td> - <td class="tdl">spars</td> - <td style="padding: 0 2em">20 ft. long,</td> - <td>1¼ in. wide,</td> - <td>¾ in. thick.</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>12</td> - <td class="tdl">struts</td> - <td style="padding: 0 2em">3 ft. long,</td> - <td>1¼ in. wide,</td> - <td>¾ in. thick.</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>2</td> - <td class="tdl">rudder bars</td> - <td style="padding: 0 2em">8 ft. long,</td> - <td>¾ in. wide,</td> - <td>½ in. thick.</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>12</td> - <td class="tdl">posts</td> - <td style="padding: 0 2em">4 ft. long,</td> - <td>1½ in. wide,</td> - <td>½ in. thick.</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>41</td> - <td class="tdl">ribs</td> - <td style="padding: 0 2em">4 ft. long,</td> - <td>½ in. wide,</td> - <td>½ in. thick.</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td>2</td> - <td class="tdl">arm rests</td> - <td style="padding: 0 2em">4 ft. long,</td> - <td>2 in. wide,</td> - <td>1 in. thick.</td> - </tr> - <tr class="tdr"> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">For rudder frame.</td> - <td class="tdc">24 running ft.,</td> - <td>1 in. wide,</td> - <td>1 in. thick.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>If it be impossible to find clear spruce lumber 20 -feet in length, the spars may be built up by splicing -two 10-foot sticks together. For this purpose, the -splicing stick should be as heavy as the single spar—1¼ -inches wide, and ¾ inches thick—and at least 4 feet -long, and be bolted fast to the spar with six ⅛ inch -round-head carriage bolts with washers of large bearing -surface (that is, a small hole to fit the bolt, and a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> -large outer diameter) at both ends of the bolt, to prevent -crushing the wood. A layer of liquid glue -brushed between will help to make the joint firmer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_245.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Otto Lilienthal in his single-plane glider. The swinging forward of his feet -tends to turn the glider toward the ground, and increase its speed.</p></div> - -<p>Wherever a bolt is put in, a hole should be bored -for it with a bit of such size that the bolt will fit -snug in the hole without straining the grain of the -wood.</p> - -<p>The corners of the finished spar are to be rounded -off on a large curvature. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span></p> - -<p>The ends of the struts are to be cut down on a -slight slant of about 1/16 inch in the 1¼ inches that -it laps under the spar—with the idea of tipping the -top of the spar forward so that the ribs will spring -naturally from it into the proper curve.</p> - -<p>The ribs should be bent by steaming, and allowed -to dry and set in a form, or between blocks nailed -upon the floor to the line of the correct curve. They -are then nailed to the frames, the front end first: -21 to the frame of the upper plane, and 20 to that -of the lower plane, omitting one at the centre, where -the arm pieces will be placed.</p> - -<p>Some builders tack the ribs lightly into place with -small brads, and screw clamps formed from sheet -brass or aluminum over them. Others use copper -nails and clinch them over washers on the under side. -Both methods are shown in the plans, but the clamps -are recommended as giving greater stiffness, an essential -feature.</p> - -<p>At the front edge of the frames the ribs are fastened -flush, and being 4 feet long and the frame but -3 feet wide, they project over the rear about 1 foot.</p> - -<p>The arm pieces are bolted to the spars of the lower -frame 6½ inches on each side of the centre, so as to -allow a free space of 13 inches between them. This -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> -opening may be made wider to accommodate a stouter -person.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_247.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Plan and details of Glider. The upper plane has a rib at the centre instead of the two arm pieces.</p></div> - -<p>The posts are then put into place and bolted to -the struts and the spars, as shown, with ⅛inch bolts.</p> - -<p>The entire structure is then to be braced diagonally -with No. 16 piano wire. The greatest care must be -taken to have these diagonals pull just taut, so that -they shall not warp the lines of the frames out of true. -A crooked frame will not fly straight, and is a source -of danger when making a landing.</p> - -<p>The frames are now to be covered. There is a -special balloon cloth made which is best for the purpose, -but if that cannot be procured, strong cambric -muslin will answer. Thirty yards of goods 1 yard -wide will be required for the planes and the rudder. -From the piece cut off 7 lengths for each plane, -4 feet 6 inches long. These are to be sewed together, -selvage to selvage, so as to make a sheet about 19 -feet 6 inches long and 4 feet 6 inches wide. As this -is to be tacked to the frame, the edges must be double-hemmed -to make them strong enough to resist tearing -out at the tacks. Half an inch is first folded down -all around; the fold is then turned back on the goods -2½ inches and sewed. This hem is then folded back -1 inch upon itself, and again stitched. Strips 3 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> -inches wide and a little over 4 feet long are folded -“three-double” into a width of 1 inch, and sewed -along both edges to the large sheet exactly over where -the ribs come. These are to strengthen the fabric -where the ribs press against it. Sixteen-ounce tacks -are used, being driven through a felt washer the size -of a gun wad at intervals of four inches. If felt is -not readily obtainable, common felt gun wads will do. -The tacking is best begun at the middle of the frame, -having folded the cloth there to get the centre. Then -stretch smoothly out to the four corners and tack at -each. It may then be necessary to loosen the two -centre tacks and place them over again, to get rid of -wrinkles. The next tacks to drive are at the ends -of the struts; then half-way between; and so on until -all are in, and the sheet is taut and smooth. For -a finer finish, brass round-head upholsterer’s nails -may be used.</p> - -<p>The rudder, so-called, is rather a tail, for it is not -movable and does not steer the glider. It does steady -the machine, however, and is very important in preserving -the equilibrium when in flight. It is formed -of two small planes intersecting each other at right -angles and covered on both sides with the cloth, the -sections covering the vertical part being cut along -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> -the centre and hemmed on to the upper and lower -faces of the horizontal part. The frame for the vertical -part is fastened to the two rudder bars which -stretch out toward the rear, one from the upper -plane, and the other from the lower. The whole construction -is steadied by guys of the piano wire.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_250.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Lilienthal in his double-deck glider. It proved unmanageable and fell, causing -his death. The hill is an artificial one built for his own use in experimenting.</p></div> - -<p>All wooden parts should be smoothed off with sandpaper, -and given a coat of shellac varnish.</p> - -<p>To make a glide, the machine is taken to an elevated -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> -point on a slope, not far up to begin with. -Lift the glider, get in between the arm rests, and -raise the apparatus until the rests are snug under -the arms. Run swiftly for a few yards and leap -into the air, holding the front of the planes slightly -elevated. If the weight of the body is in the right -position, and the speed sufficient, the glider will take -the air and sail with you down the slope. It may be -necessary at first to have the help of two assistants, -one at each end, to run with the glider for a good -start.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_251.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Diagram showing differing lines of flight as controlled by changing the position of the body. The wind must be blowing -against the direction of flight; in the illustration this would be from left to right.</p></div> - -<p>The position of the body on the arm rests can best -be learned by a few experiments. No two gliders are -quite alike in this respect, and no rule can be given. -As to the requisite speed, it must be between 15 and -20 miles an hour; and as this speed is impossible to -a man running, it is gained by gliding against the -wind, and thus adding the speed of the wind to the -speed of the runner. The Wrights selected the sand -dunes of the North Carolina coast for their glider -experiments because of the steady winds that blow -in from the ocean, across the land. These winds -gave them the necessary speed of air upon which to -sail their gliders.</p> - -<p>The first flights attempted should be short, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> -as experience is gained longer ones may be essayed.</p> - -<p>Balancing the glider from side to side is accomplished -by swaying the lower part of the body like a -pendulum, the weight to go toward the side which -has risen. Swinging the body forward on the arm -rests will cause the machine to dip the planes and -glide more swiftly down the incline. Holding the -weight of the body back in the arm rests will cause -the machine to fly on a higher path and at a slower -speed. This is objectionable because the glider is -more manageable at a higher speed, and therefore -safer. The tendency at first is to place the weight -too far back, with a consequent loss of velocity, and -with that a proportionate loss of control. The proper -position of the body is slightly forward of the mechanical -centre of the machine.</p> - -<p>The landing is accomplished by shoving the body -backward, thus tilting up the front of the plane. -This checks the speed, and when the feet touch the -ground a little run, while holding back, will bring -the glide to an end. Landing should be practised -often with brief glides until skill is gained, for it is -the most difficult operation in gliding.</p> - -<p>After one becomes expert, longer flights may be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> -secured by going to higher points for the start. From -an elevation of 300 feet a glide of 1,200 feet is possible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_254.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Gliding with a Chanute three-decker. A start with two assistants.</p></div> - -<p>While it is necessary to make glides against the -wind, it is not wise to attempt flights when the wind -blows harder than 10 miles an hour. While the -flight may be successful, the landing may be disastrous.</p> - -<p>The accomplished glider operator is in line for -the aeroplane, and it is safe to say that he will not -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> -be long without one. The skilful and practised operator -of a glider makes the very best aeroplane -pilot.</p> - -<p>This chapter would not be complete without an -adequate reference to the gliders devised by Professor -Montgomery of Santa Clara, California. These machines -were sent up with ordinary hot-air balloons -to various heights, reaching 4,000 feet in some instances, -when they were cut loose and allowed to -descend in a long glide, guided by their pilots. The -time of the descent from the highest altitude was -twenty minutes, during which the glider travelled -about eight miles. The landing was made accurately -upon a designated spot, and so gently that there was -no perceptible jar. Two of the pilots turned completely -over sideways, the machine righting itself -after the somersault and continuing its regular course. -Professor Montgomery has made the assertion that -he can fasten a bag of sand weighing 150 lbs. in the -driver’s seat of his glider, and send it up tied upside -down under a balloon, and that after being cut -loose, the machine will right itself and come safely -to the ground without any steering.</p> - -<p>Lilienthal in Germany, Pilcher in England, and -Chanute in the United States are names eminent in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span> -connection with the experiments with gliders which -have been productive of discoveries of the greatest -importance to the progress of aviation. The illustration -of the Chanute glider shows its peculiarities -plainly enough to enable any one to comprehend -them.</p> - -<p>The establishment of glider clubs in several parts -of the country has created a demand for ready-made -machines, so that an enthusiast who does not wish -to build his own machine may purchase it ready -made. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XIII">Chapter XIII.<br /> - -BALLOONS.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>First air vehicle—Principle of Archimedes—Why balloons rise—Inflating -gases—Early history—The Montgolfiers—The -hot-air balloon—Charles’s hydrogen balloon—Pilatre de -Rozier—The first aeronaut—The first balloon voyage—Blanchard -and Jeffries—Crossing the English Channel—First -English ascensions—Notable voyages—Recent long-distance -journeys and high ascensions—Prize balloon -races—A fascinating sport—Some impressions, adventures, -and hardships—Accident record—Increasing interest in -ballooning.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> balloon, though the earliest and crudest -means of getting up in the air, has not become -obsolete. It has been in existence practically -in its present general form for upwards of 500 years. -Appliances have been added from time to time, but -the big gas envelope enclosing a volume of some gas -lighter than an equal volume of air, and the basket, -or car, suspended below it, remain as the typical form -of aerial vehicle which has not changed since it was -first devised in times so remote as to lie outside the -boundaries of recorded history. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span></p> - -<p>The common shape of the gas bag of a balloon is -that of the sphere, or sometimes of an inverted pear. -It is allowed to rise and float away in the air as the -prevailing wind may carry it. Attempts have been -made to steer it in a desired direction, but they -did not accomplish much until the gas bag was made -long horizontally, in proportion to its height and -width. With a drag-rope trailing behind on the -ground from the rear end of the gas bag, and sails -on the forward end, it was possible to guide the -elongated balloon to some extent in a determined -direction.</p> - -<p>In explaining why a balloon rises in the air, it is -customary to quote the “principle of Archimedes,” -discovered and formulated by that famous philosopher -centuries before the Christian era. Briefly -stated, it is this: Every body immersed in a fluid is -acted upon by a force pressing upward, which is -equal to the weight of the amount of the fluid displaced -by the immersed body.</p> - -<p>It remained for Sir Isaac Newton to explain the -principle of Archimedes (by the discovery of the law -of gravitation), and to show that the reason why the -immersed body is apparently pushed upward, is that -the displaced fluid is attracted downward. In the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> -case of a submerged bag of a gas lighter than air, -the amount of force acting on the surrounding air -is greater than that acting on the gas, and the latter -is simply crowded out of the way by the descending -air, and forced up to a higher level where its lighter -bulk is balanced by the gravity acting upon it.</p> - -<p>The fluid in which the balloon is immersed is the -air. The force with which the air crowds down -around and under the balloon is its weight—weight -being the measure of the attraction which gravity -exerts upon any substance.</p> - -<p>The weight of air at a temperature of 32° Fahr., -at the normal barometer pressure at the sea-level -(29.92 inches of mercury), is 0.0807 lbs. per cubic -foot. The gas used to fill a balloon must therefore -weigh less than this, bulk for bulk, in order to be -crowded upward by the heavier air—and thus exert -its “lifting power,” as it is commonly called.</p> - -<p>In practice, two gases have been used for inflating -balloons—hydrogen, and illuminating gas, made ordinarily -from coal, and called “coal gas.” Hydrogen -is the lightest substance known; that is, it is -attracted less by gravity than any other known substance, -in proportion to its bulk.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_260.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">One of the earliest attempts to steer a spherical balloon by retarding its -speed with the drag-rope, and adjusting the sail to the passing wind.</p></div> - -<p>A cubic foot of hydrogen weighs but 0.0056 lbs., -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> -and it will therefore be pushed upward in air by -the difference in weight, or 0.0751 lbs. per cubic foot. -A cubic foot of coal gas weighs about 0.0400 lbs., and -is crowded upward in air with a force of 0.0407 lbs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_261.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Apparatus to illustrate the principle of Archimedes. At the left, the small -solid glass ball and large hollow glass sphere are balanced in the free air. -When the balance is moved under the bell-glass of the air pump (at the -right), and the air exhausted, the large sphere drops, showing that its -previous balance was due to the upward pressure of the air, greater -because of its larger bulk.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>It is readily seen that a very large bulk of hydrogen -must be used if any considerable weight is to be -lifted. For to the weight of the gas must be added -the weight of the containing bag, the car, and the -network supporting it, the ballast, instruments, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> -passengers, and there must still be enough more to -afford elevating power sufficient to raise the entire -load to the desired level.</p> - -<p>Let us assume that we have a balloon with a volume -of 20,000 cubic feet, which weighs with its -appurtenances 500 pounds. The hydrogen it would -contain would weigh about 112 pounds, and the -weight of the air it would displace would be about -1,620 pounds. The total available lifting power -would be about 1,000 pounds. If a long-distance -journey is to be undertaken at a comparatively low -level, this will be sufficient to carry the necessary -ballast, and a few passengers. If, however, it is intended -to rise to a great height, the problem is different. -The weight of the air, and consequently its -lifting pressure, decreases as we go upwards. If the -balloon has not been entirely filled, the gas will expand -as the pressure is reduced in the higher altitude. -This has the effect of carrying the balloon -higher. Heating of the contained gas by the sun will -also cause a rise. On the other hand, the diffusion -of the gas through the envelope into the air, and the -penetration of air into the gas bag will produce a -mixture heavier than hydrogen, and will cause the -balloon to descend. The extreme cold of the upper -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> -air has the same effect, as it tends to condense to a -smaller bulk the gas in the balloon. To check a -descent the load carried by the gas must be lightened -by throwing out some of the ballast, which is carried -simply for this purpose. Finally a level is reached -where equilibrium is established, and above which -it is impossible to rise.</p> - -<p>The earliest recorded ascent of a balloon is credited -to the Chinese, on the occasion of the coronation -of the Emperor Fo-Kien at Pekin in the year -1306. If this may be called historical, it gives evidence -also that it speedily became a lost art. The -next really historic record belongs in the latter part -of the seventeenth century, when Cyrano de Bergerac -attempted to fly with the aid of bags of air attached -to his person, expecting them to be so expanded by -the heat of the sun as to rise with sufficient force to -lift him. He did not succeed, but his idea is plainly -the forerunner of the hot-air balloon.</p> - -<p>In the same century Francisco de Lana, who was -clearly a man of much intelligence and keen reasoning -ability, having determined by experiment that the -atmosphere had weight, decided that he would be able -to rise into the air in a ship lifted by four metal -spheres 20 feet in diameter from which the air had -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> -been exhausted. After several failures he abandoned -his efforts upon the religious grounds that the -Almighty doubtless did not approve such an overturning -in the affairs of mankind as would follow -the attainment of the art of flying.</p> - -<p>In 1757, Galen, a French monk, published a book, -“The Art of Navigating in the Air,” in which he -advocated filling the body of the airship with air -secured at a great height above the sea-level, where -it was “a thousand times lighter than water.” He -showed by mathematical computations that the upward -impulse of this air would be sufficient to lift a -heavy load. He planned in detail a great airship to -carry 4,000,000 persons and several million packages -of goods. Though it may have accomplished -nothing more, this book is believed to have been the -chief source of inspiration to the Montgolfiers.</p> - -<p>The discovery of hydrogen by Cavendish in 1776 -gave Dr. Black the opportunity of suggesting that it -be used to inflate a large bag and so lift a heavy load -into the air. Although he made no attempt to construct -such an apparatus, he afterward claimed that -through this suggestion he was entitled to be called -the real inventor of the balloon.</p> - -<p>This is the meagre historical record preceding the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> -achievements of the brothers Stephen and Joseph -Montgolfier, which marked distinctly the beginning -of practical aeronautics. Both of these men were -highly educated, and they were experienced workers -in their father’s paper factory. Joseph had made -some parachute drops from the roof of his house as -early as 1771.</p> - -<p>After many experiments with steam, smoke, and -hydrogen gas, with which they tried ineffectually to -inflate large paper bags, they finally succeeded with -heated air, and on June 5, 1783, they sent up a -great paper hot-air balloon, 35 feet in diameter. -It rose to a height of 1,000 feet, but soon came to -earth again upon cooling. It appears that the Montgolfiers -were wholly ignorant of the fact that it -was the rarefying of the air by heating that caused -their balloon to rise, and they made no attempt -to keep it hot while the balloon was in the air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_266.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">An early Montgolfier balloon.</p></div> - -<p>About the same time the French scientist, M. -Charles, decided that hydrogen gas would be better -than hot air to inflate balloons. Finding that this -gas passed readily through paper, he used silk coated -with a varnish made by dissolving rubber. His balloon -was 13 feet in diameter, and weighed about -20 pounds. It was sent up from the Champ de -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> -Mars on August 29, 1783, amidst the booming of -cannon, in the presence of 300,000 spectators who -assembled despite a heavy rain. It rose swiftly, disappearing -among the clouds, and soon burst from -the expansion of the gas in the higher and rarer atmosphere—no -allowance having been made for this -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> -unforeseen result. It fell in a rural region near Paris, -where it was totally destroyed by the inhabitants, who -believed it to be some hideous form of the devil.</p> - -<p>The Montgolfiers had already come to Paris, and -had constructed a balloon of linen and paper. Before -they had opportunity of sending it up it was -ruined by a rainstorm with a high wind. They immediately -built another of waterproof linen which -made a successful ascension on September 19, 1783, -taking as passengers a sheep, a cock, and a duck. -The balloon came safely to earth after being up eight -minutes—falling in consequence of a leak in the air-bag -near the top. The passengers were examined -with great interest. The sheep and the duck seemed -in the same excellent condition as when they went -up, but the cock was evidently ailing. A consultation -of scientists was held and it was the consensus -of opinion that the fowl could not endure breathing -the rarer air of the high altitude. At this juncture -some one discovered that the cock had been trodden -upon by the sheep, and the consultation closed -abruptly.</p> - -<p>The Montgolfier brothers were loaded with honors, -Stephen receiving the larger portion; and the -people of Paris entered enthusiastically into the sport -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> -of making and flying small balloons of the Montgolfier -type.</p> - -<p>Stephen began work at once upon a larger balloon -intended to carry human passengers. It was fifty -feet in diameter, and 85 feet high, with a capacity -of 100,000 cubic feet. The car for the passengers -was swung below from cords in the fashion that has -since become so familiar.</p> - -<p>In the meantime Pilatre de Rozier had constructed -a balloon on the hot-air principle, but with an arrangement -to keep the air heated by a continuous -fire in a pan under the mouth of the balloon. He -made the first balloon ascent on record on October -15, 1783, rising to a height of eighty feet, in the captive -balloon. On November 21, in the same year, de -Rozier undertook an expedition in a free balloon with -the Marquis d’Arlandes as a companion. The experiment -was to have been made with two condemned -criminals, but de Rozier and d’Arlandes succeeded in -obtaining the King’s permission to make the attempt, -and in consequence their names remain as those of -the first aeronauts. They came safely to the ground -after a voyage lasting twenty-five minutes. After -this, ascensions speedily became a recognized sport, -even for ladies. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p> - -<p>The greatest altitude reached by these hot-air balloons -was about 9,000 feet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_269.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Pilatre de Rozier’s balloon.</p></div> - -<p>The great danger from fire, however, led to the -closer consideration of the hydrogen balloon of Professor -Charles, who was building one of 30 feet diameter -for the study of atmospheric phenomena. His -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> -mastery of the subject is shown by the fact that his -balloon was equipped with almost every device afterward -in use by the most experienced aeronauts. He -invented the valve at the top of the bag for allowing -the escape of gas in landing, the open neck to permit -expansion, the network of cords to support the car, -the grapnel for anchoring, and the use of a small -pilot balloon to test the air-currents before the ascension. -He also devised a barometer by which he was -able to measure the altitude reached by the pressure -of the atmosphere.</p> - -<p>To provide the hydrogen gas required he used the -chemical method of pouring dilute sulphuric acid on -iron filings. The process was so slow that it took -continuous action for three days and three nights to -secure the 14,000 cubic feet needed, but his balloon -was finally ready on December 1, 1783. One of the -brothers Robert accompanied Charles, and they travelled -about 40 miles in a little less than 4 hours, -alighting at Nesles. Here Robert landed and Charles -continued the voyage alone. Neglecting to take on -board ballast to replace the weight of M. Robert, -Charles was carried to a great height, and suffered -severely from cold and the difficulty of breathing in -the highly rarefied air. He was obliged to open his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> -gas valve and descend after half an hour’s flight -alone.</p> - -<p>Blanchard, another French inventor, about this -time constructed a balloon with the intention of being -the first to cross the English Channel in the air. -He took his balloon to Dover and with Dr. Jeffries, -an American, started on January 7, 1785. His balloon -was leaky and he had loaded it down with a lot -of useless things in the way of oars, provisions, and -other things. All of this material and the ballast -had to be thrown overboard at the outset, and books -and parts of the balloon followed. Even their clothing -had to be thrown over to keep the balloon out of -the sea, and at last, when Dr. Jeffries had determined -to jump out to enable his friend to reach the -shore, an upward current of wind caught them and -with great difficulty they landed near Calais. The -feat was highly lauded and a monument in marble -was erected on the spot to perpetuate the record of -the achievement.</p> - -<p>De Rozier lost his life soon after in the effort to -duplicate this trip across the Channel with his combination -hydrogen and hot-air balloon. His idea seems -to have been that he could preserve the buoyancy of -his double balloon by heating up the air balloon at intervals. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> -Unfortunately, the exuding of the hydrogen -as the balloons rose formed an explosive mixture with -the air he was rising through, and it was drawn to -his furnace, and an explosion took place which blew -the entire apparatus into fragments at an altitude of -over 1,000 feet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_272.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Car and hoop of the Blanchard balloon, the first to cross the English Channel.</p></div> - -<p>Count Zambeccari, an Italian, attempted to improve -the de Rozier method of firing a balloon by substituting -a large alcohol lamp for the wood fire. In -the first two trial trips he fell into the sea, but was -rescued. On the third trip his balloon was swept -into a tree, and the overturned lamp set it on fire. -To escape being burned, he threw himself from the -balloon and was killed by the fall.</p> - -<p>The year before these feats on the Continent two -notable balloon ascensions had taken place in England. -On August 27, 1784, an aeronaut by the name -of Tytler made the first balloon voyage within the -boundaries of Great Britain. His balloon was of -linen and varnished, and the record of his ascension -indicates that he used hydrogen gas to inflate it. -He soared to a great height, and descended safely.</p> - -<p>A few weeks later, the Italian aeronaut Lunardi -made his first ascent from London. The spectacle -drew the King and his councillors from their deliberations, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> -and the balloon was watched until it disappeared. -He landed in Standon, near Ware, where -a stone was set to record the event. On October 12, -he made his famous voyage from Edinburgh over the -Firth of Forth to Ceres; a distance of 46 miles in -35 minutes, or at the rate of nearly 79 miles per -hour; a speed rarely equalled by the swiftest railroad -trains.</p> - -<p>From this time on balloons multiplied rapidly and -the ascents were too numerous for recording in these -pages. The few which have been selected for mention -are notable either for the great distances traversed, -or for the speed with which the journeys were -made. It should be borne in mind that the fastest -method of land travel in the early part of the period -covered was by stage coach; and the sailing ship was -the only means of crossing the water. It is no wonder -that often the people among whom the aeronauts -landed on a balloon voyage refused to believe the -statements made as to the distance they had come, -and the marvellously short time it had taken. And -even as compared with the most rapid transit of the -present day, the speeds attained in many cases have -never been equalled.</p> - -<p>A remarkable English voyage was made in June, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> -1802, by the French aeronaut Garnerin and Captain -Snowdon. They ascended from Chelsea Gardens and -landed in Colchester, 60 miles distant, in 45 minutes: -an average speed of 80 miles an hour.