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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #55268 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55268)
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-Project Gutenberg's How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air, by Richard Ferris
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air
-       The Story of Man's Endeavors to Fly and of the Inventions
-       by which He Has Succeeded
-
-Author: Richard Ferris
-
-Release Date: August 5, 2017 [EBook #55268]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW IT FLIES OR, CONQUEST OF AIR ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration: ORVILLE WRIGHT IN THE 80-MILE-AN-HOUR “BABY WRIGHT”
-RACER.]
-
-
-
-
-  How It Flies
-
-  or,
-
-  THE CONQUEST OF THE AIR
-
-  The Story of Man’s Endeavors to Fly and of the
-  Inventions by which He Has Succeeded
-
-  By
-
-  RICHARD FERRIS, B.S., C.E.
-
-  Illustrated by Over One Hundred and Fifty Half-tones and Line
-  Drawings, Showing the Stages of Development from the
-  Earliest Balloon to the Latest Monoplane and Biplane
-
-  New York
-
-  THOMAS NELSON AND SONS
-
-  381-385 Fourth Avenue
-
-
-Copyright, 1910, by
-
-THOMAS NELSON & SONS
-
-
-THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE
-
-
-In these pages, by means of simple language and suitable pictures, the
-author has told the story of the Ships of the Air. He has explained
-the laws of their flight; sketched their development to the present
-day; shown how to build the flying machine and the balloon, and how
-to operate them; recounted what man has done, and what he hopes to do
-with their aid. In a word, all the essential facts that enter into the
-Conquest of the Air have been gathered into orderly form, and are here
-presented to the public.
-
-We who live to-day have witnessed man’s great achievement; we have seen
-his dream of ages come true. Man has learned to _fly_!
-
-The air which surrounds us, so intangible and so commonplace that
-it seldom arrests our attention, is in reality a vast, unexplored
-ocean, fraught with future possibilities. Even now, the pioneers of
-a countless fleet are hovering above us in the sky, while steadily,
-surely these wonderful possibilities are unfolded.
-
-The Publishers take pleasure in acknowledging their indebtedness to the
-_Scientific American_ for their courtesy in permitting the use of many
-of the illustrations appearing in this book.
-
-NEW YORK, October 20, 1910.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-  CHAPTER                                       PAGE
-
-        PREFACE                                    7
-
-     I. INTRODUCTORY                              11
-
-    II. THE AIR                                   20
-
-   III. LAWS OF FLIGHT                            37
-
-    IV. FLYING MACHINES                           55
-
-     V. FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE              78
-
-    VI. FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE           112
-
-   VII. FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS             141
-
-  VIII. FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE          151
-
-    IX. FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD            174
-
-     X. FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS                  193
-
-    XI. MODEL FLYING MACHINES                    215
-
-   XII. THE GLIDER                               241
-
-  XIII. BALLOONS                                 257
-
-    XIV. BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE                 296
-
-     XV. BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE                340
-
-    XVI. BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE                   351
-
-   XVII. MILITARY AERONAUTICS                    363
-
-  XVIII. BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS      379
-
-    XIX. CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS      407
-
-     XX. EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL
-               TERMS                             452
-
-
-
-
-HOW IT FLIES
-
-
-
-
-Chapter I.
-
-INTRODUCTORY.
-
-    The sudden awakening--Early successes--Influence of the gasoline
-    engine on aeroplanes--On dirigible balloons--Interested
-    inquiry--Some general terms defined.
-
-
-In the year 1908 the world awakened suddenly to the realization that at
-last the centuries of man’s endeavor to fly mechanically had come to
-successful fruition.
-
-There had been a little warning. In the late autumn of 1906,
-Santos-Dumont made a flight of 720 feet in a power-driven machine.
-There was an exclamation of wonder, a burst of applause--then a relapse
-into unconcern.
-
-In August, 1907, Louis Bleriot sped free of the ground for 470 feet;
-and in November, Santos-Dumont made two flying leaps of barely 500
-feet. That was the year’s record, and it excited little comment. It is
-true that the Wright brothers had been making long flights, but they
-were in secret. There was no public knowledge of them.
-
-In 1908 came the revelation. In March, Delagrange flew in a Voisin
-biplane 453 feet, carrying Farman with him as a passenger. Two weeks
-later he flew alone nearly 2½ miles. In May he flew nearly 8 miles. In
-June his best flight was 10½ miles. Bleriot came on the scene again
-in July with a monoplane, in which he flew 3¾ miles. In September,
-Delagrange flew 15 miles--in less than 30 minutes. In the same month
-the Wrights began their wonderful public flights. Wilbur, in France,
-made records of 41, 46, 62, and 77 miles, while Orville flew from 40 to
-50 miles at Fort Myer, Va. Wilbur Wright’s longest flight kept him in
-the air 2 hours and 20 minutes.
-
-The goal had been reached--men had achieved the apparently impossible.
-The whole world was roused to enthusiasm.
-
-Since then, progress has been phenomenally rapid, urged on by the
-striving of the inventors, the competition of the aircraft builders,
-and the contests for records among the pilots.
-
-By far the largest factor in the triumph of the aeroplane is the
-improved gasoline engine, designed originally for automobiles. Without
-this wonderful type of motor, delivering a maximum of power with a
-minimum of weight, from concentrated fuel, the flying machine would
-still be resting on the earth.
-
-[Illustration: The Renard and Krebs airship _La France_, at
-Chalais-Meudon.]
-
-Nor has the influence of the gasoline motor been much less upon that
-other great class of aircraft, the dirigible balloon. After 1885, when
-Renard and Krebs’ airship _La France_ made its two historic voyages
-from Chalais-Meudon to Paris, returning safely to its shed, under the
-propulsion of an electric motor, the problem of the great airship lay
-dormant, waiting for the discovery of adequate motive power. If the
-development of the dirigible balloon seems less spectacular than that
-of the aeroplane, it is because the latter had to be created; the
-dirigible, already in existence, had only to be revivified.
-
-Confronted with these new and strange shapes in the sky, some making
-stately journeys of hundreds of miles, others whirring hither and
-thither with the speed of the whirlwind, wonder quickly gives way to
-the all-absorbing question: _How do they fly?_ To answer fully and
-satisfactorily, it seems wise, for many readers, to recall in the
-succeeding chapters some principles doubtless long since forgotten.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-As with every great advance in civilization, this expansion of the
-science of aeronautics has had its effect upon the language of the day.
-Terms formerly in use have become restricted in application, and other
-terms have been coined to convey ideas so entirely new as to find no
-suitable word existent in our language. It seems requisite, therefore,
-first to acquaint the reader with clear definitions of the more common
-terms that are used throughout this book.
-
-_Aeronautics_ is the word employed to designate the entire subject of
-aerial navigation. An _aeronaut_ is a person who sails, or commands,
-any form of aircraft, as distinguished from a passenger.
-
-_Aviation_ is limited to the subject of flying by machines which are
-not floated in the air by gas. An _aviator_ is an operator of such
-machine.
-
-[Illustration: A free balloon, with parachute.]
-
-Both aviators and aeronauts are often called _pilots_.
-
-A _balloon_ is essentially an envelope or bag filled with some gaseous
-substance which is lighter, bulk for bulk, than the air at the surface
-of the earth, and which serves to float the apparatus in the air. In
-its usual form it is spherical, with a car or basket suspended below
-it. It is a _captive balloon_ if it is attached to the ground by a
-cable, so that it may not rise above a certain level, nor float away in
-the wind. It is a _free balloon_ if not so attached or anchored, but is
-allowed to drift where the wind may carry it, rising and falling at the
-will of the pilot.
-
-[Illustration: A dirigible balloon.]
-
-A _dirigible balloon_, sometimes termed simply a dirigible, usually has
-its gas envelope elongated in form. It is fitted with motive power to
-propel it, and steering mechanism to guide it. It is distinctively the
-_airship_.
-
-_Aeroplanes_ are those forms of flying machines which depend for their
-support in the air upon the spread of surfaces which are variously
-called wings, sails, or planes. They are commonly driven by propellers
-actuated by motors. When not driven by power they are called _gliders_.
-
-[Illustration: A biplane glider.]
-
-Aeroplanes exist in several types: the _monoplane_, with one spread
-of surface; the _biplane_, with two spreads, one above the other; the
-_triplane_, with three spreads, or decks; the _multiplane_, with more
-than three.
-
-The _tetrahedral plane_ is a structure of many small cells set one upon
-another.
-
-_Ornithopter_ is the name given to a flying machine which is operated
-by flapping wings.
-
-[Illustration: A parachute descending.]
-
-_Helicopter_ is used to designate machines which are lifted vertically
-and sustained in the air by propellers revolving in a horizontal plane,
-as distinguished from the propellers of the aeroplane, which revolve in
-vertical planes.
-
-A _parachute_ is an umbrella-like contrivance by which an aeronaut may
-descend gently from a balloon in mid-air, buoyed up by the compression
-of the air under the umbrella.
-
-For the definition of other and more technical terms the reader is
-referred to the carefully prepared Glossary toward the end of the book.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter II.
-
-THE AIR.
-
-    Intangibility of air--Its
-    substance--Weight--Extent--Density--Expansion
-    by heat--Alcohol fire--Turbulence of the
-    air--Inertia--Elasticity--Viscosity--Velocity of
-    winds--Aircurrents--Cloud levels--Aerological stations--High
-    altitudes--Practical suggestions--The ideal highway.
-
-
-The air about us seems the nearest approach to nothingness that we know
-of. A pail is commonly said to be empty--to have nothing in it--when it
-is filled only with air. This is because our senses do not give us any
-information about air. We cannot see it, hear it, touch it.
-
-When air is in motion (wind) we hear the noises it makes as it passes
-among other objects more substantial; and we feel it as it blows by us,
-or when we move rapidly through it.
-
-We get some idea that it exists as a substance when we see dead leaves
-caught up in it and whirled about; and, more impressively, when in the
-violence of the hurricane it seizes upon a body of great size and
-weight, like the roof of a house, and whisks it away as though it were
-a feather, at a speed exceeding that of the fastest railroad train.
-
-In a milder form, this invisible and intangible air does some of our
-work for us in at least two ways that are conspicuous: it moves ships
-upon the ocean, and it turns a multitude of windmills, supplying the
-cheapest power known.
-
-That this atmosphere is really a fluid ocean, having a definite
-substance, and in some respects resembling the liquid ocean upon which
-our ships sail, and that we are only crawling around on the bottom
-of it, as it were, is a conception we do not readily grasp. Yet this
-conception must be the foundation of every effort to sail, to fly, in
-this aerial ocean, if such efforts are to be crowned with success.
-
-As a material substance the air has certain physical properties, and
-it is the part of wisdom for the man who would fly to acquaint himself
-with these properties. If they are helpful to his flight, he wants to
-use them; if they hinder, he must contrive to overcome them.
-
-In general, it may be said that the air, being in a gaseous form,
-partakes of the properties of all gases--and these may be studied
-in any text-book on physics, Here we are concerned only with those
-qualities which affect conditions under which we strive to fly.
-
-Of first importance is the fact that air has _weight_. That is, in
-common with all other substances, it is attracted by the mass of the
-earth exerted through the force we call gravity. At the level of the
-sea, this attraction causes the air to press upon the earth with a
-weight of nearly fifteen pounds (accurately, 14.7 lbs.) to the square
-inch, when the temperature is at 32° F. That pressure is the weight of
-a column of air one inch square at the base, extending upward to the
-outer limit of the atmosphere--estimated to be about 38 miles (some say
-100 miles) above sea-level. The practical fact is that normal human
-life cannot exist above the level of 15,000 feet, or a little less than
-three miles; and navigation of the air will doubtless be carried on at
-a much lower altitude, for reasons which will appear as we continue.
-
-The actual weight of a definite quantity of dry air--for instance,
-a cubic foot--is found by weighing a vessel first when full of air,
-and again after the air has been exhausted from it with an air-pump.
-In this way it has been determined that a cubic foot of dry air,
-at the level of the sea, and at a temperature of 32° F., weighs 565
-grains--about 0.0807 lb. At a height above the level of the sea, a
-cubic foot of air will weigh less than the figure quoted, for its
-density decreases as we go upward, the pressure being less owing to
-the diminished attraction of the earth at the greater distance. For
-instance, at the height of a mile above sea-level a cubic foot of air
-will weigh about 433 grains, or 0.0619 lb. At the height of five miles
-it will weigh about 216 grains, or 0.0309 lb. At thirty-eight miles
-it will have no weight at all, its density being so rare as just to
-balance the earth’s attraction. It has been calculated that the whole
-body of air above the earth, if it were all of the uniform density of
-that at sea-level, would extend only to the height of 26,166 feet.
-Perhaps a clearer comprehension of the weight and pressure of the ocean
-of air upon the earth may be gained by recalling that the pressure of
-the 38 miles of atmosphere is just equal to balancing a column of water
-33 feet high. The pressure of the air, therefore, is equivalent to the
-pressure of a flood of water 33 feet deep.
-
-[Illustration: Comparative Elevations of Earth and Air.]
-
-But air is seldom dry. It is almost always mingled with the vapor
-of water, and this vapor weighs only 352 grains per cubic foot at
-sea-level. Consequently the mixture--damp air--is lighter than dry air,
-in proportion to the moisture it contains.
-
-[Illustration: Apparatus to show effects of heat on air currents. _a_,
-alcohol lamp; _b_, ice. The arrows show direction of currents.]
-
-Another fact very important to the aeronaut is that the air is in
-_constant motion_. Owing to its ready expansion by heat, a body of
-air occupying one cubic foot when at a temperature of 32° F. will
-occupy more space at a higher temperature, and less space at a lower
-temperature. Hence, heated air will flow upward until it reaches a
-point where the natural density of the atmosphere is the same as its
-expanded density due to the heating. Here another complication comes
-into play, for ascending air is cooled at the rate of one degree for
-every 183 feet it rises; and as it cools it grows denser, and the speed
-of its ascension is thus gradually checked. After passing an altitude
-of 1,000 feet the decrease in temperature is one degree for each 320
-feet of ascent. In general, it may be stated that air is expanded
-one-tenth of its volume for each 50° F. that its temperature is raised.
-
-This highly unstable condition under ordinary changes of temperature
-causes continual movements in the air, as different portions of it are
-constantly seeking that position in the atmosphere where their density
-at that moment balances the earth’s attraction.
-
-Sir Hiram Maxim relates an incident which aptly illustrates the effect
-of change of temperature upon the air. He says: “On one occasion,
-many years ago, I was present when a bonded warehouse in New York
-containing 10,000 barrels of alcohol was burned.... I walked completely
-around the fire, and found things just as I expected. The wind was
-blowing a perfect hurricane through every street in the direction of
-the fire, although it was a dead calm everywhere else; the flames
-mounted straight in the air to an enormous height, and took with them a
-large amount of burning wood. When I was fully 500 feet from the fire,
-a piece of partly burned one-inch board, about 8 inches wide and 4 feet
-long, fell through the air and landed near me. This board had evidently
-been taken up to a great height by the tremendous uprush of air caused
-by the burning alcohol.”
-
-That which happened on a small scale, with a violent change of
-temperature, in the case of the alcohol fire, is taking place on a
-larger scale, with milder changes in temperature, all over the world.
-The heating by the sun in one locality causes an expansion of air
-at that place, and cooler, denser air rushes in to fill the partial
-vacuum. In this way winds are produced.
-
-So the air in which we are to fly is in a state of constant motion,
-which may be likened to the rush and swirl of water in the rapids of a
-mountain torrent. The tremendous difference is that the perils of the
-water are in plain sight of the navigator, and may be guarded against,
-while those of the air are wholly invisible, and must be met as they
-occur, without a moment’s warning.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    The solid arrows show the directions of a cyclonic wind on
-    the earth’s surface. At the centre the currents go directly
-    upward. In the upper air above the cyclone the currents have the
-    directions of the dotted arrows.]
-
-Next in importance, to the aerial navigator, is the air’s _resistance_.
-This is due in part to its density at the elevation at which he is
-flying, and in part to the direction and intensity of its motion, or
-the wind. While this resistance is far less than that of water to the
-passage of a ship, it is of serious moment to the aeronaut, who must
-force his fragile machine through it at great speed, and be on the
-alert every instant to combat the possibility of a fall as he passes
-into a rarer and less buoyant stratum.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Diagram showing disturbance of wind currents by inequalities of
-    the ground, and the smoother currents of the upper air. Note the
-    increase of density at A and B, caused by compression against the
-    upper strata.]
-
-Three properties of the air enter into the sum total of its
-resistance--inertia, elasticity, and viscosity. Inertia is its tendency
-to remain in the condition in which it may be: at rest, if it is still;
-in motion, if it is moving. Some force must be applied to disturb this
-inertia, and in consequence when the inertia is overcome a certain
-amount of force is used up in the operation. Elasticity is that
-property by virtue of which air tends to reoccupy its normal amount
-of space after disturbance. An illustration of this tendency is the
-springing back of the handle of a bicycle pump if the valve at the
-bottom is not open, and the air in the pump is simply compressed, not
-forced into the tire. Viscosity may be described as “stickiness”--the
-tendency of the particles of air to cling together, to resist
-separation. To illustrate: molasses, particularly in cold weather,
-has greater viscosity than water; varnish has greater viscosity than
-turpentine. Air exhibits some viscosity, though vastly less than that
-of cold molasses. However, though relatively slight, this viscosity has
-a part in the resistance which opposes the rapid flight of the airship
-and aeroplane; and the higher the speed, the greater the retarding
-effect of viscosity.
-
-The inertia of the air, while in some degree it blocks the progress
-of his machine, is a benefit to the aeronaut, for it is inertia which
-gives the blades of his propeller “hold” upon the air. The elasticity
-of the air, compressed under the curved surfaces of the aeroplane, is
-believed to be helpful in maintaining the lift. The effect of viscosity
-may be greatly reduced by using surfaces finished with polished
-varnish--just as greasing a knife will permit it to be passed with
-less friction through thick molasses.
-
-In the case of winds, the inertia of the moving mass becomes what is
-commonly termed “wind pressure” against any object not moving with it
-at an equal speed. The following table gives the measurements of wind
-pressure, as recorded at the station on the Eiffel Tower, for differing
-velocities of wind:
-
-  +----------+------------+---------------+
-  | Velocity |  Velocity  |   Pressure    |
-  | in Miles |  in Feet   | in Pounds on  |
-  | per Hour | per Second | a Square Foot |
-  +----------+------------+---------------+
-  |    2     |     2.9    |      0.012    |
-  |    4     |     5.9    |      0.048    |
-  |    6     |     8.8    |      0.108    |
-  |    8     |    11.7    |      0.192    |
-  |   10     |    14.7    |      0.300    |
-  |   15     |    22.0    |      0.675    |
-  |   20     |    29.4    |      1.200    |
-  |   25     |    36.7    |      1.875    |
-  |   30     |    44.0    |      2.700    |
-  |   35     |    51.3    |      3.675    |
-  |   40     |    58.7    |      4.800    |
-  |   45     |    66.0    |      6.075    |
-  |   50     |    73.4    |      7.500    |
-  |   60     |    88.0    |     10.800    |
-  |   70     |   102.7    |     14.700    |
-  |   80     |   117.2    |     19.200    |
-  |   90     |   132.0    |     24.300    |
-  |  100     |   146.7    |     30.000    |
-  +----------+------------+---------------+
-
-In applying this table, the velocity to be considered is the net
-velocity of the movements of the airship and of the wind. If the ship
-is moving 20 miles an hour _against_ a head wind blowing 20 miles an
-hour, the net velocity of the wind will be 40 miles an hour, and the
-pressure 4.8 lbs. a square foot of surface presented. Therefore the
-airship will be standing still, so far as objects on the ground are
-concerned. If the ship is sailing 20 miles an hour _with_ the wind,
-which is blowing 20 miles an hour, the pressure per square foot will be
-only 1.2 lbs.; while as regards objects on the ground, the ship will be
-travelling 40 miles an hour.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Apparatus for the study of the action of air in motion; a blower
-    at the farther end of the great tube sends a “wind” of any
-    desired velocity through it. Planes and propellers of various
-    forms are thus tested.]
-
-Systematic study of the movements of the air currents has not been
-widespread, and has not progressed much beyond the gathering of
-statistics which may serve as useful data in testing existing theories
-or formulating new ones.
-
-It is already recognized that there are certain “tides” in the
-atmosphere, recurring twice daily in six-hour periods, as in the case
-of the ocean tides, and perhaps from the same causes. Other currents
-are produced by the earth’s rotation. Then there are the five-day
-oscillations noted by Eliot in India, and daily movements, more or less
-regular, due to the sun’s heat by day and the lack of it by night.
-The complexity of these motions makes scientific research extremely
-difficult.
-
-Something definite has been accomplished in the determination of wind
-velocities, though this varies largely with the locality. In the United
-States the average speed of the winds is 9½ miles per hour; in Europe,
-10⅓ miles; in Southern Asia, 6½ miles; in the West Indies, 6⅕ miles; in
-England, 12 miles; over the North Atlantic Ocean, 29 miles per hour.
-Each of these average velocities varies with the time of year and time
-of day, and with the distance from the sea. The wind moves faster over
-water and flat, bare land than over hilly or forest-covered areas.
-Velocities increase as we go upward in the air, being at 1,600 feet
-twice what they are at 100 feet. Observations of the movements of cloud
-forms at the Blue Hill Observatory, near Boston, give the following
-results:
-
-  +---------------+---------+---------------+
-  |  Cloud Form   | Height  | Average Speed |
-  |               | in Feet |   per Hour    |
-  +---------------+---------+---------------+
-  | Stratus       |   1,676 |     19 miles. |
-  | Cumulus       |   5,326 |     24 miles. |
-  | Alto-cumulus  |  12,724 |     34 miles. |
-  | Cirro-cumulus |  21,888 |     71 miles. |
-  | Cirrus        |  29,317 |     78 miles. |
-  +---------------+---------+---------------+
-
-In winter the speed of cirrus clouds may reach 96 miles per hour.
-
-There are forty-nine stations scattered over Germany where statistics
-concerning winds are gathered expressly for the use of aeronauts. At
-many of these stations records have been kept for twenty years. Dr.
-Richard Assman, director of the aerological observatory at Lindenburg,
-has prepared a comprehensive treatise of the statistics in possession
-of these stations, under the title of _Die Winde in Deutschland_. It
-shows for each station, and for each season of the year, how often the
-wind blows from each point of the compass; the average frequency of
-the several degrees of wind; when and where aerial voyages may safely
-be made; the probable drift of dirigibles, etc. It is interesting to
-note that Friedrichshafen, where Count Zeppelin’s great airship sheds
-are located, is not a favorable place for such vessels, having a yearly
-record of twenty-four stormy days, as compared with but two stormy days
-at Celle, four at Berlin, four at Cassel, and low records at several
-other points.
-
-In practical aviation, a controlling factor is the density of the air.
-We have seen that at an altitude of five miles the density is about
-three-eighths the density at sea-level. This means that the supporting
-power of the air at a five-mile elevation is so small that the area of
-the planes must be increased to more than 2½ times the area suited to
-flying near the ground, or that the speed must be largely increased.
-Therefore the adjustments necessary for rising at the lower level and
-journeying in the higher level are too large and complex to make flying
-at high altitudes practicable--leaving out of consideration the bitter
-cold of the upper regions.
-
-Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch, director of the Blue Hill Observatory, in his
-valuable book, _The Conquest of the Air_, gives this practical summary
-of a long series of studious observations: “At night, however, because
-there are no ascending currents, the wind is much steadier than in the
-daytime, making night the most favorable time for aerial navigation
-of all kinds.... A suitable height in the daytime, unless a strong
-westerly wind is sought, lies above the cumulus clouds, at the height
-of about a mile; but at night it is not necessary to rise so high; and
-in summer a region of relatively little wind is found at a height of
-about three-fourths of a mile, where it is also warmer and drier than
-in the daytime or at the ground.”
-
-Notwithstanding all difficulties, the fact remains that, once they are
-overcome, the air is the ideal highway for travel and transportation.
-On the sea, a ship may sail to right or left on one plane only. In
-the air, we may steer not only to right or left, but above and below,
-and obliquely in innumerable planes. We shall not need to traverse
-long distances in a wrong direction to find a bridge by which we may
-cross a river, nor zigzag for toilsome miles up the steep slopes of a
-mountain-side to the pass where we may cross the divide. The course of
-the airship is the proverbial bee-line--the most economical in time as
-well as in distance.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter III.
-
-LAWS OF FLIGHT.
-
-    The bird--Nature’s models--Man’s methods--Gravity--The
-    balloon--The airship--Resistance of the air--Winds--The
-    kite--Laws of motion and force--Application to
-    kite-flying--Aeroplanes.
-
-
-If we were asked to explain the word “flying” to some foreigner who did
-not know what it meant, we should probably give as an illustration the
-bird. This would be because the bird is so closely associated in our
-thoughts with flying that we can hardly think of the one without the
-other.
-
-It is natural, therefore, that since men first had the desire to fly
-they should study the form and motions of the birds in the air, and
-try to copy them. Our ancestors built immense flopping wings, into
-the frames of which they fastened themselves, and with great muscular
-exertion of arms and legs strove to attain the results that the bird
-gets by apparently similar motions.
-
-However, this mental coupling of the bird with the laws of flight has
-been unfortunate for the achievement of flight by man. And this is
-true even to the present day, with its hundreds of successful flying
-machines that are not in the least like a bird. This wrongly coupled
-idea is so strong that scientific publications print pages of research
-by eminent contributors into the flight of birds, with the attempt
-to deduce lessons therefrom for the instruction of the builders and
-navigators of flying machines.
-
-These arguments are based on the belief that Nature never makes a
-mistake; that she made the bird to fly, and therefore the bird must be
-the most perfect model for the successful flying machine. But the truth
-is, the bird was not made primarily to fly, any more than man was made
-to walk. Flying is an incident in the life of a bird, just as walking
-is an incident in the life of a man. Flying is simply a bird’s way of
-getting about from place to place, on business or on pleasure, as the
-case may be.
-
-Santos-Dumont, in his fascinating book, _My Air-Ships_, points out
-the folly of blindly following Nature by showing that logically such
-a procedure would compel us to build our locomotives on the plan of
-gigantic horses, with huge iron legs which would go galloping about
-the country in a ridiculously terrible fashion; and to construct our
-steamships on the plan of giant whales, with monstrous flapping fins
-and wildly lashing tails.
-
-Sir Hiram Maxim says something akin to this in his work, _Artificial
-and Natural Flight_: “It appears to me that there is nothing in Nature
-which is more efficient, or gets a better grip on the water, than a
-well-made screw propeller; and no doubt there would have been fish with
-screw propellers, providing Dame Nature could have made an animal in
-two pieces. It is very evident that no living creature could be made in
-two pieces, and two pieces are necessary if one part is stationary and
-the other revolves; however, the tails and fins very often approximate
-to the action of propeller blades; they turn first to the right and
-then to the left, producing a sculling effect which is practically the
-same. This argument might also be used against locomotives. In all
-Nature we do not find an animal travelling on wheels, but it is quite
-possible that a locomotive might be made that would walk on legs at
-the rate of two or three miles an hour. But locomotives with wheels
-are able to travel at least three times as fast as the fleetest animal
-with legs, and to continue doing so for many hours at a time, even when
-attached to a very heavy load. In order to build a flying machine with
-flapping wings, to exactly imitate birds, a very complicated system of
-levers, cams, cranks, etc., would have to be employed, and these of
-themselves would weigh more than the wings would be able to lift.”
-
-As with the man-contrived locomotive, so the perfected airship will be
-evolved from man’s understanding of the obstacles to his navigation
-of the air, and his overcoming of them by his inventive genius. This
-will not be in Nature’s way, but in man’s own way, and with cleverly
-designed machinery such as he has used to accomplish other seeming
-impossibilities. With the clearing up of wrong conceptions, the path
-will be open to more rapid and more enduring progress.
-
-When we consider the problem of flying, the first obstacle we encounter
-is the attraction which the earth has for us and for all other objects
-on its surface. This we call weight, and we are accustomed to measure
-it in pounds.
-
-Let us take, for example, a man whose body is attracted by the earth
-with a force, or weight, of 150 pounds. To enable him to rise into the
-air, means must be contrived not only to counteract his weight, but to
-lift him--a force a little greater than 150 pounds must be exerted. We
-may attach to him a bag filled with some gas (as hydrogen) for which
-the earth has less attraction than it has for air, and which the air
-will push out of the way and upward until a place above the earth is
-reached where the attraction of air and gas is equal. A bag of this
-gas large enough to be pushed upward with a force equal to the weight
-of the man, plus the weight of the bag, and a little more for lifting
-power, will carry the man up. This is the principle of the ordinary
-balloon.
-
-Rising in the air is not flying. It is a necessary step, but real
-flying is to travel from place to place through the air. To accomplish
-this, some mechanism, or machinery, is needed to propel the man after
-he has been lifted into the air. Such machinery will have weight,
-and the bag of gas must be enlarged to counterbalance it. When this
-is done, the man and the bag of gas may move through the air, and
-with suitable rudders he may direct his course. This combination of
-the lifting bag of gas and the propelling machinery constitutes the
-dirigible balloon, or airship.
-
-[Illustration: Degen’s apparatus to lift the man and his flying
-mechanism with the aid of a gas-balloon. See Chapter IV.]
-
-The airship is affected equally with the balloon by prevailing winds.
-A breeze blowing 10 miles an hour will carry a balloon at nearly that
-speed in the direction in which it is blowing. Suppose the aeronaut
-wishes to sail in the opposite direction? If the machinery will propel
-his airship only 10 miles an hour in a calm, it will virtually stand
-still in the 10-mile breeze. If the machinery will propel his airship
-20 miles an hour in a calm, the ship will travel 10 miles an hour--as
-related to places on the earth’s surface--against the wind. But so far
-as the air is concerned, his speed through it is 20 miles an hour,
-and each increase of speed meets increased resistance from the air,
-and requires a greater expenditure of power to overcome. To reduce
-this resistance to the least possible amount, the globular form of the
-early balloon has been variously modified. Most modern airships have a
-“cigar-shaped” gas bag, so called because the ends look like the tip
-of a cigar. As far as is known, this is the balloon that offers less
-resistance to the air than any other.
-
-Another mechanical means of getting up into the air was suggested
-by the flying of kites, a pastime dating back at least 2,000 years,
-perhaps longer. Ordinarily, a kite will not fly in a calm, but with
-even a little breeze it will mount into the air by the upward thrust
-of the rushing breeze against its inclined surface, being prevented
-from blowing away (drifting) by the pull of the kite-string. The same
-effect will be produced in a dead calm if the operator, holding
-the string, runs at a speed equal to that of the breeze--with this
-important difference: not only will the kite rise in the air, but it
-will travel in the direction in which the operator is running, a part
-of the energy of the runner’s pull upon the string producing a forward
-motion, provided he holds the string taut. If we suppose the pull on
-the string to be replaced by an engine and revolving propeller in the
-kite, exerting the same force, we have exactly the principle of the
-aeroplane.
-
-As it is of the greatest importance to possess a clear understanding of
-the natural processes we propose to use, let us refer to any text-book
-on physics, and review briefly some of the natural laws relating to
-motion and force which apply to the problem of flight:
-
-    (_a_) Force is that power which changes or tends to change the
-    position of a body, whether it is in motion or at rest.
-
-    (_b_) A given force will produce the same effect, whether the
-    body on which it acts is acted upon by that force alone, or by
-    other forces at the same time.
-
-    (_c_) A force may be represented graphically by a straight
-    line--the point at which the force is applied being the beginning
-    of the line; the direction of the force being expressed by the
-    direction of the line; and the magnitude of the force being
-    expressed by the length of the line.
-
-    (_d_) Two or more forces acting upon a body are called component
-    forces, and the single force which would produce the same effect
-    is called the resultant.
-
-    (_e_) When two component forces act in different directions
-    the resultant may be found by applying the principle of the
-    parallelogram of forces--the lines (_c_) representing the
-    components being made adjacent sides of a parallelogram, and the
-    diagonal drawn from the included angle representing the resultant
-    in direction and magnitude.
-
-    (_f_) Conversely, a resultant motion may be resolved into its
-    components by constructing a parallelogram upon it as the
-    diagonal, either one of the components being known.
-
-[Illustration: The Deutsch de la Muerthe dirigible balloon
-_Ville-de-Paris_; an example of the “cigar-shaped” gas envelope.]
-
-Taking up again the illustration of the kite flying in a calm, let us
-construct a few diagrams to show graphically the forces at work upon
-the kite. Let the heavy line AB represent the centre line of the kite
-from top to bottom, and C the point where the string is attached, at
-which point we may suppose all the forces concentrate their action
-upon the plane of the kite. Obviously, as the flyer of the kite is
-running in a horizontal direction, the line indicating the pull of
-the string is to be drawn horizontal. Let it be expressed by CD. The
-action of the air pressure being at right angles to the plane of the
-kite, we draw the line CE representing that force. But as this is a
-_pressing_ force at the point C, we may express it as a _pulling_ force
-on the other side of the kite by the line CF, equal to CE and in the
-opposite direction. Another force acting on the kite is its weight--the
-attraction of gravity acting directly downward, shown by CG. We have
-given, therefore, the three forces, CD, CF, and CG. We now wish to find
-the value of the pull on the kite-string, CD, in two other forces, one
-of which shall be a lifting force, acting directly upward, and the
-other a propelling force, acting in the direction in which we desire
-the kite to travel--supposing it to represent an aeroplane for the
-moment.
-
-We first construct a parallelogram on CF and CG, and draw the diagonal
-CH, which represents the resultant of those two forces. We have then
-the two forces CD and CH acting on the point C. To avoid obscuring the
-diagram with too many lines, we draw a second figure, showing just
-these two forces acting on the point C. Upon these we construct a new
-parallelogram, and draw the diagonal CI, expressing their resultant.
-Again drawing a new diagram, showing this single force CI acting upon
-the point C, we resolve that force into two components--one, CJ,
-vertically upward, representing the lift; the other, CK, horizontal,
-representing the travelling power. If the lines expressing these forces
-in the diagrams had been accurately drawn to scale, the measurement of
-the two components last found would give definite results in pounds;
-but the weight of a kite is too small to be thus diagrammed, and only
-the principle was to be illustrated, to be used later in the discussion
-of the aeroplane.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Nor is the problem as simple as the illustration of the kite suggests,
-for the air is compressible, and is moreover set in motion in the form
-of a current by a body passing through it at anything like the ordinary
-speed of an aeroplane. This has caused the curving of the planes (from
-front to rear) of the flying machine, in contrast with the flat plane
-of the kite. The reasoning is along this line: Suppose the main plane
-of an aeroplane six feet in depth (from front to rear) to be passing
-rapidly through the air, inclined upward at a slight angle. By the
-time two feet of this depth has passed a certain point, the air at
-that point will have received a downward impulse or compression which
-will tend to make it flow in the direction of the angle of the plane.
-The second and third divisions in the depth, each of two feet, will
-therefore be moving with a partial vacuum beneath, the air having been
-drawn away by the first segment. At the same time, the pressure of the
-air from above remains the same, and the result is that only the front
-edge of the plane is supported, while two-thirds of its depth is pushed
-down. This condition not only reduces the supporting surface to that of
-a plane two feet in depth, but, what is much worse, releases a tipping
-force which tends to throw the plane over backward.
-
-In order that the second section of the plane may bear upon the air
-beneath it with a pressure equal to that of the first, it must be
-inclined downward at double the angle (with the horizon) of the first
-section; this will in turn give to the air beneath it a new direction.
-The third section of the plane must then be set at a still deeper
-angle to give it support. Connecting these several directions with a
-smoothly flowing line without angles, we get the curved line of section
-to which the main planes of aeroplanes are bent.
-
-With these principles in mind, it is in order to apply them to the
-understanding of how an aeroplane flies. Wilbur Wright, when asked
-what kept his machine up in the air--why it did not fall to the
-ground--replied: “It stays up because it doesn’t have time to fall.”
-Just what he meant by this may be illustrated by referring to the
-common sport of “skipping stones” upon the surface of still water. A
-flat stone is selected, and it is thrown at a high speed so that the
-flat surface touches the water. It continues “skipping,” again and
-again, until its speed is so reduced that the water where it touches
-last has time to get out of the way, and the weight of the stone
-carries it to the bottom. On the same principle, a person skating
-swiftly across very thin ice will pass safely over if he goes so fast
-that the ice hasn’t time to break and give way beneath his weight. This
-explains why an aeroplane must move swiftly to stay up in the air,
-which has much less density than either water or ice. The minimum
-speed at which an aeroplane can remain in the air depends largely upon
-its weight. The heavier it is, the faster it must go--just as a large
-man must move faster over thin ice than a small boy. At some aviation
-contests, prizes have been awarded for the slowest speed made by an
-aeroplane. So far, the slowest on record is that of 21.29 miles an
-hour, made by Captain Dickson at the Lanark meet, Scotland, in August,
-1910. As the usual rate of speed is about 46 miles an hour, that is
-slow for an aeroplane; and as Dickson’s machine is much heavier than
-some others--the Curtiss machine, for instance--it is remarkably slow
-for that type of aeroplane.
-
-Just what is to be gained by offering a prize for slowest speed is
-difficult to conjecture. It is like offering a prize to a crowd of boys
-for the one who can skate slowest over thin ice. The minimum speed is
-the most dangerous with the aeroplane as with the skater. Other things
-being equal, the highest speed is the safest for an aeroplane. Even
-when his engine stops in mid-air, the aviator is compelled to keep up
-speed sufficient to prevent a fall by gliding swiftly downward until
-the very moment of landing.
-
-The air surface necessary to float a plane is spread out in one area in
-the monoplane, and divided into two areas, one above the other and 6
-to 9 feet apart, in the biplane; if closer than this, the disturbance
-of the air by the passage of one plane affects the supporting power
-of the other. It has been suggested that better results in the line
-of carrying power would be secured by so placing the upper plane that
-its front edge is a little back of the rear edge of the lower plane,
-in order that it may enter air that is wholly free from any currents
-produced by the rushing of the lower plane.
-
-As yet, there is a difference of opinion among the principal aeroplane
-builders as to where the propeller should be placed. All of the
-monoplanes have it in front of the main plane. Most of the biplanes
-have it behind the main plane; some have it between the two planes. If
-it is in front, it works in undisturbed air, but throws its wake upon
-the plane. If it is in the rear, the air is full of currents caused
-by the passage of the planes, but the planes have smooth air to glide
-into. As both types of machine are eminently successful, the question
-may not be so important as it seems to the disputants.
-
-The exact form of curve for the planes has not been decided upon.
-Experience has proven that of two aeroplanes having the same surface
-and run at the same speed, one may be able to lift twice as much as
-the other because of the better curvature of its planes. The action of
-the air when surfaces are driven through it is not fully understood.
-Indeed, the form of plane shown in the accompanying figure is called
-the aeroplane paradox. If driven in either direction it leaves the air
-with a _downward_ trend, and therefore exerts a proportional lifting
-power. If half of the plane is taken away, the other half is pressed
-downward. All of the lifting effect is in the curving of the top side.
