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diff --git a/old/55268-0.txt b/old/55268-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4da6f4e..0000000 --- a/old/55268-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8990 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air, by Richard Ferris - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air - The Story of Man's Endeavors to Fly and of the Inventions - by which He Has Succeeded - -Author: Richard Ferris - -Release Date: August 5, 2017 [EBook #55268] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW IT FLIES OR, CONQUEST OF AIR *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -[Illustration: ORVILLE WRIGHT IN THE 80-MILE-AN-HOUR “BABY WRIGHT” -RACER.] - - - - - How It Flies - - or, - - THE CONQUEST OF THE AIR - - The Story of Man’s Endeavors to Fly and of the - Inventions by which He Has Succeeded - - By - - RICHARD FERRIS, B.S., C.E. - - Illustrated by Over One Hundred and Fifty Half-tones and Line - Drawings, Showing the Stages of Development from the - Earliest Balloon to the Latest Monoplane and Biplane - - New York - - THOMAS NELSON AND SONS - - 381-385 Fourth Avenue - - -Copyright, 1910, by - -THOMAS NELSON & SONS - - -THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK - - - - -PREFACE - - -In these pages, by means of simple language and suitable pictures, the -author has told the story of the Ships of the Air. He has explained -the laws of their flight; sketched their development to the present -day; shown how to build the flying machine and the balloon, and how -to operate them; recounted what man has done, and what he hopes to do -with their aid. In a word, all the essential facts that enter into the -Conquest of the Air have been gathered into orderly form, and are here -presented to the public. - -We who live to-day have witnessed man’s great achievement; we have seen -his dream of ages come true. Man has learned to _fly_! - -The air which surrounds us, so intangible and so commonplace that -it seldom arrests our attention, is in reality a vast, unexplored -ocean, fraught with future possibilities. Even now, the pioneers of -a countless fleet are hovering above us in the sky, while steadily, -surely these wonderful possibilities are unfolded. - -The Publishers take pleasure in acknowledging their indebtedness to the -_Scientific American_ for their courtesy in permitting the use of many -of the illustrations appearing in this book. - -NEW YORK, October 20, 1910. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - PREFACE 7 - - I. INTRODUCTORY 11 - - II. THE AIR 20 - - III. LAWS OF FLIGHT 37 - - IV. FLYING MACHINES 55 - - V. FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE 78 - - VI. FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE 112 - - VII. FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS 141 - - VIII. FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE 151 - - IX. FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD 174 - - X. FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS 193 - - XI. MODEL FLYING MACHINES 215 - - XII. THE GLIDER 241 - - XIII. BALLOONS 257 - - XIV. BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE 296 - - XV. BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE 340 - - XVI. BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE 351 - - XVII. MILITARY AERONAUTICS 363 - - XVIII. BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS 379 - - XIX. CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS 407 - - XX. EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL - TERMS 452 - - - - -HOW IT FLIES - - - - -Chapter I. - -INTRODUCTORY. - - The sudden awakening--Early successes--Influence of the gasoline - engine on aeroplanes--On dirigible balloons--Interested - inquiry--Some general terms defined. - - -In the year 1908 the world awakened suddenly to the realization that at -last the centuries of man’s endeavor to fly mechanically had come to -successful fruition. - -There had been a little warning. In the late autumn of 1906, -Santos-Dumont made a flight of 720 feet in a power-driven machine. -There was an exclamation of wonder, a burst of applause--then a relapse -into unconcern. - -In August, 1907, Louis Bleriot sped free of the ground for 470 feet; -and in November, Santos-Dumont made two flying leaps of barely 500 -feet. That was the year’s record, and it excited little comment. It is -true that the Wright brothers had been making long flights, but they -were in secret. There was no public knowledge of them. - -In 1908 came the revelation. In March, Delagrange flew in a Voisin -biplane 453 feet, carrying Farman with him as a passenger. Two weeks -later he flew alone nearly 2½ miles. In May he flew nearly 8 miles. In -June his best flight was 10½ miles. Bleriot came on the scene again -in July with a monoplane, in which he flew 3¾ miles. In September, -Delagrange flew 15 miles--in less than 30 minutes. In the same month -the Wrights began their wonderful public flights. Wilbur, in France, -made records of 41, 46, 62, and 77 miles, while Orville flew from 40 to -50 miles at Fort Myer, Va. Wilbur Wright’s longest flight kept him in -the air 2 hours and 20 minutes. - -The goal had been reached--men had achieved the apparently impossible. -The whole world was roused to enthusiasm. - -Since then, progress has been phenomenally rapid, urged on by the -striving of the inventors, the competition of the aircraft builders, -and the contests for records among the pilots. - -By far the largest factor in the triumph of the aeroplane is the -improved gasoline engine, designed originally for automobiles. Without -this wonderful type of motor, delivering a maximum of power with a -minimum of weight, from concentrated fuel, the flying machine would -still be resting on the earth. - -[Illustration: The Renard and Krebs airship _La France_, at -Chalais-Meudon.] - -Nor has the influence of the gasoline motor been much less upon that -other great class of aircraft, the dirigible balloon. After 1885, when -Renard and Krebs’ airship _La France_ made its two historic voyages -from Chalais-Meudon to Paris, returning safely to its shed, under the -propulsion of an electric motor, the problem of the great airship lay -dormant, waiting for the discovery of adequate motive power. If the -development of the dirigible balloon seems less spectacular than that -of the aeroplane, it is because the latter had to be created; the -dirigible, already in existence, had only to be revivified. - -Confronted with these new and strange shapes in the sky, some making -stately journeys of hundreds of miles, others whirring hither and -thither with the speed of the whirlwind, wonder quickly gives way to -the all-absorbing question: _How do they fly?_ To answer fully and -satisfactorily, it seems wise, for many readers, to recall in the -succeeding chapters some principles doubtless long since forgotten. - - * * * * * - -As with every great advance in civilization, this expansion of the -science of aeronautics has had its effect upon the language of the day. -Terms formerly in use have become restricted in application, and other -terms have been coined to convey ideas so entirely new as to find no -suitable word existent in our language. It seems requisite, therefore, -first to acquaint the reader with clear definitions of the more common -terms that are used throughout this book. - -_Aeronautics_ is the word employed to designate the entire subject of -aerial navigation. An _aeronaut_ is a person who sails, or commands, -any form of aircraft, as distinguished from a passenger. - -_Aviation_ is limited to the subject of flying by machines which are -not floated in the air by gas. An _aviator_ is an operator of such -machine. - -[Illustration: A free balloon, with parachute.] - -Both aviators and aeronauts are often called _pilots_. - -A _balloon_ is essentially an envelope or bag filled with some gaseous -substance which is lighter, bulk for bulk, than the air at the surface -of the earth, and which serves to float the apparatus in the air. In -its usual form it is spherical, with a car or basket suspended below -it. It is a _captive balloon_ if it is attached to the ground by a -cable, so that it may not rise above a certain level, nor float away in -the wind. It is a _free balloon_ if not so attached or anchored, but is -allowed to drift where the wind may carry it, rising and falling at the -will of the pilot. - -[Illustration: A dirigible balloon.] - -A _dirigible balloon_, sometimes termed simply a dirigible, usually has -its gas envelope elongated in form. It is fitted with motive power to -propel it, and steering mechanism to guide it. It is distinctively the -_airship_. - -_Aeroplanes_ are those forms of flying machines which depend for their -support in the air upon the spread of surfaces which are variously -called wings, sails, or planes. They are commonly driven by propellers -actuated by motors. When not driven by power they are called _gliders_. - -[Illustration: A biplane glider.] - -Aeroplanes exist in several types: the _monoplane_, with one spread -of surface; the _biplane_, with two spreads, one above the other; the -_triplane_, with three spreads, or decks; the _multiplane_, with more -than three. - -The _tetrahedral plane_ is a structure of many small cells set one upon -another. - -_Ornithopter_ is the name given to a flying machine which is operated -by flapping wings. - -[Illustration: A parachute descending.] - -_Helicopter_ is used to designate machines which are lifted vertically -and sustained in the air by propellers revolving in a horizontal plane, -as distinguished from the propellers of the aeroplane, which revolve in -vertical planes. - -A _parachute_ is an umbrella-like contrivance by which an aeronaut may -descend gently from a balloon in mid-air, buoyed up by the compression -of the air under the umbrella. - -For the definition of other and more technical terms the reader is -referred to the carefully prepared Glossary toward the end of the book. - - - - -Chapter II. - -THE AIR. - - Intangibility of air--Its - substance--Weight--Extent--Density--Expansion - by heat--Alcohol fire--Turbulence of the - air--Inertia--Elasticity--Viscosity--Velocity of - winds--Aircurrents--Cloud levels--Aerological stations--High - altitudes--Practical suggestions--The ideal highway. - - -The air about us seems the nearest approach to nothingness that we know -of. A pail is commonly said to be empty--to have nothing in it--when it -is filled only with air. This is because our senses do not give us any -information about air. We cannot see it, hear it, touch it. - -When air is in motion (wind) we hear the noises it makes as it passes -among other objects more substantial; and we feel it as it blows by us, -or when we move rapidly through it. - -We get some idea that it exists as a substance when we see dead leaves -caught up in it and whirled about; and, more impressively, when in the -violence of the hurricane it seizes upon a body of great size and -weight, like the roof of a house, and whisks it away as though it were -a feather, at a speed exceeding that of the fastest railroad train. - -In a milder form, this invisible and intangible air does some of our -work for us in at least two ways that are conspicuous: it moves ships -upon the ocean, and it turns a multitude of windmills, supplying the -cheapest power known. - -That this atmosphere is really a fluid ocean, having a definite -substance, and in some respects resembling the liquid ocean upon which -our ships sail, and that we are only crawling around on the bottom -of it, as it were, is a conception we do not readily grasp. Yet this -conception must be the foundation of every effort to sail, to fly, in -this aerial ocean, if such efforts are to be crowned with success. - -As a material substance the air has certain physical properties, and -it is the part of wisdom for the man who would fly to acquaint himself -with these properties. If they are helpful to his flight, he wants to -use them; if they hinder, he must contrive to overcome them. - -In general, it may be said that the air, being in a gaseous form, -partakes of the properties of all gases--and these may be studied -in any text-book on physics, Here we are concerned only with those -qualities which affect conditions under which we strive to fly. - -Of first importance is the fact that air has _weight_. That is, in -common with all other substances, it is attracted by the mass of the -earth exerted through the force we call gravity. At the level of the -sea, this attraction causes the air to press upon the earth with a -weight of nearly fifteen pounds (accurately, 14.7 lbs.) to the square -inch, when the temperature is at 32° F. That pressure is the weight of -a column of air one inch square at the base, extending upward to the -outer limit of the atmosphere--estimated to be about 38 miles (some say -100 miles) above sea-level. The practical fact is that normal human -life cannot exist above the level of 15,000 feet, or a little less than -three miles; and navigation of the air will doubtless be carried on at -a much lower altitude, for reasons which will appear as we continue. - -The actual weight of a definite quantity of dry air--for instance, -a cubic foot--is found by weighing a vessel first when full of air, -and again after the air has been exhausted from it with an air-pump. -In this way it has been determined that a cubic foot of dry air, -at the level of the sea, and at a temperature of 32° F., weighs 565 -grains--about 0.0807 lb. At a height above the level of the sea, a -cubic foot of air will weigh less than the figure quoted, for its -density decreases as we go upward, the pressure being less owing to -the diminished attraction of the earth at the greater distance. For -instance, at the height of a mile above sea-level a cubic foot of air -will weigh about 433 grains, or 0.0619 lb. At the height of five miles -it will weigh about 216 grains, or 0.0309 lb. At thirty-eight miles -it will have no weight at all, its density being so rare as just to -balance the earth’s attraction. It has been calculated that the whole -body of air above the earth, if it were all of the uniform density of -that at sea-level, would extend only to the height of 26,166 feet. -Perhaps a clearer comprehension of the weight and pressure of the ocean -of air upon the earth may be gained by recalling that the pressure of -the 38 miles of atmosphere is just equal to balancing a column of water -33 feet high. The pressure of the air, therefore, is equivalent to the -pressure of a flood of water 33 feet deep. - -[Illustration: Comparative Elevations of Earth and Air.] - -But air is seldom dry. It is almost always mingled with the vapor -of water, and this vapor weighs only 352 grains per cubic foot at -sea-level. Consequently the mixture--damp air--is lighter than dry air, -in proportion to the moisture it contains. - -[Illustration: Apparatus to show effects of heat on air currents. _a_, -alcohol lamp; _b_, ice. The arrows show direction of currents.] - -Another fact very important to the aeronaut is that the air is in -_constant motion_. Owing to its ready expansion by heat, a body of -air occupying one cubic foot when at a temperature of 32° F. will -occupy more space at a higher temperature, and less space at a lower -temperature. Hence, heated air will flow upward until it reaches a -point where the natural density of the atmosphere is the same as its -expanded density due to the heating. Here another complication comes -into play, for ascending air is cooled at the rate of one degree for -every 183 feet it rises; and as it cools it grows denser, and the speed -of its ascension is thus gradually checked. After passing an altitude -of 1,000 feet the decrease in temperature is one degree for each 320 -feet of ascent. In general, it may be stated that air is expanded -one-tenth of its volume for each 50° F. that its temperature is raised. - -This highly unstable condition under ordinary changes of temperature -causes continual movements in the air, as different portions of it are -constantly seeking that position in the atmosphere where their density -at that moment balances the earth’s attraction. - -Sir Hiram Maxim relates an incident which aptly illustrates the effect -of change of temperature upon the air. He says: “On one occasion, -many years ago, I was present when a bonded warehouse in New York -containing 10,000 barrels of alcohol was burned.... I walked completely -around the fire, and found things just as I expected. The wind was -blowing a perfect hurricane through every street in the direction of -the fire, although it was a dead calm everywhere else; the flames -mounted straight in the air to an enormous height, and took with them a -large amount of burning wood. When I was fully 500 feet from the fire, -a piece of partly burned one-inch board, about 8 inches wide and 4 feet -long, fell through the air and landed near me. This board had evidently -been taken up to a great height by the tremendous uprush of air caused -by the burning alcohol.” - -That which happened on a small scale, with a violent change of -temperature, in the case of the alcohol fire, is taking place on a -larger scale, with milder changes in temperature, all over the world. -The heating by the sun in one locality causes an expansion of air -at that place, and cooler, denser air rushes in to fill the partial -vacuum. In this way winds are produced. - -So the air in which we are to fly is in a state of constant motion, -which may be likened to the rush and swirl of water in the rapids of a -mountain torrent. The tremendous difference is that the perils of the -water are in plain sight of the navigator, and may be guarded against, -while those of the air are wholly invisible, and must be met as they -occur, without a moment’s warning. - -[Illustration: - - The solid arrows show the directions of a cyclonic wind on - the earth’s surface. At the centre the currents go directly - upward. In the upper air above the cyclone the currents have the - directions of the dotted arrows.] - -Next in importance, to the aerial navigator, is the air’s _resistance_. -This is due in part to its density at the elevation at which he is -flying, and in part to the direction and intensity of its motion, or -the wind. While this resistance is far less than that of water to the -passage of a ship, it is of serious moment to the aeronaut, who must -force his fragile machine through it at great speed, and be on the -alert every instant to combat the possibility of a fall as he passes -into a rarer and less buoyant stratum. - -[Illustration: - - Diagram showing disturbance of wind currents by inequalities of - the ground, and the smoother currents of the upper air. Note the - increase of density at A and B, caused by compression against the - upper strata.] - -Three properties of the air enter into the sum total of its -resistance--inertia, elasticity, and viscosity. Inertia is its tendency -to remain in the condition in which it may be: at rest, if it is still; -in motion, if it is moving. Some force must be applied to disturb this -inertia, and in consequence when the inertia is overcome a certain -amount of force is used up in the operation. Elasticity is that -property by virtue of which air tends to reoccupy its normal amount -of space after disturbance. An illustration of this tendency is the -springing back of the handle of a bicycle pump if the valve at the -bottom is not open, and the air in the pump is simply compressed, not -forced into the tire. Viscosity may be described as “stickiness”--the -tendency of the particles of air to cling together, to resist -separation. To illustrate: molasses, particularly in cold weather, -has greater viscosity than water; varnish has greater viscosity than -turpentine. Air exhibits some viscosity, though vastly less than that -of cold molasses. However, though relatively slight, this viscosity has -a part in the resistance which opposes the rapid flight of the airship -and aeroplane; and the higher the speed, the greater the retarding -effect of viscosity. - -The inertia of the air, while in some degree it blocks the progress -of his machine, is a benefit to the aeronaut, for it is inertia which -gives the blades of his propeller “hold” upon the air. The elasticity -of the air, compressed under the curved surfaces of the aeroplane, is -believed to be helpful in maintaining the lift. The effect of viscosity -may be greatly reduced by using surfaces finished with polished -varnish--just as greasing a knife will permit it to be passed with -less friction through thick molasses. - -In the case of winds, the inertia of the moving mass becomes what is -commonly termed “wind pressure” against any object not moving with it -at an equal speed. The following table gives the measurements of wind -pressure, as recorded at the station on the Eiffel Tower, for differing -velocities of wind: - - +----------+------------+---------------+ - | Velocity | Velocity | Pressure | - | in Miles | in Feet | in Pounds on | - | per Hour | per Second | a Square Foot | - +----------+------------+---------------+ - | 2 | 2.9 | 0.012 | - | 4 | 5.9 | 0.048 | - | 6 | 8.8 | 0.108 | - | 8 | 11.7 | 0.192 | - | 10 | 14.7 | 0.300 | - | 15 | 22.0 | 0.675 | - | 20 | 29.4 | 1.200 | - | 25 | 36.7 | 1.875 | - | 30 | 44.0 | 2.700 | - | 35 | 51.3 | 3.675 | - | 40 | 58.7 | 4.800 | - | 45 | 66.0 | 6.075 | - | 50 | 73.4 | 7.500 | - | 60 | 88.0 | 10.800 | - | 70 | 102.7 | 14.700 | - | 80 | 117.2 | 19.200 | - | 90 | 132.0 | 24.300 | - | 100 | 146.7 | 30.000 | - +----------+------------+---------------+ - -In applying this table, the velocity to be considered is the net -velocity of the movements of the airship and of the wind. If the ship -is moving 20 miles an hour _against_ a head wind blowing 20 miles an -hour, the net velocity of the wind will be 40 miles an hour, and the -pressure 4.8 lbs. a square foot of surface presented. Therefore the -airship will be standing still, so far as objects on the ground are -concerned. If the ship is sailing 20 miles an hour _with_ the wind, -which is blowing 20 miles an hour, the pressure per square foot will be -only 1.2 lbs.; while as regards objects on the ground, the ship will be -travelling 40 miles an hour. - -[Illustration: - - Apparatus for the study of the action of air in motion; a blower - at the farther end of the great tube sends a “wind” of any - desired velocity through it. Planes and propellers of various - forms are thus tested.] - -Systematic study of the movements of the air currents has not been -widespread, and has not progressed much beyond the gathering of -statistics which may serve as useful data in testing existing theories -or formulating new ones. - -It is already recognized that there are certain “tides” in the -atmosphere, recurring twice daily in six-hour periods, as in the case -of the ocean tides, and perhaps from the same causes. Other currents -are produced by the earth’s rotation. Then there are the five-day -oscillations noted by Eliot in India, and daily movements, more or less -regular, due to the sun’s heat by day and the lack of it by night. -The complexity of these motions makes scientific research extremely -difficult. - -Something definite has been accomplished in the determination of wind -velocities, though this varies largely with the locality. In the United -States the average speed of the winds is 9½ miles per hour; in Europe, -10⅓ miles; in Southern Asia, 6½ miles; in the West Indies, 6⅕ miles; in -England, 12 miles; over the North Atlantic Ocean, 29 miles per hour. -Each of these average velocities varies with the time of year and time -of day, and with the distance from the sea. The wind moves faster over -water and flat, bare land than over hilly or forest-covered areas. -Velocities increase as we go upward in the air, being at 1,600 feet -twice what they are at 100 feet. Observations of the movements of cloud -forms at the Blue Hill Observatory, near Boston, give the following -results: - - +---------------+---------+---------------+ - | Cloud Form | Height | Average Speed | - | | in Feet | per Hour | - +---------------+---------+---------------+ - | Stratus | 1,676 | 19 miles. | - | Cumulus | 5,326 | 24 miles. | - | Alto-cumulus | 12,724 | 34 miles. | - | Cirro-cumulus | 21,888 | 71 miles. | - | Cirrus | 29,317 | 78 miles. | - +---------------+---------+---------------+ - -In winter the speed of cirrus clouds may reach 96 miles per hour. - -There are forty-nine stations scattered over Germany where statistics -concerning winds are gathered expressly for the use of aeronauts. At -many of these stations records have been kept for twenty years. Dr. -Richard Assman, director of the aerological observatory at Lindenburg, -has prepared a comprehensive treatise of the statistics in possession -of these stations, under the title of _Die Winde in Deutschland_. It -shows for each station, and for each season of the year, how often the -wind blows from each point of the compass; the average frequency of -the several degrees of wind; when and where aerial voyages may safely -be made; the probable drift of dirigibles, etc. It is interesting to -note that Friedrichshafen, where Count Zeppelin’s great airship sheds -are located, is not a favorable place for such vessels, having a yearly -record of twenty-four stormy days, as compared with but two stormy days -at Celle, four at Berlin, four at Cassel, and low records at several -other points. - -In practical aviation, a controlling factor is the density of the air. -We have seen that at an altitude of five miles the density is about -three-eighths the density at sea-level. This means that the supporting -power of the air at a five-mile elevation is so small that the area of -the planes must be increased to more than 2½ times the area suited to -flying near the ground, or that the speed must be largely increased. -Therefore the adjustments necessary for rising at the lower level and -journeying in the higher level are too large and complex to make flying -at high altitudes practicable--leaving out of consideration the bitter -cold of the upper regions. - -Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch, director of the Blue Hill Observatory, in his -valuable book, _The Conquest of the Air_, gives this practical summary -of a long series of studious observations: “At night, however, because -there are no ascending currents, the wind is much steadier than in the -daytime, making night the most favorable time for aerial navigation -of all kinds.... A suitable height in the daytime, unless a strong -westerly wind is sought, lies above the cumulus clouds, at the height -of about a mile; but at night it is not necessary to rise so high; and -in summer a region of relatively little wind is found at a height of -about three-fourths of a mile, where it is also warmer and drier than -in the daytime or at the ground.” - -Notwithstanding all difficulties, the fact remains that, once they are -overcome, the air is the ideal highway for travel and transportation. -On the sea, a ship may sail to right or left on one plane only. In -the air, we may steer not only to right or left, but above and below, -and obliquely in innumerable planes. We shall not need to traverse -long distances in a wrong direction to find a bridge by which we may -cross a river, nor zigzag for toilsome miles up the steep slopes of a -mountain-side to the pass where we may cross the divide. The course of -the airship is the proverbial bee-line--the most economical in time as -well as in distance. - - - - -Chapter III. - -LAWS OF FLIGHT. - - The bird--Nature’s models--Man’s methods--Gravity--The - balloon--The airship--Resistance of the air--Winds--The - kite--Laws of motion and force--Application to - kite-flying--Aeroplanes. - - -If we were asked to explain the word “flying” to some foreigner who did -not know what it meant, we should probably give as an illustration the -bird. This would be because the bird is so closely associated in our -thoughts with flying that we can hardly think of the one without the -other. - -It is natural, therefore, that since men first had the desire to fly -they should study the form and motions of the birds in the air, and -try to copy them. Our ancestors built immense flopping wings, into -the frames of which they fastened themselves, and with great muscular -exertion of arms and legs strove to attain the results that the bird -gets by apparently similar motions. - -However, this mental coupling of the bird with the laws of flight has -been unfortunate for the achievement of flight by man. And this is -true even to the present day, with its hundreds of successful flying -machines that are not in the least like a bird. This wrongly coupled -idea is so strong that scientific publications print pages of research -by eminent contributors into the flight of birds, with the attempt -to deduce lessons therefrom for the instruction of the builders and -navigators of flying machines. - -These arguments are based on the belief that Nature never makes a -mistake; that she made the bird to fly, and therefore the bird must be -the most perfect model for the successful flying machine. But the truth -is, the bird was not made primarily to fly, any more than man was made -to walk. Flying is an incident in the life of a bird, just as walking -is an incident in the life of a man. Flying is simply a bird’s way of -getting about from place to place, on business or on pleasure, as the -case may be. - -Santos-Dumont, in his fascinating book, _My Air-Ships_, points out -the folly of blindly following Nature by showing that logically such -a procedure would compel us to build our locomotives on the plan of -gigantic horses, with huge iron legs which would go galloping about -the country in a ridiculously terrible fashion; and to construct our -steamships on the plan of giant whales, with monstrous flapping fins -and wildly lashing tails. - -Sir Hiram Maxim says something akin to this in his work, _Artificial -and Natural Flight_: “It appears to me that there is nothing in Nature -which is more efficient, or gets a better grip on the water, than a -well-made screw propeller; and no doubt there would have been fish with -screw propellers, providing Dame Nature could have made an animal in -two pieces. It is very evident that no living creature could be made in -two pieces, and two pieces are necessary if one part is stationary and -the other revolves; however, the tails and fins very often approximate -to the action of propeller blades; they turn first to the right and -then to the left, producing a sculling effect which is practically the -same. This argument might also be used against locomotives. In all -Nature we do not find an animal travelling on wheels, but it is quite -possible that a locomotive might be made that would walk on legs at -the rate of two or three miles an hour. But locomotives with wheels -are able to travel at least three times as fast as the fleetest animal -with legs, and to continue doing so for many hours at a time, even when -attached to a very heavy load. In order to build a flying machine with -flapping wings, to exactly imitate birds, a very complicated system of -levers, cams, cranks, etc., would have to be employed, and these of -themselves would weigh more than the wings would be able to lift.” - -As with the man-contrived locomotive, so the perfected airship will be -evolved from man’s understanding of the obstacles to his navigation -of the air, and his overcoming of them by his inventive genius. This -will not be in Nature’s way, but in man’s own way, and with cleverly -designed machinery such as he has used to accomplish other seeming -impossibilities. With the clearing up of wrong conceptions, the path -will be open to more rapid and more enduring progress. - -When we consider the problem of flying, the first obstacle we encounter -is the attraction which the earth has for us and for all other objects -on its surface. This we call weight, and we are accustomed to measure -it in pounds. - -Let us take, for example, a man whose body is attracted by the earth -with a force, or weight, of 150 pounds. To enable him to rise into the -air, means must be contrived not only to counteract his weight, but to -lift him--a force a little greater than 150 pounds must be exerted. We -may attach to him a bag filled with some gas (as hydrogen) for which -the earth has less attraction than it has for air, and which the air -will push out of the way and upward until a place above the earth is -reached where the attraction of air and gas is equal. A bag of this -gas large enough to be pushed upward with a force equal to the weight -of the man, plus the weight of the bag, and a little more for lifting -power, will carry the man up. This is the principle of the ordinary -balloon. - -Rising in the air is not flying. It is a necessary step, but real -flying is to travel from place to place through the air. To accomplish -this, some mechanism, or machinery, is needed to propel the man after -he has been lifted into the air. Such machinery will have weight, -and the bag of gas must be enlarged to counterbalance it. When this -is done, the man and the bag of gas may move through the air, and -with suitable rudders he may direct his course. This combination of -the lifting bag of gas and the propelling machinery constitutes the -dirigible balloon, or airship. - -[Illustration: Degen’s apparatus to lift the man and his flying -mechanism with the aid of a gas-balloon. See Chapter IV.] - -The airship is affected equally with the balloon by prevailing winds. -A breeze blowing 10 miles an hour will carry a balloon at nearly that -speed in the direction in which it is blowing. Suppose the aeronaut -wishes to sail in the opposite direction? If the machinery will propel -his airship only 10 miles an hour in a calm, it will virtually stand -still in the 10-mile breeze. If the machinery will propel his airship -20 miles an hour in a calm, the ship will travel 10 miles an hour--as -related to places on the earth’s surface--against the wind. But so far -as the air is concerned, his speed through it is 20 miles an hour, -and each increase of speed meets increased resistance from the air, -and requires a greater expenditure of power to overcome. To reduce -this resistance to the least possible amount, the globular form of the -early balloon has been variously modified. Most modern airships have a -“cigar-shaped” gas bag, so called because the ends look like the tip -of a cigar. As far as is known, this is the balloon that offers less -resistance to the air than any other. - -Another mechanical means of getting up into the air was suggested -by the flying of kites, a pastime dating back at least 2,000 years, -perhaps longer. Ordinarily, a kite will not fly in a calm, but with -even a little breeze it will mount into the air by the upward thrust -of the rushing breeze against its inclined surface, being prevented -from blowing away (drifting) by the pull of the kite-string. The same -effect will be produced in a dead calm if the operator, holding -the string, runs at a speed equal to that of the breeze--with this -important difference: not only will the kite rise in the air, but it -will travel in the direction in which the operator is running, a part -of the energy of the runner’s pull upon the string producing a forward -motion, provided he holds the string taut. If we suppose the pull on -the string to be replaced by an engine and revolving propeller in the -kite, exerting the same force, we have exactly the principle of the -aeroplane. - -As it is of the greatest importance to possess a clear understanding of -the natural processes we propose to use, let us refer to any text-book -on physics, and review briefly some of the natural laws relating to -motion and force which apply to the problem of flight: - - (_a_) Force is that power which changes or tends to change the - position of a body, whether it is in motion or at rest. - - (_b_) A given force will produce the same effect, whether the - body on which it acts is acted upon by that force alone, or by - other forces at the same time. - - (_c_) A force may be represented graphically by a straight - line--the point at which the force is applied being the beginning - of the line; the direction of the force being expressed by the - direction of the line; and the magnitude of the force being - expressed by the length of the line. - - (_d_) Two or more forces acting upon a body are called component - forces, and the single force which would produce the same effect - is called the resultant. - - (_e_) When two component forces act in different directions - the resultant may be found by applying the principle of the - parallelogram of forces--the lines (_c_) representing the - components being made adjacent sides of a parallelogram, and the - diagonal drawn from the included angle representing the resultant - in direction and magnitude. - - (_f_) Conversely, a resultant motion may be resolved into its - components by constructing a parallelogram upon it as the - diagonal, either one of the components being known. - -[Illustration: The Deutsch de la Muerthe dirigible balloon -_Ville-de-Paris_; an example of the “cigar-shaped” gas envelope.] - -Taking up again the illustration of the kite flying in a calm, let us -construct a few diagrams to show graphically the forces at work upon -the kite. Let the heavy line AB represent the centre line of the kite -from top to bottom, and C the point where the string is attached, at -which point we may suppose all the forces concentrate their action -upon the plane of the kite. Obviously, as the flyer of the kite is -running in a horizontal direction, the line indicating the pull of -the string is to be drawn horizontal. Let it be expressed by CD. The -action of the air pressure being at right angles to the plane of the -kite, we draw the line CE representing that force. But as this is a -_pressing_ force at the point C, we may express it as a _pulling_ force -on the other side of the kite by the line CF, equal to CE and in the -opposite direction. Another force acting on the kite is its weight--the -attraction of gravity acting directly downward, shown by CG. We have -given, therefore, the three forces, CD, CF, and CG. We now wish to find -the value of the pull on the kite-string, CD, in two other forces, one -of which shall be a lifting force, acting directly upward, and the -other a propelling force, acting in the direction in which we desire -the kite to travel--supposing it to represent an aeroplane for the -moment. - -We first construct a parallelogram on CF and CG, and draw the diagonal -CH, which represents the resultant of those two forces. We have then -the two forces CD and CH acting on the point C. To avoid obscuring the -diagram with too many lines, we draw a second figure, showing just -these two forces acting on the point C. Upon these we construct a new -parallelogram, and draw the diagonal CI, expressing their resultant. -Again drawing a new diagram, showing this single force CI acting upon -the point C, we resolve that force into two components--one, CJ, -vertically upward, representing the lift; the other, CK, horizontal, -representing the travelling power. If the lines expressing these forces -in the diagrams had been accurately drawn to scale, the measurement of -the two components last found would give definite results in pounds; -but the weight of a kite is too small to be thus diagrammed, and only -the principle was to be illustrated, to be used later in the discussion -of the aeroplane. - -[Illustration] - -Nor is the problem as simple as the illustration of the kite suggests, -for the air is compressible, and is moreover set in motion in the form -of a current by a body passing through it at anything like the ordinary -speed of an aeroplane. This has caused the curving of the planes (from -front to rear) of the flying machine, in contrast with the flat plane -of the kite. The reasoning is along this line: Suppose the main plane -of an aeroplane six feet in depth (from front to rear) to be passing -rapidly through the air, inclined upward at a slight angle. By the -time two feet of this depth has passed a certain point, the air at -that point will have received a downward impulse or compression which -will tend to make it flow in the direction of the angle of the plane. -The second and third divisions in the depth, each of two feet, will -therefore be moving with a partial vacuum beneath, the air having been -drawn away by the first segment. At the same time, the pressure of the -air from above remains the same, and the result is that only the front -edge of the plane is supported, while two-thirds of its depth is pushed -down. This condition not only reduces the supporting surface to that of -a plane two feet in depth, but, what is much worse, releases a tipping -force which tends to throw the plane over backward. - -In order that the second section of the plane may bear upon the air -beneath it with a pressure equal to that of the first, it must be -inclined downward at double the angle (with the horizon) of the first -section; this will in turn give to the air beneath it a new direction. -The third section of the plane must then be set at a still deeper -angle to give it support. Connecting these several directions with a -smoothly flowing line without angles, we get the curved line of section -to which the main planes of aeroplanes are bent. - -With these principles in mind, it is in order to apply them to the -understanding of how an aeroplane flies. Wilbur Wright, when asked -what kept his machine up in the air--why it did not fall to the -ground--replied: “It stays up because it doesn’t have time to fall.” -Just what he meant by this may be illustrated by referring to the -common sport of “skipping stones” upon the surface of still water. A -flat stone is selected, and it is thrown at a high speed so that the -flat surface touches the water. It continues “skipping,” again and -again, until its speed is so reduced that the water where it touches -last has time to get out of the way, and the weight of the stone -carries it to the bottom. On the same principle, a person skating -swiftly across very thin ice will pass safely over if he goes so fast -that the ice hasn’t time to break and give way beneath his weight. This -explains why an aeroplane must move swiftly to stay up in the air, -which has much less density than either water or ice. The minimum -speed at which an aeroplane can remain in the air depends largely upon -its weight. The heavier it is, the faster it must go--just as a large -man must move faster over thin ice than a small boy. At some aviation -contests, prizes have been awarded for the slowest speed made by an -aeroplane. So far, the slowest on record is that of 21.29 miles an -hour, made by Captain Dickson at the Lanark meet, Scotland, in August, -1910. As the usual rate of speed is about 46 miles an hour, that is -slow for an aeroplane; and as Dickson’s machine is much heavier than -some others--the Curtiss machine, for instance--it is remarkably slow -for that type of aeroplane. - -Just what is to be gained by offering a prize for slowest speed is -difficult to conjecture. It is like offering a prize to a crowd of boys -for the one who can skate slowest over thin ice. The minimum speed is -the most dangerous with the aeroplane as with the skater. Other things -being equal, the highest speed is the safest for an aeroplane. Even -when his engine stops in mid-air, the aviator is compelled to keep up -speed sufficient to prevent a fall by gliding swiftly downward until -the very moment of landing. - -The air surface necessary to float a plane is spread out in one area in -the monoplane, and divided into two areas, one above the other and 6 -to 9 feet apart, in the biplane; if closer than this, the disturbance -of the air by the passage of one plane affects the supporting power -of the other. It has been suggested that better results in the line -of carrying power would be secured by so placing the upper plane that -its front edge is a little back of the rear edge of the lower plane, -in order that it may enter air that is wholly free from any currents -produced by the rushing of the lower plane. - -As yet, there is a difference of opinion among the principal aeroplane -builders as to where the propeller should be placed. All of the -monoplanes have it in front of the main plane. Most of the biplanes -have it behind the main plane; some have it between the two planes. If -it is in front, it works in undisturbed air, but throws its wake upon -the plane. If it is in the rear, the air is full of currents caused -by the passage of the planes, but the planes have smooth air to glide -into. As both types of machine are eminently successful, the question -may not be so important as it seems to the disputants. - -The exact form of curve for the planes has not been decided upon. -Experience has proven that of two aeroplanes having the same surface -and run at the same speed, one may be able to lift twice as much as -the other because of the better curvature of its planes. The action of -the air when surfaces are driven through it is not fully understood. -Indeed, the form of plane shown in the accompanying figure is called -the aeroplane paradox. If driven in either direction it leaves the air -with a _downward_ trend, and therefore exerts a proportional lifting -power. If half of the plane is taken away, the other half is pressed -downward. All of the lifting effect is in the curving of the top side. -It seems desirable, therefore, that such essential factors should be -thoroughly worked out, understood, and applied. - -[Illustration: Section of the “paradox” aeroplane.] - - - - -Chapter IV. - -FLYING MACHINES. - - Mythological--Leonardo da Vinci--Veranzio--John - Wilkins--Besnier--Marquis de - Bacqueville--Paucton--Desforges--Meerwein--Stentzel--Henson--Von - Drieberg--Wenham--Horatio Phillips--Sir Hiram - Maxim--Lilienthal--Langley--Ader--Pilcher--Octave - Chanute--Herring--Hargrave--The Wright - brothers--Archdeacon--Santos-Dumont--Voisin--Bleriot. - - -The term Flying Machines is applied to all forms of aircraft which are -heavier than air, and which lift and sustain themselves in the air by -mechanical means. In this respect they are distinguished from balloons, -which are lifted and sustained in the air by the lighter-than-air gas -which they contain. - -From the earliest times the desire to fly in the air has been one of -the strong ambitions of the human race. Even the prehistoric mythology -of the ancient Greeks reflected the idea in the story of Icarus, who -flew so near to the sun that the heat melted the wax which fastened his -wings to his body, and he fell into the sea. - -Perhaps the first historical record in the line of mechanical flight -worthy of attention exists in the remarkable sketches and plans for a -flying mechanism left by Leonardo da Vinci at his death in 1519. He had -followed the model of the flying bird as closely as possible, although -when the wings were outspread they had an outline more like those of -the bat. While extremely ingenious in the arrangement of the levers, -the power necessary to move them fast enough to lift the weight of a -man was far beyond the muscular strength of any human being. - -It was a century later, in 1617, that Veranzio, a Venetian, proved his -faith in his inventive ability by leaping from a tower in Venice with -a crude, parachute-like contrivance. He alighted without injury. - -In 1684, an Englishman, John Wilkins, then bishop of Chester, built -a machine for flying in which he installed a steam-engine. No record -exists of its performance. - -In 1678, a French locksmith by the name of Besnier devised what -seems now a very crude apparatus for making descending flights, or -glides, from elevated points. It was, however, at that date considered -important enough to be described in the _Journal of the Savants_. It -was a wholly unscientific combination of the “dog-paddle” motion in -swimming, with wing areas which collapsed on the upward motion and -spread out on the downward thrust. If it was ever put to a test it must -have failed completely. - -In 1742, the Marquis de Bacqueville constructed an apparatus which -some consider to have been based on Besnier’s idea--which seems rather -doubtful. He fastened the surfaces of his aeroplane directly to his -arms and legs, and succeeded in making a long glide from the window -of his mansion across the garden of the Tuileries, alighting upon a -washerwoman’s bench in the Seine without injury. - -Paucton, the mathematician, is credited with the suggestion of a flying -machine with two screw propellers, which he called “pterophores”--a -horizontal one to raise the machine into the air, and an upright one -to propel it. These were to be driven by hand. With such hopelessly -inadequate power it is not surprising that nothing came of it, yet -the plan was a foreshadowing of the machine which has in these days -achieved success. - -The Abbé Desforges gained a place in the annals of aeronautics by -inventing a flying machine of which only the name “Orthoptere” remains. - -[Illustration: Meerwein’s Flying Machine. _A_, shows the position of -the man in the wings, their comparative size, and the operating levers; -_B_, position when in flight.] - -About 1780, Karl Friedrich Meerwein, an architect, and the Inspector of -Public Buildings for Baden, Germany, made many scientific calculations -and experiments on the size of wing surface needed to support a man -in the air. He used the wild duck as a standard, and figured that a -surface of 126 square feet would sustain a man in the air. This agrees -with the later calculations of such experimenters as Lilienthal and -Langley. Other of Meerwein’s conclusions are decidedly ludicrous. He -held that the build of a man favors a horizontal position in flying, as -his nostrils open in a direction which would be away from the wind, and -so respiration would not be interfered with! Some of his reasoning is -unaccountably astray; as, for instance, his argument that because the -man hangs in the wings the weight of the latter need not be considered. -It is almost needless to say that his practical trials were a total -failure. - -[Illustration: Plan of Degen’s apparatus.] - -The next prominent step forward toward mechanical flight was made by -the Australian watchmaker Degen, who balanced his wing surfaces with a -small gas balloon. His first efforts to fly not being successful, he -abandoned his invention and took to ballooning. - -Stentzel, an engineer of Hamburg, came next with a machine in the form -of a gigantic butterfly. From tip to tip of its wings it measured 20 -feet, and their depth fore and aft was 5½ feet. The ribs of the wings -were of steel and the web of silk, and they were slightly concave on -the lower side. The rudder-tail was of two intersecting planes, one -vertical and the other horizontal. It was operated by a carbonic-acid -motor, and made 84 flaps of the wings per minute. The rush of air it -produced was so great that any one standing near it would be almost -swept off his feet. It did not reach a stage beyond the model, for it -was able to lift only 75 lbs. - -[Illustration: Stentzel’s machine.] - -In 1843, the English inventor Henson built what is admitted to be the -first aeroplane driven by motive power. It was 100 feet in breadth -(spread) and 30 feet long, and covered with silk. The front edge was -turned slightly upward. It had a rudder shaped like the tail of a -bird. It was driven by two propellers run by a 20-horse-power engine. -Henson succeeded only in flying on a down grade, doubtless because of -the upward bend of the front of his plane. Later investigations have -proven that the upper surface of the aeroplane must be convex to gain -the lifting effect. This is one of the paradoxes of flying planes which -no one has been able to explain. - -In 1845, Von Drieberg, in Germany, revived the sixteenth-century ideas -of flying, with the quite original argument that since the legs of -man were better developed muscularly than his arms, flying should be -done with the legs. He built a machine on this plan, but no successful -flights are recorded. - -In 1868, an experimenter by the name of Wenham added to the increasing -sum of aeronautical knowledge by discovering that the lifting power of -a large supporting surface may be as well secured by a number of small -surfaces placed one above another. Following up these experiments, he -built a flying machine with a series of six supporting planes made -of linen fabric. As he depended upon muscular effort to work his -propellers, he did not succeed in flying, but he gained information -which has been valuable to later inventors. - -[Illustration: Von Drieberg’s machine; view from above.] - -[Illustration: - - Wenham’s arrangement of many narrow surfaces in six tiers, or - decks. _a_, _a_, rigid framework; _b_, _b_, levers working - flapping wings; _e_, _e_, braces. The operator is lying prone.] - -The history of flying machines cannot be written without deferential -mention of Horatio Phillips of England. The machine that he made in -1862 resembled a large Venetian blind, 9 feet high and over 21 feet -long. It was mounted on a carriage which travelled on a circular track -600 feet long, and it was driven by a small steam engine turning a -propeller. It lifted unusually heavy loads, although not large enough -to carry a man. It seems to open the way for experiments with an -entirely new arrangement of sustaining surfaces--one that has never -since been investigated. Phillips’s records cover a series