</p> - -<p>On December 16, 1804, Garnerin ascended from -the square in front of Notre Dame, Paris; passing -over France and into Italy, sailing above St. Peter’s -at Rome, and the Vatican, and descending into Lake -Bracciano—a distance of 800 miles in 20 hours. -This voyage was made as a part of the coronation -ceremonies of Napoleon I. The balloon was afterwards -hung up in a corridor of the Vatican.</p> - -<p>On October 7, 1811, Sadler and Burcham voyaged -from Birmingham to Boston (England), 112 miles -in 1 hour 40 minutes, a speed of 67 miles per hour.</p> - -<p>On November 17, 1836, Charles Green and Monck -Mason started on a voyage in the great balloon of the -Vauxhall Gardens. It was pear-shaped, 60 feet -high and 50 feet in diameter, and held 85,000 cubic -feet of gas. It was cut loose at half-past one in the -afternoon, and in 3 hours had reached the English -Channel, and in 1 hour more had crossed it, -and was nearly over Calais. During the night it -floated on over France in pitchy darkness and such -intense cold that the oil was frozen. In the morning -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> -the aeronauts descended a few miles from Weilburg, -in the Duchy of Nassau, having travelled about -500 miles in 18 hours. At that date, by the fastest -coaches the trip would have consumed three -days. The balloon was rechristened “The Great -Balloon of Nassau” by the enthusiastic citizens of -Weilburg.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_276.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Prof. T. S. C. Lowe’s mammoth balloon “City of New York,” a feature of -the year 1860, in which it made many short voyages in the vicinity of -New York and Philadelphia.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>In 1849, M. Arban crossed the Alps in a balloon, -starting at Marseilles and landing at Turin—a distance -of 400 miles in 8 hours. This remarkable record -for so long a distance at a high speed has rarely -been equalled. It was exceeded as to distance at the -same speed by the American aeronaut, John Wise, in -1859.</p> - -<p>One of the most famous balloons of recent times -was the “Geant,” built by M. Nadar, in Paris, in -1853. The immense gas-bag was made of silk of the -finest quality costing at that time about $1.30 a yard, -and being made double, it required 22,000 yards. It -had a capacity of 215,000 cubic feet of gas, and lifted -4½ tons. The car was 13 feet square, and had an -upper deck which was open. On its first ascent it -carried 15 passengers, including M. Nadar as captain, -and the brothers Godard as lieutenants. A few -weeks later this balloon was set free for a long-distance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> -journey, and 17 hours after it left Paris it -landed at Nieuburg in Hanover, having traversed -750 miles, a part of the time at the speed of fully -90 miles per hour.</p> - -<p>In July, 1859, John Wise, an American aeronaut, -journeyed from St. Louis, Mo., to Henderson, N. Y., -a distance of 950 miles in 19 hours. His average -speed was 50 miles per hour. This record for duration -at so high a rate of speed has never been exceeded.</p> - -<p>During the siege of Paris in 1870, seventy-three -balloons were sent out from that city carrying mail -and dispatches. These were under Government direction, -and receive notice in a subsequent chapter -devoted to Military Aeronautics. One of these balloons -is entitled to mention among those famous for -rapid journeys, having travelled to the Zuyder Zee, a -distance of 285 miles, in 3 hours—an average speed -of 95 miles per hour. Another of these postal balloons -belongs in the extreme long-distance class, having -come down in Norway nearly 1,000 miles from -Paris.</p> - -<p>In July, 1897, the Arctic explorer Andrée started -on his voyage to the Pole. As some of his instruments -have been recently recovered from a wandering -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> -band of Esquimaux, it is believed that a record -of his voyage may yet be secured.</p> - -<p>In the same year a balloon under the command of -Godard ascended at Leipsic, and after a wandering -journey in an irregular course, descended at Wilna. -The distance travelled was estimated at 1,032 miles, -but as balloon records are always based on the airline -distance between the places of ascent and descent, -this record has not been accepted as authoritative. -The time consumed was 24¼ hours.</p> - -<p>In 1899, Captain von Sigsfield, Captain Hildebrandt, -and a companion started from Berlin in a -wind so strong that it prevented the taking on of an -adequate load of ballast. They rose into a gale, and -in two hours were over Breslau, having made the -distance at a speed of 92 miles per hour. In the -grasp of the storm they continued their swift journey, -landing finally high up in the snows of the -Carpathian Alps in Austria. They were arrested -by the local authorities as Russian spies, but succeeded -in gaining their liberty by telegraphing to an -official more closely in touch with the aeronautics of -the day.</p> - -<p>In 1900 there were several balloon voyages notable -for their length. Jacques Balsan travelled from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> -Vincennes to Dantzig, 757 miles; Count de la Vaulx -journeyed from Vincennes to Poland, 706 miles; -Jacques Faure from Vincennes to Mamlity, 753 -miles. In a subsequent voyage Jacques Balsan travelled -from Vincennes to Rodom, in Russia, 843 miles, -in 27½ hours.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_280.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The balloon in which Coxwell and Glaisher made their famous ascent of -29,000 feet.</p></div> - -<p>One of the longest balloon voyages on record in -point of time consumed is that of Dr. Wegener of the -Observatory at Lindenberg, in 1905. He remained -in the air for 52¾ hours.</p> - -<p>The longest voyage, as to distance, up to 1910, -was that of Count de La Vaulx and Count Castillon -de Saint Victor in 1906, in the balloon “Centaur.” -This was a comparatively small balloon, having a -capacity of only 55,000 cubic feet of gas. The start -was made from Vincennes on October 9th, and the -landing at Korostischeff, in Russia, on October 11th. -The air-line distance travelled was 1,193 miles, in -35¾ hours. The balloon “Centaur” was afterward -purchased by the Aero Club of America, and has -made many voyages in this country.</p> - -<p>The Federation Aeronautique Internationale, an -association of the aeronauts of all nations, was -founded in 1905. One of its functions is an annual -balloon race for the International Challenge Cup, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> -presented to the association by James Gordon Bennett, -to be an object for competition until won three -times by some one competing national club.</p> - -<p>The first contest took place in September, 1906, -and was won by the American competitor, Lieut. -Frank P. Lahm, with a voyage of 402 miles.</p> - -<p>The second contest was from St. Louis, Mo., in -1907. There were three German, two French, one -English, and three American competitors. The race -was won by Oscar Erbslöh, one of the German competitors, -with an air-line voyage of 872¼ miles, landing -at Bradley Beach, N. J. Alfred Leblanc, now -a prominent aviator, was second with a voyage of -867 miles, made in 44 hours. He also landed in New -Jersey.</p> - -<p>The third race started at Berlin in October, 1908, -and was won by the Swiss balloon “Helvetia,” piloted -by Colonel Schaeck, which landed in Norway -after having been 74 hours in the air, and -covering a journey of 750 miles. This broke the -previous duration record made by Dr. Wegener in -1905.</p> - -<p>The fourth contest began on October 3, 1909, from -Zurich, Switzerland. There were seventeen competing -balloons, and the race was won by E. W. Mix, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> -representing the Aero Club of America, with a voyage -of 589 miles.</p> - -<p>The fifth contest began at St. Louis, October 17, -1910. It was won by Alan P. Hawley and Augustus -Post, with the “America II.” They travelled 1,355 -miles in 46 hours, making a new world’s record for -distance.</p> - -<p>Among other notable voyages may be mentioned -that of the “Fielding” in a race on July 4, 1908, -from Chicago. The landing was made at West -Shefford, Quebec, the distance travelled being 895 -miles.</p> - -<p>In November of the same year A. E. Gaudron, -Captain Maitland, and C. C. Turner, made the longest -voyage on record from England. They landed at -Mateki Derevni, in Russia, having travelled 1,117 -miles in 31½ hours. They were driven down to the -ground by a severe snowstorm.</p> - -<p>On December 31, 1908, M. Usuelli, in the balloon -“Ruwenzori” left the Italian lakes and passed over -the Alps at a height of 14,750 feet, landing in -France. This feat was followed a few weeks later—February -9, 1909—by Oscar Erbslöh, who left St. -Moritz with three passengers, crossing the Alps at an -altitude of 19,000 feet, and landed at Budapest after -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span> -a voyage of 33 hours. Many voyages over and among -the Alps have been made by Captain Spelterini, the -Swiss aeronaut, and he has secured some of the most -remarkable photographs of the mountain scenery in -passing. In these voyages at such great altitudes it -is necessary to carry cylinders of oxygen to provide -a suitable air mixture for breathing. In one of his -recent voyages Captain Spelterini had the good fortune -to be carried almost over the summit of Mont -Blanc. He ascended with three passengers at Chamounix, -and landed at Lake Maggiore seven hours -later, having reached the altitude of 18,700 feet, and -travelled 93 miles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_284.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Photograph of the Alps from a balloon by Captain Spelterini.</p></div> - -<p>In the United States there were several balloon -races during the year 1909, the most important being -the St. Louis Centennial race, beginning on October -4th. Ten balloons started. The race was won by -S. von Phul, who covered the distance of 550 miles -in 40 hours 40 minutes. Clifford B. Harmon and -Augustus Post in the balloon “New York” made -a new duration record for America of 48 hours 26 -minutes. They also reached the highest altitude attained -by an American balloon—24,200 feet.</p> - -<p>On October 12th, in a race for the Lahm cup, A. -Holland Forbes and Col. Max Fleischman won. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> -They left St. Louis, Mo., and landed 19 hours and -15 minutes later at Beach, Va., near Richmond, having -travelled 697 miles.</p> - -<p>In 1910, in the United States, a remarkable race, -with thirteen competitors, started at Indianapolis. -This was the elimination race for the International -race on October 17th. It was won by Alan P. Hawley -and Augustus Post in the balloon “America II.” -They crossed the Alleghany Mountains at an elevation -of about 20,000 feet, and landed at Warrenton, -Va., after being 44 hours 30 minutes in the air; -and descended only to escape being carried out over -Chesapeake Bay.</p> - -<p>In recent years the greatest height reached by a -balloon was attained by the Italian aeronauts Piacenza -and Mina in the “Albatross,” on August 9, -1909. They went up from Turin to the altitude of -30,350 feet. The world’s height record rests with -Professors Berson and Suring of Berlin, who on -July 31, 1901, reached 35,500 feet. The record of -37,000 feet claimed by Glaisher and Coxwell in their -ascension on September 5, 1862, has been rejected as -not authentic for several discrepancies in their observations, -and on the ground that their instruments -were not of the highest reliability. As they carried -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> -no oxygen, and reported that for a time they were -both unconscious, it is estimated that the highest -point they could have reached under the conditions -was less than 31,000 feet.</p> - -<p>The greatest speed ever recorded for any balloon -voyage was that of Captain von Sigsfield and Dr. -Linke in their fatal journey from Berlin to Antwerp, -during which the velocity of 125 miles per hour was -recorded.</p> - -<p>Ballooning as a sport has a fascination all its own. -There is much of the spice of adventure in the fact -that one’s destiny is quite unknown. Floating with -the wind, there is no consciousness of motion. -Though the wind may be travelling at great speed, -the balloon seems to be in a complete calm. A lady -passenger, writing of a recent trip, has thus described -her experience:—“The world continues slowly to unroll -itself in ever-varying but ever-beautiful panorama—patchwork -fields, shimmering silver streaks, -toy box churches and houses, and white roads like the -joints of a jig-saw puzzle. And presently cotton-wool -billows come creeping up, with purple shadows and -fleecy outlines and prismatic rainbow effects. Sometimes -they invade the car, and shroud it for a while -in clinging warm white wreaths, and anon they fall -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> -below and shut out the world with a glorious curtain, -and we are all alone in perfect silence, in perfect -peace, and in a realm made for us alone.</p> - -<p>“And so the happy, restful hours go smoothly by, -until the earth has had enough of it, and rising up -more or less rapidly to invade our solitude, hits the -bottom of our basket, and we step out, or maybe roll -out, into every-day existence a hundred miles away.”</p> - -<p>The perfect smoothness of motion, the absolute -quiet, and the absence of distracting apparatus combine -to render balloon voyaging the most delightful -mode of transit from place to place. Some of the -most fascinating bits of descriptive writing are those -of aeronauts. The following quotation from the report -of Capt. A. Hildebrandt, of the balloon corps -of the Prussian army, will show that although his -expeditions were wholly scientific, he was far from -indifferent to the sublimer influences of nature by -which he was often surrounded.</p> - -<p>In his account of the journey from Berlin to Markaryd, -in Sweden, with Professor Berson as a companion -aeronaut, he says: “The view over Rügen and -the chalk cliffs of Stubbenkammer and Arkona was -splendid: the atmosphere was perfectly clear. On -the horizon we could see the coasts of Sweden and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> -Denmark, looking almost like a thin mist; east and -west there was nothing but the open sea.</p> - -<p>“About 3:15 the balloon was in the middle of the -Baltic; right in the distance we could just see Rügen -and Sweden. The setting of the sun at 4 P.M. -was a truly magnificent spectacle. At a height of -5,250 feet, in a perfectly clear atmosphere, the effect -was superb. The blaze of color was dimly reflected -in the east by streaks of a bluish-green. I have seen -sunsets over France at heights of 10,000 feet, with -the Alps, the Juras, and the Vosges Mountains in -the distance; but this was quite as fine.</p> - -<p>“The sunsets seen by the mountaineer or the sailor -are doubtless, magnificent; but I hardly think the -spectacle can be finer than that spread out before the -gaze of the balloonist. The impression is increased -by the absolute stillness which prevails; no sound -of any kind is heard.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_290.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Landscape as seen from a balloon at an altitude of 3,000 feet.</p></div> - -<p>“As soon as the sun went down, it was necessary -to throw out some ballast, owing to the decrease of -temperature.... We reached the Swedish coast -about 5 o’clock, and passed over Trelleborg at a -height of 2,000 feet. The question then arose -whether to land, or to continue through the night. -Although it was well past sunset, there was sufficient -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> -light in consequence of the snow to see our way to -the ground, and to land quite easily.... However, -we wanted to do more meteorological work, and it -was thought that there was still sufficient ballast to -take us up to a much greater height. We therefore -proposed to continue for another sixteen hours during -the night, in spite of the cold.... Malmö was -therefore passed on the left, and the university town -of Lund on the right. After this the map was of no -further use, as it was quite dark and we had no lamp. -The whole outlook was like a transformation scene. -Floods of light rose up from Trelleborg, Malmö, -Copenhagen, Landskrona, Lund, Elsinore, and Helsingborg, -while the little towns beneath our feet -sparkled with many lights. We were now at a height -of more than 10,000 feet, and consequently all these -places were within sight. The glistening effect of -the snow was heightened by the blaze which poured -from the lighthouses along the coasts of Sweden and -Denmark. The sight was as wonderful as that of the -sunset, though of a totally different nature.”</p> - -<p>Captain Hildebrandt’s account of the end of this -voyage illustrates the spice of adventure which is -likely to be encountered when the balloon comes down -in a strange country. It has its hint also of the hardships -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> -for which the venturesome aeronaut has to be -prepared. He says:—</p> - -<p>“Sooner or later the balloon would have been at -the mercy of the waves. The valve was opened, and -the balloon descended through the thick clouds. We -could see nothing, but the little jerks showed us that -the guide-rope was touching the ground. In a few -seconds we saw the ground, and learned that we -were descending into a forest which enclosed a number -of small lakes. At once more ballast was thrown -out, and we skimmed along over the tops of the trees. -Soon we crossed a big lake, and saw a place that -seemed suitable for a descent. The valve was then -opened, both of us gave a tug at the ripping cord, -and after a few bumps we found ourselves on the -ground. We had come down in deep snow on the -side of a wood, about 14 miles from the railway station -at Markaryd.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_293.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Making a landing with the aid of bystanders to pull down upon the trail-rope -and a holding rope.</p></div> - -<p>“We packed up our instruments, and began to -look out for a cottage; but this is not always an -easy task in the dead of night in a foreign country. -However, in a quarter of an hour we found a farm, -and succeeded in rousing the inmates. A much more -difficult job was to influence them to open their front -door to two men who talked some sort of double -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> -Dutch, and who suddenly appeared at a farmyard -miles off the highway in the middle of the night -and demanded admittance. Berson can talk in six -languages, but unfortunately Swedish is not one of -them. He begged in the most humble way for shelter -... and at the end of three-quarters of an hour -the farmer opened the door. We showed him some -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> -pictures of a balloon we had with us, and then they -began to understand the situation. We were then received -with truly Swedish hospitality, and provided -with supper. They even proposed to let us have their -beds; but this we naturally declined with many -thanks.... The yard contained hens, pigs, cows, -and sheep; but an empty corner was found, which -was well packed with straw, and served as a couch for -our tired limbs. We covered ourselves with our great-coats, -and tried to sleep. But the temperature was -10° Fahr., and as the place was only an outhouse -of boards roughly nailed together, and the wind -whistling through the cracks and crevices, we were -not sorry when the daylight came.”</p> - -<p>Lest the possibility of accident to travellers by -balloon be judged greater than it really is, it may -be well to state that records collected in Germany in -1906 showed that in 2,061 ascents in which 7,570 -persons participated, only 36 were injured—or but 1 -out of 210. Since that time, while the balloon itself -has remained practically unchanged, better knowledge -of atmospheric conditions has aided in creating -an even more favorable record for recent years.</p> - -<p>That the day of ordinary ballooning has not been -dimmed by the advent of the airship and the aeroplane -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> -is evidenced by the recently made estimate that -not less than 800 spherical balloons are in constant -use almost daily in one part or another of Christendom. -And it seems entirely reasonable to predict that -with a better comprehension of the movements of -air-currents—to which special knowledge the scientific -world is now applying its investigations as never -before—they will come a great increase of interest in -simple ballooning as a recreation. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XIV">Chapter XIV.<br /> - -BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Elongation of gas-bag—Brisson—Meusnier—Air-ballonnets—Scott—Giffard—Haenlein—Tissandier—Renard -and Krebs—Schwartz—Santos-Dumont—Von -Zeppelin—Roze—Severo—Bradsky-Leboun—The -Lebaudy dirigible—Zeppelin II—Parseval -I—Unequal wind pressures—Zeppelin III—Nulli -Secundus—La Patrie—Ville-de-Paris—Zeppelin IV—Gross -I—Parseval II—Clement-Bayard I—Ricardoni’s airship—Gross -II—The new Zeppelin II—La Republique—The -German fleet of dirigibles—Parseval V—The Deutschland—The -Erbslöh—Gross III—Zeppelin VI—The America—Clement-Bayard -III—The Capazza lenticular dirigible.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> dirigible balloon, or airship, is built on the -same general principles as the ordinary balloon—that -is, with the envelope to contain the lifting -gas, the car to carry the load, and the suspending -cordage—but to this is added some form of propelling -power to enable it to make headway against the -wind, and a rudder for steering it.</p> - -<p>Almost from the very beginning of ballooning, -some method of directing the balloon to a pre-determined -goal had been sought by inventors. Drifting -at the fickle pleasure of the prevailing wind -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> -did not accord with man’s desire for authority and -control.</p> - -<p>The first step in this direction was the change -from the spherical form of the gas-bag to an elongated -shape, the round form having an inclination to -turn round and round in the air while floating, and -having no bow-and-stern structure upon which steering -devices could operate. The first known proposal -in this direction was made by Brisson, a French scientist, -who suggested building the gas-bag in the -shape of a horizontal cylinder with conical ends, its -length to be five or six times its diameter. His idea -for its propulsion was the employment of large-bladed -oars, but he rightly doubted whether human -strength would prove sufficient to work these rapidly -enough to give independent motion to the airship.</p> - -<p>About the same time another French inventor had -actually built a balloon with a gas-bag shaped like -an egg and placed horizontally with the blunt end -foremost. The reduction in the resistance of the air -to this form was so marked that the elongated gas-bag -quickly displaced the former spherical shape. -This balloon was held back from travelling at the -full speed of the wind by the clever device of a rope -dragging on the ground; and by a sail rigged so as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> -to act on the wind which blew past the retarded -balloon, the navigator was able to steer it within -certain limits. It was the first dirigible balloon.</p> - -<p>In the same year the brothers Robert, of Paris, -built an airship for the Duke of Chartres, under the -direction of General Meusnier, a French officer of -engineers. It was cylindrical, with hemispherical -ends, 52 feet long and 32 feet in diameter, and contained -30,000 cubic feet of gas. The gas-bag was -made double to prevent the escape of the hydrogen, -which had proved very troublesome in previous balloons, -and it was provided with a spherical air balloon -inside of the gas-bag, which device was expected -to preserve the form of the balloon unchanged by -expanding or contracting, according to the rising or -falling of the airship. When the ascension was made -on July 6, 1784, the air-balloon stuck fast in the -neck of the gas-bag, and so prevented the escape of -gas as the hydrogen expanded in the increasing altitude. -The gas-bag would have burst had not the -Duke drawn his sword and slashed a vent for the -imprisoned gas. The airship came safely to earth.</p> - -<p>It was General Meusnier who first suggested the -interior ballonnet of air to preserve the tense outline -of the form of the airship, and the elliptical form for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> -the gas-bag was another of his inventions. In the -building of the airship of the Duke de Chartres he -made the further suggestion that the space between -the two envelopes be filled with air, and so connected -with the air-pumps that it could be inflated or deflated -at will. For the motive power he designed -three screw propellers of one blade each, to be turned -unceasingly by a crew of eighty men.</p> - -<p>Meusnier was killed in battle in 1793, and aeronautics -lost its most able developer at that era.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_299.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Scott airship, showing the forward “pocket” partially drawn in.</p></div> - -<p>In 1789, Baron Scott, an officer in the French -army, devised a fish-shaped airship with two outside -balloon-shaped “pockets” which could be forcibly -drawn into the body of the airship to increase its -density, and thus cause its descent.</p> - -<p>It began to be realized that no adequate power existed -by which balloons could be propelled against -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> -even light winds to such a degree that they were -really controllable, and balloon ascensions came to be -merely an adjunct of the exhibit of the travelling -showman. For this reason the early part of the -nineteenth century seems barren of aeronautical incident -as compared with the latter part of the preceding -century.</p> - -<p>In 1848, Hugh Bell, an Englishman, built a cylindrical -airship with convex pointed ends. It was 55 -feet long and 21 feet in diameter. It had a keel-shaped -framework of tubes to which the long narrow -car was attached, and there was a screw propeller on -each side, to be worked by hand, and a rudder to -steer with. It failed to work.</p> - -<p>In 1852, however, a new era opened for the airship. -Henry Giffard, of Paris, the inventor of the -world-famed injector for steam boilers, built an elliptical -gas-bag with cigar-shaped ends, 144 feet long, -and 40 feet in diameter, having a cubic content of -88,000 cubic feet. The car was suspended from a -rod 66 feet long which hung from the net covering -the gas-bag. It was equipped with a 3-horse-power -steam engine which turned a two-bladed screw propeller -11 feet in diameter, at the rate of 110 revolutions -per minute. Coke was used for fuel. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> -steering was done with a triangular rudder-sail. -Upon trial on September 24, 1852, the airship -proved a success, travelling at the rate of nearly 6 -miles an hour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_301.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The first Giffard dirigible.</p></div> - -<p>Giffard built a second airship in 1855, of a much -more elongated shape—235 feet long and 33 feet in -diameter. He used the same engine which propelled -his first ship. After a successful trial trip, when -about to land, the gas-bag unaccountably turned up -on end, allowing the net and car to slide off, and, rising -slightly in the air, burst. Giffard and his companion -escaped unhurt.</p> - -<p>Giffard afterward built the large captive balloon -for the London Exhibition in 1868, and the still -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> -larger one for the Paris Exposition in 1878. He -designed a large airship to be fitted with two boilers -and a powerful steam-engine, but became blind, -and died in 1882.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_302.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Haenlein airship inflated with coal gas and driven by a gas-engine.</p></div> - -<p>In 1865, Paul Haenlein devised a cigar-shaped -airship to be inflated with coal gas. It was to be -propelled by a screw at the front to be driven by a -gas-engine drawing its fuel from the gas in the body -of the ship. An interior air-bag was to be expanded -as the gas was consumed, to keep the shape intact. -A second propeller revolving horizontally was intended -to raise or lower the ship in the air. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span></p> - -<p>It was not until 1872 that he finally secured the -building of an airship, at Vienna, after his plans. -It was 164 feet long, and 30 feet in diameter. -The form of the gas-bag was that described by the -keel of a ship rotated around the centre line of its -deck as an axis. The engine was of the Lenoir type, -with four horizontal cylinders, developing about 6 -horse-power, and turned a propeller about 15 feet -in diameter at the rate of 40 revolutions per minute. -The low lifting power of the coal gas with which it -was inflated caused it to float quite near the ground. -With a consumption of 250 cubic feet of gas per -hour, it travelled at a speed of ten miles an hour. -The lack of funds seems to have prevented further -experiments with an invention -which was at least very promising.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_303.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sketch of the De Lome airship.</p></div> - -<p>In the same year a dirigible -balloon built by Dupuy de -Lome for use by the French -Government during the siege -of Paris, was given a trial. -It was driven by a screw propeller turned by eight -men, and although it was 118 feet long, and 49 -feet in diameter, it made as good a speed record -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> -as Giffard’s steam-driven airship—six miles an -hour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_304.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Car of the Tissandier dirigible; driven by electricity.</p></div> - -<p>In 1881, the brothers Albert and Gaston Tissandier -exhibited at the Electrical Exhibition in Paris -a model of an electrically driven airship, originally -designed to establish communication with Paris during -the siege of the Franco-Prussian War. In 1883, -the airship built after this model was tried. It was -92 feet long, and 30 feet at its largest diameter. -The motive power was a Siemens motor run by 24 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> -bichromate cells of 17 lbs. each. At full speed the -motor made 180 revolutions per minute, developing -1½ horse-power. The pull was 26 lbs. The propeller -was 9 feet in diameter, and a speed of a little -more than 6 miles an hour was attained.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_305.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sketch of the Renard and Krebs airship <i>La France</i>, driven by a storage battery.</p></div> - -<p>In 1884, two French army engineers, Renard -and Krebs, built an airship, the now historic <i>La -France</i>, with the shape of a submarine torpedo. It -was 165 feet long and about 27 feet in diameter at -the largest part. It had a gas content of 66,000 -cubic feet. A 9 horse-power Gramme electric motor -was installed, driven by a storage battery. This -operated the screw propeller 20 feet in diameter, -which was placed at the forward end of the long car. -The trial was made on the 9th of August, and was -a complete success. The ship was sailed with the -wind for about 2½ miles, and then turned about and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> -made its way back against the wind till it stood directly -over its starting point, and was drawn down -to the ground by its anchor ropes. The trip of about -5 miles was made in 23 minutes. In seven voyages -undertaken the airship was steered back safely to its -starting point five times.