-It seems desirable, therefore, that such essential factors should be
-thoroughly worked out, understood, and applied.
-
-[Illustration: Section of the “paradox” aeroplane.]
-
-
-
-
-Chapter IV.
-
-FLYING MACHINES.
-
-    Mythological--Leonardo da Vinci--Veranzio--John
-    Wilkins--Besnier--Marquis de
-    Bacqueville--Paucton--Desforges--Meerwein--Stentzel--Henson--Von
-    Drieberg--Wenham--Horatio Phillips--Sir Hiram
-    Maxim--Lilienthal--Langley--Ader--Pilcher--Octave
-    Chanute--Herring--Hargrave--The Wright
-    brothers--Archdeacon--Santos-Dumont--Voisin--Bleriot.
-
-
-The term Flying Machines is applied to all forms of aircraft which are
-heavier than air, and which lift and sustain themselves in the air by
-mechanical means. In this respect they are distinguished from balloons,
-which are lifted and sustained in the air by the lighter-than-air gas
-which they contain.
-
-From the earliest times the desire to fly in the air has been one of
-the strong ambitions of the human race. Even the prehistoric mythology
-of the ancient Greeks reflected the idea in the story of Icarus, who
-flew so near to the sun that the heat melted the wax which fastened his
-wings to his body, and he fell into the sea.
-
-Perhaps the first historical record in the line of mechanical flight
-worthy of attention exists in the remarkable sketches and plans for a
-flying mechanism left by Leonardo da Vinci at his death in 1519. He had
-followed the model of the flying bird as closely as possible, although
-when the wings were outspread they had an outline more like those of
-the bat. While extremely ingenious in the arrangement of the levers,
-the power necessary to move them fast enough to lift the weight of a
-man was far beyond the muscular strength of any human being.
-
-It was a century later, in 1617, that Veranzio, a Venetian, proved his
-faith in his inventive ability by leaping from a tower in Venice with
-a crude, parachute-like contrivance. He alighted without injury.
-
-In 1684, an Englishman, John Wilkins, then bishop of Chester, built
-a machine for flying in which he installed a steam-engine. No record
-exists of its performance.
-
-In 1678, a French locksmith by the name of Besnier devised what
-seems now a very crude apparatus for making descending flights, or
-glides, from elevated points. It was, however, at that date considered
-important enough to be described in the _Journal of the Savants_. It
-was a wholly unscientific combination of the “dog-paddle” motion in
-swimming, with wing areas which collapsed on the upward motion and
-spread out on the downward thrust. If it was ever put to a test it must
-have failed completely.
-
-In 1742, the Marquis de Bacqueville constructed an apparatus which
-some consider to have been based on Besnier’s idea--which seems rather
-doubtful. He fastened the surfaces of his aeroplane directly to his
-arms and legs, and succeeded in making a long glide from the window
-of his mansion across the garden of the Tuileries, alighting upon a
-washerwoman’s bench in the Seine without injury.
-
-Paucton, the mathematician, is credited with the suggestion of a flying
-machine with two screw propellers, which he called “pterophores”--a
-horizontal one to raise the machine into the air, and an upright one
-to propel it. These were to be driven by hand. With such hopelessly
-inadequate power it is not surprising that nothing came of it, yet
-the plan was a foreshadowing of the machine which has in these days
-achieved success.
-
-The Abbé Desforges gained a place in the annals of aeronautics by
-inventing a flying machine of which only the name “Orthoptere” remains.
-
-[Illustration: Meerwein’s Flying Machine. _A_, shows the position of
-the man in the wings, their comparative size, and the operating levers;
-_B_, position when in flight.]
-
-About 1780, Karl Friedrich Meerwein, an architect, and the Inspector of
-Public Buildings for Baden, Germany, made many scientific calculations
-and experiments on the size of wing surface needed to support a man
-in the air. He used the wild duck as a standard, and figured that a
-surface of 126 square feet would sustain a man in the air. This agrees
-with the later calculations of such experimenters as Lilienthal and
-Langley. Other of Meerwein’s conclusions are decidedly ludicrous. He
-held that the build of a man favors a horizontal position in flying, as
-his nostrils open in a direction which would be away from the wind, and
-so respiration would not be interfered with! Some of his reasoning is
-unaccountably astray; as, for instance, his argument that because the
-man hangs in the wings the weight of the latter need not be considered.
-It is almost needless to say that his practical trials were a total
-failure.
-
-[Illustration: Plan of Degen’s apparatus.]
-
-The next prominent step forward toward mechanical flight was made by
-the Australian watchmaker Degen, who balanced his wing surfaces with a
-small gas balloon. His first efforts to fly not being successful, he
-abandoned his invention and took to ballooning.
-
-Stentzel, an engineer of Hamburg, came next with a machine in the form
-of a gigantic butterfly. From tip to tip of its wings it measured 20
-feet, and their depth fore and aft was 5½ feet. The ribs of the wings
-were of steel and the web of silk, and they were slightly concave on
-the lower side. The rudder-tail was of two intersecting planes, one
-vertical and the other horizontal. It was operated by a carbonic-acid
-motor, and made 84 flaps of the wings per minute. The rush of air it
-produced was so great that any one standing near it would be almost
-swept off his feet. It did not reach a stage beyond the model, for it
-was able to lift only 75 lbs.
-
-[Illustration: Stentzel’s machine.]
-
-In 1843, the English inventor Henson built what is admitted to be the
-first aeroplane driven by motive power. It was 100 feet in breadth
-(spread) and 30 feet long, and covered with silk. The front edge was
-turned slightly upward. It had a rudder shaped like the tail of a
-bird. It was driven by two propellers run by a 20-horse-power engine.
-Henson succeeded only in flying on a down grade, doubtless because of
-the upward bend of the front of his plane. Later investigations have
-proven that the upper surface of the aeroplane must be convex to gain
-the lifting effect. This is one of the paradoxes of flying planes which
-no one has been able to explain.
-
-In 1845, Von Drieberg, in Germany, revived the sixteenth-century ideas
-of flying, with the quite original argument that since the legs of
-man were better developed muscularly than his arms, flying should be
-done with the legs. He built a machine on this plan, but no successful
-flights are recorded.
-
-In 1868, an experimenter by the name of Wenham added to the increasing
-sum of aeronautical knowledge by discovering that the lifting power of
-a large supporting surface may be as well secured by a number of small
-surfaces placed one above another. Following up these experiments, he
-built a flying machine with a series of six supporting planes made
-of linen fabric. As he depended upon muscular effort to work his
-propellers, he did not succeed in flying, but he gained information
-which has been valuable to later inventors.
-
-[Illustration: Von Drieberg’s machine; view from above.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Wenham’s arrangement of many narrow surfaces in six tiers, or
-    decks. _a_, _a_, rigid framework; _b_, _b_, levers working
-    flapping wings; _e_, _e_, braces. The operator is lying prone.]
-
-The history of flying machines cannot be written without deferential
-mention of Horatio Phillips of England. The machine that he made in
-1862 resembled a large Venetian blind, 9 feet high and over 21 feet
-long. It was mounted on a carriage which travelled on a circular track
-600 feet long, and it was driven by a small steam engine turning a
-propeller. It lifted unusually heavy loads, although not large enough
-to carry a man. It seems to open the way for experiments with an
-entirely new arrangement of sustaining surfaces--one that has never
-since been investigated. Phillips’s records cover a series of most
-valuable experiments. Perhaps his most important work was in the
-determination of the most advantageous form for the surfaces of
-aeroplanes, and his researches into the correct proportion of motive
-power to the area of such surfaces. Much of his results have not yet
-been put to practical use by designers of flying machines.
-
-[Illustration: Phillips’s Flying Machine--built of narrow slats like a
-Venetian blind.]
-
-The year 1888 was marked by the construction by Sir Hiram Maxim of his
-great aeroplane which weighed three and one-half tons, and is said
-to have cost over $100,000. The area of the planes was 3,875 square
-feet, and it was propelled by a steam engine in which the fuel used
-was vaporized naphtha in a burner having 7,500 jets, under a boiler of
-small copper water tubes. With a steam pressure of 320 lbs. per square
-inch, the two compound engines each developed 180 horse-power, and each
-turned a two-bladed propeller 17½ feet in diameter. The machine was
-used only in making tests, being prevented from rising in the air by a
-restraining track. The thrust developed on trial was 2,164 lbs., and
-the lifting power was shown to have been in excess of 10,000 lbs. The
-restraining track was torn to pieces, and the machine injured by the
-fragments. The dynamometer record proved that a dead weight of 4½ tons,
-in addition to the weight of the machine and the crew of 4 men, could
-have been lifted. The stability, speed, and steering control were
-not tested. Sir Hiram Maxim made unnumbered experiments with models,
-gaining information which has been invaluable in the development of the
-aeroplane.
-
-[Illustration: View of a part of Maxim’s aeroplane, showing one of the
-immense propellers. At the top is a part of the upper plane.]
-
-The experiments of Otto Lilienthal in gliding with a winged structure
-were being conducted at this period. He held that success in flying
-must be founded upon proficiency in the art of balancing the
-apparatus in the air. He made innumerable glides from heights which
-he continually increased until he was travelling distances of nearly
-one-fourth of a mile from an elevation of 100 feet. He had reached the
-point where he was ready to install motive power to drive his glider
-when he met with a fatal accident. Besides the inspiration of his
-daring personal experiments in the air, he left a most valuable series
-of records and calculations, which have been of the greatest aid to
-other inventors in the line of artificial flight.
-
-[Illustration: Lilienthal in his biplane glider.]
-
-In 1896, Professor Langley, director of the Smithsonian Institution
-at Washington, made a test of a model flying machine which was the
-result of years of experimenting. It had a span of 15 feet, and a
-length of 8½ feet without the extended rudder. There were 4 sails or
-planes, 2 on each side, 30 inches in width (fore-and-aft measurement).
-Two propellers revolving in opposite directions were driven by a
-steam engine. The diameter of the propellers was 3 feet, and the
-steam pressure 150 lbs. per square inch. The weight of the machine
-was 28 lbs. It is said to have made a distance of 1 mile in 1 minute
-45 seconds. As Professor Langley’s experiments were conducted in
-strict secrecy, no authoritative figures are in existence. Later a
-larger machine was built, which was intended to carry a man. It had
-a spread of 46 feet, and was 35 feet in length. It was four years in
-building, and cost about $50,000. In the first attempt to launch it,
-from the roof of a house-boat, it plunged into the Potomac River. The
-explanation given was that the launching apparatus was defective. This
-was remedied, and a second trial made, but the same result followed.
-It was never tried again. This machine was really a double, or tandem,
-monoplane. The framework was built of steel tubing almost as thin
-as writing paper. Every rib and pulley was hollowed out to reduce
-the weight. The total weight of the engine and machine was 800 lbs.,
-and the supporting surface of the wings was 1,040 square feet. The
-aeroplanes now in use average from 2 to 4 lbs. weight to the square
-foot of sustaining surface.
-
-About the same time the French electrician Ader, after years of
-experimenting, with the financial aid of the French Government, made
-some secret trials of his machine, which had taken five years to build.
-It had two bat-like wings spreading 54 feet, and was propelled by two
-screws driven by a 4-cylinder steam engine which has been described as
-a marvel of lightness. The inventor claimed that he was able to rise
-to a height of 60 feet, and that he made flights of several hundred
-yards. The official tests, however, were unsatisfactory, and nothing
-further was done by either the inventor or the government to continue
-the experiments. The report was that in every trial the machines had
-been wrecked.
-
-The experiments of Lilienthal had excited an interest in his ideas
-which his untimely death did not abate. Among others, a young English
-marine engineer, Percy S. Pilcher, took up the problem of gliding
-flight, and by the device of using the power exerted by running boys
-(with a five-fold multiplying gear) he secured speed enough to float
-his glider horizontally in the air for some distance. He then built an
-engine which he purposed to install as motive power, but before this
-was done he was killed by a fall from his machine while in the air.
-
-[Illustration: Plan of Chanute’s movable-wing glider.]
-
-Before the death of Lilienthal his efforts had attracted the attention
-of Octave Chanute, a distinguished civil engineer of Chicago, who,
-believing that the real problem of the glider was the maintenance of
-equilibrium in the air, instituted a series of experiments along that
-line. Lilienthal had preserved his equilibrium by moving his body about
-as he hung suspended under the wings of his machine. Chanute proposed
-to accomplish the same end by moving the wings automatically. His
-attempts were partially successful. He constructed several types of
-gliders, one of these with two decks exactly in the form of the present
-biplane. Others had three or more decks. Upward of seven hundred glides
-were made with Chanute’s machines by himself and assistants, without
-a single accident. It is of interest to note that a month before the
-fatal accident to Lilienthal, Chanute had condemned that form of
-glider as unsafe.
-
-[Illustration: Chanute’s two-deck glider.]
-
-In 1897, A. M. Herring, who had been one of the foremost assistants of
-Octave Chanute, built a double-deck (biplane) machine and equipped it
-with a gasoline motor between the planes. The engine failed to produce
-sufficient power, and an engine operated by compressed air was tried,
-but without the desired success.
-
-In 1898, Lawrence Hargrave of Sydney, New South Wales, came into
-prominence as the inventor of the cellular or box kite. Following the
-researches of Chanute, he made a series of experiments upon the path
-of air currents under variously curved surfaces, and constructed some
-kites which, under certain conditions, would advance against a wind
-believed to be absolutely horizontal. From these results Hargrave was
-led to assert that “soaring sails” might be used to furnish propulsion,
-not only for flying machines, but also for ships on the ocean sailing
-against the wind. The principles involved remain in obscurity.
-
-During the years 1900 to 1903, the brothers Wright, of Dayton, Ohio,
-had been experimenting with gliders among the sand dunes of Kitty
-Hawk, North Carolina, a small hamlet on the Atlantic Coast. They
-had gone there because the Government meteorological department had
-informed them that at Kitty Hawk the winds blew more steadily than at
-any other locality in the United States. Toward the end of the summer
-of 1903, they decided that the time was ripe for the installation of
-motive power, and on December 17, 1903, they made their first four
-flights under power, the longest being 853 feet in 59 seconds--against
-a wind blowing nearly 20 miles an hour, and from a starting point on
-level ground.
-
-[Illustration: Wilbur Wright gliding at Kitty Hawk, N. C., in 1903.]
-
-During 1904 over one hundred flights were made, and changes in
-construction necessary to sail in circles were devised. In 1905, the
-Wrights kept on secretly with their practice and development of their
-machine, first one and then the other making the flights until both
-were equally proficient. In the latter part of September and early
-part of October, 1905, occurred a series of flights which the Wrights
-allowed to become known to the public. At a meeting of the Aeronautical
-Society of Great Britain, held in London on December 15, 1905, a letter
-from Orville Wright to one of the members was read. It was dated
-November 17, 1905, and an excerpt from it is as follows:
-
-“During the month of September we gradually improved in our practice,
-and on the 26th made a flight of a little over 11 miles. On the 30th we
-increased this to 12⅕th miles; on October 3, to 15⅓ miles; on October
-4, to 20¾ miles, and on October 5, to 24¼ miles. All these flights
-were made at about 38 miles an hour, the flight of October 5 occupying
-30 minutes 3 seconds. Landings were caused by the exhaustion of the
-supply of fuel in the flights of September 26 and 30, and October 8,
-and in those of October 3 and 4 by the heating of the bearings in the
-transmission, of which the oil cups had been omitted. But before the
-flight on October 5, oil cups had been fitted to all the bearings, and
-the small gasoline can had been replaced with one that carried enough
-fuel for an hour’s flight. Unfortunately, we neglected to refill the
-reservoir just before starting, and as a result the flight was limited
-to 38 minutes....
-
-[Illustration: A Wright machine in flight.]
-
-“The machine passed through all of these flights without the slightest
-damage. In each of these flights we returned frequently to the
-starting point, passing high over the heads of the spectators.”
-
-These statements were received with incredulity in many parts of
-Europe, the more so as the Wrights refused to permit an examination of
-their machine, fearing that the details of construction might become
-known before their patents were secured.
-
-[Illustration: The Archdeacon machine on the Seine.]
-
-During the summer of 1905, Captain Ferber and Ernest Archdeacon of
-Paris had made experiments with gliders. One of the Archdeacon machines
-was towed by an automobile, having a bag of sand to occupy the place
-of the pilot. It rose satisfactorily in the air, but the tail became
-disarranged, and it fell and was damaged. It was rebuilt and tried
-upon the waters of the Seine, being towed by a fast motor-boat at a
-speed of 25 miles an hour. The machine rose about 50 feet into the air
-and sailed for about 500 feet.
-
-Archdeacon gathered a company of young men about him who speedily
-became imbued with his enthusiasm. Among them were Gabriel Voisin,
-Louis Bleriot, and Leon Delagrange. The two former, working together,
-built and flew several gliders, and when Santos-Dumont made his
-historic flight of 720 feet with his multiple-cell machine on November
-13, 1906 (the first flight made in Europe), they were spurred to new
-endeavors.
-
-Within a few months Voisin had finished his first biplane, and
-Delagrange made his initial flight with it--a mere hop of 30 feet--on
-March 16, 1907.
-
-Bleriot, however, had his own ideas, and on August 6, 1907, he flew
-for 470 feet in a monoplane machine of the tandem type. He succeeded
-in steering his machine in a curved course, a feat which had not
-previously been accomplished in Europe.
-
-In October of the same year, Henri Farman, then a well-known automobile
-driver, flew the second Voisin biplane in a half circle of 253 feet--a
-notable achievement at that date.
-
-But Santos-Dumont had been pushing forward several different types of
-machines, and in November he flew first a biplane 500 feet, and a few
-days later a monoplane 400 feet.
-
-At this point in our story the past seems to give place to the
-present. The period of early development was over, and the year 1908
-saw the first of those remarkable exploits which are recorded in the
-chapter near the end of this work entitled, “Chronicle of Aviation
-Achievements.”
-
-It is interesting to note that the machines then brought out are those
-of to-day. Practically, it may be said that there has been no material
-change from the original types. More powerful engines have been put
-in them, and the frames strengthened in proportion, but the Voisin,
-the Bleriot, and the Wright types remain as they were at first. Other
-and later forms are largely modifications and combinations of their
-peculiar features.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter V.
-
-FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE.
-
-    Successful types of aeroplanes--Distinguishing features--The
-    Wright biplane--Construction--New type--Five-passenger
-    machine--The Voisin biplane--New racing type--The Curtiss
-    biplane--The Cody biplane--The Sommer biplane--The
-    Baldwin biplane--New stabilizing plane--The Baddeck No.
-    2--Self-sustaining radiator--The Herring biplane--Stabilizing
-    fins.
-
-
-In the many contests for prizes and records, two types of flying
-machines have won distinctive places for themselves--the biplane and
-the monoplane. The appearance of other forms has been sporadic, and
-they have speedily disappeared without accomplishing anything which had
-not been better done by the two classes named.
-
-This fact, however, should not be construed as proving the futility of
-all other forms, nor that the ideal flying machine must be of one of
-these two prominent types. It is to be remembered that record-making
-and record-breaking is the most serious business in which any machines
-have so far been engaged; and this, surely, is not the field of
-usefulness to humanity which the ships of the air may be expected
-ultimately to occupy. It may yet be proved that, successful as these
-machines have been in what they have attempted, they are but transition
-forms leading up to the perfect airship of the future.
-
-[Illustration: The Wright biplane in flight.]
-
-The distinguishing feature of the biplane is not alone that it has two
-main planes, but that they are placed one above the other. The double
-(or tandem) monoplane also has two main planes, but they are on the
-same level, one in the rear of the other.
-
-A review of the notable biplanes of the day must begin with the Wright
-machine, which was not only the first with which flights were made, but
-also the inspiration and perhaps the pattern of the whole succeeding
-fleet.
-
-
-THE WRIGHT BIPLANE.
-
-The Wright biplane is a structure composed of two main surfaces,
-each 40 feet long and 6 feet 6 inches wide, set one above the other,
-parallel, and 6 feet apart. The planes are held rigidly at this
-distance by struts of wood, and the whole structure is trussed with
-diagonal wire ties. It is claimed by the Wrights that these dimensions
-have been proven by their experiments to give the maximum lift with
-the minimum weight.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Diagram showing the construction of the Wright biplane. The lever
-    _R_ is connected by the bar _A_ with the rudder gearing _C_, and
-    is pivoted at the bottom on a rolling shaft _B_, through which
-    the warping wires _W_^1, _W_^2 are operated. The semicircular
-    planes _F_ aid in stabilizing the elevator system.]
-
-The combination of planes is mounted on two rigid skids, or runners
-(similar to the runners of a sleigh), which are extended forward and
-upward to form a support for a pair of smaller planes in parallel,
-used as the elevator (for directing the course of the aeroplane upward
-or downward). It has been claimed by the Wrights that a rigid skid
-under-structure takes up the shock of landing, and checks the momentum
-at that moment, better than any other device. But it necessitated
-a separate starting apparatus, and while the starting impulse thus
-received enabled the Wrights to use an engine of less power (to keep
-the machine going when once started), and therefore of less dead
-weight, it proved a handicap to their machines in contests where they
-were met by competing machines which started directly with their own
-power. A later model of the Wright biplane is provided with a wheeled
-running gear, and an engine of sufficient power to raise it in the air
-after a short run on the wheels.
-
-Two propellers are used, run by one motor. They are built of wood, are
-of the two-bladed type, and are of comparatively large diameter--8
-feet. They revolve in opposite directions at a speed of 450
-revolutions per minute, being geared down by chain drive from the
-engine speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute.
-
-The large elevator planes in front have been a distinctive feature of
-the Wright machine. They have a combined area of 80 square feet, adding
-that much more lifting surface to the planes in ascending, for then
-the under side of their surfaces is exposed to the wind. If the same
-surfaces were in the rear of the main planes their top sides would have
-to be turned to the wind when ascending, and a depressing instead of a
-lifting effect would result.
-
-To the rear of the main planes is a rudder composed of two parallel
-vertical surfaces for steering to right or left.
-
-The feature essential to the Wright biplane, upon which the letters
-patent were granted, is the flexible construction of the tips of the
-main planes, in virtue of which they may be warped up or down to
-restore disturbed equilibrium, or when a turn is to be made. This
-warping of the planes changes the angle of incidence for the part of
-the plane which is bent. (The angle of incidence is that which the
-plane makes with the line in which it is moving. The bending downward
-of the rear edge would enlarge the angle of incidence, in that way
-increasing the compression of the air beneath, and lifting that end
-of the plane.) The wing-warping controls are actuated by the lever
-at the right hand of the pilot, which also turns the rudder at the
-rear--that which steers the machine to right or to left. The lever at
-the left hand of the pilot moves the elevating planes at the front of
-the machine.
-
-[Illustration: Sketch showing relative positions of planes and of the
-operator in the Wright machine: _A_, _A_, the main planes; _B_, _B_,
-the elevator planes. The motor is placed beside the operator.]
-
-The motor has 4 cylinders, and develops 25 to 30 horse-power, giving
-the machine a speed of 39 miles per hour.
-
-A newer model of the Wright machine is built without the large
-elevating planes in front, a single elevating plane being placed just
-back of the rear rudder. This arrangement cuts out the former lifting
-effect described above, and substitutes the depressing effect due to
-exposing the top of a surface to the wind.
-
-[Illustration: _Courtesy of N. Y. Times._
-
-The new model Wright biplane--without forward elevator.]
-
-The smallest of the Wright machines, popularly called the “Baby
-Wright,” is built upon this plan, and has proven to be the fastest of
-all the Wright series.
-
-
-THE VOISIN BIPLANE.
-
-While the Wrights were busily engaged in developing their biplane in
-America, a group of enthusiasts in France were experimenting with
-gliders of various types, towing them with high speed automobiles along
-the roads, or with swift motor-boats upon the Seine. As an outcome
-of these experiments, in which they bore an active part, the Voisin
-brothers began building the biplanes which have made them famous.
-
-As compared with the Wright machine, the Voisin aeroplane is of much
-heavier construction. It weighs 1,100 pounds. The main planes have a
-lateral spread of 37 feet 9 inches, and a breadth of 7 feet, giving
-a combined area of 540 square feet, the same as that of the Wright
-machine. The lower main plane is divided at the centre to allow the
-introduction of a trussed girder framework which carries the motor and
-propeller, the pilot’s seat, the controlling mechanism, and the running
-gear below; and it is extended forward to support the elevator. This
-is much lower than in the Wright machine, being nearly on the level of
-the lower plane. It is a single surface, divided at the centre, half
-being placed on each side of the girder. It has a combined area of 42
-square feet, about half of that of the Wright elevator, and it is only
-4 feet from the front edge of the main planes, instead of 10 feet as in
-the Wright machine. A framework nearly square in section, and about 25
-feet long, extends to the rear, and supports a cellular, or box-like,
-tail, which forms a case in which is the rudder surface for steering
-to right or to left.
-
-[Illustration: Diagram showing details of construction of the Voisin
-biplane. _C_, _C_, the curtains forming the stabilizing cells.]
-
-A distinctive feature of the Voisin biplane is the use of four vertical
-planes, or curtains, between the two main planes, forming two nearly
-square “cells” at the ends of the planes.
-
-At the rear of the main planes, in the centre, is the single propeller.
-It is made of steel, two-bladed, and is 8 feet 6 inches in diameter.
-It is coupled directly to the shaft of the motor, making with it 1,200
-revolutions per minute. The motor is of the V type, developing 50
-horse-power, and giving a speed of 37 miles per hour.
-
-[Illustration: Diagram showing the simplicity of control of the Voisin
-machine, all operations being performed by the wheel and its sliding
-axis.]
-
-The controls are all actuated by a rod sliding back and forth
-horizontally in front of the pilot’s seat, having a wheel at the end.
-The elevator is fastened to the rod by a crank lever, and is tilted
-up or down as the rod is pushed forward or pulled back. Turning
-the wheel from side to side moves the rudder in the rear. There are
-no devices for controlling the equilibrium. This is supposed to be
-maintained automatically by the fixed vertical curtains.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Voisin biplanes at the starting line at Rheims in August, 1909.
-    They were flown by Louis Paulhan, who won third prize for
-    distance, and Henri Rougier, who won fourth prize for altitude.
-    In the elimination races to determine the contestants for the
-    Bennett Cup, Paulhan won second place with the Voisin machine,
-    being defeated only by Tissandier with a Wright machine. Other
-    noted aviators who fly the Voisin machine are M. Bunau-Varilla
-    and the Baroness de la Roche.]
-
-The machine is mounted on two wheels forward, and two smaller wheels
-under the tail.
-
-This description applies to the standard Voisin biplane, which has
-been in much favor with many of the best known aviators. Recently
-the Voisins have brought out a new type in which the propeller has
-been placed in front of the planes, exerting a pulling force upon the
-machine, instead of pushing it as in the earlier type. The elevating
-plane has been removed to the rear, and combined with the rudder.
-
-A racing type also has been produced, in which the vertical curtains
-have been removed and a parallel pair of long, narrow ailerons
-introduced between the main planes on both sides of the centre. This
-machine, it is claimed, has made better than 60 miles per hour.
-
-The first Voisin biplane was built for Delagrange, and was flown by him
-with success.
-
-
-THE FARMAN BIPLANE.
-
-The second biplane built by the Voisins went into the hands of Henri
-Farman, who made many flights with it. Not being quite satisfied with
-the machine, and having an inventive mind, he was soon building a
-biplane after his own designs, and the Farman biplane is now one of the
-foremost in favor among both professional and amateur aviators.
-
-It is decidedly smaller in area of surface than the Wright and Voisin
-machines, having but 430 square feet in the two supporting planes. It
-has a spread of 33 feet, and the planes are 7 feet wide, and set 6 feet
-apart. In the Farman machine the vertical curtains of the Voisin have
-been dispensed with. The forward elevator is there, but raised nearly
-to the level of the upper plane, and placed 9 feet from the front edge
-of the main planes. To control the equilibrium, the two back corners
-of each plane are cut and hinged so that they hang vertically when not
-in flight. When in motion these flaps or ailerons stream out freely
-in the wind, assuming such position as the speed of the passing air
-gives them. They are pulled down by the pilot at one end or the other,
-as may be necessary to restore equilibrium, acting in very much the
-same manner as the warping tips of the Wright machine. A pair of tail
-planes are set in parallel on a framework about 20 feet in the rear of
-the main planes, and a double rudder surface behind them. Another model
-has hinged ailerons on these tail planes, and a single rudder surface
-set upright between them. These tail ailerons are moved in conjunction
-with those of the main planes.
-
-[Illustration: The Farman biplane, showing the position of the hinged
-ailerons when at rest. At full speed these surfaces stream out in the
-wind in line with the planes to which they are attached.]
-
-[Illustration: Diagram of the Farman biplane. A later type has the
-hinged ailerons also on the tail planes.]
-
-The motor has 4 cylinders, and turns a propeller made of wood, 8 feet 6
-inches in diameter, at a speed of 1,300 revolutions per minute--nearly
-three times as fast as the speed of the Wright propellers, which are
-about the same size. The propeller is placed just under the rear edge
-of the upper main plane, the lower one being cut away to make room
-for the revolving blades. The motor develops 45 to 50 horse-power, and
-drives the machine at a speed of 41 miles per hour.
-
-The “racing Farman” is slightly different, having the hinged ailerons
-only on one of the main planes. The reason for this is obvious. Every
-depression of the ailerons acts as a drag on the air flowing under the
-planes, increasing the lift at the expense of the speed.
-
-[Illustration: Sketch of Farman machine, showing position of operator.
-_A_, _A_, main planes; _B_, elevator; _C_, motor; _P_, tail planes.]
-
-The whole structure is mounted upon skids with wheels attached by a
-flexible connection. In case of a severe jar, the wheels are pushed up
-against the springs until the skids come into play.
-
-The elevator and the wing naps are controlled by a lever at the
-right hand of the pilot. This lever moves on a universal joint, the
-side-to-side movement working the flaps, and the forward-and-back
-motion the elevator. Steering to right or left is done with a bar
-operated by the feet.
-
-[Illustration: Henri Farman carrying a passenger across country.]
-
-Farman has himself made many records with his machine, and so have
-others. With a slightly larger and heavier machine than the one
-described, Farman carried two passengers a distance of 35 miles in one
-hour.
-
-
-THE CURTISS BIPLANE.
-
-This American rival of the Wright biplane is the lightest machine
-of this type so far constructed. The main planes are but 29 feet in
-spread, and 4 feet 6 inches in width, and are set not quite 5 feet
-apart. The combined area of the two planes is 250 square feet. The main
-planes are placed midway of the length of the fore-and-aft structure,
-which is nearly 30 feet. At the forward end is placed the elevator, and
-at the rear end is the tail--one small plane surface--and the vertical
-rudder surface in two parts, one above and the other below the tail
-plane. Equilibrium is controlled by changing the slant of two small
-balancing planes which are placed midway between the main planes at the
-outer ends, and in line with the front edges. These balancing planes
-are moved by a lever standing upright behind the pilot, having two arms
-at its upper end which turn forward so as to embrace his shoulders. The
-lever is moved to right or to left by the swaying of the pilot’s body.
-
-[Illustration: Glenn H. Curtiss in his machine ready to start. The fork
-of the balancing lever is plainly seen at his shoulders. Behind him is
-the radiator, with the engine still further back.]
-
-The motor is raised to a position where the shaft of the propeller is
-midway between the levels of the main planes, and within the line of
-the rear edges, so that they have to be cut away to allow the passing
-of the blades. The motor is of the V type, with 8 cylinders. It is 30
-horse-power and makes 1,200 revolutions per minute. The propeller is of
-steel, two-bladed, 6 feet in diameter, and revolves at the same speed
-as the shaft on which it is mounted. The high position of the engine
-permits a low running gear. There are two wheels under the rear edges
-of the main planes, and another is placed half-way between the main
-planes and the forward rudder, or elevator. A brake, operated by the
-pilot’s foot, acts upon this forward wheel to check the speed at the
-moment of landing.
-
-Another type of Curtiss machine has the ailerons set in the rear of the
-main planes, instead of between them.
-
-The Curtiss is the fastest of the biplanes, being excelled in speed
-only by some of the monoplanes. It has a record of 51 miles per hour.
-
-
-THE CODY BIPLANE.
-
-The Cody biplane has the distinction of being the first successful
-British aeroplane. It was designed and flown by Captain S. F. Cody, at
-one time an American, but for some years an officer in the British army.
-
-It is the largest and heaviest of all the biplanes, weighing about
-1,800 lbs., more than three times the weight of the Curtiss machine.
-Its main planes are 52 feet in lateral spread, and 7 feet 6 inches in
-width, and are set 9 feet apart. The combined area of these sustaining
-surfaces is 770 square feet. The upper plane is arched, so that the
-ends of the main planes are slightly closer together than at the centre.
-
-The elevator is in two parts placed end to end, about 12 feet in front
-of the main planes. They have a combined area of 150 square feet.
-Between them and above them is a small rudder for steering to right or
-left in conjunction with the large rudder at the rear of the machine.
-The latter has an area of 40 square feet.
-
-There are two small balancing planes, set one at each end of the main
-planes, their centres on the rear corner struts, so that they project
-beyond the tips of the planes and behind their rear lines.
-
-[Illustration: The Cody biplane in flight. Captain Cody has both hands
-raised above his head, showing the automatic stability of his machine.]
-
-The biplane is controlled by a lever rod having a wheel at the end.
-Turning the wheel moves the rudders; pushing or pulling the wheel works
-the elevator; moving the wheel from side to side moves the balancing
-planes.
-
-There are two propellers, set one on each side of the engine, and well
-forward between the main planes. They are of wood, of the two-bladed
-type, 7 feet in diameter. They are geared down to make 600 revolutions
-per minute. The motor has 8 cylinders and develops 80 horse-power at
-1,200 revolutions per minute.
-
-The machine is mounted on a wheeled running gear, two wheels under the
-front edge of the main planes and one a short distance forward in the
-centre. There is also a small wheel at each extreme end of the lower
-main plane.
-
-The Cody biplane has frequently carried a passenger, besides the pilot,
-and is credited with a speed of 38 miles per hour.
-
-The first aeroplane flights ever made in England were by Captain Cody
-on this biplane, January 2, 1909.
-
-
-THE SOMMER BIPLANE.
-
-The Sommer biplane is closely similar to the Farman machine, but has
-the hinged ailerons only on the upper plane. Another difference is that
-the tail has but one surface, and the rudder is hung beneath it. Its
-dimensions are:--Spread of main planes, 34 feet; depth (fore-and-aft),
-6 feet 8 inches; they are set 6 feet apart. The area of the main planes
-is 456 square feet; area of tail, 67 square feet; area of rudder, 9
-square feet. It is driven by a 50-horsepower Gnome motor, turning an
-8-foot, two-bladed propeller.
-
-M. Sommer has flown with three passengers, a total weight of 536 lbs.,
-besides the weight of the machine.
-
-
-THE BALDWIN BIPLANE.
-
-The Baldwin biplane, designed by Captain Thomas S. Baldwin, the
-distinguished balloonist, resembles the Farman type in some features,
-and the Curtiss in others. It has the Curtiss type of ailerons, set
-between the wings, but extending beyond them laterally. The elevator is
-a single surface placed in front of the machine, and the tail is of the
-biplane type with the rudder between. The spread of the main planes is
-31 feet 3 inches, and their depth 4 feet 6 inches. A balancing plane of
-9 square feet is set upright (like a fin) above the upper main plane,
-on a swivel. This is worked by a fork fitting on the shoulders of the
-pilot, and is designed to restore equilibrium by its swinging into
-head-resistance on one side or the other as may be necessary.
-
-[Illustration: The Baldwin biplane, showing balancing plane above upper
-main plane.]
-
-The motive power is a 4-cylinder Curtiss motor, which turns a propeller
-7 feet 6 inches in diameter, set just within the rear line of the main
-planes, which are cut away to clear the propeller blades.
-
-
-THE BADDECK BIPLANE.
-
-The newest biplane of the Aerial Experiment Association follows in
-general contour its successful precursor, the “Silver Dart,” with
-which J. A. D. McCurdy made many records. The “Baddeck No. 2” is of
-the biplane type, and both the planes are arched toward each other.
-They have a spread of 40 feet, and are 7 feet in depth at the centre,
-rounding to 5 feet at the ends, where the wing tips, 5 feet by 5 feet,
-are hinged. The elevator is also of the biplane type, two surfaces each
-12 feet long and 28 inches wide, set 30 inches apart. This is mounted
-15 feet in front of the main planes. The tail is mounted 11 feet in the
-rear of the main planes, and is the same size and of the same form as
-the elevator.
-
-The controls are operated by the same devices as in the Curtiss
-machine. The propeller is 7 feet 8 inches in diameter, and is turned
-by a six-cylinder automobile engine of 40 horse-power running at 1,400
-revolutions per minute. The propeller is geared down to run at 850
-revolutions per minute. The motor is placed low down on the lower
-plane, but the propeller shaft is raised to a position as nearly as
-possible that of the centre of resistance of the machine. The speed
-attained is 40 miles per hour.
-
-[Illustration: The McCurdy biplane, “Baddeck No. 2.”]
-
-A unique feature of the mechanism is the radiator, which is built of
-30 flattened tubes 7 feet 6 inches long, and 3 inches wide, and very
-thin. They are curved from front to rear like the main planes, and give
-sufficient lift to sustain their own weight and that of the water
-carried for cooling the cylinders. The running gear is of three wheels
-placed as in the Curtiss machine. The “Baddeck No. 2” has made many
-satisfactory flights with one passenger besides the pilot.
-
-
-THE HERRING BIPLANE.
-
-At the Boston Aircraft Exhibition in February, 1910, the Herring
-biplane attracted much attention, not only because of its superiority
-of mechanical finish, but also on account of its six triangular
-stabilizing fins set upright on the upper plane. Subsequent trials
-proved that this machine was quite out of the ordinary in action. It
-rose into the air after a run of but 85 feet, and at a speed of only
-22 miles per hour, and made a 40-degree turn at a tipping angle of 20
-degrees. As measured by the inventor, the machine rose in the air with
-the pilot (weighing 190 lbs.), with a thrust of 140 lbs., and required
-only a thrust of from 80 to 85 lbs. to keep it flying.
-
-The spread of the planes is 28 feet, and they are 4 feet in depth,
-with a total supporting surface of 220 feet. A 25 horse-power Curtiss
-motor turns a 4-bladed propeller of 6 feet diameter and 5-foot pitch
-(designed by Mr. Herring) at the rate of 1,200 revolutions per minute.
-
-[Illustration: The L. A. W. (League of American Wheelmen) biplane at
-the Boston Aircraft Exhibition, February, 1910. Note the peculiar
-curve of the divided planes. The motor is of the rotating type, of 50
-horse-power.]
-
-The elevator consists of a pair of parallel surfaces set upon hollow
-poles 12 feet in front of the main planes. The tail is a single surface.
-
-The stabilizing fins act in this manner: when the machine tips to one
-side, it has a tendency to slide down an incline of air toward the
-ground. The fins offer resistance to this sliding, retarding the upper
-plane, while the lower plane slides on and swings as a pendulum into
-equilibrium again.
-
-
-THE BREGUET BIPLANE.