of most -valuable experiments. Perhaps his most important work was in the -determination of the most advantageous form for the surfaces of -aeroplanes, and his researches into the correct proportion of motive -power to the area of such surfaces. Much of his results have not yet -been put to practical use by designers of flying machines. - -[Illustration: Phillips’s Flying Machine--built of narrow slats like a -Venetian blind.] - -The year 1888 was marked by the construction by Sir Hiram Maxim of his -great aeroplane which weighed three and one-half tons, and is said -to have cost over $100,000. The area of the planes was 3,875 square -feet, and it was propelled by a steam engine in which the fuel used -was vaporized naphtha in a burner having 7,500 jets, under a boiler of -small copper water tubes. With a steam pressure of 320 lbs. per square -inch, the two compound engines each developed 180 horse-power, and each -turned a two-bladed propeller 17½ feet in diameter. The machine was -used only in making tests, being prevented from rising in the air by a -restraining track. The thrust developed on trial was 2,164 lbs., and -the lifting power was shown to have been in excess of 10,000 lbs. The -restraining track was torn to pieces, and the machine injured by the -fragments. The dynamometer record proved that a dead weight of 4½ tons, -in addition to the weight of the machine and the crew of 4 men, could -have been lifted. The stability, speed, and steering control were -not tested. Sir Hiram Maxim made unnumbered experiments with models, -gaining information which has been invaluable in the development of the -aeroplane. - -[Illustration: View of a part of Maxim’s aeroplane, showing one of the -immense propellers. At the top is a part of the upper plane.] - -The experiments of Otto Lilienthal in gliding with a winged structure -were being conducted at this period. He held that success in flying -must be founded upon proficiency in the art of balancing the -apparatus in the air. He made innumerable glides from heights which -he continually increased until he was travelling distances of nearly -one-fourth of a mile from an elevation of 100 feet. He had reached the -point where he was ready to install motive power to drive his glider -when he met with a fatal accident. Besides the inspiration of his -daring personal experiments in the air, he left a most valuable series -of records and calculations, which have been of the greatest aid to -other inventors in the line of artificial flight. - -[Illustration: Lilienthal in his biplane glider.] - -In 1896, Professor Langley, director of the Smithsonian Institution -at Washington, made a test of a model flying machine which was the -result of years of experimenting. It had a span of 15 feet, and a -length of 8½ feet without the extended rudder. There were 4 sails or -planes, 2 on each side, 30 inches in width (fore-and-aft measurement). -Two propellers revolving in opposite directions were driven by a -steam engine. The diameter of the propellers was 3 feet, and the -steam pressure 150 lbs. per square inch. The weight of the machine -was 28 lbs. It is said to have made a distance of 1 mile in 1 minute -45 seconds. As Professor Langley’s experiments were conducted in -strict secrecy, no authoritative figures are in existence. Later a -larger machine was built, which was intended to carry a man. It had -a spread of 46 feet, and was 35 feet in length. It was four years in -building, and cost about $50,000. In the first attempt to launch it, -from the roof of a house-boat, it plunged into the Potomac River. The -explanation given was that the launching apparatus was defective. This -was remedied, and a second trial made, but the same result followed. -It was never tried again. This machine was really a double, or tandem, -monoplane. The framework was built of steel tubing almost as thin -as writing paper. Every rib and pulley was hollowed out to reduce -the weight. The total weight of the engine and machine was 800 lbs., -and the supporting surface of the wings was 1,040 square feet. The -aeroplanes now in use average from 2 to 4 lbs. weight to the square -foot of sustaining surface. - -About the same time the French electrician Ader, after years of -experimenting, with the financial aid of the French Government, made -some secret trials of his machine, which had taken five years to build. -It had two bat-like wings spreading 54 feet, and was propelled by two -screws driven by a 4-cylinder steam engine which has been described as -a marvel of lightness. The inventor claimed that he was able to rise -to a height of 60 feet, and that he made flights of several hundred -yards. The official tests, however, were unsatisfactory, and nothing -further was done by either the inventor or the government to continue -the experiments. The report was that in every trial the machines had -been wrecked. - -The experiments of Lilienthal had excited an interest in his ideas -which his untimely death did not abate. Among others, a young English -marine engineer, Percy S. Pilcher, took up the problem of gliding -flight, and by the device of using the power exerted by running boys -(with a five-fold multiplying gear) he secured speed enough to float -his glider horizontally in the air for some distance. He then built an -engine which he purposed to install as motive power, but before this -was done he was killed by a fall from his machine while in the air. - -[Illustration: Plan of Chanute’s movable-wing glider.] - -Before the death of Lilienthal his efforts had attracted the attention -of Octave Chanute, a distinguished civil engineer of Chicago, who, -believing that the real problem of the glider was the maintenance of -equilibrium in the air, instituted a series of experiments along that -line. Lilienthal had preserved his equilibrium by moving his body about -as he hung suspended under the wings of his machine. Chanute proposed -to accomplish the same end by moving the wings automatically. His -attempts were partially successful. He constructed several types of -gliders, one of these with two decks exactly in the form of the present -biplane. Others had three or more decks. Upward of seven hundred glides -were made with Chanute’s machines by himself and assistants, without -a single accident. It is of interest to note that a month before the -fatal accident to Lilienthal, Chanute had condemned that form of -glider as unsafe. - -[Illustration: Chanute’s two-deck glider.] - -In 1897, A. M. Herring, who had been one of the foremost assistants of -Octave Chanute, built a double-deck (biplane) machine and equipped it -with a gasoline motor between the planes. The engine failed to produce -sufficient power, and an engine operated by compressed air was tried, -but without the desired success. - -In 1898, Lawrence Hargrave of Sydney, New South Wales, came into -prominence as the inventor of the cellular or box kite. Following the -researches of Chanute, he made a series of experiments upon the path -of air currents under variously curved surfaces, and constructed some -kites which, under certain conditions, would advance against a wind -believed to be absolutely horizontal. From these results Hargrave was -led to assert that “soaring sails” might be used to furnish propulsion, -not only for flying machines, but also for ships on the ocean sailing -against the wind. The principles involved remain in obscurity. - -During the years 1900 to 1903, the brothers Wright, of Dayton, Ohio, -had been experimenting with gliders among the sand dunes of Kitty -Hawk, North Carolina, a small hamlet on the Atlantic Coast. They -had gone there because the Government meteorological department had -informed them that at Kitty Hawk the winds blew more steadily than at -any other locality in the United States. Toward the end of the summer -of 1903, they decided that the time was ripe for the installation of -motive power, and on December 17, 1903, they made their first four -flights under power, the longest being 853 feet in 59 seconds--against -a wind blowing nearly 20 miles an hour, and from a starting point on -level ground. - -[Illustration: Wilbur Wright gliding at Kitty Hawk, N. C., in 1903.] - -During 1904 over one hundred flights were made, and changes in -construction necessary to sail in circles were devised. In 1905, the -Wrights kept on secretly with their practice and development of their -machine, first one and then the other making the flights until both -were equally proficient. In the latter part of September and early -part of October, 1905, occurred a series of flights which the Wrights -allowed to become known to the public. At a meeting of the Aeronautical -Society of Great Britain, held in London on December 15, 1905, a letter -from Orville Wright to one of the members was read. It was dated -November 17, 1905, and an excerpt from it is as follows: - -“During the month of September we gradually improved in our practice, -and on the 26th made a flight of a little over 11 miles. On the 30th we -increased this to 12⅕th miles; on October 3, to 15⅓ miles; on October -4, to 20¾ miles, and on October 5, to 24¼ miles. All these flights -were made at about 38 miles an hour, the flight of October 5 occupying -30 minutes 3 seconds. Landings were caused by the exhaustion of the -supply of fuel in the flights of September 26 and 30, and October 8, -and in those of October 3 and 4 by the heating of the bearings in the -transmission, of which the oil cups had been omitted. But before the -flight on October 5, oil cups had been fitted to all the bearings, and -the small gasoline can had been replaced with one that carried enough -fuel for an hour’s flight. Unfortunately, we neglected to refill the -reservoir just before starting, and as a result the flight was limited -to 38 minutes.... - -[Illustration: A Wright machine in flight.] - -“The machine passed through all of these flights without the slightest -damage. In each of these flights we returned frequently to the -starting point, passing high over the heads of the spectators.” - -These statements were received with incredulity in many parts of -Europe, the more so as the Wrights refused to permit an examination of -their machine, fearing that the details of construction might become -known before their patents were secured. - -[Illustration: The Archdeacon machine on the Seine.] - -During the summer of 1905, Captain Ferber and Ernest Archdeacon of -Paris had made experiments with gliders. One of the Archdeacon machines -was towed by an automobile, having a bag of sand to occupy the place -of the pilot. It rose satisfactorily in the air, but the tail became -disarranged, and it fell and was damaged. It was rebuilt and tried -upon the waters of the Seine, being towed by a fast motor-boat at a -speed of 25 miles an hour. The machine rose about 50 feet into the air -and sailed for about 500 feet. - -Archdeacon gathered a company of young men about him who speedily -became imbued with his enthusiasm. Among them were Gabriel Voisin, -Louis Bleriot, and Leon Delagrange. The two former, working together, -built and flew several gliders, and when Santos-Dumont made his -historic flight of 720 feet with his multiple-cell machine on November -13, 1906 (the first flight made in Europe), they were spurred to new -endeavors. - -Within a few months Voisin had finished his first biplane, and -Delagrange made his initial flight with it--a mere hop of 30 feet--on -March 16, 1907. - -Bleriot, however, had his own ideas, and on August 6, 1907, he flew -for 470 feet in a monoplane machine of the tandem type. He succeeded -in steering his machine in a curved course, a feat which had not -previously been accomplished in Europe. - -In October of the same year, Henri Farman, then a well-known automobile -driver, flew the second Voisin biplane in a half circle of 253 feet--a -notable achievement at that date. - -But Santos-Dumont had been pushing forward several different types of -machines, and in November he flew first a biplane 500 feet, and a few -days later a monoplane 400 feet. - -At this point in our story the past seems to give place to the -present. The period of early development was over, and the year 1908 -saw the first of those remarkable exploits which are recorded in the -chapter near the end of this work entitled, “Chronicle of Aviation -Achievements.” - -It is interesting to note that the machines then brought out are those -of to-day. Practically, it may be said that there has been no material -change from the original types. More powerful engines have been put -in them, and the frames strengthened in proportion, but the Voisin, -the Bleriot, and the Wright types remain as they were at first. Other -and later forms are largely modifications and combinations of their -peculiar features. - - - - -Chapter V. - -FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. - - Successful types of aeroplanes--Distinguishing features--The - Wright biplane--Construction--New type--Five-passenger - machine--The Voisin biplane--New racing type--The Curtiss - biplane--The Cody biplane--The Sommer biplane--The - Baldwin biplane--New stabilizing plane--The Baddeck No. - 2--Self-sustaining radiator--The Herring biplane--Stabilizing - fins. - - -In the many contests for prizes and records, two types of flying -machines have won distinctive places for themselves--the biplane and -the monoplane. The appearance of other forms has been sporadic, and -they have speedily disappeared without accomplishing anything which had -not been better done by the two classes named. - -This fact, however, should not be construed as proving the futility of -all other forms, nor that the ideal flying machine must be of one of -these two prominent types. It is to be remembered that record-making -and record-breaking is the most serious business in which any machines -have so far been engaged; and this, surely, is not the field of -usefulness to humanity which the ships of the air may be expected -ultimately to occupy. It may yet be proved that, successful as these -machines have been in what they have attempted, they are but transition -forms leading up to the perfect airship of the future. - -[Illustration: The Wright biplane in flight.] - -The distinguishing feature of the biplane is not alone that it has two -main planes, but that they are placed one above the other. The double -(or tandem) monoplane also has two main planes, but they are on the -same level, one in the rear of the other. - -A review of the notable biplanes of the day must begin with the Wright -machine, which was not only the first with which flights were made, but -also the inspiration and perhaps the pattern of the whole succeeding -fleet. - - -THE WRIGHT BIPLANE. - -The Wright biplane is a structure composed of two main surfaces, -each 40 feet long and 6 feet 6 inches wide, set one above the other, -parallel, and 6 feet apart. The planes are held rigidly at this -distance by struts of wood, and the whole structure is trussed with -diagonal wire ties. It is claimed by the Wrights that these dimensions -have been proven by their experiments to give the maximum lift with -the minimum weight. - -[Illustration: - - Diagram showing the construction of the Wright biplane. The lever - _R_ is connected by the bar _A_ with the rudder gearing _C_, and - is pivoted at the bottom on a rolling shaft _B_, through which - the warping wires _W_^1, _W_^2 are operated. The semicircular - planes _F_ aid in stabilizing the elevator system.] - -The combination of planes is mounted on two rigid skids, or runners -(similar to the runners of a sleigh), which are extended forward and -upward to form a support for a pair of smaller planes in parallel, -used as the elevator (for directing the course of the aeroplane upward -or downward). It has been claimed by the Wrights that a rigid skid -under-structure takes up the shock of landing, and checks the momentum -at that moment, better than any other device. But it necessitated -a separate starting apparatus, and while the starting impulse thus -received enabled the Wrights to use an engine of less power (to keep -the machine going when once started), and therefore of less dead -weight, it proved a handicap to their machines in contests where they -were met by competing machines which started directly with their own -power. A later model of the Wright biplane is provided with a wheeled -running gear, and an engine of sufficient power to raise it in the air -after a short run on the wheels. - -Two propellers are used, run by one motor. They are built of wood, are -of the two-bladed type, and are of comparatively large diameter--8 -feet. They revolve in opposite directions at a speed of 450 -revolutions per minute, being geared down by chain drive from the -engine speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute. - -The large elevator planes in front have been a distinctive feature of -the Wright machine. They have a combined area of 80 square feet, adding -that much more lifting surface to the planes in ascending, for then -the under side of their surfaces is exposed to the wind. If the same -surfaces were in the rear of the main planes their top sides would have -to be turned to the wind when ascending, and a depressing instead of a -lifting effect would result. - -To the rear of the main planes is a rudder composed of two parallel -vertical surfaces for steering to right or left. - -The feature essential to the Wright biplane, upon which the letters -patent were granted, is the flexible construction of the tips of the -main planes, in virtue of which they may be warped up or down to -restore disturbed equilibrium, or when a turn is to be made. This -warping of the planes changes the angle of incidence for the part of -the plane which is bent. (The angle of incidence is that which the -plane makes with the line in which it is moving. The bending downward -of the rear edge would enlarge the angle of incidence, in that way -increasing the compression of the air beneath, and lifting that end -of the plane.) The wing-warping controls are actuated by the lever -at the right hand of the pilot, which also turns the rudder at the -rear--that which steers the machine to right or to left. The lever at -the left hand of the pilot moves the elevating planes at the front of -the machine. - -[Illustration: Sketch showing relative positions of planes and of the -operator in the Wright machine: _A_, _A_, the main planes; _B_, _B_, -the elevator planes. The motor is placed beside the operator.] - -The motor has 4 cylinders, and develops 25 to 30 horse-power, giving -the machine a speed of 39 miles per hour. - -A newer model of the Wright machine is built without the large -elevating planes in front, a single elevating plane being placed just -back of the rear rudder. This arrangement cuts out the former lifting -effect described above, and substitutes the depressing effect due to -exposing the top of a surface to the wind. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of N. Y. Times._ - -The new model Wright biplane--without forward elevator.] - -The smallest of the Wright machines, popularly called the “Baby -Wright,” is built upon this plan, and has proven to be the fastest of -all the Wright series. - - -THE VOISIN BIPLANE. - -While the Wrights were busily engaged in developing their biplane in -America, a group of enthusiasts in France were experimenting with -gliders of various types, towing them with high speed automobiles along -the roads, or with swift motor-boats upon the Seine. As an outcome -of these experiments, in which they bore an active part, the Voisin -brothers began building the biplanes which have made them famous. - -As compared with the Wright machine, the Voisin aeroplane is of much -heavier construction. It weighs 1,100 pounds. The main planes have a -lateral spread of 37 feet 9 inches, and a breadth of 7 feet, giving -a combined area of 540 square feet, the same as that of the Wright -machine. The lower main plane is divided at the centre to allow the -introduction of a trussed girder framework which carries the motor and -propeller, the pilot’s seat, the controlling mechanism, and the running -gear below; and it is extended forward to support the elevator. This -is much lower than in the Wright machine, being nearly on the level of -the lower plane. It is a single surface, divided at the centre, half -being placed on each side of the girder. It has a combined area of 42 -square feet, about half of that of the Wright elevator, and it is only -4 feet from the front edge of the main planes, instead of 10 feet as in -the Wright machine. A framework nearly square in section, and about 25 -feet long, extends to the rear, and supports a cellular, or box-like, -tail, which forms a case in which is the rudder surface for steering -to right or to left. - -[Illustration: Diagram showing details of construction of the Voisin -biplane. _C_, _C_, the curtains forming the stabilizing cells.] - -A distinctive feature of the Voisin biplane is the use of four vertical -planes, or curtains, between the two main planes, forming two nearly -square “cells” at the ends of the planes. - -At the rear of the main planes, in the centre, is the single propeller. -It is made of steel, two-bladed, and is 8 feet 6 inches in diameter. -It is coupled directly to the shaft of the motor, making with it 1,200 -revolutions per minute. The motor is of the V type, developing 50 -horse-power, and giving a speed of 37 miles per hour. - -[Illustration: Diagram showing the simplicity of control of the Voisin -machine, all operations being performed by the wheel and its sliding -axis.] - -The controls are all actuated by a rod sliding back and forth -horizontally in front of the pilot’s seat, having a wheel at the end. -The elevator is fastened to the rod by a crank lever, and is tilted -up or down as the rod is pushed forward or pulled back. Turning -the wheel from side to side moves the rudder in the rear. There are -no devices for controlling the equilibrium. This is supposed to be -maintained automatically by the fixed vertical curtains. - -[Illustration: - - Voisin biplanes at the starting line at Rheims in August, 1909. - They were flown by Louis Paulhan, who won third prize for - distance, and Henri Rougier, who won fourth prize for altitude. - In the elimination races to determine the contestants for the - Bennett Cup, Paulhan won second place with the Voisin machine, - being defeated only by Tissandier with a Wright machine. Other - noted aviators who fly the Voisin machine are M. Bunau-Varilla - and the Baroness de la Roche.] - -The machine is mounted on two wheels forward, and two smaller wheels -under the tail. - -This description applies to the standard Voisin biplane, which has -been in much favor with many of the best known aviators. Recently -the Voisins have brought out a new type in which the propeller has -been placed in front of the planes, exerting a pulling force upon the -machine, instead of pushing it as in the earlier type. The elevating -plane has been removed to the rear, and combined with the rudder. - -A racing type also has been produced, in which the vertical curtains -have been removed and a parallel pair of long, narrow ailerons -introduced between the main planes on both sides of the centre. This -machine, it is claimed, has made better than 60 miles per hour. - -The first Voisin biplane was built for Delagrange, and was flown by him -with success. - - -THE FARMAN BIPLANE. - -The second biplane built by the Voisins went into the hands of Henri -Farman, who made many flights with it. Not being quite satisfied with -the machine, and having an inventive mind, he was soon building a -biplane after his own designs, and the Farman biplane is now one of the -foremost in favor among both professional and amateur aviators. - -It is decidedly smaller in area of surface than the Wright and Voisin -machines, having but 430 square feet in the two supporting planes. It -has a spread of 33 feet, and the planes are 7 feet wide, and set 6 feet -apart. In the Farman machine the vertical curtains of the Voisin have -been dispensed with. The forward elevator is there, but raised nearly -to the level of the upper plane, and placed 9 feet from the front edge -of the main planes. To control the equilibrium, the two back corners -of each plane are cut and hinged so that they hang vertically when not -in flight. When in motion these flaps or ailerons stream out freely -in the wind, assuming such position as the speed of the passing air -gives them. They are pulled down by the pilot at one end or the other, -as may be necessary to restore equilibrium, acting in very much the -same manner as the warping tips of the Wright machine. A pair of tail -planes are set in parallel on a framework about 20 feet in the rear of -the main planes, and a double rudder surface behind them. Another model -has hinged ailerons on these tail planes, and a single rudder surface -set upright between them. These tail ailerons are moved in conjunction -with those of the main planes. - -[Illustration: The Farman biplane, showing the position of the hinged -ailerons when at rest. At full speed these surfaces stream out in the -wind in line with the planes to which they are attached.] - -[Illustration: Diagram of the Farman biplane. A later type has the -hinged ailerons also on the tail planes.] - -The motor has 4 cylinders, and turns a propeller made of wood, 8 feet 6 -inches in diameter, at a speed of 1,300 revolutions per minute--nearly -three times as fast as the speed of the Wright propellers, which are -about the same size. The propeller is placed just under the rear edge -of the upper main plane, the lower one being cut away to make room -for the revolving blades. The motor develops 45 to 50 horse-power, and -drives the machine at a speed of 41 miles per hour. - -The “racing Farman” is slightly different, having the hinged ailerons -only on one of the main planes. The reason for this is obvious. Every -depression of the ailerons acts as a drag on the air flowing under the -planes, increasing the lift at the expense of the speed. - -[Illustration: Sketch of Farman machine, showing position of operator. -_A_, _A_, main planes; _B_, elevator; _C_, motor; _P_, tail planes.] - -The whole structure is mounted upon skids with wheels attached by a -flexible connection. In case of a severe jar, the wheels are pushed up -against the springs until the skids come into play. - -The elevator and the wing naps are controlled by a lever at the -right hand of the pilot. This lever moves on a universal joint, the -side-to-side movement working the flaps, and the forward-and-back -motion the elevator. Steering to right or left is done with a bar -operated by the feet. - -[Illustration: Henri Farman carrying a passenger across country.] - -Farman has himself made many records with his machine, and so have -others. With a slightly larger and heavier machine than the one -described, Farman carried two passengers a distance of 35 miles in one -hour. - - -THE CURTISS BIPLANE. - -This American rival of the Wright biplane is the lightest machine -of this type so far constructed. The main planes are but 29 feet in -spread, and 4 feet 6 inches in width, and are set not quite 5 feet -apart. The combined area of the two planes is 250 square feet. The main -planes are placed midway of the length of the fore-and-aft structure, -which is nearly 30 feet. At the forward end is placed the elevator, and -at the rear end is the tail--one small plane surface--and the vertical -rudder surface in two parts, one above and the other below the tail -plane. Equilibrium is controlled by changing the slant of two small -balancing planes which are placed midway between the main planes at the -outer ends, and in line with the front edges. These balancing planes -are moved by a lever standing upright behind the pilot, having two arms -at its upper end which turn forward so as to embrace his shoulders. The -lever is moved to right or to left by the swaying of the pilot’s body. - -[Illustration: Glenn H. Curtiss in his machine ready to start. The fork -of the balancing lever is plainly seen at his shoulders. Behind him is -the radiator, with the engine still further back.] - -The motor is raised to a position where the shaft of the propeller is -midway between the levels of the main planes, and within the line of -the rear edges, so that they have to be cut away to allow the passing -of the blades. The motor is of the V type, with 8 cylinders. It is 30 -horse-power and makes 1,200 revolutions per minute. The propeller is of -steel, two-bladed, 6 feet in diameter, and revolves at the same speed -as the shaft on which it is mounted. The high position of the engine -permits a low running gear. There are two wheels under the rear edges -of the main planes, and another is placed half-way between the main -planes and the forward rudder, or elevator. A brake, operated by the -pilot’s foot, acts upon this forward wheel to check the speed at the -moment of landing. - -Another type of Curtiss machine has the ailerons set in the rear of the -main planes, instead of between them. - -The Curtiss is the fastest of the biplanes, being excelled in speed -only by some of the monoplanes. It has a record of 51 miles per hour. - - -THE CODY BIPLANE. - -The Cody biplane has the distinction of being the first successful -British aeroplane. It was designed and flown by Captain S. F. Cody, at -one time an American, but for some years an officer in the British army. - -It is the largest and heaviest of all the biplanes, weighing about -1,800 lbs., more than three times the weight of the Curtiss machine. -Its main planes are 52 feet in lateral spread, and 7 feet 6 inches in -width, and are set 9 feet apart. The combined area of these sustaining -surfaces is 770 square feet. The upper plane is arched, so that the -ends of the main planes are slightly closer together than at the centre. - -The elevator is in two parts placed end to end, about 12 feet in front -of the main planes. They have a combined area of 150 square feet. -Between them and above them is a small rudder for steering to right or -left in conjunction with the large rudder at the rear of the machine. -The latter has an area of 40 square feet. - -There are two small balancing planes, set one at each end of the main -planes, their centres on the rear corner struts, so that they project -beyond the tips of the planes and behind their rear lines. - -[Illustration: The Cody biplane in flight. Captain Cody has both hands -raised above his head, showing the automatic stability of his machine.] - -The biplane is controlled by a lever rod having a wheel at the end. -Turning the wheel moves the rudders; pushing or pulling the wheel works -the elevator; moving the wheel from side to side moves the balancing -planes. - -There are two propellers, set one on each side of the engine, and well -forward between the main planes. They are of wood, of the two-bladed -type, 7 feet in diameter. They are geared down to make 600 revolutions -per minute. The motor has 8 cylinders and develops 80 horse-power at -1,200 revolutions per minute. - -The machine is mounted on a wheeled running gear, two wheels under the -front edge of the main planes and one a short distance forward in the -centre. There is also a small wheel at each extreme end of the lower -main plane. - -The Cody biplane has frequently carried a passenger, besides the pilot, -and is credited with a speed of 38 miles per hour. - -The first aeroplane flights ever made in England were by Captain Cody -on this biplane, January 2, 1909. - - -THE SOMMER BIPLANE. - -The Sommer biplane is closely similar to the Farman machine, but has -the hinged ailerons only on the upper plane. Another difference is that -the tail has but one surface, and the rudder is hung beneath it. Its -dimensions are:--Spread of main planes, 34 feet; depth (fore-and-aft), -6 feet 8 inches; they are set 6 feet apart. The area of the main planes -is 456 square feet; area of tail, 67 square feet; area of rudder, 9 -square feet. It is driven by a 50-horsepower Gnome motor, turning an -8-foot, two-bladed propeller. - -M. Sommer has flown with three passengers, a total weight of 536 lbs., -besides the weight of the machine. - - -THE BALDWIN BIPLANE. - -The Baldwin biplane, designed by Captain Thomas S. Baldwin, the -distinguished balloonist, resembles the Farman type in some features, -and the Curtiss in others. It has the Curtiss type of ailerons, set -between the wings, but extending beyond them laterally. The elevator is -a single surface placed in front of the machine, and the tail is of the -biplane type with the rudder between. The spread of the main planes is -31 feet 3 inches, and their depth 4 feet 6 inches. A balancing plane of -9 square feet is set upright (like a fin) above the upper main plane, -on a swivel. This is worked by a fork fitting on the shoulders of the -pilot, and is designed to restore equilibrium by its swinging into -head-resistance on one side or the other as may be necessary. - -[Illustration: The Baldwin biplane, showing balancing plane above upper -main plane.] - -The motive power is a 4-cylinder Curtiss motor, which turns a propeller -7 feet 6 inches in diameter, set just within the rear line of the main -planes, which are cut away to clear the propeller blades. - - -THE BADDECK BIPLANE. - -The newest biplane of the Aerial Experiment Association follows in -general contour its successful precursor, the “Silver Dart,” with -which J. A. D. McCurdy made many records. The “Baddeck No. 2” is of -the biplane type, and both the planes are arched toward each other. -They have a spread of 40 feet, and are 7 feet in depth at the centre, -rounding to 5 feet at the ends, where the wing tips, 5 feet by 5 feet, -are hinged. The elevator is also of the biplane type, two surfaces each -12 feet long and 28 inches wide, set 30 inches apart. This is mounted -15 feet in front of the main planes. The tail is mounted 11 feet in the -rear of the main planes, and is the same size and of the same form as -the elevator. - -The controls are operated by the same devices as in the Curtiss -machine. The propeller is 7 feet 8 inches in diameter, and is turned -by a six-cylinder automobile engine of 40 horse-power running at 1,400 -revolutions per minute. The propeller is geared down to run at 850 -revolutions per minute. The motor is placed low down on the lower -plane, but the propeller shaft is raised to a position as nearly as -possible that of the centre of resistance of the machine. The speed -attained is 40 miles per hour. - -[Illustration: The McCurdy biplane, “Baddeck No. 2.”] - -A unique feature of the mechanism is the radiator, which is built of -30 flattened tubes 7 feet 6 inches long, and 3 inches wide, and very -thin. They are curved from front to rear like the main planes, and give -sufficient lift to sustain their own weight and that of the water -carried for cooling the cylinders. The running gear is of three wheels -placed as in the Curtiss machine. The “Baddeck No. 2” has made many -satisfactory flights with one passenger besides the pilot. - - -THE HERRING BIPLANE. - -At the Boston Aircraft Exhibition in February, 1910, the Herring -biplane attracted much attention, not only because of its superiority -of mechanical finish, but also on account of its six triangular -stabilizing fins set upright on the upper plane. Subsequent trials -proved that this machine was quite out of the ordinary in action. It -rose into the air after a run of but 85 feet, and at a speed of only -22 miles per hour, and made a 40-degree turn at a tipping angle of 20 -degrees. As measured by the inventor, the machine rose in the air with -the pilot (weighing 190 lbs.), with a thrust of 140 lbs., and required -only a thrust of from 80 to 85 lbs. to keep it flying. - -The spread of the planes is 28 feet, and they are 4 feet in depth, -with a total supporting surface of 220 feet. A 25 horse-power Curtiss -motor turns a 4-bladed propeller of 6 feet diameter and 5-foot pitch -(designed by Mr. Herring) at the rate of 1,200 revolutions per minute. - -[Illustration: The L. A. W. (League of American Wheelmen) biplane at -the Boston Aircraft Exhibition, February, 1910. Note the peculiar -curve of the divided planes. The motor is of the rotating type, of 50 -horse-power.] - -The elevator consists of a pair of parallel surfaces set upon hollow -poles 12 feet in front of the main planes. The tail is a single surface. - -The stabilizing fins act in this manner: when the machine tips to one -side, it has a tendency to slide down an incline of air toward the -ground. The fins offer resistance to this sliding, retarding the upper -plane, while the lower plane slides on and swings as a pendulum into -equilibrium again. - - -THE BREGUET BIPLANE. - -The Breguet biplane is conspicuous in having a biplane tail of so -large an area as to merit for the machine the title “tandem biplane.” -The main planes have a spread of 41 feet 8 inches, and an area of 500 -square feet. The tail spreads 24 feet, and its area is about 280 square -feet. The propeller is three-bladed, 8 feet in diameter, and revolves -at a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute. It is placed in front of -the main plane, after the fashion of the monoplanes. The motive power -is an 8-cylinder R-E-P engine, developing 55 horse-power. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of N. Y. Sun._ - -The Seddon tandem biplane, constructed by Lieutenant Seddon of the -British Navy. The area of its planes is 2,000 square feet. Compare its -size with that of the monoplane in the background. It is intended to -carry ten persons.] - -[Illustration: - - Wright biplane. Curtiss biplane. - -Comparative build and area of prominent American biplanes.] - -[Illustration: - - Voisin biplane. Breguet biplane. - -Comparative build and area of prominent European biplanes.] - - - - -Chapter VI. - -FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. - - The common goal--Interchanging features--The Bleriot - machine--First independent flyer--Construction and controls--The - “Antoinette”--Large area--Great stability--Santos-Dumont’s - monoplane--Diminutive size--R-E-P monoplane--encased - structure--Hanriot machine--Boat body--Sturdy build--Pfitzner - machine--Lateral type--Thrusting propeller--Fairchild, - Burlingame, Cromley, Chauviere, Vendome, and Moisant monoplanes. - - -In all the ardent striving of the aviators to beat each other’s -records, a surprisingly small amount of personal rivalry has been -developed. Doubtless this is partly because their efforts to perform -definite feats have been absorbing; but it must also be that these men, -who know that they face a possible fall in every flight they make, -realize that their competitors are as brave as themselves in the face -of the same danger; and that they are actually accomplishing marvellous -wonders even if they do no more than just escape disastrous failure. -Certain it is that each, realizing the tremendous difficulties all must -overcome, respects the others’ ability and attainments. - -Consequently we do not find among them two distinctly divergent -schools of adherents, one composed of the biplanists, the other of the -monoplanists. Nor are the two types of machines separated in this book -for any other purpose than to secure a clearer understanding of what -is being achieved by all types in the progress toward the one common -goal--the flight of man. - -The distinctive feature of the monoplane is that it has but one main -plane, or spread of surface, as contrasted with the two planes, one -above the other, of the biplane. Besides the main plane, it has a -secondary plane in the rear, called the tail. The office of this tail -is primarily to secure longitudinal, or fore-and-aft, balance; but -the secondary plane has been so constructed that it is movable on a -horizontal axis, and is used to steer the machine upward or downward. -While most of the biplanes now have a horizontal tail-plane, they were -not at first so provided, but carried the secondary plane (or planes) -in front of the main planes. Even in the latest type brought out by the -conservative Wright brothers, the former large-surfaced elevator in -front has been removed, and a much smaller tail-plane has been added in -the rear, performing the same function of steering the machine up or -down, but also providing the fore-and-aft stabilizing feature formerly -peculiar to the monoplane. Another feature heretofore distinctively -belonging to the monoplane has been adopted by some of the newer -biplanes, that of the traction propeller--pulling the machine behind it -through the air, instead of pushing it along by a thrusting propeller -placed behind the main planes. - -The continual multiplication of new forms of the monoplane makes it -possible to notice only those which exhibit the wider differences. - - -THE BLERIOT MONOPLANE. - -The Bleriot monoplane has the distinction of being the first wholly -successful flying machine. Although the Wright machine was making -flights years before the Bleriot had been built, it was still dependent -upon a starting device to enable it to leave the ground. That is, the -Wright machine was not complete in itself, and was entirely helpless -at even a short distance from its starting tower, rail, and car, which -it was unable to carry along. Because of its completeness, M. Bleriot -was able to drive his machine from Toury to Artenay, France (a distance -of 8¾ miles) on October 31, 1908, make a landing, start on the return -trip, make a second landing, and again continue his journey back to -Toury, all under his own unassisted power. This feat was impossible to -the Wright machine as it was then constructed, thus leaving the Bleriot -monoplane in undisputed pre-eminence in the history of aviation. - -[Illustration: A Bleriot monoplane, “No. XI,” in flight.] - -At a little distance, where the details of construction are not -visible, the Bleriot machine has the appearance of a gigantic bird. The -sustaining surface, consisting of a single plane, is divided into two -wings made of a stiff parchment-like material, mounted one on each side -of a framework of the body, which is built of mahogany and whitewood -trussed with diagonal ties of steel wire. - -The main plane has a lateral spread of 28 feet and a depth of 6 feet, -and is rounded at the ends. It has an area of about 150 square feet, -and is slightly concave on the under side. The tail-plane is 6 feet -long and 2 feet 8 inches in depth; at its ends are the elevators, -consisting of pivoted wing tips each about 2 feet 6 inches square -with rounded extremities. The rudder for steering to left or right -is mounted at the extreme rear end of the body, and has an area of 9 -square feet. - -[Illustration: The Bleriot “No. XII.,” showing new form of tail, and -the complete encasing with fabric.] - -The body is framed nearly square in front and tapers to a wedge-like -edge at the rear. It extends far enough in front of the main plane to -give room for the motor and propeller. The seat for the pilot is on a -line with the rear edge of the main plane, and above it. The forward -part of the body is enclosed with fabric. - -[Illustration: Forward chassis of Bleriot monoplane, showing caster -mounting of wheels. The framing of the body is shown by the dotted -lines.] - -The machine is mounted on three wheels attached to the body: two at -the front, with a powerful spring suspension and pivoted like a caster, -and the other rigidly at a point just forward of the rudders. - -The lateral balance is restored by warping the tips of the main plane; -if necessary, the elevator tips at the rear may be operated to assist -in this. All the controls are actuated by a single lever and a drum to -which the several wires are attached. - -[Illustration: - - Diagram of Bleriot “No. XI.,” from the rear. _A_, _A_, main - plane; _B_, tail; _C_, body; _D_, _D_, wing tips of tail; _E_, - rudder; _H_, propeller; _M_, motor; _O_, axis of wing tips; _R_, - radiator; _a_, _a_, _b_, _b_, spars of wings; _h_, _h_, guy - wires; _p_, _k_, truss.] - -The motors used on the Bleriot machines have varied in type and power. -In the “No. XI.,” with which M. Bleriot crossed the English Channel, -the motor was a 3-cylinder Anzani engine, developing 24 horse-power at -1,200 revolutions per minute. The propeller was of wood, 2-bladed, and -6 feet 9 inches in diameter. It was mounted directly on the shaft, and -revolved at the same speed, giving the machine a velocity of 37 miles -per hour. This model has also been fitted with a 30 horse-power R-E-P -(R. Esnault-Pelterie) motor, having 7 cylinders. The heavier type “No. -XII.” has been fitted with the 50 horse-power Antoinette 8-cylinder -engine, or the 7-cylinder rotating Gnome engine, also of 50 horse-power. - -[Illustration: Sketches showing relative size, construction, and -position of pilot in the Bleriot machines; “No. XI.” (the upper), and -“No. XII.” (the lower).] - -The total weight of the “No. XI.” monoplane is 462 pounds, without the -pilot. - - -THE ANTOINETTE MONOPLANE. - -The Antoinette is the largest and heaviest of the monoplanes. It -was designed by M. Levavasseur, and has proved to be one of the -most remarkable of the aeroplanes by its performances under adverse -conditions; notably, the flight of Hubert Latham in a gale of 40 miles -per hour at Blackpool in October, 1909. - -The Antoinette has a spread of 46 feet, the surface being disposed -in two wings set at a dihedral angle; that is, the outer ends of the -wings incline upward from their level at the body, so that at the front -they present the appearance of a very wide open “V.” These wings are -trapezoidal in form, with the wider base attached to the body, where -they are 10 feet in depth (fore and aft). They are 7 feet in depth at -the tips, and have a total combined area of 377 square feet. The great -depth of the wings requires that they be made proportionally thick to -be strong enough to hold their form. Two trussed spars are used in each -wing, with a short mast on each, half-way to the tip, reaching below -the wing as well as above it. To these are fastened guy wires, making -each wing an independent truss. A mast on the body gives attachment -for guys which bind the whole into a light and rigid construction. The -framework of the wings is covered on both sides with varnished fabric. - -[Illustration: The Antoinette monoplane in flight.] - -The body is of triangular section. It is a long girder; at the front, -in the form of a pyramid, expanding to a prism at the wings, and -tapering toward the tail. It is completely covered with the fabric, -which is given several coats of varnish to secure the minimum of skin -friction. - -[Illustration: Diagram showing construction of the Antoinette -monoplane.] - -The tail is 13 feet long and 9 feet wide, in the form of a -diamond-shaped kite. The rear part of it is hinged to be operated as -the elevator. There is a vertical stabilizing fin set at right angles -to the rigid part of the tail. The rudder for steering to right or -left is in two triangular sections, one above and the other below the -tail-plane. The entire length of the machine is 40 feet, and its weight -is 1,045 pounds. - -It is fitted with a motor of the “V” type, having 8 cylinders, and -turning a 2-bladed steel propeller 1,100 revolutions per minute, -developing from 50 to 55 horse-power. - -The control of the lateral balance is by ailerons attached to the rear -edges of the wings at their outer ends. These are hinged, and may be -raised as well as lowered as occasion demands, working in opposite -directions, and thus doubling the effect of similar ailerons on the -Farman machine, which can only be pulled downward. - -The machine is mounted on two wheels under the centre of the main -plane, with a flexible wood skid projecting forward. Another skid is -set under the tail. - -It is claimed for the Antoinette machine that its inherent stability -makes it one of the easiest of all for the beginner in aviation. With -as few as five lessons many pupils have become qualified pilots, even -winning prizes against competitors of much wider experience. - -[Illustration: Diagrams showing comparative size and position of -surfaces and structure of the Bleriot (left) and Antoinette (right) -monoplanes.] - - -THE SANTOS-DUMONT MONOPLANE. - -This little machine may be called the “runabout” of the aeroplanes. It -has a spread of only 18 feet, and is but 20 feet in total length. Its -weight is about 245 pounds. - -The main plane is divided into two wings, which are set at the body -at a dihedral angle, but curve downward toward the tips, forming an -arch. The depth of the wings at the tips is 6 feet. For a space on each -side of the centre they are cut away to 5 feet in depth, to allow the -propeller to be set within their forward edge. The total area of the -main plane is 110 square feet. - -The tail-plane is composed of a vertical surface and a horizontal -surface intersecting. It is arranged so that it may be tilted up or -down to serve as an elevator, or from side to side as a rudder. Its -horizontal surface has an area of about 12 square feet. - -The engine is placed above the main plane and the pilot’s seat below -it. The body is triangular in section, with the apex uppermost, -composed of three strong bamboo poles with cross-pieces held in place -by aluminum sockets, and cross braced with piano wire. - -[Illustration: Santos-Dumont’s _La Demoiselle_ in flight.] - -The motor is of the opposed type, made by Darracq, weighing only 66 -pounds, and developing 30 horse-power at 1,500 revolutions per minute. -The propeller is of wood, 2-bladed, and being mounted directly on the -shaft of the motor, revolves at the same velocity. The speed of the -Santos-Dumont machine is 37 miles per hour. - -[Illustration: The Darracq motor and propeller of the Santos-Dumont -machine. The conical tank in the rear of the pilot’s seat holds the -gasoline.] - -The lateral balance is preserved by a lever which extends upward and -enters a long pocket sewed on the back of the pilot’s coat. His leaning -from side to side warps the rear edges of the wings at their tips. The -elevator is moved by a lever, and the rudder by turning a wheel. - -While this machine has not made any extended flights, Santos-Dumont has -travelled in the aggregate upward of 2,000 miles in one or another of -this type. - -The plans, with full permission to any one to build from them, he gave -to the public as his contribution to the advancement of aviation. -Several manufacturers are supplying them at a cost much below that of -an automobile. - -[Illustration: Sketch showing position of pilot in Santos-Dumont -machine. _A_, main plane; _B_, tail plane; _C_, motor.] - - -THE R-E-P MONOPLANE. - -The Robert Esnault-Pelterie (abbreviated by its inventor to R-E-P) -monoplane, viewed from above, bears a striking resemblance to a bird -with a fan-shaped tail. It is much shorter in proportion to its spread -than any other monoplane, and the body being entirely covered with -fabric, it has quite a distinct appearance. - -The plane is divided into two wings, in form very much like the wings -of the Antoinette machine. Their spread, however, is but 35 feet. Their -depth at the body is 8 feet 6 inches, and at the tips, 5 feet. Their -total combined area is 226 square feet. - -The body of the R-E-P machine has much the appearance of a boat, being -wide at the top and coming to a sharp keel below. The boat-like prow in -front adds to this resemblance. As the body is encased in fabric, these -surfaces aid in maintaining vertical stability. - -A large stabilizing fin extends from the pilot’s seat to the tail. The -tail is comparatively large, having an area of 64 square feet. Its rear -edge may be raised or lowered to serve as an elevator. The rudder for -steering to right or left is set below in the line of the body, as in a -boat. It is peculiar in that it is of the “compensated” type; that is, -pivoted near the middle of its length, instead of at the forward end. - -The control of the lateral balance is through warping the wings. This -is by means of a lever at the left hand of the pilot, with a motion -from side to side. The same lever moved forward or backward controls -the elevator. The steering lever is in front of the pilot’s seat, and -moves to right or to left. - -[Illustration: Elevation, showing large stabilizing fin; boat-like body -encased in fabric; and compensated rudder, pivoted at the rear end of -the fin.] - -[Illustration: Plan, showing comparative spread of surfaces, and the -attachment of wheels at the wing tips. - -Graphic sketch showing elevation and plan of the R-E-P monoplane.] - -The motor is an invention of M. Esnault-Pelterie, and may be of 5, 7, -or 10 cylinders, according to the power desired. The cylinders are -arranged in two ranks, one in the rear of the other, radiating outward -from the shaft like spokes in a wheel. The propeller is of steel, -4-bladed, and revolves at 1,400 revolutions per minute, developing 35 -horse-power, and drawing the machine through the air at a speed of 47 -miles per hour. - - -THE HANRIOT MONOPLANE. - -Among the more familiar machines which have been contesting for records -at the various European meets during the season of 1910, the Hanriot -monoplane earned notice for itself and its two pilots, one of them the -fifteen-year-old son of the inventor. At Budapest the Hanriot machine -carried off the honors of the occasion with a total of 106 points for -“best performances,” as against 84 points for the Antoinette, and 77 -points for the Farman biplane. A description of its unusual features -will be of interest by way of comparison. - -In general appearance