</p> - -<p>This first airship which really deserved the name -marked an era in the development of this type of -aircraft. In view of its complete success it is astonishing -that nothing further was done in this line -in France for fifteen years, when Santos-Dumont began -his series of record-making flights. Within this -period, however, the gasoline motor had been adapted -to the needs of the automobile, and thus a new and -light-weight engine, suitable in every respect, had -been placed within the reach of aeronauts.</p> - -<p>In the meantime, a new idea had been brought to -the stage of actual trial. In 1893, in St. Petersburg, -David Schwartz built a rigid airship, the gas receptacle -of which was sheet aluminum. It was braced -by aluminum tubes, but while being inflated the interior -work was so badly broken that it was abandoned.</p> - -<p>Schwartz made a second attempt in Berlin in -1897. The airship was safely inflated, and managed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> -to hold its position against a wind blowing 17 miles -an hour, but could not make headway against it. -After the gas had been withdrawn, and before it -could be put under shelter, a severe windstorm damaged -it, and the mob of spectators speedily demolished -it in the craze for souvenirs of the occasion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_307.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Wreck of the Schwartz aluminum airship, at Berlin, in 1897.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_308.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>The type of the earlier Santos-Dumont dirigibles. This shape showed a tendency to “buckle,” or double -up in the middle like a jackknife. To avoid this the later Santos-Dumonts were of much larger proportional -diameter amidships.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>In 1898, the young Brazilian, Santos-Dumont, -came to Paris imbued with aeronautic zeal, and determined -to build a dirigible balloon that would surpass -the former achievements of Giffard and Renard, -which he felt confident were but hints of what -might be accomplished by that type of airship. He -began the construction of the series of dirigible balloons -which eventually numbered 12, each successive -one being an improvement on the preceding. He -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> -made use of the air-bag suggested by Meusnier for -the balloon of the Duke of Chartres in 1784, although -in an original way, at first using a pneumatic -pump to inflate it, and later a rotatory fan. Neither -prevented the gas-bag from “buckling” and coming -down with consequences more or less serious to the -airship—but Santos-Dumont himself always escaped -injury. His own record of his voyages in his book, -<i>My Air-Ships</i>, gives a more detailed account of his -contrivances and inventions than can be permitted -here. If Santos-Dumont did not greatly surpass his -predecessors, he is at least to be credited with an enthusiasm -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> -which aroused the interest of the whole -world in the problems of aeronautics; and his later -achievements in the building and flying of aeroplanes -give him a unique place in the history of man’s conquest -of the air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_309.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Type of the later Santos-Dumont’s dirigibles.</p></div> - -<p>In 1900, Count von Zeppelin’s great airship, which -had been building for nearly two years, was ready -for trial. It had the form of a prism of 24 sides, -with the ends arching to a blunt point. It was 420 -feet long, and 38 feet in diameter. The structure -was rigid, of aluminum lattice work, divided into -17 compartments, each of which had a separate gas-bag -shaped to fit its compartment. Over all was -an outer envelope of linen and silk treated with -pegamoid. A triangular keel of aluminum lattice -strengthened the whole, and there were two cars of -aluminum attached to the keel. Each car held a -16 horse-power Daimler gasoline motor, operating -two four-bladed screw propellers which were rigidly -connected with the frame of the ship a little below -the level of its axis. A sliding weight was run to -either end of the keel as might be required to depress -the head or tail, in order to rise or fall in the -air. The cars were in the shape of boats, and the -ship was built in a floating shed on the Lake of Constance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> -near Friedrichshafen. At the trial the airship -was floated out on the lake, the car-boats resting -on the water. Several accidents happened, so that -though the ship got up into the air it could not be -managed, and was brought down to the water again -without injury. In a second attempt a speed of -20 miles an hour was attained. The construction -was found to be not strong enough for the great -length of the body, the envelope of the balloon was -not sufficiently gas tight, and the engines were not -powerful enough. But few trips were made in it, -and they were short. The Count set himself to work -to raise money to build another ship, which he did -five years later.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_311.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">View of the Zeppelin I, with portion of the aluminum shell and external fabric removed to show the internal framing and -separate balloons. In the distance is shown the great balloon shed.</p></div> - -<p>In 1901, an inventor named Roze built an airship -in Colombo, having two gas envelopes with the engines -and car placed between them. He expected to -do away with the rolling and pitching of single airships -by the double form, but the ship did not work -satisfactorily, ascending to barely 50 feet.</p> - -<p>In 1902, Augusto Severo, a Brazilian, arranged -an airship with the propelling screws at the axis of -the gas-bag, one at each end of the ship. Instead -of a rudder, he provided two small propellers to -work in a vertical plane and swing the ship sideways. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> -Soon after ascending it was noticed that the propellers -were not working properly, and a few minutes -later the car was seen to be in flames and the -balloon exploded. Severo and his companion Sache -were killed, falling 1,300 feet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_313a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Sketch of the Severo airship, showing arrangement of the driving propellers -on the axis of the gas-bag, and the steering propellers.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_313b.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>End view of Severo’s -airship, showing the -longitudinal division -of the gas-bag to allow -the driving shaft -of the propellers to -be placed at the axis -of the balloon.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>In the same year Baron Bradsky-Leboun -built an airship with partitions -in the gas-bag which was -just large enough to counterbalance -the weight of the ship and -its operators. It was lifted or lowered -by a propeller working horizontally. -Another propeller drove -the ship forward. Through some -lack of stability the car turned -over, throwing out the two aeronauts, who fell 300 -feet and were instantly killed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_314.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The first Lebaudy airship.</p></div> - -<p>In 1902, a dirigible balloon was built for the -brothers Lebaudy by the engineer Juillot and the -aeronaut Surcouf. The gas envelope was made -cigar-shaped and fastened rigidly to a rigid elliptical -keel-shaped floor 70 feet long and 19 feet wide, made -of steel tubes—the object being to prevent rolling -and pitching. It was provided with both horizontal -and vertical rudders. A 35 horse-power Daimler-Mercedes -motor was used to turn two twin-bladed -screws, each of 9 feet in diameter. Between the -25th of October, 1902, and the 21st of November, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span> -1903, 33 experimental voyages were made, the longest -being 61 miles in 2 hours and 46 minutes; 38.7 -miles in 1 hour and 41 minutes; 23 miles in 1 hour -and 36 minutes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_315.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Framing of the floor and keel of the Lebaudy airship.</p></div> - -<p>In 1904 this ship was rebuilt. It was lengthened -to 190 feet and the rear end rounded off. Its capacity -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> -was increased to 94,000 cubic feet, and a new -covering of the yellow calico which had worked so -well on the first model was used on the new one. -It was coated with rubber both on the outside and inside. -The interior air-bag was increased in size to -17,650 cubic feet, and partitioned into three compartments. -During 1904 and 1905 30 voyages were -made, carrying in all 195 passengers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_316.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The car and propellers of the Lebaudy airship.</p></div> - -<p>The success of this airship led to a series of trials -under the direction of the French army, and in all -of these trials it proved satisfactory. After the 76th -successful voyage it was retired for the winter of -1905-6. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span></p> - -<p>In November, 1905, the rebuilt Zeppelin airship -was put upon trial. While superior to the first one, -it met with serious accident, and was completely -wrecked by a windstorm in January, 1906.</p> - -<p>In May, 1906, Major von Parseval’s non-rigid -airship passed through its first trials successfully. -This airship may be packed into small compass for -transportation, and is especially adapted for military -use. In plan it is slightly different from previous -types, having two air-bags, one in each end -of the envelope, and the front end is hemispherical -instead of pointed.</p> - -<p>As the airship is designed to force its way through -the air, instead of floating placidly in it, it is evident -that it must have a certain tenseness of outline -in order to retain its shape, and resist being doubled -up by the resistance it encounters. It is estimated -that the average velocity of the wind at the elevation -at which the airship sails is 18 miles per hour. If -the speed of the ship is to be 20 miles per hour, as -related to stations on the ground, and if it is obliged -to sail against the wind, it is plain that the wind -pressure which it is compelled to meet is 38 miles -per hour—a gale of no mean proportions. When the -large expanse of the great gas-bags is taken into consideration, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span> -it is evident that ordinary balloon construction -is not sufficient.</p> - -<p>Attempts have been made to meet the outside pressure -from the wind and air-resistance by producing -mechanically a counter-pressure from the inside. -Air-bags are placed inside the cavity of the gas-bag, -usually one near each end of the airship, and these -are inflated by pumping air into them under pressure. -In this way an outward pressure of as much -as 7 lbs. to the square foot may be produced, equivalent -to the resistance of air at a speed (either of the -wind, or of the airship, or of both combined) of 48 -miles per hour. It is evident, however, that the pressure -upon the front end of an airship making headway -against a strong wind will be much greater than -the pressure at the rear end, or even than that amidships. -It was this uneven pressure upon the outside -of the gas-bag that doubled up the first two airships -of Santos-Dumont, and led him to increase the proportional -girth at the amidship section in his later -dirigibles. The great difficulty of adjusting these -varying pressures warrants the adherence of Count -von Zeppelin to his design with the rigid structure -and metallic sheathing.</p> - -<p>The loss of the second Zeppelin airship so discouraged -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> -its designer that he decided to withdraw -from further aeronautical work. But the German -Government prevailed on him to continue, and by -October, 1906, he had the Zeppelin III in the air. -This airship was larger than Zeppelin II in both -length and diameter, and held 135,000 cubic feet -more of gas. The motive power was supplied by two -gasoline motors, each of 85 horse-power. The gas -envelope had 16 sides, instead of 24, as in the earlier -ship. At its trial the Zeppelin III proved highly -successful. It made a trip of 69 miles, with 11 passengers, -in 2¼ hours—a speed of about 30 miles an -hour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_319.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Zeppelin III backing out of the floating shed at Friedrichshafen. The illustration shows the added fin at the top, the rudders, -dipping planes, and balancing planes.</p></div> - -<p>The German Government now made an offer of -$500,000 for an airship which would remain continuously -in the air for 24 hours, and be able to land -safely. Count von Zeppelin immediately began work -upon his No. IV, in the effort to meet these requirements, -in the meantime continuing trips with No. -III. The most remarkable of these trips was made -in September, 1907, a journey of 211 miles in 8 -hours.</p> - -<p>In October, 1907, the English airship “Nulli Secundus” -was given its first trial. The gas envelope -had been made of goldbeater’s skins, which are considered -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span> -impermeable to the contained gas, but are -very expensive. This airship was of the non-rigid -type. It made the trip from Aldershot to London, a -distance of 50 miles, in 3½ hours—an apparent speed -of 14 miles per hour, lacking information as to the -aid or hindrance of the prevailing wind. Several -other trials were made, but with small success.</p> - -<p>The offer of the German Government had stimulated -other German builders besides Count von Zeppelin, -and on October 28, 1907, the Parseval I, -which had been improved, and the new Gross dirigible, -competed for the government prize, at Berlin. -The Parseval kept afloat for 6½ hours, and the Gross -for 8¼ hours.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, in France, the Lebaudys had been -building a new airship which was named “La Patrie.” -It was 197 feet long and 34 feet in diameter. -In a trial for altitude it was driven to an elevation -of 4,300 feet. On November 23, 1907, the “Patrie” -set out from Paris for Verdun, a distance of -146 miles. The journey was made in 6¾ hours, at -an average speed of 25 miles per hour, and the fuel -carried was sufficient to have continued the journey -50 miles further. Soon after reaching Verdun a -severe gale tore the airship away from the regiment -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> -of soldiers detailed to assist the anchors in holding -it down, and it disappeared into the clouds. It is -known to have passed over England, for parts of its -machinery were picked up at several points, and -some days later the gas-bag was seen floating in the -North Sea.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_322.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The “Ville-de-Paris” of M. de la Meurthe.</p></div> - -<p>Following close upon the ill-fated “Patrie” came -the “Ville-de-Paris,” a dirigible which had been -built by Surcouf for M. Henri Deutsch de la -Meurthe, an eminent patron of aeronautic experiments. -In size this airship was almost identical with -the lost “Patrie,” but it was quite different in appearance. -It did not have the flat framework at the -bottom of the gas envelope, but was entirely round -in section, and the long car was suspended below. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> -At the rear the gas-bag was contracted to a cylindrical -form, and four groups of two ballonnets each -were attached to act as stabilizers. It was offered -by M. de la Meurthe to the French Government to -take the place of the “Patrie” in the army manœuvres -at Verdun, and on January 15, 1908, made -the trip thither from Paris in about 7 hours. It -was found that the ballonnets exerted considerable -drag upon the ship.</p> - -<p>In June, 1908, the great “Zeppelin IV” was -completed and given its preliminary trials, and on -July 1 it started on its first long journey. Leaving -Friedrichshafen, its route was along the northerly -shore of Lake Constance nearly to Schaffhausen, -then southward to and around Lake Lucerne, thence -northward to Zurich, thence eastward to Lake Constance, -and to its shed at Friedrichshafen. The distance -traversed was 236 miles, and the time consumed -12 hours. This voyage without a single mishap -aroused the greatest enthusiasm among the German -people. After several short flights, during -which the King of Württemberg, the Queen, and -some of the royal princes were passengers, the Zeppelin -IV set out on August 4 to win the Government -reward by making the 24-hour flight. Sailing eastward -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> -from Friedrichshafen it passed over Basle, -then turning northward it followed the valley of the -Rhine, passing over Strasburg and Mannheim, and -had nearly reached Mayence when a slight accident -necessitated a landing. Repairs were made, and the -journey resumed after nightfall. Mayence was -reached at 11 <small>P. M.</small>, and the return trip begun. When -passing over Stuttgart, at 6 <small>A. M.</small>, a leak was discovered, -and a landing was made at Echterdingen, a -few miles farther on. Here, while repairs were being -made, a squall struck the airship and bumped -it heavily on the ground. Some gasoline was spilled, -in some unknown way, which caught fire, and in a -few moments the great balloon was totally destroyed. -It had been in continuous flight 11 hours up to the -time of the first landing, and altogether 20¾ hours, -and had travelled 258 miles.</p> - -<p>The German people immediately started a public -subscription to provide Count von Zeppelin with the -funds needed to build another airship, and in a few -days the sum of $1,500,000 was raised and turned -over to the unfortunate inventor. The “Zeppelin -III” was taken in hand, and lengthened, and more -powerful engines installed.</p> - -<p>The “Gross II” was ready to make its attempt for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span> -the Government prize on September 11, 1908. It -sailed from Tegel to Magdeburg and back to Tegel, -a distance of 176 miles, in 13 hours, without -landing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_325.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Clement-Bayard dirigible entering its shed.</p></div> - -<p>Four days later the “Parseval II” made a trip -between the same points in 11½ hours, but cut the -distance travelled down to 157 miles. In October, -the “Parseval II” was sent up for an altitude test, -and rose to a height of 5,000 feet above Tegel, hovering -over the city for upward of an hour.</p> - -<p>During 1908, an airship designed by M. Clement, -the noted motor-car builder, was being constructed -in France. It made its first voyage on October 29, -carrying seven passengers from Sartrouville to Paris -and back, at a speed of from 25 to 30 miles per hour. -The illustration gives a very good idea of the peculiar -ballonnets attached to the rear end of the gas -envelope. These ballonnets open into the large gas-bag, -and are practically a part of it.</p> - -<p>In Italy a remarkable dirigible has been built by -Captain Ricaldoni, for military purposes. It has -the form of a fish, blunt forward, and tapering -straight away to the rear. It has a large finlike surface -on the under side of the gas-bag toward the -rear. Its performances show that its efficiency as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> -compared with its motive power is larger than any -other dirigible in commission.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_327.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Engine of the Clement-Bayard dirigible; 7-cylinder; 55 horse-power; weighing only 155 pounds.</p></div> - -<p>In May, 1909, the rebuilt “Zeppelin III,” now rechristened -“Zeppelin II,” after many successful short -flights was prepared for the Government trial. On -May 29, 1909, with a crew of six men, Count von -Zeppelin started from Friedrichshafen for Berlin, -360 miles away. The great ship passed over Ulm, -Nuremburg, Bayreuth, and Leipzig; and here it encountered -so strong a head wind from the north, that -it was decided to turn about at Bitterfeld and return -to Friedrichshafen. The distance travelled had -been nearly 300 miles in 21 hours. The course followed -was quite irregular, and took the ship over -Wurtzburg, and by a wide detour to Heilbron and -Stuttgart. The supply of gasoline running low, it -was decided to land at Goeppingen, where more -could be obtained. It was raining heavily, and -through some mistake in steering, or some sudden -veering of the wind, the prow of the great dirigible -came into collision with a tree upon the hillside. -The envelope was badly torn, and a part of the aluminum -inner structure wrecked. However, the mechanics -on board were able to make such repairs that -the ship was able to resume the voyage the next day, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span> -and made port without further mishap. The vessel -having been 38 hours in the air at the time of the -accident, so much of the Government’s stipulations -had been complied with. But it had not succeeded -in landing safely. Nevertheless it was accepted by -the Government. The entire journey has been variously -estimated at from 680 to 900 miles, either figure -being a record for dirigibles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_329.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Accident to the new “Zeppelin II” at Goeppingen. The damage was repaired and the airship continued its voyage the next day.</p></div> - -<p>On August 4, the dirigible “Gross II” made a -voyage from Berlin to Apolda, and returned; a distance -of 290 miles in 16 hours. This airship also -was accepted by the German Government and added -to its fleet.</p> - -<p>In August, the Zeppelin II was successfully sailed -to Berlin, where Count von Zeppelin was welcomed -by an immense and enthusiastic multitude of his -countrymen, including the Emperor and the royal -family.</p> - -<p>On September 26, the new French dirigible, “La -Republique,” built on the model of the successful -Lebaudy airships, met with an accident while in the -air. A blade of one of the propellers broke and -slashed into the envelope. The ship fell from a -height of 6,000 feet, and its crew of four men lost -their lives. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_331.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">View of the damaged Zeppelin from the front, showing the tree against which it collided. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span></p></div> - -<p>On April 22, 1910, a fleet of German dirigibles, -comprising the “Zeppelin II,” the “Gross II,” and -the “Parseval I,” sailed from Cologne to Hamburg, -where they were reviewed by Emperor William. A -strong wind having arisen, the “Gross II,” which -is of the semi-rigid type, was deflated, and shipped -back to Cologne by rail. The non-rigid “Parseval” -made the return flight in safety. The rigid “Zeppelin -II” started on the return voyage, but was compelled -to descend at Limburg, where it was moored. -The wind increasing, it was forced away, and finally -was driven to the ground at Weilburg and demolished.</p> - -<p>In May, 1910, the “Parseval V,” the smallest -dirigible so far constructed, being but 90 feet in -length, was put upon its trial trip. It made a circular -voyage of 80 miles in 4 hours.</p> - -<p>For several months a great Zeppelin passenger -dirigible had been building by a stock company -financed by German capital, under the direction of -the dauntless Count von Zeppelin. It was 490 feet -long, with a capacity of 666,900 cubic feet. A passenger -cabin was built with ¼-inch mahogany veneer -upon a framework of aluminum, the inside being -decorated with panels of rosewood inlaid with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> -mother-of-pearl. The seats were wicker chairs, and -the window openings had no glass. It was christened -the “Deutschland.”</p> - -<p>After many days waiting for propitious weather -the first “air-liner” set sail on June 22, 1910, from -Friedrichshafen for Düsseldorf, carrying 20 passengers -who had paid $50 each for their passage. In -addition there were 13 other persons on board.</p> - -<p>The start was made at three o’clock in the morning, -and the course laid was up the valley of the -Rhine, as far as Cologne. Düsseldorf was reached at -three o’clock in the afternoon, the airline distance -of 300 miles having been covered in 9 hours of actual -sailing. From Mannheim to Düsseldorf, favored -by the wind, the great ship reached the speed -of 50 miles per hour, for this part of the trip, outstripping -the fastest express trains which consume -6 hours in the winding track up the valley.</p> - -<p>The next morning the “Deutschland” left Düsseldorf -on an excursion trip, carrying several ladies -among its passengers. The voyage was in every way -a great success, and public enthusiasm was widespread.</p> - -<p>On June 29, a test trip was decided upon. No -passengers were taken, but 19 newspaper correspondents -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span> -were invited guests. The Count had been -warned of weather disturbances in the neighborhood, -but he either disregarded them or felt confidence in -his craft. It was intended that the voyage should -last four hours, but the airship soon encountered a -storm, and after 6 hours of futile striving against it, -the fuel gave out. Caught in an upward draft, the -“Deutschland” rose to an altitude of over 5,000 -feet, losing considerable gas, and then, entering a -rainstorm, was heavily laden with moisture. Suddenly, -without definite reason, it began to fall vertically, -and in a few moments had crashed into the -tops of the trees of the Teutoberg forest. No one -on board received more than slight injury, and all -alighted safely by means of ladders. The “Deutschland” -was a wreck, and was taken apart and shipped -back to Friedrichshafen.</p> - -<p>On July 13, another giant passenger airship, designed -by Oscar Erbslöh, who won the international -balloon race in 1907 by a voyage from St. Louis to -Asbury Park, met with fatal disaster. It was sailing -near Cologne at an altitude of about 2,500 feet -when it burst, and Erbslöh and his four companions -were killed in the fall.</p> - -<p>On July 28, the “Gross III” left Berlin with the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> -object of beating the long distance record for dirigibles. -Soon after passing Gotha the airship returned -to that place, and abandoned the attempt. In 13 -hours a distance of 260 miles had been traversed.</p> - -<p>Undismayed by the catastrophes which had destroyed -his airships almost as fast as he built them, -Count von Zeppelin had his number VI ready to -sail on September 3. With a crew of seven and -twelve passengers he sailed from Baden to Heidelberg—53 -miles in 65 minutes. It was put into commission -as an excursion craft, and made several successful -voyages. On September 14, as it was being -placed in its shed at the close of a journey, it took -fire unaccountably, and was destroyed together with -the shed, a part of the framework only remaining.</p> - -<p>On October 15, 1910, the Wellman dirigible -“America” which had been in preparation for many -weeks, left Asbury Park in an attempt to cross the -Atlantic. Its balloon was 228 feet long, with a diameter -of 52 feet, containing 345,000 cubic feet of -gas. The car was 156 feet in length, and was arranged -as a tank in which 1,250 gallons of gasoline -were carried. A lifeboat was attached underneath -the car. There were two engines, each of 80 horse-power, -and an auxiliary motor of 10 horse-power. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> -Sleeping quarters were provided for the crew of six, -and the balloon was fitted with a wireless telegraph -system. All went well until off the island of Nantucket, -where strong north winds were encountered, -and the dirigible was swept southward toward Bermuda. -As an aid in keeping the airship at an elevation -of about 200 feet above the sea, an enlarged -trail-rope, called the equilibrator, had been constructed -of cans which were filled with gasoline. -This appendage weighed 1½ tons, and the lower part -of it was expected to float upon the sea. In practice -it was found that the jarring of this equilibrator, -when the sea became rough, disarranged the machinery, -so that the propellers would not work, and the -balloon was compelled to drift with the wind. Toward -evening of the second day a ship was sighted, -and the America’s crew were rescued. The airship -floated away in the gale, and was soon out of sight.</p> - -<p>On October 16, a new Clement-Bayard dirigible, -with seven men on board, left Paris at 7.15 o’clock -in the morning, and sailed for London. At 1 <small>P. M.</small> -it circled St. Paul’s Cathedral, and landed at the -hangar at Wormwood Scrubbs a half hour later. -The distance of 259 miles (airline) was traversed -at the rate of 41 miles per hour, and the journey -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> -surpassed in speed any previous journey by any other -form of conveyance.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_337.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="small"><i>Copyright by Pictorial News Company.</i></p> - -<p class="caption">Wellman dirigible “America” starting for Europe, October 15, 1910.</p> -</div> - -<p>On November 5, 1910, the young Welsh aeronaut, -Ernest T. Willows, who sailed his small dirigible -from Cardiff to London in August, made a trip -from London across the English Channel to Douai, -France. This is the third time within a month that -the Channel had been crossed by airships.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_338.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Diagram of the Capazza dirigible from the side. <i>A A</i>, stabilizing fins; <i>B</i>, air-ballonnet; -<i>R</i>, rudder; <i>M M</i>, motors; <i>FS</i>, forward propeller; <i>SS</i>, stern -propeller.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>Toward the close of 1910, 52 dirigibles were in -commission or in process of construction. In the -United States there were 7; in Belgium, 2; in England, -6; in France, 12; in Germany, 14; in Italy, 5; -in Russia, 1; in Spain, 1.</p> - -<p>The new Capazza dirigible is a decided departure -from all preceding constructions, and may mark a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> -new era in the navigation of the air. Its gas envelope -is shaped like a lens, or a lentil, and is arranged -to sail flatwise with the horizon, thus partaking -of the aeroplane as well as the balloon type. -No definite facts concerning its achievements have -been published.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_339.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Capazza dirigible from the front. From above it is an exact circle in outline. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span></p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XV">Chapter XV.<br /> - -BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Preliminary inspection—Instruments—Accessories—Ballast—Inflating—Attaching -the car—The ascension—Controls—Landing—Some -things to be considered—After landing—Precautions.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> actual operation of a balloon is always entrusted -to an experienced pilot, or “captain” -as he is often called, because he is in command, and -his authority must be recognized instantly whenever -an order is given. Nevertheless, it is often of great -importance that every passenger shall understand the -details of managing the balloon in case of need; and -a well-informed passenger is greatly to be preferred -to an ignorant one.</p> - -<p>It is ordinarily one of the duties of the captain -to inspect the balloon thoroughly; to see that there -are no holes in the gas-bag, that the valve is in perfect -working order, and particularly that the valve -rope and the ripping cord are not tangled. He should -also gather the instruments and equipment to be carried. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span></p> - -<p>The instruments are usually an aneroid barometer, -and perhaps a mercury barometer, a barograph (recording -barometer), a psychrometer (recording thermometer), -a clock, a compass, and an outfit of maps -of the country over which it is possible that the -balloon may float. Telegraph blanks, railroad time -tables, etc., may be found of great service. A camera -with a supply of plates will be indispensable -almost, and the camera should be provided with a -yellow screen for photographing clouds or distant -objects.</p> - -<p>The ballast should be inspected, to be sure that it -is of dry sand, free from stones; or if water is used -for ballast, it should have the proper admixture of -glycerine to prevent freezing.</p> - -<p>It is essential that the inflating be properly done, -and the captain should be competent to direct this -process in detail, if necessary. What is called the -“circular method” is the simplest, and is entirely -satisfactory unless the balloon is being filled with -pure hydrogen for a very high ascent, in which case -it will doubtless be in the hands of experts.</p> - -<p>When inflating with coal-gas, the supply is usually -taken from a large pipe adapted for the purpose. At -a convenient distance from the gas-main the ground -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span> -is made smooth, and the ground cloths are spread out -and pegged down to keep them in place.</p> - -<p>The folded balloon is laid out on the cloths with -the neck opening toward the gas-pipe. The balloon -is then unfolded, and so disposed that the valve will -be uppermost, and in the centre of a circle embracing -the upper half of the sphere of the balloon, the -opening of the neck projecting a few inches beyond -the rim of the circle. The hose from the gas-main -may then be connected with the socket in the neck.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_342.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Balloon laid out in the circular method, ready for inflation. The valve is seen -at the centre. The neck is at the right.</p></div> - -<p>Having made sure that the ripping cord and the -valve rope are free from each other, and properly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span> -connected with their active parts, and that the valve -is fastened in place, the net is laid over the whole, -and spread out symmetrically. A few bags of ballast -are hooked into the net around the circumference -of the balloon as it lies, and the assistants distributed -around it. It should be the duty of one man to hold -the neck of the balloon, and not to leave it for any -purpose whatever. The gas may then be turned on, -and, as the balloon fills, more bags of ballast are -hung symmetrically around the net; and all are continually -moved downward as the balloon rises.</p> - -<p>Constant watching is necessary during the inflation, -so that the material of the balloon opens fully -without creases, and the net preserves its correct position. -When the inflation is finished the hoop and -car are to be hooked in place. The car should be -fitted up and hung with an abundance of ballast. -Disconnect the gas hose and tie the neck of the balloon -in such fashion that it may be opened with a -pull of the cord when the ascent begins.</p> - -<p>The ballast is then transferred to the hoop, or ring, -and the balloon allowed to rise until this is clear of -the ground. The car is then moved underneath, and -the ballast moved down from the ring into it. The -trail-rope should be made fast to the car directly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> -under the ripping panel, the object being to retard -that side of the balloon in landing, so that the gas -may escape freely when the panel is torn open, and -not underneath the balloon, as would happen if the -balloon came to earth with the ripping panel underneath.</p> - -<p>The balloon is now ready to start, and the captain -and passengers take their places in the car. The neck -of the balloon is opened, and a glance upward will -determine if the valve rope hangs freely through it. -The lower end of this should be tied to one of the -car ropes. The cord to the ripping panel should be -tied in a different place, and in such fashion that no -mistake can be made between them. The assistants -stand around the edge of the basket, holding it so -that it shall not rise until the word is given. The -captain then adjusts the load of ballast, throwing off -sufficient to allow the balloon to pull upward lightly -against the men who are holding it. A little more -ballast is then thrown off, and the word given to let -go. The trail-rope should be in charge of some one -who will see that it lifts freely from the ground.</p> - -<p>The balloon rises into the air to an altitude where -a bulk of the higher and therefore lighter air equal -to the bulk of the balloon has exactly the same weight. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> -This is ordinarily about 2,000 feet. If the sun -should be shining the gas in the balloon will be expanded -by the heat, and some of it will be forced out -through the neck. This explains the importance of -the open neck. In some of the early ascensions no -such provision for the expansion of the gas was made, -and the balloons burst with disastrous consequences.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_345.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Inflating a military balloon. The net is being adjusted smoothly as the balloon rises. The bags of ballast surround the balloon -ready to be attached as soon as the buoyancy of the gas lifts it from the earth.</p></div> - -<p>When some of the gas has been driven out by the -heat, there is less <i>weight</i> of gas in the balloon, though -it occupies the same space. It therefore has a tendency -to rise still higher. On the other hand, if it -passes into a cloud, or the sun is otherwise obscured, -the volume of the gas will contract; it will become -denser, and the balloon will descend. To check the -descent the load carried by the balloon must be lightened, -and this is accomplished by throwing out some -ballast; generally, a few handfuls is enough.</p> - -<p>There is always more or less leakage of gas -through the envelope as well as from the neck, and -this also lessens the lifting power. To restore the -balance, more ballast must be thrown out, and in -this way an approximate level is kept during the -journey.</p> - -<p>When the ballast is nearly exhausted it will be -necessary to come down, for a comfortable landing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span> -cannot be made without the use of ballast. A good -landing place having been selected, the valve is -opened, and the balloon brought down within a few -yards of the ground. The ripping cord is then pulled -and ballast thrown out so that the basket will touch -as lightly as possible. Some aeronauts use a small -anchor or grapnel to assist in making a landing, but -on a windy day, when the car is liable to do some -bumping before coming to rest, the grapnel often -makes matters much worse for the passengers by a -series of holdings and slippings, and sometimes causes -a destructive strain upon the balloon.</p> - -<p>In making an ascent with a balloon full of gas -there is certain to be a waste of gas as it expands. -This expansion is due not only to the heat of the -sun, but also to the lighter pressure of the air in the -upper altitudes. It is therefore the custom with -some aeronauts to ascend with a partially filled balloon, -allowing the expansion to completely fill it. -This process is particularly advised if a very high -altitude is sought. When it is desired to make a -long voyage it is wise to make the start at twilight, -and so avoid the heat of the sun. The balloon will -then float along on an almost unchanging level without -expenditure of ballast. Rain and even the moisture -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> -from clouds will sometimes wet the balloon so -that it will cause a much greater loss of ballast than -would have been required to be thrown out to rise -above the cloud or storm. Such details in the handling -of a balloon during a voyage will demand the -skilled judgment of the captain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_348.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A balloon ready for ascent. Notice that the neck is still tied. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span></p></div> - -<p>The trail-rope is a valuable adjunct when the balloon -is travelling near the ground. The longer the -part of the trail-rope that is dragging on the ground -the less weight the balloon is carrying. And at -night, when it is impossible to tell the direction in -which one is travelling in any other way, the line -of the trailing rope will show the direction from -which the wind is blowing, and hence the drift of the -balloon.</p> - -<p>The care of the balloon and its instruments upon -landing falls upon the captain, for he is not likely -to find assistants at hand competent to relieve him -of any part of the necessary work. The car and the -ring are first detached. The ropes are laid out free -and clear, and the valve is unscrewed and taken off. -The material of the balloon is folded smoothly, gore -by gore. The ballast bags are emptied. After all -is bundled up it should be packed in the car, the covering -cloth bound on with ropes, and definite instructions -affixed for transportation to the starting-point.</p> - -<p>It is apparent that the whole of the gas is lost at -the end of the journey. The cost of this is the largest -expense of ballooning. For a small balloon of -about 50,000 cubic feet, the coal-gas for inflating -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> -will cost about $35 to $40. If hydrogen is used, it -will cost probably ten times as much.</p> - -<p>In important voyages it is customary to send up -pilot balloons, to discover the direction of the wind -currents at the different levels, so that the level which -promises the best may be selected before the balloon -leaves the ground. A study of the weather conditions -throughout the surrounding country is a wise precaution, -and no start should be made if a storm is -imminent. The extent of control possible in ballooning -being so limited, all risks should be scrupulously -avoided, both before and during the voyage, -and nothing left to haphazard. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XVI">Chapter XVI.<br /> - -BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The fabrics used—Preliminary varnishing—Varnishes—Rubberized -fabrics—Pegamoid—Weight of varnish—Latitudes of -the balloon—Calculating gores—Laying out patterns and -cutting—Sewing—Varnishing—Drying—Oiling—The neck—The -valve—The net—The basket.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> making of a balloon is almost always placed -in the hands of a professional balloon-maker. -But as the use of balloons increases, and their owners -multiply, it is becoming a matter of importance -that the most improved methods of making them -should be known to the intending purchaser, as well -as to the amateur who wishes to construct his own -balloon.</p> - -<p>The fabric of which the gas envelope is made may -be either silk, cotton (percale), or linen. It should -be of a tight, diagonal weave, of uniform and strong -threads in both warp and woof, unbleached, and -without dressing, or finish. If it is colored, care -should be exercised that the dye is one that will not -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span> -affect injuriously the strength or texture of the fabric. -Lightness in weight, and great strength (as -tested by tearing), are the essentials.</p> - -<p>The finest German percale weighs about 2½ ounces -per square yard; Russian percale, 3⅓ ounces, and -French percale, 3¾ounces, per square yard. The -white silk used in Russian military balloons weighs -about the same as German percale, but is very much -stronger. Pongee silk is a trifle heavier. The silk -used for sounding balloons is much lighter, weighing -only a little over one ounce to the square yard.</p> - -<p>Goldbeater’s skin and rubber have been used to -some extent, but the great cost of the former places -it in reach only of governmental departments, and -the latter is of use only in small balloons for scientific -work—up to about 175 cubic feet capacity.</p> - -<p>The fabric is first to be varnished, to fill up the -pores and render it gas-tight. For this purpose a -thin linseed-oil varnish has been commonly used. -To 100 parts of pure linseed-oil are added 4 parts -of litharge and 1 part of umber, and the mixture is -heated to about 350° Fahr., for six or seven hours, -and stirred constantly. After standing a few days -the clear part is drawn off for use. For the thicker -varnish used on later coats, the heat should be raised -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span> -to 450° and kept at about that temperature until it -becomes thick. This operation is attended with -much danger of the oil taking fire, and should be -done only by an experienced varnish-maker.</p> - -<p>The only advantages of the linseed-oil varnish are -its ease of application, and its cheapness. Its drawbacks -are stickiness—requiring continual examination -of the balloon envelope, especially when the -deflated bag is stored away—its liability to spontaneous -combustion, particularly when the varnish is -new, and its very slow drying qualities, requiring a -long wait between the coats.</p> - -<p>Another varnish made by dissolving rubber in benzine, -has been largely used. It requires vulcanizing -after application. It is never sticky, and is always -soft and pliable. However, the rubber is liable to decomposition -from the action of the violet ray of light, -and a balloon so varnished requires the protection -of an outer yellow covering—either of paint, or an -additional yellow fabric. Unfortunately, a single -sheet of rubberized material is not gas-tight, and it -is necessary to make the envelope of two, or even -three, layers of the fabric, thus adding much to the -weight.</p> - -<p>The great gas-bags of the Zeppelin airships are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span> -varnished with “Pegamoid,” a patent preparation -the constituents of which are not known. Its use by -Count Zeppelin is the highest recommendation possible.</p> - -<p>The weight of the varnish adds largely to the -weight of the envelope. French pongee silk after -receiving its five coats of linseed-oil varnish, weighs -8 ounces per square yard. A double bag of percale -with a layer of vulcanized rubber between, and a -coating of rubber on the inside, and painted yellow -on the outside, will weigh 11 ounces per square -yard. Pegamoid material, which comes ready prepared, -weighs but about 4 ounces per square yard, -but is much more costly.</p> - -<p>In cutting out the gores of the envelope it is possible -to waste fully ⅓ of the material unless the -work is skilfully planned. Taking the width of -the chosen material as a basis, we must first deduct -from ¾ of an inch to 1½ inches, in proportion to the -size of the proposed balloon, for a broad seam and -the overlapping necessary. Dividing the circumference -at the largest diameter—the “equator” of the -balloon—by the remaining width of the fabric gives -the number of gores required. To obtain the breadth -of each gore at the different “latitudes” (supposing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span> -the globe of the balloon to be divided by parallels -similar to those of the earth) the following table is -to be used; 0° representing the equator, and 90° the -apex of the balloon. The breadth of the gore in inches -at any latitude is the product of the decimal -opposite that latitude in the table by the original -width of the fabric in inches, thus allowing for -seams.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_355.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Finsterwalder’s method of cutting material for a spherical balloon, by which -over one-fourth of the material, usually wasted in the common method, -may be saved. It has the further advantage of saving more than half of -the usual sewing. The balloon is considered as a spherical hexahedron -(a six-surfaced figure similar to a cube, but with curved sides and edges). -The circumference of the sphere divided by the width of the material -gives the unit of measurement. The dimensions of the imagined hexahedron -may then be determined from the calculated surface and the -cutting proceed according to the illustration above, which shows five -breadths to each of the six curved sides. The illustration shows the seams -of the balloon made after the Finsterwalder method, when looking down -upon it from above.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Table for Calculating Shape of Gores for Spherical -Balloons</span></h3> - -<table> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">0°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">1</span>.<span class="left">000</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">3°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">998</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">6°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">994</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">9°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">988</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">12°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">978</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">15°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">966</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">18°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">951</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">21°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">934</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">24°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">913</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">27°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">891</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">30°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">866</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">33°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">839</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">36°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">809</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">39°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">777</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">42°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">743</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">45°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">707</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">48°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">669</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">51°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">629</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">54°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">588</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">57°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">544</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">60°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">500</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">63°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">454</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">66°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">407</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">69°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">358</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">72°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">309</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">75°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">259</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">78°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">208</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">81°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">156</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">84°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">104</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">87°</td> - <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">052⅓</span></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In practice, the shape of the gore is calculated by -the above table, and plotted out on a heavy pasteboard, -generally in two sections for convenience in -handling. The board is cut to the plotted shape and -used as the pattern for every gore. In large establishments -all the gores are cut at once by a machine.</p> - -<p>The raw edges are hemmed, and folded into one -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span> -another to give a flat seam, and are then sewn together -“through and through,” in twos and threes: -afterward these sections are sewn together. Puckering -must be scrupulously avoided. In the case of -rubberized material, the thread holes should be -smeared with rubber solution, and narrow strips of -the fabric cemented over the seams with the same -substance.</p> - -<p>Varnishing is the next process, the gores being -treated in turn. Half of the envelope is varnished -first, and allowed to dry in a well-ventilated place -out of reach of the sun’s rays. The other half is -varnished when the first is dry. A framework which -holds half of the balloon in the shape of a bell is -usually employed. In case of haste, the balloon may -be blown up with air, but this must be constantly renewed -to be of any service.</p> - -<p>The first step in varnishing is to get one side (the -outer, or the inner) coated with a varnish thin -enough to penetrate the material: then turn the envelope -the other side out and give that a coat of the -thin varnish. Next, after all is thoroughly dry, give -the outer side a coat of thick varnish closing all pores. -When this is dry give the inner side a similar coat. -Finally, after drying thoroughly, give both sides a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span> -coat of olive oil to prevent stickiness. The amount -of varnish required is, for the first coat 1½ times the -weight of the envelope, and for the second coat ½ the -weight—of the thin varnish. For the thick coat on -the outer side ⅓ of the weight of the envelope, and -on the inner side about half as much. For the olive-oil -coat, about ⅛ of the weight of the envelope will be -needed. These figures are approximate, some material -requiring more, some less; and a wasteful -workman will cause a greater difference.</p> - -<p>The neck of the balloon (also called the tail) is in -form a cylindrical tube of the fabric, sewn to an -opening in the bottom of the balloon, which has been -strengthened by an extra ring of fabric to support -it. The lower end of the tube, called the mouth, is -sewn to a wooden ring, which stiffens it. The size -of the neck is dependent upon the size of the balloon. -Its diameter is determined by finding the cube of -one-half the diameter of the balloon, and dividing it -by 1,000. In length, the neck should be at least -four times its diameter.</p> - -<p>The apex of the balloon envelope is fitted with a -large valve to permit the escape of gas when it is desired -that the balloon shall descend. The door of -the valve is made to open inward into the envelope, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> -and is pulled open by the valve-cord which passes -through the neck of the balloon into the basket, -or car. This valve is called the manœuvring valve, -and there are many different designs equally efficient. -As they may be had ready made, it is best -for the amateur, unless he is a machinist, to purchase -one. The main point to see to is that the seat -of the valve is of soft pliable rubber, and that the -door of the valve presses a comparatively sharp edge -of metal or wood so firmly upon the seat as to indent -it; and the springs of the valve should be strong -enough to hold it evenly to its place.</p> - -<p>The making of the net of the balloon is another -part of the work which must be delegated to professionals. -The material point is that the net distributes -the weight evenly over the surface of the upper -hemisphere of the envelope. The strength of the -cordage is an item which must be carefully tested. -Different samples of the same material show such -wide variations in strength that nothing but an actual -test will determine. In general, however, it may -be said that China-grass cordage is four times as -strong as hemp cordage, and silk cordage is ten times -as strong as hemp—for the same size cords.</p> - -<p>The meshes of the net should be small, allowing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span> -the use of a small cord. Large cords mean large -knots, and these wear seriously upon the balloon envelope, -and are very likely to cause leaks. In large -meshes, also, the envelope puffs out between the cords -and becomes somewhat stretched, opening pores -through which much gas is lost by diffusion.</p> - -<p>The “star,” or centre of the net at the apex of the -balloon, must be fastened immovably to the rim of -the valve. The suspension cords begin at from 30° -to 45° below the equator of the envelope, and are -looped through rings in what are called “goose-necks.” -These allow a measure of sliding motion -to the cordage as the basket sways in the wind.</p> - -<p>For protecting the net against rotting from frequent -wetting, it is recommended to saturate it thoroughly -with a solution of acetate of soda, drying immediately. -Paraffin is sometimes used with more or -less success, but tarring should be avoided, as it materially -weakens the cordage. Oil or grease are even -worse.</p> - -<p>At the bottom of the net proper the few large cords -into which the many small cords have been merged -are attached to the ring of the balloon. This is -either of steel or of several layers of wood well bound -together. The ropes supporting the basket are also -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span> -fastened to this ring, and from it hang the trail-rope -and the holding ropes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_361.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Sketch showing the diamond mesh of balloon cordage and the method of distributing -the rings for the goose-necks; also the merging of netting cords -into the suspension cords which support the car. The principal knots -used in tying balloon nets are shown on the right.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>The basket is also to be made by a professional, -as upon its workmanship may depend the lives of its -occupants, though every other feature of the balloon -be faultless. It must be light, and still very strong -to carry its load and withstand severe bumping. It -should be from 3 to 4 feet deep, with a floor space -of 4 feet by 5 feet. It is usually made of willow and -rattan woven substantially together. The ropes supporting -the car are passed through the bottom and -woven in with it. Buffers are woven on to the outside, -and the inside is padded. The seats are small -baskets in which is stored the equipment. With the -completion of these the balloon is ready for its furnishings -and equipment, which come under the direction -of the pilot, or captain, as detailed in the preceding -chapter. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XVII">Chapter XVII.<br /> - -MILITARY AERONAUTICS.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The pioneer Meusnier—L’Entreprenant—First aerostiers—First -aerial warship—Bombardment by balloons—Free balloons in -observations—Ordering artillery from balloon—The postal -balloons of Paris—Compressed hydrogen—National experiments—Bomb -dropping—Falling explosives—Widespread -activity in gathering fleets—Controversies—Range of vision—Reassuring -outlook.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">Almost</span> from the beginning of success in traversing -the air the great possibilities of all -forms of aircraft as aids in warfare have been -recognized by military authorities, and, as has so -often been the case with other inventions by non-military -minds, the practically unlimited funds at -the disposal of national war departments have been -available for the development of the balloon at first, -then the airship, and now of the aeroplane.</p> - -<p>The Montgolfiers had scarcely proved the possibility -of rising into the air, in 1783, before General -Meusnier was busily engaged in inventing improvements -in their balloon with the expressed purpose of -making it of service to his army, and before he was -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span> -killed in battle he had secured the appointment of -a commission to test the improved balloon as to its -efficiency in war. The report of the committee being -favorable, a balloon corps was formed in April, 1794, -and the balloon <i>L’Entreprenant</i> was used during the -battle of Fleurus, on June 26th, by Meusnier’s successor, -General Jourdan, less than a year after Meusnier’s -death. In 1795 this balloon was used in the -battle of Mayence. In both instances it was employed -for observation only.</p> - -<p>But when the French entered Moscow, they found -there, and captured, a balloon laden with 1,000 -pounds of gunpowder which was intended to have -been used against them.</p> - -<p>In 1796 two other balloons were used by the -French army then in front of Andernach and Ehrenbreitstein, -and in 1798 the 1st Company of Aerostiers -was sent to Egypt, and operated at the battle -of the Nile, and later at Cairo. In the year following, -this balloon corps was disbanded.</p> - -<p>In 1812 Russia secured the services of a German -balloon builder named Leppich, or Leppig, to build -a war balloon. It had the form of a fish, and was -so large that the inflation required five days, but the -construction of the framework was faulty, and some -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span> -important parts gave way during inflation, and the -airship never left the ground. As it was intended -that this balloon should be dirigible and supplied -with explosives, and take an active part in attacks -on enemies, it may be regarded as the first aerial -warship.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_365.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A military dirigible making a tour of observation.</p></div> - -<p>In 1849, however, the first actual employment of -the balloon in warfare took place. Austria was engaged -in the bombardment of Venice, and the range -of the besieging batteries was not great enough to -permit shells to be dropped into the city. The engineers -formed a balloon detachment, and made a -number of Montgolfiers out of paper. These were of -a size sufficient to carry bombs weighing 30 pounds -for half an hour before coming down. These war -balloons were taken to the windward side of the city, -and after a pilot balloon had been floated over the -point where the bombs were to fall, and the time -consumed in the flight ascertained, the fuses of the -bombs were set for the same time, and the war balloons -were released. The actual damage done by the -dropping of these bombs was not great, but the moral -effect upon the people of the city was enormous. The -balloon detachment changed its position as the wind -changed, and many shells were exploded in the heart -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span> -of the city, one of them in the market place. But -the destruction wrought was insignificant as compared -with that usually resulting from cannonading. -As these little Montgolfiers were sent up unmanned, -perhaps they are not strictly entitled to be dignified -by the name of war balloon, being only what in this -day would be called aerial bombs.</p> - -<p>The next use of the balloon in warfare was by -Napoleon III, in 1859. He sent up Lieutenant -Godard, formerly a manufacturer of balloons, and -Nadar, the balloonist, at Castiglione. It was a tour -of observation only, and Godard made the important -discovery that the inhabitants were gathering their -flocks of domestic animals and choking the roads -with them, to oppose the advance of the French.