-
-The Breguet biplane is conspicuous in having a biplane tail of so
-large an area as to merit for the machine the title “tandem biplane.”
-The main planes have a spread of 41 feet 8 inches, and an area of 500
-square feet. The tail spreads 24 feet, and its area is about 280 square
-feet. The propeller is three-bladed, 8 feet in diameter, and revolves
-at a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute. It is placed in front of
-the main plane, after the fashion of the monoplanes. The motive power
-is an 8-cylinder R-E-P engine, developing 55 horse-power.
-
-[Illustration: _Courtesy of N. Y. Sun._
-
-The Seddon tandem biplane, constructed by Lieutenant Seddon of the
-British Navy. The area of its planes is 2,000 square feet. Compare its
-size with that of the monoplane in the background. It is intended to
-carry ten persons.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Wright biplane.      Curtiss biplane.
-
-Comparative build and area of prominent American biplanes.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Voisin biplane.      Breguet biplane.
-
-Comparative build and area of prominent European biplanes.]
-
-
-
-
-Chapter VI.
-
-FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE.
-
-    The common goal--Interchanging features--The Bleriot
-    machine--First independent flyer--Construction and controls--The
-    “Antoinette”--Large area--Great stability--Santos-Dumont’s
-    monoplane--Diminutive size--R-E-P monoplane--encased
-    structure--Hanriot machine--Boat body--Sturdy build--Pfitzner
-    machine--Lateral type--Thrusting propeller--Fairchild,
-    Burlingame, Cromley, Chauviere, Vendome, and Moisant monoplanes.
-
-
-In all the ardent striving of the aviators to beat each other’s
-records, a surprisingly small amount of personal rivalry has been
-developed. Doubtless this is partly because their efforts to perform
-definite feats have been absorbing; but it must also be that these men,
-who know that they face a possible fall in every flight they make,
-realize that their competitors are as brave as themselves in the face
-of the same danger; and that they are actually accomplishing marvellous
-wonders even if they do no more than just escape disastrous failure.
-Certain it is that each, realizing the tremendous difficulties all must
-overcome, respects the others’ ability and attainments.
-
-Consequently we do not find among them two distinctly divergent
-schools of adherents, one composed of the biplanists, the other of the
-monoplanists. Nor are the two types of machines separated in this book
-for any other purpose than to secure a clearer understanding of what
-is being achieved by all types in the progress toward the one common
-goal--the flight of man.
-
-The distinctive feature of the monoplane is that it has but one main
-plane, or spread of surface, as contrasted with the two planes, one
-above the other, of the biplane. Besides the main plane, it has a
-secondary plane in the rear, called the tail. The office of this tail
-is primarily to secure longitudinal, or fore-and-aft, balance; but
-the secondary plane has been so constructed that it is movable on a
-horizontal axis, and is used to steer the machine upward or downward.
-While most of the biplanes now have a horizontal tail-plane, they were
-not at first so provided, but carried the secondary plane (or planes)
-in front of the main planes. Even in the latest type brought out by the
-conservative Wright brothers, the former large-surfaced elevator in
-front has been removed, and a much smaller tail-plane has been added in
-the rear, performing the same function of steering the machine up or
-down, but also providing the fore-and-aft stabilizing feature formerly
-peculiar to the monoplane. Another feature heretofore distinctively
-belonging to the monoplane has been adopted by some of the newer
-biplanes, that of the traction propeller--pulling the machine behind it
-through the air, instead of pushing it along by a thrusting propeller
-placed behind the main planes.
-
-The continual multiplication of new forms of the monoplane makes it
-possible to notice only those which exhibit the wider differences.
-
-
-THE BLERIOT MONOPLANE.
-
-The Bleriot monoplane has the distinction of being the first wholly
-successful flying machine. Although the Wright machine was making
-flights years before the Bleriot had been built, it was still dependent
-upon a starting device to enable it to leave the ground. That is, the
-Wright machine was not complete in itself, and was entirely helpless
-at even a short distance from its starting tower, rail, and car, which
-it was unable to carry along. Because of its completeness, M. Bleriot
-was able to drive his machine from Toury to Artenay, France (a distance
-of 8¾ miles) on October 31, 1908, make a landing, start on the return
-trip, make a second landing, and again continue his journey back to
-Toury, all under his own unassisted power. This feat was impossible to
-the Wright machine as it was then constructed, thus leaving the Bleriot
-monoplane in undisputed pre-eminence in the history of aviation.
-
-[Illustration: A Bleriot monoplane, “No. XI,” in flight.]
-
-At a little distance, where the details of construction are not
-visible, the Bleriot machine has the appearance of a gigantic bird. The
-sustaining surface, consisting of a single plane, is divided into two
-wings made of a stiff parchment-like material, mounted one on each side
-of a framework of the body, which is built of mahogany and whitewood
-trussed with diagonal ties of steel wire.
-
-The main plane has a lateral spread of 28 feet and a depth of 6 feet,
-and is rounded at the ends. It has an area of about 150 square feet,
-and is slightly concave on the under side. The tail-plane is 6 feet
-long and 2 feet 8 inches in depth; at its ends are the elevators,
-consisting of pivoted wing tips each about 2 feet 6 inches square
-with rounded extremities. The rudder for steering to left or right
-is mounted at the extreme rear end of the body, and has an area of 9
-square feet.
-
-[Illustration: The Bleriot “No. XII.,” showing new form of tail, and
-the complete encasing with fabric.]
-
-The body is framed nearly square in front and tapers to a wedge-like
-edge at the rear. It extends far enough in front of the main plane to
-give room for the motor and propeller. The seat for the pilot is on a
-line with the rear edge of the main plane, and above it. The forward
-part of the body is enclosed with fabric.
-
-[Illustration: Forward chassis of Bleriot monoplane, showing caster
-mounting of wheels. The framing of the body is shown by the dotted
-lines.]
-
-The machine is mounted on three wheels attached to the body: two at
-the front, with a powerful spring suspension and pivoted like a caster,
-and the other rigidly at a point just forward of the rudders.
-
-The lateral balance is restored by warping the tips of the main plane;
-if necessary, the elevator tips at the rear may be operated to assist
-in this. All the controls are actuated by a single lever and a drum to
-which the several wires are attached.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Diagram of Bleriot “No. XI.,” from the rear. _A_, _A_, main
-    plane; _B_, tail; _C_, body; _D_, _D_, wing tips of tail; _E_,
-    rudder; _H_, propeller; _M_, motor; _O_, axis of wing tips; _R_,
-    radiator; _a_, _a_, _b_, _b_, spars of wings; _h_, _h_, guy
-    wires; _p_, _k_, truss.]
-
-The motors used on the Bleriot machines have varied in type and power.
-In the “No. XI.,” with which M. Bleriot crossed the English Channel,
-the motor was a 3-cylinder Anzani engine, developing 24 horse-power at
-1,200 revolutions per minute. The propeller was of wood, 2-bladed, and
-6 feet 9 inches in diameter. It was mounted directly on the shaft, and
-revolved at the same speed, giving the machine a velocity of 37 miles
-per hour. This model has also been fitted with a 30 horse-power R-E-P
-(R. Esnault-Pelterie) motor, having 7 cylinders. The heavier type “No.
-XII.” has been fitted with the 50 horse-power Antoinette 8-cylinder
-engine, or the 7-cylinder rotating Gnome engine, also of 50 horse-power.
-
-[Illustration: Sketches showing relative size, construction, and
-position of pilot in the Bleriot machines; “No. XI.” (the upper), and
-“No. XII.” (the lower).]
-
-The total weight of the “No. XI.” monoplane is 462 pounds, without the
-pilot.
-
-
-THE ANTOINETTE MONOPLANE.
-
-The Antoinette is the largest and heaviest of the monoplanes. It
-was designed by M. Levavasseur, and has proved to be one of the
-most remarkable of the aeroplanes by its performances under adverse
-conditions; notably, the flight of Hubert Latham in a gale of 40 miles
-per hour at Blackpool in October, 1909.
-
-The Antoinette has a spread of 46 feet, the surface being disposed
-in two wings set at a dihedral angle; that is, the outer ends of the
-wings incline upward from their level at the body, so that at the front
-they present the appearance of a very wide open “V.” These wings are
-trapezoidal in form, with the wider base attached to the body, where
-they are 10 feet in depth (fore and aft). They are 7 feet in depth at
-the tips, and have a total combined area of 377 square feet. The great
-depth of the wings requires that they be made proportionally thick to
-be strong enough to hold their form. Two trussed spars are used in each
-wing, with a short mast on each, half-way to the tip, reaching below
-the wing as well as above it. To these are fastened guy wires, making
-each wing an independent truss. A mast on the body gives attachment
-for guys which bind the whole into a light and rigid construction. The
-framework of the wings is covered on both sides with varnished fabric.
-
-[Illustration: The Antoinette monoplane in flight.]
-
-The body is of triangular section. It is a long girder; at the front,
-in the form of a pyramid, expanding to a prism at the wings, and
-tapering toward the tail. It is completely covered with the fabric,
-which is given several coats of varnish to secure the minimum of skin
-friction.
-
-[Illustration: Diagram showing construction of the Antoinette
-monoplane.]
-
-The tail is 13 feet long and 9 feet wide, in the form of a
-diamond-shaped kite. The rear part of it is hinged to be operated as
-the elevator. There is a vertical stabilizing fin set at right angles
-to the rigid part of the tail. The rudder for steering to right or
-left is in two triangular sections, one above and the other below the
-tail-plane. The entire length of the machine is 40 feet, and its weight
-is 1,045 pounds.
-
-It is fitted with a motor of the “V” type, having 8 cylinders, and
-turning a 2-bladed steel propeller 1,100 revolutions per minute,
-developing from 50 to 55 horse-power.
-
-The control of the lateral balance is by ailerons attached to the rear
-edges of the wings at their outer ends. These are hinged, and may be
-raised as well as lowered as occasion demands, working in opposite
-directions, and thus doubling the effect of similar ailerons on the
-Farman machine, which can only be pulled downward.
-
-The machine is mounted on two wheels under the centre of the main
-plane, with a flexible wood skid projecting forward. Another skid is
-set under the tail.
-
-It is claimed for the Antoinette machine that its inherent stability
-makes it one of the easiest of all for the beginner in aviation. With
-as few as five lessons many pupils have become qualified pilots, even
-winning prizes against competitors of much wider experience.
-
-[Illustration: Diagrams showing comparative size and position of
-surfaces and structure of the Bleriot (left) and Antoinette (right)
-monoplanes.]
-
-
-THE SANTOS-DUMONT MONOPLANE.
-
-This little machine may be called the “runabout” of the aeroplanes. It
-has a spread of only 18 feet, and is but 20 feet in total length. Its
-weight is about 245 pounds.
-
-The main plane is divided into two wings, which are set at the body
-at a dihedral angle, but curve downward toward the tips, forming an
-arch. The depth of the wings at the tips is 6 feet. For a space on each
-side of the centre they are cut away to 5 feet in depth, to allow the
-propeller to be set within their forward edge. The total area of the
-main plane is 110 square feet.
-
-The tail-plane is composed of a vertical surface and a horizontal
-surface intersecting. It is arranged so that it may be tilted up or
-down to serve as an elevator, or from side to side as a rudder. Its
-horizontal surface has an area of about 12 square feet.
-
-The engine is placed above the main plane and the pilot’s seat below
-it. The body is triangular in section, with the apex uppermost,
-composed of three strong bamboo poles with cross-pieces held in place
-by aluminum sockets, and cross braced with piano wire.
-
-[Illustration: Santos-Dumont’s _La Demoiselle_ in flight.]
-
-The motor is of the opposed type, made by Darracq, weighing only 66
-pounds, and developing 30 horse-power at 1,500 revolutions per minute.
-The propeller is of wood, 2-bladed, and being mounted directly on the
-shaft of the motor, revolves at the same velocity. The speed of the
-Santos-Dumont machine is 37 miles per hour.
-
-[Illustration: The Darracq motor and propeller of the Santos-Dumont
-machine. The conical tank in the rear of the pilot’s seat holds the
-gasoline.]
-
-The lateral balance is preserved by a lever which extends upward and
-enters a long pocket sewed on the back of the pilot’s coat. His leaning
-from side to side warps the rear edges of the wings at their tips. The
-elevator is moved by a lever, and the rudder by turning a wheel.
-
-While this machine has not made any extended flights, Santos-Dumont has
-travelled in the aggregate upward of 2,000 miles in one or another of
-this type.
-
-The plans, with full permission to any one to build from them, he gave
-to the public as his contribution to the advancement of aviation.
-Several manufacturers are supplying them at a cost much below that of
-an automobile.
-
-[Illustration: Sketch showing position of pilot in Santos-Dumont
-machine. _A_, main plane; _B_, tail plane; _C_, motor.]
-
-
-THE R-E-P MONOPLANE.
-
-The Robert Esnault-Pelterie (abbreviated by its inventor to R-E-P)
-monoplane, viewed from above, bears a striking resemblance to a bird
-with a fan-shaped tail. It is much shorter in proportion to its spread
-than any other monoplane, and the body being entirely covered with
-fabric, it has quite a distinct appearance.
-
-The plane is divided into two wings, in form very much like the wings
-of the Antoinette machine. Their spread, however, is but 35 feet. Their
-depth at the body is 8 feet 6 inches, and at the tips, 5 feet. Their
-total combined area is 226 square feet.
-
-The body of the R-E-P machine has much the appearance of a boat, being
-wide at the top and coming to a sharp keel below. The boat-like prow in
-front adds to this resemblance. As the body is encased in fabric, these
-surfaces aid in maintaining vertical stability.
-
-A large stabilizing fin extends from the pilot’s seat to the tail. The
-tail is comparatively large, having an area of 64 square feet. Its rear
-edge may be raised or lowered to serve as an elevator. The rudder for
-steering to right or left is set below in the line of the body, as in a
-boat. It is peculiar in that it is of the “compensated” type; that is,
-pivoted near the middle of its length, instead of at the forward end.
-
-The control of the lateral balance is through warping the wings. This
-is by means of a lever at the left hand of the pilot, with a motion
-from side to side. The same lever moved forward or backward controls
-the elevator. The steering lever is in front of the pilot’s seat, and
-moves to right or to left.
-
-[Illustration: Elevation, showing large stabilizing fin; boat-like body
-encased in fabric; and compensated rudder, pivoted at the rear end of
-the fin.]
-
-[Illustration: Plan, showing comparative spread of surfaces, and the
-attachment of wheels at the wing tips.
-
-Graphic sketch showing elevation and plan of the R-E-P monoplane.]
-
-The motor is an invention of M. Esnault-Pelterie, and may be of 5, 7,
-or 10 cylinders, according to the power desired. The cylinders are
-arranged in two ranks, one in the rear of the other, radiating outward
-from the shaft like spokes in a wheel. The propeller is of steel,
-4-bladed, and revolves at 1,400 revolutions per minute, developing 35
-horse-power, and drawing the machine through the air at a speed of 47
-miles per hour.
-
-
-THE HANRIOT MONOPLANE.
-
-Among the more familiar machines which have been contesting for records
-at the various European meets during the season of 1910, the Hanriot
-monoplane earned notice for itself and its two pilots, one of them the
-fifteen-year-old son of the inventor. At Budapest the Hanriot machine
-carried off the honors of the occasion with a total of 106 points for
-“best performances,” as against 84 points for the Antoinette, and 77
-points for the Farman biplane. A description of its unusual features
-will be of interest by way of comparison.
-
-In general appearance it is a cross between the Bleriot and the
-Antoinette, the wings being shaped more like the latter, but rounded
-at the rear of the tips like the Bleriot. Its chief peculiarity is in
-the body of the machine, which is in form very similar to a racing
-shell--of course with alterations to suit the requirements of the
-aeroplane. Its forward part is of thin mahogany, fastened upon ash
-ribs, with a steel plate covering the prow. The rear part of the
-machine is covered simply with fabric.
-
-The spread of the plane is 24 feet 7 inches, and it has an area of 170
-square feet. The length of the machine, fore-and-aft, is 23 feet. Its
-weight is 463 pounds. It is mounted on a chassis having both wheels
-and skids, somewhat like that of the Farman running gear, but with two
-wheels instead of four.
-
-The Hanriot machine is sturdily built all the way through, and has
-endured without damage some serious falls and collisions which would
-have wrecked another machine.
-
-It is fitted either with a Darracq or a Clerget motor, and speeds at
-about 44 miles per hour.
-
-
-THE PFITZNER MONOPLANE.
-
-The Pfitzner monoplane has the distinction of being the first American
-machine of the single-plane type. It was designed and flown by the
-late Lieut. A. L. Pfitzner, and, though meeting with many mishaps, has
-proved itself worthy of notice by its performances, through making use
-of an entirely new device for lateral stability. This is the sliding
-wing tip, by which the wing that tends to fall from its proper level
-may be lengthened by 15 inches, the other wing being shortened as much
-at the same time.
-
-There is no longitudinal structure, as in the other monoplanes, the
-construction being transverse and built upon four masts set in the
-form of a square, 6 feet apart, about the centre. These are braced by
-diagonal struts, and tied with wires on the edges of the squares. They
-also support the guys reaching out to the tips of the wings.
-
-[Illustration: The Pfitzner monoplane from the rear, showing the
-sliding wing tips; dihedral angle of the wings; square body; and
-transverse trussed construction.]
-
-The plane proper is 31 feet in spread, to which the wing tips add 2½
-feet, and is 6 feet deep, giving a total area of 200 square feet. A
-light framework extending 10 feet in the rear carries a tail-plane 6
-feet in spread and 2 feet in depth. Both the elevator and the rudder
-planes are carried on a similar framework, 14 feet in front of the main
-plane.
-
-[Illustration: The Pfitzner monoplane, showing the structure of the
-body; the two conical gasoline tanks above; the propeller in the rear.
-Lieutenant Pfitzner at the wheel.]
-
-The wings of the main plane incline upward from the centre toward the
-tips, and are trussed by vertical struts and diagonal ties.
-
-The motor is placed in the rear of the plane, instead of in front, as
-in all other monoplanes. It is a 4-cylinder Curtiss motor, turning a
-6-foot propeller at 1,200 revolutions per minute, and developing 25
-horse-power.
-
-The Pfitzner machine has proved very speedy, and has made some
-remarkably sharp turns on an even keel.
-
-
-OTHER MONOPLANES.
-
-Several machines of the monoplane type have been produced, having some
-feature distinct from existing forms. While all of these have flown
-successfully, few of them have made any effort to be classed among the
-contestants for honors at the various meets.
-
-One of these, the Fairchild monoplane, shows resemblances to the R-E-P,
-the Antoinette, and the Bleriot machines, but differs from them all
-in having two propellers instead of one; and these revolve in the
-same direction, instead of in contrary directions, as do those of all
-other aeroplanes so equipped. The inventor claims that there is little
-perceptible gyroscopic effect with a single propeller, and even less
-with two. The propeller shafts are on the level of the plane, but the
-motor is set about 5 feet below, connections being made by a chain
-drive.
-
-[Illustration: The Beach type of the Antoinette, an American
-modification of the French machine, at the Boston Exhibition, 1910.]
-
-The Burlingame monoplane has several peculiarities. Its main plane is
-divided into two wings, each 10 feet in spread and 5 feet in depth,
-and set 18 inches apart at the body. They are perfectly rigid. The
-tail is in two sections, each 4 feet by 5 feet, and set with a gap of
-6 feet between the sections, in which the rudder is placed. Thus the
-spread of the tail from tip to tip is 16 feet, as compared with the 21½
-foot spread of the main plane. The sections of the tail are operated
-independently, and are made to serve as ailerons to control the lateral
-balance, and also as the elevator.
-
-The Cromley monoplane, another American machine, is modelled after the
-Santos-Dumont _Demoiselle_. It has a main plane divided into two wings,
-each 9 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, with a gap of 2 feet between at the
-body; the total area being 117 square feet. At the rear of the outer
-ends are hinged ailerons, like those of the Farman biplane, to control
-the lateral balance. The tail is 12 feet in the rear, and is of the
-“box” type, with two horizontal surfaces and two vertical surfaces.
-This is mounted with a universal joint, so that it can be moved in any
-desired direction. The complete structure, without the motor, weighs
-but 60 pounds.
-
-The Chauviere monoplane is distinct in having a rigid spar for the
-front of the plane, but no ribs. The surface is allowed to spread out
-as a sail and take form from the wind passing beneath. The rear edges
-may be pulled down at will to control the lateral balance. It is driven
-by twin screws set far back on the body, nearly to the tail.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    The Morok monoplane at the Boston Exhibition. It has the body of
-    the Bleriot, the wings of the Santos-Dumont, and the sliding wing
-    tips of the Pfitzner.]
-
-The smallest and lightest monoplane in practical use is that of M.
-Raoul Vendome. It is but 16 feet in spread, and is 16 feet fore and
-aft. It is equipped with a 12 horse-power motor, and flies at a speed
-of nearly 60 miles per hour. Without the pilot, its entire weight is
-but 180 pounds. The wings are pivoted so that their whole structure may
-be tilted to secure lateral balance.
-
-The new Moisant monoplane is built wholly of metal. The structure
-throughout is of steel, and the surfaces of sheet aluminum in a
-succession of small arches from the centre to the tips. No authentic
-reports of its performances are available.
-
-In the Tatin monoplane, also called the Bayard-Clement, the main plane
-is oval in outline, and the tail a smaller oval. The surfaces are
-curved upward toward the tips for nearly half their length in both
-the main plane and the tail. The propeller is 8½ feet in diameter,
-and is turned by a Clerget motor, which can be made to develop 60
-horse-power for starting the machine into the air, and then cut down to
-30 horse-power to maintain the flight.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter VII.
-
-FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS.
-
-    The triplane--The quadruplane--The multiplane--Helicopters--Their
-    principle--Obstacles to be overcome--The Cornu helicopter--The
-    Leger helicopter--The Davidson gyropter--The Breguet
-    gyroplane--The de la Hault ornithopter--The Bell
-    tetrahedrons--The Russ flyer.
-
-
-While the efforts of inventors have been principally along the lines
-of the successful monoplanes and biplanes, genius and energy have also
-been active in other directions. Some of these other designs are not
-much more than variations from prevailing types, however.
-
-Among these is the English Roe triplane, which is but a biplane
-with an extra plane added; the depths of all being reduced to give
-approximately the same surface as the biplane of the same carrying
-power. The tail is also of the triplane type, and has a combined area
-of 160 square feet--just half that of the main planes. The triplane
-type has long been familiar to Americans in the three-decker glider
-used extensively by Octave Chanute in his long series of experiments
-at Chicago.
-
-[Illustration: The Roe triplane in flight.]
-
-The quadruplane of Colonel Baden-Powell, also an English type, is
-practically the biplane with unusually large forward and tail planes.
-
-The multiplane of Sir Hiram Maxim should also be remembered, although
-he never permitted it to have free flight. His new multiplane, modelled
-after the former one, but equipped with an improved gasoline motor
-instead of the heavy steam-engine of the first model, will doubtless be
-put to a practical test when experiments with it are completed.
-
-[Illustration: Sir Hiram Maxim standing beside his huge multiplane.]
-
-Quite apart from these variants of the aeroplanes are the helicopters,
-ornithopters, gyropters, gyroplanes, and tetrahedral machines.
-
-
-HELICOPTERS.
-
-The result aimed at in the helicopter is the ability to rise vertically
-from the starting point, instead of first running along the ground
-for from 100 to 300 feet before sufficient speed to rise is attained,
-as the aeroplanes do. The device employed to accomplish this result is
-a propeller, or propellers, revolving horizontally above the machine.
-After the desired altitude is gained it is proposed to travel in any
-direction by changing the plane in which the propellers revolve to one
-having a small angle with the horizon.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    The force necessary to keep the aeroplane moving in its
-    horizontal path is the same as that required to move the
-    automobile of equal weight up the same gradient--much less than
-    its total weight.]
-
-The great difficulty encountered with this type of machine is that the
-propellers must lift the entire weight. In the case of the aeroplane,
-the power of the engine is used to slide the plane up an incline of
-air, and for this much less power is required. For instance, the weight
-of a Curtiss biplane with the pilot on board is about 700 pounds,
-and this weight is easily slid up an inclined plane of air with a
-propeller thrust of about 240 pounds.
-
-Another difficulty is that the helicopter screws, in running at the
-start before they can attain speed sufficient to lift their load, have
-established downward currents of air with great velocity, in which the
-screws must run with much less efficiency. With the aeroplanes, on the
-contrary, their running gear enables them to run forward on the ground
-almost with the first revolution of the propeller, and as they increase
-their speed the currents--technically called the “slip”--become less
-and less as the engine speed increases.
-
-In the Cornu helicopter, which perhaps has come nearer to successful
-flight than any other, these downward currents are checked by
-interposing planes below, set at an angle determined by the operator.
-The glancing of the currents of air from the planes is expected to
-drive the helicopter horizontally through the air. At the same time
-these planes offer a large degree of resistance, and the engine power
-must be still further increased to overcome this, while preserving the
-lift of the entire weight. With an 8-cylinder Antoinette motor, said
-to be but 24 horse-power, turning two 20-foot propellers, the machine
-is reported as lifting itself and two persons--a total weight of 723
-pounds--to a height of 5 feet, and sustaining itself for 1 minute. Upon
-the interposing of the planes to produce the horizontal motion the
-machine came immediately to the ground.
-
-[Illustration: Diagram showing principle of the Cornu helicopter. _P_,
-_P_, propelling planes. The arrow shows direction of travel with planes
-at angle shown.]
-
-This performance must necessarily be compared with that of the
-aeroplanes, as, for instance, the Wright machine, which, with a 25 to
-30 horse-power motor operating two 8-foot propellers, raises a weight
-of 1,050 pounds and propels it at a speed of 40 miles an hour for
-upward of 2 hours.
-
-Another form of helicopter is the Leger machine, so named after its
-French inventor. It has two propellers which revolve on the same
-vertical axis, the shaft of one being tubular, encasing that of the
-other. By suitable gearing this vertical shaft may be inclined after
-the machine is in the air in the direction in which it is desired to
-travel.
-
-[Illustration: The Vitton-Huber helicopter at the Paris aeronautical
-salon in 1909. It has the double concentric axis of the Leger
-helicopter and the propelling planes of the Cornu machine.]
-
-The gyropter differs from the Cornu type of helicopter in degree rather
-than in kind. In the Scotch machine, known as the Davidson gyropter,
-the propellers have the form of immense umbrellas made up of curving
-slats. The frame of the structure has the shape of a T, one of the
-gyropters being attached to each of the arms of the T. The axes upon
-which the gyropters revolve may be inclined so that their power may be
-exerted to draw the apparatus along in a horizontal direction after it
-has been raised to the desired altitude.
-
-The gyropters of the Davidson machine are 28 feet in diameter, the
-entire structure being 67 feet long, and weighing 3 tons. It has been
-calculated that with the proposed pair of 50 horse-power engines the
-gyropters will lift 5 tons. Upon a trial with a 10 horse-power motor
-connected to one of the gyropters, that end of the apparatus was lifted
-from the ground at 55 revolutions per minute--the boiler pressure being
-800 lbs. to the square inch, at which pressure it burst, wrecking the
-machine.
-
-An example of the gyroplane is the French Breguet apparatus, a blend of
-the aeroplane and the helicopter. It combines the fixed wing-planes of
-the one with the revolving vanes of the other. The revolving surfaces
-have an area of 82 square feet, and the fixed surfaces 376 square feet.
-The total weight of machine and operator is about 1,350 lbs. Fitted
-with a 40 horse-power motor, it rose freely into the air.
-
-The ornithopter, or flapping-wing type of flying machine, though the
-object of experiment and research for years, must still be regarded as
-unsuccessful. The apparatus of M. de la Hault may be taken as typical
-of the best effort in that line, and it is yet in the experimental
-stage. The throbbing beat of the mechanism, in imitation of the bird’s
-wings, has always proved disastrous to the structure before sufficient
-power was developed to lift the apparatus.
-
-The most prominent exponent of the tetrahedral type--that made up of
-numbers of small cells set one upon another--is the _Cygnet_ of Dr.
-Alexander Graham Bell, which perhaps is more a kite than a true flying
-machine. The first _Cygnet_ had 3,000 cells, and lifted its pilot to a
-height of 176 feet. The _Cygnet II_. has 5,000 tetrahedral cells, and
-is propelled by a 50 horse-power motor. It has yet to make its record.
-
-One of the most recently devised machines is that known as the Fritz
-Russ flyer. It has two wings, each in the form of half a cylinder, the
-convex curve upward. It is driven by two immense helical screws, or
-spirals, set within the semi-cylinders. No details of its performances
-are obtainable.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter VIII.
-
-FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE.
-
-    Instinctive balance--When the motor skips--Progressive
-    experience--Plum Island School methods--Lilienthal’s
-    conclusions--The Curtiss mechanism and controls--Speed
-    records--Cross-country flying--Landing--Essential
-    qualifications--Ground practice--Future relief.
-
-
-Any one who has learned to ride a bicycle will recall the great
-difficulty at first experienced to preserve equilibrium. But once the
-knack was gained, how simple the matter seemed! Balancing became a
-second nature, which came into play instinctively, without conscious
-thought or effort. On smooth roads it was not even necessary to grasp
-the handle-bars. The swaying of the body was sufficient to guide the
-machine in the desired direction.
-
-Much of this experience is paralleled by that of the would-be aviator.
-First, he must acquire the art of balancing himself and his machine in
-the air without conscious effort. Unfortunately, this is even harder
-than in the case of the bicycle. The cases would be more nearly alike
-if the road beneath and ahead of the bicyclist were heaving and falling
-as in an earthquake, with no light to guide him; for the air currents
-on which the aviator must ride are in constant and irregular motion,
-and are as wholly invisible to him as would be the road at night to the
-rider of the wheel.
-
-And there are other things to distract the attention of the pilot of an
-aeroplane--notably the roar of the propeller, and the rush of wind in
-his face, comparable only to the ceaseless and breath-taking force of
-the hurricane.
-
-The well-known aviator, Charles K. Hamilton, says:--“So far as the air
-currents are concerned, I rely entirely on instinctive action; but my
-ear is always on the alert. The danger signal of the aviator is when
-he hears his motor miss an explosion. Then he knows that trouble is
-in store. Sometimes he can speed up his engine, just as an automobile
-driver does, and get it to renew its normal action. But if he fails
-in this, and the motor stops, he must dip his deflecting planes, and
-try to negotiate a landing in open country. Sometimes there is no
-preliminary warning from the motor that it is going to cease working.
-That is the time when the aviator must be prepared to act quickly.
-Unless the deflecting planes are manipulated instantly, aviator and
-aeroplane will rapidly land a tangled mass on the ground.”
-
-[Illustration: Result of a failure to deflect the planes quickly enough
-when the engine stopped. The operator fortunately escaped with but a
-few bruises.]
-
-At the same time, Mr. Hamilton says: “Driving an aeroplane at a speed
-of 120 miles an hour is not nearly so difficult a task as driving an
-automobile 60 miles an hour. In running an automobile at high speed
-the driver must be on the job every second. Nothing but untiring
-vigilance can protect him from danger. There are turns in the road, bad
-stretches of pavement, and other like difficulties, and he can never
-tell at what moment he is to encounter some vehicle, perhaps travelling
-in the opposite direction. But with an aeroplane it is a different
-proposition. Once a man becomes accustomed to aeroplaning, it is a
-matter of unconscious attention.... He has no obstacles to encounter
-except cross-currents of air. Air and wind are much quicker than a man
-can think and put his thought into action. Unless experience has taught
-the aviator to maintain his equilibrium instinctively, he is sure to
-come to grief.”
-
-The Wright brothers spent years in learning the art of balancing in
-the air before they appeared in public as aviators. And their method
-of teaching pupils is evidence that they believe the only road to
-successful aviation is through progressive experience, leading up from
-the use of gliders for short flights to the actual machines with motors
-only after one has become an instinctive equilibrist.
-
-At the Plum Island school of the Herring-Burgess Company the learner is
-compelled to begin at the beginning and work the thing out for himself.
-He is placed in a glider which rests on the ground. The glider is
-locked down by a catch which may be released by pulling a string. To
-the front end of the glider is attached a long elastic which may be
-stretched more or less, according to the pull desired. The beginner
-starts with the elastic stretched but a little. When all is ready he
-pulls the catch free, and is thrown forward for a few feet. As practice
-gains for him better control, he makes a longer flight; and when he
-can show a perfect mastery of his craft for a flight of 300 feet, and
-not till then, he is permitted to begin practice with a motor-driven
-machine.
-
-[Illustration: A French apparatus for instructing pupils in aviation.]
-
-The lamented Otto Lilienthal, whose experience in more than 2,000
-flights gives his instructions unquestionable weight, urges that the
-“gradual development of flight should begin with the simplest apparatus
-and movements, and without the complication of dynamic means. With
-simple wing surfaces ... man can carry out limited flights ... by
-gliding through the air from elevated points in paths more or less
-descending. The peculiarities of wind effects can best be learned by
-such exercises.... The maintenance of equilibrium in forward flight
-is a matter of practice, and can be learned only by repeated personal
-experiment.... Actual practice in individual flight presents the best
-prospects for developing our capacity until it leads to perfected free
-flight.”
-
-The essential importance of thorough preparation in the school of
-experience could scarcely be made plainer or stronger. If it seems that
-undue emphasis has been laid upon this point, the explanation must be
-found in the deplorable death record among aviators from accidents in
-the air. With few exceptions, the cause of accident has been reported
-as, “The aviator seemed to lose control of his machine.” If this is
-the case with professional flyers, the need for thorough preliminary
-training cannot be too strongly insisted upon.
-
-Having attained the art of balancing, the aviator has to learn
-the mechanism by which he may control his machine. While all of
-the principal machines are but different embodiments of the same
-principles, there is a diversity of design in the arrangement of the
-means of control. We shall describe that of the Curtiss biplane, as
-largely typical of them all.
-
-In general, the biplane consists of two large sustaining planes, one
-above the other. Between the planes is the motor which operates a
-propeller located in the rear of the planes. Projecting behind the
-planes, and held by a framework of bamboo rods, is a small horizontal
-plane, called the tail. The rudder which guides the aeroplane to the
-right or the left is partially bisected by the tail. This rudder is
-worked by wires which run to a steering wheel located in front of
-the pilot’s seat. This wheel is similar in size and appearance to
-the steering wheel of an automobile, and is used in the same way for
-guiding the aeroplane to the right or left. (See illustration of the
-Curtiss machine in Chapter V.)
-
-In front of the planes, supported on a shorter projecting framework,
-is the altitude rudder, a pair of planes hinged horizontally, so that
-their front edges may tip up or down. When they tilt up, the air
-through which the machine is passing catches on the under sides and
-lifts them up, thus elevating the front of the whole aeroplane and
-causing it to glide upward. The opposite action takes place when these
-altitude planes are tilted downward. This altitude rudder is controlled
-by a long rod which runs to the steering wheel. By pushing on the wheel
-the rod is shoved forward and turns the altitude planes upward. Pulling
-the wheel turns the rudder planes downward. This rod has a backward and
-forward thrust of over two feet, but the usual movement in ordinary
-wind currents is rarely more than an inch. In climbing to high levels
-or swooping down rapidly the extreme play of the rod is about four or
-five inches.
-
-Thus the steering wheel controls both the horizontal and vertical
-movements of the aeroplane. More than this, it is a feeler to the
-aviator, warning him of the condition of the air currents, and for
-this reason must not be grasped too firmly. It is to be held steady,
-yet loosely enough to transmit any wavering force in the air to the
-sensitive touch of the pilot, enabling him instinctively to rise or dip
-as the current compels.
-
-[Illustration: _Courtesy N. Y. Times._
-
-    View of the centre of the new Wright machine, showing method of
-    operating. Archibald Hoxsey in the pilot’s seat. In his right
-    hand he holds a lever with two handles, one operating the warping
-    of the wing tips, and the other the rudder. Both handles may be
-    grasped at once, operating both rudder and wing tips at the same
-    moment. In his left hand Hoxsey grasps the lever operating the
-    elevating plane--at the rear in this type. The passenger’s seat
-    is shown at the pilot’s right.]
-
-The preserving of an even keel is accomplished in the Curtiss machine
-by small planes hinged between the main planes at the outer ends.
-They serve to prevent the machine from tipping over sideways. They
-are operated by arms, projecting from the back of the aviator’s seat,
-which embrace his shoulders on each side, and are moved by the swaying
-of his body. In a measure, they are automatic in action, for when the
-aeroplane sags downward on one side, the pilot naturally leans the
-other way to preserve his balance, and that motion swings the ailerons
-(as these small stabilizing planes are called) in such a way that the
-pressure of the wind restores the aeroplane to an even keel. The wires
-which connect them with the back of the seat are so arranged that when
-one aileron is being pulled down at its rear edge the rear of the
-other one is being raised, thus doubling the effect. As the machine is
-righted the aviator comes back to an upright position, and the ailerons
-become level once more.
-
-[Illustration: Starting a Wright machine. When the word is given both
-assistants pull vigorously downward on the propeller blades.]
-
-There are other controls which the pilot must operate consciously.
-In the Curtiss machine these are levers moved by the feet. With a
-pressure of the right foot he short-circuits the magneto, thus cutting
-off the spark in the engine cylinders and stopping the motor. This
-lever also puts a brake on the forward landing wheels, and checks the
-speed of the machine as it touches the ground. The right foot also
-controls the pump which forces the lubricating oil faster or slower to
-the points where it is needed.
-
-The left foot operates the lever which controls the throttle by which
-the aviator can regulate the flow of gas to the engine cylinders. The
-average speed of the 7-foot propeller is 1,100 revolutions per minute.
-With the throttle it may be cut down to 100 revolutions per minute,
-which is not fast enough to keep afloat, but will help along when
-gliding.
-
-Obviously, travelling with the wind enables the aviator to make his
-best speed records, for the speed of the wind is added to that of his
-machine through the air. Again, since the wind is always slower near
-the ground, the aviator making a speed record will climb up to a level
-where the surface currents no longer affect his machine. But over hilly
-and wooded country the air is often flowing or rushing in conflicting
-channels, and the aviator does not know what he may be called upon to
-face from one moment to the next. If the aeroplane starts to drop, it
-is only necessary to push the steering wheel forward a little--perhaps
-half an inch--to bring it up again. Usually, the machine will drop
-on an even keel. Then, in addition to the motion just described, the
-aviator will lean toward the higher side, thus moving the ailerons by
-the seat-back, and at the same time he will turn the steering wheel
-toward the lower side. This movement of the seat-back is rarely more
-than 2 inches.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Diagram showing action of wind on flight of aeroplane. The force
-    and direction of the wind being represented by the line _A B_,
-    and the propelling force and steered direction being _A C_, the
-    actual path travelled will be _A D_.]
-
-In flying across country a sharp lookout is kept on the land below. If
-it be of a character unfit for landing, as woods, or thickly settled
-towns, the aviator must keep high up in the air, lest his engine stop
-and he be compelled to glide to the earth. A machine will glide forward
-3 feet for each foot that it drops, if skilfully handled. If he is up
-200 feet, he will have to find a landing ground within 600 feet. If
-he is up 500 feet, he may choose his alighting ground anywhere within
-1,500 feet. Over a city like New York, a less altitude than 1,500 feet
-would hardly be safe, if a glide became necessary.