it is a cross between the Bleriot and the -Antoinette, the wings being shaped more like the latter, but rounded -at the rear of the tips like the Bleriot. Its chief peculiarity is in -the body of the machine, which is in form very similar to a racing -shell--of course with alterations to suit the requirements of the -aeroplane. Its forward part is of thin mahogany, fastened upon ash -ribs, with a steel plate covering the prow. The rear part of the -machine is covered simply with fabric. - -The spread of the plane is 24 feet 7 inches, and it has an area of 170 -square feet. The length of the machine, fore-and-aft, is 23 feet. Its -weight is 463 pounds. It is mounted on a chassis having both wheels -and skids, somewhat like that of the Farman running gear, but with two -wheels instead of four. - -The Hanriot machine is sturdily built all the way through, and has -endured without damage some serious falls and collisions which would -have wrecked another machine. - -It is fitted either with a Darracq or a Clerget motor, and speeds at -about 44 miles per hour. - - -THE PFITZNER MONOPLANE. - -The Pfitzner monoplane has the distinction of being the first American -machine of the single-plane type. It was designed and flown by the -late Lieut. A. L. Pfitzner, and, though meeting with many mishaps, has -proved itself worthy of notice by its performances, through making use -of an entirely new device for lateral stability. This is the sliding -wing tip, by which the wing that tends to fall from its proper level -may be lengthened by 15 inches, the other wing being shortened as much -at the same time. - -There is no longitudinal structure, as in the other monoplanes, the -construction being transverse and built upon four masts set in the -form of a square, 6 feet apart, about the centre. These are braced by -diagonal struts, and tied with wires on the edges of the squares. They -also support the guys reaching out to the tips of the wings. - -[Illustration: The Pfitzner monoplane from the rear, showing the -sliding wing tips; dihedral angle of the wings; square body; and -transverse trussed construction.] - -The plane proper is 31 feet in spread, to which the wing tips add 2½ -feet, and is 6 feet deep, giving a total area of 200 square feet. A -light framework extending 10 feet in the rear carries a tail-plane 6 -feet in spread and 2 feet in depth. Both the elevator and the rudder -planes are carried on a similar framework, 14 feet in front of the main -plane. - -[Illustration: The Pfitzner monoplane, showing the structure of the -body; the two conical gasoline tanks above; the propeller in the rear. -Lieutenant Pfitzner at the wheel.] - -The wings of the main plane incline upward from the centre toward the -tips, and are trussed by vertical struts and diagonal ties. - -The motor is placed in the rear of the plane, instead of in front, as -in all other monoplanes. It is a 4-cylinder Curtiss motor, turning a -6-foot propeller at 1,200 revolutions per minute, and developing 25 -horse-power. - -The Pfitzner machine has proved very speedy, and has made some -remarkably sharp turns on an even keel. - - -OTHER MONOPLANES. - -Several machines of the monoplane type have been produced, having some -feature distinct from existing forms. While all of these have flown -successfully, few of them have made any effort to be classed among the -contestants for honors at the various meets. - -One of these, the Fairchild monoplane, shows resemblances to the R-E-P, -the Antoinette, and the Bleriot machines, but differs from them all -in having two propellers instead of one; and these revolve in the -same direction, instead of in contrary directions, as do those of all -other aeroplanes so equipped. The inventor claims that there is little -perceptible gyroscopic effect with a single propeller, and even less -with two. The propeller shafts are on the level of the plane, but the -motor is set about 5 feet below, connections being made by a chain -drive. - -[Illustration: The Beach type of the Antoinette, an American -modification of the French machine, at the Boston Exhibition, 1910.] - -The Burlingame monoplane has several peculiarities. Its main plane is -divided into two wings, each 10 feet in spread and 5 feet in depth, -and set 18 inches apart at the body. They are perfectly rigid. The -tail is in two sections, each 4 feet by 5 feet, and set with a gap of -6 feet between the sections, in which the rudder is placed. Thus the -spread of the tail from tip to tip is 16 feet, as compared with the 21½ -foot spread of the main plane. The sections of the tail are operated -independently, and are made to serve as ailerons to control the lateral -balance, and also as the elevator. - -The Cromley monoplane, another American machine, is modelled after the -Santos-Dumont _Demoiselle_. It has a main plane divided into two wings, -each 9 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, with a gap of 2 feet between at the -body; the total area being 117 square feet. At the rear of the outer -ends are hinged ailerons, like those of the Farman biplane, to control -the lateral balance. The tail is 12 feet in the rear, and is of the -“box” type, with two horizontal surfaces and two vertical surfaces. -This is mounted with a universal joint, so that it can be moved in any -desired direction. The complete structure, without the motor, weighs -but 60 pounds. - -The Chauviere monoplane is distinct in having a rigid spar for the -front of the plane, but no ribs. The surface is allowed to spread out -as a sail and take form from the wind passing beneath. The rear edges -may be pulled down at will to control the lateral balance. It is driven -by twin screws set far back on the body, nearly to the tail. - -[Illustration: - - The Morok monoplane at the Boston Exhibition. It has the body of - the Bleriot, the wings of the Santos-Dumont, and the sliding wing - tips of the Pfitzner.] - -The smallest and lightest monoplane in practical use is that of M. -Raoul Vendome. It is but 16 feet in spread, and is 16 feet fore and -aft. It is equipped with a 12 horse-power motor, and flies at a speed -of nearly 60 miles per hour. Without the pilot, its entire weight is -but 180 pounds. The wings are pivoted so that their whole structure may -be tilted to secure lateral balance. - -The new Moisant monoplane is built wholly of metal. The structure -throughout is of steel, and the surfaces of sheet aluminum in a -succession of small arches from the centre to the tips. No authentic -reports of its performances are available. - -In the Tatin monoplane, also called the Bayard-Clement, the main plane -is oval in outline, and the tail a smaller oval. The surfaces are -curved upward toward the tips for nearly half their length in both -the main plane and the tail. The propeller is 8½ feet in diameter, -and is turned by a Clerget motor, which can be made to develop 60 -horse-power for starting the machine into the air, and then cut down to -30 horse-power to maintain the flight. - - - - -Chapter VII. - -FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS. - - The triplane--The quadruplane--The multiplane--Helicopters--Their - principle--Obstacles to be overcome--The Cornu helicopter--The - Leger helicopter--The Davidson gyropter--The Breguet - gyroplane--The de la Hault ornithopter--The Bell - tetrahedrons--The Russ flyer. - - -While the efforts of inventors have been principally along the lines -of the successful monoplanes and biplanes, genius and energy have also -been active in other directions. Some of these other designs are not -much more than variations from prevailing types, however. - -Among these is the English Roe triplane, which is but a biplane -with an extra plane added; the depths of all being reduced to give -approximately the same surface as the biplane of the same carrying -power. The tail is also of the triplane type, and has a combined area -of 160 square feet--just half that of the main planes. The triplane -type has long been familiar to Americans in the three-decker glider -used extensively by Octave Chanute in his long series of experiments -at Chicago. - -[Illustration: The Roe triplane in flight.] - -The quadruplane of Colonel Baden-Powell, also an English type, is -practically the biplane with unusually large forward and tail planes. - -The multiplane of Sir Hiram Maxim should also be remembered, although -he never permitted it to have free flight. His new multiplane, modelled -after the former one, but equipped with an improved gasoline motor -instead of the heavy steam-engine of the first model, will doubtless be -put to a practical test when experiments with it are completed. - -[Illustration: Sir Hiram Maxim standing beside his huge multiplane.] - -Quite apart from these variants of the aeroplanes are the helicopters, -ornithopters, gyropters, gyroplanes, and tetrahedral machines. - - -HELICOPTERS. - -The result aimed at in the helicopter is the ability to rise vertically -from the starting point, instead of first running along the ground -for from 100 to 300 feet before sufficient speed to rise is attained, -as the aeroplanes do. The device employed to accomplish this result is -a propeller, or propellers, revolving horizontally above the machine. -After the desired altitude is gained it is proposed to travel in any -direction by changing the plane in which the propellers revolve to one -having a small angle with the horizon. - -[Illustration: - - The force necessary to keep the aeroplane moving in its - horizontal path is the same as that required to move the - automobile of equal weight up the same gradient--much less than - its total weight.] - -The great difficulty encountered with this type of machine is that the -propellers must lift the entire weight. In the case of the aeroplane, -the power of the engine is used to slide the plane up an incline of -air, and for this much less power is required. For instance, the weight -of a Curtiss biplane with the pilot on board is about 700 pounds, -and this weight is easily slid up an inclined plane of air with a -propeller thrust of about 240 pounds. - -Another difficulty is that the helicopter screws, in running at the -start before they can attain speed sufficient to lift their load, have -established downward currents of air with great velocity, in which the -screws must run with much less efficiency. With the aeroplanes, on the -contrary, their running gear enables them to run forward on the ground -almost with the first revolution of the propeller, and as they increase -their speed the currents--technically called the “slip”--become less -and less as the engine speed increases. - -In the Cornu helicopter, which perhaps has come nearer to successful -flight than any other, these downward currents are checked by -interposing planes below, set at an angle determined by the operator. -The glancing of the currents of air from the planes is expected to -drive the helicopter horizontally through the air. At the same time -these planes offer a large degree of resistance, and the engine power -must be still further increased to overcome this, while preserving the -lift of the entire weight. With an 8-cylinder Antoinette motor, said -to be but 24 horse-power, turning two 20-foot propellers, the machine -is reported as lifting itself and two persons--a total weight of 723 -pounds--to a height of 5 feet, and sustaining itself for 1 minute. Upon -the interposing of the planes to produce the horizontal motion the -machine came immediately to the ground. - -[Illustration: Diagram showing principle of the Cornu helicopter. _P_, -_P_, propelling planes. The arrow shows direction of travel with planes -at angle shown.] - -This performance must necessarily be compared with that of the -aeroplanes, as, for instance, the Wright machine, which, with a 25 to -30 horse-power motor operating two 8-foot propellers, raises a weight -of 1,050 pounds and propels it at a speed of 40 miles an hour for -upward of 2 hours. - -Another form of helicopter is the Leger machine, so named after its -French inventor. It has two propellers which revolve on the same -vertical axis, the shaft of one being tubular, encasing that of the -other. By suitable gearing this vertical shaft may be inclined after -the machine is in the air in the direction in which it is desired to -travel. - -[Illustration: The Vitton-Huber helicopter at the Paris aeronautical -salon in 1909. It has the double concentric axis of the Leger -helicopter and the propelling planes of the Cornu machine.] - -The gyropter differs from the Cornu type of helicopter in degree rather -than in kind. In the Scotch machine, known as the Davidson gyropter, -the propellers have the form of immense umbrellas made up of curving -slats. The frame of the structure has the shape of a T, one of the -gyropters being attached to each of the arms of the T. The axes upon -which the gyropters revolve may be inclined so that their power may be -exerted to draw the apparatus along in a horizontal direction after it -has been raised to the desired altitude. - -The gyropters of the Davidson machine are 28 feet in diameter, the -entire structure being 67 feet long, and weighing 3 tons. It has been -calculated that with the proposed pair of 50 horse-power engines the -gyropters will lift 5 tons. Upon a trial with a 10 horse-power motor -connected to one of the gyropters, that end of the apparatus was lifted -from the ground at 55 revolutions per minute--the boiler pressure being -800 lbs. to the square inch, at which pressure it burst, wrecking the -machine. - -An example of the gyroplane is the French Breguet apparatus, a blend of -the aeroplane and the helicopter. It combines the fixed wing-planes of -the one with the revolving vanes of the other. The revolving surfaces -have an area of 82 square feet, and the fixed surfaces 376 square feet. -The total weight of machine and operator is about 1,350 lbs. Fitted -with a 40 horse-power motor, it rose freely into the air. - -The ornithopter, or flapping-wing type of flying machine, though the -object of experiment and research for years, must still be regarded as -unsuccessful. The apparatus of M. de la Hault may be taken as typical -of the best effort in that line, and it is yet in the experimental -stage. The throbbing beat of the mechanism, in imitation of the bird’s -wings, has always proved disastrous to the structure before sufficient -power was developed to lift the apparatus. - -The most prominent exponent of the tetrahedral type--that made up of -numbers of small cells set one upon another--is the _Cygnet_ of Dr. -Alexander Graham Bell, which perhaps is more a kite than a true flying -machine. The first _Cygnet_ had 3,000 cells, and lifted its pilot to a -height of 176 feet. The _Cygnet II_. has 5,000 tetrahedral cells, and -is propelled by a 50 horse-power motor. It has yet to make its record. - -One of the most recently devised machines is that known as the Fritz -Russ flyer. It has two wings, each in the form of half a cylinder, the -convex curve upward. It is driven by two immense helical screws, or -spirals, set within the semi-cylinders. No details of its performances -are obtainable. - - - - -Chapter VIII. - -FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. - - Instinctive balance--When the motor skips--Progressive - experience--Plum Island School methods--Lilienthal’s - conclusions--The Curtiss mechanism and controls--Speed - records--Cross-country flying--Landing--Essential - qualifications--Ground practice--Future relief. - - -Any one who has learned to ride a bicycle will recall the great -difficulty at first experienced to preserve equilibrium. But once the -knack was gained, how simple the matter seemed! Balancing became a -second nature, which came into play instinctively, without conscious -thought or effort. On smooth roads it was not even necessary to grasp -the handle-bars. The swaying of the body was sufficient to guide the -machine in the desired direction. - -Much of this experience is paralleled by that of the would-be aviator. -First, he must acquire the art of balancing himself and his machine in -the air without conscious effort. Unfortunately, this is even harder -than in the case of the bicycle. The cases would be more nearly alike -if the road beneath and ahead of the bicyclist were heaving and falling -as in an earthquake, with no light to guide him; for the air currents -on which the aviator must ride are in constant and irregular motion, -and are as wholly invisible to him as would be the road at night to the -rider of the wheel. - -And there are other things to distract the attention of the pilot of an -aeroplane--notably the roar of the propeller, and the rush of wind in -his face, comparable only to the ceaseless and breath-taking force of -the hurricane. - -The well-known aviator, Charles K. Hamilton, says:--“So far as the air -currents are concerned, I rely entirely on instinctive action; but my -ear is always on the alert. The danger signal of the aviator is when -he hears his motor miss an explosion. Then he knows that trouble is -in store. Sometimes he can speed up his engine, just as an automobile -driver does, and get it to renew its normal action. But if he fails -in this, and the motor stops, he must dip his deflecting planes, and -try to negotiate a landing in open country. Sometimes there is no -preliminary warning from the motor that it is going to cease working. -That is the time when the aviator must be prepared to act quickly. -Unless the deflecting planes are manipulated instantly, aviator and -aeroplane will rapidly land a tangled mass on the ground.” - -[Illustration: Result of a failure to deflect the planes quickly enough -when the engine stopped. The operator fortunately escaped with but a -few bruises.] - -At the same time, Mr. Hamilton says: “Driving an aeroplane at a speed -of 120 miles an hour is not nearly so difficult a task as driving an -automobile 60 miles an hour. In running an automobile at high speed -the driver must be on the job every second. Nothing but untiring -vigilance can protect him from danger. There are turns in the road, bad -stretches of pavement, and other like difficulties, and he can never -tell at what moment he is to encounter some vehicle, perhaps travelling -in the opposite direction. But with an aeroplane it is a different -proposition. Once a man becomes accustomed to aeroplaning, it is a -matter of unconscious attention.... He has no obstacles to encounter -except cross-currents of air. Air and wind are much quicker than a man -can think and put his thought into action. Unless experience has taught -the aviator to maintain his equilibrium instinctively, he is sure to -come to grief.” - -The Wright brothers spent years in learning the art of balancing in -the air before they appeared in public as aviators. And their method -of teaching pupils is evidence that they believe the only road to -successful aviation is through progressive experience, leading up from -the use of gliders for short flights to the actual machines with motors -only after one has become an instinctive equilibrist. - -At the Plum Island school of the Herring-Burgess Company the learner is -compelled to begin at the beginning and work the thing out for himself. -He is placed in a glider which rests on the ground. The glider is -locked down by a catch which may be released by pulling a string. To -the front end of the glider is attached a long elastic which may be -stretched more or less, according to the pull desired. The beginner -starts with the elastic stretched but a little. When all is ready he -pulls the catch free, and is thrown forward for a few feet. As practice -gains for him better control, he makes a longer flight; and when he -can show a perfect mastery of his craft for a flight of 300 feet, and -not till then, he is permitted to begin practice with a motor-driven -machine. - -[Illustration: A French apparatus for instructing pupils in aviation.] - -The lamented Otto Lilienthal, whose experience in more than 2,000 -flights gives his instructions unquestionable weight, urges that the -“gradual development of flight should begin with the simplest apparatus -and movements, and without the complication of dynamic means. With -simple wing surfaces ... man can carry out limited flights ... by -gliding through the air from elevated points in paths more or less -descending. The peculiarities of wind effects can best be learned by -such exercises.... The maintenance of equilibrium in forward flight -is a matter of practice, and can be learned only by repeated personal -experiment.... Actual practice in individual flight presents the best -prospects for developing our capacity until it leads to perfected free -flight.” - -The essential importance of thorough preparation in the school of -experience could scarcely be made plainer or stronger. If it seems that -undue emphasis has been laid upon this point, the explanation must be -found in the deplorable death record among aviators from accidents in -the air. With few exceptions, the cause of accident has been reported -as, “The aviator seemed to lose control of his machine.” If this is -the case with professional flyers, the need for thorough preliminary -training cannot be too strongly insisted upon. - -Having attained the art of balancing, the aviator has to learn -the mechanism by which he may control his machine. While all of -the principal machines are but different embodiments of the same -principles, there is a diversity of design in the arrangement of the -means of control. We shall describe that of the Curtiss biplane, as -largely typical of them all. - -In general, the biplane consists of two large sustaining planes, one -above the other. Between the planes is the motor which operates a -propeller located in the rear of the planes. Projecting behind the -planes, and held by a framework of bamboo rods, is a small horizontal -plane, called the tail. The rudder which guides the aeroplane to the -right or the left is partially bisected by the tail. This rudder is -worked by wires which run to a steering wheel located in front of -the pilot’s seat. This wheel is similar in size and appearance to -the steering wheel of an automobile, and is used in the same way for -guiding the aeroplane to the right or left. (See illustration of the -Curtiss machine in Chapter V.) - -In front of the planes, supported on a shorter projecting framework, -is the altitude rudder, a pair of planes hinged horizontally, so that -their front edges may tip up or down. When they tilt up, the air -through which the machine is passing catches on the under sides and -lifts them up, thus elevating the front of the whole aeroplane and -causing it to glide upward. The opposite action takes place when these -altitude planes are tilted downward. This altitude rudder is controlled -by a long rod which runs to the steering wheel. By pushing on the wheel -the rod is shoved forward and turns the altitude planes upward. Pulling -the wheel turns the rudder planes downward. This rod has a backward and -forward thrust of over two feet, but the usual movement in ordinary -wind currents is rarely more than an inch. In climbing to high levels -or swooping down rapidly the extreme play of the rod is about four or -five inches. - -Thus the steering wheel controls both the horizontal and vertical -movements of the aeroplane. More than this, it is a feeler to the -aviator, warning him of the condition of the air currents, and for -this reason must not be grasped too firmly. It is to be held steady, -yet loosely enough to transmit any wavering force in the air to the -sensitive touch of the pilot, enabling him instinctively to rise or dip -as the current compels. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy N. Y. Times._ - - View of the centre of the new Wright machine, showing method of - operating. Archibald Hoxsey in the pilot’s seat. In his right - hand he holds a lever with two handles, one operating the warping - of the wing tips, and the other the rudder. Both handles may be - grasped at once, operating both rudder and wing tips at the same - moment. In his left hand Hoxsey grasps the lever operating the - elevating plane--at the rear in this type. The passenger’s seat - is shown at the pilot’s right.] - -The preserving of an even keel is accomplished in the Curtiss machine -by small planes hinged between the main planes at the outer ends. -They serve to prevent the machine from tipping over sideways. They -are operated by arms, projecting from the back of the aviator’s seat, -which embrace his shoulders on each side, and are moved by the swaying -of his body. In a measure, they are automatic in action, for when the -aeroplane sags downward on one side, the pilot naturally leans the -other way to preserve his balance, and that motion swings the ailerons -(as these small stabilizing planes are called) in such a way that the -pressure of the wind restores the aeroplane to an even keel. The wires -which connect them with the back of the seat are so arranged that when -one aileron is being pulled down at its rear edge the rear of the -other one is being raised, thus doubling the effect. As the machine is -righted the aviator comes back to an upright position, and the ailerons -become level once more. - -[Illustration: Starting a Wright machine. When the word is given both -assistants pull vigorously downward on the propeller blades.] - -There are other controls which the pilot must operate consciously. -In the Curtiss machine these are levers moved by the feet. With a -pressure of the right foot he short-circuits the magneto, thus cutting -off the spark in the engine cylinders and stopping the motor. This -lever also puts a brake on the forward landing wheels, and checks the -speed of the machine as it touches the ground. The right foot also -controls the pump which forces the lubricating oil faster or slower to -the points where it is needed. - -The left foot operates the lever which controls the throttle by which -the aviator can regulate the flow of gas to the engine cylinders. The -average speed of the 7-foot propeller is 1,100 revolutions per minute. -With the throttle it may be cut down to 100 revolutions per minute, -which is not fast enough to keep afloat, but will help along when -gliding. - -Obviously, travelling with the wind enables the aviator to make his -best speed records, for the speed of the wind is added to that of his -machine through the air. Again, since the wind is always slower near -the ground, the aviator making a speed record will climb up to a level -where the surface currents no longer affect his machine. But over hilly -and wooded country the air is often flowing or rushing in conflicting -channels, and the aviator does not know what he may be called upon to -face from one moment to the next. If the aeroplane starts to drop, it -is only necessary to push the steering wheel forward a little--perhaps -half an inch--to bring it up again. Usually, the machine will drop -on an even keel. Then, in addition to the motion just described, the -aviator will lean toward the higher side, thus moving the ailerons by -the seat-back, and at the same time he will turn the steering wheel -toward the lower side. This movement of the seat-back is rarely more -than 2 inches. - -[Illustration: - - Diagram showing action of wind on flight of aeroplane. The force - and direction of the wind being represented by the line _A B_, - and the propelling force and steered direction being _A C_, the - actual path travelled will be _A D_.] - -In flying across country a sharp lookout is kept on the land below. If -it be of a character unfit for landing, as woods, or thickly settled -towns, the aviator must keep high up in the air, lest his engine stop -and he be compelled to glide to the earth. A machine will glide forward -3 feet for each foot that it drops, if skilfully handled. If he is up -200 feet, he will have to find a landing ground within 600 feet. If -he is up 500 feet, he may choose his alighting ground anywhere within -1,500 feet. Over a city like New York, a less altitude than 1,500 feet -would hardly be safe, if a glide became necessary. - -Mr. Clifford B. Harmon, who was an aeronaut of distinction before he -became an aviator, under the instruction of Paulhan, has this to say: -“It is like riding a bicycle, or running an automobile. You have to try -it alone to really learn how. When one first handles a flying machine -it is advisable to keep on the ground, just rolling along. This is a -harder mental trial than you will imagine. As soon as one is seated in -a flying machine he wishes to fly. It is almost impossible to submit to -staying near the earth. But until the manipulation of the levers and -the steering gear has become second nature, this must be done. It is -best to go very slow in the beginning. Skipping along the ground will -teach a driver much. When one first gets up in the air it is necessary -to keep far from all obstacles, like buildings, trees, or crowds. There -is the same tendency to run into them that an amateur bicycle rider -has in regard to stones and ruts on the ground. When he keeps his eye -on them and tries with all his might to steer clear of them, he runs -right into them.” - -[Illustration: Practicing with a monoplane, 20 feet above the ground.] - -When asked what he regarded the fundamental requirements in an aviator, -Mr. Harmon said: “First, he must be muscularly strong; so that he -will not tire. Second, he should have a thorough understanding of the -mechanism of the machine he drives. Third, mental poise--the ability to -think quick and to act instantly upon your thought. Fourth, a feeling -of confidence in the air, so that he will not feel strange or out of -place. This familiarity with the air can be best obtained by first -being a passenger in a balloon, then by controlling one alone, and -lastly going up in a flying machine.” - -[Illustration: Grahame-White on his Bleriot No. XII. The lever in front -of him operates all the controls through the movement of the drum at -its base.] - -Mr. Claude Grahame-White, the noted English aviator, has this to say of -his first experience with his big “No. XII.” Bleriot monoplane--which -differs in many important features from the “No. XI.” machine in which -M. Bleriot crossed the English Channel: “After several disappointments, -I eventually obtained the delivery of my machine in working order.... -As I had gathered a good deal of information from watching the antics -and profiting by the errors made by other beginners on Bleriot -monoplanes, I had a good idea of what _not_ to do when the engine -was started up and we were ready for our first trial.... It was a -cold morning, but the engine started up at the first quarter turn. -After many warnings from M. Bleriot’s foreman not on any account to -accelerate my engine too much, I mounted the machine along with my -friend as passenger, and immediately gave the word to let go, and we -were soon speeding along the ground at a good sixty kilometers (about -37 miles) per hour.... Being very anxious to see whether the machine -would lift off the ground, I gave a slight jerk to the elevating -plane, and soon felt the machine rise into the air; but remembering -the warnings of the foreman, and being anxious not to risk breaking -the machine, I closed the throttle and contented myself with running -around on the ground to familiarize myself with the handling of the -machine.... The next day we got down to Issy about five o’clock in -the morning, some two hours before the Bleriot mechanics turned up. -However, we got the machine out, and tied it to some railings, and then -I had my first experience of starting an engine, which to a novice -at first sight appears a most hazardous undertaking; for unless the -machine is either firmly held by several men, or is strongly tied up, -it has a tendency to immediately leap forward. We successfully started -the engine, and then rigged up a leash, and when we had mounted the -machine, we let go; and before eight o’clock we had accomplished -several very successful flights, both with and against the wind. These -experiences we continued throughout the day, and by nightfall I felt -quite capable of an extended flight, if only the ground had been large -enough.... The following day M. Bleriot returned, and he sent for me -and strongly urged me not to use the aeroplane any more at Issy, as he -said the ground was far too small for such a powerful machine.” - -[Illustration: - - Diagram of Bleriot monoplane, showing controlling lever _L_ - and bell-shaped drum _C_, to which all controlling wires are - attached. When the bell is rocked back and forward the elevator - tips on the rear plane are moved; rocking from side to side moves - the stabilizing tips of the main plane. Turning the bell around - moves the rudder.] - -[Illustration: - - The Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum, devised to secure automatic - stability of aeroplanes. The wheels are driven by the aeroplane - motor at high speed. The pendulum rod is extended upward above - the axis and carries a vane which is engaged by any gust of wind - from either side of the aeroplane, tending to tilt the pendulum, - and bringing its gyroscopic resistance into play to warp the - wings, or operate ailerons.] - -The caution shown by these experienced aviators cannot be too closely -followed by a novice. These men do not say that their assiduous -practice on the ground was the fruit of timidity. On the contrary, -although they are long past the preliminary stages, their advice to -beginners is uniformly in the line of caution and thorough practice. - -[Illustration: - - When the aeroplane is steered to the left, the pendulum swings to - the right and depresses the right side of the plane, as in (_c_). - The reaction of the air raises the right side of the plane until - both surfaces are perpendicular to the inclined pendulum, as in - (_d_). - -Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.] - -Even after one has become an expert, the battle is not won, by any -means. While flying in calm weather is extremely pleasurable, a -protracted flight is very fatiguing; and when it is necessary to -wrestle with gusts of high wind and fickle air currents, the strain -upon the strongest nerve is a serious source of danger in that the -aviator is liable to be suddenly overcome by weariness when he most -needs to be on the alert. - -[Illustration: - - In that inclined position the aeroplane makes the turn, and - when the course again becomes straight, both the gyroscopic and - centrifugal forces cease, and the pendulum under the influence - of gravity becomes vertical. In this position it is inclined to - the left with respect to the planes, on which its effect is to - depress the left wing and so right the aeroplane, as in (_e_). - -Diagram showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.] - -Engine troubles are much fewer than they used to be, and a more -dependable form of motor relieves the mind of the aviator from such -mental disturbance. Some device in the line of a wind-shield would be -a real boon, for even in the best weather there is the ceaseless rush -of air into one’s face at 45 to 50 miles an hour. The endurance of this -for hours is of itself a tax upon the most vigorous physique. - -With the passing of the present spectacular stage of the art of flying -there will doubtless come a more reliable form of machine, with -corresponding relief to the operator. Automatic mechanism will supplant -the intense and continual mental attention now demanded; and as this -demand decreases, the joys of flying will be considerably enhanced. - -[Illustration: - - If, when pursuing a straight course, the aeroplane is tilted by - a sideways wind (_b_), the action of the pendulum as described - above restores it to an even keel, as in (_a_). - -Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.] - - - - -Chapter IX. - -FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD. - - Santos-Dumont’s gift--_La Demoiselle_--Mechanical skill - required--Preparatory practice--General dimensions--The - frame--The motor--The main planes--The rudder-tail--The - propeller--Shaping the blades--Maxim’s experience--The running - gear--The controls--Scrupulous workmanship. - - -When Santos-Dumont in 1909 gave to the world the unrestricted -privilege of building monoplanes after the plans of his famous No. -20--afterward named _La Demoiselle_--he gave not only the best he knew, -but as much as any one knows about the building of flying machines. -Santos-Dumont has chosen the monoplane for himself because his long -experience commends it above others, and _La Demoiselle_ was the -crowning achievement of years spent in the construction and operation -of airships of all types. In view of Santos-Dumont’s notable successes -in his chosen field of activity, no one will go astray in following his -advice. - -Of course, the possession of plans and specifications for an aeroplane -does not make any man a skilled mechanic. It is well to understand at -the start that a certain degree of mechanical ability is required in -building a machine which will be entirely safe. Nor does the possession -of a successful machine make one an aeronaut. As in the case of -bicycling, there is no substitute for actual experience, while in the -airship the art of balancing is of even greater importance than on the -bicycle. - -The would-be aviator is therefore advised to put himself through a -course of training of mind and body. - -Intelligent experimenting with some one of the models described in -Chapter XI. will teach much of the action of aeroplanes in calms -and when winds are blowing; and practice with an easily constructed -glider (see Chapter XII.) will give experience in balancing which -will be of the greatest value when one launches into the air for the -first time with a power-driven machine. An expert acquaintance with -gasoline motors and magnetos is a prime necessity. In short, every bit -of information on the subject of flying machines and their operation -cannot fail to be useful in some degree. - -The dimensions of the various parts of the Santos-Dumont monoplane are -given on the original plans according to the metric system. In reducing -these to “long measure” inches, all measurements have been given to the -nearest eighth of an inch. - -In general, we may note some of the peculiarities of _La Demoiselle_. -The spread of the plane is 18 feet from tip to tip, and it is 20 feet -over all from bow to stern. In height, it is about 4 feet 2 inches when -the propeller blades are in a horizontal position. The total weight -of the machine is 265 lbs., of which the engine weighs about 66 lbs. -The area of the plane is 115 square feet, so that the total weight -supported by each square foot with Santos-Dumont (weighing 110 lbs.) on -board is a trifle over 3 lbs. - -The frame of the body of the monoplane is largely of bamboo, the three -main poles being 2 inches in diameter at the front, and tapering to -about 1 inch at the rear. They are jointed with brass sockets just back -of the plane, for convenience of taking apart for transportation. Two -of these poles extend from the axle of the wheels backward and slightly -upward to the rudder-post. The third extends from the middle of the -plane between the wings, backward and downward to the rudder-post. -In cross-section the three form a triangle with the apex at the top. -These bamboo poles are braced about every 2 feet with struts of steel -tubing of oval section, and the panels so formed are tied by diagonals -of piano wire fitted with turn-buckles to draw them taut. - -[Illustration: - - Side view of the Santos-Dumont monoplane. _MP_, main plane with - radiator, _R_, hung underneath; _RP_, rudder plane worked by - wires _HC_, attached to lever _L_; _VC_, vertical control wires; - _WT_, tube through which run the warping wires worked by lever - _K_, in a pocket of the pilot’s coat; _B_, _B_, bamboo poles of - frame; _S_, _S_, brass, or aluminum sockets; _D_, _D_, struts - of bicycle tubing; _G_, gasoline; _RG_, reserve gasoline; _M_, - motor; _P_, propeller; _Q_, _Q_, outer rib of plane, showing - camber; _N_, skid.] - -In the Santos-Dumont machine a 2-cylinder, opposed Darracq motor of -30 horse-power was used. It is of the water-cooled type, the cooling -radiator being a gridiron of very thin ⅛-inch copper tubing, and hung -up on the under side of the plane on either side of the engine. The -cylinders have a bore of about 4⅛ inches, and a stroke of about 4¾ -inches. The propeller is 2-bladed, 6½ feet across, and is run at 1,400 -revolutions per minute, at which speed it exerts a pull of 242 lbs. - -Each wing of the main plane is built upon 2 transverse spars extending -outward from the upper bamboo pole, starting at a slight angle upward -and bending downward nearly to the horizontal as they approach the -outer extremities. These spars are of ash, 2 inches wide, and tapering -in thickness from 1⅛ inches at the central bamboo to about ⅞ inch at -the tips of the wings. They are bent into shape by immersion in hot -water, and straining them around blocks nailed to the floor of the -workshop, in the form shown at QQ, p. 177. - -[Illustration: - - Front view of the Santos-Dumont monoplane, showing position - of tubular struts supporting the engine and the wings; also - the guys, and warping wires entering the tubes inside the - wheels. _MP_, the main plane; _TP_, tail plane in the rear; - _R_, radiators; _M_, motor; _P_, propeller, the arrow showing - direction of revolution.] - -The front spar is set about 9 inches back from the front edge of the -plane, and the rear one about 12 inches forward of the back edge of -the plane. Across these spars, and beneath them, running fore and aft, -are bamboo rods about ¾ of an inch in diameter at the forward end, -and tapering toward the rear. They are set 8½ inches apart (centre -to centre), except at the tips of the wings. The two outer panels -are 10¼ inches from centre to centre of the rods, to give greater -elasticity in warping. These fore-and-aft rods are 6 feet 5 inches -long, except directly back of the propeller, where they are 5 feet 8 -inches long; they are bound to the spars with brass wire No. 25, at the -intersections. They also are bent to a curved form, as shown in the -plans, by the aid of the hot-water bath. Diagonal guys of piano wire -are used to truss the frame in two panels in each wing. - -Around the outer free ends of the rods runs a piano wire No. 20, which -is let into the tips of the rods in a slot ⅜ inch deep. To prevent -the splitting of the bamboo, a turn or two of the brass wire may be -made around the rod just back of the slot; but it is much better to -provide thin brass caps for the ends of the rods, and to cut the slots -in the metal as well as in the rods. Instead of caps, ferrules will do. -When the slots are cut, let the tongue formed in the cutting be bent -down across the bamboo to form the floor to the slot, upon which the -piano wire may rest. The difference in weight and cost is very little, -and the damage that may result from a split rod may be serious. - -[Illustration: Plan and details of construction of _La Demoiselle_.] - -After the frame of the plane is completed it is to be covered with -cloth on both sides, so as entirely to enclose the frame, except only -the tips of the rods, as shown in the plans. In the Santos-Dumont -monoplane the cloth used is of closely woven silk, but a strong, -unbleached muslin will do--the kind made especially for aeroplanes is -best. - -Both upper and lower surfaces must be stretched taut, the edges front -and back being turned over the piano wire, and the wire hemmed in. -The upper and lower surfaces are then sewed together--“through and -through,” as a seamstress would say--along both sides of each rod, so -that the rods are practically in “pockets.” Nothing must be slighted, -if safety in flying is to be assured. - -[Illustration: Sectional diagram of 2-cylinder Darracq opposed motor.] - -[Illustration: Diagram of 4-cylinder Darracq opposed motor.] - -[Illustration: Diagram of 3-cylinder Anzani motor. - -Motors suitable for _La Demoiselle_ monoplane.] - -The tail of the monoplane is a rigid combination of two planes -intersecting each other at right angles along a central bamboo pole -which extends back 3 feet 5½ inches from the rudder-post, to which it -is attached by a double joint, permitting it to move upon either the -vertical or the horizontal axis. - -Although this tail, or rudder, may seem at first glance somewhat -complicated in the plans, it will not be found so if the frame of the -upright or vertical plane be first constructed, and that of the level -or horizontal plane afterward built fast to it at right angles. - -As with the main plane, the tail is to be covered on both sides with -cloth, the vertical part first; the horizontal halves on either side so -covered that the cloth of the latter may be sewed above and below the -central pole. All of the ribs in the tail are to be stitched in with -“pockets,” as directed for the rods of the main plane. - -The construction of the motor is possible to an expert machinist only, -and the aeroplane builder will save time and money by buying his engine -from a reliable maker. It is not necessary to send to France for a -Darracq motor. Any good gasoline engine of equal power, and about the -same weight, will serve the purpose. - -The making of the propeller is practicable for a careful workman. The -illustrations will give a better idea than words of how it should be -done. It should be remembered, however, that the safety of the aviator -depends as much upon the propeller as upon any other part of the -machine. The splitting of the blades when in motion has been the cause -of serious accidents. The utmost care, therefore, should be exercised -in the selection of the wood, and in the glueing of the several -sections into one solid mass, allowing the work to dry thoroughly under -heavy pressure. - -[Illustration: - - Diagram showing how the layers of wood are placed for glueing: - _A_, at the hub; _B_, half way to the tip of the blade; _C_, at - the tip. The dotted lines show the form of the blade at these - points.] - -The forming of the blades requires a good deal of skill, and some -careful preliminary study. It is apparent that the speed of a point -at the tip of a revolving blade is much greater than that of a point -near the hub, for it traverses a larger circle in the same period of -time. But if the propeller is to do effective work without unequal -strain, the twist in the blade must be such that each point in the -length of the blade is exerting an equal pull on the air. It is -necessary, therefore, that the slower-moving part of the blade, near -the hub, or axis, shall cut “deeper” into the air than the more swiftly -moving tip of the blade. Consequently the blade becomes continually -“flatter” (approaching the plane in which it revolves) as we work -from the hub outward toward the tip. This “flattening” is well shown -in the nearly finished blade clamped to the bench at the right of the -illustration--which shows a four-bladed propeller, instead of the -two-bladed type needed for the monoplane. - -The propeller used for propulsion in air differs from the -propeller-wheel used for ships in water, in that the blades are curved -laterally; the forward face of the blade being convex, and the rearward -face concave. The object of this shaping is the same as for curving the -surface of the plane--to secure smoother entry into the air forward, -and a compression in the rear which adds to the holding power on -the substance of the air. It is extremely difficult to describe this -complex shape, and the amateur builder of a propeller will do well to -inspect one made by a professional, or to buy it ready made with his -engine. - -[Illustration: Forming a 4-blade propeller out of 8 layers of wood -glued firmly together.] - -The following quotation from Sir Hiram Maxim’s account of his most -effective propeller may aid the ambitious aeroplane builder: “My large -screws were made with a great degree of accuracy; they were perfectly -smooth and even on both sides, the blades being thin and held in -position by a strip of rigid wood on the back of the blade.... Like -the small screws, they were made of the very best kind of seasoned -American white pine, and when finished were varnished on both sides -with hot glue. When this was thoroughly dry, they were sand-papered -again, and made perfectly smooth and even. The blades were then covered -with strong Irish linen fabric of the smoothest and best make. Glue -was used for attaching the fabric, and when dry another coat of glue -was applied, the surface rubbed down again, and then painted with -zinc white in the ordinary way and varnished. These screws worked -exceedingly well.” - -The covering of the blades with linen glued fast commends itself to the -careful workman as affording precaution against the splintering of the -blades when in rapid motion. Some propellers have their wooden blades -encased with thin sheet aluminum to accomplish the same purpose, but -for the amateur builder linen is far easier to apply. - -[Illustration: - - This method of mounting the wheels of the chassis has been found - the most satisfactory. The spring takes up the shock of a sudden - landing and the pivot working in the hollow post allows the - entire mounting to swing like a caster, and adapt itself to any - direction at which the machine may strike the ground.] - -The wheels are of the bicycle type, with wire spokes, but with hubs six -inches long. The axle is bent to incline upward at the ends, so that -the wheels incline outward at the ground, the better to take the shock -of a sideways thrust when landing. The usual metal or wood rims may be -used, but special tires of exceptionally light construction, made for -aeroplanes, should be purchased. - -The controlling wires or cords for moving the rudder (or tail) and for -warping the tips of the wings are of flexible wire cable, such as is -made for use as steering rope on small boats. The cable controlling -the horizontal plane of the rudder-tail is fastened to a lever at the -right hand of the operator. The cable governing the vertical plane -of the rudder-tail is attached to a wheel at the left hand of the -operator. The cables which warp the tips of the wings are fastened to -a lever which projects upward just back of the operator’s seat, and -which is slipped into a long pocket sewed to the back of his coat, so -that the swaying of his body in response to the fling of the tipping -machine tends to restore it to an even keel. Springs are attached to -all of these controlling wires, strong enough to bring them back to a -normal position when the operator removes his hands from the steering -apparatus. - -The brass sockets used in connecting the tubular struts to the main -bamboos and the rudder-post, and in fastening the axle of the wheels to -the lower bamboos and elsewhere, should be thoroughly made and brazed -by a good mechanic, for no one should risk the chance of a faulty -joint at a critical spot, when an accident may mean the loss of life. - -[Illustration: Diagram of Bleriot monoplane showing sizes of parts, in -metres. Reduced to feet and inches these measurements are: - - 0.60 metres 1 ft. 11½ in. - 1.50 metres 4 ft. 11 in. - 2.10 metres 6 ft. 10½ in. - 3.50 metres 11 ft. 6 in. - 8.00 metres 26 ft. 3 in. - 8.60 metres 28 ft. 2½ in. - - The diagram being drawn to scale other dimensions may be found. - In both the plan (upper figure) and elevation (lower figure), - _A_, _A_, is the main plane; _B_, tail plane; _C_, body; _D_, - elevator wing-tips; _E_, rudder; _a_, _a_, rigid spar; _b_, _b_, - flexible spar; _r_, _r_, points of attachment for warping-wires; - _h_, _h_, guys; _H_, propeller; _M_, motor; _R_, radiator; _S_, - pilot’s seat; _P_, chassis.] - -For the rest, it has seemed better to put the details of construction -on the plans themselves, where they will be available to the aeroplane -builder without the trouble of continually consulting the text. - -Some of the work on an aeroplane will be found simple and easy; some of -it, difficult and requiring much patience; and some impracticable to -any one but a trained mechanic. But in all of it, the worker’s motto -should be, “Fidelity in every detail.” - - - - -Chapter X. - -FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. - - Early use of steam--Reliability necessary--The gasoline - motor--Carburetion--Compression--Ignition--Air-cooling--Water-cooling--Lubrication--The - magneto--Weight--Types of motors--The propeller--Form, size, and - pitch--Slip--Materials--Construction. - - -The possibility of the existence of the flying machine as we have it -to-day has been ascribed to the invention of the gasoline motor. While -this is not to be denied, it is also true that the gasoline motors -designed and built for automobiles and motor-boats have had to be -wellnigh revolutionized to make them suitable for use in the various -forms of aircraft. And it is to be remembered, doubtless to their -greater credit, that Henson, Hargrave, Langley, and Maxim had all -succeeded in adapting steam to the problem of the flight of models, the -two latter using gasoline to produce the steam. - -Perhaps the one predominant qualification demanded of the aeroplane -motor is reliability. A motor-car or motor-boat can be stopped, and -engine troubles attended to with comparatively little inconvenience. -The aeroplane simply cannot stop without peril. It is possible for -a skilful pilot to reach the earth when his engine stops, if he is -fortunately high enough to have space for the downward glide which will -gain for