</p> - -<p>The first military use of balloons in the United -States was at the time of the Civil War. Within -a month after the war broke out, Professor T. S. C. -Lowe, of Washington, put himself and his balloon -at the command of President Lincoln, and on June -18, 1861, he sent to the President a telegram from -the balloon—the first record of the kind in history.</p> - -<p>After the defeat at Manassas, on July 24, 1861, -Professor Lowe made a free ascent, and discovered -the true position of the Confederates, and proved -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> -the falsity of rumors of their advance. The organization -of a regular balloon corps followed, and it -was attached to McClellan’s army, and used in reconnoitering -before Yorktown. The balloons were -operated under heavy artillery fire, but were not -injured.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_368.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A small captive military balloon fitted for observation. A cylinder of compressed -hydrogen to replace leakage is seen at F. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span></p></div> - -<p>On May 24th, for the first time in history, a general -officer—in this case, General Stoneman—directed -the fire of artillery at a hidden enemy from a balloon.</p> - -<p>Later in the month balloons were used at Chickahominy, -and again at Fair Oaks and Richmond, being -towed about by locomotives. On the retreat from -before Richmond, McClellan’s balloons and gas generators -were captured and destroyed.</p> - -<p>In 1869, during the siege of a fort at Wakamatzu -by the Imperial Japanese troops, the besieged sent -up a man-carrying kite. After making observations, -the officer ascended again with explosives, with which -he attempted to disperse the besieging army, but -without success.</p> - -<p>During the siege of Paris, in 1870, there were -several experienced balloonists shut up in the city, -and the six balloons at hand were quickly repaired -and put to use by the army for carrying dispatches -and mail beyond the besieging lines. The first trips -were made by the professional aeronauts, but, as they -could not return, there was soon a scarcity of pilots. -Sailors, and acrobats from the Hippodrome, were -pressed into the service, and before the siege was -raised 64 of these postal balloons had been dispatched. -Fifty-seven out of the 64 landed safely on French -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span> -territory, and fulfilled their mission; 4 were captured -by the Germans; 1 floated to Norway; 1 was -lost, with its crew of two sailors, who faithfully -dropped their dispatches on the rocks near the Lizard -as they were swept out to sea; and 1 landed on -the islet Hoedic, in the Atlantic. In all, 164 persons -left Paris in these balloons, always at night, -and there were carried a total of 9 tons of dispatches -and 3,000,000 letters. At first dogs were carried -to bring back replies, but none ever returned. Then -carrier pigeons were used successfully. Replies were -set in type and printed. These printed sheets were -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span> -reduced by photography so that 16 folio pages of -print, containing 32,000 words, were reduced to a -space of 2 inches by 1¼ inches on the thinnest of -gelatine film. Twenty of these films were packed -in a quill, and constituted the load for each pigeon. -When received in Paris, the films were enlarged by -means of a magic lantern, copied, and delivered to -the persons addressed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_370.jpg" alt="" /> -<blockquote> - -<p>Spherical canister of compressed hydrogen for use in inflating military balloons. -A large number of these canisters may be tapped at the same time and the -inflation proceed rapidly; a large balloon being filled in two hours.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<p>In more recent times the French used balloons at -Tonkin, in 1884; the English, in Africa, in 1885; -the Italians, in Abyssinia, in 1888; and the United -States, at Santiago, in 1898. During the Boer War, -in 1900, balloons were used by the British for directing -artillery fire, and one was shot to pieces by -well-aimed Boer cannon. At Port Arthur, both the -Japanese and the Russians used balloons and man-carrying -kites for observation. The most recent use -is that by Spain, in her campaign against the Moors, -in 1909.</p> - -<p>The introduction of compressed hydrogen in compact -cylinders, which are easily transported, has simplified -the problem of inflating balloons in the field, -and of restoring gas lost by leakage.</p> - -<p>The advent of the dirigible has engaged the active -attention of the war departments of all the civilized -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span> -nations, and experiments are constantly progressing, -in many instances in secret. It is a fact at once -significant and interesting, as marking the rapidity -of the march of improvement, that the German Government -has lately refused to buy the newest Zeppelin -dirigible, on the ground that it is built of aluminum, -which is out of date since the discovery of -its lighter alloys.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_372.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The German military non-rigid dirigible Parseval II. It survived the storm -which wrecked the Zeppelin II in April, 1910, and reached its shed at -Cologne in safety.</p></div> - -<p>Practically all the armies are being provided with -fleets of aeroplanes, ostensibly for use in scouting. -But there have been many contests by aviators in -“bomb-dropping” which have at least proved that -it is possible to drop explosives from an aeroplane -with a great degree of accuracy. The favorite target -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span> -in these contests has been the life-sized outline of -a battleship.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_373.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The German military Zeppelin dirigible, which took part in the manœuvres at Hamburg in April, 1910, -and was wrecked by a high wind at Weilburg on the return journey to Cologne.</p></div> - -<p>Glenn Curtiss, after his trip down the Hudson -from Albany, declared that he could have dropped -a large enough torpedo upon the Poughkeepsie -Bridge to have wrecked it. His subsequent feats -in dropping “bombs,” represented by oranges, have -given weight to his claims.</p> - -<p>By some writers it is asserted that the successful -navigation of the air will guarantee universal peace; -that war with aircraft will be so destructive that -the whole world will rise against its horrors. Against -a fleet of flying machines dropping explosives into -the heart of great cities there can be no adequate -defence.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, Mr. Hudson Maxim declares -that the exploding of the limited quantities of dynamite -that can be carried on the present types of -aeroplanes, on the decks of warships would not do -any vital damage. He also says that many tons of -dynamite might be exploded in Madison Square, -New York City, with no more serious results than -the blowing out of the windows of the adjacent buildings -as the air within rushed out to fill the void -caused by the uprush of air heated by the explosion. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_375.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The Lebaudy airship “La Patrie.” As compared with the first Lebaudy, it shows the rounded stern with -stabilizing planes, and the long fin beneath, with rudder and dipping planes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span></p></div> - -<p>As yet, the only experience that may be instanced -is that of the Russo-Japanese War, where cast-iron -shells, weighing 448 lbs., containing 28 lbs. of powder, -were fired from a high angle into Port Arthur, -and did but little damage.</p> - -<p>In 1899 the Hague Conference passed a resolution -prohibiting the use of aircraft to discharge projectiles -or explosives, and limited their use in war to observation. -Germany, France, and Italy withheld -consent upon the proposition.</p> - -<p>In general, undefended places are regarded as exempt -from attack by bombardment of any kind.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, there are straws which show how -the wind is blowing. German citizens and clubs -which purchase a type of airship approved by the -War Office of the German Empire are to receive a -substantial subsidy, with the understanding that in -case of war the aircraft is to be at the disposal of -the Government. Under this plan it is expected that -the German Government will control a large fleet of -ships of the air without being obliged to own them.</p> - -<p>And, in France, funds were raised recently, by -popular subscription, sufficient to provide the nation -with a fleet of fourteen airships (dirigibles) and -thirty aeroplanes. These are already being built, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span> -and it will not be long before France will have the -largest air-fleet afloat.</p> - -<p>The results of the German manœuvres with a fleet -of four dirigibles in a night attack upon strong fortresses -have been kept a profound secret, as if of -great value to the War Office.</p> - -<p>In the United States the Signal Corps has been -active in operating the Baldwin dirigible and the -Wright aeroplanes owned by the Government. To -the latter, wireless telegraphic apparatus has been -attached and is operated successfully when the machines -are in flight. In addition, the United States -Aeronautical Reserve has been formed, with a large -membership of prominent amateur and professional -aviators.</p> - -<p>Some military experts, however, assert that the -dirigible is hopelessly outclassed for warfare by the -aeroplane, which can operate in winds in which the -dirigible dare not venture, and can soar so high above -any altitude that the dirigible can reach as to easily -destroy it. Another argument used against the availability -of the dirigible as a war-vessel is, that if it -were launched on a wind which carried it over the -enemy’s country, it might not be able to return at -sufficient speed to escape destruction by high-firing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span> -guns, even if its limited fuel capacity did not force -a landing.</p> - -<p>Even the observation value of the aircraft is in -some dispute. The following table is quoted as giving -the ranges possible to an observer in the air:</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <th>Altitude in feet.</th> - <th colspan="2">Distance of horizon.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">500</td> - <td class="tdc">30</td> - <td class="tdc">miles.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">1,000</td> - <td class="tdc">42</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">2,000</td> - <td class="tdc">59</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">3,000</td> - <td class="tdc">72</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">4,000</td> - <td class="tdc">84</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">5,000</td> - <td class="tdc">93</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>As a matter of fact, the moisture ordinarily in -the air effectually limits the range of both natural -vision and the use of the camera for photographing -objects on the ground. The usual limit of practical -range of the best telescope is eight miles.</p> - -<p>All things considered, however, it is to be expected -that the experimenting by army and navy officers all -over the world will lead to such improvement and -invention in the art of navigating the air as will -develop its benevolent, rather than its malevolent, -possibilities—“a consummation devoutly to be -wished.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XVIII">Chapter XVIII.<br /> - -BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The Wright Brothers—Santos-Dumont—Louis Bleriot—Gabriel -Voisin—Leon Delagrange—Henri Farman—Robert -Esnault-Pelterie—Count von Zeppelin—Glenn H. Curtiss—Charles -K. Hamilton—Hubert Latham—Alfred Leblanc—Claude -Grahame-White—Louis Paulhan—Clifford B. -Harmon—Walter Brookins—John B. Moisant—J. Armstrong -Drexel—Ralph Johnstone.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">On</span> January 1, 1909, it would have been a brief -task to write a few biographical notes about -the “prominent” aviators. At that date there were -but five who had made flights exceeding ten minutes -in duration—the Wright brothers, Farman, Delagrange, -and Bleriot. At the close of 1910 the roll of -aviators who have distinguished themselves by winning -prizes or breaking previous records has increased -to more than 100, and the number of qualified pilots -of flying machines now numbers over 300. The impossibility -of giving even a mention of the notable -airmen in this chapter is apparent, and the few whose -names have been selected are those who have more -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span> -recently in our own country come into larger public -notice, and those of the pioneers whose names will -never lose their first prominence.</p> - -<h3>THE WRIGHT BROTHERS.</h3> - -<p>The Wright Brothers have so systematically -linked their individual personalities in all their work, -in private no less than in public, that the brief life -story to be told here is but one for them both. In -fact, until Wilbur went to France in 1908, and -Orville to Washington, the nearest approach to a -separation is illustrated by a historic remark of -Wilbur’s to an acquaintance in Dayton, one afternoon: -“Orville flew 21 miles yesterday; I am going -to beat that to-day.” And he did—by 3 miles.</p> - -<p>Their early life in their home town of Dayton, -Ohio, was unmarked by significant incident. They -were interested in bicycles, and at length went into -the business of repairing and selling these machines.</p> - -<p>Their attention seems to have been strongly turned -to the subject of human flight by the death of Lilienthal -in August, 1896, at which time the press published -some of the results of his experiments. A -magazine article by Octave Chanute, himself an experimenter -with gliders, led to correspondence with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span> -him, and the Wrights began a series of similar investigations -with models of their own building.</p> - -<p>By 1900 they had succeeded in flying a large glider -by running with a string, as with a kite, and in the -following year they had made some flights on their -gliders, of which they had several of differing types. -For two years the Wrights studied and tested and -disproved nearly every formula laid down by scientific -works for the relations of gravity to air, and -finally gave themselves up to discovering by actual -trial what the true conditions were, and to the improvement -of their gliders accordingly. Meanwhile -they continued their constant personal practice in -the air.</p> - -<p>The most of this experimental work was done at -Kitty Hawk, N. C.; for the reason that there the -winds blow more uniformly than at any other place -in the United States, and the great sand dunes there -gave the Wrights the needed elevation from which -to leap into the wind with their gliders. Consequently, -when at last they were ready to try a machine -driven by a motor, it was at this secluded spot that -the first flights ever made by man with a heavier-than-air -machine took place. On December 17, 1903, -their first machine left the ground under its own -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span> -power, and remained in the air for twelve seconds. -From this time on progress was even slower than -before, on account of the complications added by the -motive power; but by the time another year had -passed they were making flights which lasted five -minutes, and had their machine in such control that -they could fly in a circle and make a safe landing -within a few feet of the spot designated.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_382.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Turpin, Taylor, Orville Wright, Wilbur Wright, Brookins, and Johnstone discussing the merits of the Wright -machine.</p></div> - -<p>On the 5th of October, 1905, Wilbur Wright made -his historic flight of 24 miles at Dayton, Ohio, beating -the record of Orville, made the day before, of -21 miles. The average speed of these flights was 38 -miles an hour. No contention as to the priority of the -device known as wing-warping can ever set aside the -fact that these long practical flights were made more -than a year before any other man had flown 500 feet, -or had remained in the air half a minute, with a -heavier-than-air machine driven by power.</p> - -<p>The Wrights are now at the head of one of the -largest aeroplane manufactories in the world, and -devote the larger part of their time to research work -in the line of the navigation of the air. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span></p> - -<h3>ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONT.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alberto Santos-Dumont</span> was born in Brazil in -1877. When but a lad he became intensely interested -in aeronautics, having been aroused by witnessing -the ascension at a show of an ordinary hot-air -balloon. Within the next few years he had made -several trips to Paris, and in 1897 made his first -ascent in a balloon with the balloon builder Machuron, -the partner of the famous Lachambre.</p> - -<p>In 1898 he began the construction of his notable -series of dirigibles, which eventually reached twelve -in number. With his No. 6 he won the $20,000 prize -offered by M. Deutsch (de la Meurthe) for the first -trip from the Paris Aero Club’s grounds to and -around the Eiffel Tower in 30 minutes or less. The -distance was nearly 7 miles. It is characteristic of -M. Santos-Dumont that he should give $15,000 of -the prize to relieve distress among the poor of Paris, -and the remainder to his mechanicians who had built -the balloon.</p> - -<p>His smallest dirigible was the No. 9, which held -7,770 cubic feet of gas; the largest was the No. 10, -which held 80,000 cubic feet.</p> - -<p>In 1905, when Bleriot, Voisin, and their comrades -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span> -were striving to accomplish flight with machines heavier -than air, Santos-Dumont turned his genius upon -the same problem, and on August 14, 1906, he made -his first flight with a cellular biplane driven by a 24 -horse-power motor. On November 13th of the same -year he flew 720 feet with the same machine. These -were the first flights of heavier-than-air machines in -Europe, and the first public flights anywhere. Later -he turned to the monoplane type, and with “La -Demoiselle” added new laurels to those already won -with his dirigibles.</p> - -<h3>LOUIS BLERIOT.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis Bleriot</span>, designer and builder of the celebrated -Bleriot monoplanes, and himself a pilot of the -first rank, was born in Cambrai, France, in 1872. -He graduated from a noted technical school, and soon -attached himself to the group of young men—all under -thirty years of age—who were experimenting -with gliders in the effort to fly. His attempts at first -were with the flapping-wing contrivances, but he -soon gave these up as a failure, and devoted his energy -to the automobile industry; and the excellent -Bleriot acetylene headlight testifies to his constructive -ability in that field. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span></p> - -<p>Attracted by the experiments of M. Ernest Archdeacon -he joined his following, and with Gabriel -Voisin engaged in building gliders of the biplane -type. By 1907 he had turned wholly to the monoplane -idea, and in April of that year made his first -leap into the air with a power-driven monoplane. -By September he had so improved his machine that -he was able to fly 600 feet, and in June, 1908, he -broke the record for monoplanes by flying nearly a -mile. Again and again he beat his own records, and -at length the whole civilized world was thrilled by -his triumphant flight across the British Channel on -July 25, 1909.</p> - -<p>The Bleriot machines hold nearly all the speed -records, and many of those in other lines of achievement, -and M. Bleriot enjoys the double honor of -being an eminently successful manufacturer as well -as a dauntless aviator of heroic rank.</p> - -<h3>GABRIEL VOISIN.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gabriel Voisin</span>, the elder of the two Voisin brothers, -was born in 1879 at Belleville-sur-Saone, near -the city of Lyons, France. He was educated as an -architect, but early became interested in aeronautics, -and engaged in gliding, stimulated by the achievements -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span> -of Pilcher, in England, and Captain Ferber, -in his own country. He assisted M. Archdeacon in -his experiments on the Seine, often riding the gliders -which were towed by the swift motor boats.</p> - -<p>In 1906 he associated himself with his brother in -the business of manufacturing biplane machines, and -in March, 1907, he himself made the first long flight -with a power-driven machine in Europe. This aeroplane -was built for his friend Delagrange, and was -one in which the latter was soon breaking records -and winning prizes. The second machine was for -Farman, who made the Voisin biplane famous by -winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,000 -for making a flight of 1,093 yards in a circle.</p> - -<p>The Voisin biplane is distinctive in structure, and -is accounted one of the leading aeroplanes of the -present day.</p> - -<h3>LEON DELAGRANGE.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Leon Delagrange</span> was born at Orleans, France, -in 1873. He entered the School of Arts as a student -in sculpture, about the same time that Henri Farman -went there to study painting, and Gabriel Voisin, -architecture. He exhibited at the Salon, and -won several medals. In 1905, he took up aeronautics, -assisted at the experiments of M. Archdeacon. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span> -His first aeroplane was built by Voisin, and he made -his first flight at Issy, March 14, 1907. Less than -a month later—on April 11—he made a new record -for duration of flight, remaining in the air for 9 -minutes and 15 seconds—twice as long as the previous -record made by Farman.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_388.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Leblanc, Bleriot, and Delagrange, -(from left to right) in aviation dress, standing in front of the Bleriot machine -which crossed the English Channel. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span></p></div> - -<p>At Rheims, in 1909, he appeared with a Bleriot -monoplane, and continued to fly with that type of -machine until his death. At Doncaster, England, -he made the world record for speed up to that time, -travelling at the rate of 49.9 miles per hour. He -was killed at Bordeaux, France, in January, 1910, -by the fall of his machine.</p> - -<h3>HENRI FARMAN.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri Farman</span>, justly regarded as the most prominent -figure in the aviation world today, was born -in France in 1873. His father was an Englishman.</p> - -<p>While a mere boy he became locally famous as a -bicycle racer, and later achieved a wider fame as a -fearless and skillful driver in automobile races. In -1902 he won the Paris-Vienna race.</p> - -<p>In September, 1907, he made his first attempt to -fly, using the second biplane built by his friend Gabriel -Voisin, and in the following year he won with -it the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,000. He -then built a machine after his own ideas, which more -resembles the Wright machine than the Voisin, and -with it he has won many prizes, and made many -world records. Demands for machines, and for -teaching the art of handling them, have poured in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span> -upon him, necessitating a continual increase of manufacturing -facilities until it may safely be said that -he has the largest plant for building flying machines -in the world, turning out the largest number of machines, -and through his school for aviators is instructing -a larger number of pupils annually than -any other similar establishment.</p> - -<h3>ROBERT ESNAULT-PELTERIE.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Robert Esnault-Pelterie</span> was born in 1880, -and educated in the city of Paris. He early showed -a mechanical turn of mind, and was interested particularly -in scientific studies. He became an enthusiast -in matters aeronautic, and devoted himself -to the construction of gasoline engines suitable for -aviation purposes. After satisfying his ideal in this -direction with the now famous “R-E-P” motor, he -designed a new type of flying machine which is -known as the “R-E-P monoplane.” His first flights -were made at Buc in October, 1907, and while they -were short, they proved the possibility of steering a -flying machine so that it would describe a curved -line—at that time a considerable achievement among -European aviators. In April, 1908, he flew for ¾ -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span> -of a mile, and reached a height of 100 feet. This -feat eclipsed all previous records for monoplanes.</p> - -<p>His fame, however, rests upon his motors, which -are quite original in design and construction.</p> - -<h3>COUNT FERDINAND VON ZEPPELIN.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin</span> was born in -1838, on the shores of the Lake Constance, where -his great airships have had their initial trials.</p> - -<p>It is an interesting fact that Count von Zeppelin -made his first balloon ascension in a war-balloon attached -to the army corps commanded by his friend, -Carl Schurz, during the Civil War.</p> - -<p>It was only after years of absorbing study of all -that human knowledge could contribute that Count -von Zeppelin decided upon the type of dirigible which -bears his name. Under the patronage of the King -of Würtemberg he began his first airship, having -previously built an immense floating shed, which, -swinging by a cable, always had its doors facing away -from the wind.</p> - -<p>The successful flights of the series of magnificent -Zeppelin airships have been marvellous in an age -crowded with wonders. And the misfortune which -has followed close upon their superb achievements -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span> -with complete destruction would long ago have undone -a man of less energy and courage than the -dauntless Count. It should be borne in mind, however, -that of the hundreds of passengers carried in -his ships of the air, all have come to land safely—a -record that it would be difficult to match with any -other form of travel. The accidents which have destroyed -the Zeppelins have never happened in the -air, excepting only the wrecking of the <i>Deutschland</i> -by a thunderstorm.</p> - -<p>The indefatigable Count is now constructing another -airship with the new alloy, electron, instead -of aluminum. He estimates that 5,000 pounds’ -weight can be saved in this way.</p> - -<h3>CAPTAIN THOMAS S. BALDWIN.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Captain Thomas S. Baldwin</span>, balloonist and -aviator, was born in Mississippi in 1855. His first -aeronautical experience was as a parachute rider from -a balloon in the air. He invented the parachute he -used, and received for it a gold medal from the Balloon -Society of Great Britain. Exhibiting this parachute, -Captain Baldwin made an extensive tour of -the civilized world.</p> - -<p>In 1892 he built his first airship, a combination -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span> -of a balloon, a screw propeller, and a bicycle, the last -to furnish the motive power. It was not until 1902, -when be installed an automobile engine in his airship, -that he succeeded in making it sail. It was not -yet dirigible, however; but after two years of devising -and experimenting, he sailed away from Oakland, -Cal., on August 2, 1904, against the wind, and after -a short voyage, turned and came back to his balloon-shed. -From this time on he made several successful -dirigibles, and in 1908 he met all the requirements -of the United States Government for a military dirigible, -and sold to it the only dirigible it possesses.</p> - -<p>He became interested in the experiments of Curtiss -and McCurdy at Hammondsport, in 1908, and aided -in building the remarkable series of biplanes with -which record flights were made. The newer design, -known as the Baldwin biplane, is unique in the pivoted -balancing plane set upright above the upper -plane, a device entirely distinct from the warping or -other manipulation of horizontal surfaces for the purpose -of restoring lateral balance.</p> - -<h3>GLENN HAMMOND CURTISS.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glenn Hammond Curtiss</span> was born at Hammondsport, -N. Y., on the shore of Lake Keuka, in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span> -1878. From boyhood he was a competitor and winner -in all sorts of races where speed was the supreme -test. By nature a mechanic, he became noted for his -ingenious contrivances in this line, and built a series -of extremely fast motor-cycles, with one of which he -made the record of one mile in 26⅖ seconds, which -still stands as the fastest mile ever made by man with -any form of mechanism.</p> - -<p>Through the purchasing of one of his light engines -by Captain Baldwin for his dirigible, Curtiss -became interested in aeronautical matters, and soon -built a glider with which he sailed down from the -Hammondsport hills. The combination of his motor -and the glider was the next step, and on July 4, 1908, -he flew 1½ miles with the <i>June Bug</i>, winning the -<i>Scientific American</i> trophy.</p> - -<p>Learning that the United States was not to be represented -at the Rheims meet in August, 1909, he -hastily built a biplane and went there. He won the -first prize for the course of 30 kilometres (18.6 -miles), second prize for the course of 10 kilometres, -the James Gordon Bennett cup, and the tenth prize -in the contest for distance. From Rheims he went -to Brescia, Italy, and there won the first prize for -speed. In all these contests he was matching his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span> -biplane against monoplanes which were acknowledged -to be a faster type than the biplane.</p> - -<p>On May 29, 1910, Mr. Curtiss made the first stated -aeroplane tour to take place in this country, travelling -from Albany to New York City, 137 miles, with -but one stop for fuel. With this flight he won a -prize of $10,000.</p> - -<p>He has made many other notable flights and stands -in the foremost rank of the active aviators. At the -same time he is busily engaged in the manufacture -of the Curtiss biplane and the Curtiss engine, both -staple productions in their line.</p> - -<h3>CHARLES KEENEY HAMILTON.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Keeney Hamilton</span> is justly regarded -as one of the most skilful of aviators. He was born -in Connecticut in 1881, and showed his “bent” by -making distressing, and often disastrous, leaps from -high places with the family umbrella for a parachute.</p> - -<p>In 1904 he worked with Mr. Israel Ludlow, who -at that time was experimenting with gliders of his -own construction, and when Mr. Ludlow began towing -them behind automobiles, Hamilton rode on the -gliders and steered them. Later he became interested -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span> -in ballooning, and made a tour of Japan with -a small dirigible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_396.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Hamilton and Latham.</p></div> - -<p>He early became famous in the aviation world by -his spectacular glides from a great height. He has -said that the first of these was unintentional, but his -motor having stopped suddenly while he was high -in the air, he had only the other alternative of falling -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span> -vertically. The sensation of the swift gliding -having pleased him, he does it frequently “for the -fun of it.” These glides are made at so steep an -angle that they have gained the distinctive name, -“Hamilton dives.”