-
-Mr. Clifford B. Harmon, who was an aeronaut of distinction before he
-became an aviator, under the instruction of Paulhan, has this to say:
-“It is like riding a bicycle, or running an automobile. You have to try
-it alone to really learn how. When one first handles a flying machine
-it is advisable to keep on the ground, just rolling along. This is a
-harder mental trial than you will imagine. As soon as one is seated in
-a flying machine he wishes to fly. It is almost impossible to submit to
-staying near the earth. But until the manipulation of the levers and
-the steering gear has become second nature, this must be done. It is
-best to go very slow in the beginning. Skipping along the ground will
-teach a driver much. When one first gets up in the air it is necessary
-to keep far from all obstacles, like buildings, trees, or crowds. There
-is the same tendency to run into them that an amateur bicycle rider
-has in regard to stones and ruts on the ground. When he keeps his eye
-on them and tries with all his might to steer clear of them, he runs
-right into them.”
-
-[Illustration: Practicing with a monoplane, 20 feet above the ground.]
-
-When asked what he regarded the fundamental requirements in an aviator,
-Mr. Harmon said: “First, he must be muscularly strong; so that he
-will not tire. Second, he should have a thorough understanding of the
-mechanism of the machine he drives. Third, mental poise--the ability to
-think quick and to act instantly upon your thought. Fourth, a feeling
-of confidence in the air, so that he will not feel strange or out of
-place. This familiarity with the air can be best obtained by first
-being a passenger in a balloon, then by controlling one alone, and
-lastly going up in a flying machine.”
-
-[Illustration: Grahame-White on his Bleriot No. XII. The lever in front
-of him operates all the controls through the movement of the drum at
-its base.]
-
-Mr. Claude Grahame-White, the noted English aviator, has this to say of
-his first experience with his big “No. XII.” Bleriot monoplane--which
-differs in many important features from the “No. XI.” machine in which
-M. Bleriot crossed the English Channel: “After several disappointments,
-I eventually obtained the delivery of my machine in working order....
-As I had gathered a good deal of information from watching the antics
-and profiting by the errors made by other beginners on Bleriot
-monoplanes, I had a good idea of what _not_ to do when the engine
-was started up and we were ready for our first trial.... It was a
-cold morning, but the engine started up at the first quarter turn.
-After many warnings from M. Bleriot’s foreman not on any account to
-accelerate my engine too much, I mounted the machine along with my
-friend as passenger, and immediately gave the word to let go, and we
-were soon speeding along the ground at a good sixty kilometers (about
-37 miles) per hour.... Being very anxious to see whether the machine
-would lift off the ground, I gave a slight jerk to the elevating
-plane, and soon felt the machine rise into the air; but remembering
-the warnings of the foreman, and being anxious not to risk breaking
-the machine, I closed the throttle and contented myself with running
-around on the ground to familiarize myself with the handling of the
-machine.... The next day we got down to Issy about five o’clock in
-the morning, some two hours before the Bleriot mechanics turned up.
-However, we got the machine out, and tied it to some railings, and then
-I had my first experience of starting an engine, which to a novice
-at first sight appears a most hazardous undertaking; for unless the
-machine is either firmly held by several men, or is strongly tied up,
-it has a tendency to immediately leap forward. We successfully started
-the engine, and then rigged up a leash, and when we had mounted the
-machine, we let go; and before eight o’clock we had accomplished
-several very successful flights, both with and against the wind. These
-experiences we continued throughout the day, and by nightfall I felt
-quite capable of an extended flight, if only the ground had been large
-enough.... The following day M. Bleriot returned, and he sent for me
-and strongly urged me not to use the aeroplane any more at Issy, as he
-said the ground was far too small for such a powerful machine.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Diagram of Bleriot monoplane, showing controlling lever _L_
-    and bell-shaped drum _C_, to which all controlling wires are
-    attached. When the bell is rocked back and forward the elevator
-    tips on the rear plane are moved; rocking from side to side moves
-    the stabilizing tips of the main plane. Turning the bell around
-    moves the rudder.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    The Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum, devised to secure automatic
-    stability of aeroplanes. The wheels are driven by the aeroplane
-    motor at high speed. The pendulum rod is extended upward above
-    the axis and carries a vane which is engaged by any gust of wind
-    from either side of the aeroplane, tending to tilt the pendulum,
-    and bringing its gyroscopic resistance into play to warp the
-    wings, or operate ailerons.]
-
-The caution shown by these experienced aviators cannot be too closely
-followed by a novice. These men do not say that their assiduous
-practice on the ground was the fruit of timidity. On the contrary,
-although they are long past the preliminary stages, their advice to
-beginners is uniformly in the line of caution and thorough practice.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    When the aeroplane is steered to the left, the pendulum swings to
-    the right and depresses the right side of the plane, as in (_c_).
-    The reaction of the air raises the right side of the plane until
-    both surfaces are perpendicular to the inclined pendulum, as in
-    (_d_).
-
-Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.]
-
-Even after one has become an expert, the battle is not won, by any
-means. While flying in calm weather is extremely pleasurable, a
-protracted flight is very fatiguing; and when it is necessary to
-wrestle with gusts of high wind and fickle air currents, the strain
-upon the strongest nerve is a serious source of danger in that the
-aviator is liable to be suddenly overcome by weariness when he most
-needs to be on the alert.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    In that inclined position the aeroplane makes the turn, and
-    when the course again becomes straight, both the gyroscopic and
-    centrifugal forces cease, and the pendulum under the influence
-    of gravity becomes vertical. In this position it is inclined to
-    the left with respect to the planes, on which its effect is to
-    depress the left wing and so right the aeroplane, as in (_e_).
-
-Diagram showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.]
-
-Engine troubles are much fewer than they used to be, and a more
-dependable form of motor relieves the mind of the aviator from such
-mental disturbance. Some device in the line of a wind-shield would be
-a real boon, for even in the best weather there is the ceaseless rush
-of air into one’s face at 45 to 50 miles an hour. The endurance of this
-for hours is of itself a tax upon the most vigorous physique.
-
-With the passing of the present spectacular stage of the art of flying
-there will doubtless come a more reliable form of machine, with
-corresponding relief to the operator. Automatic mechanism will supplant
-the intense and continual mental attention now demanded; and as this
-demand decreases, the joys of flying will be considerably enhanced.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    If, when pursuing a straight course, the aeroplane is tilted by
-    a sideways wind (_b_), the action of the pendulum as described
-    above restores it to an even keel, as in (_a_).
-
-Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.]
-
-
-
-
-Chapter IX.
-
-FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD.
-
-    Santos-Dumont’s gift--_La Demoiselle_--Mechanical skill
-    required--Preparatory practice--General dimensions--The
-    frame--The motor--The main planes--The rudder-tail--The
-    propeller--Shaping the blades--Maxim’s experience--The running
-    gear--The controls--Scrupulous workmanship.
-
-
-When Santos-Dumont in 1909 gave to the world the unrestricted
-privilege of building monoplanes after the plans of his famous No.
-20--afterward named _La Demoiselle_--he gave not only the best he knew,
-but as much as any one knows about the building of flying machines.
-Santos-Dumont has chosen the monoplane for himself because his long
-experience commends it above others, and _La Demoiselle_ was the
-crowning achievement of years spent in the construction and operation
-of airships of all types. In view of Santos-Dumont’s notable successes
-in his chosen field of activity, no one will go astray in following his
-advice.
-
-Of course, the possession of plans and specifications for an aeroplane
-does not make any man a skilled mechanic. It is well to understand at
-the start that a certain degree of mechanical ability is required in
-building a machine which will be entirely safe. Nor does the possession
-of a successful machine make one an aeronaut. As in the case of
-bicycling, there is no substitute for actual experience, while in the
-airship the art of balancing is of even greater importance than on the
-bicycle.
-
-The would-be aviator is therefore advised to put himself through a
-course of training of mind and body.
-
-Intelligent experimenting with some one of the models described in
-Chapter XI. will teach much of the action of aeroplanes in calms
-and when winds are blowing; and practice with an easily constructed
-glider (see Chapter XII.) will give experience in balancing which
-will be of the greatest value when one launches into the air for the
-first time with a power-driven machine. An expert acquaintance with
-gasoline motors and magnetos is a prime necessity. In short, every bit
-of information on the subject of flying machines and their operation
-cannot fail to be useful in some degree.
-
-The dimensions of the various parts of the Santos-Dumont monoplane are
-given on the original plans according to the metric system. In reducing
-these to “long measure” inches, all measurements have been given to the
-nearest eighth of an inch.
-
-In general, we may note some of the peculiarities of _La Demoiselle_.
-The spread of the plane is 18 feet from tip to tip, and it is 20 feet
-over all from bow to stern. In height, it is about 4 feet 2 inches when
-the propeller blades are in a horizontal position. The total weight
-of the machine is 265 lbs., of which the engine weighs about 66 lbs.
-The area of the plane is 115 square feet, so that the total weight
-supported by each square foot with Santos-Dumont (weighing 110 lbs.) on
-board is a trifle over 3 lbs.
-
-The frame of the body of the monoplane is largely of bamboo, the three
-main poles being 2 inches in diameter at the front, and tapering to
-about 1 inch at the rear. They are jointed with brass sockets just back
-of the plane, for convenience of taking apart for transportation. Two
-of these poles extend from the axle of the wheels backward and slightly
-upward to the rudder-post. The third extends from the middle of the
-plane between the wings, backward and downward to the rudder-post.
-In cross-section the three form a triangle with the apex at the top.
-These bamboo poles are braced about every 2 feet with struts of steel
-tubing of oval section, and the panels so formed are tied by diagonals
-of piano wire fitted with turn-buckles to draw them taut.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Side view of the Santos-Dumont monoplane. _MP_, main plane with
-    radiator, _R_, hung underneath; _RP_, rudder plane worked by
-    wires _HC_, attached to lever _L_; _VC_, vertical control wires;
-    _WT_, tube through which run the warping wires worked by lever
-    _K_, in a pocket of the pilot’s coat; _B_, _B_, bamboo poles of
-    frame; _S_, _S_, brass, or aluminum sockets; _D_, _D_, struts
-    of bicycle tubing; _G_, gasoline; _RG_, reserve gasoline; _M_,
-    motor; _P_, propeller; _Q_, _Q_, outer rib of plane, showing
-    camber; _N_, skid.]
-
-In the Santos-Dumont machine a 2-cylinder, opposed Darracq motor of
-30 horse-power was used. It is of the water-cooled type, the cooling
-radiator being a gridiron of very thin ⅛-inch copper tubing, and hung
-up on the under side of the plane on either side of the engine. The
-cylinders have a bore of about 4⅛ inches, and a stroke of about 4¾
-inches. The propeller is 2-bladed, 6½ feet across, and is run at 1,400
-revolutions per minute, at which speed it exerts a pull of 242 lbs.
-
-Each wing of the main plane is built upon 2 transverse spars extending
-outward from the upper bamboo pole, starting at a slight angle upward
-and bending downward nearly to the horizontal as they approach the
-outer extremities. These spars are of ash, 2 inches wide, and tapering
-in thickness from 1⅛ inches at the central bamboo to about ⅞ inch at
-the tips of the wings. They are bent into shape by immersion in hot
-water, and straining them around blocks nailed to the floor of the
-workshop, in the form shown at QQ, p. 177.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Front view of the Santos-Dumont monoplane, showing position
-    of tubular struts supporting the engine and the wings; also
-    the guys, and warping wires entering the tubes inside the
-    wheels. _MP_, the main plane; _TP_, tail plane in the rear;
-    _R_, radiators; _M_, motor; _P_, propeller, the arrow showing
-    direction of revolution.]
-
-The front spar is set about 9 inches back from the front edge of the
-plane, and the rear one about 12 inches forward of the back edge of
-the plane. Across these spars, and beneath them, running fore and aft,
-are bamboo rods about ¾ of an inch in diameter at the forward end,
-and tapering toward the rear. They are set 8½ inches apart (centre
-to centre), except at the tips of the wings. The two outer panels
-are 10¼ inches from centre to centre of the rods, to give greater
-elasticity in warping. These fore-and-aft rods are 6 feet 5 inches
-long, except directly back of the propeller, where they are 5 feet 8
-inches long; they are bound to the spars with brass wire No. 25, at the
-intersections. They also are bent to a curved form, as shown in the
-plans, by the aid of the hot-water bath. Diagonal guys of piano wire
-are used to truss the frame in two panels in each wing.
-
-Around the outer free ends of the rods runs a piano wire No. 20, which
-is let into the tips of the rods in a slot ⅜ inch deep. To prevent
-the splitting of the bamboo, a turn or two of the brass wire may be
-made around the rod just back of the slot; but it is much better to
-provide thin brass caps for the ends of the rods, and to cut the slots
-in the metal as well as in the rods. Instead of caps, ferrules will do.
-When the slots are cut, let the tongue formed in the cutting be bent
-down across the bamboo to form the floor to the slot, upon which the
-piano wire may rest. The difference in weight and cost is very little,
-and the damage that may result from a split rod may be serious.
-
-[Illustration: Plan and details of construction of _La Demoiselle_.]
-
-After the frame of the plane is completed it is to be covered with
-cloth on both sides, so as entirely to enclose the frame, except only
-the tips of the rods, as shown in the plans. In the Santos-Dumont
-monoplane the cloth used is of closely woven silk, but a strong,
-unbleached muslin will do--the kind made especially for aeroplanes is
-best.
-
-Both upper and lower surfaces must be stretched taut, the edges front
-and back being turned over the piano wire, and the wire hemmed in.
-The upper and lower surfaces are then sewed together--“through and
-through,” as a seamstress would say--along both sides of each rod, so
-that the rods are practically in “pockets.” Nothing must be slighted,
-if safety in flying is to be assured.
-
-[Illustration: Sectional diagram of 2-cylinder Darracq opposed motor.]
-
-[Illustration: Diagram of 4-cylinder Darracq opposed motor.]
-
-[Illustration: Diagram of 3-cylinder Anzani motor.
-
-Motors suitable for _La Demoiselle_ monoplane.]
-
-The tail of the monoplane is a rigid combination of two planes
-intersecting each other at right angles along a central bamboo pole
-which extends back 3 feet 5½ inches from the rudder-post, to which it
-is attached by a double joint, permitting it to move upon either the
-vertical or the horizontal axis.
-
-Although this tail, or rudder, may seem at first glance somewhat
-complicated in the plans, it will not be found so if the frame of the
-upright or vertical plane be first constructed, and that of the level
-or horizontal plane afterward built fast to it at right angles.
-
-As with the main plane, the tail is to be covered on both sides with
-cloth, the vertical part first; the horizontal halves on either side so
-covered that the cloth of the latter may be sewed above and below the
-central pole. All of the ribs in the tail are to be stitched in with
-“pockets,” as directed for the rods of the main plane.
-
-The construction of the motor is possible to an expert machinist only,
-and the aeroplane builder will save time and money by buying his engine
-from a reliable maker. It is not necessary to send to France for a
-Darracq motor. Any good gasoline engine of equal power, and about the
-same weight, will serve the purpose.
-
-The making of the propeller is practicable for a careful workman. The
-illustrations will give a better idea than words of how it should be
-done. It should be remembered, however, that the safety of the aviator
-depends as much upon the propeller as upon any other part of the
-machine. The splitting of the blades when in motion has been the cause
-of serious accidents. The utmost care, therefore, should be exercised
-in the selection of the wood, and in the glueing of the several
-sections into one solid mass, allowing the work to dry thoroughly under
-heavy pressure.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Diagram showing how the layers of wood are placed for glueing:
-    _A_, at the hub; _B_, half way to the tip of the blade; _C_, at
-    the tip. The dotted lines show the form of the blade at these
-    points.]
-
-The forming of the blades requires a good deal of skill, and some
-careful preliminary study. It is apparent that the speed of a point
-at the tip of a revolving blade is much greater than that of a point
-near the hub, for it traverses a larger circle in the same period of
-time. But if the propeller is to do effective work without unequal
-strain, the twist in the blade must be such that each point in the
-length of the blade is exerting an equal pull on the air. It is
-necessary, therefore, that the slower-moving part of the blade, near
-the hub, or axis, shall cut “deeper” into the air than the more swiftly
-moving tip of the blade. Consequently the blade becomes continually
-“flatter” (approaching the plane in which it revolves) as we work
-from the hub outward toward the tip. This “flattening” is well shown
-in the nearly finished blade clamped to the bench at the right of the
-illustration--which shows a four-bladed propeller, instead of the
-two-bladed type needed for the monoplane.
-
-The propeller used for propulsion in air differs from the
-propeller-wheel used for ships in water, in that the blades are curved
-laterally; the forward face of the blade being convex, and the rearward
-face concave. The object of this shaping is the same as for curving the
-surface of the plane--to secure smoother entry into the air forward,
-and a compression in the rear which adds to the holding power on
-the substance of the air. It is extremely difficult to describe this
-complex shape, and the amateur builder of a propeller will do well to
-inspect one made by a professional, or to buy it ready made with his
-engine.
-
-[Illustration: Forming a 4-blade propeller out of 8 layers of wood
-glued firmly together.]
-
-The following quotation from Sir Hiram Maxim’s account of his most
-effective propeller may aid the ambitious aeroplane builder: “My large
-screws were made with a great degree of accuracy; they were perfectly
-smooth and even on both sides, the blades being thin and held in
-position by a strip of rigid wood on the back of the blade.... Like
-the small screws, they were made of the very best kind of seasoned
-American white pine, and when finished were varnished on both sides
-with hot glue. When this was thoroughly dry, they were sand-papered
-again, and made perfectly smooth and even. The blades were then covered
-with strong Irish linen fabric of the smoothest and best make. Glue
-was used for attaching the fabric, and when dry another coat of glue
-was applied, the surface rubbed down again, and then painted with
-zinc white in the ordinary way and varnished. These screws worked
-exceedingly well.”
-
-The covering of the blades with linen glued fast commends itself to the
-careful workman as affording precaution against the splintering of the
-blades when in rapid motion. Some propellers have their wooden blades
-encased with thin sheet aluminum to accomplish the same purpose, but
-for the amateur builder linen is far easier to apply.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    This method of mounting the wheels of the chassis has been found
-    the most satisfactory. The spring takes up the shock of a sudden
-    landing and the pivot working in the hollow post allows the
-    entire mounting to swing like a caster, and adapt itself to any
-    direction at which the machine may strike the ground.]
-
-The wheels are of the bicycle type, with wire spokes, but with hubs six
-inches long. The axle is bent to incline upward at the ends, so that
-the wheels incline outward at the ground, the better to take the shock
-of a sideways thrust when landing. The usual metal or wood rims may be
-used, but special tires of exceptionally light construction, made for
-aeroplanes, should be purchased.
-
-The controlling wires or cords for moving the rudder (or tail) and for
-warping the tips of the wings are of flexible wire cable, such as is
-made for use as steering rope on small boats. The cable controlling
-the horizontal plane of the rudder-tail is fastened to a lever at the
-right hand of the operator. The cable governing the vertical plane
-of the rudder-tail is attached to a wheel at the left hand of the
-operator. The cables which warp the tips of the wings are fastened to
-a lever which projects upward just back of the operator’s seat, and
-which is slipped into a long pocket sewed to the back of his coat, so
-that the swaying of his body in response to the fling of the tipping
-machine tends to restore it to an even keel. Springs are attached to
-all of these controlling wires, strong enough to bring them back to a
-normal position when the operator removes his hands from the steering
-apparatus.
-
-The brass sockets used in connecting the tubular struts to the main
-bamboos and the rudder-post, and in fastening the axle of the wheels to
-the lower bamboos and elsewhere, should be thoroughly made and brazed
-by a good mechanic, for no one should risk the chance of a faulty
-joint at a critical spot, when an accident may mean the loss of life.
-
-[Illustration: Diagram of Bleriot monoplane showing sizes of parts, in
-metres. Reduced to feet and inches these measurements are:
-
-  0.60 metres      1 ft. 11½    in.
-  1.50 metres      4 ft. 11     in.
-  2.10 metres      6 ft. 10½    in.
-  3.50 metres     11 ft.  6     in.
-  8.00 metres     26 ft.  3     in.
-  8.60 metres     28 ft.  2½    in.
-
-    The diagram being drawn to scale other dimensions may be found.
-    In both the plan (upper figure) and elevation (lower figure),
-    _A_, _A_, is the main plane; _B_, tail plane; _C_, body; _D_,
-    elevator wing-tips; _E_, rudder; _a_, _a_, rigid spar; _b_, _b_,
-    flexible spar; _r_, _r_, points of attachment for warping-wires;
-    _h_, _h_, guys; _H_, propeller; _M_, motor; _R_, radiator; _S_,
-    pilot’s seat; _P_, chassis.]
-
-For the rest, it has seemed better to put the details of construction
-on the plans themselves, where they will be available to the aeroplane
-builder without the trouble of continually consulting the text.
-
-Some of the work on an aeroplane will be found simple and easy; some of
-it, difficult and requiring much patience; and some impracticable to
-any one but a trained mechanic. But in all of it, the worker’s motto
-should be, “Fidelity in every detail.”
-
-
-
-
-Chapter X.
-
-FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS.
-
-    Early use of steam--Reliability necessary--The gasoline
-    motor--Carburetion--Compression--Ignition--Air-cooling--Water-cooling--Lubrication--The
-    magneto--Weight--Types of motors--The propeller--Form, size, and
-    pitch--Slip--Materials--Construction.
-
-
-The possibility of the existence of the flying machine as we have it
-to-day has been ascribed to the invention of the gasoline motor. While
-this is not to be denied, it is also true that the gasoline motors
-designed and built for automobiles and motor-boats have had to be
-wellnigh revolutionized to make them suitable for use in the various
-forms of aircraft. And it is to be remembered, doubtless to their
-greater credit, that Henson, Hargrave, Langley, and Maxim had all
-succeeded in adapting steam to the problem of the flight of models, the
-two latter using gasoline to produce the steam.
-
-Perhaps the one predominant qualification demanded of the aeroplane
-motor is reliability. A motor-car or motor-boat can be stopped, and
-engine troubles attended to with comparatively little inconvenience.
-The aeroplane simply cannot stop without peril. It is possible for
-a skilful pilot to reach the earth when his engine stops, if he is
-fortunately high enough to have space for the downward glide which will
-gain for him the necessary headway for steering. At a lesser height he
-is sure to crash to the earth.
-
-An understanding of the principles on which the gasoline motor works
-is essential to a fair estimate of the comparative advantages of the
-different types used to propel aeroplanes. In the first place, the
-radical difference between the gasoline motor and other engines is the
-method of using the fuel. It is not burned in ordinary fashion, but the
-gasoline is first vaporized and mixed with a certain proportion of air,
-in a contrivance called a carburetor. This gaseous mixture is pumped
-into the cylinder of the motor by the action of the motor itself,
-compressed into about one-tenth of its normal volume, and then exploded
-by a strong electric spark at just the right moment to have its force
-act most advantageously to drive the machinery onward.
-
-[Illustration: The “Fiat” 8-cylinder air-cooled motor, of the “V” type,
-made in France.]
-
-It is apparent that there are several chances for failure in this
-series. The carburetor may not do its part accurately. The mixture of
-air and vapor may not be in such proportions that it will explode; in
-that case, the power from that stroke will be missing, and the engine
-will falter and slow down. Or a leakage in the cylinder may prevent
-the proper compression of the mixture, the force from the explosion
-will be greatly reduced, with a corresponding loss of power and speed.
-Or the electric spark may not be “fat” enough--that is, of sufficient
-volume and heat to fire the mixture; or it may not “spark” at just
-the right moment; if too soon, it will exert its force against the
-onward motion: if too late, it will not deliver the full power of the
-explosion at the time when its force is most useful. The necessity for
-absolute perfection in these operations is obvious.
-
-[Illustration: A near view of the Holmes engine from the driving side.]
-
-[Illustration: The Holmes rotative engine, 7-cylinder 35 horse-power,
-weighing 160 pounds.
-
-An American engine built in Chicago, Ill.]
-
-Other peculiarities of the gasoline motor affect considerably its
-use for aeroplanes. The continual and oft-repeated explosions of the
-gaseous mixture inside of the cylinder generate great heat, and this
-not only interferes with its regularity of movement, but within a
-very brief time checks it altogether. To keep the cylinder cool enough
-to be serviceable, two methods are in use: the air-cooling system and
-the water-cooling system. In the first, flanges of very thin metal
-are cast on the outside of the cylinder wall. These flanges take up
-the intense heat, and being spread out over a large surface in this
-way, the rushing of the air through them as the machine flies (or
-sometimes blown through them with a rotary fan) cools them to some
-degree. With the water-cooling system, the cylinder has an external
-jacket, the space between being filled with water which is made to
-circulate constantly by a small pump. In its course the water which
-has just taken up the heat from the cylinder travels through a radiator
-in which it is spread out very thin, and this radiator is so placed
-in the machine that it receives the full draught from the air rushing
-through the machine as it flies. The amount of water required for
-cooling a motor is about 1⅕ lbs. per horse-power. With an 8-cylinder 50
-horse-power motor, this water would add the very considerable item of
-60 lbs. to the weight the machine has to carry. As noted in a previous
-chapter, the McCurdy biplane has its radiator formed into a sustaining
-plane, and supports its own weight when travelling in the air.
-
-[Illustration: The 180 horse-power engine of Sir Hiram Maxim; of the
-“opposed” type, compound, and driven by steam.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    The Anzani motor and propeller which carried M. Bleriot across
-    the English Channel. The curved edge of the propeller blades is
-    the entering edge, the propeller turning from the right of the
-    picture over to the left. The Anzani is of the “radiant” type and
-    is of French build.]
-
-It is an unsettled point with manufacturers whether the greater
-efficiency (generally acknowledged) of the water-cooled engine more
-than compensates for the extra weight of the water.
-
-Another feature peculiar to the gasoline motor is the necessity for
-such continual oiling that it is styled “lubrication,” and various
-devices have been invented to do the work automatically, without
-attention from the pilot further than the watching of his oil-gauge to
-see that a full flow of oil is being pumped through the oiling system.
-
-The electric current which produces the spark inside of the cylinder
-is supplied by a magneto, a machine formed of permanent magnets of
-horseshoe form, between the poles of which a magnetized armature is
-made to revolve rapidly by the machinery which turns the propeller.
-This magneto is often connected with a small storage battery, or
-accumulator, which stores up a certain amount of current for use when
-starting, or in case the magneto gives out.
-
-[Illustration: Sectional drawings showing details of construction of
-the Anzani motor. The flanges of the air-cooling system are distinctly
-shown. The section at the left is from the side; that at the right,
-from the front. All measurements are in millimètres. A millimètre is
-0.039 inch.]
-
-The great rivalry of the builders of motors has been in cutting down
-the weight per horse-power to the lowest possible figure. It goes
-without saying that useless weight is a disadvantage in an aeroplane,
-but it has not been proven that the very lightest engines have made a
-better showing than those of sturdier build.
-
-[Illustration: The “Gobron” engine of the “double opposed,” or
-cross-shaped type. A water-cooled engine, with 8 cylinders.]
-
-One of the items in the weight of an engine has been the fly-wheel
-found necessary on all motors of 4 cylinders or less to give steadiness
-to the running. With a larger number of cylinders, and a consequently
-larger number of impulses in the circuit of the propeller, the
-vibration is so reduced that the fly-wheel has been dispensed with.
-
-[Illustration: The Emerson 6-cylinder aviation engine, of the “tandem”
-type, water-cooled; 60 horse-power; made at Alexandria, Va.]
-
-There are several distinct types of aircraft engines, based on the
-arrangement of the cylinders. The “tandem” type has the cylinders
-standing upright in a row, one behind another. There may be as many as
-eight in a row. The Curtiss and Wright engines are examples. Another
-type is the “opposed” arrangement, the cylinders being placed in a
-horizontal position and in two sets, one working opposite the other.
-An example of this type is seen in the Darracq motor used on the
-Santos-Dumont monoplane. Another type is the “V” arrangement, the
-cylinders set alternately leaning to right and to left, as seen in
-the “Fiat” engine. Still another type is the “radiant,” in which the
-cylinders are all above the horizontal, and disposed like rays from
-the rising sun. The 3-cylinder Anzani engine and the 5- and 7-cylinder
-R-E-P engines are examples. The “star” type is exemplified in the 5
-and 7-cylinder engines in which the cylinders radiate at equal angles
-all around the circle. The “double opposed” or cross-shaped type is
-shown in the “Gobron” engine. In all of these types the cylinders are
-stationary, and turn the propeller shaft either by cranks or by gearing.
-
-[Illustration: The Elbridge engine, of the “tandem” type and
-water-cooled. It is an American engine, built at Rochester, N. Y.]
-
-An entirely distinct type of engine, and one which has been devised
-solely for the aeroplane, is the rotative--often miscalled the rotary,
-which is totally different. The rotative type may be illustrated by the
-Gnome motor. In this engine the seven cylinders turn around the shaft,
-which is stationary. The propeller is fastened to the cylinders, and
-revolves with them. This ingenious effect is produced by an offset
-of the crank-shaft of half the stroke of the pistons, whose rods are
-all connected with the crank-shaft. The entire system revolves around
-the main shaft as a centre, the crank-shaft being also stationary.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    The famous Gnome motor; 50 horse-power, 7-cylinder, air-cooled;
-    of the rotative type; made in France. This illustration shows the
-    Gnome steel propeller.]
-
-[Illustration: Sectional diagram of the 5-cylinder R-E-P motor; of the
-“radiant” type.]
-
-[Illustration: Sectional diagram of the 5-cylinder Bayard-Clement
-motor; of the “star” type.]
-
-Strictly speaking, the propeller is not a part of the motor of the
-flying machine, but it is so intimately connected with it in the
-utilization of the power created by the motor, that it will be treated
-of briefly in this chapter.
-
-The form of the air-propeller has passed through a long and varied
-development, starting with that of the marine propeller, which was
-found to be very inefficient in so loose a medium as air. On account
-of this lack of density in the air, it was found necessary to act on
-large masses of it at practically the same time to gain the thrust
-needed to propel the aeroplane swiftly, and this led to increasing the
-diameter of the propeller to secure action on a proportionally larger
-area of air. The principle involved is simply the geometric rule that
-the areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their radii.
-Thus the surface of air acted on by two propellers, one of 6 feet
-diameter and the other of 8 feet diameter, would be in the proportion
-of 9 to 16; and as the central part of a propeller has practically no
-thrust effect, the efficiency of the 8-foot propeller is nearly twice
-that of the 6-foot propeller--other factors being equal. But these
-other factors may be made to vary widely. For instance, the number of
-revolutions may be increased for the smaller propeller, thus engaging
-more air than the larger one at a lower speed; and, in practice, it is
-possible to run a small propeller at a speed that would not be safe for
-a large one. Another factor is the pitch of the propeller, which may
-be described as the distance the hub of the propeller would advance in
-one complete revolution if the blades moved in an unyielding medium,
-as a section of the thread of an ordinary bolt moves in its nut. In
-the yielding mass of the air the propeller advances only a part of its
-pitch, in some cases not more than half. The difference between the
-theoretical advance and the actual advance is called the “slip.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    The Call Aviation Engine, of the opposed type; water-cooled. The
-    cylinders are large and few in number. The 100 horse-power engine
-    has but 4 cylinders, and weighs only 250 pounds. (The Gnome 100
-    horse-power engine has 14 cylinders.) This is an American engine,
-    built at Girard, Kansas.]
-
-In practical work the number of blades which have been found to be most
-effective is two. More blades than two seem to so disturb the air that
-there is no hold for the propeller. In the case of slowly revolving
-propellers, as in most airship mechanisms, four-bladed propellers are
-used with good effect. But where the diameter of the propeller is
-about 8 feet, and the number of revolutions about 1,200 per minute, the
-two-bladed type is used almost exclusively.
-
-The many differing forms of the blades of the propeller is evidence
-that the manufacturers have not decided upon any definite shape as
-being the best. Some have straight edges nearly or quite parallel;
-others have the entering edge straight and the rear edge curved; in
-others the entering edge is curved, and the rear edge straight; or
-both edges may be curved. The majority of the wooden propellers are
-of the third-mentioned type, and the curve is fashioned so that at
-each section of its length the blade presents the same area of surface
-in the same time. Hence the outer tip, travelling the fastest, is
-narrower than the middle of the blade, and it is also much thinner to
-lessen the centrifugal force acting upon it at great speeds. Near the
-hub, however, where the travel is slowest, the constructional problem
-demands that the blade contract in width and be made stout. In fact, it
-becomes almost round in section.
-
-Many propellers are made of metal, with tubular shanks and blades of
-sheet metal, the latter either solid sheets or formed with a double
-surface and hollow inside. Still others have a frame of metal with
-blades of fabric put on loosely, so that it may adapt itself to the
-pressure of the air in revolving. That great strength is requisite
-becomes plain when it is considered that the speed of the tip of
-a propeller blade often reaches seven miles a minute! And at this
-velocity the centrifugal force excited--tending to tear the blades to
-splinters--is prodigious.
-
-Just as the curved surface of the planes of an aeroplane is more
-effective than a flat surface in compressing the air beneath them,
-and thus securing a firmer medium on which to glide, so the propeller
-blades are curved laterally (across their width) to compress the air
-behind them and thus secure a better hold. The advancing side of the
-blade is formed with a still greater curve, to gain the advantage due
-to the unexplained lift of the paradox aeroplane.
-
-Where the propeller is built of wood it is made of several layers,
-usually of different kinds of wood, with the grain running in slightly
-different directions, and all carefully glued together into a solid
-block. Ash, spruce, and mahogany, in alternating layers, are a favorite
-combination. In some instances the wooden propeller is sheathed in
-sheet aluminum; in others, it is well coated with glue which is
-sandpapered down very smooth, then varnished, and then polished to the
-highest lustre--to reduce the effect of the viscosity of the air to the
-minimum.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Two propellers, the one on the left of left-hand pitch; the
-    other of right-hand pitch. Both are thrusting propellers, and
-    are viewed from the rear. These fine models are of the laminated
-    type, and are of American make; the one to the left a Paragon
-    propeller made in Washington, D. C.; the other a Brauner
-    propeller made in New York.]
-
-In order to get the best results, the propeller and the motor must be
-suited to each other. Some motors which “race” with a propeller which
-is slightly too small, work admirably with one a little heavier, or
-with a longer diameter.
-
-The question as to whether one propeller, or two, is the better
-practice, has not been decided. The majority of aeroplanes have but
-one. The Wright and the Cody machines have two. The certainty of
-serious consequences to a machine having two, should one of them be
-disabled, or even broken so as to reduce the area, seems to favor the
-use of but one.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XI.
-
-MODEL FLYING MACHINES.
-
-    Awakened popular interest--The workshop’s share--Needed
-    devices--Super-sensitive inventions--Unsolved problems--Tools
-    and materials--A model biplane--The propeller--The body--The
-    steering plane--The main planes--Assembling the parts--The
-    motive power--Flying the model--A monoplane model--Carving a
-    propeller--Many ideas illustrated--Clubs and competitions--Some
-    remarkable records.
-
-
-It is related of Benjamin Franklin that when he went out with his
-famous kite with the wire string, trying to collect electricity from
-the thundercloud, he took a boy along to forestall the ridicule that he
-knew would be meted out to him if he openly flew the kite himself.
-
-Other scientific experimenters, notably those working upon the problem
-of human flight in our own time, have encountered a similar condition
-of the public mind, and have chosen to conduct their trials in secret
-rather than to contend with the derision, criticism, and loss of
-reputation which a sceptical world would have been quick to heap upon
-them.
-
-But such a complete revolution of thought has been experienced in these
-latter days that groups of notable scientific men gravely flying kites,
-or experimenting with carefully made models of flying machines, arouse
-only the deepest interest, and their smallest discoveries are eagerly
-seized upon by the daily press as news of the first importance.
-
-So much remains to be learned in the field of aeronautics that no
-builder and flyer of the little model aeroplanes can fail to gain
-valuable information, if that is his intention. On the other hand, if
-it be the sport of racing these model aeroplanes which appeals to him,
-the instruction given in the pages following will be equally useful.
-
-The earnest student of aviation is reminded that the progressive work
-in this new art of flying is not being done altogether, nor even in
-large part, by the daring operators who, with superb courage, are
-performing such remarkable feats with the flying machines of the
-present moment. Not one of them would claim that his machine is all
-that could be desired. On the contrary, these intrepid men more than
-any others are fully aware of the many and serious defects of the
-apparatus they use for lack of better. The scientific student in his
-workshop, patiently experimenting with his models, and working to
-prove or disprove untested theories, is doubtless doing an invaluable
-part in bringing about the sort of flying which will be more truly
-profitable to humanity in general, though less spectacular.
-
-[Illustration: A model flying machine built and flown by Louis Paulhan,
-the noted aviator, at a prize contest for models in France. The design
-is after Langley’s model, with tandem monoplane surfaces placed at a
-dihedral angle.]
-
-One of the greatest needs of the present machines is an automatic
-balancer which shall supersede the concentrated attention which the
-operator is now compelled to exercise in order to keep his machine
-right side up. The discovery of the principle upon which such a
-balancer must be built is undoubtedly within the reach of the builder
-and flyer of models. It has been asserted by an eminent scientific
-experimenter in things aeronautic that “we cannot hope to make a
-sensitive apparatus quick enough to take advantage of the rising
-currents of the air,” etc. With due respect to the publicly expressed
-opinion of this investigator, it is well to reassure ourselves against
-so pessimistic an outlook by remembering that the construction of just
-such supersensitive apparatus is a task to which man has frequently
-applied his intellectual powers with signal success. Witness the
-photomicroscope, which records faithfully an enlarged view of
-objects too minute to be even visible to the human eye; the aneroid
-barometer, so sensitive that it will indicate the difference in level
-between the table and the floor; the thermostat, which regulates the
-temperature of the water flowing in the domestic heating system with a
-delicacy impossible to the most highly constituted human organism; the
-seismograph, detecting, recording, and almost locating earth tremors
-originating thousands of miles away; the automatic fire sprinkler;
-the safety-valve; the recording thermometer and other meteorological
-instruments; and last, if not of least importance, the common
-alarm-clock. And these are but a few of the contrivances with which
-man does by blind mechanism that which is impossible to his sentient
-determination.
-
-Even if the nervous system could be schooled into endurance of the
-wear and tear of consciously balancing an aeroplane for many hours, it
-is still imperative that the task be not left to the exertion of human
-wits, but controlled by self-acting devices responding instantly to
-unforeseen conditions as they occur.
-
-[Illustration: Diagram showing turbulent air currents produced when a
-flat plane is forced through the air at a large angle of incidence in
-the direction A-B.]
-
-[Illustration: Diagram showing smoothly flowing air currents caused by
-correctly shaped plane at proper angle of incidence.]