him the necessary headway for steering. At a lesser height he -is sure to crash to the earth. - -An understanding of the principles on which the gasoline motor works -is essential to a fair estimate of the comparative advantages of the -different types used to propel aeroplanes. In the first place, the -radical difference between the gasoline motor and other engines is the -method of using the fuel. It is not burned in ordinary fashion, but the -gasoline is first vaporized and mixed with a certain proportion of air, -in a contrivance called a carburetor. This gaseous mixture is pumped -into the cylinder of the motor by the action of the motor itself, -compressed into about one-tenth of its normal volume, and then exploded -by a strong electric spark at just the right moment to have its force -act most advantageously to drive the machinery onward. - -[Illustration: The “Fiat” 8-cylinder air-cooled motor, of the “V” type, -made in France.] - -It is apparent that there are several chances for failure in this -series. The carburetor may not do its part accurately. The mixture of -air and vapor may not be in such proportions that it will explode; in -that case, the power from that stroke will be missing, and the engine -will falter and slow down. Or a leakage in the cylinder may prevent -the proper compression of the mixture, the force from the explosion -will be greatly reduced, with a corresponding loss of power and speed. -Or the electric spark may not be “fat” enough--that is, of sufficient -volume and heat to fire the mixture; or it may not “spark” at just -the right moment; if too soon, it will exert its force against the -onward motion: if too late, it will not deliver the full power of the -explosion at the time when its force is most useful. The necessity for -absolute perfection in these operations is obvious. - -[Illustration: A near view of the Holmes engine from the driving side.] - -[Illustration: The Holmes rotative engine, 7-cylinder 35 horse-power, -weighing 160 pounds. - -An American engine built in Chicago, Ill.] - -Other peculiarities of the gasoline motor affect considerably its -use for aeroplanes. The continual and oft-repeated explosions of the -gaseous mixture inside of the cylinder generate great heat, and this -not only interferes with its regularity of movement, but within a -very brief time checks it altogether. To keep the cylinder cool enough -to be serviceable, two methods are in use: the air-cooling system and -the water-cooling system. In the first, flanges of very thin metal -are cast on the outside of the cylinder wall. These flanges take up -the intense heat, and being spread out over a large surface in this -way, the rushing of the air through them as the machine flies (or -sometimes blown through them with a rotary fan) cools them to some -degree. With the water-cooling system, the cylinder has an external -jacket, the space between being filled with water which is made to -circulate constantly by a small pump. In its course the water which -has just taken up the heat from the cylinder travels through a radiator -in which it is spread out very thin, and this radiator is so placed -in the machine that it receives the full draught from the air rushing -through the machine as it flies. The amount of water required for -cooling a motor is about 1⅕ lbs. per horse-power. With an 8-cylinder 50 -horse-power motor, this water would add the very considerable item of -60 lbs. to the weight the machine has to carry. As noted in a previous -chapter, the McCurdy biplane has its radiator formed into a sustaining -plane, and supports its own weight when travelling in the air. - -[Illustration: The 180 horse-power engine of Sir Hiram Maxim; of the -“opposed” type, compound, and driven by steam.] - -[Illustration: - - The Anzani motor and propeller which carried M. Bleriot across - the English Channel. The curved edge of the propeller blades is - the entering edge, the propeller turning from the right of the - picture over to the left. The Anzani is of the “radiant” type and - is of French build.] - -It is an unsettled point with manufacturers whether the greater -efficiency (generally acknowledged) of the water-cooled engine more -than compensates for the extra weight of the water. - -Another feature peculiar to the gasoline motor is the necessity for -such continual oiling that it is styled “lubrication,” and various -devices have been invented to do the work automatically, without -attention from the pilot further than the watching of his oil-gauge to -see that a full flow of oil is being pumped through the oiling system. - -The electric current which produces the spark inside of the cylinder -is supplied by a magneto, a machine formed of permanent magnets of -horseshoe form, between the poles of which a magnetized armature is -made to revolve rapidly by the machinery which turns the propeller. -This magneto is often connected with a small storage battery, or -accumulator, which stores up a certain amount of current for use when -starting, or in case the magneto gives out. - -[Illustration: Sectional drawings showing details of construction of -the Anzani motor. The flanges of the air-cooling system are distinctly -shown. The section at the left is from the side; that at the right, -from the front. All measurements are in millimètres. A millimètre is -0.039 inch.] - -The great rivalry of the builders of motors has been in cutting down -the weight per horse-power to the lowest possible figure. It goes -without saying that useless weight is a disadvantage in an aeroplane, -but it has not been proven that the very lightest engines have made a -better showing than those of sturdier build. - -[Illustration: The “Gobron” engine of the “double opposed,” or -cross-shaped type. A water-cooled engine, with 8 cylinders.] - -One of the items in the weight of an engine has been the fly-wheel -found necessary on all motors of 4 cylinders or less to give steadiness -to the running. With a larger number of cylinders, and a consequently -larger number of impulses in the circuit of the propeller, the -vibration is so reduced that the fly-wheel has been dispensed with. - -[Illustration: The Emerson 6-cylinder aviation engine, of the “tandem” -type, water-cooled; 60 horse-power; made at Alexandria, Va.] - -There are several distinct types of aircraft engines, based on the -arrangement of the cylinders. The “tandem” type has the cylinders -standing upright in a row, one behind another. There may be as many as -eight in a row. The Curtiss and Wright engines are examples. Another -type is the “opposed” arrangement, the cylinders being placed in a -horizontal position and in two sets, one working opposite the other. -An example of this type is seen in the Darracq motor used on the -Santos-Dumont monoplane. Another type is the “V” arrangement, the -cylinders set alternately leaning to right and to left, as seen in -the “Fiat” engine. Still another type is the “radiant,” in which the -cylinders are all above the horizontal, and disposed like rays from -the rising sun. The 3-cylinder Anzani engine and the 5- and 7-cylinder -R-E-P engines are examples. The “star” type is exemplified in the 5 -and 7-cylinder engines in which the cylinders radiate at equal angles -all around the circle. The “double opposed” or cross-shaped type is -shown in the “Gobron” engine. In all of these types the cylinders are -stationary, and turn the propeller shaft either by cranks or by gearing. - -[Illustration: The Elbridge engine, of the “tandem” type and -water-cooled. It is an American engine, built at Rochester, N. Y.] - -An entirely distinct type of engine, and one which has been devised -solely for the aeroplane, is the rotative--often miscalled the rotary, -which is totally different. The rotative type may be illustrated by the -Gnome motor. In this engine the seven cylinders turn around the shaft, -which is stationary. The propeller is fastened to the cylinders, and -revolves with them. This ingenious effect is produced by an offset -of the crank-shaft of half the stroke of the pistons, whose rods are -all connected with the crank-shaft. The entire system revolves around -the main shaft as a centre, the crank-shaft being also stationary. - -[Illustration: - - The famous Gnome motor; 50 horse-power, 7-cylinder, air-cooled; - of the rotative type; made in France. This illustration shows the - Gnome steel propeller.] - -[Illustration: Sectional diagram of the 5-cylinder R-E-P motor; of the -“radiant” type.] - -[Illustration: Sectional diagram of the 5-cylinder Bayard-Clement -motor; of the “star” type.] - -Strictly speaking, the propeller is not a part of the motor of the -flying machine, but it is so intimately connected with it in the -utilization of the power created by the motor, that it will be treated -of briefly in this chapter. - -The form of the air-propeller has passed through a long and varied -development, starting with that of the marine propeller, which was -found to be very inefficient in so loose a medium as air. On account -of this lack of density in the air, it was found necessary to act on -large masses of it at practically the same time to gain the thrust -needed to propel the aeroplane swiftly, and this led to increasing the -diameter of the propeller to secure action on a proportionally larger -area of air. The principle involved is simply the geometric rule that -the areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their radii. -Thus the surface of air acted on by two propellers, one of 6 feet -diameter and the other of 8 feet diameter, would be in the proportion -of 9 to 16; and as the central part of a propeller has practically no -thrust effect, the efficiency of the 8-foot propeller is nearly twice -that of the 6-foot propeller--other factors being equal. But these -other factors may be made to vary widely. For instance, the number of -revolutions may be increased for the smaller propeller, thus engaging -more air than the larger one at a lower speed; and, in practice, it is -possible to run a small propeller at a speed that would not be safe for -a large one. Another factor is the pitch of the propeller, which may -be described as the distance the hub of the propeller would advance in -one complete revolution if the blades moved in an unyielding medium, -as a section of the thread of an ordinary bolt moves in its nut. In -the yielding mass of the air the propeller advances only a part of its -pitch, in some cases not more than half. The difference between the -theoretical advance and the actual advance is called the “slip.” - -[Illustration: - - The Call Aviation Engine, of the opposed type; water-cooled. The - cylinders are large and few in number. The 100 horse-power engine - has but 4 cylinders, and weighs only 250 pounds. (The Gnome 100 - horse-power engine has 14 cylinders.) This is an American engine, - built at Girard, Kansas.] - -In practical work the number of blades which have been found to be most -effective is two. More blades than two seem to so disturb the air that -there is no hold for the propeller. In the case of slowly revolving -propellers, as in most airship mechanisms, four-bladed propellers are -used with good effect. But where the diameter of the propeller is -about 8 feet, and the number of revolutions about 1,200 per minute, the -two-bladed type is used almost exclusively. - -The many differing forms of the blades of the propeller is evidence -that the manufacturers have not decided upon any definite shape as -being the best. Some have straight edges nearly or quite parallel; -others have the entering edge straight and the rear edge curved; in -others the entering edge is curved, and the rear edge straight; or -both edges may be curved. The majority of the wooden propellers are -of the third-mentioned type, and the curve is fashioned so that at -each section of its length the blade presents the same area of surface -in the same time. Hence the outer tip, travelling the fastest, is -narrower than the middle of the blade, and it is also much thinner to -lessen the centrifugal force acting upon it at great speeds. Near the -hub, however, where the travel is slowest, the constructional problem -demands that the blade contract in width and be made stout. In fact, it -becomes almost round in section. - -Many propellers are made of metal, with tubular shanks and blades of -sheet metal, the latter either solid sheets or formed with a double -surface and hollow inside. Still others have a frame of metal with -blades of fabric put on loosely, so that it may adapt itself to the -pressure of the air in revolving. That great strength is requisite -becomes plain when it is considered that the speed of the tip of -a propeller blade often reaches seven miles a minute! And at this -velocity the centrifugal force excited--tending to tear the blades to -splinters--is prodigious. - -Just as the curved surface of the planes of an aeroplane is more -effective than a flat surface in compressing the air beneath them, -and thus securing a firmer medium on which to glide, so the propeller -blades are curved laterally (across their width) to compress the air -behind them and thus secure a better hold. The advancing side of the -blade is formed with a still greater curve, to gain the advantage due -to the unexplained lift of the paradox aeroplane. - -Where the propeller is built of wood it is made of several layers, -usually of different kinds of wood, with the grain running in slightly -different directions, and all carefully glued together into a solid -block. Ash, spruce, and mahogany, in alternating layers, are a favorite -combination. In some instances the wooden propeller is sheathed in -sheet aluminum; in others, it is well coated with glue which is -sandpapered down very smooth, then varnished, and then polished to the -highest lustre--to reduce the effect of the viscosity of the air to the -minimum. - -[Illustration: - - Two propellers, the one on the left of left-hand pitch; the - other of right-hand pitch. Both are thrusting propellers, and - are viewed from the rear. These fine models are of the laminated - type, and are of American make; the one to the left a Paragon - propeller made in Washington, D. C.; the other a Brauner - propeller made in New York.] - -In order to get the best results, the propeller and the motor must be -suited to each other. Some motors which “race” with a propeller which -is slightly too small, work admirably with one a little heavier, or -with a longer diameter. - -The question as to whether one propeller, or two, is the better -practice, has not been decided. The majority of aeroplanes have but -one. The Wright and the Cody machines have two. The certainty of -serious consequences to a machine having two, should one of them be -disabled, or even broken so as to reduce the area, seems to favor the -use of but one. - - - - -Chapter XI. - -MODEL FLYING MACHINES. - - Awakened popular interest--The workshop’s share--Needed - devices--Super-sensitive inventions--Unsolved problems--Tools - and materials--A model biplane--The propeller--The body--The - steering plane--The main planes--Assembling the parts--The - motive power--Flying the model--A monoplane model--Carving a - propeller--Many ideas illustrated--Clubs and competitions--Some - remarkable records. - - -It is related of Benjamin Franklin that when he went out with his -famous kite with the wire string, trying to collect electricity from -the thundercloud, he took a boy along to forestall the ridicule that he -knew would be meted out to him if he openly flew the kite himself. - -Other scientific experimenters, notably those working upon the problem -of human flight in our own time, have encountered a similar condition -of the public mind, and have chosen to conduct their trials in secret -rather than to contend with the derision, criticism, and loss of -reputation which a sceptical world would have been quick to heap upon -them. - -But such a complete revolution of thought has been experienced in these -latter days that groups of notable scientific men gravely flying kites, -or experimenting with carefully made models of flying machines, arouse -only the deepest interest, and their smallest discoveries are eagerly -seized upon by the daily press as news of the first importance. - -So much remains to be learned in the field of aeronautics that no -builder and flyer of the little model aeroplanes can fail to gain -valuable information, if that is his intention. On the other hand, if -it be the sport of racing these model aeroplanes which appeals to him, -the instruction given in the pages following will be equally useful. - -The earnest student of aviation is reminded that the progressive work -in this new art of flying is not being done altogether, nor even in -large part, by the daring operators who, with superb courage, are -performing such remarkable feats with the flying machines of the -present moment. Not one of them would claim that his machine is all -that could be desired. On the contrary, these intrepid men more than -any others are fully aware of the many and serious defects of the -apparatus they use for lack of better. The scientific student in his -workshop, patiently experimenting with his models, and working to -prove or disprove untested theories, is doubtless doing an invaluable -part in bringing about the sort of flying which will be more truly -profitable to humanity in general, though less spectacular. - -[Illustration: A model flying machine built and flown by Louis Paulhan, -the noted aviator, at a prize contest for models in France. The design -is after Langley’s model, with tandem monoplane surfaces placed at a -dihedral angle.] - -One of the greatest needs of the present machines is an automatic -balancer which shall supersede the concentrated attention which the -operator is now compelled to exercise in order to keep his machine -right side up. The discovery of the principle upon which such a -balancer must be built is undoubtedly within the reach of the builder -and flyer of models. It has been asserted by an eminent scientific -experimenter in things aeronautic that “we cannot hope to make a -sensitive apparatus quick enough to take advantage of the rising -currents of the air,” etc. With due respect to the publicly expressed -opinion of this investigator, it is well to reassure ourselves against -so pessimistic an outlook by remembering that the construction of just -such supersensitive apparatus is a task to which man has frequently -applied his intellectual powers with signal success. Witness the -photomicroscope, which records faithfully an enlarged view of -objects too minute to be even visible to the human eye; the aneroid -barometer, so sensitive that it will indicate the difference in level -between the table and the floor; the thermostat, which regulates the -temperature of the water flowing in the domestic heating system with a -delicacy impossible to the most highly constituted human organism; the -seismograph, detecting, recording, and almost locating earth tremors -originating thousands of miles away; the automatic fire sprinkler; -the safety-valve; the recording thermometer and other meteorological -instruments; and last, if not of least importance, the common -alarm-clock. And these are but a few of the contrivances with which -man does by blind mechanism that which is impossible to his sentient -determination. - -Even if the nervous system could be schooled into endurance of the -wear and tear of consciously balancing an aeroplane for many hours, it -is still imperative that the task be not left to the exertion of human -wits, but controlled by self-acting devices responding instantly to -unforeseen conditions as they occur. - -[Illustration: Diagram showing turbulent air currents produced when a -flat plane is forced through the air at a large angle of incidence in -the direction A-B.] - -[Illustration: Diagram showing smoothly flowing air currents caused by -correctly shaped plane at proper angle of incidence.] - -Some of the problems of which the model-builder may find the solution -are: whether large screws revolving slowly, or small screws revolving -rapidly, are the more effective; how many blades a propeller should -have, and their most effective shape; what is the “perfect” material -for the planes (Maxim found that with a smooth wooden plane he could -lift 2½ times the weight that could be lifted with the best made -fabric-covered plane); whether the centre of gravity of the aeroplane -should be above or below the centre of lift, or should coincide with -it; new formulas for the correct expression of the lift in terms of the -velocity, and angle of inclination--the former formulas having been -proved erroneous by actual experience; how to take the best advantage -of the “tangential force” announced by Lilienthal, and reasserted by -Hargrave; and many others. And there is always the “paradox aeroplane” -to be explained--and when explained it will be no longer a paradox, but -will doubtless open the way to the most surprising advance in the art -of flying. - -It is not assumed that every reader of this chapter will become a -studious experimenter, but it is unquestionably true that every -model-builder, in his effort to produce winning machines, will be more -than likely to discover some fact of value in the progress making -toward the ultimate establishment of the commercial navigation of the -air. - -The tools and materials requisite for the building of model aeroplanes -are few and inexpensive. For the tools--a small hammer; a small iron -“block” plane; a fine-cut half-round file; a pair of round-nose pliers; -three twist drills (as used for drilling metals), the largest 1/16 inch -diameter, and two smaller sizes, with an adjustable brad-awl handle -to hold them; a sharp pocket knife; and, if practicable, a small hand -vise. The vise may be dispensed with, and common brad-awls may take the -place of the drills, if necessary. - -For the first-described model--the simplest--the following materials -are needed: some thin whitewood, 1/16 inch thick (as prepared for -fret-sawing); some spruce sticks, ¼ inch square (sky-rocket sticks are -good); a sheet of heavy glazed paper; a bottle of liquid glue; some of -the smallest (in diameter) brass screws, ¼ to ½ inch long; some brass -wire, 1/20 inch in diameter; 100 inches of square rubber (elastic) -“cord,” such as is used on return-balls, but 1/16 inch square; and a -few strips of draughtsman’s tracing cloth. - -[Illustration: - - _A_, _B_, blank from which propeller is shaped; _P_, _P_, pencil - lines at centre of bend; _C_, _D_, sections of blade at points - opposite; _E_, _G_, propeller after twisting; _H_, view of - propeller endwise, showing outward twist of tips; also shaft.] - -As the propeller is the most difficult part to make, it is best -to begin with it. The flat blank is cut out of the whitewood, and -subjected to the action of steam issuing from the spout of an actively -boiling tea-kettle. The steam must be hot; mere vapor will not do the -work. When the strip has become pliable, the shaping is done by slowly -bending and twisting at the same time--perhaps “coaxing” would be the -better word, for it must be done gently and with patience--and the -steam must be playing on the wood all the time, first on one side of -the strip, then on the other, at the point where the fibres are being -bent. The utmost care should be taken to have the two blades bent -exactly alike--although, of course, with a contrary twist, the one to -the right and the other to the left, on each side of the centre. A -lead-pencil line across each blade at exactly the same distance from -the centre will serve to fix accurately the centre of the bend. If -two blocks are made with slots cut at the angle of 1 inch rise to 2¼ -inches base, and nailed to the top of the work bench just far enough -apart to allow the tips of the screw to be slid into the slots, the -drying in perfect shape will be facilitated. The centre may be held to -a true upright by two other blocks, one on each side of the centre. -Some strips of whitewood may be so rigid that the steam will not make -them sufficiently supple. In this case it may be necessary to dip them -bodily into the boiling water, or even to leave them immersed for a few -minutes; afterward bending them in the hot steam. But a wetted stick -requires longer to dry and set in the screw shape. When the propeller -is thoroughly dry and set in proper form, it should be worked into the -finished shape with the half-round file, according to the several -sections shown beside the elevation for each part of the blade. The -two strengthening piece’s are then to be glued on at the centre of the -screw, and when thoroughly dry, worked down smoothly to shape. When -all is dry and hard it should be smoothed with the finest emery cloth -and given a coat of shellac varnish, which, in turn, may be rubbed to -a polish with rotten stone and oil. - -It may be remarked, in passing, that this is a crude method of making a -propeller, and the result cannot be very good. It is given here because -it is the easiest way, and the propeller will work. A much better way -is described further on--and the better the propeller, the better any -model will fly. But for a novice, no time will be lost in making this -one, for the experience gained will enable the model-builder to do -better work with the second one than he could do without it. - -For the aeroplane body we get out a straight spar of spruce, ¼ inch -square and 15½ inches long. At the front end of this--on the upper -side--is to be glued a small triangular piece of wood to serve as a -support for the forward or steering plane, tilting it up at the front -edge at the angle represented by a rise of 1 in 8. This block should -be shaped on its upper side to fit the curve of the under side of the -steering-plane, which will be screwed to it. - -The steering-plane is cut according to plan, out of 1/16 inch -whitewood, planed down gradually to be at the ends about half that -thickness. This plane is to be steamed and bent to a curve (fore and -aft) as shown in the sectional view. The steam should play on the -_convex_ side of the bend while it is being shaped. To hold it in -proper form until it is set, blocks with curved slots may be used, or -it may be bound with thread to a moulding block of equal length formed -to the proper curve. When thoroughly dry it is to be smoothed with the -emery cloth, and a strip of tracing cloth--glossy face out--is to be -glued across each end, to prevent breaking in case of a fall. It is -then to be varnished with shellac, and polished, as directed for the -propeller. Indeed, it should be said once for all that every part of -the model should be as glossy as it is possible to make it without -adding to the weight, and that all “entering edges” (those which push -into and divide the air when in flight) should be as sharp as is -practicable with the material used. - -The steering-plane is to be fastened in place by a single screw long -enough to pierce the plane and the supporting block, and enter the -spar. The hole for this screw (as for all screws used) should be -drilled carefully, to avoid the least splitting of the wood, and just -large enough to have the screw “bite” without forcing its way in. This -screw which holds the plane is to be screwed “home” but not too tight, -so that in case the flying model should strike upon it in falling, -the slender plane will swivel, and not break. It will be noticed that -while this screw passes through the centre of the plane sideways, it is -nearer to the forward edge than to the rear edge. - -If the work has been accurate, the plane will balance if the spar -is supported--upon the finger, perhaps, as that is sensitive to any -tendency to tipping. If either wing is too heavy, restore the balance -by filing a little from the tip of that wing. - -The main planes are next to be made. The lower deck of the biplane is -of the 1/16 inch whitewood, and the upper one is of the glazed paper -upon a skeleton framework of wood. The upright walls are of paper. -The wooden deck is to be bent into the proper curve with the aid of -steam, and when dry and set in form is to be finished and polished. The -frame for the upper deck is made of the thin whitewood, and is held -to its position by two diagonal struts of whitewood bent at the ends -with steam, and two straight upright struts or posts. It is better to -bend all cross-pieces into the curve of the plane with steam, but they -may be worked into the curve on the top side with plane and file, and -left flat on the lower side. The drawings show full details of the -construction, drawn accurately to scale. - -It is best to glue all joints, and in addition to insert tiny screws, -where shown in the plans, at the time of gluing. - -When all the wooden parts are in place the entire outline of the upper -plane and the upright walls is to be formed of silk thread carried -from point to point, and tied upon very small pins (such as are used -in rolls of ribbon at the stores) inserted in the wood. The glazed -paper is put on double, glossy side out. Cut the pieces twice as large -(and a trifle more) than is needed, and fold so that the smooth crease -comes to the front and the cut edges come together at the rear. The two -inner walls should be put in place first, so as to enclose the thread -front and back, and the post, between the two leaves of the folded -paper. Cutting the paper half an inch too long will give one fourth of -an inch to turn flat top and bottom to fasten to the upper and lower -decks respectively. The two outer walls and the upper deck may be cut -all in one piece, the under leaf being slit to pass on either side of -the inner walls. A bit of glue here and there will steady the parts to -their places. The cut edges at the rear of the deck and walls should -be caught together with a thin film of glue, so as to enclose the rear -threads. - -[Illustration: - - _A_, _B_, plan, and _C_, section, of steering plane; _H_, section - of lower main plane; _L_, wood skeleton of upper plane; _T_, - _T_, silk thread; _O_, _O_, posts; _J_, _J_, braces; _E_, rubber - strands; _D_, forward hook; _G_, shaft; _F_, thrust-block; _K_, - upper plane of paper; _M_, elevation of main planes, from the - rear.] - -When the biplane is completed it is to be fastened securely to the spar -in such a position that it is accurately balanced--from side to side. -The spar may be laid on a table, and the biplane placed across it in -its approximate position. Then move the plane to one side until it tips -down, and mark the spot on the rear edge of the plane. Repeat this -operation toward the other side, and the centre between the two marks -should be accurately fastened over the centre line of the spar. Even -with the greatest care there may still be failure to balance exactly, -but a little work with a file on the heavy side, or a bit of chewing -gum stuck on the lighter side, will remedy the matter. - -The body of the aeroplane being now built, it is in order to fit it -with propelling mechanism. The motive power to whirl the propeller we -have already prepared is to be the torsion, or twisting strain--in this -case the force of untwisting--of india rubber. When several strands -of pure rubber cord are twisted up tight, their elasticity tends to -untwist them with considerable force. The attachment for the rubber -strands at the front end of the spar is a sort of bracket made of the -brass wire. The ends of the wire are turned up just a little, and they -are set into little holes in the under side of the spar. Where the wire -turns downward to form the hook it is bound tightly to the spar with -silk thread. The hook-shaped tip is formed of the loop of the wire -doubled upon itself. The rear attachment of the rubber strands is a -loop upon the propeller shaft itself. As shown in the drawings, this -shaft is but a piece of the brass wire. On one end (the rear) an open -loop is formed, and into this is slipped the centre of the propeller. -The short end of the loop is then twisted around the longer shank--very -carefully, lest the wire cut into and destroy the propeller. Two turns -of the wire is enough, and then the tip of the twisted end should be -worked down flat with the file, to serve as a bearing for the propeller -against the thrust-block. This latter is made of a piece of sheet brass -(a bit of printers’ brass “rule” is just the thing) about 1/40 of an -inch thick. It should be ¼ of an inch wide except at the forward end, -where it is to be filed to a long point and bent up a trifle to enter -the wood of the spar. The rear end is bent down (not too sharply, lest -it break) to form the bearing for the propeller, a hole being drilled -through it for the propeller shaft, just large enough for the shaft to -turn freely in it. Another smaller hole is to be drilled for a little -screw to enter the rear end of the spar. Next pass the straight end -of the propeller shaft through the hole drilled for it, and with the -pliers form a round hook for the rear attachment of the rubber strands. -Screw the brass bearing into place, and for additional strength, wind -a binding of silk thread around it and the spar. - -Tie the ends of the rubber cord together, divide it into ten even -strands, and pass the loops over the two hooks--and the machine is -ready for flight. - -To wind up the rubber it will be necessary to turn the propeller in -the opposite direction to which it will move when the model is flying. -About 100 turns will be required. After it is wound, hold the machine -by the rear end of the spar, letting the propeller press against the -hand so it cannot unwind. Raise it slightly above the head, holding the -spar level, or inclined upward a little (as experience may dictate), -and launch the model by a gentle throw forward. If the work has been -well done it may fly from 150 to 200 feet. - -Many experiments may be made with this machine. If it flies too high, -weight the front end of the spar; if too low, gliding downward from the -start, weight the rear end. A bit of chewing gum may be enough to cause -it to ride level and make a longer and prettier flight. - -A very graceful model is that of the monoplane type illustrated in -the accompanying reproductions from photographs. The front view shows -the little machine just ready to take flight from a table. The view -from the rear is a snap-shot taken while it was actually flying. This -successful model was made by Harold S. Lynn, of Stamford, Conn. Before -discussing the details of construction, let us notice some peculiar -features shown by the photographs. The forward plane is arched; that -is, the tips of the plane bend slightly downward from the centre. On -the contrary, the two wings of the rear plane bend slightly upward from -the centre, making a dihedral angle, as it is called; that is, an angle -between two surfaces, as distinguished from an angle between two lines. -The toy wheels, Mr. Lynn says, are put on principally for “looks” but -they are also useful in permitting a start to be made from a table or -even from the floor, instead of the usual way of holding the model in -the hands and giving it a slight throw to get it started. However, the -wheels add to the weight, and the model will not fly quite so far with -them as without. - -[Illustration: Front view of the Lynn model of the monoplane type, -about to take flight.] - -The wood from which this model was made was taken from a bamboo -fish-pole, such as may be bought anywhere for a dime. The pole was -split up, and the suitable pieces whittled and planed down to the -proper sizes, as given in the plans. In putting the framework of the -planes together, it is well to notch very slightly each rib and spar -where they cross. Touch the joint with a bit of liquid glue, and wind -quickly with a few turns of sewing silk and tie tightly. This must be -done with delicacy, or the frames will be out of true. If the work is -done rapidly the glue will not set until all the ties on the plane are -finished. Another way is to touch the joinings with a drop of glue, -place the ribs in position on the spars, and lay a board carefully on -the work, leaving it there until all is dry, when the tying can be -done. It either case the joinings should be touched again with the -liquid glue and allowed to dry hard. - -[Illustration: The Lynn model monoplane in flight, from below and from -the rear.] - -The best material for covering these frames is the thinnest of China -silk. If this is too expensive, use the thinnest cambric. But the model -will not fly so far with the cambric covering. The material is cut -one-fourth of an inch too large on every side, and folded over, and the -fold glued down. Care should be taken that the frame is square and true -before the covering is glued on. - -The motive power is produced by twisting up rubber tubing. Five and -three-quarter feet of pure rubber tubing are required. It is tied -together with silk so as to form a continuous ring. This is looped -over two screw-hooks of brass, one in the rear block and the other -constituting the shaft. This looped tubing is twisted by turning the -propeller backward about two hundred turns. As it untwists it turns the -propeller, which, in this model, is a “traction” screw, and pulls the -machine after it as it advances through the air. - -[Illustration: - - Details and plans of the Harold Lynn model monoplane. _W_, tail - block; _Y_, thrust-block; _S_, mounting of propeller showing - glass bead next the thrust-block, and one leather washer outside - the screw; _B_, glass bead; _C_, tin washer; _M_, _M_, tin lugs - holding axle of wheels.] - -The propeller in this instance is formed from a piece of very thin -tin, such as is used for the tops of cans containing condensed milk. -Reference to the many illustrations throughout this book showing -propellers of flying machines will give one a very good idea of the -proper way to bend the blades. The mounting with the glass bead and the -two leather washers is shown in detail in the plans. - -[Illustration: - - Method of forming propeller of the laminated, or layer, type. The - layers of wood are glued,in the position shown and the blades - carved out according to the sections. Only one blade is shown - from the axle to the tip. This will make a right hand propeller. - ] - -The wheels are taken from a toy wagon, and a pair of tin ears will -serve as bearings for the axle. - -The sport of flying model aeroplanes has led to the formation of many -clubs in this country as well as in Europe. Some of the mechanisms that -have been devised, and some of the contrivances to make the models -fly better and further, are illustrated in the drawings. - -[Illustration: - - At _A_ is shown a method of mounting the propeller with a glass - or china bead to reduce friction, and a brass corner to aid - in strengthening. _B_ shows a transmission of power by two - spur wheels and chain. _C_ is a device for using two rubber - twists acting on the two spur wheels _S_, _S_, which in turn - are connected with the propeller with a chain drive. _D_ shows - a launching apparatus for starting. _W_, the model; _V_, the - carriage; _F_, the trigger guard; _T_, trigger; _E_, elastic cord - for throwing the carriage forward to the stop _K_.] - -Records have been made which seem marvellous when it is considered -that 200 feet is a very good flight for a model propelled by rubber. -For instance, at the contest of the Birmingham Aero Club (England) in -September, one of the contestants won the prize with a flight of 447 -feet, lasting 48 seconds. The next best records for duration of flight -were 39 seconds and 38 seconds. A model aeroplane which is “guaranteed -to fly 1,000 feet,” according to the advertisement in an English -magazine, is offered for sale at $15. - -The American record for length of flight is held by Mr. Frank Schober, -of New York, with a distance of 215 feet 6 inches. His model was of the -Langley type of tandem monoplane, and very highly finished. The problem -is largely one of adequate power without serious increase of weight. - - - - -Chapter XII. - -THE GLIDER. - - Aerial balancing--Practice necessary--Simplicity of the glider - Materials--Construction--Gliding--Feats with the Montgomery - glider--Noted experimenters--Glider clubs. - - -It is a matter of record that the Wright brothers spent the better part -of three years among the sand dunes of the North Carolina sea-coast -practising with gliders. In this way they acquired that confidence -while in the air which comes from intimate acquaintance with its -peculiarities, and which cannot be gained in any other way. It is true -that the Wrights were then developing not only themselves, but also -their gliders; but the latter work was done once for all. To develop -aviators, however, means the repeating of the same process for each -individual--just as each for himself must be taught to read. And the -glider is the “First Reader” in aeronautics. - -The long trail of wrecks of costly aeroplanes marking the progress in -the art of flying marks also the lack of preparatory training, which -their owners either thought unnecessary, or hoped to escape by some -royal road less wearisome than persistent personal practice. But they -all paid dearly to discover that there is no royal road. Practice, more -practice, and still more practice--that is the secret of successful -aeroplane flight. - -For this purpose the glider is much superior to the power-driven -aeroplane. There are no controls to learn, no mechanism to manipulate. -One simply launches into the air, and concentrates his efforts upon -balancing himself and the apparatus; not as two distinct bodies, -however, but as a united whole. When practice has made perfect the -ability to balance the glider instinctively, nine-tenths of the art of -flying an aeroplane has been achieved. Not only this, but a new sport -has been laid under contribution; one beside which coasting upon a -snow-clad hillside is a crude form of enjoyment. - -Fortunately for the multitude, a glider is easily made, and its cost is -even less than that of a bicycle. A modest degree of skill with a few -carpenter’s tools, and a little “gumption” about odd jobs in general, -is all that is required of the glider builder. - -[Illustration: A gliding slope with starting platform, erected for club -use.] - -The frame of the glider is of wood, and spruce is recommended, as it -is stronger and tougher for its weight than other woods. It should be -of straight grain and free from knots; and as there is considerable -difference in the weight of spruce from different trees, it is well -to go over the pile in the lumber yard and pick out the lightest -boards. Have them planed down smooth on both sides, and to the required -thickness, at the mill--it will save much toilsome hand work. The -separate parts may also be sawed out at the mill, if one desires to -avoid this labor. - -The lumber needed is as follows: - - 4 spars 20 ft. long, 1¼ in. wide, ¾ in. thick. - 12 struts 3 ft. long, 1¼ in. wide, ¾ in. thick. - 2 rudder bars 8 ft. long, ¾ in. wide, ½ in. thick. - 12 posts 4 ft. long, 1½ in. wide, ½ in. thick. - 41 ribs 4 ft. long, ½ in. wide, ½ in. thick. - 2 arm rests 4 ft. long, 2 in. wide, 1 in. thick. - For rudder frame. 24 running ft., 1 in. wide, 1 in. thick. - -If it be impossible to find clear spruce lumber 20 feet in length, -the spars may be built up by splicing two 10-foot sticks together. -For this purpose, the splicing stick should be as heavy as the single -spar--1¼ inches wide, and ¾ inches thick--and at least 4 feet long, and -be bolted fast to the spar with six ⅛ inch round-head carriage bolts -with washers of large bearing surface (that is, a small hole to fit the -bolt, and a large outer diameter) at both ends of the bolt, to prevent -crushing the wood. A layer of liquid glue brushed between will help to -make the joint firmer. - -[Illustration: Otto Lilienthal in his single-plane glider. The swinging -forward of his feet tends to turn the glider toward the ground, and -increase its speed.] - -Wherever a bolt is put in, a hole should be bored for it with a bit of -such size that the bolt will fit snug in the hole without straining the -grain of the wood. - -The corners of the finished spar are to be rounded off on a large -curvature. - -The ends of the struts are to be cut down on a slight slant of about -1/16 inch in the 1¼ inches that it laps under the spar--with the idea -of tipping the top of the spar forward so that the ribs will spring -naturally from it into the proper curve. - -The ribs should be bent by steaming, and allowed to dry and set in -a form, or between blocks nailed upon the floor to the line of the -correct curve. They are then nailed to the frames, the front end first: -21 to the frame of the upper plane, and 20 to that of the lower plane, -omitting one at the centre, where the arm pieces will be placed. - -Some builders tack the ribs lightly into place with small brads, and -screw clamps formed from sheet brass or aluminum over them. Others -use copper nails and clinch them over washers on the under side. Both -methods are shown in the plans, but the clamps are recommended as -giving greater stiffness, an essential feature. - -At the front edge of the frames the ribs are fastened flush, and being -4 feet long and the frame but 3 feet wide, they project over the rear -about 1 foot. - -The arm pieces are bolted to the spars of the lower frame 6½ inches -on each side of the centre, so as to allow a free space of 13 inches -between them. This opening may be made wider to accommodate a stouter -person. - -[Illustration: Plan and details of Glider. The upper plane has a rib at -the centre instead of the two arm pieces.] - -The posts are then put into place and bolted to the struts and the -spars, as shown, with ⅛inch bolts. - -The entire structure is then to be braced diagonally with No. 16 piano -wire. The greatest care must be taken to have these diagonals pull just -taut, so that they shall not warp the lines of the frames out of true. -A crooked frame will not fly straight, and is a source of danger when -making a landing. - -The frames are now to be covered. There is a special balloon cloth -made which is best for the purpose, but if that cannot be procured, -strong cambric muslin will answer. Thirty yards of goods 1 yard wide -will be required for the planes and the rudder. From the piece cut off -7 lengths for each plane, 4 feet 6 inches long. These are to be sewed -together, selvage to selvage, so as to make a sheet about 19 feet 6 -inches long and 4 feet 6 inches wide. As this is to be tacked to the -frame, the edges must be double-hemmed to make them strong enough to -resist tearing out at the tacks. Half an inch is first folded down -all around; the fold is then turned back on the goods 2½ inches and -sewed. This hem is then folded back 1 inch upon itself, and again -stitched. Strips 3 inches wide and a little over 4 feet long are -folded “three-double” into a width of 1 inch, and sewed along both -edges to the large sheet exactly over where the ribs come. These are to -strengthen the fabric where the ribs press against it. Sixteen-ounce -tacks are used, being driven through a felt washer the size of a gun -wad at intervals of four inches. If felt is not readily obtainable, -common felt gun wads will do. The tacking is best begun at the middle -of the frame, having folded the cloth there to get the centre. Then -stretch smoothly out to the four corners and tack at each. It may -then be necessary to loosen the two centre tacks and place them over -again, to get rid of wrinkles. The next tacks to drive are at the ends -of the struts; then half-way between; and so on until all are in, and -the sheet is taut and smooth. For a finer finish, brass round-head -upholsterer’s nails may be used. - -The rudder, so-called, is rather a tail, for it is not movable and does -not steer the glider. It does steady the machine, however, and is very -important in preserving the equilibrium when in flight. It is formed of -two small planes intersecting each other at right angles and covered -on both sides with the cloth, the sections covering the vertical part -being cut along the centre and hemmed on to the upper and lower faces -of the horizontal part. The frame for the vertical part is fastened to -the two rudder bars which stretch out toward the rear, one from the -upper plane, and the other from the lower. The whole construction is -steadied by guys of the piano wire. - -[Illustration: Lilienthal in his double-deck glider. It proved -unmanageable and fell, causing his death. The hill is an artificial one -built for his own use in experimenting.] - -All wooden parts should be smoothed off with sandpaper, and given a -coat of shellac varnish. - -To make a glide, the machine is taken to an elevated point on a -slope, not far up to begin with. Lift the glider, get in between the -arm rests, and raise the apparatus until the rests are snug under the -arms. Run swiftly for a few yards and leap into the air, holding the -front of the planes slightly elevated. If the weight of the body is -in the right position, and the speed sufficient, the glider will take -the air and sail with you down the slope. It may be necessary at first -to have the help of two assistants, one at each end, to run with the -glider for a good start. - -[Illustration: Diagram showing differing lines of flight as controlled -by changing the position of the body. The wind must be blowing against -the direction of flight; in the illustration this would be from left to -right.] - -The position of the body on the arm rests can best be learned by a few -experiments. No two gliders are quite alike in this respect, and no -rule can be given. As to the requisite speed, it must be between 15 and -20 miles an hour; and as this speed is impossible to a man running, it -is gained by gliding against the wind, and thus adding the speed of the -wind to the speed of the runner. The Wrights selected the sand dunes of -the North Carolina coast for their glider experiments because of the -steady winds that blow in from the ocean, across the land. These winds -gave them the necessary speed of air upon which to sail their gliders. - -The first flights attempted should be short, and as experience is -gained longer ones may be essayed. - -Balancing the glider from side to side is accomplished by swaying the -lower part of the body like a pendulum, the weight to go toward the -side which has risen. Swinging the body forward on the arm rests will -cause the machine to dip the planes and glide more swiftly down the -incline. Holding the weight of the body back in the arm rests will -cause the machine to fly on a higher path and at a slower speed. This -is objectionable because the glider is more manageable at a higher -speed, and therefore safer. The tendency at first is to place the -weight too far back, with a consequent loss of velocity, and with that -a proportionate loss of control. The proper position of the body is -slightly forward of the mechanical centre of the machine. - -The landing is accomplished by shoving the body backward, thus tilting -up the front of the plane. This checks the speed, and when the feet -touch the ground a little run, while holding back, will bring the glide -to an end. Landing should be practised often with brief glides until -skill is gained, for it is the most difficult operation in gliding. - -After one becomes expert, longer flights may be secured by going to -higher points for the start. From an elevation of 300 feet a glide of -1,200 feet is possible. - -[Illustration: Gliding with a Chanute three-decker. A start with two -assistants.] - -While it is necessary to make glides against the wind, it is not wise -to attempt flights when the wind blows harder than 10 miles an hour. -While the flight may be successful, the landing may be disastrous. - -The accomplished glider operator is in line for the aeroplane, and it -is safe to say that he will not be long without one. The skilful and -practised operator of a glider makes the very best aeroplane pilot. - -This chapter would not be complete without an adequate reference to the -gliders devised by Professor Montgomery of Santa Clara, California. -These machines were sent up with ordinary hot-air balloons to various -heights, reaching 4,000 feet in some instances, when they were cut -loose and allowed to descend in a long glide, guided by their pilots. -The time of the descent from the highest altitude was twenty minutes, -during which the glider travelled about eight miles. The landing was -made accurately upon a designated spot, and so gently that there was no -perceptible jar. Two of the pilots turned completely over sideways, the -machine righting itself after the somersault and continuing its regular -course. Professor Montgomery has made the assertion that he can fasten -a bag of sand weighing 150 lbs. in the driver’s seat of his glider, -and send it up tied upside down under a balloon, and that after being -cut loose, the machine will right itself and come safely to the ground -without any steering. - -Lilienthal in Germany, Pilcher in England, and Chanute in the United -States are names eminent in connection with the experiments with -gliders which have been productive of discoveries of the greatest -importance to the progress of aviation. The illustration of the Chanute -glider shows its peculiarities plainly enough to enable any one to -comprehend them. - -The establishment of glider clubs in several parts of the country has -created a demand for ready-made machines, so that an enthusiast who -does not wish to build his own machine may purchase it ready made. - - - - -Chapter