</p> - -<p>Hamilton came most prominently before the public -at large with his flight from Governor’s Island to -Philadelphia and back, on June 13, 1910. Following -close upon Curtiss’s flight from Albany to New -York, it was not only a record-breaking achievement, -but helped to establish in this country the value of -the aeroplane as a vehicle for place-to-place journeyings.</p> - -<h3>HUBERT LATHAM.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hubert Latham</span>, the famous Antoinette pilot, is -a graduate of Oxford. His father was a naturalized -Frenchman.</p> - -<p>His first aeronautical experience was as companion -to his cousin, Jacques Faure, the balloonist, on his -famous trip from London to Paris in 6½ hours, the -fastest time ever made between the two places until -the Clement-Bayard dirigible surpassed it by a few -minutes on October 16, 1910.</p> - -<p>The Antoinette monoplane with which M. Latham -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span> -has identified himself began with the ingenious engine -of Levavasseur, which was speedily made use -of for aeroplanes by Santos-Dumont, Bleriot, and -Farman. Levavasseur also had ideas about aeroplanes, -and persuaded some capitalists to back him -in the enterprise. When it was done, no one could -be found to fly it. Here M. Latham, a lieutenant of -miners and sappers in the French army, stepped into -the breach, and has made a name for himself and -for the Antoinette machine in the forefront of the -progress of aviation.</p> - -<p>After winning several contests he set out, on July -19, 1909, to cross the British Channel. After flying -about half the distance he fell into the sea. Six -days later Bleriot made the crossing successfully, -and Latham made a second attempt on July 27th, -and this time got within a mile of the Dover coast -before he again came down in the water.</p> - -<p>He has shown unsurpassed daring and skill in -flying in gales blowing at 40 miles per hour, a record -which few other aviators have cared to rival.</p> - -<h3>ALFRED LEBLANC.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alfred Leblanc</span>, the champion cross-country flier -of the world, was born in France in 1879. By profession -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span> -he is a metallurgist. A friend of Bleriot, -he became interested in monoplane flying, the -more readily because he was already a skilled balloonist.</p> - -<p>At the time Bleriot made his historic flight across -the British Channel, Leblanc preceded him, and, -standing on the Dover shore, signalled Bleriot where -to strike the land.</p> - -<p>He organized Bleriot’s school for aviators at Pau, -and became its director. Its excellence is exhibited -in the quality of its pupils; among them Chavez, -Morane, and Aubrun.</p> - -<p>The achievement through which Leblanc is most -widely known is his winning of the 489-mile race -over the northern part of France in August, 1910, -and with the victory the prize of $20,000 offered.</p> - -<h3>CLAUDE GRAHAME-WHITE.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Claude Grahame-White</span>, the most famous of -British aviators, learned to fly in France, under the -tutelage of M. Bleriot, Having accomplished so -much, he went to Mourmelon, the location of Farman’s -establishment, and made himself equally proficient -on the Farman biplane. While in France he -taught many pupils, among them Armstrong Drexel. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span> -Returning to England, he opened a school for English -aviators.</p> - -<p>He came into prominent public notice in his contest -with Paulhan in the race from London to Manchester, -and although Paulhan won the prize, -Grahame-White received a full share of glory for -his plucky persistence against discouraging mishaps.</p> - -<p>At the Boston-Harvard meet, in September, 1910, -Grahame-White carried off nearly all the prizes, and -in addition won for himself a large measure of personal -popularity.</p> - -<p>On October 14th he flew from the Benning Race -Track 6 miles away, over the Potomac River, around -the dome of the Capitol, the Washington Monument, -and over the course of Pennsylvania Avenue, up to -the State, War, and Navy Department building, -alighting accurately with his 40-foot biplane in the -60-foot street. Having ended his “call,” he mounted -his machine and rose skilfully into the air and returned -to his starting point.</p> - -<p>At the Belmont Park meet, in October, Grahame-White -captured the international speed prize with -his 100-horse-power Bleriot monoplane, and finished -second in the race around the Statue of Liberty, -being beaten by only 43 seconds. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span></p> - -<h3>LOUIS PAULHAN.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis Paulhan</span> was, in January, 1909, a mechanic -in Mourmelon, France, earning the good -wages in that country of $15 per week. He became -an aviator, making his first flight on July 10, 1909, -of 1¼ miles. Five days later he flew over 40 miles, -remaining in the air 1 hour 17 minutes, and rising -to an altitude of 357 feet, then the world’s record. -He flew constantly in public through the remainder -of 1909, winning many prizes and breaking and -making records.</p> - -<p>In January, 1910, he was the most prominent aviator -at the Los Angeles meet, and there made a new -world’s record for altitude, 4,166 feet.</p> - -<p>Within the 13 months and 3 weeks (up to October -1, 1910) that he has been flying, he has won -over $100,000 in prizes, besides receiving many -handsome fees for other flights and for instruction -to pupils.</p> - -<h3>CLIFFORD B. HARMON.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clifford B. Harmon</span> has the double distinction -of being not only the foremost amateur aviator of -America, but his feats have also at times excelled -those of the professional airmen. On July 2, 1910, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">402</span> -Mr. Harmon made a continuous flight of more than -2 hours, breaking all American records, and this he -held for several months.</p> - -<p>Mr. Harmon’s first experience in the air was as -a balloonist, and in this capacity he held the duration -record of 48 hours 26 minutes for a year. On -this same voyage, at the St. Louis Centennial, he -made a new record in America for altitude attained, -24,400 feet.</p> - -<p>At the Los Angeles aviation meet, in January, -1910, where he went with his balloon <i>New York</i>, he -met Paulhan, and became his pupil. At that meet -Paulhan made a new world’s record for altitude with -a Farman biplane, and this machine Mr. Harmon -bought, and brought to Mineola, L. I., where he -practised assiduously, crowning his minor achievements -by flying from there across Long Island Sound -to Greenwich, Conn.</p> - -<p>At the Boston-Harvard aviation meet, in September, -1910, Mr. Harmon won every prize offered to -amateur contestants.</p> - -<h3>WALTER BROOKINS.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Brookins</span> is one of the youngest of noted -aviators. He was born in Dayton, Ohio, in 1890, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span> -and went to school to Miss Katherine Wright, sister -of the Wright brothers. Young Walter was greatly -interested in the experiments made by the Wrights, -and Orville one day promised him that when he grew -up they would build a flying machine for him. -Brookins appeared at Dayton in the early part of -1910, after several years’ absence, during which he -had grown up, and demanded the promised flying -machine. The Wrights met the demand, and developed -Brookins into one of the most successful American -aviators.</p> - -<p>Brookins’s first leap into prominence was at the -Indianapolis meet, in June, 1910, where he made a -new world’s record for altitude, 4,803 feet. This -being beaten soon after in Europe, by J. Armstrong -Drexel, with 6,600 feet, Brookins attempted, at Atlantic -City, in September, to excel Drexel’s record, -and rose to a height of 6,175 feet, being forced to -come down by the missing of his motor.</p> - -<p>On September 29, 1910, he left Chicago for -Springfield, Ill. He made two stops on the way -for repairs and fuel, and reached Springfield in 7 -hours 9 minutes elapsed time. His actual time in -the air was 5 hours 47 minutes. The air-line distance -between the two cities is 187 miles, but as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">404</span> -Brookins flew in the face of a wind blowing 10 miles -an hour, he actually travelled 250 miles. During -the journey Brookins made a new cross-country record -for America in a continuous flight for 2 hours -38 minutes.</p> - -<h3>JOHN B. MOISANT.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">John B. Moisant</span> is an architect of Chicago, born -there of Spanish parentage in 1883. Becoming interested -in aviation, he went to France in 1909, and -began the construction of two aeroplanes, one of them -entirely of metal. He started to learn to fly on a -Bleriot machine, and one day took one of his mechanicians -aboard and started for London. The mechanician -had never before been up in an aeroplane. -After battling with storms and repairing consequent -accidents to his machine, Moisant landed his passenger -in London three weeks after the start. It was -the first trip between the two cities for an aeroplane -carrying a passenger, and although Moisant failed -to win the prize which had been offered for such a -feat, he received a great ovation, and a special medal -was struck for him.</p> - -<p>At the Belmont Park meet, in October, 1910, -Moisant, after wrecking his own machine in a gale, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span> -climbed into Leblanc’s Bleriot, which had been secured -for him but a few minutes before, and made -the trip around the Statue of Liberty in New York -Bay and returned to the Park in 34 minutes 38 seconds. -As the distance is over 34 miles, the speed was -nearly a mile a minute. This feat won for him, and -for America, the grand prize of the meet—$10,000.</p> - -<h3>J. ARMSTRONG DREXEL.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. Armstrong Drexel</span> is a native of Philadelphia. -He was taught to fly a Bleriot machine at -Pau by Grahame-White, and he has frequently surpassed -his instructor in contests where both took part. -At the English meets in 1910 he won many of the -prizes, being excelled in this respect only by Leon -Morane.</p> - -<p>At Lanark, Scotland, he established a new world’s -record for altitude, 6,600 feet. At the Belmont Park -meet he passed his former record with an altitude -of 7,185 feet, making this the American record, -though it had been excelled in Europe. At Philadelphia, -November 23, 1910, he reached an altitude -of 9,970 feet, according to the recording barometer -he carried, thus making a new world’s record. This -record was disputed by the Aero Club, and it may -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">406</span> -be reduced. A millionaire, he flies for sheer love of -the sport.</p> - -<h3>RALPH JOHNSTONE.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ralph Johnstone</span> was born in Kansas City, Mo., -in 1880. He became an expert bicycle rider, and -travelled extensively in many countries giving exhibitions -of trick bicycle riding, including the feat -known as “looping the loop.” He joined the staff -of the Wright Brothers’ aviators in April, 1910, and -speedily became one of the most skilful aeroplane -operators.</p> - -<p>He made a specialty of altitude flying, breaking -his former records day after day, and finally, at the -International Aviation Meet at Belmont Park, L. I., -in October, 1910, he made a new world’s altitude -record of 9,714 feet, surpassing the previous record -of 9,121 feet made by Wynmalen at Mourmelon, -on October 1st.</p> - -<p>Johnstone was instantly killed at Denver, Col., -on November 14, 1910, by a fall with his machine -owing to the breaking of one of the wings at a -height of 800 feet. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XIX">Chapter XIX.<br /> - -CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS.</h2> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">How</span> feeble the start, and how wondrously rapid -the growth of the art of flying! Nothing can -better convey a full idea of its beginnings and its -progress than the recorded facts as given below. -And these facts show beyond dispute that the credit -of laying the foundation for every accomplishment -in the entire record must be largely due to the men -whose names stand alone for years as the only aeroplanists -in the world—the Wright Brothers.</p> - -<p>After the first flight on December 17, 1903, the -Wrights worked steadily toward improving their machines, -and gaining a higher degree of the art of -balancing, without which even the most perfect machines -would be useless. Most of their experimenting -having been done in secret, the open record of -their results from time to time is very meagre. It -may be noted, however, that for nearly three years -no one else made any records at all. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span></p> - -<p>The next name to appear on the roll is that of -Santos-Dumont, already famous for his remarkable -achievements in building and navigating dirigible -balloons, or airships. His first aeroplane flight was -on August 22, 1906, and was but little more than -rising clear of the ground.</p> - -<p>It was nearly seven months later when Delagrange -added his name to the three then on the list of practical -aviators. In about five months Bleriot joined -them, and in a few more weeks Farman had placed -his name on the roll. It is interesting to compare -the insignificant figures of the first flights of these -men with their successive feats as they gain in experience.</p> - -<p>Up to October 19, 1907, the flights recorded had -been made with machines of the biplane type, but on -that date, R. Esnault-Pelterie made a few short -flights with a monoplane. A month later Santos-Dumont -had gone over to the monoplane type, and -the little group of seven had been divided into two -classes—five biplanists and two monoplanists.</p> - -<p>On March 29, 1908, Delagrange started a new -column in the record book by taking a passenger up -with him, in this case, Farman. They flew only 453 -feet, but it was the beginning of passenger carrying. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span></p> - -<p>During the first six months of 1908 only two more -names were added to the roll—Baldwin and McCurdy—both -on the biplane side. On July 4, 1908, -Curtiss comes into the circle with his first recorded -flight, in which he used a biplane of his own construction. -The same day in France, Bleriot changed -to the ranks of the monoplane men, with a flight -measured in miles, instead of in feet. Two days -later, Farman advanced his distance record from -1.24 miles to 12.2 miles, and his speed record from -about 21 miles an hour to nearly 39 miles an hour. -In two days more, Delagrange had taken up the first -woman passenger ever carried on an aeroplane; and -a month later, Captain L. F. Ferber had made his -first flights in public, and added his name to the -growing legion of the biplanists.</p> - -<p>In the latter part of 1908, the Wrights seem to -take possession of the record—Orville in America, -and Wilbur in Europe—surpassing their own previous -feats as well as those of others. Bleriot and Farman -also steadily advance their performances to a -more distinguished level.</p> - -<p>The record for 1909 starts off with three new -names—Moore-Brabazon, and Legagneux in France, -and Cody in England. Richardson, Count de Lambert, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span> -Calderara, Latham, Tissandier, Rougier, join -the ranks of the aviators before the year is half gone, -and a few days later Sommer and Paulhan add their -names.</p> - -<p>Of these only Latham flies the monoplane type of -machine, but at the Rheims tournament Delagrange -appears as a monoplanist, increasing the little group -to four; but, with Le Blon added later, they perform -some of the most remarkable feats on record.</p> - -<p>The contest at Rheims in August is a succession of -record-breaking and record-making achievements. -But it is at Blackpool and Doncaster that the most -distinct progress of the year is marked, by the daring -flights of Le Blon and Latham in fierce gales. -Spectators openly charged these men with foolhardiness, -but it was of the first importance that it should -be demonstrated that these delicately built machines -can be handled safely in the most turbulent weather; -and the fact that it has been done successfully will -inspire every other aviator with a greater degree of -confidence in his ability to control his machine in -whatever untoward circumstances he may be placed. -And such confidence is by far the largest element in -safe and successful flying. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">411</span></p> - -<h3>NOTABLE AVIATION RECORDS TO CLOSE OF 1910</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>December 17, 1903</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, -at Kitty Hawk, N. C., makes the first successful -flight by man with power-propelled machine, a -distance of 852 feet, in 59 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>November 9, 1904</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, at -Dayton, O., flies 3 miles in 4 minutes and 30 seconds. -(He and Orville made upward of 100 unrecorded -flights in that year.)</p> - -<p><i>September 26, 1905</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane -“White Flier,” at Dayton, O., flies 11 miles in -18 minutes and 9 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>September 29, 1905</i>—Orville Wright, with “White -Flier,” at Dayton, O., flies 12 miles in 19 minutes -and 55 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 3, 1905</i>—Wilbur Wright, with “White -Flier” at Dayton, O., flies 15 miles in 25 minutes -and 5 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 4, 1905</i>—Orville Wright with biplane -“White Flier,” at Dayton, O., flies 21 miles in -33 minutes and 17 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 5, 1905</i>—Wilbur Wright with “White -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">412</span> -Flier,” at Dayton, O., flies 24 miles in 38 minutes. -(He made many unrecorded flights in that -year.)</p> - -<p><i>August 22, 1906</i>—A. Santos-Dumont with biplane -at Bagatelle, France, made his first public flight -with an aeroplane, hardly more than rising clear -of the ground.</p> - -<p><i>September 14, 1906</i>—Santos-Dumont with biplane, -at Bagatelle, flies for 8 seconds.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_412.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Santos-Dumont flying at Bagatelle in his cellular biplane.</p></div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>October 24, 1906</i>—Santos-Dumont with biplane, at -Bagatelle, flies 160 feet in 4 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>November 13, 1906</i>—Santos-Dumont with biplane, -at Bagatelle, flies 722 feet in 21 seconds. This -feat is recorded as the first aeroplane flight made -in Europe.</p> - -<p><i>March 16, 1907</i>—Leon Delagrange with first Voisin -biplane, at Bagatelle, flies 30 feet. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">413</span></p> - -<p><i>August 6, 1907</i>—Louis Bleriot with a Langley machine, -at Issy, France, flies 470 feet.</p> - -<p><i>October 15, 1907</i>—Henry Farman with biplane, at -Issy, flies 937 feet in 21 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 19, 1907</i>—R. Esnault-Pelterie with monoplane, -at Buc, France, makes short flights.</p> - -<p><i>October 26, 1907</i>—Farman with biplane, at Issy, -flies 2,529 feet in a half circle, in 52 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>November 17, 1907</i>—Santos-Dumont with biplane, -at Issy, makes several short flights, the longest -being about 500 feet.</p> - -<p><i>November 21, 1907</i>—Santos-Dumont with monoplane -at Bagatelle, makes several short flights, -the longest being about 400 feet.</p> - -<p><i>January 13, 1908</i>—Farman with biplane, at Issy, -makes the first flight in a circular course—3,279 -feet in 1 minute and 28 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>March 12, 1908</i>—F. W. Baldwin with biplane “Red -Wing,” at Hammondsport, N. Y., flies 319 feet.</p> - -<p><i>March 21, 1908</i>—Farman with biplane, at Issy, flies -1.24 miles in 3 minutes and 31 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>March 29, 1908</i>—Delagrange with biplane, at -Ghent, Belgium, makes first recorded flight with -one passenger (Farman), 453 feet.</p> - -<p><i>April 11, 1908</i>—Delagrange with biplane at Issy, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">414</span> -flies 2.43 miles in 6 minutes and 30 seconds, winning -the Archdeacon cup.</p> - -<p><i>May 18, 1908</i>—J. A. D. McCurdy with biplane -“White Wing” at Hammondsport, flies 600 -feet.</p> - -<p><i>May 27, 1908</i>—Delagrange with biplane, at Rome, -in the presence of the King of Italy, flies 7.9 -miles in 15 minutes and 25 seconds.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_414.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The early Voisin biplane flown by Farman at Issy.</p></div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>May 30, 1908</i>—Farman with biplane, at Ghent, -flies 0.77 miles with one passenger (Mr. Archdeacon).</p> - -<p><i>June 8, 1908</i>—Esnault-Pelterie with monoplane, at -Buc, flies 0.75 miles, reaching an altitude of 100 -feet.</p> - -<p><i>June 22, 1908</i>—Delagrange with biplane, at Milan, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">415</span> -Italy, flies 10.5 miles in 16 minutes and 30 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>July 4, 1908</i>—Glenn H. Curtiss with biplane, at -Hammondsport, flies 5,090 feet, in 1 minute and -42 seconds, winning <i>Scientific American</i> cup.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_415.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The “June Bug” flown by Curtiss winning the <i>Scientific American</i> cup, -July 4, 1908.</p></div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>July 4, 1908</i>—Bleriot with monoplane, at Issy, flies -3.7 miles in 5 minutes and 47 seconds, making -several circles.</p> - -<p><i>July 6, 1908</i>—Farman in biplane, at Ghent, flies -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">416</span> -12.2 miles in 19 minutes and 3 seconds, winning -the Armengand prize.</p> - -<p><i>July 8, 1908</i>—Delagrange with biplane, at Turin, -Italy, flies 500 feet with the first woman passenger -ever carried on an aeroplane—Mrs. Peltier.</p> - -<p><i>August 9, 1908</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le -Mans, France, makes several short flights to -prove the ease of control of his machine.</p> - -<p><i>August 8, 1908</i>—L. F. Ferber with biplane, at Issy, -makes first trial flights.</p> - -<p><i>September 6, 1908</i>—Delagrange with biplane, at -Issy, flies 15.2 miles in 29 minutes and 52 seconds, -beating existing French records.</p> - -<p><i>September 8, 1908</i>—Orville Wright with biplane, at -Fort Myer, Va., flies 40 miles in 1 hour and 2 -minutes, rising to 100 feet.</p> - -<p><i>September 9, 10, 11, 1908</i>—Orville Wright with biplane, -at Fort Myer, makes several flights, increasing -in duration from 57 minutes to 1 hour -ten minutes and 24 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>September 12, 1908</i>—Orville Wright with biplane, -at Fort Myer, flies 50 miles in 1 hour, 14 -minutes and 20 seconds, the longest flight on -record.</p> - -<p><i>September 12, 1908</i>—Orville Wright with biplane, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">417</span> -at Fort Myer, flies for 9 minutes and 6 seconds -with one passenger (Major Squier), making a -new record.</p> - -<p><i>September 17, 1908</i>—Orville Wright with biplane, -at Fort Myer, flies 3 miles in 4 minutes, with -Lieutenant Selfridge. The machine fell: Selfridge -was killed and Wright severely injured.</p> - -<p><i>September 19, 1908</i>—L. F. Ferber with biplane, at -Issy, flies 1,640 feet.</p> - -<p><i>September 21, 1908</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, -at Auvours, flies 41 miles in 1 hour and 31 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>September 25, 1908</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, -at Le Mans, France, flies 11 minutes and 35 seconds, -with one passenger, making a new record.</p> - -<p><i>October 3, 1908</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, at -Le Mans, France, flies 55 minutes and 37 seconds, -with one passenger, making new record.</p> - -<p><i>October 6, 1908</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le -Mans, flies 1 hour 4 minutes and 26 seconds, -with one passenger, breaking all records.</p> - -<p><i>October 10, 1908</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, at -Auvours, flies 46 miles in 1 hour and 9 minutes, -with one passenger (Mr. Painleve). Also carried -35 others on different trips, one at a time. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">418</span></p> - -<p><i>October 21, 1908</i>—Bleriot with monoplane, at -Toury, France, flies 4.25 miles in 6 minutes and -40 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 30, 1908</i>—Farman with biplane at Chalons, -France, makes a flight across country to Rheims—17 -miles in 20 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>October 31, 1908</i>—Farman with biplane, at Chalons, -flies 23 minutes, reaching a height of 82 -feet.</p> - -<p><i>October 31, 1908</i>—Bleriot with monoplane, at -Toury, flies 8.7 miles to Artenay, in 11 minutes, -lands, and returns to Toury.</p> - -<p><i>December 18, 1908</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, at -Auvours, flies 62 miles in 1 hour and 54 minutes, -rising to 360 feet—making a world record.</p> - -<p><i>December 31, 1908</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, -at Le Mans, flies 76.5 miles in 2 hours 18 minutes -and 53 seconds, making a new world record, -and winning the Michelin prize. The distance -traversed (unofficial) is claimed to have been actually -over 100 miles.</p> - -<p><i>January 28, 1909</i>—Moore-Brabazon with biplane, -at Chalons, flies 3.1 miles, in practice with a -Voison machine.</p> - -<p><i>February 14, 1909</i>—Legagneux with biplane, at -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">419</span> -Mourmelon, France, flies 1.2 miles, and in a second -flight of 6.2 miles (10 kilometres), traces -two circles.</p> - -<p><i>February 22, 1909</i>—S. F. Cody with biplane, at Aldershot, -England, flies 1,200 feet in a 12-mile -wind.</p> - -<p><i>February 23, 1909</i>—J. A. D. McCurdy, with the -biplane “Silver Dart,” at Baddeck, Cape Breton, -flies 2,640 feet.</p> - -<p><i>February 24, 1909</i>—McCurdy, with the biplane -“Silver Dart,” at Baddeck, flies 4.5 miles.</p> - -<p><i>February 24, 1909</i>—Moore-Brabazon, with biplane, -at Issy, flies 1.2 miles, tracing two circles.</p> - -<p><i>February 28, 1909</i>—Moore-Brabazon made several -flights at Issy.</p> - -<p><i>March 8, 1909</i>—McCurdy, with biplane “Silver -Dart,” at Baddeck, made five flights, the longest -about 8 miles in 11 minutes and 15 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>March 10, 1909</i>—Santos-Dumont, with monoplane -“Libellule,” at Bagatelle, flies 1,300 feet.</p> - -<p><i>March 11, 1909</i>—W. J. Richardson with a new -form of aeroplane, at Dayton, O., flies for 38 -minutes, rising to a height of over 300 feet.</p> - -<p><i>March 11, 1909</i>—McCurdy with biplane “Silver -Dart,” at Baddeck, flies 19 miles in 22 minutes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">420</span></p> - -<p><i>March 17, 1909</i>—Count de Lambert (pupil of Wilbur -Wright) made his first flight alone in biplane, -at Pau, France. He remained in the air -3 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>March 18, 1909</i>—McCurdy, with biplane “Silver -Dart,” at Baddeck, flies 16 miles, completing a -record of an even 1,000 miles in the air within -a period of 10 months.</p> - -<p><i>March 18, 1909</i>—F. W. Baldwin with biplane “Silver -Dart,” at Baddeck, made a short flight.</p> - -<p><i>March 20, 1909</i>—Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at -Pau, succeeds in rising from the ground without -the starting device previously used. He makes -several flights.</p> - -<p><i>March 24, 1909</i>—Count de Lambert with biplane, -at Pau, flies 15.6 miles in 27 minutes and 11 -seconds.</p> - -<p><i>April 10, 1909</i>—Santos-Dumont with monoplane -“Demoiselle,” at St. Cyr, France, flies 1.2 miles.</p> - -<p><i>April 13, 1909</i>—Count de Lambert with biplane, at -Pau, flies for 1 minute and 30 seconds, with one -passenger (Leon Delagrange).</p> - -<p><i>April 16, 1909</i>—Wilbur Wright with biplane, at -Rome, Italy, made many flights, taking up many -passengers, one at a time. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">421</span></p> - -<p><i>April 27, 1909</i>—Legagneux with Voisin biplane, at -Vienna, flies 2.5 miles in 3 minutes and 26 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>April 28, 1909</i>—Lieutenant Mario Calderara (pupil -of Wilbur Wright) with biplane, at Rome, made -his first public flight, remaining in the air 10 -minutes.</p> - -<p><i>April 30, 1909</i>—Moore-Brabazon with biplane, in -England, flies 4.5 miles.</p> - -<p><i>May 14, 1909</i>—S. F. Cody, with the army biplane, -at Aldershot, flies 1 mile.</p> - -<p><i>May 19, 1909</i>—Hubert Latham, with Antoinette -monoplane, at Chalons, flies 1,640 feet.</p> - -<p><i>May 20, 1909</i>—Paul Tissandier (pupil of Wilbur -Wright) with biplane at Pau, flies 35.7 miles.</p> - -<p><i>May 23, 1909</i>—Delagrange, with biplane, at Juvissy, -flies 3.6 miles in 10 minutes and 18 seconds, -winning the Lagatineri prize.</p> - -<p><i>May 23, 1909</i>—Henri Rougier, with biplane, at Juvissy, -flies 18.6 miles (30 kilometres).</p> - -<p><i>May 30, 1909</i>—Bleriot, with monoplane at Issy, -flies 8.7 miles.</p> - -<p><i>June 5, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at Chalons, -flies for 1 hour 7 minutes and 37 seconds in wind -and rain. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">422</span></p> - -<p><i>June 6, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at Juvissy, -flies 10 miles across country.</p> - -<p><i>June 12, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at Juvissy, -flies 30 miles in 39 minutes, winning the -Goupy prize.</p> - -<p><i>June 12, 1909</i>—Delagrange, with biplane, at Juvissy, -makes cross country flight of 3.7 miles.</p> - -<p><i>June 12, 1909</i>—Bleriot, with monoplane, at Juvissy, -flies 984 feet, with two passengers—Santos-Dumont -and Fournier.</p> - -<p><i>June 13 1909</i>—Ferber, with Voisin biplane, at Juvissy, -flies 3.1 miles in 5 minutes and 30 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>June 19, 1909</i>—Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, at -Issy, makes several flights.</p> - -<p><i>July 4, 1909</i>—Roger Sommer with biplane, at Chalons, -flies 3.75 miles on Farman machine.</p> - -<p><i>July 10, 1909</i>—Louis Paulhan, with biplane, at -Douai, France, makes his first flight—1.25 miles.</p> - -<p><i>July 13, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola, -L. I., flies 1.5 miles in 3 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>July 13, 1909</i>—Bleriot, with monoplane, at Mondesir, -makes a flight of 26 miles across country in -44 minutes and 30 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>July 15, 1909</i>—Paulhan with biplane, at Douai, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">423</span> -flies for 1 minute and 17 seconds, soaring to an -altitude of 357 feet.</p> - -<p><i>July 17, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, at -Fort Myer, flies 16 minutes and 40 seconds, at a -speed of 40 miles an hour.</p> - -<p><i>July 17, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola, -makes 15 miles in 21 minutes, describing circles -in both directions, as in the figure 8.</p> - -<p><i>July 18, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Hempstead -Plains, L. I., flies 29½ miles in 52 minutes and -30 seconds, a flight exceeded only by the Wrights, -in America, and Bleriot, Latham, and Paulhan, -in Europe.</p> - -<p><i>July 18, 1909</i>—Farman, with biplane, at Chalons, -flies for 1 hour and 23 minutes, making his first -long flight.