-
-Some of the problems of which the model-builder may find the solution
-are: whether large screws revolving slowly, or small screws revolving
-rapidly, are the more effective; how many blades a propeller should
-have, and their most effective shape; what is the “perfect” material
-for the planes (Maxim found that with a smooth wooden plane he could
-lift 2½ times the weight that could be lifted with the best made
-fabric-covered plane); whether the centre of gravity of the aeroplane
-should be above or below the centre of lift, or should coincide with
-it; new formulas for the correct expression of the lift in terms of the
-velocity, and angle of inclination--the former formulas having been
-proved erroneous by actual experience; how to take the best advantage
-of the “tangential force” announced by Lilienthal, and reasserted by
-Hargrave; and many others. And there is always the “paradox aeroplane”
-to be explained--and when explained it will be no longer a paradox, but
-will doubtless open the way to the most surprising advance in the art
-of flying.
-
-It is not assumed that every reader of this chapter will become a
-studious experimenter, but it is unquestionably true that every
-model-builder, in his effort to produce winning machines, will be more
-than likely to discover some fact of value in the progress making
-toward the ultimate establishment of the commercial navigation of the
-air.
-
-The tools and materials requisite for the building of model aeroplanes
-are few and inexpensive. For the tools--a small hammer; a small iron
-“block” plane; a fine-cut half-round file; a pair of round-nose pliers;
-three twist drills (as used for drilling metals), the largest 1/16 inch
-diameter, and two smaller sizes, with an adjustable brad-awl handle
-to hold them; a sharp pocket knife; and, if practicable, a small hand
-vise. The vise may be dispensed with, and common brad-awls may take the
-place of the drills, if necessary.
-
-For the first-described model--the simplest--the following materials
-are needed: some thin whitewood, 1/16 inch thick (as prepared for
-fret-sawing); some spruce sticks, ¼ inch square (sky-rocket sticks are
-good); a sheet of heavy glazed paper; a bottle of liquid glue; some of
-the smallest (in diameter) brass screws, ¼ to ½ inch long; some brass
-wire, 1/20 inch in diameter; 100 inches of square rubber (elastic)
-“cord,” such as is used on return-balls, but 1/16 inch square; and a
-few strips of draughtsman’s tracing cloth.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    _A_, _B_, blank from which propeller is shaped; _P_, _P_, pencil
-    lines at centre of bend; _C_, _D_, sections of blade at points
-    opposite; _E_, _G_, propeller after twisting; _H_, view of
-    propeller endwise, showing outward twist of tips; also shaft.]
-
-As the propeller is the most difficult part to make, it is best
-to begin with it. The flat blank is cut out of the whitewood, and
-subjected to the action of steam issuing from the spout of an actively
-boiling tea-kettle. The steam must be hot; mere vapor will not do the
-work. When the strip has become pliable, the shaping is done by slowly
-bending and twisting at the same time--perhaps “coaxing” would be the
-better word, for it must be done gently and with patience--and the
-steam must be playing on the wood all the time, first on one side of
-the strip, then on the other, at the point where the fibres are being
-bent. The utmost care should be taken to have the two blades bent
-exactly alike--although, of course, with a contrary twist, the one to
-the right and the other to the left, on each side of the centre. A
-lead-pencil line across each blade at exactly the same distance from
-the centre will serve to fix accurately the centre of the bend. If
-two blocks are made with slots cut at the angle of 1 inch rise to 2¼
-inches base, and nailed to the top of the work bench just far enough
-apart to allow the tips of the screw to be slid into the slots, the
-drying in perfect shape will be facilitated. The centre may be held to
-a true upright by two other blocks, one on each side of the centre.
-Some strips of whitewood may be so rigid that the steam will not make
-them sufficiently supple. In this case it may be necessary to dip them
-bodily into the boiling water, or even to leave them immersed for a few
-minutes; afterward bending them in the hot steam. But a wetted stick
-requires longer to dry and set in the screw shape. When the propeller
-is thoroughly dry and set in proper form, it should be worked into the
-finished shape with the half-round file, according to the several
-sections shown beside the elevation for each part of the blade. The
-two strengthening piece’s are then to be glued on at the centre of the
-screw, and when thoroughly dry, worked down smoothly to shape. When
-all is dry and hard it should be smoothed with the finest emery cloth
-and given a coat of shellac varnish, which, in turn, may be rubbed to
-a polish with rotten stone and oil.
-
-It may be remarked, in passing, that this is a crude method of making a
-propeller, and the result cannot be very good. It is given here because
-it is the easiest way, and the propeller will work. A much better way
-is described further on--and the better the propeller, the better any
-model will fly. But for a novice, no time will be lost in making this
-one, for the experience gained will enable the model-builder to do
-better work with the second one than he could do without it.
-
-For the aeroplane body we get out a straight spar of spruce, ¼ inch
-square and 15½ inches long. At the front end of this--on the upper
-side--is to be glued a small triangular piece of wood to serve as a
-support for the forward or steering plane, tilting it up at the front
-edge at the angle represented by a rise of 1 in 8. This block should
-be shaped on its upper side to fit the curve of the under side of the
-steering-plane, which will be screwed to it.
-
-The steering-plane is cut according to plan, out of 1/16 inch
-whitewood, planed down gradually to be at the ends about half that
-thickness. This plane is to be steamed and bent to a curve (fore and
-aft) as shown in the sectional view. The steam should play on the
-_convex_ side of the bend while it is being shaped. To hold it in
-proper form until it is set, blocks with curved slots may be used, or
-it may be bound with thread to a moulding block of equal length formed
-to the proper curve. When thoroughly dry it is to be smoothed with the
-emery cloth, and a strip of tracing cloth--glossy face out--is to be
-glued across each end, to prevent breaking in case of a fall. It is
-then to be varnished with shellac, and polished, as directed for the
-propeller. Indeed, it should be said once for all that every part of
-the model should be as glossy as it is possible to make it without
-adding to the weight, and that all “entering edges” (those which push
-into and divide the air when in flight) should be as sharp as is
-practicable with the material used.
-
-The steering-plane is to be fastened in place by a single screw long
-enough to pierce the plane and the supporting block, and enter the
-spar. The hole for this screw (as for all screws used) should be
-drilled carefully, to avoid the least splitting of the wood, and just
-large enough to have the screw “bite” without forcing its way in. This
-screw which holds the plane is to be screwed “home” but not too tight,
-so that in case the flying model should strike upon it in falling,
-the slender plane will swivel, and not break. It will be noticed that
-while this screw passes through the centre of the plane sideways, it is
-nearer to the forward edge than to the rear edge.
-
-If the work has been accurate, the plane will balance if the spar
-is supported--upon the finger, perhaps, as that is sensitive to any
-tendency to tipping. If either wing is too heavy, restore the balance
-by filing a little from the tip of that wing.
-
-The main planes are next to be made. The lower deck of the biplane is
-of the 1/16 inch whitewood, and the upper one is of the glazed paper
-upon a skeleton framework of wood. The upright walls are of paper.
-The wooden deck is to be bent into the proper curve with the aid of
-steam, and when dry and set in form is to be finished and polished. The
-frame for the upper deck is made of the thin whitewood, and is held
-to its position by two diagonal struts of whitewood bent at the ends
-with steam, and two straight upright struts or posts. It is better to
-bend all cross-pieces into the curve of the plane with steam, but they
-may be worked into the curve on the top side with plane and file, and
-left flat on the lower side. The drawings show full details of the
-construction, drawn accurately to scale.
-
-It is best to glue all joints, and in addition to insert tiny screws,
-where shown in the plans, at the time of gluing.
-
-When all the wooden parts are in place the entire outline of the upper
-plane and the upright walls is to be formed of silk thread carried
-from point to point, and tied upon very small pins (such as are used
-in rolls of ribbon at the stores) inserted in the wood. The glazed
-paper is put on double, glossy side out. Cut the pieces twice as large
-(and a trifle more) than is needed, and fold so that the smooth crease
-comes to the front and the cut edges come together at the rear. The two
-inner walls should be put in place first, so as to enclose the thread
-front and back, and the post, between the two leaves of the folded
-paper. Cutting the paper half an inch too long will give one fourth of
-an inch to turn flat top and bottom to fasten to the upper and lower
-decks respectively. The two outer walls and the upper deck may be cut
-all in one piece, the under leaf being slit to pass on either side of
-the inner walls. A bit of glue here and there will steady the parts to
-their places. The cut edges at the rear of the deck and walls should
-be caught together with a thin film of glue, so as to enclose the rear
-threads.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    _A_, _B_, plan, and _C_, section, of steering plane; _H_, section
-    of lower main plane; _L_, wood skeleton of upper plane; _T_,
-    _T_, silk thread; _O_, _O_, posts; _J_, _J_, braces; _E_, rubber
-    strands; _D_, forward hook; _G_, shaft; _F_, thrust-block; _K_,
-    upper plane of paper; _M_, elevation of main planes, from the
-    rear.]
-
-When the biplane is completed it is to be fastened securely to the spar
-in such a position that it is accurately balanced--from side to side.
-The spar may be laid on a table, and the biplane placed across it in
-its approximate position. Then move the plane to one side until it tips
-down, and mark the spot on the rear edge of the plane. Repeat this
-operation toward the other side, and the centre between the two marks
-should be accurately fastened over the centre line of the spar. Even
-with the greatest care there may still be failure to balance exactly,
-but a little work with a file on the heavy side, or a bit of chewing
-gum stuck on the lighter side, will remedy the matter.
-
-The body of the aeroplane being now built, it is in order to fit it
-with propelling mechanism. The motive power to whirl the propeller we
-have already prepared is to be the torsion, or twisting strain--in this
-case the force of untwisting--of india rubber. When several strands
-of pure rubber cord are twisted up tight, their elasticity tends to
-untwist them with considerable force. The attachment for the rubber
-strands at the front end of the spar is a sort of bracket made of the
-brass wire. The ends of the wire are turned up just a little, and they
-are set into little holes in the under side of the spar. Where the wire
-turns downward to form the hook it is bound tightly to the spar with
-silk thread. The hook-shaped tip is formed of the loop of the wire
-doubled upon itself. The rear attachment of the rubber strands is a
-loop upon the propeller shaft itself. As shown in the drawings, this
-shaft is but a piece of the brass wire. On one end (the rear) an open
-loop is formed, and into this is slipped the centre of the propeller.
-The short end of the loop is then twisted around the longer shank--very
-carefully, lest the wire cut into and destroy the propeller. Two turns
-of the wire is enough, and then the tip of the twisted end should be
-worked down flat with the file, to serve as a bearing for the propeller
-against the thrust-block. This latter is made of a piece of sheet brass
-(a bit of printers’ brass “rule” is just the thing) about 1/40 of an
-inch thick. It should be ¼ of an inch wide except at the forward end,
-where it is to be filed to a long point and bent up a trifle to enter
-the wood of the spar. The rear end is bent down (not too sharply, lest
-it break) to form the bearing for the propeller, a hole being drilled
-through it for the propeller shaft, just large enough for the shaft to
-turn freely in it. Another smaller hole is to be drilled for a little
-screw to enter the rear end of the spar. Next pass the straight end
-of the propeller shaft through the hole drilled for it, and with the
-pliers form a round hook for the rear attachment of the rubber strands.
-Screw the brass bearing into place, and for additional strength, wind
-a binding of silk thread around it and the spar.
-
-Tie the ends of the rubber cord together, divide it into ten even
-strands, and pass the loops over the two hooks--and the machine is
-ready for flight.
-
-To wind up the rubber it will be necessary to turn the propeller in
-the opposite direction to which it will move when the model is flying.
-About 100 turns will be required. After it is wound, hold the machine
-by the rear end of the spar, letting the propeller press against the
-hand so it cannot unwind. Raise it slightly above the head, holding the
-spar level, or inclined upward a little (as experience may dictate),
-and launch the model by a gentle throw forward. If the work has been
-well done it may fly from 150 to 200 feet.
-
-Many experiments may be made with this machine. If it flies too high,
-weight the front end of the spar; if too low, gliding downward from the
-start, weight the rear end. A bit of chewing gum may be enough to cause
-it to ride level and make a longer and prettier flight.
-
-A very graceful model is that of the monoplane type illustrated in
-the accompanying reproductions from photographs. The front view shows
-the little machine just ready to take flight from a table. The view
-from the rear is a snap-shot taken while it was actually flying. This
-successful model was made by Harold S. Lynn, of Stamford, Conn. Before
-discussing the details of construction, let us notice some peculiar
-features shown by the photographs. The forward plane is arched; that
-is, the tips of the plane bend slightly downward from the centre. On
-the contrary, the two wings of the rear plane bend slightly upward from
-the centre, making a dihedral angle, as it is called; that is, an angle
-between two surfaces, as distinguished from an angle between two lines.
-The toy wheels, Mr. Lynn says, are put on principally for “looks” but
-they are also useful in permitting a start to be made from a table or
-even from the floor, instead of the usual way of holding the model in
-the hands and giving it a slight throw to get it started. However, the
-wheels add to the weight, and the model will not fly quite so far with
-them as without.
-
-[Illustration: Front view of the Lynn model of the monoplane type,
-about to take flight.]
-
-The wood from which this model was made was taken from a bamboo
-fish-pole, such as may be bought anywhere for a dime. The pole was
-split up, and the suitable pieces whittled and planed down to the
-proper sizes, as given in the plans. In putting the framework of the
-planes together, it is well to notch very slightly each rib and spar
-where they cross. Touch the joint with a bit of liquid glue, and wind
-quickly with a few turns of sewing silk and tie tightly. This must be
-done with delicacy, or the frames will be out of true. If the work is
-done rapidly the glue will not set until all the ties on the plane are
-finished. Another way is to touch the joinings with a drop of glue,
-place the ribs in position on the spars, and lay a board carefully on
-the work, leaving it there until all is dry, when the tying can be
-done. It either case the joinings should be touched again with the
-liquid glue and allowed to dry hard.
-
-[Illustration: The Lynn model monoplane in flight, from below and from
-the rear.]
-
-The best material for covering these frames is the thinnest of China
-silk. If this is too expensive, use the thinnest cambric. But the model
-will not fly so far with the cambric covering. The material is cut
-one-fourth of an inch too large on every side, and folded over, and the
-fold glued down. Care should be taken that the frame is square and true
-before the covering is glued on.
-
-The motive power is produced by twisting up rubber tubing. Five and
-three-quarter feet of pure rubber tubing are required. It is tied
-together with silk so as to form a continuous ring. This is looped
-over two screw-hooks of brass, one in the rear block and the other
-constituting the shaft. This looped tubing is twisted by turning the
-propeller backward about two hundred turns. As it untwists it turns the
-propeller, which, in this model, is a “traction” screw, and pulls the
-machine after it as it advances through the air.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Details and plans of the Harold Lynn model monoplane. _W_, tail
-    block; _Y_, thrust-block; _S_, mounting of propeller showing
-    glass bead next the thrust-block, and one leather washer outside
-    the screw; _B_, glass bead; _C_, tin washer; _M_, _M_, tin lugs
-    holding axle of wheels.]
-
-The propeller in this instance is formed from a piece of very thin
-tin, such as is used for the tops of cans containing condensed milk.
-Reference to the many illustrations throughout this book showing
-propellers of flying machines will give one a very good idea of the
-proper way to bend the blades. The mounting with the glass bead and the
-two leather washers is shown in detail in the plans.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Method of forming propeller of the laminated, or layer, type. The
-    layers of wood are glued,in the position shown and the blades
-    carved out according to the sections. Only one blade is shown
-    from the axle to the tip. This will make a right hand propeller.
-   ]
-
-The wheels are taken from a toy wagon, and a pair of tin ears will
-serve as bearings for the axle.
-
-The sport of flying model aeroplanes has led to the formation of many
-clubs in this country as well as in Europe. Some of the mechanisms that
-have been devised, and some of the contrivances to make the models
-fly better and further, are illustrated in the drawings.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    At _A_ is shown a method of mounting the propeller with a glass
-    or china bead to reduce friction, and a brass corner to aid
-    in strengthening. _B_ shows a transmission of power by two
-    spur wheels and chain. _C_ is a device for using two rubber
-    twists acting on the two spur wheels _S_, _S_, which in turn
-    are connected with the propeller with a chain drive. _D_ shows
-    a launching apparatus for starting. _W_, the model; _V_, the
-    carriage; _F_, the trigger guard; _T_, trigger; _E_, elastic cord
-    for throwing the carriage forward to the stop _K_.]
-
-Records have been made which seem marvellous when it is considered
-that 200 feet is a very good flight for a model propelled by rubber.
-For instance, at the contest of the Birmingham Aero Club (England) in
-September, one of the contestants won the prize with a flight of 447
-feet, lasting 48 seconds. The next best records for duration of flight
-were 39 seconds and 38 seconds. A model aeroplane which is “guaranteed
-to fly 1,000 feet,” according to the advertisement in an English
-magazine, is offered for sale at $15.
-
-The American record for length of flight is held by Mr. Frank Schober,
-of New York, with a distance of 215 feet 6 inches. His model was of the
-Langley type of tandem monoplane, and very highly finished. The problem
-is largely one of adequate power without serious increase of weight.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XII.
-
-THE GLIDER.
-
-    Aerial balancing--Practice necessary--Simplicity of the glider
-    Materials--Construction--Gliding--Feats with the Montgomery
-    glider--Noted experimenters--Glider clubs.
-
-
-It is a matter of record that the Wright brothers spent the better part
-of three years among the sand dunes of the North Carolina sea-coast
-practising with gliders. In this way they acquired that confidence
-while in the air which comes from intimate acquaintance with its
-peculiarities, and which cannot be gained in any other way. It is true
-that the Wrights were then developing not only themselves, but also
-their gliders; but the latter work was done once for all. To develop
-aviators, however, means the repeating of the same process for each
-individual--just as each for himself must be taught to read. And the
-glider is the “First Reader” in aeronautics.
-
-The long trail of wrecks of costly aeroplanes marking the progress in
-the art of flying marks also the lack of preparatory training, which
-their owners either thought unnecessary, or hoped to escape by some
-royal road less wearisome than persistent personal practice. But they
-all paid dearly to discover that there is no royal road. Practice, more
-practice, and still more practice--that is the secret of successful
-aeroplane flight.
-
-For this purpose the glider is much superior to the power-driven
-aeroplane. There are no controls to learn, no mechanism to manipulate.
-One simply launches into the air, and concentrates his efforts upon
-balancing himself and the apparatus; not as two distinct bodies,
-however, but as a united whole. When practice has made perfect the
-ability to balance the glider instinctively, nine-tenths of the art of
-flying an aeroplane has been achieved. Not only this, but a new sport
-has been laid under contribution; one beside which coasting upon a
-snow-clad hillside is a crude form of enjoyment.
-
-Fortunately for the multitude, a glider is easily made, and its cost is
-even less than that of a bicycle. A modest degree of skill with a few
-carpenter’s tools, and a little “gumption” about odd jobs in general,
-is all that is required of the glider builder.
-
-[Illustration: A gliding slope with starting platform, erected for club
-use.]
-
-The frame of the glider is of wood, and spruce is recommended, as it
-is stronger and tougher for its weight than other woods. It should be
-of straight grain and free from knots; and as there is considerable
-difference in the weight of spruce from different trees, it is well
-to go over the pile in the lumber yard and pick out the lightest
-boards. Have them planed down smooth on both sides, and to the required
-thickness, at the mill--it will save much toilsome hand work. The
-separate parts may also be sawed out at the mill, if one desires to
-avoid this labor.
-
-The lumber needed is as follows:
-
-   4 spars          20 ft. long,     1¼ in. wide,   ¾ in. thick.
-  12 struts          3 ft. long,     1¼ in. wide,   ¾ in. thick.
-   2 rudder bars     8 ft. long,      ¾ in. wide,   ½ in. thick.
-  12 posts           4 ft. long,     1½ in. wide,   ½ in. thick.
-  41 ribs            4 ft. long,      ½ in. wide,   ½ in. thick.
-   2 arm rests       4 ft. long,      2 in. wide,   1 in. thick.
-  For rudder frame. 24 running ft.,   1 in. wide,   1 in. thick.
-
-If it be impossible to find clear spruce lumber 20 feet in length,
-the spars may be built up by splicing two 10-foot sticks together.
-For this purpose, the splicing stick should be as heavy as the single
-spar--1¼ inches wide, and ¾ inches thick--and at least 4 feet long, and
-be bolted fast to the spar with six ⅛ inch round-head carriage bolts
-with washers of large bearing surface (that is, a small hole to fit the
-bolt, and a large outer diameter) at both ends of the bolt, to prevent
-crushing the wood. A layer of liquid glue brushed between will help to
-make the joint firmer.
-
-[Illustration: Otto Lilienthal in his single-plane glider. The swinging
-forward of his feet tends to turn the glider toward the ground, and
-increase its speed.]
-
-Wherever a bolt is put in, a hole should be bored for it with a bit of
-such size that the bolt will fit snug in the hole without straining the
-grain of the wood.
-
-The corners of the finished spar are to be rounded off on a large
-curvature.
-
-The ends of the struts are to be cut down on a slight slant of about
-1/16 inch in the 1¼ inches that it laps under the spar--with the idea
-of tipping the top of the spar forward so that the ribs will spring
-naturally from it into the proper curve.
-
-The ribs should be bent by steaming, and allowed to dry and set in
-a form, or between blocks nailed upon the floor to the line of the
-correct curve. They are then nailed to the frames, the front end first:
-21 to the frame of the upper plane, and 20 to that of the lower plane,
-omitting one at the centre, where the arm pieces will be placed.
-
-Some builders tack the ribs lightly into place with small brads, and
-screw clamps formed from sheet brass or aluminum over them. Others
-use copper nails and clinch them over washers on the under side. Both
-methods are shown in the plans, but the clamps are recommended as
-giving greater stiffness, an essential feature.
-
-At the front edge of the frames the ribs are fastened flush, and being
-4 feet long and the frame but 3 feet wide, they project over the rear
-about 1 foot.
-
-The arm pieces are bolted to the spars of the lower frame 6½ inches
-on each side of the centre, so as to allow a free space of 13 inches
-between them. This opening may be made wider to accommodate a stouter
-person.
-
-[Illustration: Plan and details of Glider. The upper plane has a rib at
-the centre instead of the two arm pieces.]
-
-The posts are then put into place and bolted to the struts and the
-spars, as shown, with ⅛inch bolts.
-
-The entire structure is then to be braced diagonally with No. 16 piano
-wire. The greatest care must be taken to have these diagonals pull just
-taut, so that they shall not warp the lines of the frames out of true.
-A crooked frame will not fly straight, and is a source of danger when
-making a landing.
-
-The frames are now to be covered. There is a special balloon cloth
-made which is best for the purpose, but if that cannot be procured,
-strong cambric muslin will answer. Thirty yards of goods 1 yard wide
-will be required for the planes and the rudder. From the piece cut off
-7 lengths for each plane, 4 feet 6 inches long. These are to be sewed
-together, selvage to selvage, so as to make a sheet about 19 feet 6
-inches long and 4 feet 6 inches wide. As this is to be tacked to the
-frame, the edges must be double-hemmed to make them strong enough to
-resist tearing out at the tacks. Half an inch is first folded down
-all around; the fold is then turned back on the goods 2½ inches and
-sewed. This hem is then folded back 1 inch upon itself, and again
-stitched. Strips 3 inches wide and a little over 4 feet long are
-folded “three-double” into a width of 1 inch, and sewed along both
-edges to the large sheet exactly over where the ribs come. These are to
-strengthen the fabric where the ribs press against it. Sixteen-ounce
-tacks are used, being driven through a felt washer the size of a gun
-wad at intervals of four inches. If felt is not readily obtainable,
-common felt gun wads will do. The tacking is best begun at the middle
-of the frame, having folded the cloth there to get the centre. Then
-stretch smoothly out to the four corners and tack at each. It may
-then be necessary to loosen the two centre tacks and place them over
-again, to get rid of wrinkles. The next tacks to drive are at the ends
-of the struts; then half-way between; and so on until all are in, and
-the sheet is taut and smooth. For a finer finish, brass round-head
-upholsterer’s nails may be used.
-
-The rudder, so-called, is rather a tail, for it is not movable and does
-not steer the glider. It does steady the machine, however, and is very
-important in preserving the equilibrium when in flight. It is formed of
-two small planes intersecting each other at right angles and covered
-on both sides with the cloth, the sections covering the vertical part
-being cut along the centre and hemmed on to the upper and lower faces
-of the horizontal part. The frame for the vertical part is fastened to
-the two rudder bars which stretch out toward the rear, one from the
-upper plane, and the other from the lower. The whole construction is
-steadied by guys of the piano wire.
-
-[Illustration: Lilienthal in his double-deck glider. It proved
-unmanageable and fell, causing his death. The hill is an artificial one
-built for his own use in experimenting.]
-
-All wooden parts should be smoothed off with sandpaper, and given a
-coat of shellac varnish.
-
-To make a glide, the machine is taken to an elevated point on a
-slope, not far up to begin with. Lift the glider, get in between the
-arm rests, and raise the apparatus until the rests are snug under the
-arms. Run swiftly for a few yards and leap into the air, holding the
-front of the planes slightly elevated. If the weight of the body is
-in the right position, and the speed sufficient, the glider will take
-the air and sail with you down the slope. It may be necessary at first
-to have the help of two assistants, one at each end, to run with the
-glider for a good start.
-
-[Illustration: Diagram showing differing lines of flight as controlled
-by changing the position of the body. The wind must be blowing against
-the direction of flight; in the illustration this would be from left to
-right.]
-
-The position of the body on the arm rests can best be learned by a few
-experiments. No two gliders are quite alike in this respect, and no
-rule can be given. As to the requisite speed, it must be between 15 and
-20 miles an hour; and as this speed is impossible to a man running, it
-is gained by gliding against the wind, and thus adding the speed of the
-wind to the speed of the runner. The Wrights selected the sand dunes of
-the North Carolina coast for their glider experiments because of the
-steady winds that blow in from the ocean, across the land. These winds
-gave them the necessary speed of air upon which to sail their gliders.
-
-The first flights attempted should be short, and as experience is
-gained longer ones may be essayed.
-
-Balancing the glider from side to side is accomplished by swaying the
-lower part of the body like a pendulum, the weight to go toward the
-side which has risen. Swinging the body forward on the arm rests will
-cause the machine to dip the planes and glide more swiftly down the
-incline. Holding the weight of the body back in the arm rests will
-cause the machine to fly on a higher path and at a slower speed. This
-is objectionable because the glider is more manageable at a higher
-speed, and therefore safer. The tendency at first is to place the
-weight too far back, with a consequent loss of velocity, and with that
-a proportionate loss of control. The proper position of the body is
-slightly forward of the mechanical centre of the machine.
-
-The landing is accomplished by shoving the body backward, thus tilting
-up the front of the plane. This checks the speed, and when the feet
-touch the ground a little run, while holding back, will bring the glide
-to an end. Landing should be practised often with brief glides until
-skill is gained, for it is the most difficult operation in gliding.
-
-After one becomes expert, longer flights may be secured by going to
-higher points for the start. From an elevation of 300 feet a glide of
-1,200 feet is possible.
-
-[Illustration: Gliding with a Chanute three-decker. A start with two
-assistants.]
-
-While it is necessary to make glides against the wind, it is not wise
-to attempt flights when the wind blows harder than 10 miles an hour.
-While the flight may be successful, the landing may be disastrous.
-
-The accomplished glider operator is in line for the aeroplane, and it
-is safe to say that he will not be long without one. The skilful and
-practised operator of a glider makes the very best aeroplane pilot.
-
-This chapter would not be complete without an adequate reference to the
-gliders devised by Professor Montgomery of Santa Clara, California.
-These machines were sent up with ordinary hot-air balloons to various
-heights, reaching 4,000 feet in some instances, when they were cut
-loose and allowed to descend in a long glide, guided by their pilots.
-The time of the descent from the highest altitude was twenty minutes,
-during which the glider travelled about eight miles. The landing was
-made accurately upon a designated spot, and so gently that there was no
-perceptible jar. Two of the pilots turned completely over sideways, the
-machine righting itself after the somersault and continuing its regular
-course. Professor Montgomery has made the assertion that he can fasten
-a bag of sand weighing 150 lbs. in the driver’s seat of his glider,
-and send it up tied upside down under a balloon, and that after being
-cut loose, the machine will right itself and come safely to the ground
-without any steering.
-
-Lilienthal in Germany, Pilcher in England, and Chanute in the United
-States are names eminent in connection with the experiments with
-gliders which have been productive of discoveries of the greatest
-importance to the progress of aviation. The illustration of the Chanute
-glider shows its peculiarities plainly enough to enable any one to
-comprehend them.
-
-The establishment of glider clubs in several parts of the country has
-created a demand for ready-made machines, so that an enthusiast who
-does not wish to build his own machine may purchase it ready made.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XIII.
-
-BALLOONS.
-
-    First air vehicle--Principle of Archimedes--Why balloons
-    rise--Inflating gases--Early history--The Montgolfiers--The
-    hot-air balloon--Charles’s hydrogen balloon--Pilatre de
-    Rozier--The first aeronaut--The first balloon voyage--Blanchard
-    and Jeffries--Crossing the English Channel--First English
-    ascensions--Notable voyages--Recent long-distance journeys
-    and high ascensions--Prize balloon races--A fascinating
-    sport--Some impressions, adventures, and hardships--Accident
-    record--Increasing interest in ballooning.
-
-
-The balloon, though the earliest and crudest means of getting up in the
-air, has not become obsolete. It has been in existence practically in
-its present general form for upwards of 500 years. Appliances have been
-added from time to time, but the big gas envelope enclosing a volume of
-some gas lighter than an equal volume of air, and the basket, or car,
-suspended below it, remain as the typical form of aerial vehicle which
-has not changed since it was first devised in times so remote as to lie
-outside the boundaries of recorded history.
-
-The common shape of the gas bag of a balloon is that of the sphere, or
-sometimes of an inverted pear. It is allowed to rise and float away in
-the air as the prevailing wind may carry it. Attempts have been made to
-steer it in a desired direction, but they did not accomplish much until
-the gas bag was made long horizontally, in proportion to its height and
-width. With a drag-rope trailing behind on the ground from the rear end
-of the gas bag, and sails on the forward end, it was possible to guide
-the elongated balloon to some extent in a determined direction.
-
-In explaining why a balloon rises in the air, it is customary to quote
-the “principle of Archimedes,” discovered and formulated by that famous
-philosopher centuries before the Christian era. Briefly stated, it is
-this: Every body immersed in a fluid is acted upon by a force pressing
-upward, which is equal to the weight of the amount of the fluid
-displaced by the immersed body.
-
-It remained for Sir Isaac Newton to explain the principle of Archimedes
-(by the discovery of the law of gravitation), and to show that the
-reason why the immersed body is apparently pushed upward, is that the
-displaced fluid is attracted downward. In the case of a submerged
-bag of a gas lighter than air, the amount of force acting on the
-surrounding air is greater than that acting on the gas, and the latter
-is simply crowded out of the way by the descending air, and forced up
-to a higher level where its lighter bulk is balanced by the gravity
-acting upon it.
-
-The fluid in which the balloon is immersed is the air. The force
-with which the air crowds down around and under the balloon is its
-weight--weight being the measure of the attraction which gravity exerts
-upon any substance.
-
-The weight of air at a temperature of 32° Fahr., at the normal
-barometer pressure at the sea-level (29.92 inches of mercury), is
-0.0807 lbs. per cubic foot. The gas used to fill a balloon must
-therefore weigh less than this, bulk for bulk, in order to be crowded
-upward by the heavier air--and thus exert its “lifting power,” as it is
-commonly called.
-
-In practice, two gases have been used for inflating balloons--hydrogen,
-and illuminating gas, made ordinarily from coal, and called “coal gas.”
-Hydrogen is the lightest substance known; that is, it is attracted less
-by gravity than any other known substance, in proportion to its bulk.
-
-[Illustration: One of the earliest attempts to steer a spherical
-balloon by retarding its speed with the drag-rope, and adjusting the
-sail to the passing wind.]
-
-A cubic foot of hydrogen weighs but 0.0056 lbs., and it will
-therefore be pushed upward in air by the difference in weight, or
-0.0751 lbs. per cubic foot. A cubic foot of coal gas weighs about
-0.0400 lbs., and is crowded upward in air with a force of 0.0407 lbs.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Apparatus to illustrate the principle of Archimedes. At the left,
-    the small solid glass ball and large hollow glass sphere are
-    balanced in the free air. When the balance is moved under the
-    bell-glass of the air pump (at the right), and the air exhausted,
-    the large sphere drops, showing that its previous balance was due
-    to the upward pressure of the air, greater because of its larger
-    bulk.]
-
-It is readily seen that a very large bulk of hydrogen must be used
-if any considerable weight is to be lifted. For to the weight of the
-gas must be added the weight of the containing bag, the car, and the
-network supporting it, the ballast, instruments, and passengers, and
-there must still be enough more to afford elevating power sufficient to
-raise the entire load to the desired level.
-
-Let us assume that we have a balloon with a volume of 20,000 cubic
-feet, which weighs with its appurtenances 500 pounds. The hydrogen
-it would contain would weigh about 112 pounds, and the weight of
-the air it would displace would be about 1,620 pounds. The total
-available lifting power would be about 1,000 pounds. If a long-distance
-journey is to be undertaken at a comparatively low level, this will
-be sufficient to carry the necessary ballast, and a few passengers.
-If, however, it is intended to rise to a great height, the problem
-is different. The weight of the air, and consequently its lifting
-pressure, decreases as we go upwards. If the balloon has not been
-entirely filled, the gas will expand as the pressure is reduced in the
-higher altitude. This has the effect of carrying the balloon higher.
-Heating of the contained gas by the sun will also cause a rise. On
-the other hand, the diffusion of the gas through the envelope into
-the air, and the penetration of air into the gas bag will produce a
-mixture heavier than hydrogen, and will cause the balloon to descend.
-The extreme cold of the upper air has the same effect, as it tends to
-condense to a smaller bulk the gas in the balloon. To check a descent
-the load carried by the gas must be lightened by throwing out some of
-the ballast, which is carried simply for this purpose. Finally a level
-is reached where equilibrium is established, and above which it is
-impossible to rise.
-
-The earliest recorded ascent of a balloon is credited to the Chinese,
-on the occasion of the coronation of the Emperor Fo-Kien at Pekin in
-the year 1306. If this may be called historical, it gives evidence also
-that it speedily became a lost art. The next really historic record
-belongs in the latter part of the seventeenth century, when Cyrano de
-Bergerac attempted to fly with the aid of bags of air attached to his
-person, expecting them to be so expanded by the heat of the sun as to
-rise with sufficient force to lift him. He did not succeed, but his
-idea is plainly the forerunner of the hot-air balloon.
-
-In the same century Francisco de Lana, who was clearly a man of
-much intelligence and keen reasoning ability, having determined by
-experiment that the atmosphere had weight, decided that he would be
-able to rise into the air in a ship lifted by four metal spheres 20
-feet in diameter from which the air had been exhausted. After several
-failures he abandoned his efforts upon the religious grounds that the
-Almighty doubtless did not approve such an overturning in the affairs
-of mankind as would follow the attainment of the art of flying.
-
-In 1757, Galen, a French monk, published a book, “The Art of Navigating
-in the Air,” in which he advocated filling the body of the airship
-with air secured at a great height above the sea-level, where it was
-“a thousand times lighter than water.” He showed by mathematical
-computations that the upward impulse of this air would be sufficient
-to lift a heavy load. He planned in detail a great airship to carry
-4,000,000 persons and several million packages of goods. Though it may
-have accomplished nothing more, this book is believed to have been the
-chief source of inspiration to the Montgolfiers.
-
-The discovery of hydrogen by Cavendish in 1776 gave Dr. Black the
-opportunity of suggesting that it be used to inflate a large bag and
-so lift a heavy load into the air. Although he made no attempt to
-construct such an apparatus, he afterward claimed that through this
-suggestion he was entitled to be called the real inventor of the
-balloon.
-
-This is the meagre historical record preceding the achievements of
-the brothers Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, which marked distinctly
-the beginning of practical aeronautics. Both of these men were highly
-educated, and they were experienced workers in their father’s paper
-factory. Joseph had made some parachute drops from the roof of his
-house as early as 1771.
-
-After many experiments with steam, smoke, and hydrogen gas, with which
-they tried ineffectually to inflate large paper bags, they finally
-succeeded with heated air, and on June 5, 1783, they sent up a great
-paper hot-air balloon, 35 feet in diameter. It rose to a height of
-1,000 feet, but soon came to earth again upon cooling. It appears that
-the Montgolfiers were wholly ignorant of the fact that it was the
-rarefying of the air by heating that caused their balloon to rise, and
-they made no attempt to keep it hot while the balloon was in the air.
-
-[Illustration: An early Montgolfier balloon.]
-
-About the same time the French scientist, M. Charles, decided that
-hydrogen gas would be better than hot air to inflate balloons. Finding
-that this gas passed readily through paper, he used silk coated with a
-varnish made by dissolving rubber. His balloon was 13 feet in diameter,
-and weighed about 20 pounds. It was sent up from the Champ de Mars
-on August 29, 1783, amidst the booming of cannon, in the presence of
-300,000 spectators who assembled despite a heavy rain. It rose swiftly,
-disappearing among the clouds, and soon burst from the expansion of
-the gas in the higher and rarer atmosphere--no allowance having been
-made for this unforeseen result. It fell in a rural region near Paris,
-where it was totally destroyed by the inhabitants, who believed it to
-be some hideous form of the devil.
-
-The Montgolfiers had already come to Paris, and had constructed a
-balloon of linen and paper. Before they had opportunity of sending it
-up it was ruined by a rainstorm with a high wind. They immediately
-built another of waterproof linen which made a successful ascension on
-September 19, 1783, taking as passengers a sheep, a cock, and a duck.
-The balloon came safely to earth after being up eight minutes--falling
-in consequence of a leak in the air-bag near the top. The passengers
-were examined with great interest. The sheep and the duck seemed in
-the same excellent condition as when they went up, but the cock was
-evidently ailing. A consultation of scientists was held and it was the
-consensus of opinion that the fowl could not endure breathing the rarer
-air of the high altitude. At this juncture some one discovered that the
-cock had been trodden upon by the sheep, and the consultation closed
-abruptly.
-
-The Montgolfier brothers were loaded with honors, Stephen receiving the
-larger portion; and the people of Paris entered enthusiastically into
-the sport of making and flying small balloons of the Montgolfier type.
-
-Stephen began work at once upon a larger balloon intended to carry
-human passengers. It was fifty feet in diameter, and 85 feet high, with
-a capacity of 100,000 cubic feet. The car for the passengers was swung
-below from cords in the fashion that has since become so familiar.
-
-In the meantime Pilatre de Rozier had constructed a balloon on the
-hot-air principle, but with an arrangement to keep the air heated by a
-continuous fire in a pan under the mouth of the balloon. He made the
-first balloon ascent on record on October 15, 1783, rising to a height
-of eighty feet, in the captive balloon. On November 21, in the same
-year, de Rozier undertook an expedition in a free balloon with the
-Marquis d’Arlandes as a companion. The experiment was to have been made
-with two condemned criminals, but de Rozier and d’Arlandes succeeded in
-obtaining the King’s permission to make the attempt, and in consequence
-their names remain as those of the first aeronauts. They came safely
-to the ground after a voyage lasting twenty-five minutes. After this,
-ascensions speedily became a recognized sport, even for ladies.