XIII. - -BALLOONS. - - First air vehicle--Principle of Archimedes--Why balloons - rise--Inflating gases--Early history--The Montgolfiers--The - hot-air balloon--Charles’s hydrogen balloon--Pilatre de - Rozier--The first aeronaut--The first balloon voyage--Blanchard - and Jeffries--Crossing the English Channel--First English - ascensions--Notable voyages--Recent long-distance journeys - and high ascensions--Prize balloon races--A fascinating - sport--Some impressions, adventures, and hardships--Accident - record--Increasing interest in ballooning. - - -The balloon, though the earliest and crudest means of getting up in the -air, has not become obsolete. It has been in existence practically in -its present general form for upwards of 500 years. Appliances have been -added from time to time, but the big gas envelope enclosing a volume of -some gas lighter than an equal volume of air, and the basket, or car, -suspended below it, remain as the typical form of aerial vehicle which -has not changed since it was first devised in times so remote as to lie -outside the boundaries of recorded history. - -The common shape of the gas bag of a balloon is that of the sphere, or -sometimes of an inverted pear. It is allowed to rise and float away in -the air as the prevailing wind may carry it. Attempts have been made to -steer it in a desired direction, but they did not accomplish much until -the gas bag was made long horizontally, in proportion to its height and -width. With a drag-rope trailing behind on the ground from the rear end -of the gas bag, and sails on the forward end, it was possible to guide -the elongated balloon to some extent in a determined direction. - -In explaining why a balloon rises in the air, it is customary to quote -the “principle of Archimedes,” discovered and formulated by that famous -philosopher centuries before the Christian era. Briefly stated, it is -this: Every body immersed in a fluid is acted upon by a force pressing -upward, which is equal to the weight of the amount of the fluid -displaced by the immersed body. - -It remained for Sir Isaac Newton to explain the principle of Archimedes -(by the discovery of the law of gravitation), and to show that the -reason why the immersed body is apparently pushed upward, is that the -displaced fluid is attracted downward. In the case of a submerged -bag of a gas lighter than air, the amount of force acting on the -surrounding air is greater than that acting on the gas, and the latter -is simply crowded out of the way by the descending air, and forced up -to a higher level where its lighter bulk is balanced by the gravity -acting upon it. - -The fluid in which the balloon is immersed is the air. The force -with which the air crowds down around and under the balloon is its -weight--weight being the measure of the attraction which gravity exerts -upon any substance. - -The weight of air at a temperature of 32° Fahr., at the normal -barometer pressure at the sea-level (29.92 inches of mercury), is -0.0807 lbs. per cubic foot. The gas used to fill a balloon must -therefore weigh less than this, bulk for bulk, in order to be crowded -upward by the heavier air--and thus exert its “lifting power,” as it is -commonly called. - -In practice, two gases have been used for inflating balloons--hydrogen, -and illuminating gas, made ordinarily from coal, and called “coal gas.” -Hydrogen is the lightest substance known; that is, it is attracted less -by gravity than any other known substance, in proportion to its bulk. - -[Illustration: One of the earliest attempts to steer a spherical -balloon by retarding its speed with the drag-rope, and adjusting the -sail to the passing wind.] - -A cubic foot of hydrogen weighs but 0.0056 lbs., and it will -therefore be pushed upward in air by the difference in weight, or -0.0751 lbs. per cubic foot. A cubic foot of coal gas weighs about -0.0400 lbs., and is crowded upward in air with a force of 0.0407 lbs. - -[Illustration: - - Apparatus to illustrate the principle of Archimedes. At the left, - the small solid glass ball and large hollow glass sphere are - balanced in the free air. When the balance is moved under the - bell-glass of the air pump (at the right), and the air exhausted, - the large sphere drops, showing that its previous balance was due - to the upward pressure of the air, greater because of its larger - bulk.] - -It is readily seen that a very large bulk of hydrogen must be used -if any considerable weight is to be lifted. For to the weight of the -gas must be added the weight of the containing bag, the car, and the -network supporting it, the ballast, instruments, and passengers, and -there must still be enough more to afford elevating power sufficient to -raise the entire load to the desired level. - -Let us assume that we have a balloon with a volume of 20,000 cubic -feet, which weighs with its appurtenances 500 pounds. The hydrogen -it would contain would weigh about 112 pounds, and the weight of -the air it would displace would be about 1,620 pounds. The total -available lifting power would be about 1,000 pounds. If a long-distance -journey is to be undertaken at a comparatively low level, this will -be sufficient to carry the necessary ballast, and a few passengers. -If, however, it is intended to rise to a great height, the problem -is different. The weight of the air, and consequently its lifting -pressure, decreases as we go upwards. If the balloon has not been -entirely filled, the gas will expand as the pressure is reduced in the -higher altitude. This has the effect of carrying the balloon higher. -Heating of the contained gas by the sun will also cause a rise. On -the other hand, the diffusion of the gas through the envelope into -the air, and the penetration of air into the gas bag will produce a -mixture heavier than hydrogen, and will cause the balloon to descend. -The extreme cold of the upper air has the same effect, as it tends to -condense to a smaller bulk the gas in the balloon. To check a descent -the load carried by the gas must be lightened by throwing out some of -the ballast, which is carried simply for this purpose. Finally a level -is reached where equilibrium is established, and above which it is -impossible to rise. - -The earliest recorded ascent of a balloon is credited to the Chinese, -on the occasion of the coronation of the Emperor Fo-Kien at Pekin in -the year 1306. If this may be called historical, it gives evidence also -that it speedily became a lost art. The next really historic record -belongs in the latter part of the seventeenth century, when Cyrano de -Bergerac attempted to fly with the aid of bags of air attached to his -person, expecting them to be so expanded by the heat of the sun as to -rise with sufficient force to lift him. He did not succeed, but his -idea is plainly the forerunner of the hot-air balloon. - -In the same century Francisco de Lana, who was clearly a man of -much intelligence and keen reasoning ability, having determined by -experiment that the atmosphere had weight, decided that he would be -able to rise into the air in a ship lifted by four metal spheres 20 -feet in diameter from which the air had been exhausted. After several -failures he abandoned his efforts upon the religious grounds that the -Almighty doubtless did not approve such an overturning in the affairs -of mankind as would follow the attainment of the art of flying. - -In 1757, Galen, a French monk, published a book, “The Art of Navigating -in the Air,” in which he advocated filling the body of the airship -with air secured at a great height above the sea-level, where it was -“a thousand times lighter than water.” He showed by mathematical -computations that the upward impulse of this air would be sufficient -to lift a heavy load. He planned in detail a great airship to carry -4,000,000 persons and several million packages of goods. Though it may -have accomplished nothing more, this book is believed to have been the -chief source of inspiration to the Montgolfiers. - -The discovery of hydrogen by Cavendish in 1776 gave Dr. Black the -opportunity of suggesting that it be used to inflate a large bag and -so lift a heavy load into the air. Although he made no attempt to -construct such an apparatus, he afterward claimed that through this -suggestion he was entitled to be called the real inventor of the -balloon. - -This is the meagre historical record preceding the achievements of -the brothers Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, which marked distinctly -the beginning of practical aeronautics. Both of these men were highly -educated, and they were experienced workers in their father’s paper -factory. Joseph had made some parachute drops from the roof of his -house as early as 1771. - -After many experiments with steam, smoke, and hydrogen gas, with which -they tried ineffectually to inflate large paper bags, they finally -succeeded with heated air, and on June 5, 1783, they sent up a great -paper hot-air balloon, 35 feet in diameter. It rose to a height of -1,000 feet, but soon came to earth again upon cooling. It appears that -the Montgolfiers were wholly ignorant of the fact that it was the -rarefying of the air by heating that caused their balloon to rise, and -they made no attempt to keep it hot while the balloon was in the air. - -[Illustration: An early Montgolfier balloon.] - -About the same time the French scientist, M. Charles, decided that -hydrogen gas would be better than hot air to inflate balloons. Finding -that this gas passed readily through paper, he used silk coated with a -varnish made by dissolving rubber. His balloon was 13 feet in diameter, -and weighed about 20 pounds. It was sent up from the Champ de Mars -on August 29, 1783, amidst the booming of cannon, in the presence of -300,000 spectators who assembled despite a heavy rain. It rose swiftly, -disappearing among the clouds, and soon burst from the expansion of -the gas in the higher and rarer atmosphere--no allowance having been -made for this unforeseen result. It fell in a rural region near Paris, -where it was totally destroyed by the inhabitants, who believed it to -be some hideous form of the devil. - -The Montgolfiers had already come to Paris, and had constructed a -balloon of linen and paper. Before they had opportunity of sending it -up it was ruined by a rainstorm with a high wind. They immediately -built another of waterproof linen which made a successful ascension on -September 19, 1783, taking as passengers a sheep, a cock, and a duck. -The balloon came safely to earth after being up eight minutes--falling -in consequence of a leak in the air-bag near the top. The passengers -were examined with great interest. The sheep and the duck seemed in -the same excellent condition as when they went up, but the cock was -evidently ailing. A consultation of scientists was held and it was the -consensus of opinion that the fowl could not endure breathing the rarer -air of the high altitude. At this juncture some one discovered that the -cock had been trodden upon by the sheep, and the consultation closed -abruptly. - -The Montgolfier brothers were loaded with honors, Stephen receiving the -larger portion; and the people of Paris entered enthusiastically into -the sport of making and flying small balloons of the Montgolfier type. - -Stephen began work at once upon a larger balloon intended to carry -human passengers. It was fifty feet in diameter, and 85 feet high, with -a capacity of 100,000 cubic feet. The car for the passengers was swung -below from cords in the fashion that has since become so familiar. - -In the meantime Pilatre de Rozier had constructed a balloon on the -hot-air principle, but with an arrangement to keep the air heated by a -continuous fire in a pan under the mouth of the balloon. He made the -first balloon ascent on record on October 15, 1783, rising to a height -of eighty feet, in the captive balloon. On November 21, in the same -year, de Rozier undertook an expedition in a free balloon with the -Marquis d’Arlandes as a companion. The experiment was to have been made -with two condemned criminals, but de Rozier and d’Arlandes succeeded in -obtaining the King’s permission to make the attempt, and in consequence -their names remain as those of the first aeronauts. They came safely -to the ground after a voyage lasting twenty-five minutes. After this, -ascensions speedily became a recognized sport, even for ladies. - -The greatest altitude reached by these hot-air balloons was about 9,000 -feet. - -[Illustration: Pilatre de Rozier’s balloon.] - -The great danger from fire, however, led to the closer consideration -of the hydrogen balloon of Professor Charles, who was building one of -30 feet diameter for the study of atmospheric phenomena. His mastery -of the subject is shown by the fact that his balloon was equipped with -almost every device afterward in use by the most experienced aeronauts. -He invented the valve at the top of the bag for allowing the escape -of gas in landing, the open neck to permit expansion, the network of -cords to support the car, the grapnel for anchoring, and the use of a -small pilot balloon to test the air-currents before the ascension. He -also devised a barometer by which he was able to measure the altitude -reached by the pressure of the atmosphere. - -To provide the hydrogen gas required he used the chemical method of -pouring dilute sulphuric acid on iron filings. The process was so -slow that it took continuous action for three days and three nights -to secure the 14,000 cubic feet needed, but his balloon was finally -ready on December 1, 1783. One of the brothers Robert accompanied -Charles, and they travelled about 40 miles in a little less than 4 -hours, alighting at Nesles. Here Robert landed and Charles continued -the voyage alone. Neglecting to take on board ballast to replace -the weight of M. Robert, Charles was carried to a great height, and -suffered severely from cold and the difficulty of breathing in the -highly rarefied air. He was obliged to open his gas valve and descend -after half an hour’s flight alone. - -Blanchard, another French inventor, about this time constructed a -balloon with the intention of being the first to cross the English -Channel in the air. He took his balloon to Dover and with Dr. Jeffries, -an American, started on January 7, 1785. His balloon was leaky and he -had loaded it down with a lot of useless things in the way of oars, -provisions, and other things. All of this material and the ballast -had to be thrown overboard at the outset, and books and parts of the -balloon followed. Even their clothing had to be thrown over to keep the -balloon out of the sea, and at last, when Dr. Jeffries had determined -to jump out to enable his friend to reach the shore, an upward current -of wind caught them and with great difficulty they landed near Calais. -The feat was highly lauded and a monument in marble was erected on the -spot to perpetuate the record of the achievement. - -De Rozier lost his life soon after in the effort to duplicate this trip -across the Channel with his combination hydrogen and hot-air balloon. -His idea seems to have been that he could preserve the buoyancy of -his double balloon by heating up the air balloon at intervals. -Unfortunately, the exuding of the hydrogen as the balloons rose formed -an explosive mixture with the air he was rising through, and it was -drawn to his furnace, and an explosion took place which blew the entire -apparatus into fragments at an altitude of over 1,000 feet. - -[Illustration: Car and hoop of the Blanchard balloon, the first to -cross the English Channel.] - -Count Zambeccari, an Italian, attempted to improve the de Rozier -method of firing a balloon by substituting a large alcohol lamp for -the wood fire. In the first two trial trips he fell into the sea, but -was rescued. On the third trip his balloon was swept into a tree, and -the overturned lamp set it on fire. To escape being burned, he threw -himself from the balloon and was killed by the fall. - -The year before these feats on the Continent two notable balloon -ascensions had taken place in England. On August 27, 1784, an aeronaut -by the name of Tytler made the first balloon voyage within the -boundaries of Great Britain. His balloon was of linen and varnished, -and the record of his ascension indicates that he used hydrogen gas to -inflate it. He soared to a great height, and descended safely. - -A few weeks later, the Italian aeronaut Lunardi made his first ascent -from London. The spectacle drew the King and his councillors from their -deliberations, and the balloon was watched until it disappeared. He -landed in Standon, near Ware, where a stone was set to record the -event. On October 12, he made his famous voyage from Edinburgh over the -Firth of Forth to Ceres; a distance of 46 miles in 35 minutes, or at -the rate of nearly 79 miles per hour; a speed rarely equalled by the -swiftest railroad trains. - -From this time on balloons multiplied rapidly and the ascents were too -numerous for recording in these pages. The few which have been selected -for mention are notable either for the great distances traversed, or -for the speed with which the journeys were made. It should be borne -in mind that the fastest method of land travel in the early part of -the period covered was by stage coach; and the sailing ship was the -only means of crossing the water. It is no wonder that often the -people among whom the aeronauts landed on a balloon voyage refused to -believe the statements made as to the distance they had come, and the -marvellously short time it had taken. And even as compared with the -most rapid transit of the present day, the speeds attained in many -cases have never been equalled. - -A remarkable English voyage was made in June, 1802, by the French -aeronaut Garnerin and Captain Snowdon. They ascended from Chelsea -Gardens and landed in Colchester, 60 miles distant, in 45 minutes: an -average speed of 80 miles an hour. - -On December 16, 1804, Garnerin ascended from the square in front -of Notre Dame, Paris; passing over France and into Italy, sailing -above St. Peter’s at Rome, and the Vatican, and descending into Lake -Bracciano--a distance of 800 miles in 20 hours. This voyage was made -as a part of the coronation ceremonies of Napoleon I. The balloon was -afterwards hung up in a corridor of the Vatican. - -On October 7, 1811, Sadler and Burcham voyaged from Birmingham to -Boston (England), 112 miles in 1 hour 40 minutes, a speed of 67 miles -per hour. - -On November 17, 1836, Charles Green and Monck Mason started on a voyage -in the great balloon of the Vauxhall Gardens. It was pear-shaped, 60 -feet high and 50 feet in diameter, and held 85,000 cubic feet of gas. -It was cut loose at half-past one in the afternoon, and in 3 hours had -reached the English Channel, and in 1 hour more had crossed it, and -was nearly over Calais. During the night it floated on over France -in pitchy darkness and such intense cold that the oil was frozen. In -the morning the aeronauts descended a few miles from Weilburg, in -the Duchy of Nassau, having travelled about 500 miles in 18 hours. At -that date, by the fastest coaches the trip would have consumed three -days. The balloon was rechristened “The Great Balloon of Nassau” by the -enthusiastic citizens of Weilburg. - -[Illustration: - - Prof. T. S. C. Lowe’s mammoth balloon “City of New York,” a - feature of the year 1860, in which it made many short voyages in - the vicinity of New York and Philadelphia.] - -In 1849, M. Arban crossed the Alps in a balloon, starting at Marseilles -and landing at Turin--a distance of 400 miles in 8 hours. This -remarkable record for so long a distance at a high speed has rarely -been equalled. It was exceeded as to distance at the same speed by the -American aeronaut, John Wise, in 1859. - -One of the most famous balloons of recent times was the “Geant,” built -by M. Nadar, in Paris, in 1853. The immense gas-bag was made of silk of -the finest quality costing at that time about $1.30 a yard, and being -made double, it required 22,000 yards. It had a capacity of 215,000 -cubic feet of gas, and lifted 4½ tons. The car was 13 feet square, -and had an upper deck which was open. On its first ascent it carried -15 passengers, including M. Nadar as captain, and the brothers Godard -as lieutenants. A few weeks later this balloon was set free for a -long-distance journey, and 17 hours after it left Paris it landed at -Nieuburg in Hanover, having traversed 750 miles, a part of the time at -the speed of fully 90 miles per hour. - -In July, 1859, John Wise, an American aeronaut, journeyed from St. -Louis, Mo., to Henderson, N. Y., a distance of 950 miles in 19 hours. -His average speed was 50 miles per hour. This record for duration at so -high a rate of speed has never been exceeded. - -During the siege of Paris in 1870, seventy-three balloons were sent -out from that city carrying mail and dispatches. These were under -Government direction, and receive notice in a subsequent chapter -devoted to Military Aeronautics. One of these balloons is entitled to -mention among those famous for rapid journeys, having travelled to the -Zuyder Zee, a distance of 285 miles, in 3 hours--an average speed of 95 -miles per hour. Another of these postal balloons belongs in the extreme -long-distance class, having come down in Norway nearly 1,000 miles from -Paris. - -In July, 1897, the Arctic explorer Andrée started on his voyage to the -Pole. As some of his instruments have been recently recovered from -a wandering band of Esquimaux, it is believed that a record of his -voyage may yet be secured. - -In the same year a balloon under the command of Godard ascended -at Leipsic, and after a wandering journey in an irregular course, -descended at Wilna. The distance travelled was estimated at 1,032 -miles, but as balloon records are always based on the airline distance -between the places of ascent and descent, this record has not been -accepted as authoritative. The time consumed was 24¼ hours. - -In 1899, Captain von Sigsfield, Captain Hildebrandt, and a companion -started from Berlin in a wind so strong that it prevented the taking -on of an adequate load of ballast. They rose into a gale, and in two -hours were over Breslau, having made the distance at a speed of 92 -miles per hour. In the grasp of the storm they continued their swift -journey, landing finally high up in the snows of the Carpathian Alps in -Austria. They were arrested by the local authorities as Russian spies, -but succeeded in gaining their liberty by telegraphing to an official -more closely in touch with the aeronautics of the day. - -In 1900 there were several balloon voyages notable for their length. -Jacques Balsan travelled from Vincennes to Dantzig, 757 miles; Count -de la Vaulx journeyed from Vincennes to Poland, 706 miles; Jacques -Faure from Vincennes to Mamlity, 753 miles. In a subsequent voyage -Jacques Balsan travelled from Vincennes to Rodom, in Russia, 843 miles, -in 27½ hours. - -[Illustration: The balloon in which Coxwell and Glaisher made their -famous ascent of 29,000 feet.] - -One of the longest balloon voyages on record in point of time consumed -is that of Dr. Wegener of the Observatory at Lindenberg, in 1905. He -remained in the air for 52¾ hours. - -The longest voyage, as to distance, up to 1910, was that of Count de -La Vaulx and Count Castillon de Saint Victor in 1906, in the balloon -“Centaur.” This was a comparatively small balloon, having a capacity -of only 55,000 cubic feet of gas. The start was made from Vincennes on -October 9th, and the landing at Korostischeff, in Russia, on October -11th. The air-line distance travelled was 1,193 miles, in 35¾ hours. -The balloon “Centaur” was afterward purchased by the Aero Club of -America, and has made many voyages in this country. - -The Federation Aeronautique Internationale, an association of the -aeronauts of all nations, was founded in 1905. One of its functions is -an annual balloon race for the International Challenge Cup, presented -to the association by James Gordon Bennett, to be an object for -competition until won three times by some one competing national club. - -The first contest took place in September, 1906, and was won by the -American competitor, Lieut. Frank P. Lahm, with a voyage of 402 miles. - -The second contest was from St. Louis, Mo., in 1907. There were three -German, two French, one English, and three American competitors. The -race was won by Oscar Erbslöh, one of the German competitors, with an -air-line voyage of 872¼ miles, landing at Bradley Beach, N. J. Alfred -Leblanc, now a prominent aviator, was second with a voyage of 867 -miles, made in 44 hours. He also landed in New Jersey. - -The third race started at Berlin in October, 1908, and was won by the -Swiss balloon “Helvetia,” piloted by Colonel Schaeck, which landed in -Norway after having been 74 hours in the air, and covering a journey of -750 miles. This broke the previous duration record made by Dr. Wegener -in 1905. - -The fourth contest began on October 3, 1909, from Zurich, Switzerland. -There were seventeen competing balloons, and the race was won by E. W. -Mix, representing the Aero Club of America, with a voyage of 589 miles. - -The fifth contest began at St. Louis, October 17, 1910. It was won by -Alan P. Hawley and Augustus Post, with the “America II.” They travelled -1,355 miles in 46 hours, making a new world’s record for distance. - -Among other notable voyages may be mentioned that of the “Fielding” -in a race on July 4, 1908, from Chicago. The landing was made at West -Shefford, Quebec, the distance travelled being 895 miles. - -In November of the same year A. E. Gaudron, Captain Maitland, and C. C. -Turner, made the longest voyage on record from England. They landed at -Mateki Derevni, in Russia, having travelled 1,117 miles in 31½ hours. -They were driven down to the ground by a severe snowstorm. - -On December 31, 1908, M. Usuelli, in the balloon “Ruwenzori” left the -Italian lakes and passed over the Alps at a height of 14,750 feet, -landing in France. This feat was followed a few weeks later--February -9, 1909--by Oscar Erbslöh, who left St. Moritz with three passengers, -crossing the Alps at an altitude of 19,000 feet, and landed at Budapest -after a voyage of 33 hours. Many voyages over and among the Alps -have been made by Captain Spelterini, the Swiss aeronaut, and he has -secured some of the most remarkable photographs of the mountain scenery -in passing. In these voyages at such great altitudes it is necessary -to carry cylinders of oxygen to provide a suitable air mixture for -breathing. In one of his recent voyages Captain Spelterini had the good -fortune to be carried almost over the summit of Mont Blanc. He ascended -with three passengers at Chamounix, and landed at Lake Maggiore seven -hours later, having reached the altitude of 18,700 feet, and travelled -93 miles. - -[Illustration: Photograph of the Alps from a balloon by Captain -Spelterini.] - -In the United States there were several balloon races during the year -1909, the most important being the St. Louis Centennial race, beginning -on October 4th. Ten balloons started. The race was won by S. von Phul, -who covered the distance of 550 miles in 40 hours 40 minutes. Clifford -B. Harmon and Augustus Post in the balloon “New York” made a new -duration record for America of 48 hours 26 minutes. They also reached -the highest altitude attained by an American balloon--24,200 feet. - -On October 12th, in a race for the Lahm cup, A. Holland Forbes and Col. -Max Fleischman won. They left St. Louis, Mo., and landed 19 hours and -15 minutes later at Beach, Va., near Richmond, having travelled 697 -miles. - -In 1910, in the United States, a remarkable race, with thirteen -competitors, started at Indianapolis. This was the elimination race -for the International race on October 17th. It was won by Alan P. -Hawley and Augustus Post in the balloon “America II.” They crossed the -Alleghany Mountains at an elevation of about 20,000 feet, and landed -at Warrenton, Va., after being 44 hours 30 minutes in the air; and -descended only to escape being carried out over Chesapeake Bay. - -In recent years the greatest height reached by a balloon was attained -by the Italian aeronauts Piacenza and Mina in the “Albatross,” on -August 9, 1909. They went up from Turin to the altitude of 30,350 feet. -The world’s height record rests with Professors Berson and Suring of -Berlin, who on July 31, 1901, reached 35,500 feet. The record of 37,000 -feet claimed by Glaisher and Coxwell in their ascension on September 5, -1862, has been rejected as not authentic for several discrepancies in -their observations, and on the ground that their instruments were not -of the highest reliability. As they carried no oxygen, and reported -that for a time they were both unconscious, it is estimated that the -highest point they could have reached under the conditions was less -than 31,000 feet. - -The greatest speed ever recorded for any balloon voyage was that -of Captain von Sigsfield and Dr. Linke in their fatal journey from -Berlin to Antwerp, during which the velocity of 125 miles per hour was -recorded. - -Ballooning as a sport has a fascination all its own. There is much of -the spice of adventure in the fact that one’s destiny is quite unknown. -Floating with the wind, there is no consciousness of motion. Though -the wind may be travelling at great speed, the balloon seems to be -in a complete calm. A lady passenger, writing of a recent trip, has -thus described her experience:--“The world continues slowly to unroll -itself in ever-varying but ever-beautiful panorama--patchwork fields, -shimmering silver streaks, toy box churches and houses, and white roads -like the joints of a jig-saw puzzle. And presently cotton-wool billows -come creeping up, with purple shadows and fleecy outlines and prismatic -rainbow effects. Sometimes they invade the car, and shroud it for a -while in clinging warm white wreaths, and anon they fall below and -shut out the world with a glorious curtain, and we are all alone in -perfect silence, in perfect peace, and in a realm made for us alone. - -“And so the happy, restful hours go smoothly by, until the earth has -had enough of it, and rising up more or less rapidly to invade our -solitude, hits the bottom of our basket, and we step out, or maybe roll -out, into every-day existence a hundred miles away.” - -The perfect smoothness of motion, the absolute quiet, and the absence -of distracting apparatus combine to render balloon voyaging the most -delightful mode of transit from place to place. Some of the most -fascinating bits of descriptive writing are those of aeronauts. The -following quotation from the report of Capt. A. Hildebrandt, of the -balloon corps of the Prussian army, will show that although his -expeditions were wholly scientific, he was far from indifferent to the -sublimer influences of nature by which he was often surrounded. - -In his account of the journey from Berlin to Markaryd, in Sweden, with -Professor Berson as a companion aeronaut, he says: “The view over Rügen -and the chalk cliffs of Stubbenkammer and Arkona was splendid: the -atmosphere was perfectly clear. On the horizon we could see the coasts -of Sweden and Denmark, looking almost like a thin mist; east and west -there was nothing but the open sea. - -“About 3:15 the balloon was in the middle of the Baltic; right in the -distance we could just see Rügen and Sweden. The setting of the sun at -4 P.M. was a truly magnificent spectacle. At a height of 5,250 feet, in -a perfectly clear atmosphere, the effect was superb. The blaze of color -was dimly reflected in the east by streaks of a bluish-green. I have -seen sunsets over France at heights of 10,000 feet, with the Alps, the -Juras, and the Vosges Mountains in the distance; but this was quite as -fine. - -“The sunsets seen by the mountaineer or the sailor are doubtless, -magnificent; but I hardly think the spectacle can be finer than that -spread out before the gaze of the balloonist. The impression is -increased by the absolute stillness which prevails; no sound of any -kind is heard. - -[Illustration: Landscape as seen from a balloon at an altitude of 3,000 -feet.] - -“As soon as the sun went down, it was necessary to throw out some -ballast, owing to the decrease of temperature.... We reached the -Swedish coast about 5 o’clock, and passed over Trelleborg at a -height of 2,000 feet. The question then arose whether to land, or to -continue through the night. Although it was well past sunset, there -was sufficient light in consequence of the snow to see our way to -the ground, and to land quite easily.... However, we wanted to do more -meteorological work, and it was thought that there was still sufficient -ballast to take us up to a much greater height. We therefore proposed -to continue for another sixteen hours during the night, in spite of the -cold.... Malmö was therefore passed on the left, and the university -town of Lund on the right. After this the map was of no further use, -as it was quite dark and we had no lamp. The whole outlook was like a -transformation scene. Floods of light rose up from Trelleborg, Malmö, -Copenhagen, Landskrona, Lund, Elsinore, and Helsingborg, while the -little towns beneath our feet sparkled with many lights. We were now at -a height of more than 10,000 feet, and consequently all these places -were within sight. The glistening effect of the snow was heightened by -the blaze which poured from the lighthouses along the coasts of Sweden -and Denmark. The sight was as wonderful as that of the sunset, though -of a totally different nature.” - -Captain Hildebrandt’s account of the end of this voyage illustrates the -spice of adventure which is likely to be encountered when the balloon -comes down in a strange country. It has its hint also of the hardships -for which the venturesome aeronaut has to be prepared. He says:-- - -“Sooner or later the balloon would have been at the mercy of the -waves. The valve was opened, and the balloon descended through the -thick clouds. We could see nothing, but the little jerks showed us -that the guide-rope was touching the ground. In a few seconds we saw -the ground, and learned that we were descending into a forest which -enclosed a number of small lakes. At once more ballast was thrown out, -and we skimmed along over the tops of the trees. Soon we crossed a big -lake, and saw a place that seemed suitable for a descent. The valve -was then opened, both of us gave a tug at the ripping cord, and after -a few bumps we found ourselves on the ground. We had come down in deep -snow on the side of a wood, about 14 miles from the railway station at -Markaryd. - -[Illustration: Making a landing with the aid of bystanders to pull down -upon the trail-rope and a holding rope.] - -“We packed up our instruments, and began to look out for a cottage; -but this is not always an easy task in the dead of night in a foreign -country. However, in a quarter of an hour we found a farm, and -succeeded in rousing the inmates. A much more difficult job was to -influence them to open their front door to two men who talked some -sort of double Dutch, and who suddenly appeared at a farmyard miles -off the highway in the middle of the night and demanded admittance. -Berson can talk in six languages, but unfortunately Swedish is not one -of them. He begged in the most humble way for shelter ... and at the -end of three-quarters of an hour the farmer opened the door. We showed -him some pictures of a balloon we had with us, and then they began -to understand the situation. We were then received with truly Swedish -hospitality, and provided with supper. They even proposed to let us -have their beds; but this we naturally declined with many thanks.... -The yard contained hens, pigs, cows, and sheep; but an empty corner -was found, which was well packed with straw, and served as a couch for -our tired limbs. We covered ourselves with our great-coats, and tried -to sleep. But the temperature was 10° Fahr., and as the place was only -an outhouse of boards roughly nailed together, and the wind whistling -through the cracks and crevices, we were not sorry when the daylight -came.” - -Lest the possibility of accident to travellers by balloon be judged -greater than it really is, it may be well to state that records -collected in Germany in 1906 showed that in 2,061 ascents in which -7,570 persons participated, only 36 were injured--or but 1 out of 210. -Since that time, while the balloon itself has remained practically -unchanged, better knowledge of atmospheric conditions has aided in -creating an even more favorable record for recent years. - -That the day of ordinary ballooning has not been dimmed by the advent -of the airship and the aeroplane is evidenced by the recently made -estimate that not less than 800 spherical balloons are in constant -use almost daily in one part or another of Christendom. And it seems -entirely reasonable to predict that with a better comprehension of the -movements of air-currents--to which special knowledge the scientific -world is now applying its investigations as never before--they will -come a great increase of interest in simple ballooning as a recreation. - - - - -Chapter XIV. - -BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. - - Elongation of - gas-bag--Brisson--Meusnier--Air-ballonnets--Scott--Giffard--Haenlein--Tissandier--Renard - and Krebs--Schwartz--Santos-Dumont--Von - Zeppelin--Roze--Severo--Bradsky-Leboun--The Lebaudy - dirigible--Zeppelin II--Parseval I--Unequal wind - pressures--Zeppelin III--Nulli Secundus--La - Patrie--Ville-de-Paris--Zeppelin IV--Gross I--Parseval - II--Clement-Bayard I--Ricardoni’s airship--Gross II--The - new Zeppelin II--La Republique--The German fleet of - dirigibles--Parseval V--The Deutschland--The Erbslöh--Gross - III--Zeppelin VI--The America--Clement-Bayard III--The Capazza - lenticular dirigible. - - -The dirigible balloon, or airship, is built on the same general -principles as the ordinary balloon--that is, with the envelope to -contain the lifting gas, the car to carry the load, and the suspending -cordage--but to this is added some form of propelling power to enable -it to make headway against the wind, and a rudder for steering it. - -Almost from the very beginning of ballooning, some method of directing -the balloon to a pre-determined goal had been sought by inventors. -Drifting at the fickle pleasure of the prevailing wind did not accord -with man’s desire for authority and control. - -The first step in this direction was the change from the spherical -form of the gas-bag to an elongated shape, the round form having an -inclination to turn round and round in the air while floating, and -having no bow-and-stern structure upon which steering devices could -operate. The first known proposal in this direction was made by -Brisson, a French scientist, who suggested building the gas-bag in the -shape of a horizontal cylinder with conical ends, its length to be -five or six times its diameter. His idea for its propulsion was the -employment of large-bladed oars, but he rightly doubted whether human -strength would prove sufficient to work these rapidly enough to give -independent motion to the airship. - -About the same time another French inventor had actually built a -balloon with a gas-bag shaped like an egg and placed horizontally with -the blunt end foremost. The reduction in the resistance of the air to -this form was so marked that the elongated gas-bag quickly displaced -the former spherical shape. This balloon was held back from travelling -at the full speed of the wind by the clever device of a rope dragging -on the ground; and by a sail rigged so as to act on the wind which -blew past the retarded balloon, the navigator was able to steer it -within certain limits. It was the first dirigible balloon. - -In the same year the brothers Robert, of Paris, built an airship for -the Duke of Chartres, under the direction of General Meusnier, a French -officer of engineers. It was cylindrical, with hemispherical ends, 52 -feet long and 32 feet in diameter, and contained 30,000 cubic feet of -gas. The gas-bag was made double to prevent the escape of the hydrogen, -which had proved very troublesome in previous balloons, and it was -provided with a spherical air balloon inside of the gas-bag, which -device was expected to preserve the form of the balloon unchanged by -expanding or contracting, according to the rising or falling of the -airship. When the ascension was made on July 6, 1784, the air-balloon -stuck fast in the neck of the gas-bag, and so prevented the escape of -gas as the hydrogen expanded in the increasing altitude. The gas-bag -would have burst had not the Duke drawn his sword and slashed a vent -for the imprisoned gas. The airship came safely to earth. - -It was General Meusnier who first suggested the interior ballonnet of -air to preserve the tense outline of the form of the airship, and the -elliptical form for the gas-bag was another of his inventions. In the -building of the airship of the Duke de Chartres he made the further -suggestion that the space between the two envelopes be filled with -air, and so connected with the air-pumps that it could be inflated -or deflated at will. For the motive power he designed three screw -propellers of one blade each, to be turned unceasingly by a crew of -eighty men. - -Meusnier was killed in battle in 1793, and aeronautics lost its most -able developer at that era. - -[Illustration: The Scott airship, showing the forward “pocket” -partially drawn in.] - -In 1789, Baron Scott, an officer in the French army, devised a -fish-shaped airship with two outside balloon-shaped “pockets” which -could be forcibly drawn into the body of the airship to increase its -density, and thus cause its descent. - -It began to be realized that no adequate power existed by which -balloons could be propelled against even light winds to such a degree -that they were really controllable, and balloon ascensions came to -be merely an adjunct of the exhibit of the travelling showman. For -this reason the early part of the nineteenth century seems barren of -aeronautical incident as compared with the latter part of the preceding -century. - -In 1848, Hugh Bell, an Englishman, built a cylindrical airship with -convex pointed ends. It was 55 feet long and 21 feet in diameter. It -had a keel-shaped framework of tubes to which the long narrow car was -attached, and there was a screw propeller on each side, to be worked by -hand, and a rudder to steer with. It failed to work. - -In 1852, however, a new era opened for the airship. Henry Giffard, of -Paris, the inventor of the world-famed injector for steam boilers, -built an elliptical gas-bag with cigar-shaped ends, 144 feet long, -and 40 feet in diameter, having a cubic content of 88,000 cubic feet. -The car was suspended from a rod 66 feet long which hung from the -net covering the gas-bag. It was equipped with a 3-horse-power steam -engine which turned a two-bladed screw propeller 11 feet in diameter, -at the rate of 110 revolutions per minute. Coke was used for fuel. -The steering was done with a triangular rudder-sail. Upon trial on -September 24, 1852, the airship proved a success, travelling at the -rate of nearly 6 miles an hour. - -[Illustration: The first Giffard dirigible.] - -Giffard built a second airship in 1855, of a much more elongated -shape--235 feet long and 33 feet in diameter. He used the same engine -which propelled his first ship. After a successful trial trip, when -about to land, the gas-bag unaccountably turned up on end, allowing -the net and car to slide off, and, rising slightly in the air, burst. -Giffard and his companion escaped unhurt. - -Giffard afterward built the large captive balloon for the London -Exhibition in 1868, and the still larger one for the Paris Exposition -in 1878. He designed a large airship to be fitted with two boilers and -a powerful steam-engine, but became blind, and died in 1882. - -[Illustration: The Haenlein airship inflated with coal gas and driven -by a gas-engine.] - -In 1865, Paul Haenlein devised a cigar-shaped airship to be inflated -with coal gas. It was to be propelled by a screw at the front to be -driven by a gas-engine drawing its fuel from the gas in the body of the -ship. An interior air-bag was to be expanded as the gas was consumed, -to keep the shape intact. A second propeller revolving horizontally was -intended to raise or lower the ship in the air. - -It was not until 1872 that he finally secured the building of an -airship, at Vienna, after his plans. It was 164 feet long, and 30 -feet in diameter. The form of the gas-bag was that described by the -keel of a ship rotated around the centre line of its deck as an axis. -The engine was of the Lenoir type, with four horizontal cylinders, -developing about 6 horse-power, and turned a propeller about 15 feet -in diameter at the rate of 40 revolutions per minute. The low lifting -power of the coal gas with which it was inflated caused it to float -quite near the ground. With a consumption of 250 cubic feet of gas per -hour, it travelled at a speed of ten miles an hour. The lack of funds -seems to have prevented further experiments with an invention which was -at least very promising. - -[Illustration: Sketch of the De Lome airship.] - -In the same year a dirigible balloon built by Dupuy de Lome for use by -the French Government during the siege of Paris, was given a trial. It -was driven by a screw propeller turned by eight men, and although it -was 118 feet long, and 49 feet in diameter, it made as good a speed -record as Giffard’s steam-driven airship--six miles an hour. - -[Illustration: Car of the Tissandier dirigible; driven by electricity.] - -In 1881, the brothers Albert and Gaston Tissandier exhibited at the -Electrical Exhibition in Paris a model of an electrically driven -airship, originally designed to establish communication with Paris -during the siege of the Franco-Prussian War. In 1883, the airship -built after this model was tried. It was 92 feet long, and 30 feet at -its largest diameter. The motive power was a Siemens motor run by 24 -bichromate cells of 17 lbs. each. At full speed the motor made 180 -revolutions per minute, developing 1½ horse-power. The pull was 26 lbs. -The propeller was 9 feet in diameter, and a speed of a little more than -6 miles an hour was attained. - -[Illustration: Sketch of the Renard and Krebs airship _La France_, -driven by a storage battery.] - -In 1884, two French army engineers, Renard and Krebs, built an airship, -the now historic _La France_, with the shape of a submarine torpedo. It -was 165 feet long and about 27 feet in diameter at the largest part. It -had a gas content of 66,000 cubic feet. A 9 horse-power Gramme electric -motor was installed, driven by a storage battery. This operated the -screw propeller 20 feet in diameter, which was placed at the forward -end of the long car. The trial was made on the 9th of August, and was -a complete success. The ship was sailed with the wind for about 2½ -miles, and then turned about and made its way back against the wind -till it stood directly over its starting point, and was drawn down to -the ground by its anchor ropes. The trip of about 5 miles was made in -23 minutes. In seven voyages undertaken the airship was steered back -safely to its starting point five times. - -This first airship which really deserved the name marked an era in the -development of this type of aircraft. In view of its complete success -it is astonishing that nothing further was done in this line in France -for fifteen years, when Santos-Dumont began his series of record-making -flights. Within this period, however, the gasoline motor had been -adapted to the needs of the automobile, and thus a new and light-weight -engine, suitable in every respect, had been placed within the reach of -aeronauts. - -In the meantime, a new idea had been brought to the stage of actual -trial. In 1893, in St. Petersburg, David Schwartz built a rigid -airship, the gas receptacle of which was sheet aluminum. It was braced -by aluminum tubes, but while being inflated the interior work was so -badly broken that it was abandoned. - -Schwartz made a second attempt in Berlin in 1897. The airship was -safely inflated, and managed to hold its position against a wind -blowing 17 miles an hour, but could not make headway against it. After -the gas had been withdrawn, and before it could be put under shelter, -a severe windstorm damaged it, and the mob of spectators speedily -demolished it in the craze for souvenirs of the occasion. - -[Illustration: Wreck of the Schwartz aluminum airship, at Berlin, in -1897.] - -[Illustration: - - The type of the earlier Santos-Dumont dirigibles. This shape - showed a tendency to “buckle,” or double up in the middle like a - jackknife. To avoid this the later Santos-Dumonts were of much - larger proportional diameter amidships.] - -In 1898, the young Brazilian, Santos-Dumont, came to Paris imbued with -aeronautic zeal, and determined to build a dirigible balloon that -would surpass the former achievements of Giffard and Renard, which he -felt confident were but hints of what might be accomplished by that -type of airship. He began the construction of the series of dirigible -balloons which eventually numbered 12, each successive one being an -improvement on the preceding. He made use of the air-bag suggested -by Meusnier for the balloon of the Duke of Chartres in 1784, although -in an original way, at first using a pneumatic pump to inflate it, and -later a rotatory fan. Neither prevented the gas-bag from “buckling” and -coming down with consequences more or less serious to the airship--but -Santos-Dumont himself always escaped injury. His own record of his -voyages in his book, _My Air-Ships_, gives a more detailed account -of his contrivances and inventions than can be permitted here. If -Santos-Dumont did not greatly surpass his predecessors, he is at least -to be credited with an enthusiasm which aroused the interest of the -whole world in the problems of aeronautics; and his later achievements -in the building and flying of aeroplanes give him a unique place in the -history of man’s conquest of the air. - -[Illustration: Type of the later Santos-Dumont’s dirigibles.] - -In 1900, Count von Zeppelin’s great airship, which had been building -for nearly two years, was ready for trial. It had the form of a prism -of 24 sides, with the ends arching to a blunt point. It was 420 feet -long, and 38 feet in diameter. The structure was rigid, of aluminum -lattice work, divided into 17 compartments, each of which had a -separate gas-bag shaped to fit its compartment. Over all was an outer -envelope of linen and silk treated with pegamoid. A triangular keel of -aluminum lattice strengthened the whole, and there were two cars of -aluminum attached to the keel. Each car held a 16 horse-power Daimler -gasoline motor, operating two four-bladed screw propellers which were -rigidly connected with the frame of the ship a little below the level -of its axis. A sliding weight was run to either end of the keel as -might be required to depress the head or tail, in order to rise or fall -in the air. The cars were in the shape of boats, and the ship was built -in a floating shed on the Lake of Constance near Friedrichshafen. -At the trial the airship was floated out on the lake, the car-boats -resting on the water. Several accidents happened, so that though the -ship got up into the air it could not be managed, and was brought down -to the water again without injury. In a second attempt a speed of 20 -miles an hour was attained. The construction was found to be not strong -enough for the great length of the body, the envelope of the balloon -was not sufficiently gas tight, and the engines were not powerful -enough. But few trips were made in it, and they were short. The Count -set himself to work to raise money to build another ship, which he did -five years later. - -[Illustration: View of the Zeppelin I, with portion of the aluminum -shell and external fabric removed to show the internal framing and -separate balloons. In the distance is shown the great balloon shed.] - -In 1901, an inventor named Roze built an airship in Colombo, having two -gas envelopes with the engines and car placed between them. He expected -to do away with the rolling and pitching of single airships by the -double form, but the ship did not work satisfactorily, ascending to -barely 50 feet. - -In 1902, Augusto Severo, a Brazilian, arranged an airship with the -propelling screws at the axis of the gas-bag, one at each end of the -ship. Instead of a rudder, he provided two small propellers to work in -a vertical plane and swing the ship sideways. Soon after ascending -it was noticed that the propellers were not working properly, and a -few minutes later the car was seen to be in flames and the balloon -exploded. Severo and his companion Sache were killed, falling 1,300 -feet. - -[Illustration: Sketch of the Severo airship, showing arrangement of -the driving propellers on the axis of the gas-bag, and the steering -propellers.] - -[Illustration: - - End view of Severo’s airship, showing the longitudinal division - of the gas-bag to allow the driving shaft of the propellers to be - placed at the axis of the balloon.] - -In the same year Baron Bradsky-Leboun built an airship with partitions -in the gas-bag which was just large enough to counterbalance the weight -of the ship and its operators. It was lifted or lowered by a propeller -working horizontally. Another propeller drove the ship forward. Through -some lack of stability the car turned over, throwing out