</p> - -<p><i>July 18, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, -makes his longest flight—1 hour and 40 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>July 19, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at Calais, -France, makes his first attempt to cross the Channel -to Dover. He flies 11 miles, and then his -machine falls into the sea.</p> - -<p><i>July 19, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, -makes a cross-country flight of 12.1 miles in 22 -minutes and 53 seconds. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">424</span></p> - -<p><i>July 20, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, at -Fort Myer, flies 1 hour and 20 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>July 21, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, at -Fort Myer, flies 1 hour and 29 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>July 21, 1909</i>—E. Lefebvre, with biplane, at La -Haye, France, flies 2 miles.</p> - -<p><i>July 21, 1909</i>—S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot, -flies 4 miles.</p> - -<p><i>July 23, 1909</i>—Farman, with biplane, at Chalons, -makes a cross-country flight to Suippes—40 -miles in 1 hour and five minutes.</p> - -<p><i>July 23, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, -flies 43.5 miles in 1 hour 17 minutes and 19 -seconds.</p> - -<p><i>July 24, 1909</i>—Curtiss in biplane, at Hempstead -Plains, flies 25 miles in 52 minutes and 30 seconds, -winning the <i>Scientific American</i> cup the -second time.</p> - -<p><i>July 25, 1909</i>—Bleriot, with monoplane, at Calais, -flies to Dover, England, across the English Channel—32 -miles in 37 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>July 27, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, at -Fort Myer, flies 1 hour and 13 minutes, with one -passenger, securing acceptance of Wright machine -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">425</span> -by U. S. Government on the duration specifications.</p> - -<p><i>July 27, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at Calais, -flies 20 miles in a second attempt to cross the -English Channel. When near Dover the machine -fell.</p> - -<p><i>July 27, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, -flies to Vadenay and back—25 miles in 1 hour -23 minutes and 30 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>July 30, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, at -Fort Myer, established a world record with one -passenger in a cross-country flight to Shuter’s -Hill and back—about 10 miles in 14 minutes and -40 seconds, a speed of about 42 miles an hour—winning -a bonus of $25,000 from the U. S. Government.</p> - -<p><i>August 1, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, -flies 1 hour 50 minutes and 30 seconds, at an -average height of 80 feet, over a distance estimated -at 70 miles, surpassing all French records.</p> - -<p><i>August 2, 1909</i>—McCurdy, with a new type of machine, -at Petawawa, makes several flights.</p> - -<p><i>August 2, 1909</i>—F. W. Baldwin, with biplane, at -Petawawa, makes several short flights.</p> - -<p><i>August 2, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">426</span> -flies to Suippes—9 miles, at the rate of 45 miles -an hour.</p> - -<p><i>August 4, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, -in the effort to beat Wilbur Wright’s record, -flies for 2 hours 0 minutes and 10 seconds -(Wright’s record flight was 2 hours 20 minutes -and 23 seconds, made on December 31, 1908).</p> - -<p><i>August 5, 1909</i>—E. Bunau-Varilla, with Voisin biplane, -at Chalons, flies for 15 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>August 6, 1909</i>—Legagneux, with biplane, at Stockholm, -flies with one passenger, 3,280 feet.</p> - -<p><i>August 6, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Dunkerque, -France, flies for 18 minutes and 20 seconds, -reaching an altitude of 200 feet.</p> - -<p><i>August 7, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with Voisin biplane, at -Dunkerque, flies 23 miles in 33 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>August 7, 1909</i>—Sommer, with Voisin biplane, at -Chalons, flies for 2 hours 27 minutes and 15 -seconds, making new world record for duration.</p> - -<p><i>August 13, 1909</i>—Charles F. Willard, with biplane, -at Hempstead Plains, made the longest cross-country -flight on record for America—about 12 -miles in 19 minutes and 30 seconds. The breaking -of his engine caused him to come down. He -landed without mishap. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">427</span></p> - -<p><i>August 22, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims, -France, flies 1 hour 19 minutes and 30 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>August 22, 1909</i>—Legagneux, with biplane, at -Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 9 minutes and 56 seconds, -winning third prize for speed over course -of 10 kilometres.</p> - -<p><i>August 22, 1909</i>—Tissandier, with biplane, at -Rheims, flies 18.6 miles in 29 minutes. (He -won with this record the third prize for speed -over 30 kilometres.)</p> - -<p><i>August 22, 1909</i>—E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane, -at Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 13 minutes and 30 -seconds. (With this record he won the thirteenth -prize for speed over course of 10 kilometres.)</p> - -<p><i>August 23, 1909</i>—Delagrange, with monoplane, at -Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 11 minutes and 4 seconds. -(He won the tenth prize for speed over -10 kilometres.)</p> - -<p><i>August 23, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, -flies 6.2 miles in 8 minutes and 35 seconds—a -speed of 42.3 miles an hour—beating the record -for speed over course of 10 kilometres.</p> - -<p><i>August 23, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims, -flies 18.6 miles in 38 minutes and 12 seconds, -reaching an altitude of 295 feet. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">428</span></p> - -<p><i>August 23, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at -Rheims, flies 34.8 miles in an endurance test.</p> - -<p><i>August 25, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims, -flies 82 miles in 2 hours 43 minutes and 25 -seconds. (With this record he won the third -prize for duration of flight.)</p> - -<p><i>August 25, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, -flies 6.2 miles in 8 minutes and 44 seconds, again -reducing the time for 10 kilometres.</p> - -<p><i>August 25, 1909</i>—Bleriot, with monoplane, at -Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 8 minutes and 4 seconds, -making a new record for speed over the -course of 10 kilometres.</p> - -<p><i>August 26, 1909</i>—Curtiss, in biplane, at Rheims, -flies 19 miles in 29 minutes. (With this record -he won the tenth prize for duration of flight.)</p> - -<p><i>August 26, 1909</i>—Count de Lambert, with biplane, -at Rheims, flies 72 miles in 1 hour and 52 minutes. -(With this record he won the fourth prize -for duration of flight.)</p> - -<p><i>August 26, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at -Rheims, flies 96.5 miles in 2 hours 17 minutes -and 21 seconds. (With this record he won the -second prize for duration of flight.)</p> - -<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>—Farman, with biplane, at Rheims, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">429</span> -flies 112 miles in 3 hours 4 minutes and 57 seconds. -(This record won for him the first prize -for duration of flight.)</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_429.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Latham flying in his Antoinette at Rheims. To view this properly the picture -should be held overhead.</p></div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at -Rheims, flies to an altitude of 508 feet. (With -this record he won first prize for altitude.)</p> - -<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>—Delagrange, with monoplane, at -Rheims, flies 31 miles. (With this record he won -the eighth prize for duration of flight.) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">430</span></p> - -<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims, -flies 37 miles. He won the seventh prize for distance.</p> - -<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>—Tissandier, with biplane, at -Rheims, flies 69 miles. (This record won for him -the sixth prize for distance.)</p> - -<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>—Lefebvre, with biplane, at -Rheims, flies 12.4 miles in 20 minutes and 47 -seconds, exhibiting great daring and skill. (He -was fined for “recklessness.”)</p> - -<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>—Bleriot, with monoplane, at -Rheims, flies 25 miles in 41 minutes. (This record -won for him the ninth prize for distance -flown.)</p> - -<p><i>August 28, 1909</i>—Lefebvre, with biplane, at Rheims, -makes a spectacular flight for 11 minutes with -one passenger.</p> - -<p><i>August 28, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, -flies 12.4 miles in 15 minutes and 56 seconds, -winning the Gordon Bennett cup.</p> - -<p><i>August 28, 1909</i>—Bleriot, with monoplane, at -Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 7 minutes and 48 seconds. -(With this record he won the first prize -for speed over course of 10 kilometres.)</p> - -<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>—Farman, with biplane, at Rheims, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">431</span> -flies 6.2 miles with two passengers, in 10 minutes -and 30 seconds, winning a prize.</p> - -<p><i>August 29. 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, -flies 18.6 miles in 23 minutes and 30 seconds. -(With this record he won the first prize for -speed over course of 30 kilometres.)</p> - -<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, -flies 6.2 miles in 7 minutes and 51 seconds, winning -the second prize for speed over course of 10 -kilometres.</p> - -<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>—Rougier, with biplane, at Rheims, -rises to a height of 180 feet, winning the fourth -prize for altitude.</p> - -<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>—E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane, -at Rheims, flies 18.6 miles in 38 minutes and -31 seconds. (With this record he won the -eighth prize for speed over course of 30 kilometres.)</p> - -<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, at -Berlin, makes several short flights.</p> - -<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>—S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot, -flies 10 miles with one passenger.</p> - -<p><i>September 4, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, -at Berlin, flies for 55 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>September 6, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Nancy, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">432</span> -France, flies 25 miles in 35 minutes. He -takes up a number of passengers; one at a time.</p> - -<p><i>September 7, 1909</i>—Lefebvre, with biplane, at Juvissy, -is killed by the breaking of his machine -in the air after he had flown 1,800 feet.</p> - -<p><i>September 8, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, -at Berlin, flies 17 minutes with one passenger—Captain -Hildebrandt.</p> - -<p><i>September 8, 1909</i>—S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot, -flies to Farnborough and back—46 miles -in 1 hour and 3 minutes. This is the first recorded -cross-country flight in England.</p> - -<p><i>September 9, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, -at Berlin, flies for 15 minutes with one passenger—Captain -Englehardt.</p> - -<p><i>September 9, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Tournai, -Belgium, flies 12.4 miles in 17 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>September 9, 1909</i>—Rougier, with biplane, at Brescia, -flies 12 minutes and 10 seconds, soaring to -a height of 328 feet.</p> - -<p><i>September 10, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at -Nancy, flies 18 miles, accompanying troops on -review.</p> - -<p><i>September 11, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at -Nancy, flies to Lenoncourt—24 miles. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">433</span></p> - -<p><i>September 11, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Brescia, -flies 31 miles in 49 minutes and 24 seconds, -winning the first prize for speed.</p> - -<p><i>September 12, 1909</i>—Rougier, with biplane, at -Brescia, flies 31 miles in 1 hour 10 minutes -and 18 seconds, soaring to a height of 380 feet.</p> - -<p><i>September 12, 1909</i>—Calderara, with biplane, at -Brescia, flies 6.3 miles with one passenger, winning -a prize.</p> - -<p><i>September 13, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at -Tournai, flies to Taintiguies and back in 1 hour -and 35 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>September 13, 1909</i>—Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, -at St. Cyr, France, flies 5 miles in 12 -minutes, to Buc, to visit Maurice Guffroy, on a -bet of $200 that each would be the first to visit -the other.</p> - -<p><i>September 15, 1909</i>—Ferber, with biplane, at Boulogne, -France, flies to Wimeroux—6 miles in 9 -minutes.</p> - -<p><i>September 15, 1909</i>—Calderara, with biplane, at -Brescia, flies 5.6 miles with one passenger, winning -the Oldofredi prize.</p> - -<p><i>September 17, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, -at Berlin, flies for 54 minutes and 26 seconds, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">434</span> -rising to an altitude of 765 feet (estimated). He -afterward flew for 47 minutes and 5 seconds with -Captain Englehardt.</p> - -<p><i>September 17, 1909</i>—Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, -at St. Cyr, flies 10 miles in 16 minutes -across country.</p> - -<p><i>September 17, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Ostend, -Belgium, flies 1.24 miles in 3 minutes and -16 seconds, along the water front and out over -the sea.</p> - -<p><i>September 18, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, -at Berlin, establishes a world record by flying for -1 hour 35 minutes and 47 seconds, with one -passenger—Captain Englehardt.</p> - -<p><i>September 18, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Ostend, -flies for 1 hour over sea front, circling over -the water; winning a prize of $5,000.</p> - -<p><i>September 20, 1909</i>—Rougier, with biplane, at -Brescia, broke the record for high flying by -reaching an altitude of 645 feet (official measurement).</p> - -<p><i>September 20, 1909</i>—Calderara, with biplane, at -Brescia, flies 31 miles in 50 minutes and 51 seconds, -winning the second prize for speed.</p> - -<p><i>September 22, 1909</i>—Captain Ferber, with a biplane, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">435</span> -at Boulogne, flies 1 mile, when, his engine -breaking in the air, his machine falls and -he is killed.</p> - -<p><i>September 25, 1909</i>—Wilbur Wright, with biplane, -at New York, flies from Governor’s Island around -the Statue of Liberty.</p> - -<p><i>September 27, 1909</i>—Latham, in monoplane, at -Berlin, flies 6.5 miles across country in 13 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>September 28, 1909</i>—Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin, -flies 31 miles in 54 minutes, soaring to an altitude -of 518 feet.</p> - -<p><i>September 29, 1909</i>—Latham in monoplane, at Berlin, -flies 42 miles in 1 hour and 10 minutes, -winning the second prize for distance.</p> - -<p><i>September 29, 1909</i>—Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin, -flies 48 miles in 1 hour and 35 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>September 29, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at New -York, makes flights about the harbor from Governor’s -Island.</p> - -<p><i>September 30, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, -at Berlin, soars to a height of 902 feet, making -a world record for altitude.</p> - -<p><i>September 30, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at -Berlin, flies 51 miles in 1 hour and 23 minutes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">436</span></p> - -<p><i>October 1, 1909</i>—Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin, -flies 80 miles in 2 hours and 38 minutes, winning -the first prize for distance and speed.</p> - -<p><i>October 2, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, at -Berlin, makes a flight of 10 minutes’ duration -with the Crown Prince of Germany.</p> - -<p><i>October 3, 1909</i>—Farman, with biplane, at Berlin, -flies 62 miles in 1 hour and 40 minutes, winning -the third prize for distance and speed.</p> - -<p><i>October 4, 1909</i>—Orville Wright, with biplane, at -Berlin, soared to an altitude of 1,600 feet, making -a world record.</p> - -<p><i>October 4, 1909</i>—Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at -New York, flies from Governor’s Island to -Grant’s Tomb and back—21 miles in 33 minutes -and 33 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 10, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at St. -Louis, Mo., makes several flights at the Centennial -celebration.</p> - -<p><i>October 10, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt. -Aviation, flies 21.5 miles in 21 minutes and 48 -seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 12, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt. -Aviation, flies 3.6 miles in 6 minutes and 11 seconds, -winning the prize for slowest flight. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">437</span></p> - -<p><i>October 16, 1909</i>—Curtiss, with biplane, at Chicago, -makes exhibition flights at 45 miles per hour.</p> - -<p><i>October 16, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Doncaster, -England, flies 9.7 miles in 21 minutes and -45 seconds, making the record for Great Britain.</p> - -<p><i>October 16, 1909</i>—Delagrange, with monoplane, at -Doncaster, flies 5.75 miles in 11 minutes and 25 -seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 16, 1909</i>—Cody, with biplane, at Doncaster, -flies 3,000 feet, when his machine is wrecked, -and he is injured.</p> - -<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Blackpool, -England, flies 14 miles in 25 minutes and -53 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>—Rougier, with biplane, at Blackpool, -flies 17.7 miles in 24 minutes and 43 seconds, -winning the second prize.</p> - -<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>—Farman, with biplane, at Blackpool, -flies 14 miles in 23 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>—Le Blon, with monoplane, at -Doncaster, flies 22 miles in 30 minutes, in a rainstorm, -winning the Bradford cup.</p> - -<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>—Count de Lambert, with biplane, -at Juvissy, flies 31 miles to the Eiffel Tower in -Paris, and back, in 49 minutes and 39 seconds. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">438</span></p> - -<p><i>October 19, 1909</i>—Le Blon, with monoplane, at -Doncaster, flies 15 miles in a gale.</p> - -<p><i>October 19, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at Blackpool, -flies 15.7 miles in 32 minutes and 18 seconds, -winning the third prize.</p> - -<p><i>October 20, 1909</i>—Farman, with biplane, at Blackpool, -flies 47 miles in 1 hour, 32 minutes, and -16 seconds, winning the first prize—$10,000.</p> - -<p><i>October 20, 1909</i>—Le Blon, with monoplane, at -Doncaster, makes a spectacular flight in a fierce -gale.</p> - -<p><i>October 21, 1909</i>—Count de Lambert, with biplane, -at Pt. Aviation, flies 1.25 miles in 1 minute -and 57 seconds, winning prize of $3,000 for -speed.</p> - -<p><i>October 22, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at -Blackpool, flies in a squally gale blowing from -30 to 50 miles an hour. When headed into the -wind the machine moved backward in relation -to points on the ground. Going before the wind, -it passed points on the ground at a speed of nearly -100 miles an hour. This flight, twice around -the course, is the most difficult feat accomplished -by any aviator up to this date.</p> - -<p><i>October 26, 1909</i>—Sommer, with biplane, at Doncaster, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">439</span> -flies 29.7 miles in 44 minutes and 53 seconds, -winning the Whitworth cup.</p> - -<p><i>October 26, 1909</i>—Delagrange, with monoplane, at -Doncaster, flies 6 miles in 7 minutes and 36 seconds—a -speed of over 50 miles an hour.</p> - -<p><i>October 30, 1909</i>—Moore-Brabazon, with biplane, at -Shell Beach, England, wins a prize of $5,000 for -flight with a British machine.</p> - -<p><i>November 3, 1909</i>—Farman, with biplane, at Mourmelon, -France, flies 144 miles in 4 hours 6 minutes -and 25 seconds, far surpassing his previous -best record of 112 miles in 3 hours 4 minutes -and 57 seconds, made at Rheims, and winning -the Michelin cup for duration and distance.</p> - -<p><i>November 19, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at -Mourmelon, broke the record for height by ascending -to 1,170 feet, in a wind blowing from 20 -to 25 miles an hour.</p> - -<p><i>November 19, 1909</i>—Latham, with Antoinette monoplane, -surpassed Paulhan’s record by rising to -an altitude of 1,333 feet.</p> - -<p><i>November 20, 1909</i>—Paulhan, with biplane, at -Mourmelon, flies to Chalons and back—37 miles -in 55 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>December 1, 1909</i>—Latham, with monoplane, at -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">440</span> -Mourmelon, soars to 1,500 feet in a 40-mile -gale.</p> - -<p><i>December 30, 1909</i>—Delagrange, with monoplane, -at Juvissy, flies 124 miles in 2 hours and 32 minutes—an -average speed of 48.9 miles per hour, -surpassing all previous records.</p> - -<p><i>December 31, 1909</i>—Farman at Chartres, France, -flies to Orleans—42 miles in 50 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>December 31, 1909</i>—Maurice Farman, at Mourmelon, -defending his brother Henry’s record -against competing aviators, flies 100 miles in 2 -hours and 45 minutes, without a fault. The -Michelin cup remains in his brother’s possession.</p> - -<p><i>January 7, 1910</i>—Latham, with Antoinette monoplane, -at Chalons, rises to height of 3,281 feet -(world’s record).</p> - -<p><i>January 10, 1910</i>—Opening of aviation meet at Los -Angeles, Cal.</p> - -<p><i>January 12, 1910</i>—Paulhan, Farman biplane, at -Los Angeles, rises to height of 4,146 feet. -(World’s record.)</p> - -<p><i>January 17, 1910</i>—Paulhan, Farman biplane, at -Los Angeles, flies 75 miles in 1 hour 58 minutes -and 27⅖ seconds.</p> - -<p><i>February 7, 1910</i>—First flight in South America. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">441</span> -Bregi, Voisin biplane, makes two flights near -Buenos Aires.</p> - -<p><i>February 7, 1910</i>—Duray, with Farman biplane, at -Heliopolis, Egypt, flies 5 kilometres in 4 minutes -and 12⅘ seconds. (World’s record.)</p> - -<p><i>April 8, 1910</i>—D. Kinet, with Farman biplane, at -Mourmelon, flies for 2 hours 19 minutes and 4⅖ -seconds with passenger, covering 102 miles. -(World’s record for passenger flight.)</p> - -<p><i>April 11, 1910</i>—E. Jeannin, with Farman biplane, -flies 2 hours 1 minute and 55 seconds, at Johannisthal. -(German record.)</p> - -<p><i>April 15, 1910</i>—Opening of Nice meeting.</p> - -<p><i>April 17, 1910</i>—Paulhan, with Farman biplane, -flies from Chevilly to Arcis-sur-Aube, 118 miles. -(Record cross-country flight.)</p> - -<p><i>April 23, 1910</i>—Grahame-White, with Farman biplane, -flies from Park Royal, London, to Rugby -(83 miles) in 2 hours and 1 minute. Starting -again in 55 minutes, flies to Whittington in 1 -hour and 5 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>April 27, 1910</i>—Paulhan, with Farman biplane, -starts from Hendon, London, at 5.31 <small>P. M.</small>, flies -within 5 mile circle and continues to Lichfield, -arriving 8.10 <small>P. M.</small> (117 miles). Grahame-White -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">442</span> -starts from Wormwood Scrubs, London, at -6.29 <small>P. M.</small>, flies to Roade, arriving 7.55 <small>P. M.</small> -(60 miles).</p> - -<p><i>April 28, 1910</i>—Paulhan flies from Lichfield to -within 5 miles of Manchester, winning the £10,000 -<i>Daily Mail</i> prize.</p> - -<p><i>April 30, 1910</i>—Opening of meeting at Tours, -France.</p> - -<p><i>May 1, 1910</i>—Opening of flying-week at Barcelona.</p> - -<p><i>May 3, 1910</i>—Wiencziers, with Antoinette monoplane, -twice circles the Strassburg cathedral.</p> - -<p><i>May 6, 1910</i>—Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane, -makes flight of 18 minutes and 20 seconds above -the sea at Barcelona, and over the fortress of -Monjuich.</p> - -<p><i>May 13, 1910</i>—Engelhardt, with Wright biplane, at -Berlin, flies 2 hours 21 minutes and 45 seconds. -(German record.)</p> - -<p><i>May 15, 1910</i>—Kinet, with Farman biplane, flies -2 hours and 51 minutes with a passenger at -Mourmelon, making the world’s record for passenger -flight.</p> - -<p><i>May 15, 1910</i>—Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane, -flies 15 miles over the sea at Genoa.</p> - -<p><i>May 21, 1910</i>—M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">443</span> -flies from Calais to Dover in 37 minutes, -winning £500 prize offered by M. M. Ruinart.</p> - -<p><i>May 28, 1910</i>—G. Curtiss, with Curtiss biplane, -starts from Albany at 7.03 <small>A. M.</small>, flies to Poughkeepsie -in 1 hour and 21 minutes (70 miles). -Leaves Poughkeepsie at 9.24 <small>A. M.</small>, flies to Spuyten -Duyvil in 1 hour and 11 minutes (67 miles). -Rises again at 11.45, flies over New York, -landing on Governor’s Island at 12.03 <small>P. M.</small> -Wins prize of $10,000 given by the New York -<i>World</i>.</p> - -<p><i>June 2, 1910</i>—Rolls, with Short-Wright biplane, -leaves Dover at 6.30 <small>P. M.</small>, crosses Channel to -French coast near Calais (7.15 <small>P. M.</small>), without -landing re-crosses Channel to Dover, flies over -harbor, circles Dover Castle, and lands at 8.10 -<small>P. M.</small> Wins second Ruinart prize of £80.</p> - -<p><i>June 14, 1910</i>—Brookins, with Wright biplane, at -Indianapolis, reaches height of 4,380 feet. -(World’s record.)</p> - -<p><i>June 25, 1910</i>—In Italian Parliament 25 million -lire (about $5,000,000) voted for aviation in the -extraordinary estimates of the Ministry of War.</p> - -<p><i>June 26, 1910</i>—Dickson, with Farman biplane, at -Rouen, wins total distance prize of £2,000 and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">444</span> -the £400 for longest unbroken flight. Distance -flown, 466 miles.</p> - -<p><i>June 27, 1910</i>—M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane, -flies over Montreal for 49 minutes, covering -about 30 miles at height generally of 2,000 -feet.</p> - -<p><i>July 6, 1910</i>—First German military aeroplane -makes maiden cross-country flight over Doeberitz.</p> - -<p><i>July 26, 1910</i>—M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane, -starting from Ile de Gros Bois in the St. -Lawrence, makes trip of 40 miles in 37 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>August 1, 1910</i>—Henry Farman takes up three passengers -at Mourmelon for 1 hour and 4 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>August 5, 1910</i>—Chavez, with Bleriot monoplane, -attains height of 5,750 feet. World’s record.</p> - -<p><i>August 7, 1910</i>—Lieutenants Cammerman and Villerme -fly together from Mourmelon to Nancy, -125 miles in 2½ hours, with a Farman biplane.</p> - -<p><i>August 11, 1910</i>—Drexel, with Bleriot monoplane, -at Lanark, beats the world’s record for height, -rising 6,600 feet.</p> - -<p><i>August 27, 1910</i>—First wireless telegram from a -flying aeroplane, sent by McCurdy from a Curtiss -machine in the air, at Atlantic City, N. J. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">445</span> -The sending key was attached to the steering -wheel.</p> - -<p><i>August 28, 1910</i>—Dufaux, with biplane constructed -by himself, flies over Lake Geneva, wins prize of -£200 offered by Swiss Aero Club.</p> - -<p><i>August 29, 1910</i>—Breguet, with Breguet monoplane, -makes a flight at Lille, France, carrying five passengers, -establishing world’s record for passenger -flight.</p> - -<p><i>August 29, 1910</i>—Morane, with Bleriot monoplane, -at Havre, beats world’s altitude record, reaches -height of 7,166 feet.</p> - -<p><i>September 2, 1910</i>—Mlle. Hélène Dutrieux flies -with a passenger from Ostend to Bruges, Belgium, -and back to Ostend. At Bruges she circled -around the famous belfry at a height of -1,300 feet, the chimes pealing in honor of the -feat—the most wonderful flight so far accomplished -by a woman.</p> - -<p><i>September 3, 1910</i>—M. Bielovucci lands at Bordeaux, -France, having made the trip from Paris, -366 miles, inside of 48 hours. The actual time -in the air was 7 hours 6 minutes. Strong head -winds blew him backward, forcing a landing -three times on the way. This is the fourth longest -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">446</span> -cross-country flight on record, and makes the -world’s record for sustained speed over a long -distance.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_446.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">Mlle. Hélène Dutrieux.</p></div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>September 4, 1910</i>—Morane, at Havre, rises to -height of 8,469 feet.</p> - -<p><i>September 7, 1910</i>—Weyman, with Farman biplane, -flies from Buc in attempt to reach the top of the -Puy-de-Dôme, lands at Volvic, 5 miles from his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">447</span> -destination. Establishes world’s record for flight -with passenger, having covered 139 miles without -landing.</p> - -<p><i>September 28, 1910</i>—Chavez crosses the Alps on a -Bleriot monoplane from Brigue, in Switzerland, -to Domodossola, in Italy, flying over the Simplon -Pass.</p> - -<p><i>October 1, 1910</i>—Henri Wynmalen, of Holland, with -a biplane at Mourmelon, France, rises to a height -of 9,121 feet, making a new world’s record for -altitude.</p> - -<p><i>October 4, 1910</i>—Maurice Tabuteau recrossed the -Pyrenees, in his return trip from San Sebastian -to Biarritz, without accident or marked incident.</p> - -<p><i>October 5, 1910</i>—Leon Morane, the winner of nearly -all the contests in the English meets for 1910, -fell with his monoplane at Boissy St. Leger, during -a contest for the Michelin cup, and was seriously -injured.</p> - -<p><i>October 8, 1910</i>—Archibald Hoxsey, with a biplane, -makes the longest continuous aeroplane flight recorded -in America, between Springfield, Ill., and -St. Louis, Mo.—104 miles.</p> - -<p><i>October 12, 1910</i>—Alfred Leblanc, with monoplane, -at St. Louis, flies 13 miles in 10 minutes, a speed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">448</span> -of 78 miles per hour. It was not officially recorded, -as a part of the distance was outside of -the prescribed course.</p> - -<p><i>October 14, 1910</i>—Grahame-White flies from the -Bennings Race Track 6 miles across the Potomac -River to the Capitol at Washington, circles the -dome, and then circles the Washington Monument, -and finally alights with precision in Executive -Street, between the Executive Offices and the -building of the State, Army, and Navy Departments. -After a brief call, he rose from the narrow -street—but 20 feet wider than his biplane—and -returned to the race track without untoward -incident.</p> - -<p><i>October 16, 1910</i>—Wynmalen flies from Paris to -Brussels, and returns, with one passenger, within -the elapsed time of 27 hours 50 minutes, winning -two prizes amounting to $35,000. The distance -is 350 miles, and the actual time in the air was -15 hours 38 minutes.</p> - -<p><i>October 25, 1910</i>—J. Armstrong Drexel, with monoplane, -at Belmont Park, L. I., rises to height of -7,105 feet, breaking previous records, and surpassing -his own record of 6,600 feet, made at -Lanark, Scotland. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">449</span></p> - -<p><i>October 26, 1910</i>—Ralph Johnstone, in biplane, at -Belmont Park, rises to the height of 7,313 feet, -through sleet and snow, breaking the new American -record made by Drexel the day before.