-
-The greatest altitude reached by these hot-air balloons was about 9,000
-feet.
-
-[Illustration: Pilatre de Rozier’s balloon.]
-
-The great danger from fire, however, led to the closer consideration
-of the hydrogen balloon of Professor Charles, who was building one of
-30 feet diameter for the study of atmospheric phenomena. His mastery
-of the subject is shown by the fact that his balloon was equipped with
-almost every device afterward in use by the most experienced aeronauts.
-He invented the valve at the top of the bag for allowing the escape
-of gas in landing, the open neck to permit expansion, the network of
-cords to support the car, the grapnel for anchoring, and the use of a
-small pilot balloon to test the air-currents before the ascension. He
-also devised a barometer by which he was able to measure the altitude
-reached by the pressure of the atmosphere.
-
-To provide the hydrogen gas required he used the chemical method of
-pouring dilute sulphuric acid on iron filings. The process was so
-slow that it took continuous action for three days and three nights
-to secure the 14,000 cubic feet needed, but his balloon was finally
-ready on December 1, 1783. One of the brothers Robert accompanied
-Charles, and they travelled about 40 miles in a little less than 4
-hours, alighting at Nesles. Here Robert landed and Charles continued
-the voyage alone. Neglecting to take on board ballast to replace
-the weight of M. Robert, Charles was carried to a great height, and
-suffered severely from cold and the difficulty of breathing in the
-highly rarefied air. He was obliged to open his gas valve and descend
-after half an hour’s flight alone.
-
-Blanchard, another French inventor, about this time constructed a
-balloon with the intention of being the first to cross the English
-Channel in the air. He took his balloon to Dover and with Dr. Jeffries,
-an American, started on January 7, 1785. His balloon was leaky and he
-had loaded it down with a lot of useless things in the way of oars,
-provisions, and other things. All of this material and the ballast
-had to be thrown overboard at the outset, and books and parts of the
-balloon followed. Even their clothing had to be thrown over to keep the
-balloon out of the sea, and at last, when Dr. Jeffries had determined
-to jump out to enable his friend to reach the shore, an upward current
-of wind caught them and with great difficulty they landed near Calais.
-The feat was highly lauded and a monument in marble was erected on the
-spot to perpetuate the record of the achievement.
-
-De Rozier lost his life soon after in the effort to duplicate this trip
-across the Channel with his combination hydrogen and hot-air balloon.
-His idea seems to have been that he could preserve the buoyancy of
-his double balloon by heating up the air balloon at intervals.
-Unfortunately, the exuding of the hydrogen as the balloons rose formed
-an explosive mixture with the air he was rising through, and it was
-drawn to his furnace, and an explosion took place which blew the entire
-apparatus into fragments at an altitude of over 1,000 feet.
-
-[Illustration: Car and hoop of the Blanchard balloon, the first to
-cross the English Channel.]
-
-Count Zambeccari, an Italian, attempted to improve the de Rozier
-method of firing a balloon by substituting a large alcohol lamp for
-the wood fire. In the first two trial trips he fell into the sea, but
-was rescued. On the third trip his balloon was swept into a tree, and
-the overturned lamp set it on fire. To escape being burned, he threw
-himself from the balloon and was killed by the fall.
-
-The year before these feats on the Continent two notable balloon
-ascensions had taken place in England. On August 27, 1784, an aeronaut
-by the name of Tytler made the first balloon voyage within the
-boundaries of Great Britain. His balloon was of linen and varnished,
-and the record of his ascension indicates that he used hydrogen gas to
-inflate it. He soared to a great height, and descended safely.
-
-A few weeks later, the Italian aeronaut Lunardi made his first ascent
-from London. The spectacle drew the King and his councillors from their
-deliberations, and the balloon was watched until it disappeared. He
-landed in Standon, near Ware, where a stone was set to record the
-event. On October 12, he made his famous voyage from Edinburgh over the
-Firth of Forth to Ceres; a distance of 46 miles in 35 minutes, or at
-the rate of nearly 79 miles per hour; a speed rarely equalled by the
-swiftest railroad trains.
-
-From this time on balloons multiplied rapidly and the ascents were too
-numerous for recording in these pages. The few which have been selected
-for mention are notable either for the great distances traversed, or
-for the speed with which the journeys were made. It should be borne
-in mind that the fastest method of land travel in the early part of
-the period covered was by stage coach; and the sailing ship was the
-only means of crossing the water. It is no wonder that often the
-people among whom the aeronauts landed on a balloon voyage refused to
-believe the statements made as to the distance they had come, and the
-marvellously short time it had taken. And even as compared with the
-most rapid transit of the present day, the speeds attained in many
-cases have never been equalled.
-
-A remarkable English voyage was made in June, 1802, by the French
-aeronaut Garnerin and Captain Snowdon. They ascended from Chelsea
-Gardens and landed in Colchester, 60 miles distant, in 45 minutes: an
-average speed of 80 miles an hour.
-
-On December 16, 1804, Garnerin ascended from the square in front
-of Notre Dame, Paris; passing over France and into Italy, sailing
-above St. Peter’s at Rome, and the Vatican, and descending into Lake
-Bracciano--a distance of 800 miles in 20 hours. This voyage was made
-as a part of the coronation ceremonies of Napoleon I. The balloon was
-afterwards hung up in a corridor of the Vatican.
-
-On October 7, 1811, Sadler and Burcham voyaged from Birmingham to
-Boston (England), 112 miles in 1 hour 40 minutes, a speed of 67 miles
-per hour.
-
-On November 17, 1836, Charles Green and Monck Mason started on a voyage
-in the great balloon of the Vauxhall Gardens. It was pear-shaped, 60
-feet high and 50 feet in diameter, and held 85,000 cubic feet of gas.
-It was cut loose at half-past one in the afternoon, and in 3 hours had
-reached the English Channel, and in 1 hour more had crossed it, and
-was nearly over Calais. During the night it floated on over France
-in pitchy darkness and such intense cold that the oil was frozen. In
-the morning the aeronauts descended a few miles from Weilburg, in
-the Duchy of Nassau, having travelled about 500 miles in 18 hours. At
-that date, by the fastest coaches the trip would have consumed three
-days. The balloon was rechristened “The Great Balloon of Nassau” by the
-enthusiastic citizens of Weilburg.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Prof. T. S. C. Lowe’s mammoth balloon “City of New York,” a
-    feature of the year 1860, in which it made many short voyages in
-    the vicinity of New York and Philadelphia.]
-
-In 1849, M. Arban crossed the Alps in a balloon, starting at Marseilles
-and landing at Turin--a distance of 400 miles in 8 hours. This
-remarkable record for so long a distance at a high speed has rarely
-been equalled. It was exceeded as to distance at the same speed by the
-American aeronaut, John Wise, in 1859.
-
-One of the most famous balloons of recent times was the “Geant,” built
-by M. Nadar, in Paris, in 1853. The immense gas-bag was made of silk of
-the finest quality costing at that time about $1.30 a yard, and being
-made double, it required 22,000 yards. It had a capacity of 215,000
-cubic feet of gas, and lifted 4½ tons. The car was 13 feet square,
-and had an upper deck which was open. On its first ascent it carried
-15 passengers, including M. Nadar as captain, and the brothers Godard
-as lieutenants. A few weeks later this balloon was set free for a
-long-distance journey, and 17 hours after it left Paris it landed at
-Nieuburg in Hanover, having traversed 750 miles, a part of the time at
-the speed of fully 90 miles per hour.
-
-In July, 1859, John Wise, an American aeronaut, journeyed from St.
-Louis, Mo., to Henderson, N. Y., a distance of 950 miles in 19 hours.
-His average speed was 50 miles per hour. This record for duration at so
-high a rate of speed has never been exceeded.
-
-During the siege of Paris in 1870, seventy-three balloons were sent
-out from that city carrying mail and dispatches. These were under
-Government direction, and receive notice in a subsequent chapter
-devoted to Military Aeronautics. One of these balloons is entitled to
-mention among those famous for rapid journeys, having travelled to the
-Zuyder Zee, a distance of 285 miles, in 3 hours--an average speed of 95
-miles per hour. Another of these postal balloons belongs in the extreme
-long-distance class, having come down in Norway nearly 1,000 miles from
-Paris.
-
-In July, 1897, the Arctic explorer Andrée started on his voyage to the
-Pole. As some of his instruments have been recently recovered from
-a wandering band of Esquimaux, it is believed that a record of his
-voyage may yet be secured.
-
-In the same year a balloon under the command of Godard ascended
-at Leipsic, and after a wandering journey in an irregular course,
-descended at Wilna. The distance travelled was estimated at 1,032
-miles, but as balloon records are always based on the airline distance
-between the places of ascent and descent, this record has not been
-accepted as authoritative. The time consumed was 24¼ hours.
-
-In 1899, Captain von Sigsfield, Captain Hildebrandt, and a companion
-started from Berlin in a wind so strong that it prevented the taking
-on of an adequate load of ballast. They rose into a gale, and in two
-hours were over Breslau, having made the distance at a speed of 92
-miles per hour. In the grasp of the storm they continued their swift
-journey, landing finally high up in the snows of the Carpathian Alps in
-Austria. They were arrested by the local authorities as Russian spies,
-but succeeded in gaining their liberty by telegraphing to an official
-more closely in touch with the aeronautics of the day.
-
-In 1900 there were several balloon voyages notable for their length.
-Jacques Balsan travelled from Vincennes to Dantzig, 757 miles; Count
-de la Vaulx journeyed from Vincennes to Poland, 706 miles; Jacques
-Faure from Vincennes to Mamlity, 753 miles. In a subsequent voyage
-Jacques Balsan travelled from Vincennes to Rodom, in Russia, 843 miles,
-in 27½ hours.
-
-[Illustration: The balloon in which Coxwell and Glaisher made their
-famous ascent of 29,000 feet.]
-
-One of the longest balloon voyages on record in point of time consumed
-is that of Dr. Wegener of the Observatory at Lindenberg, in 1905. He
-remained in the air for 52¾ hours.
-
-The longest voyage, as to distance, up to 1910, was that of Count de
-La Vaulx and Count Castillon de Saint Victor in 1906, in the balloon
-“Centaur.” This was a comparatively small balloon, having a capacity
-of only 55,000 cubic feet of gas. The start was made from Vincennes on
-October 9th, and the landing at Korostischeff, in Russia, on October
-11th. The air-line distance travelled was 1,193 miles, in 35¾ hours.
-The balloon “Centaur” was afterward purchased by the Aero Club of
-America, and has made many voyages in this country.
-
-The Federation Aeronautique Internationale, an association of the
-aeronauts of all nations, was founded in 1905. One of its functions is
-an annual balloon race for the International Challenge Cup, presented
-to the association by James Gordon Bennett, to be an object for
-competition until won three times by some one competing national club.
-
-The first contest took place in September, 1906, and was won by the
-American competitor, Lieut. Frank P. Lahm, with a voyage of 402 miles.
-
-The second contest was from St. Louis, Mo., in 1907. There were three
-German, two French, one English, and three American competitors. The
-race was won by Oscar Erbslöh, one of the German competitors, with an
-air-line voyage of 872¼ miles, landing at Bradley Beach, N. J. Alfred
-Leblanc, now a prominent aviator, was second with a voyage of 867
-miles, made in 44 hours. He also landed in New Jersey.
-
-The third race started at Berlin in October, 1908, and was won by the
-Swiss balloon “Helvetia,” piloted by Colonel Schaeck, which landed in
-Norway after having been 74 hours in the air, and covering a journey of
-750 miles. This broke the previous duration record made by Dr. Wegener
-in 1905.
-
-The fourth contest began on October 3, 1909, from Zurich, Switzerland.
-There were seventeen competing balloons, and the race was won by E. W.
-Mix, representing the Aero Club of America, with a voyage of 589 miles.
-
-The fifth contest began at St. Louis, October 17, 1910. It was won by
-Alan P. Hawley and Augustus Post, with the “America II.” They travelled
-1,355 miles in 46 hours, making a new world’s record for distance.
-
-Among other notable voyages may be mentioned that of the “Fielding”
-in a race on July 4, 1908, from Chicago. The landing was made at West
-Shefford, Quebec, the distance travelled being 895 miles.
-
-In November of the same year A. E. Gaudron, Captain Maitland, and C. C.
-Turner, made the longest voyage on record from England. They landed at
-Mateki Derevni, in Russia, having travelled 1,117 miles in 31½ hours.
-They were driven down to the ground by a severe snowstorm.
-
-On December 31, 1908, M. Usuelli, in the balloon “Ruwenzori” left the
-Italian lakes and passed over the Alps at a height of 14,750 feet,
-landing in France. This feat was followed a few weeks later--February
-9, 1909--by Oscar Erbslöh, who left St. Moritz with three passengers,
-crossing the Alps at an altitude of 19,000 feet, and landed at Budapest
-after a voyage of 33 hours. Many voyages over and among the Alps
-have been made by Captain Spelterini, the Swiss aeronaut, and he has
-secured some of the most remarkable photographs of the mountain scenery
-in passing. In these voyages at such great altitudes it is necessary
-to carry cylinders of oxygen to provide a suitable air mixture for
-breathing. In one of his recent voyages Captain Spelterini had the good
-fortune to be carried almost over the summit of Mont Blanc. He ascended
-with three passengers at Chamounix, and landed at Lake Maggiore seven
-hours later, having reached the altitude of 18,700 feet, and travelled
-93 miles.
-
-[Illustration: Photograph of the Alps from a balloon by Captain
-Spelterini.]
-
-In the United States there were several balloon races during the year
-1909, the most important being the St. Louis Centennial race, beginning
-on October 4th. Ten balloons started. The race was won by S. von Phul,
-who covered the distance of 550 miles in 40 hours 40 minutes. Clifford
-B. Harmon and Augustus Post in the balloon “New York” made a new
-duration record for America of 48 hours 26 minutes. They also reached
-the highest altitude attained by an American balloon--24,200 feet.
-
-On October 12th, in a race for the Lahm cup, A. Holland Forbes and Col.
-Max Fleischman won. They left St. Louis, Mo., and landed 19 hours and
-15 minutes later at Beach, Va., near Richmond, having travelled 697
-miles.
-
-In 1910, in the United States, a remarkable race, with thirteen
-competitors, started at Indianapolis. This was the elimination race
-for the International race on October 17th. It was won by Alan P.
-Hawley and Augustus Post in the balloon “America II.” They crossed the
-Alleghany Mountains at an elevation of about 20,000 feet, and landed
-at Warrenton, Va., after being 44 hours 30 minutes in the air; and
-descended only to escape being carried out over Chesapeake Bay.
-
-In recent years the greatest height reached by a balloon was attained
-by the Italian aeronauts Piacenza and Mina in the “Albatross,” on
-August 9, 1909. They went up from Turin to the altitude of 30,350 feet.
-The world’s height record rests with Professors Berson and Suring of
-Berlin, who on July 31, 1901, reached 35,500 feet. The record of 37,000
-feet claimed by Glaisher and Coxwell in their ascension on September 5,
-1862, has been rejected as not authentic for several discrepancies in
-their observations, and on the ground that their instruments were not
-of the highest reliability. As they carried no oxygen, and reported
-that for a time they were both unconscious, it is estimated that the
-highest point they could have reached under the conditions was less
-than 31,000 feet.
-
-The greatest speed ever recorded for any balloon voyage was that
-of Captain von Sigsfield and Dr. Linke in their fatal journey from
-Berlin to Antwerp, during which the velocity of 125 miles per hour was
-recorded.
-
-Ballooning as a sport has a fascination all its own. There is much of
-the spice of adventure in the fact that one’s destiny is quite unknown.
-Floating with the wind, there is no consciousness of motion. Though
-the wind may be travelling at great speed, the balloon seems to be
-in a complete calm. A lady passenger, writing of a recent trip, has
-thus described her experience:--“The world continues slowly to unroll
-itself in ever-varying but ever-beautiful panorama--patchwork fields,
-shimmering silver streaks, toy box churches and houses, and white roads
-like the joints of a jig-saw puzzle. And presently cotton-wool billows
-come creeping up, with purple shadows and fleecy outlines and prismatic
-rainbow effects. Sometimes they invade the car, and shroud it for a
-while in clinging warm white wreaths, and anon they fall below and
-shut out the world with a glorious curtain, and we are all alone in
-perfect silence, in perfect peace, and in a realm made for us alone.
-
-“And so the happy, restful hours go smoothly by, until the earth has
-had enough of it, and rising up more or less rapidly to invade our
-solitude, hits the bottom of our basket, and we step out, or maybe roll
-out, into every-day existence a hundred miles away.”
-
-The perfect smoothness of motion, the absolute quiet, and the absence
-of distracting apparatus combine to render balloon voyaging the most
-delightful mode of transit from place to place. Some of the most
-fascinating bits of descriptive writing are those of aeronauts. The
-following quotation from the report of Capt. A. Hildebrandt, of the
-balloon corps of the Prussian army, will show that although his
-expeditions were wholly scientific, he was far from indifferent to the
-sublimer influences of nature by which he was often surrounded.
-
-In his account of the journey from Berlin to Markaryd, in Sweden, with
-Professor Berson as a companion aeronaut, he says: “The view over Rügen
-and the chalk cliffs of Stubbenkammer and Arkona was splendid: the
-atmosphere was perfectly clear. On the horizon we could see the coasts
-of Sweden and Denmark, looking almost like a thin mist; east and west
-there was nothing but the open sea.
-
-“About 3:15 the balloon was in the middle of the Baltic; right in the
-distance we could just see Rügen and Sweden. The setting of the sun at
-4 P.M. was a truly magnificent spectacle. At a height of 5,250 feet, in
-a perfectly clear atmosphere, the effect was superb. The blaze of color
-was dimly reflected in the east by streaks of a bluish-green. I have
-seen sunsets over France at heights of 10,000 feet, with the Alps, the
-Juras, and the Vosges Mountains in the distance; but this was quite as
-fine.
-
-“The sunsets seen by the mountaineer or the sailor are doubtless,
-magnificent; but I hardly think the spectacle can be finer than that
-spread out before the gaze of the balloonist. The impression is
-increased by the absolute stillness which prevails; no sound of any
-kind is heard.
-
-[Illustration: Landscape as seen from a balloon at an altitude of 3,000
-feet.]
-
-“As soon as the sun went down, it was necessary to throw out some
-ballast, owing to the decrease of temperature.... We reached the
-Swedish coast about 5 o’clock, and passed over Trelleborg at a
-height of 2,000 feet. The question then arose whether to land, or to
-continue through the night. Although it was well past sunset, there
-was sufficient light in consequence of the snow to see our way to
-the ground, and to land quite easily.... However, we wanted to do more
-meteorological work, and it was thought that there was still sufficient
-ballast to take us up to a much greater height. We therefore proposed
-to continue for another sixteen hours during the night, in spite of the
-cold.... Malmö was therefore passed on the left, and the university
-town of Lund on the right. After this the map was of no further use,
-as it was quite dark and we had no lamp. The whole outlook was like a
-transformation scene. Floods of light rose up from Trelleborg, Malmö,
-Copenhagen, Landskrona, Lund, Elsinore, and Helsingborg, while the
-little towns beneath our feet sparkled with many lights. We were now at
-a height of more than 10,000 feet, and consequently all these places
-were within sight. The glistening effect of the snow was heightened by
-the blaze which poured from the lighthouses along the coasts of Sweden
-and Denmark. The sight was as wonderful as that of the sunset, though
-of a totally different nature.”
-
-Captain Hildebrandt’s account of the end of this voyage illustrates the
-spice of adventure which is likely to be encountered when the balloon
-comes down in a strange country. It has its hint also of the hardships
-for which the venturesome aeronaut has to be prepared. He says:--
-
-“Sooner or later the balloon would have been at the mercy of the
-waves. The valve was opened, and the balloon descended through the
-thick clouds. We could see nothing, but the little jerks showed us
-that the guide-rope was touching the ground. In a few seconds we saw
-the ground, and learned that we were descending into a forest which
-enclosed a number of small lakes. At once more ballast was thrown out,
-and we skimmed along over the tops of the trees. Soon we crossed a big
-lake, and saw a place that seemed suitable for a descent. The valve
-was then opened, both of us gave a tug at the ripping cord, and after
-a few bumps we found ourselves on the ground. We had come down in deep
-snow on the side of a wood, about 14 miles from the railway station at
-Markaryd.
-
-[Illustration: Making a landing with the aid of bystanders to pull down
-upon the trail-rope and a holding rope.]
-
-“We packed up our instruments, and began to look out for a cottage;
-but this is not always an easy task in the dead of night in a foreign
-country. However, in a quarter of an hour we found a farm, and
-succeeded in rousing the inmates. A much more difficult job was to
-influence them to open their front door to two men who talked some
-sort of double Dutch, and who suddenly appeared at a farmyard miles
-off the highway in the middle of the night and demanded admittance.
-Berson can talk in six languages, but unfortunately Swedish is not one
-of them. He begged in the most humble way for shelter ... and at the
-end of three-quarters of an hour the farmer opened the door. We showed
-him some pictures of a balloon we had with us, and then they began
-to understand the situation. We were then received with truly Swedish
-hospitality, and provided with supper. They even proposed to let us
-have their beds; but this we naturally declined with many thanks....
-The yard contained hens, pigs, cows, and sheep; but an empty corner
-was found, which was well packed with straw, and served as a couch for
-our tired limbs. We covered ourselves with our great-coats, and tried
-to sleep. But the temperature was 10° Fahr., and as the place was only
-an outhouse of boards roughly nailed together, and the wind whistling
-through the cracks and crevices, we were not sorry when the daylight
-came.”
-
-Lest the possibility of accident to travellers by balloon be judged
-greater than it really is, it may be well to state that records
-collected in Germany in 1906 showed that in 2,061 ascents in which
-7,570 persons participated, only 36 were injured--or but 1 out of 210.
-Since that time, while the balloon itself has remained practically
-unchanged, better knowledge of atmospheric conditions has aided in
-creating an even more favorable record for recent years.
-
-That the day of ordinary ballooning has not been dimmed by the advent
-of the airship and the aeroplane is evidenced by the recently made
-estimate that not less than 800 spherical balloons are in constant
-use almost daily in one part or another of Christendom. And it seems
-entirely reasonable to predict that with a better comprehension of the
-movements of air-currents--to which special knowledge the scientific
-world is now applying its investigations as never before--they will
-come a great increase of interest in simple ballooning as a recreation.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XIV.
-
-BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE.
-
-    Elongation of
-    gas-bag--Brisson--Meusnier--Air-ballonnets--Scott--Giffard--Haenlein--Tissandier--Renard
-    and Krebs--Schwartz--Santos-Dumont--Von
-    Zeppelin--Roze--Severo--Bradsky-Leboun--The Lebaudy
-    dirigible--Zeppelin II--Parseval I--Unequal wind
-    pressures--Zeppelin III--Nulli Secundus--La
-    Patrie--Ville-de-Paris--Zeppelin IV--Gross I--Parseval
-    II--Clement-Bayard I--Ricardoni’s airship--Gross II--The
-    new Zeppelin II--La Republique--The German fleet of
-    dirigibles--Parseval V--The Deutschland--The Erbslöh--Gross
-    III--Zeppelin VI--The America--Clement-Bayard III--The Capazza
-    lenticular dirigible.
-
-
-The dirigible balloon, or airship, is built on the same general
-principles as the ordinary balloon--that is, with the envelope to
-contain the lifting gas, the car to carry the load, and the suspending
-cordage--but to this is added some form of propelling power to enable
-it to make headway against the wind, and a rudder for steering it.
-
-Almost from the very beginning of ballooning, some method of directing
-the balloon to a pre-determined goal had been sought by inventors.
-Drifting at the fickle pleasure of the prevailing wind did not accord
-with man’s desire for authority and control.
-
-The first step in this direction was the change from the spherical
-form of the gas-bag to an elongated shape, the round form having an
-inclination to turn round and round in the air while floating, and
-having no bow-and-stern structure upon which steering devices could
-operate. The first known proposal in this direction was made by
-Brisson, a French scientist, who suggested building the gas-bag in the
-shape of a horizontal cylinder with conical ends, its length to be
-five or six times its diameter. His idea for its propulsion was the
-employment of large-bladed oars, but he rightly doubted whether human
-strength would prove sufficient to work these rapidly enough to give
-independent motion to the airship.
-
-About the same time another French inventor had actually built a
-balloon with a gas-bag shaped like an egg and placed horizontally with
-the blunt end foremost. The reduction in the resistance of the air to
-this form was so marked that the elongated gas-bag quickly displaced
-the former spherical shape. This balloon was held back from travelling
-at the full speed of the wind by the clever device of a rope dragging
-on the ground; and by a sail rigged so as to act on the wind which
-blew past the retarded balloon, the navigator was able to steer it
-within certain limits. It was the first dirigible balloon.
-
-In the same year the brothers Robert, of Paris, built an airship for
-the Duke of Chartres, under the direction of General Meusnier, a French
-officer of engineers. It was cylindrical, with hemispherical ends, 52
-feet long and 32 feet in diameter, and contained 30,000 cubic feet of
-gas. The gas-bag was made double to prevent the escape of the hydrogen,
-which had proved very troublesome in previous balloons, and it was
-provided with a spherical air balloon inside of the gas-bag, which
-device was expected to preserve the form of the balloon unchanged by
-expanding or contracting, according to the rising or falling of the
-airship. When the ascension was made on July 6, 1784, the air-balloon
-stuck fast in the neck of the gas-bag, and so prevented the escape of
-gas as the hydrogen expanded in the increasing altitude. The gas-bag
-would have burst had not the Duke drawn his sword and slashed a vent
-for the imprisoned gas. The airship came safely to earth.
-
-It was General Meusnier who first suggested the interior ballonnet of
-air to preserve the tense outline of the form of the airship, and the
-elliptical form for the gas-bag was another of his inventions. In the
-building of the airship of the Duke de Chartres he made the further
-suggestion that the space between the two envelopes be filled with
-air, and so connected with the air-pumps that it could be inflated
-or deflated at will. For the motive power he designed three screw
-propellers of one blade each, to be turned unceasingly by a crew of
-eighty men.
-
-Meusnier was killed in battle in 1793, and aeronautics lost its most
-able developer at that era.
-
-[Illustration: The Scott airship, showing the forward “pocket”
-partially drawn in.]
-
-In 1789, Baron Scott, an officer in the French army, devised a
-fish-shaped airship with two outside balloon-shaped “pockets” which
-could be forcibly drawn into the body of the airship to increase its
-density, and thus cause its descent.
-
-It began to be realized that no adequate power existed by which
-balloons could be propelled against even light winds to such a degree
-that they were really controllable, and balloon ascensions came to
-be merely an adjunct of the exhibit of the travelling showman. For
-this reason the early part of the nineteenth century seems barren of
-aeronautical incident as compared with the latter part of the preceding
-century.
-
-In 1848, Hugh Bell, an Englishman, built a cylindrical airship with
-convex pointed ends. It was 55 feet long and 21 feet in diameter. It
-had a keel-shaped framework of tubes to which the long narrow car was
-attached, and there was a screw propeller on each side, to be worked by
-hand, and a rudder to steer with. It failed to work.
-
-In 1852, however, a new era opened for the airship. Henry Giffard, of
-Paris, the inventor of the world-famed injector for steam boilers,
-built an elliptical gas-bag with cigar-shaped ends, 144 feet long,
-and 40 feet in diameter, having a cubic content of 88,000 cubic feet.
-The car was suspended from a rod 66 feet long which hung from the
-net covering the gas-bag. It was equipped with a 3-horse-power steam
-engine which turned a two-bladed screw propeller 11 feet in diameter,
-at the rate of 110 revolutions per minute. Coke was used for fuel.
-The steering was done with a triangular rudder-sail. Upon trial on
-September 24, 1852, the airship proved a success, travelling at the
-rate of nearly 6 miles an hour.
-
-[Illustration: The first Giffard dirigible.]
-
-Giffard built a second airship in 1855, of a much more elongated
-shape--235 feet long and 33 feet in diameter. He used the same engine
-which propelled his first ship. After a successful trial trip, when
-about to land, the gas-bag unaccountably turned up on end, allowing
-the net and car to slide off, and, rising slightly in the air, burst.
-Giffard and his companion escaped unhurt.
-
-Giffard afterward built the large captive balloon for the London
-Exhibition in 1868, and the still larger one for the Paris Exposition
-in 1878. He designed a large airship to be fitted with two boilers and
-a powerful steam-engine, but became blind, and died in 1882.
-
-[Illustration: The Haenlein airship inflated with coal gas and driven
-by a gas-engine.]
-
-In 1865, Paul Haenlein devised a cigar-shaped airship to be inflated
-with coal gas. It was to be propelled by a screw at the front to be
-driven by a gas-engine drawing its fuel from the gas in the body of the
-ship. An interior air-bag was to be expanded as the gas was consumed,
-to keep the shape intact. A second propeller revolving horizontally was
-intended to raise or lower the ship in the air.
-
-It was not until 1872 that he finally secured the building of an
-airship, at Vienna, after his plans. It was 164 feet long, and 30
-feet in diameter. The form of the gas-bag was that described by the
-keel of a ship rotated around the centre line of its deck as an axis.
-The engine was of the Lenoir type, with four horizontal cylinders,
-developing about 6 horse-power, and turned a propeller about 15 feet
-in diameter at the rate of 40 revolutions per minute. The low lifting
-power of the coal gas with which it was inflated caused it to float
-quite near the ground. With a consumption of 250 cubic feet of gas per
-hour, it travelled at a speed of ten miles an hour. The lack of funds
-seems to have prevented further experiments with an invention which was
-at least very promising.
-
-[Illustration: Sketch of the De Lome airship.]
-
-In the same year a dirigible balloon built by Dupuy de Lome for use by
-the French Government during the siege of Paris, was given a trial. It
-was driven by a screw propeller turned by eight men, and although it
-was 118 feet long, and 49 feet in diameter, it made as good a speed
-record as Giffard’s steam-driven airship--six miles an hour.
-
-[Illustration: Car of the Tissandier dirigible; driven by electricity.]
-
-In 1881, the brothers Albert and Gaston Tissandier exhibited at the
-Electrical Exhibition in Paris a model of an electrically driven
-airship, originally designed to establish communication with Paris
-during the siege of the Franco-Prussian War. In 1883, the airship
-built after this model was tried. It was 92 feet long, and 30 feet at
-its largest diameter. The motive power was a Siemens motor run by 24
-bichromate cells of 17 lbs. each. At full speed the motor made 180
-revolutions per minute, developing 1½ horse-power. The pull was 26 lbs.
-The propeller was 9 feet in diameter, and a speed of a little more than
-6 miles an hour was attained.
-
-[Illustration: Sketch of the Renard and Krebs airship _La France_,
-driven by a storage battery.]
-
-In 1884, two French army engineers, Renard and Krebs, built an airship,
-the now historic _La France_, with the shape of a submarine torpedo. It
-was 165 feet long and about 27 feet in diameter at the largest part. It
-had a gas content of 66,000 cubic feet. A 9 horse-power Gramme electric
-motor was installed, driven by a storage battery. This operated the
-screw propeller 20 feet in diameter, which was placed at the forward
-end of the long car. The trial was made on the 9th of August, and was
-a complete success. The ship was sailed with the wind for about 2½
-miles, and then turned about and made its way back against the wind
-till it stood directly over its starting point, and was drawn down to
-the ground by its anchor ropes. The trip of about 5 miles was made in
-23 minutes. In seven voyages undertaken the airship was steered back
-safely to its starting point five times.
-
-This first airship which really deserved the name marked an era in the
-development of this type of aircraft. In view of its complete success
-it is astonishing that nothing further was done in this line in France
-for fifteen years, when Santos-Dumont began his series of record-making
-flights. Within this period, however, the gasoline motor had been
-adapted to the needs of the automobile, and thus a new and light-weight
-engine, suitable in every respect, had been placed within the reach of
-aeronauts.
-
-In the meantime, a new idea had been brought to the stage of actual
-trial. In 1893, in St. Petersburg, David Schwartz built a rigid
-airship, the gas receptacle of which was sheet aluminum. It was braced
-by aluminum tubes, but while being inflated the interior work was so
-badly broken that it was abandoned.
-
-Schwartz made a second attempt in Berlin in 1897. The airship was
-safely inflated, and managed to hold its position against a wind
-blowing 17 miles an hour, but could not make headway against it. After
-the gas had been withdrawn, and before it could be put under shelter,
-a severe windstorm damaged it, and the mob of spectators speedily
-demolished it in the craze for souvenirs of the occasion.
-
-[Illustration: Wreck of the Schwartz aluminum airship, at Berlin, in
-1897.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    The type of the earlier Santos-Dumont dirigibles. This shape
-    showed a tendency to “buckle,” or double up in the middle like a
-    jackknife. To avoid this the later Santos-Dumonts were of much
-    larger proportional diameter amidships.]
-
-In 1898, the young Brazilian, Santos-Dumont, came to Paris imbued with
-aeronautic zeal, and determined to build a dirigible balloon that
-would surpass the former achievements of Giffard and Renard, which he
-felt confident were but hints of what might be accomplished by that
-type of airship. He began the construction of the series of dirigible
-balloons which eventually numbered 12, each successive one being an
-improvement on the preceding. He made use of the air-bag suggested
-by Meusnier for the balloon of the Duke of Chartres in 1784, although
-in an original way, at first using a pneumatic pump to inflate it, and
-later a rotatory fan. Neither prevented the gas-bag from “buckling” and
-coming down with consequences more or less serious to the airship--but
-Santos-Dumont himself always escaped injury. His own record of his
-voyages in his book, _My Air-Ships_, gives a more detailed account
-of his contrivances and inventions than can be permitted here. If
-Santos-Dumont did not greatly surpass his predecessors, he is at least
-to be credited with an enthusiasm which aroused the interest of the
-whole world in the problems of aeronautics; and his later achievements
-in the building and flying of aeroplanes give him a unique place in the
-history of man’s conquest of the air.
-
-[Illustration: Type of the later Santos-Dumont’s dirigibles.]
-
-In 1900, Count von Zeppelin’s great airship, which had been building
-for nearly two years, was ready for trial. It had the form of a prism
-of 24 sides, with the ends arching to a blunt point. It was 420 feet
-long, and 38 feet in diameter. The structure was rigid, of aluminum
-lattice work, divided into 17 compartments, each of which had a
-separate gas-bag shaped to fit its compartment. Over all was an outer
-envelope of linen and silk treated with pegamoid. A triangular keel of
-aluminum lattice strengthened the whole, and there were two cars of
-aluminum attached to the keel. Each car held a 16 horse-power Daimler
-gasoline motor, operating two four-bladed screw propellers which were
-rigidly connected with the frame of the ship a little below the level
-of its axis. A sliding weight was run to either end of the keel as
-might be required to depress the head or tail, in order to rise or fall
-in the air. The cars were in the shape of boats, and the ship was built
-in a floating shed on the Lake of Constance near Friedrichshafen.
-At the trial the airship was floated out on the lake, the car-boats
-resting on the water. Several accidents happened, so that though the
-ship got up into the air it could not be managed, and was brought down
-to the water again without injury. In a second attempt a speed of 20
-miles an hour was attained. The construction was found to be not strong
-enough for the great length of the body, the envelope of the balloon
-was not sufficiently gas tight, and the engines were not powerful
-enough. But few trips were made in it, and they were short. The Count
-set himself to work to raise money to build another ship, which he did
-five years later.
-
-[Illustration: View of the Zeppelin I, with portion of the aluminum
-shell and external fabric removed to show the internal framing and
-separate balloons. In the distance is shown the great balloon shed.]
-
-In 1901, an inventor named Roze built an airship in Colombo, having two
-gas envelopes with the engines and car placed between them. He expected
-to do away with the rolling and pitching of single airships by the
-double form, but the ship did not work satisfactorily, ascending to
-barely 50 feet.
-
-In 1902, Augusto Severo, a Brazilian, arranged an airship with the
-propelling screws at the axis of the gas-bag, one at each end of the
-ship. Instead of a rudder, he provided two small propellers to work in
-a vertical plane and swing the ship sideways. Soon after ascending
-it was noticed that the propellers were not working properly, and a
-few minutes later the car was seen to be in flames and the balloon
-exploded. Severo and his companion Sache were killed, falling 1,300
-feet.
-
-[Illustration: Sketch of the Severo airship, showing arrangement of
-the driving propellers on the axis of the gas-bag, and the steering
-propellers.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    End view of Severo’s airship, showing the longitudinal division
-    of the gas-bag to allow the driving shaft of the propellers to be
-    placed at the axis of the balloon.]
-
-In the same year Baron Bradsky-Leboun built an airship with partitions
-in the gas-bag which was just large enough to counterbalance the weight
-of the ship and its operators. It was lifted or lowered by a propeller
-working horizontally. Another propeller drove the ship forward. Through
-some lack of stability the car turned over, throwing out the two
-aeronauts, who fell 300 feet and were instantly killed.
-
-[Illustration: The first Lebaudy airship.]
-
-In 1902, a dirigible balloon was built for the brothers Lebaudy by the
-engineer Juillot and the aeronaut Surcouf. The gas envelope was made
-cigar-shaped and fastened rigidly to a rigid elliptical keel-shaped
-floor 70 feet long and 19 feet wide, made of steel tubes--the object
-being to prevent rolling and pitching. It was provided with both
-horizontal and vertical rudders. A 35 horse-power Daimler-Mercedes
-motor was used to turn two twin-bladed screws, each of 9 feet in
-diameter. Between the 25th of October, 1902, and the 21st of November,
-1903, 33 experimental voyages were made, the longest being 61 miles in
-2 hours and 46 minutes; 38.7 miles in 1 hour and 41 minutes; 23 miles
-in 1 hour and 36 minutes.
-
-[Illustration: Framing of the floor and keel of the Lebaudy airship.]
-
-In 1904 this ship was rebuilt. It was lengthened to 190 feet and the
-rear end rounded off. Its capacity was increased to 94,000 cubic feet,
-and a new covering of the yellow calico which had worked so well on the
-first model was used on the new one. It was coated with rubber both on
-the outside and inside. The interior air-bag was increased in size to
-17,650 cubic feet, and partitioned into three compartments. During 1904
-and 1905 30 voyages were made, carrying in all 195 passengers.
-
-[Illustration: The car and propellers of the Lebaudy airship.]
-
-The success of this airship led to a series of trials under the
-direction of the French army, and in all of these trials it proved
-satisfactory. After the 76th successful voyage it was retired for the
-winter of 1905-6.
-
-In November, 1905, the rebuilt Zeppelin airship was put upon trial.
-While superior to the first one, it met with serious accident, and was
-completely wrecked by a windstorm in January, 1906.
-
-In May, 1906, Major von Parseval’s non-rigid airship passed through
-its first trials successfully. This airship may be packed into small
-compass for transportation, and is especially adapted for military
-use. In plan it is slightly different from previous types, having
-two air-bags, one in each end of the envelope, and the front end is
-hemispherical instead of pointed.