the two -aeronauts, who fell 300 feet and were instantly killed. - -[Illustration: The first Lebaudy airship.] - -In 1902, a dirigible balloon was built for the brothers Lebaudy by the -engineer Juillot and the aeronaut Surcouf. The gas envelope was made -cigar-shaped and fastened rigidly to a rigid elliptical keel-shaped -floor 70 feet long and 19 feet wide, made of steel tubes--the object -being to prevent rolling and pitching. It was provided with both -horizontal and vertical rudders. A 35 horse-power Daimler-Mercedes -motor was used to turn two twin-bladed screws, each of 9 feet in -diameter. Between the 25th of October, 1902, and the 21st of November, -1903, 33 experimental voyages were made, the longest being 61 miles in -2 hours and 46 minutes; 38.7 miles in 1 hour and 41 minutes; 23 miles -in 1 hour and 36 minutes. - -[Illustration: Framing of the floor and keel of the Lebaudy airship.] - -In 1904 this ship was rebuilt. It was lengthened to 190 feet and the -rear end rounded off. Its capacity was increased to 94,000 cubic feet, -and a new covering of the yellow calico which had worked so well on the -first model was used on the new one. It was coated with rubber both on -the outside and inside. The interior air-bag was increased in size to -17,650 cubic feet, and partitioned into three compartments. During 1904 -and 1905 30 voyages were made, carrying in all 195 passengers. - -[Illustration: The car and propellers of the Lebaudy airship.] - -The success of this airship led to a series of trials under the -direction of the French army, and in all of these trials it proved -satisfactory. After the 76th successful voyage it was retired for the -winter of 1905-6. - -In November, 1905, the rebuilt Zeppelin airship was put upon trial. -While superior to the first one, it met with serious accident, and was -completely wrecked by a windstorm in January, 1906. - -In May, 1906, Major von Parseval’s non-rigid airship passed through -its first trials successfully. This airship may be packed into small -compass for transportation, and is especially adapted for military -use. In plan it is slightly different from previous types, having -two air-bags, one in each end of the envelope, and the front end is -hemispherical instead of pointed. - -As the airship is designed to force its way through the air, instead -of floating placidly in it, it is evident that it must have a certain -tenseness of outline in order to retain its shape, and resist being -doubled up by the resistance it encounters. It is estimated that the -average velocity of the wind at the elevation at which the airship -sails is 18 miles per hour. If the speed of the ship is to be 20 -miles per hour, as related to stations on the ground, and if it is -obliged to sail against the wind, it is plain that the wind pressure -which it is compelled to meet is 38 miles per hour--a gale of no mean -proportions. When the large expanse of the great gas-bags is taken into -consideration, it is evident that ordinary balloon construction is not -sufficient. - -Attempts have been made to meet the outside pressure from the wind and -air-resistance by producing mechanically a counter-pressure from the -inside. Air-bags are placed inside the cavity of the gas-bag, usually -one near each end of the airship, and these are inflated by pumping -air into them under pressure. In this way an outward pressure of as -much as 7 lbs. to the square foot may be produced, equivalent to the -resistance of air at a speed (either of the wind, or of the airship, or -of both combined) of 48 miles per hour. It is evident, however, that -the pressure upon the front end of an airship making headway against a -strong wind will be much greater than the pressure at the rear end, or -even than that amidships. It was this uneven pressure upon the outside -of the gas-bag that doubled up the first two airships of Santos-Dumont, -and led him to increase the proportional girth at the amidship section -in his later dirigibles. The great difficulty of adjusting these -varying pressures warrants the adherence of Count von Zeppelin to his -design with the rigid structure and metallic sheathing. - -The loss of the second Zeppelin airship so discouraged its designer -that he decided to withdraw from further aeronautical work. But the -German Government prevailed on him to continue, and by October, 1906, -he had the Zeppelin III in the air. This airship was larger than -Zeppelin II in both length and diameter, and held 135,000 cubic feet -more of gas. The motive power was supplied by two gasoline motors, -each of 85 horse-power. The gas envelope had 16 sides, instead of 24, -as in the earlier ship. At its trial the Zeppelin III proved highly -successful. It made a trip of 69 miles, with 11 passengers, in 2¼ -hours--a speed of about 30 miles an hour. - -[Illustration: The Zeppelin III backing out of the floating shed at -Friedrichshafen. The illustration shows the added fin at the top, the -rudders, dipping planes, and balancing planes.] - -The German Government now made an offer of $500,000 for an airship -which would remain continuously in the air for 24 hours, and be able to -land safely. Count von Zeppelin immediately began work upon his No. IV, -in the effort to meet these requirements, in the meantime continuing -trips with No. III. The most remarkable of these trips was made in -September, 1907, a journey of 211 miles in 8 hours. - -In October, 1907, the English airship “Nulli Secundus” was given its -first trial. The gas envelope had been made of goldbeater’s skins, -which are considered impermeable to the contained gas, but are very -expensive. This airship was of the non-rigid type. It made the trip -from Aldershot to London, a distance of 50 miles, in 3½ hours--an -apparent speed of 14 miles per hour, lacking information as to the aid -or hindrance of the prevailing wind. Several other trials were made, -but with small success. - -The offer of the German Government had stimulated other German builders -besides Count von Zeppelin, and on October 28, 1907, the Parseval I, -which had been improved, and the new Gross dirigible, competed for the -government prize, at Berlin. The Parseval kept afloat for 6½ hours, and -the Gross for 8¼ hours. - -Meanwhile, in France, the Lebaudys had been building a new airship -which was named “La Patrie.” It was 197 feet long and 34 feet in -diameter. In a trial for altitude it was driven to an elevation of -4,300 feet. On November 23, 1907, the “Patrie” set out from Paris for -Verdun, a distance of 146 miles. The journey was made in 6¾ hours, -at an average speed of 25 miles per hour, and the fuel carried was -sufficient to have continued the journey 50 miles further. Soon after -reaching Verdun a severe gale tore the airship away from the regiment -of soldiers detailed to assist the anchors in holding it down, and it -disappeared into the clouds. It is known to have passed over England, -for parts of its machinery were picked up at several points, and some -days later the gas-bag was seen floating in the North Sea. - -[Illustration: The “Ville-de-Paris” of M. de la Meurthe.] - -Following close upon the ill-fated “Patrie” came the “Ville-de-Paris,” -a dirigible which had been built by Surcouf for M. Henri Deutsch de -la Meurthe, an eminent patron of aeronautic experiments. In size this -airship was almost identical with the lost “Patrie,” but it was quite -different in appearance. It did not have the flat framework at the -bottom of the gas envelope, but was entirely round in section, and the -long car was suspended below. At the rear the gas-bag was contracted -to a cylindrical form, and four groups of two ballonnets each were -attached to act as stabilizers. It was offered by M. de la Meurthe to -the French Government to take the place of the “Patrie” in the army -manœuvres at Verdun, and on January 15, 1908, made the trip thither -from Paris in about 7 hours. It was found that the ballonnets exerted -considerable drag upon the ship. - -In June, 1908, the great “Zeppelin IV” was completed and given its -preliminary trials, and on July 1 it started on its first long journey. -Leaving Friedrichshafen, its route was along the northerly shore of -Lake Constance nearly to Schaffhausen, then southward to and around -Lake Lucerne, thence northward to Zurich, thence eastward to Lake -Constance, and to its shed at Friedrichshafen. The distance traversed -was 236 miles, and the time consumed 12 hours. This voyage without a -single mishap aroused the greatest enthusiasm among the German people. -After several short flights, during which the King of Württemberg, the -Queen, and some of the royal princes were passengers, the Zeppelin IV -set out on August 4 to win the Government reward by making the 24-hour -flight. Sailing eastward from Friedrichshafen it passed over Basle, -then turning northward it followed the valley of the Rhine, passing -over Strasburg and Mannheim, and had nearly reached Mayence when a -slight accident necessitated a landing. Repairs were made, and the -journey resumed after nightfall. Mayence was reached at 11 P. M., and -the return trip begun. When passing over Stuttgart, at 6 A. M., a leak -was discovered, and a landing was made at Echterdingen, a few miles -farther on. Here, while repairs were being made, a squall struck the -airship and bumped it heavily on the ground. Some gasoline was spilled, -in some unknown way, which caught fire, and in a few moments the great -balloon was totally destroyed. It had been in continuous flight 11 -hours up to the time of the first landing, and altogether 20¾ hours, -and had travelled 258 miles. - -The German people immediately started a public subscription to provide -Count von Zeppelin with the funds needed to build another airship, -and in a few days the sum of $1,500,000 was raised and turned over to -the unfortunate inventor. The “Zeppelin III” was taken in hand, and -lengthened, and more powerful engines installed. - -The “Gross II” was ready to make its attempt for the Government prize -on September 11, 1908. It sailed from Tegel to Magdeburg and back to -Tegel, a distance of 176 miles, in 13 hours, without landing. - -[Illustration: The Clement-Bayard dirigible entering its shed.] - -Four days later the “Parseval II” made a trip between the same points -in 11½ hours, but cut the distance travelled down to 157 miles. In -October, the “Parseval II” was sent up for an altitude test, and rose -to a height of 5,000 feet above Tegel, hovering over the city for -upward of an hour. - -During 1908, an airship designed by M. Clement, the noted motor-car -builder, was being constructed in France. It made its first voyage on -October 29, carrying seven passengers from Sartrouville to Paris and -back, at a speed of from 25 to 30 miles per hour. The illustration -gives a very good idea of the peculiar ballonnets attached to the rear -end of the gas envelope. These ballonnets open into the large gas-bag, -and are practically a part of it. - -In Italy a remarkable dirigible has been built by Captain Ricaldoni, -for military purposes. It has the form of a fish, blunt forward, and -tapering straight away to the rear. It has a large finlike surface on -the under side of the gas-bag toward the rear. Its performances show -that its efficiency as compared with its motive power is larger than -any other dirigible in commission. - -[Illustration: Engine of the Clement-Bayard dirigible; 7-cylinder; 55 -horse-power; weighing only 155 pounds.] - -In May, 1909, the rebuilt “Zeppelin III,” now rechristened “Zeppelin -II,” after many successful short flights was prepared for the -Government trial. On May 29, 1909, with a crew of six men, Count von -Zeppelin started from Friedrichshafen for Berlin, 360 miles away. The -great ship passed over Ulm, Nuremburg, Bayreuth, and Leipzig; and -here it encountered so strong a head wind from the north, that it was -decided to turn about at Bitterfeld and return to Friedrichshafen. The -distance travelled had been nearly 300 miles in 21 hours. The course -followed was quite irregular, and took the ship over Wurtzburg, and -by a wide detour to Heilbron and Stuttgart. The supply of gasoline -running low, it was decided to land at Goeppingen, where more could be -obtained. It was raining heavily, and through some mistake in steering, -or some sudden veering of the wind, the prow of the great dirigible -came into collision with a tree upon the hillside. The envelope was -badly torn, and a part of the aluminum inner structure wrecked. -However, the mechanics on board were able to make such repairs that -the ship was able to resume the voyage the next day, and made port -without further mishap. The vessel having been 38 hours in the air at -the time of the accident, so much of the Government’s stipulations -had been complied with. But it had not succeeded in landing safely. -Nevertheless it was accepted by the Government. The entire journey has -been variously estimated at from 680 to 900 miles, either figure being -a record for dirigibles. - -[Illustration: Accident to the new “Zeppelin II” at Goeppingen. The -damage was repaired and the airship continued its voyage the next day.] - -On August 4, the dirigible “Gross II” made a voyage from Berlin to -Apolda, and returned; a distance of 290 miles in 16 hours. This airship -also was accepted by the German Government and added to its fleet. - -In August, the Zeppelin II was successfully sailed to Berlin, where -Count von Zeppelin was welcomed by an immense and enthusiastic -multitude of his countrymen, including the Emperor and the royal family. - -On September 26, the new French dirigible, “La Republique,” built on -the model of the successful Lebaudy airships, met with an accident -while in the air. A blade of one of the propellers broke and slashed -into the envelope. The ship fell from a height of 6,000 feet, and its -crew of four men lost their lives. - -[Illustration: View of the damaged Zeppelin from the front, showing the -tree against which it collided.] - -On April 22, 1910, a fleet of German dirigibles, comprising the -“Zeppelin II,” the “Gross II,” and the “Parseval I,” sailed from -Cologne to Hamburg, where they were reviewed by Emperor William. A -strong wind having arisen, the “Gross II,” which is of the semi-rigid -type, was deflated, and shipped back to Cologne by rail. The non-rigid -“Parseval” made the return flight in safety. The rigid “Zeppelin II” -started on the return voyage, but was compelled to descend at Limburg, -where it was moored. The wind increasing, it was forced away, and -finally was driven to the ground at Weilburg and demolished. - -In May, 1910, the “Parseval V,” the smallest dirigible so far -constructed, being but 90 feet in length, was put upon its trial trip. -It made a circular voyage of 80 miles in 4 hours. - -For several months a great Zeppelin passenger dirigible had been -building by a stock company financed by German capital, under the -direction of the dauntless Count von Zeppelin. It was 490 feet long, -with a capacity of 666,900 cubic feet. A passenger cabin was built with -¼-inch mahogany veneer upon a framework of aluminum, the inside being -decorated with panels of rosewood inlaid with mother-of-pearl. The -seats were wicker chairs, and the window openings had no glass. It was -christened the “Deutschland.” - -After many days waiting for propitious weather the first “air-liner” -set sail on June 22, 1910, from Friedrichshafen for Düsseldorf, -carrying 20 passengers who had paid $50 each for their passage. In -addition there were 13 other persons on board. - -The start was made at three o’clock in the morning, and the course -laid was up the valley of the Rhine, as far as Cologne. Düsseldorf was -reached at three o’clock in the afternoon, the airline distance of 300 -miles having been covered in 9 hours of actual sailing. From Mannheim -to Düsseldorf, favored by the wind, the great ship reached the speed of -50 miles per hour, for this part of the trip, outstripping the fastest -express trains which consume 6 hours in the winding track up the valley. - -The next morning the “Deutschland” left Düsseldorf on an excursion -trip, carrying several ladies among its passengers. The voyage was in -every way a great success, and public enthusiasm was widespread. - -On June 29, a test trip was decided upon. No passengers were taken, -but 19 newspaper correspondents were invited guests. The Count had -been warned of weather disturbances in the neighborhood, but he either -disregarded them or felt confidence in his craft. It was intended that -the voyage should last four hours, but the airship soon encountered a -storm, and after 6 hours of futile striving against it, the fuel gave -out. Caught in an upward draft, the “Deutschland” rose to an altitude -of over 5,000 feet, losing considerable gas, and then, entering a -rainstorm, was heavily laden with moisture. Suddenly, without definite -reason, it began to fall vertically, and in a few moments had crashed -into the tops of the trees of the Teutoberg forest. No one on board -received more than slight injury, and all alighted safely by means of -ladders. The “Deutschland” was a wreck, and was taken apart and shipped -back to Friedrichshafen. - -On July 13, another giant passenger airship, designed by Oscar Erbslöh, -who won the international balloon race in 1907 by a voyage from St. -Louis to Asbury Park, met with fatal disaster. It was sailing near -Cologne at an altitude of about 2,500 feet when it burst, and Erbslöh -and his four companions were killed in the fall. - -On July 28, the “Gross III” left Berlin with the object of beating -the long distance record for dirigibles. Soon after passing Gotha the -airship returned to that place, and abandoned the attempt. In 13 hours -a distance of 260 miles had been traversed. - -Undismayed by the catastrophes which had destroyed his airships almost -as fast as he built them, Count von Zeppelin had his number VI ready -to sail on September 3. With a crew of seven and twelve passengers he -sailed from Baden to Heidelberg--53 miles in 65 minutes. It was put -into commission as an excursion craft, and made several successful -voyages. On September 14, as it was being placed in its shed at the -close of a journey, it took fire unaccountably, and was destroyed -together with the shed, a part of the framework only remaining. - -On October 15, 1910, the Wellman dirigible “America” which had been -in preparation for many weeks, left Asbury Park in an attempt to -cross the Atlantic. Its balloon was 228 feet long, with a diameter -of 52 feet, containing 345,000 cubic feet of gas. The car was 156 -feet in length, and was arranged as a tank in which 1,250 gallons of -gasoline were carried. A lifeboat was attached underneath the car. -There were two engines, each of 80 horse-power, and an auxiliary motor -of 10 horse-power. Sleeping quarters were provided for the crew of -six, and the balloon was fitted with a wireless telegraph system. -All went well until off the island of Nantucket, where strong north -winds were encountered, and the dirigible was swept southward toward -Bermuda. As an aid in keeping the airship at an elevation of about 200 -feet above the sea, an enlarged trail-rope, called the equilibrator, -had been constructed of cans which were filled with gasoline. This -appendage weighed 1½ tons, and the lower part of it was expected to -float upon the sea. In practice it was found that the jarring of this -equilibrator, when the sea became rough, disarranged the machinery, -so that the propellers would not work, and the balloon was compelled -to drift with the wind. Toward evening of the second day a ship was -sighted, and the America’s crew were rescued. The airship floated away -in the gale, and was soon out of sight. - -On October 16, a new Clement-Bayard dirigible, with seven men on board, -left Paris at 7.15 o’clock in the morning, and sailed for London. At -1 P. M. it circled St. Paul’s Cathedral, and landed at the hangar at -Wormwood Scrubbs a half hour later. The distance of 259 miles (airline) -was traversed at the rate of 41 miles per hour, and the journey -surpassed in speed any previous journey by any other form of conveyance. - -[Illustration: - - _Copyright by Pictorial News Company._ - -Wellman dirigible “America” starting for Europe, October 15, 1910.] - -On November 5, 1910, the young Welsh aeronaut, Ernest T. Willows, who -sailed his small dirigible from Cardiff to London in August, made a -trip from London across the English Channel to Douai, France. This is -the third time within a month that the Channel had been crossed by -airships. - -[Illustration: - - Diagram of the Capazza dirigible from the side. _A A_, - stabilizing fins; _B_, air-ballonnet; _R_, rudder; _M M_, motors; - _FS_, forward propeller; _SS_, stern propeller.] - -Toward the close of 1910, 52 dirigibles were in commission or in -process of construction. In the United States there were 7; in Belgium, -2; in England, 6; in France, 12; in Germany, 14; in Italy, 5; in -Russia, 1; in Spain, 1. - -The new Capazza dirigible is a decided departure from all preceding -constructions, and may mark a new era in the navigation of the air. -Its gas envelope is shaped like a lens, or a lentil, and is arranged to -sail flatwise with the horizon, thus partaking of the aeroplane as well -as the balloon type. No definite facts concerning its achievements have -been published. - -[Illustration: Capazza dirigible from the front. From above it is an -exact circle in outline.] - - - - -Chapter XV. - -BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE. - - Preliminary - inspection--Instruments--Accessories--Ballast--Inflating--Attaching - the car--The ascension--Controls--Landing--Some things to be - considered--After landing--Precautions. - - -The actual operation of a balloon is always entrusted to an experienced -pilot, or “captain” as he is often called, because he is in command, -and his authority must be recognized instantly whenever an order -is given. Nevertheless, it is often of great importance that every -passenger shall understand the details of managing the balloon in case -of need; and a well-informed passenger is greatly to be preferred to an -ignorant one. - -It is ordinarily one of the duties of the captain to inspect the -balloon thoroughly; to see that there are no holes in the gas-bag, that -the valve is in perfect working order, and particularly that the valve -rope and the ripping cord are not tangled. He should also gather the -instruments and equipment to be carried. - -The instruments are usually an aneroid barometer, and perhaps a mercury -barometer, a barograph (recording barometer), a psychrometer (recording -thermometer), a clock, a compass, and an outfit of maps of the country -over which it is possible that the balloon may float. Telegraph blanks, -railroad time tables, etc., may be found of great service. A camera -with a supply of plates will be indispensable almost, and the camera -should be provided with a yellow screen for photographing clouds or -distant objects. - -The ballast should be inspected, to be sure that it is of dry sand, -free from stones; or if water is used for ballast, it should have the -proper admixture of glycerine to prevent freezing. - -It is essential that the inflating be properly done, and the captain -should be competent to direct this process in detail, if necessary. -What is called the “circular method” is the simplest, and is entirely -satisfactory unless the balloon is being filled with pure hydrogen for -a very high ascent, in which case it will doubtless be in the hands of -experts. - -When inflating with coal-gas, the supply is usually taken from a -large pipe adapted for the purpose. At a convenient distance from the -gas-main the ground is made smooth, and the ground cloths are spread -out and pegged down to keep them in place. - -The folded balloon is laid out on the cloths with the neck opening -toward the gas-pipe. The balloon is then unfolded, and so disposed that -the valve will be uppermost, and in the centre of a circle embracing -the upper half of the sphere of the balloon, the opening of the neck -projecting a few inches beyond the rim of the circle. The hose from the -gas-main may then be connected with the socket in the neck. - -[Illustration: Balloon laid out in the circular method, ready for -inflation. The valve is seen at the centre. The neck is at the right.] - -Having made sure that the ripping cord and the valve rope are free from -each other, and properly connected with their active parts, and that -the valve is fastened in place, the net is laid over the whole, and -spread out symmetrically. A few bags of ballast are hooked into the net -around the circumference of the balloon as it lies, and the assistants -distributed around it. It should be the duty of one man to hold the -neck of the balloon, and not to leave it for any purpose whatever. The -gas may then be turned on, and, as the balloon fills, more bags of -ballast are hung symmetrically around the net; and all are continually -moved downward as the balloon rises. - -Constant watching is necessary during the inflation, so that the -material of the balloon opens fully without creases, and the net -preserves its correct position. When the inflation is finished the hoop -and car are to be hooked in place. The car should be fitted up and hung -with an abundance of ballast. Disconnect the gas hose and tie the neck -of the balloon in such fashion that it may be opened with a pull of the -cord when the ascent begins. - -The ballast is then transferred to the hoop, or ring, and the balloon -allowed to rise until this is clear of the ground. The car is then -moved underneath, and the ballast moved down from the ring into it. The -trail-rope should be made fast to the car directly under the ripping -panel, the object being to retard that side of the balloon in landing, -so that the gas may escape freely when the panel is torn open, and not -underneath the balloon, as would happen if the balloon came to earth -with the ripping panel underneath. - -The balloon is now ready to start, and the captain and passengers -take their places in the car. The neck of the balloon is opened, and -a glance upward will determine if the valve rope hangs freely through -it. The lower end of this should be tied to one of the car ropes. The -cord to the ripping panel should be tied in a different place, and in -such fashion that no mistake can be made between them. The assistants -stand around the edge of the basket, holding it so that it shall not -rise until the word is given. The captain then adjusts the load of -ballast, throwing off sufficient to allow the balloon to pull upward -lightly against the men who are holding it. A little more ballast is -then thrown off, and the word given to let go. The trail-rope should be -in charge of some one who will see that it lifts freely from the ground. - -The balloon rises into the air to an altitude where a bulk of the -higher and therefore lighter air equal to the bulk of the balloon has -exactly the same weight. This is ordinarily about 2,000 feet. If the -sun should be shining the gas in the balloon will be expanded by the -heat, and some of it will be forced out through the neck. This explains -the importance of the open neck. In some of the early ascensions no -such provision for the expansion of the gas was made, and the balloons -burst with disastrous consequences. - -[Illustration: Inflating a military balloon. The net is being adjusted -smoothly as the balloon rises. The bags of ballast surround the balloon -ready to be attached as soon as the buoyancy of the gas lifts it from -the earth.] - -When some of the gas has been driven out by the heat, there is less -_weight_ of gas in the balloon, though it occupies the same space. It -therefore has a tendency to rise still higher. On the other hand, if -it passes into a cloud, or the sun is otherwise obscured, the volume -of the gas will contract; it will become denser, and the balloon will -descend. To check the descent the load carried by the balloon must -be lightened, and this is accomplished by throwing out some ballast; -generally, a few handfuls is enough. - -There is always more or less leakage of gas through the envelope as -well as from the neck, and this also lessens the lifting power. To -restore the balance, more ballast must be thrown out, and in this way -an approximate level is kept during the journey. - -When the ballast is nearly exhausted it will be necessary to come down, -for a comfortable landing cannot be made without the use of ballast. -A good landing place having been selected, the valve is opened, and -the balloon brought down within a few yards of the ground. The ripping -cord is then pulled and ballast thrown out so that the basket will -touch as lightly as possible. Some aeronauts use a small anchor or -grapnel to assist in making a landing, but on a windy day, when the car -is liable to do some bumping before coming to rest, the grapnel often -makes matters much worse for the passengers by a series of holdings and -slippings, and sometimes causes a destructive strain upon the balloon. - -In making an ascent with a balloon full of gas there is certain to be a -waste of gas as it expands. This expansion is due not only to the heat -of the sun, but also to the lighter pressure of the air in the upper -altitudes. It is therefore the custom with some aeronauts to ascend -with a partially filled balloon, allowing the expansion to completely -fill it. This process is particularly advised if a very high altitude -is sought. When it is desired to make a long voyage it is wise to make -the start at twilight, and so avoid the heat of the sun. The balloon -will then float along on an almost unchanging level without expenditure -of ballast. Rain and even the moisture from clouds will sometimes wet -the balloon so that it will cause a much greater loss of ballast than -would have been required to be thrown out to rise above the cloud or -storm. Such details in the handling of a balloon during a voyage will -demand the skilled judgment of the captain. - -[Illustration: A balloon ready for ascent. Notice that the neck is -still tied.] - -The trail-rope is a valuable adjunct when the balloon is travelling -near the ground. The longer the part of the trail-rope that is dragging -on the ground the less weight the balloon is carrying. And at night, -when it is impossible to tell the direction in which one is travelling -in any other way, the line of the trailing rope will show the direction -from which the wind is blowing, and hence the drift of the balloon. - -The care of the balloon and its instruments upon landing falls upon -the captain, for he is not likely to find assistants at hand competent -to relieve him of any part of the necessary work. The car and the ring -are first detached. The ropes are laid out free and clear, and the -valve is unscrewed and taken off. The material of the balloon is folded -smoothly, gore by gore. The ballast bags are emptied. After all is -bundled up it should be packed in the car, the covering cloth bound on -with ropes, and definite instructions affixed for transportation to the -starting-point. - -It is apparent that the whole of the gas is lost at the end of the -journey. The cost of this is the largest expense of ballooning. For a -small balloon of about 50,000 cubic feet, the coal-gas for inflating -will cost about $35 to $40. If hydrogen is used, it will cost probably -ten times as much. - -In important voyages it is customary to send up pilot balloons, to -discover the direction of the wind currents at the different levels, -so that the level which promises the best may be selected before the -balloon leaves the ground. A study of the weather conditions throughout -the surrounding country is a wise precaution, and no start should -be made if a storm is imminent. The extent of control possible in -ballooning being so limited, all risks should be scrupulously avoided, -both before and during the voyage, and nothing left to haphazard. - - - - -Chapter XVI. - -BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE. - - The fabrics used--Preliminary varnishing--Varnishes--Rubberized - fabrics--Pegamoid--Weight of varnish--Latitudes of the - balloon--Calculating gores--Laying out patterns and - cutting--Sewing--Varnishing--Drying--Oiling--The neck--The - valve--The net--The basket. - - -The making of a balloon is almost always placed in the hands of a -professional balloon-maker. But as the use of balloons increases, and -their owners multiply, it is becoming a matter of importance that the -most improved methods of making them should be known to the intending -purchaser, as well as to the amateur who wishes to construct his own -balloon. - -The fabric of which the gas envelope is made may be either silk, -cotton (percale), or linen. It should be of a tight, diagonal weave, -of uniform and strong threads in both warp and woof, unbleached, and -without dressing, or finish. If it is colored, care should be exercised -that the dye is one that will not affect injuriously the strength or -texture of the fabric. Lightness in weight, and great strength (as -tested by tearing), are the essentials. - -The finest German percale weighs about 2½ ounces per square yard; -Russian percale, 3⅓ ounces, and French percale, 3¾ounces, per square -yard. The white silk used in Russian military balloons weighs about -the same as German percale, but is very much stronger. Pongee silk is -a trifle heavier. The silk used for sounding balloons is much lighter, -weighing only a little over one ounce to the square yard. - -Goldbeater’s skin and rubber have been used to some extent, but the -great cost of the former places it in reach only of governmental -departments, and the latter is of use only in small balloons for -scientific work--up to about 175 cubic feet capacity. - -The fabric is first to be varnished, to fill up the pores and render -it gas-tight. For this purpose a thin linseed-oil varnish has been -commonly used. To 100 parts of pure linseed-oil are added 4 parts of -litharge and 1 part of umber, and the mixture is heated to about 350° -Fahr., for six or seven hours, and stirred constantly. After standing a -few days the clear part is drawn off for use. For the thicker varnish -used on later coats, the heat should be raised to 450° and kept at -about that temperature until it becomes thick. This operation is -attended with much danger of the oil taking fire, and should be done -only by an experienced varnish-maker. - -The only advantages of the linseed-oil varnish are its ease of -application, and its cheapness. Its drawbacks are stickiness--requiring -continual examination of the balloon envelope, especially when the -deflated bag is stored away--its liability to spontaneous combustion, -particularly when the varnish is new, and its very slow drying -qualities, requiring a long wait between the coats. - -Another varnish made by dissolving rubber in benzine, has been -largely used. It requires vulcanizing after application. It is -never sticky, and is always soft and pliable. However, the rubber -is liable to decomposition from the action of the violet ray of -light, and a balloon so varnished requires the protection of an outer -yellow covering--either of paint, or an additional yellow fabric. -Unfortunately, a single sheet of rubberized material is not gas-tight, -and it is necessary to make the envelope of two, or even three, layers -of the fabric, thus adding much to the weight. - -The great gas-bags of the Zeppelin airships are varnished with -“Pegamoid,” a patent preparation the constituents of which are not -known. Its use by Count Zeppelin is the highest recommendation possible. - -The weight of the varnish adds largely to the weight of the envelope. -French pongee silk after receiving its five coats of linseed-oil -varnish, weighs 8 ounces per square yard. A double bag of percale with -a layer of vulcanized rubber between, and a coating of rubber on the -inside, and painted yellow on the outside, will weigh 11 ounces per -square yard. Pegamoid material, which comes ready prepared, weighs but -about 4 ounces per square yard, but is much more costly. - -In cutting out the gores of the envelope it is possible to waste fully -⅓ of the material unless the work is skilfully planned. Taking the -width of the chosen material as a basis, we must first deduct from ¾ -of an inch to 1½ inches, in proportion to the size of the proposed -balloon, for a broad seam and the overlapping necessary. Dividing the -circumference at the largest diameter--the “equator” of the balloon--by -the remaining width of the fabric gives the number of gores required. -To obtain the breadth of each gore at the different “latitudes” -(supposing the globe of the balloon to be divided by parallels -similar to those of the earth) the following table is to be used; 0° -representing the equator, and 90° the apex of the balloon. The breadth -of the gore in inches at any latitude is the product of the decimal -opposite that latitude in the table by the original width of the fabric -in inches, thus allowing for seams. - -[Illustration: - - Finsterwalder’s method of cutting material for a spherical - balloon, by which over one-fourth of the material, usually - wasted in the common method, may be saved. It has the further - advantage of saving more than half of the usual sewing. The - balloon is considered as a spherical hexahedron (a six-surfaced - figure similar to a cube, but with curved sides and edges). The - circumference of the sphere divided by the width of the material - gives the unit of measurement. The dimensions of the imagined - hexahedron may then be determined from the calculated surface - and the cutting proceed according to the illustration above, - which shows five breadths to each of the six curved sides. The - illustration shows the seams of the balloon made after the - Finsterwalder method, when looking down upon it from above.] - - -TABLE FOR CALCULATING SHAPE OF GORES FOR SPHERICAL BALLOONS - - 0° 1.000 - 3° 0.998 - 6° 0.994 - 9° 0.988 - 12° 0.978 - 15° 0.966 - 18° 0.951 - 21° 0.934 - 24° 0.913 - 27° 0.891 - 30° 0.866 - 33° 0.839 - 36° 0.809 - 39° 0.777 - 42° 0.743 - 45° 0.707 - 48° 0.669 - 51° 0.629 - 54° 0.588 - 57° 0.544 - 60° 0.500 - 63° 0.454 - 66° 0.407 - 69° 0.358 - 72° 0.309 - 75° 0.259 - 78° 0.208 - 81° 0.156 - 84° 0.104 - 87° 0.052⅓ - -In practice, the shape of the gore is calculated by the above table, -and plotted out on a heavy pasteboard, generally in two sections for -convenience in handling. The board is cut to the plotted shape and used -as the pattern for every gore. In large establishments all the gores -are cut at once by a machine. - -The raw edges are hemmed, and folded into one another to give a flat -seam, and are then sewn together “through and through,” in twos and -threes: afterward these sections are sewn together. Puckering must be -scrupulously avoided. In the case of rubberized material, the thread -holes should be smeared with rubber solution, and narrow strips of the -fabric cemented over the seams with the same substance. - -Varnishing is the next process, the gores being treated in turn. -Half of the envelope is varnished first, and allowed to dry in a -well-ventilated place out of reach of the sun’s rays. The other half is -varnished when the first is dry. A framework which holds half of the -balloon in the shape of a bell is usually employed. In case of haste, -the balloon may be blown up with air, but this must be constantly -renewed to be of any service. - -The first step in varnishing is to get one side (the outer, or the -inner) coated with a varnish thin enough to penetrate the material: -then turn the envelope the other side out and give that a coat of the -thin varnish. Next, after all is thoroughly dry, give the outer side -a coat of thick varnish closing all pores. When this is dry give the -inner side a similar coat. Finally, after drying thoroughly, give -both sides a coat of olive oil to prevent stickiness. The amount of -varnish required is, for the first coat 1½ times the weight of the -envelope, and for the second coat ½ the weight--of the thin varnish. -For the thick coat on the outer side ⅓ of the weight of the envelope, -and on the inner side about half as much. For the olive-oil coat, about -⅛ of the weight of the envelope will be needed. These figures are -approximate, some material requiring more, some less; and a wasteful -workman will cause a greater difference. - -The neck of the balloon (also called the tail) is in form a cylindrical -tube of the fabric, sewn to an opening in the bottom of the balloon, -which has been strengthened by an extra ring of fabric to support it. -The lower end of the tube, called the mouth, is sewn to a wooden ring, -which stiffens it. The size of the neck is dependent upon the size of -the balloon. Its diameter is determined by finding the cube of one-half -the diameter of the balloon, and dividing it by 1,000. In length, the -neck should be at least four times its diameter. - -The apex of the balloon envelope is fitted with a large valve to permit -the escape of gas when it is desired that the balloon shall descend. -The door of the valve is made to open inward into the envelope, and -is pulled open by the valve-cord which passes through the neck of the -balloon into the basket, or car. This valve is called the manœuvring -valve, and there are many different designs equally efficient. As they -may be had ready made, it is best for the amateur, unless he is a -machinist, to purchase one. The main point to see to is that the seat -of the valve is of soft pliable rubber, and that the door of the valve -presses a comparatively sharp edge of metal or wood so firmly upon the -seat as to indent it; and the springs of the valve should be strong -enough to hold it evenly to its place. - -The making of the net of the balloon is another part of the work which -must be delegated to professionals. The material point is that the net -distributes the weight evenly over the surface of the upper hemisphere -of the envelope. The strength of the cordage is an item which must be -carefully tested. Different samples of the same material show such wide -variations in strength that nothing but an actual test will determine. -In general, however, it may be said that China-grass cordage is four -times as strong as hemp cordage, and silk cordage is ten times as -strong as hemp--for the same size cords. - -The meshes of the net should be small, allowing the use of a small -cord. Large cords mean large knots, and these wear seriously upon the -balloon envelope, and are very likely to cause leaks. In large meshes, -also, the envelope puffs out between the cords and becomes somewhat -stretched, opening pores through which much gas is lost by diffusion. - -The “star,” or centre of the net at the apex of the balloon, must be -fastened immovably to the rim of the valve. The suspension cords begin -at from 30° to 45° below the equator of the envelope, and are looped -through rings in what are called “goose-necks.” These allow a measure -of sliding motion to the cordage as the basket sways in the wind. - -For protecting the net against rotting from frequent wetting, it is -recommended to saturate it thoroughly with a solution of acetate of -soda, drying immediately. Paraffin is sometimes used with more or less -success, but tarring should be avoided, as it materially weakens the -cordage. Oil or grease are even worse. - -At the bottom of the net proper the few large cords into which the many -small cords have been merged are attached to the ring of the balloon. -This is either of steel or of several layers of wood well bound -together. The ropes supporting the basket are also fastened to this -ring, and from it hang the trail-rope and the holding ropes. - -[Illustration: - - Sketch showing the diamond mesh of balloon cordage and the method - of distributing the rings for the goose-necks; also the merging - of netting cords into the suspension cords which support the car. - The principal knots used in tying balloon nets are shown on the - right.] - -The basket is also to be made by a professional, as upon its -workmanship may depend the lives of its occupants, though every other -feature of the balloon be faultless. It must be light, and still very -strong to carry its load and withstand severe bumping. It should be -from 3 to 4 feet deep, with a floor space of 4 feet by 5 feet. It is -usually made of willow and rattan woven substantially together. The -ropes supporting the car are passed through the bottom and woven in -with it. Buffers are woven on to the outside, and the inside is padded. -The seats are small baskets in which is stored the equipment. With -the completion of these the balloon is ready for its furnishings and -equipment, which come under the direction of the pilot, or captain, as -detailed in the preceding chapter. - - - - -Chapter XVII. - -MILITARY AERONAUTICS. - - The pioneer Meusnier--L’Entreprenant--First aerostiers--First - aerial warship--Bombardment by balloons--Free balloons - in observations--Ordering artillery from balloon--The - postal balloons of Paris--Compressed hydrogen--National - experiments--Bomb dropping--Falling explosives--Widespread - activity in gathering fleets--Controversies--Range of - vision--Reassuring outlook. - - -Almost from the beginning of success in traversing the air the great -possibilities of all forms of aircraft as aids in warfare have been -recognized by military authorities, and, as has so often been the case -with other inventions by non-military minds, the practically unlimited -funds at the disposal of national war departments have been available -for the development of the balloon at first, then the airship, and now -of the aeroplane. - -The Montgolfiers had scarcely proved the possibility of rising into -the air, in 1783, before General Meusnier was busily engaged in -inventing improvements in their balloon with the expressed purpose of -making it of service to his army, and before he was killed in battle -he had secured the appointment of a commission to test the improved -balloon as to its efficiency in war. The report of the committee -being favorable, a balloon corps was formed in April, 1794, and the -balloon _L’Entreprenant_ was used during the battle of Fleurus, on -June 26th, by Meusnier’s successor, General Jourdan, less than a year -after Meusnier’s death. In 1795 this balloon was used in the battle of -Mayence. In both instances it was employed for observation only. - -But when the French entered Moscow, they found there, and captured, a -balloon laden with 1,000 pounds of gunpowder which was intended to have -been used against them. - -In 1796 two other balloons were used by the French army then in front -of Andernach and Ehrenbreitstein, and in 1798 the 1st Company of -Aerostiers was sent to Egypt, and operated at the battle of the Nile, -and later at Cairo. In the year following, this balloon corps was -disbanded. - -In 1812 Russia secured the services of a German balloon builder named -Leppich, or Leppig, to build a war balloon. It had the form of a -fish, and was so large that the inflation required five days, but the -construction of the framework was faulty, and some important parts -gave way during inflation, and the airship never left the ground. As it -was intended that this balloon should be dirigible and supplied with -explosives, and take an active part in attacks on enemies, it may be -regarded as the first aerial warship. - -[Illustration: A military dirigible making a tour of observation.] - -In 1849, however, the first actual employment of the balloon in warfare -took place. Austria was engaged in the bombardment of Venice, and the -range of the besieging batteries was not great enough to permit shells -to be dropped into the city. The engineers formed a balloon detachment, -and made a number of Montgolfiers out of paper. These were of a size -sufficient to carry bombs weighing 30 pounds for half an hour before -coming down. These war balloons were taken to the windward side of -the city, and after a pilot balloon had been floated over the point -where the bombs were to fall, and the time consumed in the flight -ascertained, the fuses of the bombs were set for the same time, and -the war balloons were released. The actual damage done by the dropping -of these bombs was not great, but the moral effect upon the people of -the city was enormous. The balloon detachment changed its position as -the wind changed, and many shells were exploded in the heart of the -city, one of them in the market place. But the destruction wrought was -insignificant as compared with that usually resulting from cannonading. -As these little Montgolfiers were sent up unmanned, perhaps they are -not strictly entitled to be dignified by the name of war balloon, being -only what in this day would be called aerial bombs. - -The next use of the balloon in warfare was by Napoleon III, in 1859. -He sent up Lieutenant Godard, formerly a manufacturer of balloons, and -Nadar, the balloonist, at Castiglione. It was a tour of observation -only, and Godard made the important discovery that the inhabitants were -gathering their flocks of domestic animals and choking the roads with -them, to oppose the advance of the French. - -The first military use of balloons in the United States was at the time -of the Civil War. Within a month after the war broke out, Professor T. -S. C. Lowe, of Washington, put himself and his balloon at the command -of President Lincoln, and on June 18, 1861, he sent to the President a -telegram from the balloon--the first record of the kind in history. - -After the defeat at Manassas, on July 24, 1861, Professor Lowe made a -free ascent, and discovered the true position of the Confederates, and -proved the falsity of rumors of their advance. The organization of -a regular balloon corps followed, and it was attached to McClellan’s -army, and used in reconnoitering before Yorktown. The balloons were -operated under heavy artillery fire, but were not injured. - -[Illustration: A small captive military balloon fitted for observation. -A cylinder of compressed hydrogen to replace leakage is seen at F.] - -On May 24th, for the first time in history, a general officer--in this -case, General Stoneman--directed the fire of artillery at a hidden -enemy from a balloon. - -Later in the month balloons were used at Chickahominy, and again at -Fair Oaks and Richmond, being towed about by locomotives. On the -retreat from before Richmond, McClellan’s balloons and gas generators -were captured and destroyed. - -In 1869, during the siege of a fort at Wakamatzu by the Imperial -Japanese troops, the besieged sent up a man-carrying kite. After making -observations, the officer ascended again with explosives, with which he -attempted to disperse the besieging army, but without success. - -During the siege of Paris, in 1870, there were several experienced -balloonists shut up in the city, and the six balloons at hand were -quickly repaired and put to use by the army for carrying dispatches -and mail beyond the besieging lines. The first trips were made by -the professional aeronauts, but, as they could not return, there was -soon a scarcity of pilots. Sailors, and acrobats from the Hippodrome, -were pressed into the service, and before the siege was raised 64 of -these postal balloons had been dispatched. Fifty-seven out of the 64 -landed safely on French territory, and fulfilled their mission; 4 -were captured by the Germans; 1 floated to Norway; 1 was lost, with -its crew of two sailors, who faithfully dropped their dispatches on -the rocks near the Lizard as they were swept out to sea; and 1 landed -on the islet Hoedic, in the Atlantic. In all, 164 persons left Paris -in these balloons, always at night, and there were carried a total of -9 tons of dispatches and 3,000,000 letters. At first dogs were carried -to bring back replies, but none ever returned. Then carrier pigeons -were used successfully. Replies were set in type and printed. These -printed sheets were reduced by photography so that 16 folio pages of -print, containing 32,000 words, were reduced to a space of 2 inches -by 1¼ inches on the thinnest of gelatine film. Twenty of these films -were packed in a quill, and constituted the load for each pigeon. When -received in Paris, the films were enlarged by means of a magic lantern, -copied, and delivered to the persons addressed. - -[Illustration: - - Spherical canister of compressed hydrogen for use in inflating - military balloons. A large number of these canisters may be - tapped at the same time and the inflation proceed rapidly; a - large balloon being filled in two hours.] - -In more recent times the French used balloons at Tonkin, in 1884; the -English, in Africa, in 1885; the Italians, in Abyssinia, in 1888; and -the United States, at Santiago, in 1898. During the Boer War, in 1900, -balloons were used by the British for directing artillery fire, and -one was shot to pieces by well-aimed Boer cannon. At Port Arthur, both -the Japanese and the Russians used balloons and man-carrying kites for -observation. The most recent use is that by Spain, in her campaign -against the Moors, in 1909. - -The introduction of compressed hydrogen in compact cylinders, which are -easily transported, has simplified the problem of inflating balloons in -the field, and of restoring gas lost by leakage. - -The advent of the dirigible has engaged the active attention of the -war departments of all the civilized nations, and experiments are -constantly progressing, in many instances in secret. It is a fact -at once significant and interesting, as marking the rapidity of the -march of improvement, that the German Government has