</p> - -<p><i>October 27, 1910</i>—Johnstone, with biplane, at Belmont -Park, rises to height of 8,471 feet, surpassing -his own record of the day before and establishing -a new American record. The feat was -performed in a gale blowing nearly 60 miles per -hour, and the aviator was carried 55 miles away -from his starting point before he landed.</p> - -<p><i>October 28, 1910</i>—Tabuteau, with biplane, at -Etampes, France, makes a new world’s endurance -record of 6 hours’ continuous flight, covering -a distance of 289 miles.</p> - -<p><i>October 29, 1910</i>—Grahame-White, with monoplane, -at Belmont Park, wins the International speed -race over the distance of 62.1 miles, in 1 hour -1 minute 4⅗ seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 29, 1910</i>—Leblanc, with monoplane, at Belmont -Park, makes a new world’s record for speed, -reaching 70 miles per hour during the International -speed race. Through a lack of fuel he lost -the race to Grahame-White, after covering 59 -miles in 52 minutes. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">450</span></p> - -<p><i>October 30, 1910</i>—John B. Moisant, with monoplane, -wins the race from Belmont Park around -the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor, and -the prize of $10,000. The distance is about 34 -miles, and Moisant covered it in 34 minutes 39 -seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 30, 1910</i>—James Radley, with monoplane, -at Belmont Park, wins the cross-country flight of -20 miles in 20 minutes 5 seconds.</p> - -<p><i>October 31, 1910</i>—Johnstone, with biplane, at Belmont -Park, rises to a height of 9,714 feet, breaking -the previous world’s record, made by Wynmalen -on October 1.</p> - -<p><i>October 31, 1910</i>—Drexel, with monoplane, racing -for altitude with Johnstone, reaches a height of -8,370 feet.</p> - -<p><i>October 31, 1910</i>—Moisant, with monoplane, at -Belmont Park, wins the two-hour distance race -with a record of 84 miles. His next nearest -competitor covered but 57 miles.</p> - -<p><i>November 14, 1910</i>—Eugene Ely, with biplane, -flew from a staging on the deck of the U. S. -Cruiser <i>Birmingham</i> 8 miles to the shore near -the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. The flight was -intended to end at the Norfolk Navy Yard, but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">451</span> -an accident to the propeller at starting forced -Ely to make directly for the shore.</p> - -<p><i>November 17, 1910</i>—Ralph Johnstone, holder of -the world’s altitude record of 9,714 feet, was -killed at Denver, Col., by a fall with his biplane.</p> - -<p><i>November 23, 1910</i>—Drexel, at Philadelphia, -reaches an altitude of 9,970 feet, passing all -other altitude records. Coming down he made a -straight glide of seven miles.</p> - -<p><i>December 2, 1910</i>—Charles K. Hamilton, at Memphis, -Tenn., flies 4 miles in 3 minutes 1 second, a -speed of 79.2 miles per hour. This is a new -world’s record.</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">452</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="Chapter_XX">Chapter XX.<br /> - -EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS.</h2> - -<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">Every</span> development in human progress is -marked by a concurrent development in language. -To express the new ideas, new words appear, -or new meanings are given to words already in use.</p> - -<p>As yet, the vocabulary of aeronautics is in the -same constructive and incomplete state as is the science -to which it attempts to give voice, and the utmost -that can be done at this time is to record such -words and special meanings as are in use in the immediate -present.</p> - -<h3>A</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Adjusting Plane</i>—A small plane, or surface, at the -outer end of a wing, by which the lateral (from -side to side) balance of an aeroplane is adjusted. -It is not connected with the controlling mechanism, -as are the ailerons—nor with any automatic -device.</p> - -<p><i>Aerodrome</i>—A term used by Professor Langley as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">453</span> -a better name for the aeroplane; but latterly it -has been applied to the buildings in which airships -are housed, and also in a few instances, as -a name for the course laid out for aeronautical -contests.</p> - -<p><i>Aerofoil</i>—Another name for the aeroplane, suggested -as more accurate, considering that the surfaces -are not true planes.</p> - -<p><i>Aeronef</i>—Another name for an aeroplane.</p> - -<p><i>Aeroplane</i>—The type of flying machine which is -supported in the air by a spread of surfaces or -planes, formerly flat, and therefore truly -“plane,” but of late more or less curved. Even -though not absolutely accurate, this term has resisted -displacement by any other.</p> - -<p><i>Aerostat</i>—A free balloon afloat in the air.</p> - -<p><i>Aeronate</i>—A captive balloon.</p> - -<p><i>Aileron</i>—A small movable plane at the wing-tips, or -hinged between the main planes, usually at their -outer ends, operated by the aviator to restore -the lateral balance of the machine when disturbed.</p> - -<p><i id="Air_speed">Air-speed</i>—The speed of aircraft as related to the -air in which they are moving; as distinguished -from <a href="#Land_speed">land-speed</a> (which see). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">454</span></p> - -<p><i>Alighting Gear</i>—Devices on the under side of the -aeroplane to take up the jar of landing after -flight, and at the same time to check the forward -motion at that moment.</p> - -<p><i id="Angle_of_Entry">Angle of Entry</i>—The angle made by the tangent to -the curve of the aeroplane surface at its forward -edge, with the direction, or line, of travel.</p> - -<p><i>Angle of Incidence</i>—The angle made by the chord -of the arc of a curved “plane,” or by the line of -a flat plane, with the line of travel.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_454.jpg" alt="" /></div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Angle of Trail</i>—The angle made by the tangent to -the rear edge of a curved plane with the line of -travel.</p> - -<p><i>Apteroid</i>—A form resembling the “short and -broad” type of the wings of certain birds—as -distinguished from the <a href="#Pterygoid">pterygoid</a> (which see).</p> - -<p><i>Arc</i>—Any part of a circle, or other curved line. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">455</span></p> - -<p><i>Arch</i>—The curve formed by bending the wings -downward at the tips, leaving them higher at the -centre of the machine.</p> - -<p><i>Aspect</i>—The view of the top of an aeroplane as it -appears when looked down upon from above.</p> - -<p><i>Aspiration</i>—The (hitherto) unexplained tendency -of a curved surface—convex side upward—to -rise and advance when a stream of air blows -against its forward edge and across the top.</p> - -<p><i>Attitude</i>—The position of a plane as related to the -line of its travel; usually expressed by the angle -of incidence.</p> - -<p><i>Automatic Stability</i>—That stability which is preserved -by self-acting, or self-adjusting, devices -which are not under the control of the operator, -nor a fixed part of the machine, as are the adjusting -planes.</p> - -<p><i>Aviation</i>—Flying by means of power-propelled -machines which are not buoyed up in the air, as -with gas bags.</p> - -<p><i>Aviator</i>—The operator, driver, or pilot of an aeroplane.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>B</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Balance</i>—Equilibrium maintained by the controlling -mechanism, or by the automatic action of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">456</span> -balancing-surfaces—as distinguished from the -equilibrium preserved by stabilizing surfaces.</p> - -<p><i>Balancing Plane</i>—The surface which is employed -either intentionally, or automatically, to restore -a disturbed balance.</p> - -<p><i>Biplane</i>—The type of aeroplane which has two main -supporting surfaces or planes, placed one above -the other.</p> - -<p><i>Body</i>—The central structure of an aeroplane, containing -the machinery and the passenger space—as -distinguished from the wings, or planes, and -the tail.</p> - -<p><i>Brace</i>—A construction member of the framing of -aircraft which resists a compression strain in a -diagonal direction—as distinguished from a -“stay,” or “diagonal,” which supports a pulling -strain; also from a strut which supports a compression -strain in a vertical direction.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>C</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Camber</i>—The distance from the chord of the curve -of a surface to the highest point of that curve, -measured at right angles to the chord.</p> - -<p><i>Caster</i>, or <i>Castor</i>, <i>Wheel</i>—A wheel mounted on an -upright pivoted shaft placed forward of its axle, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">457</span> -so that it swivels automatically to assume the line -of travel of an aeroplane when landing: used in -the alighting gear. To be distinguished from a -fixed wheel, which does not swivel.</p> - -<p><i>Cell</i>—A structure with enclosing sides—similar to -a box without top or bottom stood upon one side. -The vertical walls of the cell give lateral stability, -and its horizontal walls fore-and-aft stability.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_457.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">The first Santos-Dumont biplane, constructed of cells.</p></div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Centre of Gravity</i>—That point of a body where its -weight centres. If this point is supported, the -body rests in exact balance.</p> - -<p><i>Centre of Lift</i>—The one point at which the lifting -forces of the flying planes might be concentrated, -and produce the same effect.</p> - -<p><i>Centre of Resistance</i>—The one point at which the -forces opposing the flight of an air-craft might -be concentrated, and produce the same result. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">458</span></p> - -<p><i>Centre of Thrust</i>—The one point at which the forces -generated by the revolving propellers might be -concentrated, and produce the same effect.</p> - -<p><i>Chassis</i>—The under-structure or “running-gear” of -an aeroplane.</p> - -<p><i>Chord</i>—The straight line between the two ends of -an arc of a circle or other curved line.</p> - -<p><i>Compound Control</i>—A mechanical system by which -several distinct controls are operated through different -manipulations of the same lever or steering-wheel.</p> - -<p><i>Compression Side</i>—That side of a plane or propeller -blade against which the air is compressed—the -under surface of a flying plane, and the rear surface -of a revolving propeller.</p> - -<p><i id="Curtain">Curtain</i>—The vertical surface of a cell—the wall -which stands upright.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>D</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Deck</i>—A main aeroplane surface. The term is used -generally in describing biplanes; as the upper -deck, and the lower deck; or with aeroplanes of -many decks.</p> - -<p><i>Demountable</i>—A type of construction which permits -a machine to be easily taken apart for transportation. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">459</span></p> - -<p><i id="Derrick">Derrick</i>—A tower-shaped structure in which a -weight is raised and allowed to fall to give starting -impetus to an aeroplane.</p> - -<p><i>Dihedral</i>—That form of construction in which the -wings of an aeroplane start with an upward incline -at their junction with the body of the machine, -instead of stretching out on a level.</p> - -<p><i>Dirigible</i>—The condition of being directable, or -steerable: applied generally to the balloons fitted -with propelling power, or airships.</p> - -<p><i>Double Rudder</i>—A rudder composed of two intersecting -planes, one vertical and the other horizontal, -thus enabling the operator to steer in any direction -with the one rudder.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_459.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i id="Double_Surfaced">Double-Surfaced</i>—Planes which are covered with -fabric on both their upper and lower surfaces, -thus completely inclosing their frames.</p> - -<p><i>Down-Wind</i>—Along with the wind; in the direction -in which the wind is blowing.</p> - -<p><i>Drift</i>—The recoil of an aeroplane surface forced -through the air: also the tendency to float in the -same direction as the wind.</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">460</span></p> - -<h3>E</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Elevator</i>—A shorter name for the elevating planes -or elevating rudder, used for directing the aeroplane -upward or downward.</p> - -<p><i>Ellipse</i>—An oval figure outlined by cutting a cone -through from side to side on a plane not parallel -to its base. Some inventors use the curves of the -ellipse in forming the wings of aeroplanes. See -<a href="#Hyperbola">Hyperbola</a> and <a href="#Parabola">Parabola</a>.</p> - -<p><i>Entry</i>—The penetration of the air by the forward -edge of aircraft surfaces. See <a href="#Angle_of_Entry">Angle of Entry</a>.</p> - -<p><i>Equivalent Head Area</i>—Such an area of flat surface -as will encounter head resistance equal to -the total of that of the construction members of -the framework—struts, braces, spars, diagonals, -etc., of the aerial craft.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>F</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Feathering</i>—A form of construction in which -mounting on hinges, or pivots, permits the surfaces -to engage the air flatwise in one direction -and to pass edgewise through it in other directions.</p> - -<p><i>Fin</i>—A fixed vertical stabilizing surface, similar in -form to the fin on the back of a fish. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">461</span></p> - -<p><i>Fish Section</i>—A term applied to the lengthwise section -of an aircraft when the outline resembles the -general shape of a fish—blunted in front and -tapering toward the rear. This form is believed -to encounter less resistance than any other, in -passing through the air.</p> - -<p><i>Fixed Wheel</i>—A wheel in a fixed mounting, so that -it does not swivel as does a caster wheel.</p> - -<p><i>Flapping Flight</i>—Flight by the up-and-down beating -of wings, similar to the common flight of pigeons.</p> - -<p><i>Flexible Propeller</i>—A propeller in which the blades -are frames covered more or less loosely with a -fabric which is in a measure free to adjust its -form to the compression of the air behind it as it -revolves.</p> - -<p><i>Flying Angle</i>—The angle of incidence of the main -surface of an aeroplane when in flight. See -<a href="#Ground_Angle">Ground Angle</a>.</p> - -<p><i id="Footpound">Footpound</i>—The amount of force required to raise -one pound to a height of one foot.</p> - -<p><i>Fore-and-aft</i>—From front to rear: lengthwise: longitudinal.</p> - -<p><i>Fuselage</i>—The framework of the body of an aeroplane.</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">462</span></p> - -<h3>G</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Glider</i>—A structure similar to an aeroplane, but -without motive power.</p> - -<p><i>Gliding</i>—Flying down a slope of air with a glider, -or with an aeroplane in which the propelling -power is cut off.</p> - -<p><i>Gliding Angle</i>—The flattest angle at which a given -machine will make a perfect glide. This angle -differs with different machines. The flatter the -gliding angle the safer the machine.</p> - -<p><i id="Ground_Angle">Ground Angle</i>—The angle of incidence of an aeroplane -surface when the machine is standing on -the ground.</p> - -<p><i>Guy</i>—A wire attached to a more or less distant part -of the structure of any aircraft to prevent spreading. -Also used to denote controlling wires which -transmit the movements of the levers.</p> - -<p><i>Gyroscopic Action</i>—The resistance which a rotating -wheel, or wheel-like construction, exhibits when -a disturbing force tends to change its plane of rotation.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>H</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Hangar</i>—A structure for the housing of aeroplanes.</p> - -<p><i>Head Resistance</i>—The resistance encountered by a -surface moving through the air. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">463</span></p> - -<p><i>Heavier-than-air</i>—A term applied to flying machines -whose weight is not counterbalanced or buoyed -up by the lifting power of some gas lighter than -air; and which weigh more than the volume of -air displaced.</p> - -<p><i>Helicopater</i>—A type of flying machine in which propellers -revolving horizontally lift and sustain its -weight in the air.</p> - -<p><i id="Horizontal_Rudder">Horizontal Rudder</i>—The rudder surface which is -used to steer an aircraft upward or downward: -so-called because it lies normally in a position -parallel to the horizon; that is, level.</p> - -<p><i>Horse-power</i>—An amount of work equivalent to the -lifting of 33,000 footpounds in one minute. See -<a href="#Footpound">Footpound</a>.</p> - -<p><i id="Hyperbola">Hyperbola</i>—The outline formed by the cutting of a -cone by a plane passing one side of its axis at -such an angle that it would also intersect another -cone placed apex to apex on the same axis.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>K</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Keel</i>—A framework extending lengthwise under an -aircraft to stiffen the construction: usually employed -on airships with elongated gas-bags.</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">464</span></p> - -<h3>L</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Lateral</i>—From side to side; that is, crossing the -length fore-and-aft, and generally at right angles -to it.</p> - -<p><i id="Land_speed">Land-speed</i>—The speed of aircraft as related to objects -on the ground. See <a href="#Air_speed">Air-speed</a>.</p> - -<p><i>Landing Area</i>—A piece of land specially prepared -for the alighting of aeroplanes without risk of -injury.</p> - -<p><i>Leeway</i>—Movement of a machine aside from the intended -course, due to the lateral drift of the -whole body of air; measured usually at right angles -to the course.</p> - -<p><i>Lift</i>—The raising, or sustaining effect of an aeroplane -surface. It is expressed in the weight thus -overcome.</p> - -<p><i>Lighter-than-air</i>—A term used to designate aircraft -which, owing to the buoyancy of the gas attached, -weigh less than the volume of air which they displace.</p> - -<p><i>Longitudinal</i>—In a lengthwise, or fore-and-aft direction.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>M</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Main Plane</i>—The principal supporting surface of -an aeroplane. In the biplane, or the multiplane -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">465</span> -type, it denotes the lowest surface, unless some -other is decidedly larger.</p> - -<p><i>Main Landing Wheels</i>—Those wheels on the alighting -gear which take the shock in landing.</p> - -<p><i>Mast</i>—A vertical post or strut giving angular altitude -to guys or long stays. Also used (erroneously) -to designate a spar reaching out laterally -or longitudinally in a horizontal position.</p> - -<p><i>Monoplane</i>—An aeroplane with one main supporting -surface. A Double Monoplane has two of -such surfaces set one behind the other (tandem) -but on the same level.</p> - -<p><i>Multiplane</i>—An aeroplane having several main -planes, at least more than three (for which there -is the special name of triplane).</p></blockquote> - -<h3>N</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Nacelle</i>—The framework, or body, of a dirigible -balloon or airship.</p> - -<p><i>Negative Angle of Incidence</i>—An angle of incidence -below the line of travel, and therefore expressed -with a minus sign. Surfaces bent to certain -curves fly successfully at negative angles of incidence, -and exhibit a comparatively large lift.</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">466</span></p> - -<h3>O</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Ornithopter</i>—A type of flying machine with wing -surfaces which are designed to raise and sustain -the machine in the air by flapping.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>P</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Panel</i>—Another name for <a href="#Curtain">Curtain</a>—which see.</p> - -<p><i id="Parabola">Parabola</i>—The form outlined when a cone is cut by -a plane parallel to a line drawn on its surface -from its apex to its base. Declared to be the correct -scientific curve for aeroplane surfaces, but -not so proven, as yet.</p> - -<p><i>Pilot</i>—A term widely used for an operator, or -driver, of any form of aircraft.</p> - -<p><i id="pitch">Pitch</i>—The distance which a propeller would progress -during one revolution, if free to move in -a medium which permitted no <a href="#Slip">slip</a> (which see); -just as the thread of a bolt travels in the groove -of its nut.</p> - -<p><i>Plane</i>—Speaking with exactness, a flat spread of -surface; but in aeronautics it includes also the -curved sustaining surfaces of aeroplanes.</p> - -<p><i>Polyplane</i>—Another term for Multiplane.</p> - -<p><i id="Port">Port</i>—The left-hand side of an aircraft, as one faces -forward. See <a href="#Starboard">Starboard</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">467</span></p> - -<p><i>Projected Area</i>—The total area of an irregular -structure as projected upon a flat surface; like -the total area of the shadow of an object cast -by the sun upon a plane fixed at right angles to -its rays.</p> - -<p><i>Propeller Reaction</i>—A force produced by a single -revolving propeller, which tends to revolve the -machine which it is driving, in the contrary direction. -This is neutralized in various ways in -the machines driven by single propellers. Where -two propellers are used it is escaped by arranging -them to move in opposite directions.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_467.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A pterygoid plane.</p></div> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i id="Pterygoid">Pterygoid</i>—That type of the wings of birds which -is long and narrow—as distinguished from the -apteroid type.</p> - -<p><i>Pylon</i>—A tower-shaped structure used as a <a href="#Derrick">derrick</a> -(which see); also for displaying signals to aeronauts.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>R</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i id="Radial_spoke">Radial Spoke</i>—A wire spoke extending from the hub -of an alighting wheel straight outward from the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">468</span> -centre to the rim of the wheel. See <a href="#Tangent_Spoke">Tangent -Spoke</a>.</p> - -<p><i>Rarefaction Side</i>—A correct term for the incorrect -“vacuum side,” so-called. The side opposite the -compression side: the forward side of a revolving -propeller blade, or the upper side of a flying -surface, or the side of a rudder-surface turned -away from the wind.</p> - -<p><i>Reactive Stratum</i>—The layer of compressed air beneath -a moving aeroplane surface, or behind a -moving propeller blade.</p> - -<p><i>Rib</i>—The smaller construction members used in -building up surfaces. Generally they run fore-and-aft, -crossing the spars or wing-bars at right -angles, and they are bent to form the curve of the -wings or planes.</p> - -<p><i>Rising Angle</i>—Technically, the steepest angle at -which any given aeroplane will rise into the air.</p> - -<p><i>Rudder</i>—A movable surface by which the aeronaut -is enabled to steer his craft in a desired direction. -See <a href="#Horizontal_Rudder">Horizontal Rudder</a> and <a href="#Vertical_Rudder">Vertical Rudder</a>.</p> - -<p><i>Runner</i>—A construction similar to the runners of a -sleigh, used for alighting on some machines, instead -of the wheel alighting gear; a skid.</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">469</span></p> - -<h3>S</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Screw</i>—Another term for propeller; properly, screw-propeller.</p> - -<p><i>Single-surfaced</i>—A term used to designate wings or -planes whose frames are covered with fabric only -on the upper side. See <a href="#Double_Surfaced">Double-Surfaced</a>.</p> - -<p><i>Skid</i>—Another name for runner.</p> - -<p><i>Skin Friction</i>—The retarding effect of the adherence -of the air to surfaces moving rapidly -through it. It is very slight with polished surfaces, -and in case of slow speeds is entirely negligible.</p> - -<p><i id="Slip">Slip</i>—The difference between the actual progress of -a moving propeller, and the theoretical progress -expressed by its pitch. It is much greater in -some propellers than in others, due to the “churning” -of the air by blades of faulty design and -construction.</p> - -<p><i>Soaring Flight</i>—The sailing motion in the air -achieved by some of the larger birds without the -flapping of their wings. It is to be distinguished -from gliding in that it is in an upward direction. -Soaring has never been satisfactorily explained, -and is considered to be the secret whose discovery -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">470</span> -will bring about the largest advance in the navigation -of the air.</p> - -<p><i>Spar</i>—A stick of considerable length used in the -framing of the body of aeroplanes, or as the long -members in wing structures.</p> - -<p><i>Stabilize</i>—To maintain balance by the automatic -action of adjunct surfaces, as distinguished from -the intentional manipulation of controlling devices.</p> - -<p><i>Stabilizer</i>—Any surface whose automatic action -tends to the maintaining of balance in the air.</p> - -<p><i>Stable Equilibrium</i>—That equilibrium which is inherent -in the construction of the machine, and -does not depend upon automatic or controlling -balancing devices.</p> - -<p><i id="Starboard">Starboard</i>—The right-hand side of an aircraft as -one faces forward. See <a href="#Port">Port.</a></p> - -<p><i>Starting Area</i>—An area of ground specially prepared -to facilitate the starting of aeroplanes into -flight.</p> - -<p><i>Starting Device</i>—Any contrivance for giving an -aeroplane a powerful impulse or thrust into the -air. See <a href="#Derrick">Derrick</a>.</p> - -<p><i>Starting Impulse</i>—The thrust with which an aeroplane -is started into the air for a flight. Most -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">471</span> -machines depend upon the thrust of their own -propellers, the machine being held back by force -until the engines have worked up to flying -speed, when it is suddenly released.</p> - -<p><i>Starting Rail</i>—The rail upon which the starting -truck runs before the aeroplane rises into the air.</p> - -<p><i>Starting Truck</i>—A small vehicle upon which the -aeroplane rests while it is gaining sufficient impulse -to take flight.</p> - -<p><i>Stay</i>—A construction member of an aeroplane sustaining -a pulling strain. It is usually of wire.</p> - -<p><i>Straight Pitch</i>—That type of <a href="#pitch">pitch</a> (which see) in -a propeller blade in which every cross-section of -the blade makes the same angle with its axis of -revolution.</p> - -<p><i>Strainer</i>—Another term for Turnbuckle—which see.</p> - -<p><i>Strut</i>—An upright, or vertical, construction member -of an aeroplane sustaining a compression strain; -as distinguished from a brace which sustains a -diagonal compression strain.</p> - -<p><i>Supplementary Surface</i>—A comparatively small -surface used as an adjunct to the large surfaces -for some special purpose; as, for instance, the -preserving of balance, or for steering.</p> - -<p><i>Sustaining Surface</i>—The large surfaces of the aeroplane -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">472</span> -whose rapid movement through the air at -a slight angle to the horizontal sustains the -weight of the machine.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>T</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Tail</i>—A rear surface on an aeroplane designed to -assist in maintaining longitudinal stability. It -is in use principally on monoplanes, and is often -so arranged as to serve as a rudder.</p> - -<p><i>Tail Wheel</i>—A wheel mounted under the rear end -of an aeroplane as a part of the alighting gear.</p> - -<p><i>Tangent</i>—A straight line passing the convex side of -a curved line, and touching it at one point only. -The straight line is said to be tangent to the -curve at the point of contact.</p> - -<p><i>Tangential</i>—In the position or direction of a tangent.</p> - -<p><i id="Tangent_Spoke">Tangent Spoke</i>—A wire spoke extending from the -outer edge of the hub of a wheel along the line -of a tangent until it touches the rim. Its position -is at right angles to the course of a <a href="#Radial_spoke">radial -spoke</a> (which see) from the same point on the -hub.</p> - -<p><i>Tie</i>—A construction member connecting two points -with a pulling strain. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">473</span></p> - -<p><i>Tightener</i>—A device for taking up the slack of a -stay, or tie; as the turnbuckle.</p> - -<p><i>Tractor Propeller</i>—A propeller placed in front, so -that it pulls the machine through the air, instead -of pushing, or thrusting, it from behind.</p> - -<p><i>Triplane</i>—An aeroplane with three main surfaces, -or decks, placed in a tier, one above another.</p> - -<p><i>Turnbuckle</i>—A device with a nut at each end, of -contrary pitch, so as to take a right-hand screw -at one end, and a left-hand screw at the other; -used for drawing together, or toward each other -the open ends of a stay, or tie.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>U</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Uniform Pitch</i>—That varying pitch in a propeller -blade which causes each point in the blade to move -forward in its own circle the same distance in -one revolution.</p> - -<p><i>Up-wind</i>—In a direction opposite to the current of -the wind; against the wind; in the teeth of the -wind.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>V</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i id="Vertical_Rudder">Vertical Rudder</i>—A rudder for steering toward -right or left; so called because its surface occupies -normally a vertical position.</p></blockquote> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">474</span></p> - -<h3>W</h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Wake</i>—The stream of disturbed air left in the rear -of a moving aircraft, due mainly to the slip of the -propeller.</p> - -<p><i>Wash</i>—The air-currents flowing out diagonally from -the sides of a moving aeroplane.</p> - -<p><i>Wing Bar</i>—The larger construction members of a -wing, running from the body outward to the tips. -The ribs are attached to the wing bars, usually -at right angles.</p> - -<p><i>Wing Plan</i>—The outline of the wing or main plane -surface as viewed from above.</p> - -<p><i>Wing Section</i>—The outline of the wing structure of -an aeroplane as it would appear if cut by a plane -passing through it parallel to the longitudinal -centre of the machine.</p> - -<p><i>Wing Skid</i>—A small skid, or runner, placed under -the tip of the wings of an aeroplane, to prevent -damage in case of violent contact with the -ground.</p> - -<p><i>Wing Tip</i>—The extreme outer end of a wing or -main plane.</p> - -<p><i>Wing Warping</i>—A controlling device for restoring -disturbed lateral balance by the forcible pulling -down or pulling up of the tips of the wings, or of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">475</span> -the outer ends of the main surface of the aeroplane.</p> - -<p><i>Wing Wheel</i>—A small wheel placed under the outer -end of a wing or main plane to prevent contact -with the ground. An improvement on the wing -skid.</p></blockquote> - -<h3>THE END</h3> - -<div class="transnote"> -<h3>Transcriber’s Note:</h3> - -<p>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air, by -Richard Ferris - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW IT FLIES OR, CONQUEST OF AIR *** - -***** This file should be named 55268-h.htm or 55268-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/2/6/55268/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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