-
-As the airship is designed to force its way through the air, instead
-of floating placidly in it, it is evident that it must have a certain
-tenseness of outline in order to retain its shape, and resist being
-doubled up by the resistance it encounters. It is estimated that the
-average velocity of the wind at the elevation at which the airship
-sails is 18 miles per hour. If the speed of the ship is to be 20
-miles per hour, as related to stations on the ground, and if it is
-obliged to sail against the wind, it is plain that the wind pressure
-which it is compelled to meet is 38 miles per hour--a gale of no mean
-proportions. When the large expanse of the great gas-bags is taken into
-consideration, it is evident that ordinary balloon construction is not
-sufficient.
-
-Attempts have been made to meet the outside pressure from the wind and
-air-resistance by producing mechanically a counter-pressure from the
-inside. Air-bags are placed inside the cavity of the gas-bag, usually
-one near each end of the airship, and these are inflated by pumping
-air into them under pressure. In this way an outward pressure of as
-much as 7 lbs. to the square foot may be produced, equivalent to the
-resistance of air at a speed (either of the wind, or of the airship, or
-of both combined) of 48 miles per hour. It is evident, however, that
-the pressure upon the front end of an airship making headway against a
-strong wind will be much greater than the pressure at the rear end, or
-even than that amidships. It was this uneven pressure upon the outside
-of the gas-bag that doubled up the first two airships of Santos-Dumont,
-and led him to increase the proportional girth at the amidship section
-in his later dirigibles. The great difficulty of adjusting these
-varying pressures warrants the adherence of Count von Zeppelin to his
-design with the rigid structure and metallic sheathing.
-
-The loss of the second Zeppelin airship so discouraged its designer
-that he decided to withdraw from further aeronautical work. But the
-German Government prevailed on him to continue, and by October, 1906,
-he had the Zeppelin III in the air. This airship was larger than
-Zeppelin II in both length and diameter, and held 135,000 cubic feet
-more of gas. The motive power was supplied by two gasoline motors,
-each of 85 horse-power. The gas envelope had 16 sides, instead of 24,
-as in the earlier ship. At its trial the Zeppelin III proved highly
-successful. It made a trip of 69 miles, with 11 passengers, in 2¼
-hours--a speed of about 30 miles an hour.
-
-[Illustration: The Zeppelin III backing out of the floating shed at
-Friedrichshafen. The illustration shows the added fin at the top, the
-rudders, dipping planes, and balancing planes.]
-
-The German Government now made an offer of $500,000 for an airship
-which would remain continuously in the air for 24 hours, and be able to
-land safely. Count von Zeppelin immediately began work upon his No. IV,
-in the effort to meet these requirements, in the meantime continuing
-trips with No. III. The most remarkable of these trips was made in
-September, 1907, a journey of 211 miles in 8 hours.
-
-In October, 1907, the English airship “Nulli Secundus” was given its
-first trial. The gas envelope had been made of goldbeater’s skins,
-which are considered impermeable to the contained gas, but are very
-expensive. This airship was of the non-rigid type. It made the trip
-from Aldershot to London, a distance of 50 miles, in 3½ hours--an
-apparent speed of 14 miles per hour, lacking information as to the aid
-or hindrance of the prevailing wind. Several other trials were made,
-but with small success.
-
-The offer of the German Government had stimulated other German builders
-besides Count von Zeppelin, and on October 28, 1907, the Parseval I,
-which had been improved, and the new Gross dirigible, competed for the
-government prize, at Berlin. The Parseval kept afloat for 6½ hours, and
-the Gross for 8¼ hours.
-
-Meanwhile, in France, the Lebaudys had been building a new airship
-which was named “La Patrie.” It was 197 feet long and 34 feet in
-diameter. In a trial for altitude it was driven to an elevation of
-4,300 feet. On November 23, 1907, the “Patrie” set out from Paris for
-Verdun, a distance of 146 miles. The journey was made in 6¾ hours,
-at an average speed of 25 miles per hour, and the fuel carried was
-sufficient to have continued the journey 50 miles further. Soon after
-reaching Verdun a severe gale tore the airship away from the regiment
-of soldiers detailed to assist the anchors in holding it down, and it
-disappeared into the clouds. It is known to have passed over England,
-for parts of its machinery were picked up at several points, and some
-days later the gas-bag was seen floating in the North Sea.
-
-[Illustration: The “Ville-de-Paris” of M. de la Meurthe.]
-
-Following close upon the ill-fated “Patrie” came the “Ville-de-Paris,”
-a dirigible which had been built by Surcouf for M. Henri Deutsch de
-la Meurthe, an eminent patron of aeronautic experiments. In size this
-airship was almost identical with the lost “Patrie,” but it was quite
-different in appearance. It did not have the flat framework at the
-bottom of the gas envelope, but was entirely round in section, and the
-long car was suspended below. At the rear the gas-bag was contracted
-to a cylindrical form, and four groups of two ballonnets each were
-attached to act as stabilizers. It was offered by M. de la Meurthe to
-the French Government to take the place of the “Patrie” in the army
-manœuvres at Verdun, and on January 15, 1908, made the trip thither
-from Paris in about 7 hours. It was found that the ballonnets exerted
-considerable drag upon the ship.
-
-In June, 1908, the great “Zeppelin IV” was completed and given its
-preliminary trials, and on July 1 it started on its first long journey.
-Leaving Friedrichshafen, its route was along the northerly shore of
-Lake Constance nearly to Schaffhausen, then southward to and around
-Lake Lucerne, thence northward to Zurich, thence eastward to Lake
-Constance, and to its shed at Friedrichshafen. The distance traversed
-was 236 miles, and the time consumed 12 hours. This voyage without a
-single mishap aroused the greatest enthusiasm among the German people.
-After several short flights, during which the King of Württemberg, the
-Queen, and some of the royal princes were passengers, the Zeppelin IV
-set out on August 4 to win the Government reward by making the 24-hour
-flight. Sailing eastward from Friedrichshafen it passed over Basle,
-then turning northward it followed the valley of the Rhine, passing
-over Strasburg and Mannheim, and had nearly reached Mayence when a
-slight accident necessitated a landing. Repairs were made, and the
-journey resumed after nightfall. Mayence was reached at 11 P. M., and
-the return trip begun. When passing over Stuttgart, at 6 A. M., a leak
-was discovered, and a landing was made at Echterdingen, a few miles
-farther on. Here, while repairs were being made, a squall struck the
-airship and bumped it heavily on the ground. Some gasoline was spilled,
-in some unknown way, which caught fire, and in a few moments the great
-balloon was totally destroyed. It had been in continuous flight 11
-hours up to the time of the first landing, and altogether 20¾ hours,
-and had travelled 258 miles.
-
-The German people immediately started a public subscription to provide
-Count von Zeppelin with the funds needed to build another airship,
-and in a few days the sum of $1,500,000 was raised and turned over to
-the unfortunate inventor. The “Zeppelin III” was taken in hand, and
-lengthened, and more powerful engines installed.
-
-The “Gross II” was ready to make its attempt for the Government prize
-on September 11, 1908. It sailed from Tegel to Magdeburg and back to
-Tegel, a distance of 176 miles, in 13 hours, without landing.
-
-[Illustration: The Clement-Bayard dirigible entering its shed.]
-
-Four days later the “Parseval II” made a trip between the same points
-in 11½ hours, but cut the distance travelled down to 157 miles. In
-October, the “Parseval II” was sent up for an altitude test, and rose
-to a height of 5,000 feet above Tegel, hovering over the city for
-upward of an hour.
-
-During 1908, an airship designed by M. Clement, the noted motor-car
-builder, was being constructed in France. It made its first voyage on
-October 29, carrying seven passengers from Sartrouville to Paris and
-back, at a speed of from 25 to 30 miles per hour. The illustration
-gives a very good idea of the peculiar ballonnets attached to the rear
-end of the gas envelope. These ballonnets open into the large gas-bag,
-and are practically a part of it.
-
-In Italy a remarkable dirigible has been built by Captain Ricaldoni,
-for military purposes. It has the form of a fish, blunt forward, and
-tapering straight away to the rear. It has a large finlike surface on
-the under side of the gas-bag toward the rear. Its performances show
-that its efficiency as compared with its motive power is larger than
-any other dirigible in commission.
-
-[Illustration: Engine of the Clement-Bayard dirigible; 7-cylinder; 55
-horse-power; weighing only 155 pounds.]
-
-In May, 1909, the rebuilt “Zeppelin III,” now rechristened “Zeppelin
-II,” after many successful short flights was prepared for the
-Government trial. On May 29, 1909, with a crew of six men, Count von
-Zeppelin started from Friedrichshafen for Berlin, 360 miles away. The
-great ship passed over Ulm, Nuremburg, Bayreuth, and Leipzig; and
-here it encountered so strong a head wind from the north, that it was
-decided to turn about at Bitterfeld and return to Friedrichshafen. The
-distance travelled had been nearly 300 miles in 21 hours. The course
-followed was quite irregular, and took the ship over Wurtzburg, and
-by a wide detour to Heilbron and Stuttgart. The supply of gasoline
-running low, it was decided to land at Goeppingen, where more could be
-obtained. It was raining heavily, and through some mistake in steering,
-or some sudden veering of the wind, the prow of the great dirigible
-came into collision with a tree upon the hillside. The envelope was
-badly torn, and a part of the aluminum inner structure wrecked.
-However, the mechanics on board were able to make such repairs that
-the ship was able to resume the voyage the next day, and made port
-without further mishap. The vessel having been 38 hours in the air at
-the time of the accident, so much of the Government’s stipulations
-had been complied with. But it had not succeeded in landing safely.
-Nevertheless it was accepted by the Government. The entire journey has
-been variously estimated at from 680 to 900 miles, either figure being
-a record for dirigibles.
-
-[Illustration: Accident to the new “Zeppelin II” at Goeppingen. The
-damage was repaired and the airship continued its voyage the next day.]
-
-On August 4, the dirigible “Gross II” made a voyage from Berlin to
-Apolda, and returned; a distance of 290 miles in 16 hours. This airship
-also was accepted by the German Government and added to its fleet.
-
-In August, the Zeppelin II was successfully sailed to Berlin, where
-Count von Zeppelin was welcomed by an immense and enthusiastic
-multitude of his countrymen, including the Emperor and the royal family.
-
-On September 26, the new French dirigible, “La Republique,” built on
-the model of the successful Lebaudy airships, met with an accident
-while in the air. A blade of one of the propellers broke and slashed
-into the envelope. The ship fell from a height of 6,000 feet, and its
-crew of four men lost their lives.
-
-[Illustration: View of the damaged Zeppelin from the front, showing the
-tree against which it collided.]
-
-On April 22, 1910, a fleet of German dirigibles, comprising the
-“Zeppelin II,” the “Gross II,” and the “Parseval I,” sailed from
-Cologne to Hamburg, where they were reviewed by Emperor William. A
-strong wind having arisen, the “Gross II,” which is of the semi-rigid
-type, was deflated, and shipped back to Cologne by rail. The non-rigid
-“Parseval” made the return flight in safety. The rigid “Zeppelin II”
-started on the return voyage, but was compelled to descend at Limburg,
-where it was moored. The wind increasing, it was forced away, and
-finally was driven to the ground at Weilburg and demolished.
-
-In May, 1910, the “Parseval V,” the smallest dirigible so far
-constructed, being but 90 feet in length, was put upon its trial trip.
-It made a circular voyage of 80 miles in 4 hours.
-
-For several months a great Zeppelin passenger dirigible had been
-building by a stock company financed by German capital, under the
-direction of the dauntless Count von Zeppelin. It was 490 feet long,
-with a capacity of 666,900 cubic feet. A passenger cabin was built with
-¼-inch mahogany veneer upon a framework of aluminum, the inside being
-decorated with panels of rosewood inlaid with mother-of-pearl. The
-seats were wicker chairs, and the window openings had no glass. It was
-christened the “Deutschland.”
-
-After many days waiting for propitious weather the first “air-liner”
-set sail on June 22, 1910, from Friedrichshafen for Düsseldorf,
-carrying 20 passengers who had paid $50 each for their passage. In
-addition there were 13 other persons on board.
-
-The start was made at three o’clock in the morning, and the course
-laid was up the valley of the Rhine, as far as Cologne. Düsseldorf was
-reached at three o’clock in the afternoon, the airline distance of 300
-miles having been covered in 9 hours of actual sailing. From Mannheim
-to Düsseldorf, favored by the wind, the great ship reached the speed of
-50 miles per hour, for this part of the trip, outstripping the fastest
-express trains which consume 6 hours in the winding track up the valley.
-
-The next morning the “Deutschland” left Düsseldorf on an excursion
-trip, carrying several ladies among its passengers. The voyage was in
-every way a great success, and public enthusiasm was widespread.
-
-On June 29, a test trip was decided upon. No passengers were taken,
-but 19 newspaper correspondents were invited guests. The Count had
-been warned of weather disturbances in the neighborhood, but he either
-disregarded them or felt confidence in his craft. It was intended that
-the voyage should last four hours, but the airship soon encountered a
-storm, and after 6 hours of futile striving against it, the fuel gave
-out. Caught in an upward draft, the “Deutschland” rose to an altitude
-of over 5,000 feet, losing considerable gas, and then, entering a
-rainstorm, was heavily laden with moisture. Suddenly, without definite
-reason, it began to fall vertically, and in a few moments had crashed
-into the tops of the trees of the Teutoberg forest. No one on board
-received more than slight injury, and all alighted safely by means of
-ladders. The “Deutschland” was a wreck, and was taken apart and shipped
-back to Friedrichshafen.
-
-On July 13, another giant passenger airship, designed by Oscar Erbslöh,
-who won the international balloon race in 1907 by a voyage from St.
-Louis to Asbury Park, met with fatal disaster. It was sailing near
-Cologne at an altitude of about 2,500 feet when it burst, and Erbslöh
-and his four companions were killed in the fall.
-
-On July 28, the “Gross III” left Berlin with the object of beating
-the long distance record for dirigibles. Soon after passing Gotha the
-airship returned to that place, and abandoned the attempt. In 13 hours
-a distance of 260 miles had been traversed.
-
-Undismayed by the catastrophes which had destroyed his airships almost
-as fast as he built them, Count von Zeppelin had his number VI ready
-to sail on September 3. With a crew of seven and twelve passengers he
-sailed from Baden to Heidelberg--53 miles in 65 minutes. It was put
-into commission as an excursion craft, and made several successful
-voyages. On September 14, as it was being placed in its shed at the
-close of a journey, it took fire unaccountably, and was destroyed
-together with the shed, a part of the framework only remaining.
-
-On October 15, 1910, the Wellman dirigible “America” which had been
-in preparation for many weeks, left Asbury Park in an attempt to
-cross the Atlantic. Its balloon was 228 feet long, with a diameter
-of 52 feet, containing 345,000 cubic feet of gas. The car was 156
-feet in length, and was arranged as a tank in which 1,250 gallons of
-gasoline were carried. A lifeboat was attached underneath the car.
-There were two engines, each of 80 horse-power, and an auxiliary motor
-of 10 horse-power. Sleeping quarters were provided for the crew of
-six, and the balloon was fitted with a wireless telegraph system.
-All went well until off the island of Nantucket, where strong north
-winds were encountered, and the dirigible was swept southward toward
-Bermuda. As an aid in keeping the airship at an elevation of about 200
-feet above the sea, an enlarged trail-rope, called the equilibrator,
-had been constructed of cans which were filled with gasoline. This
-appendage weighed 1½ tons, and the lower part of it was expected to
-float upon the sea. In practice it was found that the jarring of this
-equilibrator, when the sea became rough, disarranged the machinery,
-so that the propellers would not work, and the balloon was compelled
-to drift with the wind. Toward evening of the second day a ship was
-sighted, and the America’s crew were rescued. The airship floated away
-in the gale, and was soon out of sight.
-
-On October 16, a new Clement-Bayard dirigible, with seven men on board,
-left Paris at 7.15 o’clock in the morning, and sailed for London. At
-1 P. M. it circled St. Paul’s Cathedral, and landed at the hangar at
-Wormwood Scrubbs a half hour later. The distance of 259 miles (airline)
-was traversed at the rate of 41 miles per hour, and the journey
-surpassed in speed any previous journey by any other form of conveyance.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    _Copyright by Pictorial News Company._
-
-Wellman dirigible “America” starting for Europe, October 15, 1910.]
-
-On November 5, 1910, the young Welsh aeronaut, Ernest T. Willows, who
-sailed his small dirigible from Cardiff to London in August, made a
-trip from London across the English Channel to Douai, France. This is
-the third time within a month that the Channel had been crossed by
-airships.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Diagram of the Capazza dirigible from the side. _A A_,
-    stabilizing fins; _B_, air-ballonnet; _R_, rudder; _M M_, motors;
-    _FS_, forward propeller; _SS_, stern propeller.]
-
-Toward the close of 1910, 52 dirigibles were in commission or in
-process of construction. In the United States there were 7; in Belgium,
-2; in England, 6; in France, 12; in Germany, 14; in Italy, 5; in
-Russia, 1; in Spain, 1.
-
-The new Capazza dirigible is a decided departure from all preceding
-constructions, and may mark a new era in the navigation of the air.
-Its gas envelope is shaped like a lens, or a lentil, and is arranged to
-sail flatwise with the horizon, thus partaking of the aeroplane as well
-as the balloon type. No definite facts concerning its achievements have
-been published.
-
-[Illustration: Capazza dirigible from the front. From above it is an
-exact circle in outline.]
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XV.
-
-BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE.
-
-    Preliminary
-    inspection--Instruments--Accessories--Ballast--Inflating--Attaching
-    the car--The ascension--Controls--Landing--Some things to be
-    considered--After landing--Precautions.
-
-
-The actual operation of a balloon is always entrusted to an experienced
-pilot, or “captain” as he is often called, because he is in command,
-and his authority must be recognized instantly whenever an order
-is given. Nevertheless, it is often of great importance that every
-passenger shall understand the details of managing the balloon in case
-of need; and a well-informed passenger is greatly to be preferred to an
-ignorant one.
-
-It is ordinarily one of the duties of the captain to inspect the
-balloon thoroughly; to see that there are no holes in the gas-bag, that
-the valve is in perfect working order, and particularly that the valve
-rope and the ripping cord are not tangled. He should also gather the
-instruments and equipment to be carried.
-
-The instruments are usually an aneroid barometer, and perhaps a mercury
-barometer, a barograph (recording barometer), a psychrometer (recording
-thermometer), a clock, a compass, and an outfit of maps of the country
-over which it is possible that the balloon may float. Telegraph blanks,
-railroad time tables, etc., may be found of great service. A camera
-with a supply of plates will be indispensable almost, and the camera
-should be provided with a yellow screen for photographing clouds or
-distant objects.
-
-The ballast should be inspected, to be sure that it is of dry sand,
-free from stones; or if water is used for ballast, it should have the
-proper admixture of glycerine to prevent freezing.
-
-It is essential that the inflating be properly done, and the captain
-should be competent to direct this process in detail, if necessary.
-What is called the “circular method” is the simplest, and is entirely
-satisfactory unless the balloon is being filled with pure hydrogen for
-a very high ascent, in which case it will doubtless be in the hands of
-experts.
-
-When inflating with coal-gas, the supply is usually taken from a
-large pipe adapted for the purpose. At a convenient distance from the
-gas-main the ground is made smooth, and the ground cloths are spread
-out and pegged down to keep them in place.
-
-The folded balloon is laid out on the cloths with the neck opening
-toward the gas-pipe. The balloon is then unfolded, and so disposed that
-the valve will be uppermost, and in the centre of a circle embracing
-the upper half of the sphere of the balloon, the opening of the neck
-projecting a few inches beyond the rim of the circle. The hose from the
-gas-main may then be connected with the socket in the neck.
-
-[Illustration: Balloon laid out in the circular method, ready for
-inflation. The valve is seen at the centre. The neck is at the right.]
-
-Having made sure that the ripping cord and the valve rope are free from
-each other, and properly connected with their active parts, and that
-the valve is fastened in place, the net is laid over the whole, and
-spread out symmetrically. A few bags of ballast are hooked into the net
-around the circumference of the balloon as it lies, and the assistants
-distributed around it. It should be the duty of one man to hold the
-neck of the balloon, and not to leave it for any purpose whatever. The
-gas may then be turned on, and, as the balloon fills, more bags of
-ballast are hung symmetrically around the net; and all are continually
-moved downward as the balloon rises.
-
-Constant watching is necessary during the inflation, so that the
-material of the balloon opens fully without creases, and the net
-preserves its correct position. When the inflation is finished the hoop
-and car are to be hooked in place. The car should be fitted up and hung
-with an abundance of ballast. Disconnect the gas hose and tie the neck
-of the balloon in such fashion that it may be opened with a pull of the
-cord when the ascent begins.
-
-The ballast is then transferred to the hoop, or ring, and the balloon
-allowed to rise until this is clear of the ground. The car is then
-moved underneath, and the ballast moved down from the ring into it. The
-trail-rope should be made fast to the car directly under the ripping
-panel, the object being to retard that side of the balloon in landing,
-so that the gas may escape freely when the panel is torn open, and not
-underneath the balloon, as would happen if the balloon came to earth
-with the ripping panel underneath.
-
-The balloon is now ready to start, and the captain and passengers
-take their places in the car. The neck of the balloon is opened, and
-a glance upward will determine if the valve rope hangs freely through
-it. The lower end of this should be tied to one of the car ropes. The
-cord to the ripping panel should be tied in a different place, and in
-such fashion that no mistake can be made between them. The assistants
-stand around the edge of the basket, holding it so that it shall not
-rise until the word is given. The captain then adjusts the load of
-ballast, throwing off sufficient to allow the balloon to pull upward
-lightly against the men who are holding it. A little more ballast is
-then thrown off, and the word given to let go. The trail-rope should be
-in charge of some one who will see that it lifts freely from the ground.
-
-The balloon rises into the air to an altitude where a bulk of the
-higher and therefore lighter air equal to the bulk of the balloon has
-exactly the same weight. This is ordinarily about 2,000 feet. If the
-sun should be shining the gas in the balloon will be expanded by the
-heat, and some of it will be forced out through the neck. This explains
-the importance of the open neck. In some of the early ascensions no
-such provision for the expansion of the gas was made, and the balloons
-burst with disastrous consequences.
-
-[Illustration: Inflating a military balloon. The net is being adjusted
-smoothly as the balloon rises. The bags of ballast surround the balloon
-ready to be attached as soon as the buoyancy of the gas lifts it from
-the earth.]
-
-When some of the gas has been driven out by the heat, there is less
-_weight_ of gas in the balloon, though it occupies the same space. It
-therefore has a tendency to rise still higher. On the other hand, if
-it passes into a cloud, or the sun is otherwise obscured, the volume
-of the gas will contract; it will become denser, and the balloon will
-descend. To check the descent the load carried by the balloon must
-be lightened, and this is accomplished by throwing out some ballast;
-generally, a few handfuls is enough.
-
-There is always more or less leakage of gas through the envelope as
-well as from the neck, and this also lessens the lifting power. To
-restore the balance, more ballast must be thrown out, and in this way
-an approximate level is kept during the journey.
-
-When the ballast is nearly exhausted it will be necessary to come down,
-for a comfortable landing cannot be made without the use of ballast.
-A good landing place having been selected, the valve is opened, and
-the balloon brought down within a few yards of the ground. The ripping
-cord is then pulled and ballast thrown out so that the basket will
-touch as lightly as possible. Some aeronauts use a small anchor or
-grapnel to assist in making a landing, but on a windy day, when the car
-is liable to do some bumping before coming to rest, the grapnel often
-makes matters much worse for the passengers by a series of holdings and
-slippings, and sometimes causes a destructive strain upon the balloon.
-
-In making an ascent with a balloon full of gas there is certain to be a
-waste of gas as it expands. This expansion is due not only to the heat
-of the sun, but also to the lighter pressure of the air in the upper
-altitudes. It is therefore the custom with some aeronauts to ascend
-with a partially filled balloon, allowing the expansion to completely
-fill it. This process is particularly advised if a very high altitude
-is sought. When it is desired to make a long voyage it is wise to make
-the start at twilight, and so avoid the heat of the sun. The balloon
-will then float along on an almost unchanging level without expenditure
-of ballast. Rain and even the moisture from clouds will sometimes wet
-the balloon so that it will cause a much greater loss of ballast than
-would have been required to be thrown out to rise above the cloud or
-storm. Such details in the handling of a balloon during a voyage will
-demand the skilled judgment of the captain.
-
-[Illustration: A balloon ready for ascent. Notice that the neck is
-still tied.]
-
-The trail-rope is a valuable adjunct when the balloon is travelling
-near the ground. The longer the part of the trail-rope that is dragging
-on the ground the less weight the balloon is carrying. And at night,
-when it is impossible to tell the direction in which one is travelling
-in any other way, the line of the trailing rope will show the direction
-from which the wind is blowing, and hence the drift of the balloon.
-
-The care of the balloon and its instruments upon landing falls upon
-the captain, for he is not likely to find assistants at hand competent
-to relieve him of any part of the necessary work. The car and the ring
-are first detached. The ropes are laid out free and clear, and the
-valve is unscrewed and taken off. The material of the balloon is folded
-smoothly, gore by gore. The ballast bags are emptied. After all is
-bundled up it should be packed in the car, the covering cloth bound on
-with ropes, and definite instructions affixed for transportation to the
-starting-point.
-
-It is apparent that the whole of the gas is lost at the end of the
-journey. The cost of this is the largest expense of ballooning. For a
-small balloon of about 50,000 cubic feet, the coal-gas for inflating
-will cost about $35 to $40. If hydrogen is used, it will cost probably
-ten times as much.
-
-In important voyages it is customary to send up pilot balloons, to
-discover the direction of the wind currents at the different levels,
-so that the level which promises the best may be selected before the
-balloon leaves the ground. A study of the weather conditions throughout
-the surrounding country is a wise precaution, and no start should
-be made if a storm is imminent. The extent of control possible in
-ballooning being so limited, all risks should be scrupulously avoided,
-both before and during the voyage, and nothing left to haphazard.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XVI.
-
-BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE.
-
-    The fabrics used--Preliminary varnishing--Varnishes--Rubberized
-    fabrics--Pegamoid--Weight of varnish--Latitudes of the
-    balloon--Calculating gores--Laying out patterns and
-    cutting--Sewing--Varnishing--Drying--Oiling--The neck--The
-    valve--The net--The basket.
-
-
-The making of a balloon is almost always placed in the hands of a
-professional balloon-maker. But as the use of balloons increases, and
-their owners multiply, it is becoming a matter of importance that the
-most improved methods of making them should be known to the intending
-purchaser, as well as to the amateur who wishes to construct his own
-balloon.
-
-The fabric of which the gas envelope is made may be either silk,
-cotton (percale), or linen. It should be of a tight, diagonal weave,
-of uniform and strong threads in both warp and woof, unbleached, and
-without dressing, or finish. If it is colored, care should be exercised
-that the dye is one that will not affect injuriously the strength or
-texture of the fabric. Lightness in weight, and great strength (as
-tested by tearing), are the essentials.
-
-The finest German percale weighs about 2½ ounces per square yard;
-Russian percale, 3⅓ ounces, and French percale, 3¾ounces, per square
-yard. The white silk used in Russian military balloons weighs about
-the same as German percale, but is very much stronger. Pongee silk is
-a trifle heavier. The silk used for sounding balloons is much lighter,
-weighing only a little over one ounce to the square yard.
-
-Goldbeater’s skin and rubber have been used to some extent, but the
-great cost of the former places it in reach only of governmental
-departments, and the latter is of use only in small balloons for
-scientific work--up to about 175 cubic feet capacity.
-
-The fabric is first to be varnished, to fill up the pores and render
-it gas-tight. For this purpose a thin linseed-oil varnish has been
-commonly used. To 100 parts of pure linseed-oil are added 4 parts of
-litharge and 1 part of umber, and the mixture is heated to about 350°
-Fahr., for six or seven hours, and stirred constantly. After standing a
-few days the clear part is drawn off for use. For the thicker varnish
-used on later coats, the heat should be raised to 450° and kept at
-about that temperature until it becomes thick. This operation is
-attended with much danger of the oil taking fire, and should be done
-only by an experienced varnish-maker.
-
-The only advantages of the linseed-oil varnish are its ease of
-application, and its cheapness. Its drawbacks are stickiness--requiring
-continual examination of the balloon envelope, especially when the
-deflated bag is stored away--its liability to spontaneous combustion,
-particularly when the varnish is new, and its very slow drying
-qualities, requiring a long wait between the coats.
-
-Another varnish made by dissolving rubber in benzine, has been
-largely used. It requires vulcanizing after application. It is
-never sticky, and is always soft and pliable. However, the rubber
-is liable to decomposition from the action of the violet ray of
-light, and a balloon so varnished requires the protection of an outer
-yellow covering--either of paint, or an additional yellow fabric.
-Unfortunately, a single sheet of rubberized material is not gas-tight,
-and it is necessary to make the envelope of two, or even three, layers
-of the fabric, thus adding much to the weight.
-
-The great gas-bags of the Zeppelin airships are varnished with
-“Pegamoid,” a patent preparation the constituents of which are not
-known. Its use by Count Zeppelin is the highest recommendation possible.
-
-The weight of the varnish adds largely to the weight of the envelope.
-French pongee silk after receiving its five coats of linseed-oil
-varnish, weighs 8 ounces per square yard. A double bag of percale with
-a layer of vulcanized rubber between, and a coating of rubber on the
-inside, and painted yellow on the outside, will weigh 11 ounces per
-square yard. Pegamoid material, which comes ready prepared, weighs but
-about 4 ounces per square yard, but is much more costly.
-
-In cutting out the gores of the envelope it is possible to waste fully
-⅓ of the material unless the work is skilfully planned. Taking the
-width of the chosen material as a basis, we must first deduct from ¾
-of an inch to 1½ inches, in proportion to the size of the proposed
-balloon, for a broad seam and the overlapping necessary. Dividing the
-circumference at the largest diameter--the “equator” of the balloon--by
-the remaining width of the fabric gives the number of gores required.
-To obtain the breadth of each gore at the different “latitudes”
-(supposing the globe of the balloon to be divided by parallels
-similar to those of the earth) the following table is to be used; 0°
-representing the equator, and 90° the apex of the balloon. The breadth
-of the gore in inches at any latitude is the product of the decimal
-opposite that latitude in the table by the original width of the fabric
-in inches, thus allowing for seams.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Finsterwalder’s method of cutting material for a spherical
-    balloon, by which over one-fourth of the material, usually
-    wasted in the common method, may be saved. It has the further
-    advantage of saving more than half of the usual sewing. The
-    balloon is considered as a spherical hexahedron (a six-surfaced
-    figure similar to a cube, but with curved sides and edges). The
-    circumference of the sphere divided by the width of the material
-    gives the unit of measurement. The dimensions of the imagined
-    hexahedron may then be determined from the calculated surface
-    and the cutting proceed according to the illustration above,
-    which shows five breadths to each of the six curved sides. The
-    illustration shows the seams of the balloon made after the
-    Finsterwalder method, when looking down upon it from above.]
-
-
-TABLE FOR CALCULATING SHAPE OF GORES FOR SPHERICAL BALLOONS
-
-   0°  1.000
-   3°  0.998
-   6°  0.994
-   9°  0.988
-  12°  0.978
-  15°  0.966
-  18°  0.951
-  21°  0.934
-  24°  0.913
-  27°  0.891
-  30°  0.866
-  33°  0.839
-  36°  0.809
-  39°  0.777
-  42°  0.743
-  45°  0.707
-  48°  0.669
-  51°  0.629
-  54°  0.588
-  57°  0.544
-  60°  0.500
-  63°  0.454
-  66°  0.407
-  69°  0.358
-  72°  0.309
-  75°  0.259
-  78°  0.208
-  81°  0.156
-  84°  0.104
-  87°  0.052⅓
-
-In practice, the shape of the gore is calculated by the above table,
-and plotted out on a heavy pasteboard, generally in two sections for
-convenience in handling. The board is cut to the plotted shape and used
-as the pattern for every gore. In large establishments all the gores
-are cut at once by a machine.
-
-The raw edges are hemmed, and folded into one another to give a flat
-seam, and are then sewn together “through and through,” in twos and
-threes: afterward these sections are sewn together. Puckering must be
-scrupulously avoided. In the case of rubberized material, the thread
-holes should be smeared with rubber solution, and narrow strips of the
-fabric cemented over the seams with the same substance.
-
-Varnishing is the next process, the gores being treated in turn.
-Half of the envelope is varnished first, and allowed to dry in a
-well-ventilated place out of reach of the sun’s rays. The other half is
-varnished when the first is dry. A framework which holds half of the
-balloon in the shape of a bell is usually employed. In case of haste,
-the balloon may be blown up with air, but this must be constantly
-renewed to be of any service.
-
-The first step in varnishing is to get one side (the outer, or the
-inner) coated with a varnish thin enough to penetrate the material:
-then turn the envelope the other side out and give that a coat of the
-thin varnish. Next, after all is thoroughly dry, give the outer side
-a coat of thick varnish closing all pores. When this is dry give the
-inner side a similar coat. Finally, after drying thoroughly, give
-both sides a coat of olive oil to prevent stickiness. The amount of
-varnish required is, for the first coat 1½ times the weight of the
-envelope, and for the second coat ½ the weight--of the thin varnish.
-For the thick coat on the outer side ⅓ of the weight of the envelope,
-and on the inner side about half as much. For the olive-oil coat, about
-⅛ of the weight of the envelope will be needed. These figures are
-approximate, some material requiring more, some less; and a wasteful
-workman will cause a greater difference.
-
-The neck of the balloon (also called the tail) is in form a cylindrical
-tube of the fabric, sewn to an opening in the bottom of the balloon,
-which has been strengthened by an extra ring of fabric to support it.
-The lower end of the tube, called the mouth, is sewn to a wooden ring,
-which stiffens it. The size of the neck is dependent upon the size of
-the balloon. Its diameter is determined by finding the cube of one-half
-the diameter of the balloon, and dividing it by 1,000. In length, the
-neck should be at least four times its diameter.
-
-The apex of the balloon envelope is fitted with a large valve to permit
-the escape of gas when it is desired that the balloon shall descend.
-The door of the valve is made to open inward into the envelope, and
-is pulled open by the valve-cord which passes through the neck of the
-balloon into the basket, or car. This valve is called the manœuvring
-valve, and there are many different designs equally efficient. As they
-may be had ready made, it is best for the amateur, unless he is a
-machinist, to purchase one. The main point to see to is that the seat
-of the valve is of soft pliable rubber, and that the door of the valve
-presses a comparatively sharp edge of metal or wood so firmly upon the
-seat as to indent it; and the springs of the valve should be strong
-enough to hold it evenly to its place.
-
-The making of the net of the balloon is another part of the work which
-must be delegated to professionals. The material point is that the net
-distributes the weight evenly over the surface of the upper hemisphere
-of the envelope. The strength of the cordage is an item which must be
-carefully tested. Different samples of the same material show such wide
-variations in strength that nothing but an actual test will determine.
-In general, however, it may be said that China-grass cordage is four
-times as strong as hemp cordage, and silk cordage is ten times as
-strong as hemp--for the same size cords.
-
-The meshes of the net should be small, allowing the use of a small
-cord. Large cords mean large knots, and these wear seriously upon the
-balloon envelope, and are very likely to cause leaks. In large meshes,
-also, the envelope puffs out between the cords and becomes somewhat
-stretched, opening pores through which much gas is lost by diffusion.
-
-The “star,” or centre of the net at the apex of the balloon, must be
-fastened immovably to the rim of the valve. The suspension cords begin
-at from 30° to 45° below the equator of the envelope, and are looped
-through rings in what are called “goose-necks.” These allow a measure
-of sliding motion to the cordage as the basket sways in the wind.
-
-For protecting the net against rotting from frequent wetting, it is
-recommended to saturate it thoroughly with a solution of acetate of
-soda, drying immediately. Paraffin is sometimes used with more or less
-success, but tarring should be avoided, as it materially weakens the
-cordage. Oil or grease are even worse.
-
-At the bottom of the net proper the few large cords into which the many
-small cords have been merged are attached to the ring of the balloon.
-This is either of steel or of several layers of wood well bound
-together. The ropes supporting the basket are also fastened to this
-ring, and from it hang the trail-rope and the holding ropes.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Sketch showing the diamond mesh of balloon cordage and the method
-    of distributing the rings for the goose-necks; also the merging
-    of netting cords into the suspension cords which support the car.
-    The principal knots used in tying balloon nets are shown on the
-    right.]
-
-The basket is also to be made by a professional, as upon its
-workmanship may depend the lives of its occupants, though every other
-feature of the balloon be faultless. It must be light, and still very
-strong to carry its load and withstand severe bumping. It should be
-from 3 to 4 feet deep, with a floor space of 4 feet by 5 feet. It is
-usually made of willow and rattan woven substantially together. The
-ropes supporting the car are passed through the bottom and woven in
-with it. Buffers are woven on to the outside, and the inside is padded.
-The seats are small baskets in which is stored the equipment. With
-the completion of these the balloon is ready for its furnishings and
-equipment, which come under the direction of the pilot, or captain, as
-detailed in the preceding chapter.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XVII.
-
-MILITARY AERONAUTICS.
-
-    The pioneer Meusnier--L’Entreprenant--First aerostiers--First
-    aerial warship--Bombardment by balloons--Free balloons
-    in observations--Ordering artillery from balloon--The
-    postal balloons of Paris--Compressed hydrogen--National
-    experiments--Bomb dropping--Falling explosives--Widespread
-    activity in gathering fleets--Controversies--Range of
-    vision--Reassuring outlook.
-
-
-Almost from the beginning of success in traversing the air the great
-possibilities of all forms of aircraft as aids in warfare have been
-recognized by military authorities, and, as has so often been the case
-with other inventions by non-military minds, the practically unlimited
-funds at the disposal of national war departments have been available
-for the development of the balloon at first, then the airship, and now
-of the aeroplane.
-
-The Montgolfiers had scarcely proved the possibility of rising into
-the air, in 1783, before General Meusnier was busily engaged in
-inventing improvements in their balloon with the expressed purpose of
-making it of service to his army, and before he was killed in battle
-he had secured the appointment of a commission to test the improved
-balloon as to its efficiency in war. The report of the committee
-being favorable, a balloon corps was formed in April, 1794, and the
-balloon _L’Entreprenant_ was used during the battle of Fleurus, on
-June 26th, by Meusnier’s successor, General Jourdan, less than a year
-after Meusnier’s death. In 1795 this balloon was used in the battle of
-Mayence. In both instances it was employed for observation only.
-
-But when the French entered Moscow, they found there, and captured, a
-balloon laden with 1,000 pounds of gunpowder which was intended to have
-been used against them.
-
-In 1796 two other balloons were used by the French army then in front
-of Andernach and Ehrenbreitstein, and in 1798 the 1st Company of
-Aerostiers was sent to Egypt, and operated at the battle of the Nile,
-and later at Cairo. In the year following, this balloon corps was
-disbanded.