lately refused -to buy the newest Zeppelin dirigible, on the ground that it is built -of aluminum, which is out of date since the discovery of its lighter -alloys. - -[Illustration: The German military non-rigid dirigible Parseval II. It -survived the storm which wrecked the Zeppelin II in April, 1910, and -reached its shed at Cologne in safety.] - -Practically all the armies are being provided with fleets of -aeroplanes, ostensibly for use in scouting. But there have been many -contests by aviators in “bomb-dropping” which have at least proved -that it is possible to drop explosives from an aeroplane with a great -degree of accuracy. The favorite target in these contests has been -the life-sized outline of a battleship. - -[Illustration: The German military Zeppelin dirigible, which took part -in the manœuvres at Hamburg in April, 1910, and was wrecked by a high -wind at Weilburg on the return journey to Cologne.] - -Glenn Curtiss, after his trip down the Hudson from Albany, declared -that he could have dropped a large enough torpedo upon the Poughkeepsie -Bridge to have wrecked it. His subsequent feats in dropping “bombs,” -represented by oranges, have given weight to his claims. - -By some writers it is asserted that the successful navigation of the -air will guarantee universal peace; that war with aircraft will be so -destructive that the whole world will rise against its horrors. Against -a fleet of flying machines dropping explosives into the heart of great -cities there can be no adequate defence. - -On the other hand, Mr. Hudson Maxim declares that the exploding of -the limited quantities of dynamite that can be carried on the present -types of aeroplanes, on the decks of warships would not do any vital -damage. He also says that many tons of dynamite might be exploded in -Madison Square, New York City, with no more serious results than the -blowing out of the windows of the adjacent buildings as the air within -rushed out to fill the void caused by the uprush of air heated by the -explosion. - -[Illustration: The Lebaudy airship “La Patrie.” As compared with the -first Lebaudy, it shows the rounded stern with stabilizing planes, and -the long fin beneath, with rudder and dipping planes.] - -As yet, the only experience that may be instanced is that of the -Russo-Japanese War, where cast-iron shells, weighing 448 lbs., -containing 28 lbs. of powder, were fired from a high angle into Port -Arthur, and did but little damage. - -In 1899 the Hague Conference passed a resolution prohibiting the use of -aircraft to discharge projectiles or explosives, and limited their use -in war to observation. Germany, France, and Italy withheld consent upon -the proposition. - -In general, undefended places are regarded as exempt from attack by -bombardment of any kind. - -Nevertheless, there are straws which show how the wind is blowing. -German citizens and clubs which purchase a type of airship approved -by the War Office of the German Empire are to receive a substantial -subsidy, with the understanding that in case of war the aircraft is to -be at the disposal of the Government. Under this plan it is expected -that the German Government will control a large fleet of ships of the -air without being obliged to own them. - -And, in France, funds were raised recently, by popular subscription, -sufficient to provide the nation with a fleet of fourteen airships -(dirigibles) and thirty aeroplanes. These are already being built, -and it will not be long before France will have the largest air-fleet -afloat. - -The results of the German manœuvres with a fleet of four dirigibles in -a night attack upon strong fortresses have been kept a profound secret, -as if of great value to the War Office. - -In the United States the Signal Corps has been active in operating the -Baldwin dirigible and the Wright aeroplanes owned by the Government. -To the latter, wireless telegraphic apparatus has been attached and is -operated successfully when the machines are in flight. In addition, -the United States Aeronautical Reserve has been formed, with a large -membership of prominent amateur and professional aviators. - -Some military experts, however, assert that the dirigible is hopelessly -outclassed for warfare by the aeroplane, which can operate in winds -in which the dirigible dare not venture, and can soar so high above -any altitude that the dirigible can reach as to easily destroy it. -Another argument used against the availability of the dirigible as a -war-vessel is, that if it were launched on a wind which carried it over -the enemy’s country, it might not be able to return at sufficient speed -to escape destruction by high-firing guns, even if its limited fuel -capacity did not force a landing. - -Even the observation value of the aircraft is in some dispute. The -following table is quoted as giving the ranges possible to an observer -in the air: - - - Altitude in feet. Distance of horizon. - - 500 30 miles. - 1,000 42 “ - 2,000 59 “ - 3,000 72 “ - 4,000 84 “ - 5,000 93 “ - -As a matter of fact, the moisture ordinarily in the air effectually -limits the range of both natural vision and the use of the camera for -photographing objects on the ground. The usual limit of practical range -of the best telescope is eight miles. - -All things considered, however, it is to be expected that the -experimenting by army and navy officers all over the world will lead to -such improvement and invention in the art of navigating the air as will -develop its benevolent, rather than its malevolent, possibilities--“a -consummation devoutly to be wished.” - - - - -Chapter XVIII. - -BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. - - The Wright Brothers--Santos-Dumont--Louis Bleriot--Gabriel - Voisin--Leon Delagrange--Henri Farman--Robert - Esnault-Pelterie--Count von Zeppelin--Glenn H. Curtiss--Charles - K. Hamilton--Hubert Latham--Alfred Leblanc--Claude - Grahame-White--Louis Paulhan--Clifford B. Harmon--Walter - Brookins--John B. Moisant--J. Armstrong Drexel--Ralph Johnstone. - - -On January 1, 1909, it would have been a brief task to write a few -biographical notes about the “prominent” aviators. At that date -there were but five who had made flights exceeding ten minutes in -duration--the Wright brothers, Farman, Delagrange, and Bleriot. At the -close of 1910 the roll of aviators who have distinguished themselves by -winning prizes or breaking previous records has increased to more than -100, and the number of qualified pilots of flying machines now numbers -over 300. The impossibility of giving even a mention of the notable -airmen in this chapter is apparent, and the few whose names have been -selected are those who have more recently in our own country come into -larger public notice, and those of the pioneers whose names will never -lose their first prominence. - - -THE WRIGHT BROTHERS. - -The Wright Brothers have so systematically linked their individual -personalities in all their work, in private no less than in public, -that the brief life story to be told here is but one for them both. In -fact, until Wilbur went to France in 1908, and Orville to Washington, -the nearest approach to a separation is illustrated by a historic -remark of Wilbur’s to an acquaintance in Dayton, one afternoon: -“Orville flew 21 miles yesterday; I am going to beat that to-day.” And -he did--by 3 miles. - -Their early life in their home town of Dayton, Ohio, was unmarked by -significant incident. They were interested in bicycles, and at length -went into the business of repairing and selling these machines. - -Their attention seems to have been strongly turned to the subject of -human flight by the death of Lilienthal in August, 1896, at which time -the press published some of the results of his experiments. A magazine -article by Octave Chanute, himself an experimenter with gliders, led -to correspondence with him, and the Wrights began a series of similar -investigations with models of their own building. - -By 1900 they had succeeded in flying a large glider by running with a -string, as with a kite, and in the following year they had made some -flights on their gliders, of which they had several of differing types. -For two years the Wrights studied and tested and disproved nearly every -formula laid down by scientific works for the relations of gravity to -air, and finally gave themselves up to discovering by actual trial -what the true conditions were, and to the improvement of their gliders -accordingly. Meanwhile they continued their constant personal practice -in the air. - -The most of this experimental work was done at Kitty Hawk, N. C.; for -the reason that there the winds blow more uniformly than at any other -place in the United States, and the great sand dunes there gave the -Wrights the needed elevation from which to leap into the wind with -their gliders. Consequently, when at last they were ready to try a -machine driven by a motor, it was at this secluded spot that the first -flights ever made by man with a heavier-than-air machine took place. On -December 17, 1903, their first machine left the ground under its own -power, and remained in the air for twelve seconds. From this time on -progress was even slower than before, on account of the complications -added by the motive power; but by the time another year had passed they -were making flights which lasted five minutes, and had their machine in -such control that they could fly in a circle and make a safe landing -within a few feet of the spot designated. - -[Illustration: Turpin, Taylor, Orville Wright, Wilbur Wright, Brookins, -and Johnstone discussing the merits of the Wright machine.] - -On the 5th of October, 1905, Wilbur Wright made his historic flight -of 24 miles at Dayton, Ohio, beating the record of Orville, made the -day before, of 21 miles. The average speed of these flights was 38 -miles an hour. No contention as to the priority of the device known -as wing-warping can ever set aside the fact that these long practical -flights were made more than a year before any other man had flown 500 -feet, or had remained in the air half a minute, with a heavier-than-air -machine driven by power. - -The Wrights are now at the head of one of the largest aeroplane -manufactories in the world, and devote the larger part of their time to -research work in the line of the navigation of the air. - - -ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONT. - -ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONT was born in Brazil in 1877. When but a lad he -became intensely interested in aeronautics, having been aroused by -witnessing the ascension at a show of an ordinary hot-air balloon. -Within the next few years he had made several trips to Paris, and -in 1897 made his first ascent in a balloon with the balloon builder -Machuron, the partner of the famous Lachambre. - -In 1898 he began the construction of his notable series of dirigibles, -which eventually reached twelve in number. With his No. 6 he won the -$20,000 prize offered by M. Deutsch (de la Meurthe) for the first trip -from the Paris Aero Club’s grounds to and around the Eiffel Tower in 30 -minutes or less. The distance was nearly 7 miles. It is characteristic -of M. Santos-Dumont that he should give $15,000 of the prize to relieve -distress among the poor of Paris, and the remainder to his mechanicians -who had built the balloon. - -His smallest dirigible was the No. 9, which held 7,770 cubic feet of -gas; the largest was the No. 10, which held 80,000 cubic feet. - -In 1905, when Bleriot, Voisin, and their comrades were striving to -accomplish flight with machines heavier than air, Santos-Dumont turned -his genius upon the same problem, and on August 14, 1906, he made -his first flight with a cellular biplane driven by a 24 horse-power -motor. On November 13th of the same year he flew 720 feet with the same -machine. These were the first flights of heavier-than-air machines in -Europe, and the first public flights anywhere. Later he turned to the -monoplane type, and with “La Demoiselle” added new laurels to those -already won with his dirigibles. - - -LOUIS BLERIOT. - -LOUIS BLERIOT, designer and builder of the celebrated Bleriot -monoplanes, and himself a pilot of the first rank, was born in Cambrai, -France, in 1872. He graduated from a noted technical school, and soon -attached himself to the group of young men--all under thirty years of -age--who were experimenting with gliders in the effort to fly. His -attempts at first were with the flapping-wing contrivances, but he soon -gave these up as a failure, and devoted his energy to the automobile -industry; and the excellent Bleriot acetylene headlight testifies to -his constructive ability in that field. - -Attracted by the experiments of M. Ernest Archdeacon he joined his -following, and with Gabriel Voisin engaged in building gliders of the -biplane type. By 1907 he had turned wholly to the monoplane idea, -and in April of that year made his first leap into the air with a -power-driven monoplane. By September he had so improved his machine -that he was able to fly 600 feet, and in June, 1908, he broke the -record for monoplanes by flying nearly a mile. Again and again he beat -his own records, and at length the whole civilized world was thrilled -by his triumphant flight across the British Channel on July 25, 1909. - -The Bleriot machines hold nearly all the speed records, and many of -those in other lines of achievement, and M. Bleriot enjoys the double -honor of being an eminently successful manufacturer as well as a -dauntless aviator of heroic rank. - - -GABRIEL VOISIN. - -GABRIEL VOISIN, the elder of the two Voisin brothers, was born in -1879 at Belleville-sur-Saone, near the city of Lyons, France. He was -educated as an architect, but early became interested in aeronautics, -and engaged in gliding, stimulated by the achievements of Pilcher, -in England, and Captain Ferber, in his own country. He assisted M. -Archdeacon in his experiments on the Seine, often riding the gliders -which were towed by the swift motor boats. - -In 1906 he associated himself with his brother in the business of -manufacturing biplane machines, and in March, 1907, he himself made -the first long flight with a power-driven machine in Europe. This -aeroplane was built for his friend Delagrange, and was one in which -the latter was soon breaking records and winning prizes. The second -machine was for Farman, who made the Voisin biplane famous by winning -the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,000 for making a flight of 1,093 -yards in a circle. - -The Voisin biplane is distinctive in structure, and is accounted one of -the leading aeroplanes of the present day. - - -LEON DELAGRANGE. - -LEON DELAGRANGE was born at Orleans, France, in 1873. He entered -the School of Arts as a student in sculpture, about the same time -that Henri Farman went there to study painting, and Gabriel Voisin, -architecture. He exhibited at the Salon, and won several medals. -In 1905, he took up aeronautics, assisted at the experiments of M. -Archdeacon. His first aeroplane was built by Voisin, and he made his -first flight at Issy, March 14, 1907. Less than a month later--on April -11--he made a new record for duration of flight, remaining in the air -for 9 minutes and 15 seconds--twice as long as the previous record made -by Farman. - -[Illustration: Leblanc, Bleriot, and Delagrange, (from left to right) -in aviation dress, standing in front of the Bleriot machine which -crossed the English Channel.] - -At Rheims, in 1909, he appeared with a Bleriot monoplane, and continued -to fly with that type of machine until his death. At Doncaster, -England, he made the world record for speed up to that time, travelling -at the rate of 49.9 miles per hour. He was killed at Bordeaux, France, -in January, 1910, by the fall of his machine. - - -HENRI FARMAN. - -HENRI FARMAN, justly regarded as the most prominent figure in the -aviation world today, was born in France in 1873. His father was an -Englishman. - -While a mere boy he became locally famous as a bicycle racer, and later -achieved a wider fame as a fearless and skillful driver in automobile -races. In 1902 he won the Paris-Vienna race. - -In September, 1907, he made his first attempt to fly, using the second -biplane built by his friend Gabriel Voisin, and in the following -year he won with it the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,000. He then -built a machine after his own ideas, which more resembles the Wright -machine than the Voisin, and with it he has won many prizes, and made -many world records. Demands for machines, and for teaching the art of -handling them, have poured in upon him, necessitating a continual -increase of manufacturing facilities until it may safely be said that -he has the largest plant for building flying machines in the world, -turning out the largest number of machines, and through his school for -aviators is instructing a larger number of pupils annually than any -other similar establishment. - - -ROBERT ESNAULT-PELTERIE. - -ROBERT ESNAULT-PELTERIE was born in 1880, and educated in the city of -Paris. He early showed a mechanical turn of mind, and was interested -particularly in scientific studies. He became an enthusiast in matters -aeronautic, and devoted himself to the construction of gasoline engines -suitable for aviation purposes. After satisfying his ideal in this -direction with the now famous “R-E-P” motor, he designed a new type -of flying machine which is known as the “R-E-P monoplane.” His first -flights were made at Buc in October, 1907, and while they were short, -they proved the possibility of steering a flying machine so that it -would describe a curved line--at that time a considerable achievement -among European aviators. In April, 1908, he flew for ¾ of a mile, and -reached a height of 100 feet. This feat eclipsed all previous records -for monoplanes. - -His fame, however, rests upon his motors, which are quite original in -design and construction. - - -COUNT FERDINAND VON ZEPPELIN. - -COUNT FERDINAND VON ZEPPELIN was born in 1838, on the shores of the -Lake Constance, where his great airships have had their initial trials. - -It is an interesting fact that Count von Zeppelin made his first -balloon ascension in a war-balloon attached to the army corps commanded -by his friend, Carl Schurz, during the Civil War. - -It was only after years of absorbing study of all that human knowledge -could contribute that Count von Zeppelin decided upon the type of -dirigible which bears his name. Under the patronage of the King of -Würtemberg he began his first airship, having previously built an -immense floating shed, which, swinging by a cable, always had its doors -facing away from the wind. - -The successful flights of the series of magnificent Zeppelin airships -have been marvellous in an age crowded with wonders. And the misfortune -which has followed close upon their superb achievements with complete -destruction would long ago have undone a man of less energy and courage -than the dauntless Count. It should be borne in mind, however, that -of the hundreds of passengers carried in his ships of the air, all -have come to land safely--a record that it would be difficult to match -with any other form of travel. The accidents which have destroyed the -Zeppelins have never happened in the air, excepting only the wrecking -of the _Deutschland_ by a thunderstorm. - -The indefatigable Count is now constructing another airship with the -new alloy, electron, instead of aluminum. He estimates that 5,000 -pounds’ weight can be saved in this way. - - -CAPTAIN THOMAS S. BALDWIN. - -CAPTAIN THOMAS S. BALDWIN, balloonist and aviator, was born in -Mississippi in 1855. His first aeronautical experience was as a -parachute rider from a balloon in the air. He invented the parachute -he used, and received for it a gold medal from the Balloon Society -of Great Britain. Exhibiting this parachute, Captain Baldwin made an -extensive tour of the civilized world. - -In 1892 he built his first airship, a combination of a balloon, a -screw propeller, and a bicycle, the last to furnish the motive power. -It was not until 1902, when be installed an automobile engine in his -airship, that he succeeded in making it sail. It was not yet dirigible, -however; but after two years of devising and experimenting, he sailed -away from Oakland, Cal., on August 2, 1904, against the wind, and -after a short voyage, turned and came back to his balloon-shed. From -this time on he made several successful dirigibles, and in 1908 he met -all the requirements of the United States Government for a military -dirigible, and sold to it the only dirigible it possesses. - -He became interested in the experiments of Curtiss and McCurdy at -Hammondsport, in 1908, and aided in building the remarkable series of -biplanes with which record flights were made. The newer design, known -as the Baldwin biplane, is unique in the pivoted balancing plane set -upright above the upper plane, a device entirely distinct from the -warping or other manipulation of horizontal surfaces for the purpose of -restoring lateral balance. - - -GLENN HAMMOND CURTISS. - -GLENN HAMMOND CURTISS was born at Hammondsport, N. Y., on the shore -of Lake Keuka, in 1878. From boyhood he was a competitor and winner -in all sorts of races where speed was the supreme test. By nature a -mechanic, he became noted for his ingenious contrivances in this line, -and built a series of extremely fast motor-cycles, with one of which he -made the record of one mile in 26⅖ seconds, which still stands as the -fastest mile ever made by man with any form of mechanism. - -Through the purchasing of one of his light engines by Captain Baldwin -for his dirigible, Curtiss became interested in aeronautical matters, -and soon built a glider with which he sailed down from the Hammondsport -hills. The combination of his motor and the glider was the next step, -and on July 4, 1908, he flew 1½ miles with the _June Bug_, winning the -_Scientific American_ trophy. - -Learning that the United States was not to be represented at the Rheims -meet in August, 1909, he hastily built a biplane and went there. He won -the first prize for the course of 30 kilometres (18.6 miles), second -prize for the course of 10 kilometres, the James Gordon Bennett cup, -and the tenth prize in the contest for distance. From Rheims he went to -Brescia, Italy, and there won the first prize for speed. In all these -contests he was matching his biplane against monoplanes which were -acknowledged to be a faster type than the biplane. - -On May 29, 1910, Mr. Curtiss made the first stated aeroplane tour to -take place in this country, travelling from Albany to New York City, -137 miles, with but one stop for fuel. With this flight he won a prize -of $10,000. - -He has made many other notable flights and stands in the foremost rank -of the active aviators. At the same time he is busily engaged in the -manufacture of the Curtiss biplane and the Curtiss engine, both staple -productions in their line. - - -CHARLES KEENEY HAMILTON. - -CHARLES KEENEY HAMILTON is justly regarded as one of the most skilful -of aviators. He was born in Connecticut in 1881, and showed his “bent” -by making distressing, and often disastrous, leaps from high places -with the family umbrella for a parachute. - -In 1904 he worked with Mr. Israel Ludlow, who at that time was -experimenting with gliders of his own construction, and when Mr. Ludlow -began towing them behind automobiles, Hamilton rode on the gliders and -steered them. Later he became interested in ballooning, and made a -tour of Japan with a small dirigible. - -[Illustration: Hamilton and Latham.] - -He early became famous in the aviation world by his spectacular -glides from a great height. He has said that the first of these was -unintentional, but his motor having stopped suddenly while he was high -in the air, he had only the other alternative of falling vertically. -The sensation of the swift gliding having pleased him, he does it -frequently “for the fun of it.” These glides are made at so steep an -angle that they have gained the distinctive name, “Hamilton dives.” - -Hamilton came most prominently before the public at large with his -flight from Governor’s Island to Philadelphia and back, on June 13, -1910. Following close upon Curtiss’s flight from Albany to New York, it -was not only a record-breaking achievement, but helped to establish in -this country the value of the aeroplane as a vehicle for place-to-place -journeyings. - - -HUBERT LATHAM. - -HUBERT LATHAM, the famous Antoinette pilot, is a graduate of Oxford. -His father was a naturalized Frenchman. - -His first aeronautical experience was as companion to his cousin, -Jacques Faure, the balloonist, on his famous trip from London to Paris -in 6½ hours, the fastest time ever made between the two places until -the Clement-Bayard dirigible surpassed it by a few minutes on October -16, 1910. - -The Antoinette monoplane with which M. Latham has identified himself -began with the ingenious engine of Levavasseur, which was speedily -made use of for aeroplanes by Santos-Dumont, Bleriot, and Farman. -Levavasseur also had ideas about aeroplanes, and persuaded some -capitalists to back him in the enterprise. When it was done, no one -could be found to fly it. Here M. Latham, a lieutenant of miners and -sappers in the French army, stepped into the breach, and has made a -name for himself and for the Antoinette machine in the forefront of the -progress of aviation. - -After winning several contests he set out, on July 19, 1909, to cross -the British Channel. After flying about half the distance he fell into -the sea. Six days later Bleriot made the crossing successfully, and -Latham made a second attempt on July 27th, and this time got within a -mile of the Dover coast before he again came down in the water. - -He has shown unsurpassed daring and skill in flying in gales blowing -at 40 miles per hour, a record which few other aviators have cared to -rival. - - -ALFRED LEBLANC. - -ALFRED LEBLANC, the champion cross-country flier of the world, was -born in France in 1879. By profession he is a metallurgist. A friend -of Bleriot, he became interested in monoplane flying, the more readily -because he was already a skilled balloonist. - -At the time Bleriot made his historic flight across the British -Channel, Leblanc preceded him, and, standing on the Dover shore, -signalled Bleriot where to strike the land. - -He organized Bleriot’s school for aviators at Pau, and became its -director. Its excellence is exhibited in the quality of its pupils; -among them Chavez, Morane, and Aubrun. - -The achievement through which Leblanc is most widely known is his -winning of the 489-mile race over the northern part of France in -August, 1910, and with the victory the prize of $20,000 offered. - - -CLAUDE GRAHAME-WHITE. - -CLAUDE GRAHAME-WHITE, the most famous of British aviators, learned to -fly in France, under the tutelage of M. Bleriot, Having accomplished -so much, he went to Mourmelon, the location of Farman’s establishment, -and made himself equally proficient on the Farman biplane. While in -France he taught many pupils, among them Armstrong Drexel. Returning -to England, he opened a school for English aviators. - -He came into prominent public notice in his contest with Paulhan in the -race from London to Manchester, and although Paulhan won the prize, -Grahame-White received a full share of glory for his plucky persistence -against discouraging mishaps. - -At the Boston-Harvard meet, in September, 1910, Grahame-White carried -off nearly all the prizes, and in addition won for himself a large -measure of personal popularity. - -On October 14th he flew from the Benning Race Track 6 miles away, over -the Potomac River, around the dome of the Capitol, the Washington -Monument, and over the course of Pennsylvania Avenue, up to the State, -War, and Navy Department building, alighting accurately with his -40-foot biplane in the 60-foot street. Having ended his “call,” he -mounted his machine and rose skilfully into the air and returned to his -starting point. - -At the Belmont Park meet, in October, Grahame-White captured the -international speed prize with his 100-horse-power Bleriot monoplane, -and finished second in the race around the Statue of Liberty, being -beaten by only 43 seconds. - - -LOUIS PAULHAN. - -LOUIS PAULHAN was, in January, 1909, a mechanic in Mourmelon, France, -earning the good wages in that country of $15 per week. He became -an aviator, making his first flight on July 10, 1909, of 1¼ miles. -Five days later he flew over 40 miles, remaining in the air 1 hour -17 minutes, and rising to an altitude of 357 feet, then the world’s -record. He flew constantly in public through the remainder of 1909, -winning many prizes and breaking and making records. - -In January, 1910, he was the most prominent aviator at the Los Angeles -meet, and there made a new world’s record for altitude, 4,166 feet. - -Within the 13 months and 3 weeks (up to October 1, 1910) that he has -been flying, he has won over $100,000 in prizes, besides receiving many -handsome fees for other flights and for instruction to pupils. - - -CLIFFORD B. HARMON. - -CLIFFORD B. HARMON has the double distinction of being not only the -foremost amateur aviator of America, but his feats have also at times -excelled those of the professional airmen. On July 2, 1910, Mr. Harmon -made a continuous flight of more than 2 hours, breaking all American -records, and this he held for several months. - -Mr. Harmon’s first experience in the air was as a balloonist, and in -this capacity he held the duration record of 48 hours 26 minutes for a -year. On this same voyage, at the St. Louis Centennial, he made a new -record in America for altitude attained, 24,400 feet. - -At the Los Angeles aviation meet, in January, 1910, where he went with -his balloon _New York_, he met Paulhan, and became his pupil. At that -meet Paulhan made a new world’s record for altitude with a Farman -biplane, and this machine Mr. Harmon bought, and brought to Mineola, L. -I., where he practised assiduously, crowning his minor achievements by -flying from there across Long Island Sound to Greenwich, Conn. - -At the Boston-Harvard aviation meet, in September, 1910, Mr. Harmon won -every prize offered to amateur contestants. - - -WALTER BROOKINS. - -WALTER BROOKINS is one of the youngest of noted aviators. He was born -in Dayton, Ohio, in 1890, and went to school to Miss Katherine Wright, -sister of the Wright brothers. Young Walter was greatly interested -in the experiments made by the Wrights, and Orville one day promised -him that when he grew up they would build a flying machine for him. -Brookins appeared at Dayton in the early part of 1910, after several -years’ absence, during which he had grown up, and demanded the promised -flying machine. The Wrights met the demand, and developed Brookins into -one of the most successful American aviators. - -Brookins’s first leap into prominence was at the Indianapolis meet, -in June, 1910, where he made a new world’s record for altitude, 4,803 -feet. This being beaten soon after in Europe, by J. Armstrong Drexel, -with 6,600 feet, Brookins attempted, at Atlantic City, in September, to -excel Drexel’s record, and rose to a height of 6,175 feet, being forced -to come down by the missing of his motor. - -On September 29, 1910, he left Chicago for Springfield, Ill. He made -two stops on the way for repairs and fuel, and reached Springfield in -7 hours 9 minutes elapsed time. His actual time in the air was 5 hours -47 minutes. The air-line distance between the two cities is 187 miles, -but as Brookins flew in the face of a wind blowing 10 miles an hour, -he actually travelled 250 miles. During the journey Brookins made a new -cross-country record for America in a continuous flight for 2 hours 38 -minutes. - - -JOHN B. MOISANT. - -JOHN B. MOISANT is an architect of Chicago, born there of Spanish -parentage in 1883. Becoming interested in aviation, he went to France -in 1909, and began the construction of two aeroplanes, one of them -entirely of metal. He started to learn to fly on a Bleriot machine, and -one day took one of his mechanicians aboard and started for London. The -mechanician had never before been up in an aeroplane. After battling -with storms and repairing consequent accidents to his machine, Moisant -landed his passenger in London three weeks after the start. It was -the first trip between the two cities for an aeroplane carrying a -passenger, and although Moisant failed to win the prize which had been -offered for such a feat, he received a great ovation, and a special -medal was struck for him. - -At the Belmont Park meet, in October, 1910, Moisant, after wrecking -his own machine in a gale, climbed into Leblanc’s Bleriot, which had -been secured for him but a few minutes before, and made the trip around -the Statue of Liberty in New York Bay and returned to the Park in 34 -minutes 38 seconds. As the distance is over 34 miles, the speed was -nearly a mile a minute. This feat won for him, and for America, the -grand prize of the meet--$10,000. - - -J. ARMSTRONG DREXEL. - -J. ARMSTRONG DREXEL is a native of Philadelphia. He was taught to -fly a Bleriot machine at Pau by Grahame-White, and he has frequently -surpassed his instructor in contests where both took part. At the -English meets in 1910 he won many of the prizes, being excelled in this -respect only by Leon Morane. - -At Lanark, Scotland, he established a new world’s record for altitude, -6,600 feet. At the Belmont Park meet he passed his former record with -an altitude of 7,185 feet, making this the American record, though it -had been excelled in Europe. At Philadelphia, November 23, 1910, he -reached an altitude of 9,970 feet, according to the recording barometer -he carried, thus making a new world’s record. This record was disputed -by the Aero Club, and it may be reduced. A millionaire, he flies for -sheer love of the sport. - - -RALPH JOHNSTONE. - -RALPH JOHNSTONE was born in Kansas City, Mo., in 1880. He became an -expert bicycle rider, and travelled extensively in many countries -giving exhibitions of trick bicycle riding, including the feat known -as “looping the loop.” He joined the staff of the Wright Brothers’ -aviators in April, 1910, and speedily became one of the most skilful -aeroplane operators. - -He made a specialty of altitude flying, breaking his former records day -after day, and finally, at the International Aviation Meet at Belmont -Park, L. I., in October, 1910, he made a new world’s altitude record -of 9,714 feet, surpassing the previous record of 9,121 feet made by -Wynmalen at Mourmelon, on October 1st. - -Johnstone was instantly killed at Denver, Col., on November 14, 1910, -by a fall with his machine owing to the breaking of one of the wings at -a height of 800 feet. - - - - -Chapter XIX. - -CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. - - -How feeble the start, and how wondrously rapid the growth of the art -of flying! Nothing can better convey a full idea of its beginnings -and its progress than the recorded facts as given below. And these -facts show beyond dispute that the credit of laying the foundation for -every accomplishment in the entire record must be largely due to the -men whose names stand alone for years as the only aeroplanists in the -world--the Wright Brothers. - -After the first flight on December 17, 1903, the Wrights worked -steadily toward improving their machines, and gaining a higher degree -of the art of balancing, without which even the most perfect machines -would be useless. Most of their experimenting having been done in -secret, the open record of their results from time to time is very -meagre. It may be noted, however, that for nearly three years no one -else made any records at all. - -The next name to appear on the roll is that of Santos-Dumont, already -famous for his remarkable achievements in building and navigating -dirigible balloons, or airships. His first aeroplane flight was on -August 22, 1906, and was but little more than rising clear of the -ground. - -It was nearly seven months later when Delagrange added his name to the -three then on the list of practical aviators. In about five months -Bleriot joined them, and in a few more weeks Farman had placed his name -on the roll. It is interesting to compare the insignificant figures of -the first flights of these men with their successive feats as they gain -in experience. - -Up to October 19, 1907, the flights recorded had been made with -machines of the biplane type, but on that date, R. Esnault-Pelterie -made a few short flights with a monoplane. A month later Santos-Dumont -had gone over to the monoplane type, and the little group of seven had -been divided into two classes--five biplanists and two monoplanists. - -On March 29, 1908, Delagrange started a new column in the record book -by taking a passenger up with him, in this case, Farman. They flew only -453 feet, but it was the beginning of passenger carrying. - -During the first six months of 1908 only two more names were added to -the roll--Baldwin and McCurdy--both on the biplane side. On July 4, -1908, Curtiss comes into the circle with his first recorded flight, -in which he used a biplane of his own construction. The same day in -France, Bleriot changed to the ranks of the monoplane men, with a -flight measured in miles, instead of in feet. Two days later, Farman -advanced his distance record from 1.24 miles to 12.2 miles, and his -speed record from about 21 miles an hour to nearly 39 miles an hour. In -two days more, Delagrange had taken up the first woman passenger ever -carried on an aeroplane; and a month later, Captain L. F. Ferber had -made his first flights in public, and added his name to the growing -legion of the biplanists. - -In the latter part of 1908, the Wrights seem to take possession of the -record--Orville in America, and Wilbur in Europe--surpassing their own -previous feats as well as those of others. Bleriot and Farman also -steadily advance their performances to a more distinguished level. - -The record for 1909 starts off with three new names--Moore-Brabazon, -and Legagneux in France, and Cody in England. Richardson, Count de -Lambert, Calderara, Latham, Tissandier, Rougier, join the ranks of the -aviators before the year is half gone, and a few days later Sommer and -Paulhan add their names. - -Of these only Latham flies the monoplane type of machine, but at the -Rheims tournament Delagrange appears as a monoplanist, increasing the -little group to four; but, with Le Blon added later, they perform some -of the most remarkable feats on record. - -The contest at Rheims in August is a succession of record-breaking and -record-making achievements. But it is at Blackpool and Doncaster that -the most distinct progress of the year is marked, by the daring flights -of Le Blon and Latham in fierce gales. Spectators openly charged these -men with foolhardiness, but it was of the first importance that it -should be demonstrated that these delicately built machines can be -handled safely in the most turbulent weather; and the fact that it has -been done successfully will inspire every other aviator with a greater -degree of confidence in his ability to control his machine in whatever -untoward circumstances he may be placed. And such confidence is by far -the largest element in safe and successful flying. - - -NOTABLE AVIATION RECORDS TO CLOSE OF 1910 - - _December 17, 1903_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Kitty - Hawk, N. C., makes the first successful flight by man with - power-propelled machine, a distance of 852 feet, in 59 seconds. - - _November 9, 1904_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Dayton, O., - flies 3 miles in 4 minutes and 30 seconds. (He and Orville made - upward of 100 unrecorded flights in that year.) - - _September 26, 1905_--Wilbur Wright with biplane “White Flier,” - at Dayton, O., flies 11 miles in 18 minutes and 9 seconds. - - _September 29, 1905_--Orville Wright, with “White Flier,” at - Dayton, O., flies 12 miles in 19 minutes and 55 seconds. - - _October 3, 1905_--Wilbur Wright, with “White Flier” at Dayton, - O., flies 15 miles in 25 minutes and 5 seconds. - - _October 4, 1905_--Orville Wright with biplane “White Flier,” at - Dayton, O., flies 21 miles in 33 minutes and 17 seconds. - - _October 5, 1905_--Wilbur Wright with “White Flier,” at Dayton, - O., flies 24 miles in 38 minutes. (He made many unrecorded - flights in that year.) - - _August 22, 1906_--A. Santos-Dumont with biplane at Bagatelle, - France, made his first public flight with an aeroplane, hardly - more than rising clear of the ground. - - _September 14, 1906_--Santos-Dumont with biplane, at Bagatelle, - flies for 8 seconds. - -[Illustration: Santos-Dumont flying at Bagatelle in his cellular -biplane.] - - _October 24, 1906_--Santos-Dumont with biplane, at Bagatelle, - flies 160 feet in 4 seconds. - - _November 13, 1906_--Santos-Dumont with biplane, at Bagatelle, - flies 722 feet in 21 seconds. This feat is recorded as the first - aeroplane flight made in Europe. - - _March 16, 1907_--Leon Delagrange with first Voisin biplane, at - Bagatelle, flies 30 feet. - - _August 6, 1907_--Louis Bleriot with a Langley machine, at Issy, - France, flies 470 feet. - - _October 15, 1907_--Henry Farman with biplane, at Issy, flies 937 - feet in 21 seconds. - - _October 19, 1907_--R. Esnault-Pelterie with monoplane, at Buc, - France, makes short flights. - - _October 26, 1907_--Farman with biplane, at Issy, flies 2,529 - feet in a half circle, in 52 seconds. - - _November 17, 1907_--Santos-Dumont with biplane, at Issy, makes - several short flights, the longest being about 500 feet. - - _November 21, 1907_--Santos-Dumont with monoplane at Bagatelle, - makes several short flights, the longest being about 400 feet. - - _January 13, 1908_--Farman with biplane, at Issy, makes the - first flight in a circular course--3,279 feet in 1 minute and 28 - seconds. - - _March 12, 1908_--F. W. Baldwin with biplane “Red Wing,” at - Hammondsport, N. Y., flies 319 feet. - - _March 21, 1908_--Farman with biplane, at Issy, flies 1.24 miles - in 3 minutes and 31 seconds. - - _March 29, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Ghent, Belgium, - makes first recorded flight with one passenger (Farman), 453 feet. - - _April 11, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane at Issy, flies 2.43 - miles in 6 minutes and 30 seconds, winning the Archdeacon cup. - - _May 18, 1908_--J. A. D. McCurdy with biplane “White Wing” at - Hammondsport, flies 600 feet. - - _May 27, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Rome, in the presence - of the King of Italy, flies 7.9 miles in 15 minutes and 25 - seconds. - -[Illustration: The early Voisin biplane flown by Farman at Issy.] - - _May 30, 1908_--Farman with biplane, at Ghent, flies 0.77 miles - with one passenger (Mr. Archdeacon). - - _June 8, 1908_--Esnault-Pelterie with monoplane, at Buc, flies - 0.75 miles, reaching an altitude of 100 feet. - - _June 22, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Milan, Italy, flies - 10.5 miles in 16 minutes and 30 seconds. - - _July 4, 1908_--Glenn H. Curtiss with biplane, at Hammondsport, - flies 5,090 feet, in 1 minute and 42 seconds, winning _Scientific - American_ cup. - -[Illustration: The “June Bug” flown by Curtiss winning the _Scientific -American_ cup, July 4, 1908.] - - _July 4, 1908_--Bleriot with monoplane, at Issy, flies 3.7 miles - in 5 minutes and 47 seconds, making several circles. - - _July 6, 1908_--Farman in biplane, at Ghent, flies 12.2 miles in - 19 minutes and 3 seconds, winning the Armengand prize. - - _July 8, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Turin, Italy, flies - 500 feet with the first woman passenger ever carried on an - aeroplane--Mrs. Peltier. - - _August 9, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans, France, - makes several short flights to prove the ease of control of his - machine. - - _August 8, 1908_--L. F. Ferber with biplane, at Issy, makes first - trial flights. - - _September 6, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Issy, flies - 15.2 miles in 29 minutes and 52 seconds, beating existing French - records. - - _September 8, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at Fort Myer, - Va., flies 40 miles in 1 hour and 2 minutes, rising to 100 feet. - - _September 9, 10, 11, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at - Fort Myer, makes several flights, increasing in duration from 57 - minutes to 1 hour ten minutes and 24 seconds. - - _September 12, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at Fort Myer, - flies 50 miles in 1 hour, 14 minutes and 20 seconds, the longest - flight on record. - - _September 12, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at Fort Myer, - flies for 9 minutes and 6 seconds with one passenger (Major - Squier), making a new record. - - _September 17, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at Fort Myer, - flies 3 miles in 4 minutes, with Lieutenant Selfridge. The - machine fell: Selfridge was killed and Wright severely injured. - - _September 19, 1908_--L. F. Ferber with biplane, at Issy, flies - 1,640 feet. - - _September 21, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Auvours, - flies 41 miles in 1 hour and 31 minutes. - - _September 25, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans, - France, flies 11 minutes and 35 seconds, with one passenger, - making a new record. - - _October 3, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans, - France, flies 55 minutes and 37 seconds, with one passenger, - making new record. - - _October 6, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans, flies - 1 hour 4 minutes and 26 seconds, with one passenger, breaking all - records. - - _October 10, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Auvours, - flies 46 miles in 1 hour and 9 minutes, with one passenger (Mr. - Painleve). Also carried 35 others on different trips, one at a - time. - - _October 21, 1908_--Bleriot with monoplane, at Toury, France, - flies 4.25 miles in 6 minutes and 40 seconds. - - _October 30, 1908_--Farman with biplane at Chalons, France, makes - a flight across country to Rheims--17 miles in 20 minutes. - - _October 31, 1908_--Farman with biplane, at Chalons, flies 23 - minutes, reaching a height of 82 feet. - - _October 31, 1908_--Bleriot with monoplane, at Toury, flies 8.7 - miles to Artenay, in 11 minutes, lands, and returns to Toury. - - _December 18, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Auvours, - flies 62 miles in 1 hour and 54 minutes, rising to 360 - feet--making a world record. - - _December 31, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans, - flies 76.5 miles in 2 hours 18 minutes and 53 seconds, making a - new world record, and winning the Michelin prize. The distance - traversed (unofficial) is claimed to have been actually over 100 - miles. - - _January 28, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon with biplane, at Chalons, - flies 3.1 miles, in practice with a Voison machine. - - _February 14, 1909_--Legagneux with biplane, at Mourmelon, - France, flies 1.2 miles, and in a second flight of 6.2 miles (10 - kilometres), traces two circles. - - _February 22, 1909_--S. F. Cody with biplane, at Aldershot, - England, flies 1,200 feet in a 12-mile wind. - - _February 23, 1909_--J. A. D. McCurdy, with the biplane “Silver - Dart,” at Baddeck, Cape Breton, flies 2,640 feet. - - _February 24, 1909_--McCurdy, with the biplane “Silver Dart,” at - Baddeck, flies 4.5 miles. - - _February 24, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon, with biplane, at Issy, flies - 1.2 miles, tracing two circles. - - _February 28, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon made several flights at Issy. - - _March 8, 1909_--McCurdy, with biplane “Silver Dart,” at Baddeck, - made five flights, the longest about 8 miles in 11 minutes and 15 - seconds. - - _March 10, 1909_--Santos-Dumont, with monoplane “Libellule,” at - Bagatelle, flies 1,300 feet. - - _March 11, 1909_--W. J. Richardson with a new form of aeroplane, - at Dayton, O., flies for 38 minutes, rising to a height of over - 300 feet. - - _March 11, 1909_--McCurdy with biplane “Silver Dart,” at Baddeck, - flies 19 miles in 22 minutes. - - _March 17, 1909_--Count de Lambert (pupil of Wilbur Wright) made - his first flight alone in biplane, at Pau, France. He remained in - the air 3 minutes. - - _March 18, 1909_--McCurdy, with biplane “Silver Dart,” at - Baddeck, flies 16 miles, completing a record of an even 1,000 - miles in the air within a period of 10 months. - - _March 18, 1909_--F. W. Baldwin with biplane “Silver Dart,” at - Baddeck, made a short flight. - - _March 20, 1909_--Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at Pau, succeeds - in rising from the ground without the starting device previously - used. He makes several flights. - - _March 24, 1909_--Count de Lambert with biplane, at Pau, flies - 15.6 miles in 27 minutes and 11 seconds. - - _April 10, 1909_--Santos-Dumont with monoplane “Demoiselle,” at - St. Cyr, France, flies 1.2 miles. - - _April 13, 1909_--Count de Lambert with biplane, at Pau, flies - for 1 minute and 30 seconds, with one passenger (Leon Delagrange). - - _April 16, 1909_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Rome, Italy, - made many flights, taking up many passengers, one at a time. - - _April 27, 1909_--Legagneux with Voisin biplane, at Vienna, flies - 2.5 miles in 3 minutes and 26 seconds. - - _April 28, 1909_--Lieutenant Mario Calderara (pupil of Wilbur - Wright) with biplane, at Rome, made his first public flight, - remaining in the air 10 minutes. - - _April 30, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon with biplane, in England, flies - 4.5 miles. - - _May 14, 1909_--S. F. Cody, with the army biplane, at Aldershot, - flies 1 mile. - - _May 19, 1909_--Hubert Latham, with Antoinette monoplane, at - Chalons, flies 1,640 feet. - - _May 20, 1909_--Paul Tissandier (pupil of Wilbur Wright) with - biplane at Pau, flies 35.7 miles. - - _May 23, 1909_--Delagrange, with biplane, at Juvissy, flies 3.6 - miles in 10 minutes and 18 seconds, winning the Lagatineri prize. - - _May 23, 1909_--Henri Rougier, with biplane, at Juvissy, flies - 18.6 miles (30 kilometres). - - _May 30, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane at Issy, flies 8.7 miles. - - _June 5, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Chalons, flies for 1 - hour 7 minutes and 37 seconds in wind and rain. - - _June 6, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Juvissy, flies 10 - miles across country. - - _June 12, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Juvissy, flies 30 - miles in 39 minutes, winning the Goupy prize. - - _June 12, 1909_--Delagrange, with biplane, at Juvissy, makes - cross country flight of 3.7 miles. - - _June 12, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Juvissy, flies 984 - feet, with two passengers--Santos-Dumont and Fournier. - - _June 13 1909_--Ferber, with Voisin biplane, at Juvissy, flies - 3.1 miles in 5 minutes and 30 seconds. - - _June 19, 1909_--Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, at Issy, makes - several flights. - - _July 4, 1909_--Roger Sommer with biplane, at Chalons, flies 3.75 - miles on Farman machine. - - _July 10, 1909_--Louis Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, France, - makes his first flight--1.25 miles. - - _July 13, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola, L. I., flies - 1.5 miles in 3 minutes. - - _July 13, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Mondesir, makes a - flight of 26 miles across country in 44 minutes and 30 seconds. - - _July 15, 1909_--Paulhan with biplane, at Douai, flies for 1 - minute and 17 seconds, soaring to an altitude of 357 feet. - - _July 17, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer, - flies 16 minutes and 40 seconds, at a speed of 40 miles an hour. - - _July 17, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola, makes 15 - miles in 21 minutes, describing circles in both directions, as in - the figure 8. - - _July 18, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Hempstead Plains, - L. I., flies 29½ miles in 52 minutes and 30 seconds, a flight - exceeded only by the Wrights, in America, and Bleriot, Latham, - and Paulhan, in Europe. - - _July 18, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Chalons, flies for 1 - hour and 23 minutes, making his first long flight. - - _July 18, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, makes his - longest flight--1 hour and 40 minutes. - - _July 19, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Calais, France, makes - his first attempt to cross the Channel to Dover. He flies 11 - miles, and then his machine falls into the sea. - - _July 19, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, makes a - cross-country flight of 12.1 miles in 22 minutes and 53 seconds. - - _July 20, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer, - flies 1 hour and 20 minutes. - - _July 21, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer, - flies 1 hour and 29 minutes. - - _July 21, 1909_--E. Lefebvre, with biplane, at La Haye, France, - flies 2 miles. - - _July 21, 1909_--S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot, flies 4 - miles. - - _July 23, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Chalons, makes a - cross-country flight to Suippes--40 miles in 1 hour and five - minutes. - - _July 23, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, flies 43.5 - miles in 1 hour 17 minutes and 19 seconds. - - _July 24, 1909_--Curtiss in biplane, at Hempstead Plains, flies - 25 miles in 52 minutes and 30 seconds, winning the _Scientific - American_ cup the second time. - - _July 25, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Calais, flies to - Dover, England, across the English Channel--32 miles in 37 - minutes. - - _July 27, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer, - flies 1 hour and 13 minutes, with one passenger, securing - acceptance of Wright machine by U. S. Government on the duration - specifications. - - _July 27, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Calais, flies 20 - miles in a second attempt to cross the English Channel. When near - Dover the machine fell. - - _July 27, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, flies to - Vadenay and back--25 miles in 1 hour 23 minutes and 30 seconds. - - _July 30, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer, - established a world record with one passenger in a cross-country - flight to Shuter’s Hill and back--about 10 miles in 14 minutes - and 40 seconds, a speed of about 42 miles an hour--winning a - bonus of $25,000 from the U. S. Government. - - _August 1, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, flies 1 hour - 50 minutes and 30 seconds, at an average height of 80 feet, over - a distance estimated at 70 miles, surpassing all French records. - - _August 2, 1909_--McCurdy, with a new type of machine, at - Petawawa, makes several flights. - - _August 2, 1909_--F. W. Baldwin, with biplane, at Petawawa, makes - several short flights. - - _August 2, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, flies to - Suippes--9 miles, at the rate of 45 miles an hour. - - _August 4, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, in the effort - to beat Wilbur Wright’s record, flies for 2 hours 0 minutes and - 10 seconds (Wright’s record flight was 2 hours 20 minutes and 23 - seconds, made on December 31, 1908). - - _August 5, 1909_--E. Bunau-Varilla, with Voisin biplane, at - Chalons, flies for 15 minutes. - - _August 6, 1909_--Legagneux, with biplane, at Stockholm, flies - with one passenger, 3,280 feet. - - _August 6, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Dunkerque, France, - flies for 18 minutes and 20 seconds, reaching an altitude of 200 - feet. - - _August 7, 1909_--Paulhan, with Voisin biplane, at Dunkerque, - flies 23 miles in 33 minutes. - - _August 7, 1909_--Sommer, with Voisin biplane, at Chalons, flies - for 2 hours 27 minutes and 15 seconds, making new world record - for duration. - - _August 13, 1909_--Charles F. Willard, with biplane, at Hempstead - Plains, made the longest cross-country flight on record for - America--about 12 miles in 19 minutes and 30 seconds. The - breaking of his engine caused him to come down. He landed without - mishap. - - _August 22, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims, France, flies - 1 hour 19 minutes and 30 seconds. - - _August 22, 1909_--Legagneux, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2 - miles in 9 minutes and 56 seconds, winning third prize for speed - over course of 10 kilometres. - - _August 22, 1909_--Tissandier, with biplane, at Rheims, flies - 18.6 miles in 29 minutes. (He won with this record the third - prize for speed over 30 kilometres.) - - _August 22, 1909_--E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane, at Rheims, - flies 6.2 miles in 13 minutes and 30 seconds. (With this - record he won the thirteenth prize for speed over course of 10 - kilometres.) - - _August 23, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies - 6.2 miles in 11 minutes and 4 seconds. (He won the tenth prize - for speed over 10 kilometres.) - - _August 23, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2 - miles in 8 minutes and 35 seconds--a speed of 42.3 miles an - hour--beating the record for speed over course of 10 kilometres. - - _August 23, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 18.6 - miles in 38 minutes and 12 seconds, reaching an altitude of 295 - feet. - - _August 23, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 34.8 - miles in an endurance test. - - _August 25, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 82 - miles in 2 hours 43 minutes and 25 seconds. (With this record he - won the third prize for duration of flight.) - - _August 25, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2 - miles in 8 minutes and 44 seconds, again reducing the time for 10 - kilometres. - - _August 25, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2 - miles in 8 minutes and 4 seconds, making a new record for speed - over the course of 10 kilometres. - - _August 26, 1909_--Curtiss, in biplane, at Rheims, flies 19 miles - in 29 minutes. (With this record he won the tenth prize for - duration of flight.) - - _August 26, 1909_--Count de Lambert, with biplane, at Rheims, - flies 72 miles in 1 hour and 52 minutes. (With this record he won - the fourth prize for duration of flight.) - - _August 26, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies 96.5 - miles in 2 hours 17 minutes and 21 seconds. (With this record he - won the second prize for duration of flight.) - - _August 27, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 112 - miles in 3 hours 4 minutes and 57 seconds. (This record won for - him the first prize for duration of flight.) - -[Illustration: Latham flying in his Antoinette at Rheims. To view this -properly the picture should be held overhead.] - - _August 27, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies to an - altitude of 508 feet. (With this record he won first prize for - altitude.) - - _August 27, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies - 31 miles. (With this record he won the eighth prize for duration - of flight.) - - _August 27, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 37 - miles. He won the seventh prize for distance. - - _August 27, 1909_--Tissandier, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 69 - miles. (This record won for him the sixth prize for distance.) - - _August 27, 1909_--Lefebvre, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 12.4 - miles in 20 minutes and 47 seconds, exhibiting great daring and - skill. (He was fined for “recklessness.”) - - _August 27, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies 25 - miles in 41 minutes. (This record won for him the ninth prize for - distance flown.) - - _August 28, 1909_--Lefebvre, with biplane, at Rheims, makes a - spectacular flight for 11 minutes with one passenger. - - _August 28, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 12.4 - miles in 15 minutes and 56 seconds, winning the Gordon Bennett - cup. - - _August 28, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2 - miles in 7 minutes and 48 seconds. (With this record he won the - first prize for speed over course of 10 kilometres.) - - _August 29, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2 - miles with two passengers, in 10 minutes and 30 seconds, winning - a prize. - - _August 29. 1909--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 18.6 - miles in 23 minutes and 30 seconds. (With this record he won the - first prize for speed over course of 30 kilometres.) - - _August 29, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2 - miles in 7 minutes and 51 seconds, winning the second prize for - speed over course of 10 kilometres. - - _August 29, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Rheims, rises to a - height of 180 feet, winning the fourth prize for altitude. - - _August 29, 1909_--E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane, at Rheims, - flies 18.6 miles in 38 minutes and 31 seconds. (With this record - he won the eighth prize for speed over course of 30 kilometres.) - - _August 29, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, makes - several short flights. - - _August 29, 1909_--S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot, flies - 10 miles with one passenger. - - _September 4, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, - flies for 55 minutes. - - _September 6, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Nancy, France, - flies 25 miles in 35 minutes. He takes up a number of passengers; - one at a time. - - _September 7, 1909_--Lefebvre, with biplane, at Juvissy, is - killed by the breaking of his machine in the air after he had - flown 1,800 feet. - - _September 8, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, - flies 17 minutes with one passenger--Captain Hildebrandt. - - _September 8, 1909_--S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot, - flies to Farnborough and back--46 miles in 1 hour and 3 minutes. - This is the first recorded cross-country flight in England. - - _September 9, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, - flies for 15 minutes with one passenger--Captain Englehardt. - - _September 9, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Tournai, Belgium, - flies 12.4 miles in 17 minutes. - - _September 9, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Brescia, flies 12 - minutes and 10 seconds, soaring to a height of 328 feet. - - _September 10, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Nancy, flies 18 - miles, accompanying troops on review. - - _September 11, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Nancy, flies to - Lenoncourt--24 miles. - - _September 11, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Brescia, flies 31 - miles in 49 minutes and 24 seconds, winning the first prize for - speed. - - _September 12, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Brescia, flies 31 - miles in 1 hour 10 minutes and 18 seconds, soaring to a height of - 380 feet. - - _September 12, 1909_--Calderara, with biplane, at Brescia, flies - 6.3 miles with one passenger, winning a prize. - - _September 13, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Tournai, flies to - Taintiguies and back in 1 hour and 35 minutes. - - _September 13, 1909_--Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, at St. Cyr, - France, flies 5 miles in 12 minutes, to Buc, to visit Maurice - Guffroy, on a bet of $200 that each would be the first to visit - the other. - - _September 15, 1909_--Ferber, with biplane, at Boulogne, France, - flies to Wimeroux--6 miles in 9 minutes. - - _September 15, 1909_--Calderara, with biplane, at Brescia, flies - 5.6 miles with one passenger, winning the Oldofredi prize. - - _September 17, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, - flies for 54 minutes and 26 seconds, rising to an altitude of - 765 feet (estimated). He afterward flew for 47 minutes and 5 - seconds with Captain Englehardt. - - _September 17, 1909_--Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, at St. Cyr, - flies 10 miles in 16 minutes across country. - - _September 17, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Ostend, Belgium, - flies 1.24 miles in 3 minutes and 16 seconds, along the water - front and out over the sea. - - _September 18, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, - establishes a world record by flying for 1 hour 35 minutes and 47 - seconds, with one passenger--Captain Englehardt. - - _September 18, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Ostend, flies for - 1 hour over sea front, circling over the water; winning a prize - of $5,000. - - _September 20, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Brescia, broke - the record for high flying by reaching an altitude of 645 feet - (official measurement). - - _September 20, 1909_--Calderara, with biplane, at Brescia, flies - 31 miles in 50 minutes and 51 seconds, winning the second prize - for speed. - - _September 22, 1909_--Captain Ferber, with a biplane, at - Boulogne, flies 1 mile, when, his engine breaking in the air, his - machine falls and he is killed. - - _September 25, 1909_--Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at New York, - flies from Governor’s Island around the Statue of Liberty. - - _September 27, 1909_--Latham, in monoplane, at Berlin, flies 6.5 - miles across country in 13 minutes. - - _September 28, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin, flies 31 - miles in 54 minutes, soaring to an altitude of 518 feet. - - _September 29, 1909_--Latham in monoplane, at Berlin, flies 42 - miles in 1 hour and 10 minutes, winning the second prize for - distance. - - _September 29, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin, flies 48 - miles in 1 hour and 35 minutes. - - _September 29, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at New York, makes - flights about the harbor from Governor’s Island. - - _September 30, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, - soars to a height of 902 feet, making a world record for altitude. - - _September 30, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Berlin, flies 51 - miles in 1 hour and 23 minutes. - - _October 1, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin, flies 80 - miles in 2 hours and 38 minutes, winning the first prize for - distance and speed. - - _October 2, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, makes - a flight of 10 minutes’ duration with the Crown Prince of Germany. - - _October 3, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Berlin, flies 62 - miles in 1 hour and 40 minutes, winning the third prize for - distance and speed. - - _October 4, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, - soared to an altitude of 1,600 feet, making a world record. - - _October 4, 1909_--Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at New York, - flies from Governor’s Island to Grant’s Tomb and back--21 miles - in 33 minutes and 33 seconds. - - _October 10, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at St. Louis, Mo., - makes several flights at the Centennial celebration. - - _October 10, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt. Aviation, flies - 21.5 miles in 21 minutes and 48 seconds. - - _October 12, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt. Aviation, flies - 3.6 miles in 6 minutes and 11 seconds, winning the prize for - slowest flight. - - _October 16, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Chicago, makes - exhibition flights at 45 miles per hour. - - _October 16, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Doncaster, England, - flies 9.7 miles in 21 minutes and 45 seconds, making the record - for Great Britain. - - _October 16, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Doncaster, - flies 5.75 miles in 11 minutes and 25 seconds. - - _October 16, 1909_--Cody, with biplane, at Doncaster, flies 3,000 - feet, when his machine is wrecked, and he is injured. - - _October 18, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Blackpool, England, - flies 14 miles in 25 minutes and 53 seconds. - - _October 18, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Blackpool, flies - 17.7 miles in 24 minutes and 43 seconds, winning the second prize. - - _October 18, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Blackpool, flies 14 - miles in 23 minutes. - - _October 18, 1909_--Le Blon, with monoplane, at Doncaster, flies - 22 miles in 30 minutes, in a rainstorm, winning the Bradford cup. - - _October 18, 1909_--Count de Lambert, with biplane, at Juvissy, - flies 31 miles to the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and back, in 49 - minutes and 39 seconds. - - _October 19, 1909_--Le Blon, with monoplane, at Doncaster, flies - 15 miles in a gale. - - _October 19, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Blackpool, flies - 15.7 miles in 32 minutes and 18 seconds, winning the third prize. - - _October 20, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Blackpool, flies 47 - miles in 1 hour, 32 minutes, and 16 seconds, winning the first - prize--$10,000. - - _October 20, 1909_--Le Blon, with monoplane, at Doncaster, makes - a spectacular flight in a fierce gale. - - _October 21, 1909_--Count de Lambert, with biplane, at Pt. - Aviation, flies 1.25 miles in 1 minute and 57 seconds, winning - prize of $3,000 for speed. - - _October 22, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Blackpool, flies - in a squally gale blowing from 30 to 50 miles an hour. When - headed into the wind the machine moved backward in relation to - points on the ground. Going before the wind, it passed points on - the ground at a speed of nearly 100 miles an hour. This flight, - twice around the course, is the most difficult feat accomplished - by any aviator up to this date. - - _October 26, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Doncaster, flies - 29.7 miles in 44 minutes and 53 seconds, winning the Whitworth - cup. - - _October 26, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Doncaster, - flies 6 miles in 7 minutes and 36 seconds--a speed of over 50 - miles an hour. - - _October 30, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon, with biplane, at Shell Beach, - England, wins a prize of $5,000 for flight with a British machine. - - _November 3, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Mourmelon, France, - flies 144 miles in 4 hours 6 minutes and 25 seconds, far - surpassing his previous best record of 112 miles in 3 hours 4 - minutes and 57 seconds, made at Rheims, and winning the Michelin - cup for duration and distance. - - _November 19, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Mourmelon, broke - the record for height by ascending to 1,170 feet, in a wind - blowing from 20 to 25 miles an hour. - - _November 19, 1909_--Latham, with Antoinette monoplane, surpassed - Paulhan’s record by rising to an altitude of 1,333 feet. - - _November 20, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Mourmelon, flies - to Chalons and back--37 miles in 55 minutes. - - _December 1, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Mourmelon, soars - to 1,500 feet in a 40-mile gale. - - _December 30, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Juvissy, - flies 124 miles in 2 hours and 32 minutes--an average speed of - 48.9 miles per hour, surpassing all previous records. - - _December 31, 1909_--Farman at Chartres, France, flies to - Orleans--42 miles in 50 minutes. - - _December 31, 1909_--Maurice Farman, at Mourmelon, defending his - brother Henry’s record against competing aviators, flies 100 - miles in 2 hours and 45 minutes, without a fault. The Michelin - cup remains in his brother’s possession. - - _January 7, 1910_--Latham, with Antoinette monoplane, at Chalons, - rises to height of 3,281 feet (world’s record). - - _January 10, 1910_--Opening of aviation meet at Los Angeles, Cal. - - _January 12, 1910_--Paulhan, Farman biplane, at Los Angeles, - rises to height of 4,146 feet. (World’s record.) - - _January 17, 1910_--Paulhan, Farman biplane, at Los Angeles, - flies 75 miles in 1 hour 58 minutes and 27⅖ seconds. - - _February 7, 1910_--First flight in South America. Bregi, Voisin - biplane, makes two flights near Buenos Aires. - - _February 7, 1910_--Duray, with Farman biplane, at Heliopolis, - Egypt, flies 5 kilometres in 4 minutes and 12⅘ seconds. (World’s - record.) - - _April 8, 1910_--D. Kinet, with Farman biplane, at Mourmelon, - flies for 2 hours 19 minutes and 4⅖ seconds with passenger, - covering 102 miles. (World’s record for passenger flight.) - - _April 11, 1910_--E. Jeannin, with Farman biplane, flies 2 hours - 1 minute and 55 seconds, at Johannisthal. (German record.) - - _April 15, 1910_--Opening of Nice meeting. - - _April 17, 1910_--Paulhan, with Farman biplane, flies from - Chevilly to Arcis-sur-Aube, 118 miles. (Record cross-country - flight.) - - _April 23, 1910_--Grahame-White, with Farman biplane, flies from - Park Royal, London, to Rugby (83 miles) in 2 hours and 1 minute. - Starting again in 55 minutes, flies to Whittington in 1 hour and - 5 minutes. - - _April 27, 1910_--Paulhan, with Farman biplane, starts from - Hendon, London, at 5.31 P. M., flies within 5 mile circle - and continues to Lichfield, arriving 8.10 P. M. (117 miles). - Grahame-White starts from Wormwood Scrubs, London, at 6.29 P. - M., flies to Roade, arriving 7.55 P. M. (60 miles). - - _April 28, 1910_--Paulhan flies from Lichfield to within 5 miles - of Manchester, winning the £10,000 _Daily Mail_ prize. - - _April 30, 1910_--Opening of meeting at Tours, France. - - _May 1, 1910_--Opening of flying-week at Barcelona. - - _May 3, 1910_--Wiencziers, with Antoinette monoplane, twice - circles the Strassburg cathedral. - - _May 6, 1910_--Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane, makes flight - of 18 minutes and 20 seconds above the sea at Barcelona, and over - the fortress of Monjuich. - - _May 13, 1910_--Engelhardt, with Wright biplane, at Berlin, flies - 2 hours 21 minutes and 45 seconds. (German record.) - - _May 15, 1910_--Kinet, with Farman biplane, flies 2 hours and 51 - minutes with a passenger at Mourmelon, making the world’s record - for passenger flight. - - _May 15, 1910_--Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane, flies 15 - miles over the sea at Genoa. - - _May 21, 1910_--M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane, flies - from Calais to Dover in 37 minutes, winning £500 prize offered by - M. M. Ruinart. - - _May 28, 1910_--G. Curtiss, with Curtiss biplane, starts from - Albany at 7.03 A. M., flies to Poughkeepsie in 1 hour and 21 - minutes (70 miles). Leaves Poughkeepsie at 9.24 A. M., flies to - Spuyten Duyvil in 1 hour and 11 minutes (67 miles). Rises again - at 11.45, flies over New York, landing on Governor’s Island at - 12.03 P. M. Wins prize of $10,000 given by the New York _World_. - - _June 2, 1910_--Rolls, with Short-Wright biplane, leaves Dover - at 6.30 P. M., crosses Channel to French coast near Calais (7.15 - P. M.), without landing re-crosses Channel to Dover, flies over - harbor, circles Dover Castle, and lands at 8.10 P. M. Wins second - Ruinart prize of £80. - - _June 14, 1910_--Brookins, with Wright biplane, at Indianapolis, - reaches height of 4,380 feet. (World’s record.) - - _June 25, 1910_--In Italian Parliament 25 million lire (about - $5,000,000) voted for aviation in the extraordinary estimates of - the Ministry of War. - - _June 26, 1910_--Dickson, with Farman biplane, at Rouen, wins - total distance prize of £2,000 and the £400 for longest unbroken - flight. Distance flown, 466 miles. - - _June 27, 1910_--M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane, flies - over Montreal for 49 minutes, covering about 30 miles at height - generally of 2,000 feet. - - _July 6, 1910_--First German military aeroplane makes maiden - cross-country flight over Doeberitz. - - _July 26, 1910_--M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane, starting - from Ile de Gros Bois in the St. Lawrence, makes trip of 40 miles - in 37 minutes. - - _August 1, 1910_--Henry Farman takes up three passengers at - Mourmelon for 1 hour and 4 minutes. - - _August 5, 1910_--Chavez, with Bleriot monoplane, attains height - of 5,750 feet. World’s record. - - _August 7, 1910_--Lieutenants Cammerman and Villerme fly together - from Mourmelon to Nancy, 125 miles in 2½ hours, with a Farman - biplane. - - _August 11, 1910_--Drexel, with Bleriot monoplane, at Lanark, - beats the world’s record for height, rising 6,600 feet. - - _August 27, 1910_--First wireless telegram from a flying - aeroplane, sent by McCurdy from a Curtiss machine in the air, - at Atlantic City, N. J. The sending key was attached to the - steering wheel. - - _August 28, 1910_--Dufaux, with biplane constructed by himself, - flies over Lake Geneva, wins prize of £200 offered by Swiss Aero - Club. - - _August 29, 1910_--Breguet, with Breguet monoplane, makes a - flight at Lille, France, carrying five passengers, establishing - world’s record for passenger flight. - - _August 29, 1910_--Morane, with Bleriot monoplane, at Havre, - beats world’s altitude record, reaches height of 7,166 feet. - - _September 2, 1910_--Mlle. Hélène Dutrieux flies with a passenger - from Ostend to Bruges, Belgium, and back to Ostend. At Bruges she - circled around the famous belfry at a height of 1,300 feet, the - chimes pealing in honor of the feat--the most wonderful flight so - far accomplished by a woman. - - _September 3, 1910_--M. Bielovucci lands at Bordeaux, France, - having made the trip from Paris, 366 miles, inside of 48 hours. - The actual time in the air was 7 hours 6 minutes. Strong head - winds blew him backward, forcing a landing three times on the - way. This is the fourth longest cross-country flight on record, - and makes the world’s record for sustained speed over a long - distance. - -[Illustration: Mlle. Hélène Dutrieux.] - - _September 4, 1910_--Morane, at Havre, rises to height of 8,469 - feet. - - _September 7, 1910_--Weyman, with Farman biplane, flies from Buc - in attempt to reach the top of the Puy-de-Dôme, lands at Volvic, - 5 miles from his destination. Establishes world’s record for - flight with passenger, having covered 139 miles without landing. - - _September 28, 1910_--Chavez crosses the Alps on a Bleriot - monoplane from Brigue, in Switzerland, to Domodossola, in Italy, - flying over the Simplon Pass. - - _October 1, 1910_--Henri Wynmalen, of Holland, with a biplane at - Mourmelon, France, rises to a height of 9,121 feet, making a new - world’s record for altitude. - - _October 4, 1910_--Maurice Tabuteau recrossed the Pyrenees, in - his return trip from San Sebastian to Biarritz, without accident - or marked incident. - - _October 5, 1910_--Leon Morane, the winner of nearly all the - contests in the English meets for 1910, fell with his monoplane - at Boissy St. Leger, during a contest for the Michelin cup, and - was seriously injured. - - _October 8, 1910_--Archibald Hoxsey, with a biplane, makes the - longest continuous aeroplane flight recorded in America, between - Springfield, Ill., and St. Louis, Mo.--104 miles. - - _October 12, 1910_--Alfred Leblanc, with monoplane, at St. Louis, - flies 13 miles in 10 minutes, a speed of 78 miles per hour. - It was not officially recorded, as a part of the distance was - outside of the prescribed course. - - _October 14, 1910_--Grahame-White flies from the Bennings - Race Track 6 miles across the Potomac River to the Capitol at - Washington, circles the dome, and then circles the Washington - Monument, and finally alights with precision in Executive Street, - between the Executive Offices and the building of the State, - Army, and Navy Departments. After a brief call, he rose from the - narrow street--but 20 feet wider than his biplane--and returned - to the race track without untoward incident. - - _October 16, 1910_--Wynmalen flies from Paris to Brussels, and - returns, with one passenger, within the elapsed time of 27 hours - 50 minutes, winning two prizes amounting to $35,000. The distance - is 350 miles, and the actual time in the air was 15 hours 38 - minutes. - - _October 25, 1910_--J. Armstrong Drexel, with monoplane, at - Belmont Park, L. I., rises to height of 7,105 feet, breaking - previous records, and surpassing his own record of 6,600 feet, - made at Lanark, Scotland. - - _October 26, 1910_--Ralph Johnstone, in biplane, at Belmont - Park, rises to the height of 7,313 feet, through sleet and snow, - breaking the new American record made by Drexel the day before. - - _October 27, 1910_--Johnstone, with biplane, at Belmont Park, - rises to height of 8,471 feet, surpassing his own record of the - day before and establishing a new American record. The feat was - performed in a gale blowing nearly 60 miles per hour, and the - aviator was carried 55 miles away from his starting point before - he landed. - - _October 28, 1910_--Tabuteau, with biplane, at Etampes, France, - makes a new world’s endurance record of 6 hours’ continuous - flight, covering a distance of 289 miles. - - _October 29, 1910_--Grahame-White, with monoplane, at Belmont - Park, wins the International speed race over the distance of 62.1 - miles, in 1 hour 1 minute 4⅗ seconds. - - _October 29, 1910_--Leblanc, with monoplane, at Belmont Park, - makes a new world’s record for speed, reaching 70 miles per hour - during the International speed race. Through a lack of fuel he - lost the race to Grahame-White, after covering 59 miles in 52 - minutes. - - _October 30, 1910_--John B. Moisant, with monoplane, wins the - race from Belmont Park around the Statue of Liberty in New York - harbor, and the prize of $10,000. The distance is about 34 miles, - and Moisant covered it in 34 minutes 39 seconds. - - _October 30, 1910_--James Radley, with monoplane, at Belmont - Park, wins the cross-country flight of 20 miles in 20 minutes 5 - seconds. - - _October 31, 1910_--Johnstone, with biplane, at Belmont Park, - rises to a height of 9,714 feet, breaking the previous world’s - record, made by Wynmalen on October 1. - - _October 31, 1910_--Drexel, with monoplane, racing for altitude - with Johnstone, reaches a height of 8,370 feet. - - _October 31, 1910_--Moisant, with monoplane, at Belmont Park, - wins the two-hour distance race with a record of 84 miles. His - next nearest competitor covered but 57 miles. - - _November 14, 1910_--Eugene Ely, with biplane, flew from a - staging on the deck of the U. S. Cruiser _Birmingham_ 8 miles - to the shore near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. The flight was - intended to end at the Norfolk Navy Yard, but an accident to the - propeller at starting forced Ely to make directly for the shore. - - _November 17, 1910_--Ralph Johnstone, holder of the world’s - altitude record of 9,714 feet, was killed at Denver, Col., by a - fall with his biplane. - - _November 23, 1910_--Drexel, at Philadelphia, reaches an altitude - of 9,970 feet, passing all other altitude records. Coming down he - made a straight glide of seven miles. - - _December 2, 1910_--Charles K. Hamilton, at Memphis, Tenn., flies - 4 miles in 3 minutes 1 second, a speed of 79.2 miles per hour. - This is a new world’s record. - - - - -Chapter XX. - -EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. - - -Every development in human progress is marked by a concurrent -development in language. To express the new ideas, new words appear, or -new meanings are given to words already in use. - -As yet, the vocabulary of aeronautics is in the same constructive and -incomplete state as is the science to which it attempts to give voice, -and the utmost that can be done at this time is to record such words -and special meanings as are in use in the immediate present. - - -A - - _Adjusting Plane_--A small plane, or surface, at the outer end of - a wing, by which the lateral (from side to side) balance of an - aeroplane is adjusted. It is not connected with the controlling - mechanism, as are the ailerons--nor with any automatic device. - - _Aerodrome_--A term used by Professor Langley as a better - name for the aeroplane; but latterly it has been applied to - the buildings in which airships are housed, and also in a few - instances, as a name for the course laid out for aeronautical - contests. - - _Aerofoil_--Another name for the aeroplane, suggested as more - accurate, considering that the surfaces are not true planes. - - _Aeronef_--Another name for an aeroplane. - - _Aeroplane_--The type of flying machine which is supported - in the air by a spread of surfaces or planes, formerly flat, - and therefore truly “plane,” but of late more or less curved. - Even though not absolutely accurate, this term has resisted - displacement by any other. - - _Aerostat_--A free balloon afloat in the air. - - _Aeronate_--A captive balloon. - - _Aileron_--A small movable plane at the wing-tips, or hinged - between the main planes, usually at their outer ends, operated by - the aviator to restore the lateral balance of the machine when - disturbed. - - _Air-speed_--The speed of aircraft as related to the air in which - they are moving; as distinguished from land-speed (which see). - - _Alighting Gear_--Devices on the under side of the aeroplane to - take up the jar of landing after flight, and at the same time to - check the forward motion at that moment. - - _Angle of Entry_--The angle made by the tangent to the curve of - the aeroplane surface at its forward edge, with the direction, or - line, of travel. - - _Angle of Incidence_--The angle made by the chord of the arc of a - curved “plane,” or by the line of a flat plane, with the line of - travel. - -[Illustration] - - _Angle of Trail_--The angle made by the tangent to the rear edge - of a curved plane with the line of travel. - - _Apteroid_--A form resembling the “short and broad” type of the - wings of certain birds--as distinguished from the pterygoid - (which see). - - _Arc_--Any part of a circle, or other curved line. - - _Arch_--The curve formed by bending the wings downward at the - tips, leaving them higher at the centre of the machine. - - _Aspect_--The view of the top of an aeroplane as it appears when - looked down upon from above. - - _Aspiration_--The (hitherto) unexplained tendency of a curved - surface--convex side upward--to rise and advance when a stream of - air blows against its forward edge and across the top. - - _Attitude_--The position of a plane as related to the line of its - travel; usually expressed by the angle of incidence. - - _Automatic Stability_--That stability which is preserved by - self-acting, or self-adjusting, devices which are not under the - control of the operator, nor a fixed part of the machine, as are - the adjusting planes. - - _Aviation_--Flying by means of power-propelled machines which are - not buoyed up in the air, as with gas bags. - - _Aviator_--The operator, driver, or pilot of an aeroplane. - - -B - - _Balance_--Equilibrium maintained by the controlling mechanism, - or by the automatic action of balancing-surfaces--as - distinguished from the equilibrium preserved by stabilizing - surfaces. - - _Balancing Plane_--The surface which is employed either - intentionally, or automatically, to restore a disturbed balance. - - _Biplane_--The type of aeroplane which has two main supporting - surfaces or planes, placed one above the other. - - _Body_--The central structure of an aeroplane, containing the - machinery and the passenger space--as distinguished from the - wings, or planes, and the tail. - - _Brace_--A construction member of the framing of aircraft - which resists a compression strain in a diagonal direction--as - distinguished from a “stay,” or “diagonal,” which supports a - pulling strain; also from a strut which supports a compression - strain in a vertical direction. - - -C - - _Camber_--The distance from the chord of the curve of a surface - to the highest point of that curve, measured at right angles to - the chord. - - _Caster_, or _Castor_, _Wheel_--A wheel mounted on an upright - pivoted shaft placed forward of its axle, so that it swivels - automatically to assume the line of travel of an aeroplane when - landing: used in the alighting gear. To be distinguished from a - fixed wheel, which does not swivel. - - _Cell_--A structure with enclosing sides--similar to a box - without top or bottom stood upon one side. The vertical walls - of the cell give lateral stability, and its horizontal walls - fore-and-aft stability. - -[Illustration: The first Santos-Dumont biplane, constructed of cells.] - - _Centre of Gravity_--That point of a body where its weight - centres. If this point is supported, the body rests in exact - balance. - - _Centre of Lift_--The one point at which the lifting forces of - the flying planes might be concentrated, and produce the same - effect. - - _Centre of Resistance_--The one point at which the forces - opposing the flight of an air-craft might be concentrated, and - produce the same result. - - _Centre of Thrust_--The one point at which the forces generated - by the revolving propellers might be concentrated, and produce - the same effect. - - _Chassis_--The under-structure or “running-gear” of an aeroplane. - - _Chord_--The straight line between the two ends of an arc of a - circle or other curved line. - - _Compound Control_--A mechanical system by which several distinct - controls are operated through different manipulations of the same - lever or steering-wheel. - - _Compression Side_--That side of a plane or propeller blade - against which the air is compressed--the under surface of a - flying plane, and the rear surface of a revolving propeller. - - _Curtain_--The vertical surface of a cell--the wall which stands - upright. - - -D - - _Deck_--A main aeroplane surface. The term is used generally in - describing biplanes; as the upper deck, and the lower deck; or - with aeroplanes of many decks. - - _Demountable_--A type of construction which permits a machine to - be easily taken apart for transportation. - - _Derrick_--A tower-shaped structure in which a weight is raised - and allowed to fall to give starting impetus to an aeroplane. - - _Dihedral_--That form of construction in which the wings of an - aeroplane start with an upward incline at their junction with the - body of the machine, instead of stretching out on a level. - - _Dirigible_--The condition of being directable, or steerable: - applied generally to the balloons fitted with propelling power, - or airships. - - _Double Rudder_--A rudder composed of two intersecting planes, - one vertical and the other horizontal, thus enabling the operator - to steer in any direction with the one rudder. - -[Illustration] - - _Double-Surfaced_--Planes which are covered with fabric on both - their upper and lower surfaces, thus completely inclosing their - frames. - - _Down-Wind_--Along with the wind; in the direction in which the - wind is blowing. - - _Drift_--The recoil of an aeroplane surface forced through the - air: also the tendency to float in the same direction as the wind. - - -E - - _Elevator_--A shorter name for the elevating planes or elevating - rudder, used for directing the aeroplane upward or downward. - - _Ellipse_--An oval figure outlined by cutting a cone through from - side to side on a plane not parallel to its base. Some inventors - use the curves of the ellipse in forming the wings of aeroplanes. - See Hyperbola and Parabola. - - _Entry_--The penetration of the air by the forward edge of - aircraft surfaces. See Angle of Entry. - - _Equivalent Head Area_--Such an area of flat surface as will - encounter head resistance equal to the total of that of the - construction members of the framework--struts, braces, spars, - diagonals, etc., of the aerial craft. - - -F - - _Feathering_--A form of construction in which mounting on hinges, - or pivots, permits the surfaces to engage the air flatwise in one - direction and to pass edgewise through it in other directions. - - _Fin_--A fixed vertical stabilizing surface, similar in form to - the fin on the back of a fish. - - _Fish Section_--A term applied to the lengthwise section of - an aircraft when the outline resembles the general shape of a - fish--blunted in front and tapering toward the rear. This form is - believed to encounter less resistance than any other, in passing - through the air. - - _Fixed Wheel_--A wheel in a fixed mounting, so that it does not - swivel as does a caster wheel. - - _Flapping Flight_--Flight by the up-and-down beating of wings, - similar to the common flight of pigeons. - - _Flexible Propeller_--A propeller in which the blades are frames - covered more or less loosely with a fabric which is in a measure - free to adjust its form to the compression of the air behind it - as it revolves. - - _Flying Angle_--The angle of incidence of the main surface of an - aeroplane when in flight. See Ground Angle. - - _Footpound_--The amount of force required to raise one pound to - a height of one foot. - - _Fore-and-aft_--From front to rear: lengthwise: longitudinal. - - _Fuselage_--The framework of the body of an aeroplane. - - -G - - _Glider_--A structure similar to an aeroplane, but without motive - power. - - _Gliding_--Flying down a slope of air with a glider, or with an - aeroplane in which the propelling power is cut off. - - _Gliding Angle_--The flattest angle at which a given machine will - make a perfect glide. This angle differs with different machines. - The flatter the gliding angle the safer the machine. - - _Ground Angle_--The angle of incidence of an aeroplane surface - when the machine is standing on the ground. - - _Guy_--A wire attached to a more or less distant part of the - structure of any aircraft to prevent spreading. Also used to - denote controlling wires which transmit the movements of the - levers. - - _Gyroscopic Action_--The resistance which a rotating wheel, or - wheel-like construction, exhibits when a disturbing force tends - to change its plane of rotation. - - -H - - _Hangar_--A structure for the housing of aeroplanes. - - _Head Resistance_--The resistance encountered by a surface moving - through the air. - - _Heavier-than-air_--A term applied to flying machines whose - weight is not counterbalanced or buoyed up by the lifting power - of some gas lighter than air; and which weigh more than the - volume of air displaced. - - _Helicopater_--A type of flying machine in which propellers - revolving horizontally lift and sustain its weight in the air. - - _Horizontal Rudder_--The rudder surface which is used to steer an - aircraft upward or downward: so-called because it lies normally - in a position parallel to the horizon; that is, level. - - _Horse-power_--An amount of work equivalent to the lifting of - 33,000 footpounds in one minute. See Footpound. - - _Hyperbola_--The outline formed by the cutting of a cone by a - plane passing one side of its axis at such an angle that it would - also intersect another cone placed apex to apex on the same axis. - - -K - - _Keel_--A framework extending lengthwise under an aircraft to - stiffen the construction: usually employed on airships with - elongated gas-bags. - - -L - - _Lateral_--From side to side; that is, crossing the length - fore-and-aft, and generally at right angles to it. - - _Land-speed_--The speed of aircraft as related to objects on the - ground. See Air-speed. - - _Landing Area_--A piece of land specially prepared for the - alighting of aeroplanes without risk of injury. - - _Leeway_--Movement of a machine aside from the intended course, - due to the lateral drift of the whole body of air; measured - usually at right angles to the course. - - _Lift_--The raising, or sustaining effect of an aeroplane - surface. It is expressed in the weight thus overcome. - - _Lighter-than-air_--A term used to designate aircraft which, - owing to the buoyancy of the gas attached, weigh less than the - volume of air which they displace. - - _Longitudinal_--In a lengthwise, or fore-and-aft direction. - - -M - - _Main Plane_--The principal supporting surface of an aeroplane. - In the biplane, or the multiplane type, it denotes the lowest - surface, unless some other is decidedly larger. - - _Main Landing Wheels_--Those wheels on the alighting gear which - take the shock in landing. - - _Mast_--A vertical post or strut giving angular altitude to - guys or long stays. Also used (erroneously) to designate a spar - reaching out laterally or longitudinally in a horizontal position. - - _Monoplane_--An aeroplane with one main supporting surface. A - Double Monoplane has two of such surfaces set one behind the - other (tandem) but on the same level. - - _Multiplane_--An aeroplane having several main planes, at least - more than three (for which there is the special name of triplane). - - -N - - _Nacelle_--The framework, or body, of a dirigible balloon or - airship. - - _Negative Angle of Incidence_--An angle of incidence below the - line of travel, and therefore expressed with a minus sign. - Surfaces bent to certain curves fly successfully at negative - angles of incidence, and exhibit a comparatively large lift. - - -O - - _Ornithopter_--A type of flying machine with wing surfaces which - are designed to raise and sustain the machine in the air by - flapping. - - -P - - _Panel_--Another name for Curtain--which see. - - _Parabola_--The form outlined when a cone is cut by a plane - parallel to a line drawn on its surface from its apex to its - base. Declared to be the correct scientific curve for aeroplane - surfaces, but not so proven, as yet. - - _Pilot_--A term widely used for an operator, or driver, of any - form of aircraft. - - _Pitch_--The distance which a propeller would progress during one - revolution, if free to move in a medium which permitted no slip - (which see); just as the thread of a bolt travels in the groove - of its nut. - - _Plane_--Speaking with exactness, a flat spread of surface; but - in aeronautics it includes also the curved sustaining surfaces of - aeroplanes. - - _Polyplane_--Another term for Multiplane. - - _Port_--The left-hand side of an aircraft, as one faces forward. - See Starboard. - - _Projected Area_--The total area of an irregular structure as - projected upon a flat surface; like the total area of the shadow - of an object cast by the sun upon a plane fixed at right angles - to its rays. - - _Propeller Reaction_--A force produced by a single revolving - propeller, which tends to revolve the machine which it is - driving, in the contrary direction. This is neutralized in - various ways in the machines driven by single propellers. Where - two propellers are used it is escaped by arranging them to move - in opposite directions. - -[Illustration: A pterygoid plane.] - - _Pterygoid_--That type of the wings of birds which is long and - narrow--as distinguished from the apteroid type. - - _Pylon_--A tower-shaped structure used as a derrick (which see); - also for displaying signals to aeronauts. - - -R - - _Radial Spoke_--A wire spoke extending from the hub of an - alighting wheel straight outward from the centre to the rim of - the wheel. See Tangent Spoke. - - _Rarefaction Side_--A correct term for the incorrect “vacuum - side,” so-called. The side opposite the compression side: the - forward side of a revolving propeller blade, or the upper side - of a flying surface, or the side of a rudder-surface turned away - from the wind. - - _Reactive Stratum_--The layer of compressed air beneath a moving - aeroplane surface, or behind a moving propeller blade. - - _Rib_--The smaller construction members used in building up - surfaces. Generally they run fore-and-aft, crossing the spars or - wing-bars at right angles, and they are bent to form the curve of - the wings or planes. - - _Rising Angle_--Technically, the steepest angle at which any - given aeroplane will rise into the air. - - _Rudder_--A movable surface by which the aeronaut is enabled to - steer his craft in a desired direction. See Horizontal Rudder and - Vertical Rudder. - - _Runner_--A construction similar to the runners of a sleigh, used - for alighting on some machines, instead of the wheel alighting - gear; a skid. - - -S - - _Screw_--Another term for propeller; properly, screw-propeller. - - _Single-surfaced_--A term used to designate wings or planes - whose frames are covered with fabric only on the upper side. See - Double-surfaced. - - _Skid_--Another name for runner. - - _Skin Friction_--The retarding effect of the adherence of the - air to surfaces moving rapidly through it. It is very slight - with polished surfaces, and in case of slow speeds is entirely - negligible. - - _Slip_--The difference between the actual progress of a moving - propeller, and the theoretical progress expressed by its pitch. - It is much greater in some propellers than in others, due to the - “churning” of the air by blades of faulty design and construction. - - _Soaring Flight_--The sailing motion in the air achieved by some - of the larger birds without the flapping of their wings. It is - to be distinguished from gliding in that it is in an upward - direction. Soaring has never been satisfactorily explained, and - is considered to be the secret whose discovery will bring about - the largest advance in the navigation of the air. - - _Spar_--A stick of considerable length used in the framing of the - body of aeroplanes, or as the long members in wing structures. - - _Stabilize_--To maintain balance by the automatic action - of adjunct surfaces, as distinguished from the intentional - manipulation of controlling devices. - - _Stabilizer_--Any surface whose automatic action tends to the - maintaining of balance in the air. - - _Stable Equilibrium_--That equilibrium which is inherent in the - construction of the machine, and does not depend upon automatic - or controlling balancing devices. - - _Starboard_--The right-hand side of an aircraft as one faces - forward. See Port. - - _Starting Area_--An area of ground specially prepared to - facilitate the starting of aeroplanes into flight. - - _Starting Device_--Any contrivance for giving an aeroplane a - powerful impulse or thrust into the air. See Derrick. - - _Starting Impulse_--The thrust with which an aeroplane is started - into the air for a flight. Most machines depend upon the thrust - of their own propellers, the machine being held back by force - until the engines have worked up to flying speed, when it is - suddenly released. - - _Starting Rail_--The rail upon which the starting truck runs - before the aeroplane rises into the air. - - _Starting Truck_--A small vehicle upon which the aeroplane rests - while it is gaining sufficient impulse to take flight. - - _Stay_--A construction member of an aeroplane sustaining a - pulling strain. It is usually of wire. - - _Straight Pitch_--That type of pitch (which see) in a propeller - blade in which every cross-section of the blade makes the same - angle with its axis of revolution. - - _Strainer_--Another term for Turnbuckle--which see. - - _Strut_--An upright, or vertical, construction member of an - aeroplane sustaining a compression strain; as distinguished from - a brace which sustains a diagonal compression strain. - - _Supplementary Surface_--A comparatively small surface used as an - adjunct to the large surfaces for some special purpose; as, for - instance, the preserving of balance, or for steering. - - _Sustaining Surface_--The large surfaces of the aeroplane - whose rapid movement through the air at a slight angle to the - horizontal sustains the weight of the machine. - - -T - - _Tail_--A rear surface on an aeroplane designed to assist in - maintaining longitudinal stability. It is in use principally on - monoplanes, and is often so arranged as to serve as a rudder. - - _Tail Wheel_--A wheel mounted under the rear end of an aeroplane - as a part of the alighting gear. - - _Tangent_--A straight line passing the convex side of a curved - line, and touching it at one point only. The straight line is - said to be tangent to the curve at the point of contact. - - _Tangential_--In the position or direction of a tangent. - - _Tangent Spoke_--A wire spoke extending from the outer edge of - the hub of a wheel along the line of a tangent until it touches - the rim. Its position is at right angles to the course of a - radial spoke (which see) from the same point on the hub. - - _Tie_--A construction member connecting two points with a pulling - strain. - - _Tightener_--A device for taking up the slack of a stay, or tie; - as the turnbuckle. - - _Tractor Propeller_--A propeller placed in front, so that it - pulls the machine through the air, instead of pushing, or - thrusting, it from behind. - - _Triplane_--An aeroplane with three main surfaces, or decks, - placed in a tier, one above another. - - _Turnbuckle_--A device with a nut at each end, of contrary pitch, - so as to take a right-hand screw at one end, and a left-hand - screw at the other; used for drawing together, or toward each - other the open ends of a stay, or tie. - - -U - - _Uniform Pitch_--That varying pitch in a propeller blade which - causes each point in the blade to move forward in its own circle - the same distance in one revolution. - - _Up-wind_--In a direction opposite to the current of the wind; - against the wind; in the teeth of the wind. - - -V - - _Vertical Rudder_--A rudder for steering toward right or left; so - called because its surface occupies normally a vertical position. - - -W - - _Wake_--The stream of disturbed air left in the rear of a moving - aircraft, due mainly to the slip of the propeller. - - _Wash_--The air-currents flowing out diagonally from the sides of - a moving aeroplane. - - _Wing Bar_--The larger construction members of a wing, running - from the body outward to the tips. The ribs are attached to the - wing bars, usually at right angles. - - _Wing Plan_--The outline of the wing or main plane surface as - viewed from above. - - _Wing Section_--The outline of the wing structure of an aeroplane - as it would appear if cut by a plane passing through it parallel - to the longitudinal centre of the machine. - - _Wing Skid_--A small skid, or runner, placed under the tip of - the wings of an aeroplane, to prevent damage in case of violent - contact with the ground. - - _Wing Tip_--The extreme outer end of a wing or main plane. - - _Wing Warping_--A controlling device for restoring disturbed - lateral balance by the forcible pulling down or pulling up of the - tips of the wings, or of the outer ends of the main surface of - the aeroplane. - - _Wing Wheel_--A small wheel placed under the outer end of a wing - or main plane to prevent contact with the ground. An improvement - on the wing skid. - - -THE END - - -[Transcriber’s Note: - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air, by -Richard Ferris - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW IT FLIES OR, CONQUEST OF AIR *** - -***** This file should be named 55268-0.txt or 55268-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/2/6/55268/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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