-
-In 1812 Russia secured the services of a German balloon builder named
-Leppich, or Leppig, to build a war balloon. It had the form of a
-fish, and was so large that the inflation required five days, but the
-construction of the framework was faulty, and some important parts
-gave way during inflation, and the airship never left the ground. As it
-was intended that this balloon should be dirigible and supplied with
-explosives, and take an active part in attacks on enemies, it may be
-regarded as the first aerial warship.
-
-[Illustration: A military dirigible making a tour of observation.]
-
-In 1849, however, the first actual employment of the balloon in warfare
-took place. Austria was engaged in the bombardment of Venice, and the
-range of the besieging batteries was not great enough to permit shells
-to be dropped into the city. The engineers formed a balloon detachment,
-and made a number of Montgolfiers out of paper. These were of a size
-sufficient to carry bombs weighing 30 pounds for half an hour before
-coming down. These war balloons were taken to the windward side of
-the city, and after a pilot balloon had been floated over the point
-where the bombs were to fall, and the time consumed in the flight
-ascertained, the fuses of the bombs were set for the same time, and
-the war balloons were released. The actual damage done by the dropping
-of these bombs was not great, but the moral effect upon the people of
-the city was enormous. The balloon detachment changed its position as
-the wind changed, and many shells were exploded in the heart of the
-city, one of them in the market place. But the destruction wrought was
-insignificant as compared with that usually resulting from cannonading.
-As these little Montgolfiers were sent up unmanned, perhaps they are
-not strictly entitled to be dignified by the name of war balloon, being
-only what in this day would be called aerial bombs.
-
-The next use of the balloon in warfare was by Napoleon III, in 1859.
-He sent up Lieutenant Godard, formerly a manufacturer of balloons, and
-Nadar, the balloonist, at Castiglione. It was a tour of observation
-only, and Godard made the important discovery that the inhabitants were
-gathering their flocks of domestic animals and choking the roads with
-them, to oppose the advance of the French.
-
-The first military use of balloons in the United States was at the time
-of the Civil War. Within a month after the war broke out, Professor T.
-S. C. Lowe, of Washington, put himself and his balloon at the command
-of President Lincoln, and on June 18, 1861, he sent to the President a
-telegram from the balloon--the first record of the kind in history.
-
-After the defeat at Manassas, on July 24, 1861, Professor Lowe made a
-free ascent, and discovered the true position of the Confederates, and
-proved the falsity of rumors of their advance. The organization of
-a regular balloon corps followed, and it was attached to McClellan’s
-army, and used in reconnoitering before Yorktown. The balloons were
-operated under heavy artillery fire, but were not injured.
-
-[Illustration: A small captive military balloon fitted for observation.
-A cylinder of compressed hydrogen to replace leakage is seen at F.]
-
-On May 24th, for the first time in history, a general officer--in this
-case, General Stoneman--directed the fire of artillery at a hidden
-enemy from a balloon.
-
-Later in the month balloons were used at Chickahominy, and again at
-Fair Oaks and Richmond, being towed about by locomotives. On the
-retreat from before Richmond, McClellan’s balloons and gas generators
-were captured and destroyed.
-
-In 1869, during the siege of a fort at Wakamatzu by the Imperial
-Japanese troops, the besieged sent up a man-carrying kite. After making
-observations, the officer ascended again with explosives, with which he
-attempted to disperse the besieging army, but without success.
-
-During the siege of Paris, in 1870, there were several experienced
-balloonists shut up in the city, and the six balloons at hand were
-quickly repaired and put to use by the army for carrying dispatches
-and mail beyond the besieging lines. The first trips were made by
-the professional aeronauts, but, as they could not return, there was
-soon a scarcity of pilots. Sailors, and acrobats from the Hippodrome,
-were pressed into the service, and before the siege was raised 64 of
-these postal balloons had been dispatched. Fifty-seven out of the 64
-landed safely on French territory, and fulfilled their mission; 4
-were captured by the Germans; 1 floated to Norway; 1 was lost, with
-its crew of two sailors, who faithfully dropped their dispatches on
-the rocks near the Lizard as they were swept out to sea; and 1 landed
-on the islet Hoedic, in the Atlantic. In all, 164 persons left Paris
-in these balloons, always at night, and there were carried a total of
-9 tons of dispatches and 3,000,000 letters. At first dogs were carried
-to bring back replies, but none ever returned. Then carrier pigeons
-were used successfully. Replies were set in type and printed. These
-printed sheets were reduced by photography so that 16 folio pages of
-print, containing 32,000 words, were reduced to a space of 2 inches
-by 1¼ inches on the thinnest of gelatine film. Twenty of these films
-were packed in a quill, and constituted the load for each pigeon. When
-received in Paris, the films were enlarged by means of a magic lantern,
-copied, and delivered to the persons addressed.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    Spherical canister of compressed hydrogen for use in inflating
-    military balloons. A large number of these canisters may be
-    tapped at the same time and the inflation proceed rapidly; a
-    large balloon being filled in two hours.]
-
-In more recent times the French used balloons at Tonkin, in 1884; the
-English, in Africa, in 1885; the Italians, in Abyssinia, in 1888; and
-the United States, at Santiago, in 1898. During the Boer War, in 1900,
-balloons were used by the British for directing artillery fire, and
-one was shot to pieces by well-aimed Boer cannon. At Port Arthur, both
-the Japanese and the Russians used balloons and man-carrying kites for
-observation. The most recent use is that by Spain, in her campaign
-against the Moors, in 1909.
-
-The introduction of compressed hydrogen in compact cylinders, which are
-easily transported, has simplified the problem of inflating balloons in
-the field, and of restoring gas lost by leakage.
-
-The advent of the dirigible has engaged the active attention of the
-war departments of all the civilized nations, and experiments are
-constantly progressing, in many instances in secret. It is a fact
-at once significant and interesting, as marking the rapidity of the
-march of improvement, that the German Government has lately refused
-to buy the newest Zeppelin dirigible, on the ground that it is built
-of aluminum, which is out of date since the discovery of its lighter
-alloys.
-
-[Illustration: The German military non-rigid dirigible Parseval II. It
-survived the storm which wrecked the Zeppelin II in April, 1910, and
-reached its shed at Cologne in safety.]
-
-Practically all the armies are being provided with fleets of
-aeroplanes, ostensibly for use in scouting. But there have been many
-contests by aviators in “bomb-dropping” which have at least proved
-that it is possible to drop explosives from an aeroplane with a great
-degree of accuracy. The favorite target in these contests has been
-the life-sized outline of a battleship.
-
-[Illustration: The German military Zeppelin dirigible, which took part
-in the manœuvres at Hamburg in April, 1910, and was wrecked by a high
-wind at Weilburg on the return journey to Cologne.]
-
-Glenn Curtiss, after his trip down the Hudson from Albany, declared
-that he could have dropped a large enough torpedo upon the Poughkeepsie
-Bridge to have wrecked it. His subsequent feats in dropping “bombs,”
-represented by oranges, have given weight to his claims.
-
-By some writers it is asserted that the successful navigation of the
-air will guarantee universal peace; that war with aircraft will be so
-destructive that the whole world will rise against its horrors. Against
-a fleet of flying machines dropping explosives into the heart of great
-cities there can be no adequate defence.
-
-On the other hand, Mr. Hudson Maxim declares that the exploding of
-the limited quantities of dynamite that can be carried on the present
-types of aeroplanes, on the decks of warships would not do any vital
-damage. He also says that many tons of dynamite might be exploded in
-Madison Square, New York City, with no more serious results than the
-blowing out of the windows of the adjacent buildings as the air within
-rushed out to fill the void caused by the uprush of air heated by the
-explosion.
-
-[Illustration: The Lebaudy airship “La Patrie.” As compared with the
-first Lebaudy, it shows the rounded stern with stabilizing planes, and
-the long fin beneath, with rudder and dipping planes.]
-
-As yet, the only experience that may be instanced is that of the
-Russo-Japanese War, where cast-iron shells, weighing 448 lbs.,
-containing 28 lbs. of powder, were fired from a high angle into Port
-Arthur, and did but little damage.
-
-In 1899 the Hague Conference passed a resolution prohibiting the use of
-aircraft to discharge projectiles or explosives, and limited their use
-in war to observation. Germany, France, and Italy withheld consent upon
-the proposition.
-
-In general, undefended places are regarded as exempt from attack by
-bombardment of any kind.
-
-Nevertheless, there are straws which show how the wind is blowing.
-German citizens and clubs which purchase a type of airship approved
-by the War Office of the German Empire are to receive a substantial
-subsidy, with the understanding that in case of war the aircraft is to
-be at the disposal of the Government. Under this plan it is expected
-that the German Government will control a large fleet of ships of the
-air without being obliged to own them.
-
-And, in France, funds were raised recently, by popular subscription,
-sufficient to provide the nation with a fleet of fourteen airships
-(dirigibles) and thirty aeroplanes. These are already being built,
-and it will not be long before France will have the largest air-fleet
-afloat.
-
-The results of the German manœuvres with a fleet of four dirigibles in
-a night attack upon strong fortresses have been kept a profound secret,
-as if of great value to the War Office.
-
-In the United States the Signal Corps has been active in operating the
-Baldwin dirigible and the Wright aeroplanes owned by the Government.
-To the latter, wireless telegraphic apparatus has been attached and is
-operated successfully when the machines are in flight. In addition,
-the United States Aeronautical Reserve has been formed, with a large
-membership of prominent amateur and professional aviators.
-
-Some military experts, however, assert that the dirigible is hopelessly
-outclassed for warfare by the aeroplane, which can operate in winds
-in which the dirigible dare not venture, and can soar so high above
-any altitude that the dirigible can reach as to easily destroy it.
-Another argument used against the availability of the dirigible as a
-war-vessel is, that if it were launched on a wind which carried it over
-the enemy’s country, it might not be able to return at sufficient speed
-to escape destruction by high-firing guns, even if its limited fuel
-capacity did not force a landing.
-
-Even the observation value of the aircraft is in some dispute. The
-following table is quoted as giving the ranges possible to an observer
-in the air:
-
-
-  Altitude in feet.  Distance of horizon.
-
-    500                30 miles.
-  1,000                42   “
-  2,000                59   “
-  3,000                72   “
-  4,000                84   “
-  5,000                93   “
-
-As a matter of fact, the moisture ordinarily in the air effectually
-limits the range of both natural vision and the use of the camera for
-photographing objects on the ground. The usual limit of practical range
-of the best telescope is eight miles.
-
-All things considered, however, it is to be expected that the
-experimenting by army and navy officers all over the world will lead to
-such improvement and invention in the art of navigating the air as will
-develop its benevolent, rather than its malevolent, possibilities--“a
-consummation devoutly to be wished.”
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XVIII.
-
-BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS.
-
-    The Wright Brothers--Santos-Dumont--Louis Bleriot--Gabriel
-    Voisin--Leon Delagrange--Henri Farman--Robert
-    Esnault-Pelterie--Count von Zeppelin--Glenn H. Curtiss--Charles
-    K. Hamilton--Hubert Latham--Alfred Leblanc--Claude
-    Grahame-White--Louis Paulhan--Clifford B. Harmon--Walter
-    Brookins--John B. Moisant--J. Armstrong Drexel--Ralph Johnstone.
-
-
-On January 1, 1909, it would have been a brief task to write a few
-biographical notes about the “prominent” aviators. At that date
-there were but five who had made flights exceeding ten minutes in
-duration--the Wright brothers, Farman, Delagrange, and Bleriot. At the
-close of 1910 the roll of aviators who have distinguished themselves by
-winning prizes or breaking previous records has increased to more than
-100, and the number of qualified pilots of flying machines now numbers
-over 300. The impossibility of giving even a mention of the notable
-airmen in this chapter is apparent, and the few whose names have been
-selected are those who have more recently in our own country come into
-larger public notice, and those of the pioneers whose names will never
-lose their first prominence.
-
-
-THE WRIGHT BROTHERS.
-
-The Wright Brothers have so systematically linked their individual
-personalities in all their work, in private no less than in public,
-that the brief life story to be told here is but one for them both. In
-fact, until Wilbur went to France in 1908, and Orville to Washington,
-the nearest approach to a separation is illustrated by a historic
-remark of Wilbur’s to an acquaintance in Dayton, one afternoon:
-“Orville flew 21 miles yesterday; I am going to beat that to-day.” And
-he did--by 3 miles.
-
-Their early life in their home town of Dayton, Ohio, was unmarked by
-significant incident. They were interested in bicycles, and at length
-went into the business of repairing and selling these machines.
-
-Their attention seems to have been strongly turned to the subject of
-human flight by the death of Lilienthal in August, 1896, at which time
-the press published some of the results of his experiments. A magazine
-article by Octave Chanute, himself an experimenter with gliders, led
-to correspondence with him, and the Wrights began a series of similar
-investigations with models of their own building.
-
-By 1900 they had succeeded in flying a large glider by running with a
-string, as with a kite, and in the following year they had made some
-flights on their gliders, of which they had several of differing types.
-For two years the Wrights studied and tested and disproved nearly every
-formula laid down by scientific works for the relations of gravity to
-air, and finally gave themselves up to discovering by actual trial
-what the true conditions were, and to the improvement of their gliders
-accordingly. Meanwhile they continued their constant personal practice
-in the air.
-
-The most of this experimental work was done at Kitty Hawk, N. C.; for
-the reason that there the winds blow more uniformly than at any other
-place in the United States, and the great sand dunes there gave the
-Wrights the needed elevation from which to leap into the wind with
-their gliders. Consequently, when at last they were ready to try a
-machine driven by a motor, it was at this secluded spot that the first
-flights ever made by man with a heavier-than-air machine took place. On
-December 17, 1903, their first machine left the ground under its own
-power, and remained in the air for twelve seconds. From this time on
-progress was even slower than before, on account of the complications
-added by the motive power; but by the time another year had passed they
-were making flights which lasted five minutes, and had their machine in
-such control that they could fly in a circle and make a safe landing
-within a few feet of the spot designated.
-
-[Illustration: Turpin, Taylor, Orville Wright, Wilbur Wright, Brookins,
-and Johnstone discussing the merits of the Wright machine.]
-
-On the 5th of October, 1905, Wilbur Wright made his historic flight
-of 24 miles at Dayton, Ohio, beating the record of Orville, made the
-day before, of 21 miles. The average speed of these flights was 38
-miles an hour. No contention as to the priority of the device known
-as wing-warping can ever set aside the fact that these long practical
-flights were made more than a year before any other man had flown 500
-feet, or had remained in the air half a minute, with a heavier-than-air
-machine driven by power.
-
-The Wrights are now at the head of one of the largest aeroplane
-manufactories in the world, and devote the larger part of their time to
-research work in the line of the navigation of the air.
-
-
-ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONT.
-
-ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONT was born in Brazil in 1877. When but a lad he
-became intensely interested in aeronautics, having been aroused by
-witnessing the ascension at a show of an ordinary hot-air balloon.
-Within the next few years he had made several trips to Paris, and
-in 1897 made his first ascent in a balloon with the balloon builder
-Machuron, the partner of the famous Lachambre.
-
-In 1898 he began the construction of his notable series of dirigibles,
-which eventually reached twelve in number. With his No. 6 he won the
-$20,000 prize offered by M. Deutsch (de la Meurthe) for the first trip
-from the Paris Aero Club’s grounds to and around the Eiffel Tower in 30
-minutes or less. The distance was nearly 7 miles. It is characteristic
-of M. Santos-Dumont that he should give $15,000 of the prize to relieve
-distress among the poor of Paris, and the remainder to his mechanicians
-who had built the balloon.
-
-His smallest dirigible was the No. 9, which held 7,770 cubic feet of
-gas; the largest was the No. 10, which held 80,000 cubic feet.
-
-In 1905, when Bleriot, Voisin, and their comrades were striving to
-accomplish flight with machines heavier than air, Santos-Dumont turned
-his genius upon the same problem, and on August 14, 1906, he made
-his first flight with a cellular biplane driven by a 24 horse-power
-motor. On November 13th of the same year he flew 720 feet with the same
-machine. These were the first flights of heavier-than-air machines in
-Europe, and the first public flights anywhere. Later he turned to the
-monoplane type, and with “La Demoiselle” added new laurels to those
-already won with his dirigibles.
-
-
-LOUIS BLERIOT.
-
-LOUIS BLERIOT, designer and builder of the celebrated Bleriot
-monoplanes, and himself a pilot of the first rank, was born in Cambrai,
-France, in 1872. He graduated from a noted technical school, and soon
-attached himself to the group of young men--all under thirty years of
-age--who were experimenting with gliders in the effort to fly. His
-attempts at first were with the flapping-wing contrivances, but he soon
-gave these up as a failure, and devoted his energy to the automobile
-industry; and the excellent Bleriot acetylene headlight testifies to
-his constructive ability in that field.
-
-Attracted by the experiments of M. Ernest Archdeacon he joined his
-following, and with Gabriel Voisin engaged in building gliders of the
-biplane type. By 1907 he had turned wholly to the monoplane idea,
-and in April of that year made his first leap into the air with a
-power-driven monoplane. By September he had so improved his machine
-that he was able to fly 600 feet, and in June, 1908, he broke the
-record for monoplanes by flying nearly a mile. Again and again he beat
-his own records, and at length the whole civilized world was thrilled
-by his triumphant flight across the British Channel on July 25, 1909.
-
-The Bleriot machines hold nearly all the speed records, and many of
-those in other lines of achievement, and M. Bleriot enjoys the double
-honor of being an eminently successful manufacturer as well as a
-dauntless aviator of heroic rank.
-
-
-GABRIEL VOISIN.
-
-GABRIEL VOISIN, the elder of the two Voisin brothers, was born in
-1879 at Belleville-sur-Saone, near the city of Lyons, France. He was
-educated as an architect, but early became interested in aeronautics,
-and engaged in gliding, stimulated by the achievements of Pilcher,
-in England, and Captain Ferber, in his own country. He assisted M.
-Archdeacon in his experiments on the Seine, often riding the gliders
-which were towed by the swift motor boats.
-
-In 1906 he associated himself with his brother in the business of
-manufacturing biplane machines, and in March, 1907, he himself made
-the first long flight with a power-driven machine in Europe. This
-aeroplane was built for his friend Delagrange, and was one in which
-the latter was soon breaking records and winning prizes. The second
-machine was for Farman, who made the Voisin biplane famous by winning
-the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,000 for making a flight of 1,093
-yards in a circle.
-
-The Voisin biplane is distinctive in structure, and is accounted one of
-the leading aeroplanes of the present day.
-
-
-LEON DELAGRANGE.
-
-LEON DELAGRANGE was born at Orleans, France, in 1873. He entered
-the School of Arts as a student in sculpture, about the same time
-that Henri Farman went there to study painting, and Gabriel Voisin,
-architecture. He exhibited at the Salon, and won several medals.
-In 1905, he took up aeronautics, assisted at the experiments of M.
-Archdeacon. His first aeroplane was built by Voisin, and he made his
-first flight at Issy, March 14, 1907. Less than a month later--on April
-11--he made a new record for duration of flight, remaining in the air
-for 9 minutes and 15 seconds--twice as long as the previous record made
-by Farman.
-
-[Illustration: Leblanc, Bleriot, and Delagrange, (from left to right)
-in aviation dress, standing in front of the Bleriot machine which
-crossed the English Channel.]
-
-At Rheims, in 1909, he appeared with a Bleriot monoplane, and continued
-to fly with that type of machine until his death. At Doncaster,
-England, he made the world record for speed up to that time, travelling
-at the rate of 49.9 miles per hour. He was killed at Bordeaux, France,
-in January, 1910, by the fall of his machine.
-
-
-HENRI FARMAN.
-
-HENRI FARMAN, justly regarded as the most prominent figure in the
-aviation world today, was born in France in 1873. His father was an
-Englishman.
-
-While a mere boy he became locally famous as a bicycle racer, and later
-achieved a wider fame as a fearless and skillful driver in automobile
-races. In 1902 he won the Paris-Vienna race.
-
-In September, 1907, he made his first attempt to fly, using the second
-biplane built by his friend Gabriel Voisin, and in the following
-year he won with it the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,000. He then
-built a machine after his own ideas, which more resembles the Wright
-machine than the Voisin, and with it he has won many prizes, and made
-many world records. Demands for machines, and for teaching the art of
-handling them, have poured in upon him, necessitating a continual
-increase of manufacturing facilities until it may safely be said that
-he has the largest plant for building flying machines in the world,
-turning out the largest number of machines, and through his school for
-aviators is instructing a larger number of pupils annually than any
-other similar establishment.
-
-
-ROBERT ESNAULT-PELTERIE.
-
-ROBERT ESNAULT-PELTERIE was born in 1880, and educated in the city of
-Paris. He early showed a mechanical turn of mind, and was interested
-particularly in scientific studies. He became an enthusiast in matters
-aeronautic, and devoted himself to the construction of gasoline engines
-suitable for aviation purposes. After satisfying his ideal in this
-direction with the now famous “R-E-P” motor, he designed a new type
-of flying machine which is known as the “R-E-P monoplane.” His first
-flights were made at Buc in October, 1907, and while they were short,
-they proved the possibility of steering a flying machine so that it
-would describe a curved line--at that time a considerable achievement
-among European aviators. In April, 1908, he flew for ¾ of a mile, and
-reached a height of 100 feet. This feat eclipsed all previous records
-for monoplanes.
-
-His fame, however, rests upon his motors, which are quite original in
-design and construction.
-
-
-COUNT FERDINAND VON ZEPPELIN.
-
-COUNT FERDINAND VON ZEPPELIN was born in 1838, on the shores of the
-Lake Constance, where his great airships have had their initial trials.
-
-It is an interesting fact that Count von Zeppelin made his first
-balloon ascension in a war-balloon attached to the army corps commanded
-by his friend, Carl Schurz, during the Civil War.
-
-It was only after years of absorbing study of all that human knowledge
-could contribute that Count von Zeppelin decided upon the type of
-dirigible which bears his name. Under the patronage of the King of
-Würtemberg he began his first airship, having previously built an
-immense floating shed, which, swinging by a cable, always had its doors
-facing away from the wind.
-
-The successful flights of the series of magnificent Zeppelin airships
-have been marvellous in an age crowded with wonders. And the misfortune
-which has followed close upon their superb achievements with complete
-destruction would long ago have undone a man of less energy and courage
-than the dauntless Count. It should be borne in mind, however, that
-of the hundreds of passengers carried in his ships of the air, all
-have come to land safely--a record that it would be difficult to match
-with any other form of travel. The accidents which have destroyed the
-Zeppelins have never happened in the air, excepting only the wrecking
-of the _Deutschland_ by a thunderstorm.
-
-The indefatigable Count is now constructing another airship with the
-new alloy, electron, instead of aluminum. He estimates that 5,000
-pounds’ weight can be saved in this way.
-
-
-CAPTAIN THOMAS S. BALDWIN.
-
-CAPTAIN THOMAS S. BALDWIN, balloonist and aviator, was born in
-Mississippi in 1855. His first aeronautical experience was as a
-parachute rider from a balloon in the air. He invented the parachute
-he used, and received for it a gold medal from the Balloon Society
-of Great Britain. Exhibiting this parachute, Captain Baldwin made an
-extensive tour of the civilized world.
-
-In 1892 he built his first airship, a combination of a balloon, a
-screw propeller, and a bicycle, the last to furnish the motive power.
-It was not until 1902, when be installed an automobile engine in his
-airship, that he succeeded in making it sail. It was not yet dirigible,
-however; but after two years of devising and experimenting, he sailed
-away from Oakland, Cal., on August 2, 1904, against the wind, and
-after a short voyage, turned and came back to his balloon-shed. From
-this time on he made several successful dirigibles, and in 1908 he met
-all the requirements of the United States Government for a military
-dirigible, and sold to it the only dirigible it possesses.
-
-He became interested in the experiments of Curtiss and McCurdy at
-Hammondsport, in 1908, and aided in building the remarkable series of
-biplanes with which record flights were made. The newer design, known
-as the Baldwin biplane, is unique in the pivoted balancing plane set
-upright above the upper plane, a device entirely distinct from the
-warping or other manipulation of horizontal surfaces for the purpose of
-restoring lateral balance.
-
-
-GLENN HAMMOND CURTISS.
-
-GLENN HAMMOND CURTISS was born at Hammondsport, N. Y., on the shore
-of Lake Keuka, in 1878. From boyhood he was a competitor and winner
-in all sorts of races where speed was the supreme test. By nature a
-mechanic, he became noted for his ingenious contrivances in this line,
-and built a series of extremely fast motor-cycles, with one of which he
-made the record of one mile in 26⅖ seconds, which still stands as the
-fastest mile ever made by man with any form of mechanism.
-
-Through the purchasing of one of his light engines by Captain Baldwin
-for his dirigible, Curtiss became interested in aeronautical matters,
-and soon built a glider with which he sailed down from the Hammondsport
-hills. The combination of his motor and the glider was the next step,
-and on July 4, 1908, he flew 1½ miles with the _June Bug_, winning the
-_Scientific American_ trophy.
-
-Learning that the United States was not to be represented at the Rheims
-meet in August, 1909, he hastily built a biplane and went there. He won
-the first prize for the course of 30 kilometres (18.6 miles), second
-prize for the course of 10 kilometres, the James Gordon Bennett cup,
-and the tenth prize in the contest for distance. From Rheims he went to
-Brescia, Italy, and there won the first prize for speed. In all these
-contests he was matching his biplane against monoplanes which were
-acknowledged to be a faster type than the biplane.
-
-On May 29, 1910, Mr. Curtiss made the first stated aeroplane tour to
-take place in this country, travelling from Albany to New York City,
-137 miles, with but one stop for fuel. With this flight he won a prize
-of $10,000.
-
-He has made many other notable flights and stands in the foremost rank
-of the active aviators. At the same time he is busily engaged in the
-manufacture of the Curtiss biplane and the Curtiss engine, both staple
-productions in their line.
-
-
-CHARLES KEENEY HAMILTON.
-
-CHARLES KEENEY HAMILTON is justly regarded as one of the most skilful
-of aviators. He was born in Connecticut in 1881, and showed his “bent”
-by making distressing, and often disastrous, leaps from high places
-with the family umbrella for a parachute.
-
-In 1904 he worked with Mr. Israel Ludlow, who at that time was
-experimenting with gliders of his own construction, and when Mr. Ludlow
-began towing them behind automobiles, Hamilton rode on the gliders and
-steered them. Later he became interested in ballooning, and made a
-tour of Japan with a small dirigible.
-
-[Illustration: Hamilton and Latham.]
-
-He early became famous in the aviation world by his spectacular
-glides from a great height. He has said that the first of these was
-unintentional, but his motor having stopped suddenly while he was high
-in the air, he had only the other alternative of falling vertically.
-The sensation of the swift gliding having pleased him, he does it
-frequently “for the fun of it.” These glides are made at so steep an
-angle that they have gained the distinctive name, “Hamilton dives.”
-
-Hamilton came most prominently before the public at large with his
-flight from Governor’s Island to Philadelphia and back, on June 13,
-1910. Following close upon Curtiss’s flight from Albany to New York, it
-was not only a record-breaking achievement, but helped to establish in
-this country the value of the aeroplane as a vehicle for place-to-place
-journeyings.
-
-
-HUBERT LATHAM.
-
-HUBERT LATHAM, the famous Antoinette pilot, is a graduate of Oxford.
-His father was a naturalized Frenchman.
-
-His first aeronautical experience was as companion to his cousin,
-Jacques Faure, the balloonist, on his famous trip from London to Paris
-in 6½ hours, the fastest time ever made between the two places until
-the Clement-Bayard dirigible surpassed it by a few minutes on October
-16, 1910.
-
-The Antoinette monoplane with which M. Latham has identified himself
-began with the ingenious engine of Levavasseur, which was speedily
-made use of for aeroplanes by Santos-Dumont, Bleriot, and Farman.
-Levavasseur also had ideas about aeroplanes, and persuaded some
-capitalists to back him in the enterprise. When it was done, no one
-could be found to fly it. Here M. Latham, a lieutenant of miners and
-sappers in the French army, stepped into the breach, and has made a
-name for himself and for the Antoinette machine in the forefront of the
-progress of aviation.
-
-After winning several contests he set out, on July 19, 1909, to cross
-the British Channel. After flying about half the distance he fell into
-the sea. Six days later Bleriot made the crossing successfully, and
-Latham made a second attempt on July 27th, and this time got within a
-mile of the Dover coast before he again came down in the water.
-
-He has shown unsurpassed daring and skill in flying in gales blowing
-at 40 miles per hour, a record which few other aviators have cared to
-rival.
-
-
-ALFRED LEBLANC.
-
-ALFRED LEBLANC, the champion cross-country flier of the world, was
-born in France in 1879. By profession he is a metallurgist. A friend
-of Bleriot, he became interested in monoplane flying, the more readily
-because he was already a skilled balloonist.
-
-At the time Bleriot made his historic flight across the British
-Channel, Leblanc preceded him, and, standing on the Dover shore,
-signalled Bleriot where to strike the land.
-
-He organized Bleriot’s school for aviators at Pau, and became its
-director. Its excellence is exhibited in the quality of its pupils;
-among them Chavez, Morane, and Aubrun.
-
-The achievement through which Leblanc is most widely known is his
-winning of the 489-mile race over the northern part of France in
-August, 1910, and with the victory the prize of $20,000 offered.
-
-
-CLAUDE GRAHAME-WHITE.
-
-CLAUDE GRAHAME-WHITE, the most famous of British aviators, learned to
-fly in France, under the tutelage of M. Bleriot, Having accomplished
-so much, he went to Mourmelon, the location of Farman’s establishment,
-and made himself equally proficient on the Farman biplane. While in
-France he taught many pupils, among them Armstrong Drexel. Returning
-to England, he opened a school for English aviators.
-
-He came into prominent public notice in his contest with Paulhan in the
-race from London to Manchester, and although Paulhan won the prize,
-Grahame-White received a full share of glory for his plucky persistence
-against discouraging mishaps.
-
-At the Boston-Harvard meet, in September, 1910, Grahame-White carried
-off nearly all the prizes, and in addition won for himself a large
-measure of personal popularity.
-
-On October 14th he flew from the Benning Race Track 6 miles away, over
-the Potomac River, around the dome of the Capitol, the Washington
-Monument, and over the course of Pennsylvania Avenue, up to the State,
-War, and Navy Department building, alighting accurately with his
-40-foot biplane in the 60-foot street. Having ended his “call,” he
-mounted his machine and rose skilfully into the air and returned to his
-starting point.
-
-At the Belmont Park meet, in October, Grahame-White captured the
-international speed prize with his 100-horse-power Bleriot monoplane,
-and finished second in the race around the Statue of Liberty, being
-beaten by only 43 seconds.
-
-
-LOUIS PAULHAN.
-
-LOUIS PAULHAN was, in January, 1909, a mechanic in Mourmelon, France,
-earning the good wages in that country of $15 per week. He became
-an aviator, making his first flight on July 10, 1909, of 1¼ miles.
-Five days later he flew over 40 miles, remaining in the air 1 hour
-17 minutes, and rising to an altitude of 357 feet, then the world’s
-record. He flew constantly in public through the remainder of 1909,
-winning many prizes and breaking and making records.
-
-In January, 1910, he was the most prominent aviator at the Los Angeles
-meet, and there made a new world’s record for altitude, 4,166 feet.
-
-Within the 13 months and 3 weeks (up to October 1, 1910) that he has
-been flying, he has won over $100,000 in prizes, besides receiving many
-handsome fees for other flights and for instruction to pupils.
-
-
-CLIFFORD B. HARMON.
-
-CLIFFORD B. HARMON has the double distinction of being not only the
-foremost amateur aviator of America, but his feats have also at times
-excelled those of the professional airmen. On July 2, 1910, Mr. Harmon
-made a continuous flight of more than 2 hours, breaking all American
-records, and this he held for several months.
-
-Mr. Harmon’s first experience in the air was as a balloonist, and in
-this capacity he held the duration record of 48 hours 26 minutes for a
-year. On this same voyage, at the St. Louis Centennial, he made a new
-record in America for altitude attained, 24,400 feet.
-
-At the Los Angeles aviation meet, in January, 1910, where he went with
-his balloon _New York_, he met Paulhan, and became his pupil. At that
-meet Paulhan made a new world’s record for altitude with a Farman
-biplane, and this machine Mr. Harmon bought, and brought to Mineola, L.
-I., where he practised assiduously, crowning his minor achievements by
-flying from there across Long Island Sound to Greenwich, Conn.
-
-At the Boston-Harvard aviation meet, in September, 1910, Mr. Harmon won
-every prize offered to amateur contestants.
-
-
-WALTER BROOKINS.
-
-WALTER BROOKINS is one of the youngest of noted aviators. He was born
-in Dayton, Ohio, in 1890, and went to school to Miss Katherine Wright,
-sister of the Wright brothers. Young Walter was greatly interested
-in the experiments made by the Wrights, and Orville one day promised
-him that when he grew up they would build a flying machine for him.
-Brookins appeared at Dayton in the early part of 1910, after several
-years’ absence, during which he had grown up, and demanded the promised
-flying machine. The Wrights met the demand, and developed Brookins into
-one of the most successful American aviators.
-
-Brookins’s first leap into prominence was at the Indianapolis meet,
-in June, 1910, where he made a new world’s record for altitude, 4,803
-feet. This being beaten soon after in Europe, by J. Armstrong Drexel,
-with 6,600 feet, Brookins attempted, at Atlantic City, in September, to
-excel Drexel’s record, and rose to a height of 6,175 feet, being forced
-to come down by the missing of his motor.
-
-On September 29, 1910, he left Chicago for Springfield, Ill. He made
-two stops on the way for repairs and fuel, and reached Springfield in
-7 hours 9 minutes elapsed time. His actual time in the air was 5 hours
-47 minutes. The air-line distance between the two cities is 187 miles,
-but as Brookins flew in the face of a wind blowing 10 miles an hour,
-he actually travelled 250 miles. During the journey Brookins made a new
-cross-country record for America in a continuous flight for 2 hours 38
-minutes.
-
-
-JOHN B. MOISANT.
-
-JOHN B. MOISANT is an architect of Chicago, born there of Spanish
-parentage in 1883. Becoming interested in aviation, he went to France
-in 1909, and began the construction of two aeroplanes, one of them
-entirely of metal. He started to learn to fly on a Bleriot machine, and
-one day took one of his mechanicians aboard and started for London. The
-mechanician had never before been up in an aeroplane. After battling
-with storms and repairing consequent accidents to his machine, Moisant
-landed his passenger in London three weeks after the start. It was
-the first trip between the two cities for an aeroplane carrying a
-passenger, and although Moisant failed to win the prize which had been
-offered for such a feat, he received a great ovation, and a special
-medal was struck for him.
-
-At the Belmont Park meet, in October, 1910, Moisant, after wrecking
-his own machine in a gale, climbed into Leblanc’s Bleriot, which had
-been secured for him but a few minutes before, and made the trip around
-the Statue of Liberty in New York Bay and returned to the Park in 34
-minutes 38 seconds. As the distance is over 34 miles, the speed was
-nearly a mile a minute. This feat won for him, and for America, the
-grand prize of the meet--$10,000.
-
-
-J. ARMSTRONG DREXEL.
-
-J. ARMSTRONG DREXEL is a native of Philadelphia. He was taught to
-fly a Bleriot machine at Pau by Grahame-White, and he has frequently
-surpassed his instructor in contests where both took part. At the
-English meets in 1910 he won many of the prizes, being excelled in this
-respect only by Leon Morane.
-
-At Lanark, Scotland, he established a new world’s record for altitude,
-6,600 feet. At the Belmont Park meet he passed his former record with
-an altitude of 7,185 feet, making this the American record, though it
-had been excelled in Europe. At Philadelphia, November 23, 1910, he
-reached an altitude of 9,970 feet, according to the recording barometer
-he carried, thus making a new world’s record. This record was disputed
-by the Aero Club, and it may be reduced. A millionaire, he flies for
-sheer love of the sport.
-
-
-RALPH JOHNSTONE.
-
-RALPH JOHNSTONE was born in Kansas City, Mo., in 1880. He became an
-expert bicycle rider, and travelled extensively in many countries
-giving exhibitions of trick bicycle riding, including the feat known
-as “looping the loop.” He joined the staff of the Wright Brothers’
-aviators in April, 1910, and speedily became one of the most skilful
-aeroplane operators.
-
-He made a specialty of altitude flying, breaking his former records day
-after day, and finally, at the International Aviation Meet at Belmont
-Park, L. I., in October, 1910, he made a new world’s altitude record
-of 9,714 feet, surpassing the previous record of 9,121 feet made by
-Wynmalen at Mourmelon, on October 1st.
-
-Johnstone was instantly killed at Denver, Col., on November 14, 1910,
-by a fall with his machine owing to the breaking of one of the wings at
-a height of 800 feet.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XIX.
-
-CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS.
-
-
-How feeble the start, and how wondrously rapid the growth of the art
-of flying! Nothing can better convey a full idea of its beginnings
-and its progress than the recorded facts as given below. And these
-facts show beyond dispute that the credit of laying the foundation for
-every accomplishment in the entire record must be largely due to the
-men whose names stand alone for years as the only aeroplanists in the
-world--the Wright Brothers.
-
-After the first flight on December 17, 1903, the Wrights worked
-steadily toward improving their machines, and gaining a higher degree
-of the art of balancing, without which even the most perfect machines
-would be useless. Most of their experimenting having been done in
-secret, the open record of their results from time to time is very
-meagre. It may be noted, however, that for nearly three years no one
-else made any records at all.
-
-The next name to appear on the roll is that of Santos-Dumont, already
-famous for his remarkable achievements in building and navigating
-dirigible balloons, or airships. His first aeroplane flight was on
-August 22, 1906, and was but little more than rising clear of the
-ground.
-
-It was nearly seven months later when Delagrange added his name to the
-three then on the list of practical aviators. In about five months
-Bleriot joined them, and in a few more weeks Farman had placed his name
-on the roll. It is interesting to compare the insignificant figures of
-the first flights of these men with their successive feats as they gain
-in experience.
-
-Up to October 19, 1907, the flights recorded had been made with
-machines of the biplane type, but on that date, R. Esnault-Pelterie
-made a few short flights with a monoplane. A month later Santos-Dumont
-had gone over to the monoplane type, and the little group of seven had
-been divided into two classes--five biplanists and two monoplanists.
-
-On March 29, 1908, Delagrange started a new column in the record book
-by taking a passenger up with him, in this case, Farman. They flew only
-453 feet, but it was the beginning of passenger carrying.
-
-During the first six months of 1908 only two more names were added to
-the roll--Baldwin and McCurdy--both on the biplane side. On July 4,
-1908, Curtiss comes into the circle with his first recorded flight,
-in which he used a biplane of his own construction. The same day in
-France, Bleriot changed to the ranks of the monoplane men, with a
-flight measured in miles, instead of in feet. Two days later, Farman
-advanced his distance record from 1.24 miles to 12.2 miles, and his
-speed record from about 21 miles an hour to nearly 39 miles an hour. In
-two days more, Delagrange had taken up the first woman passenger ever
-carried on an aeroplane; and a month later, Captain L. F. Ferber had
-made his first flights in public, and added his name to the growing
-legion of the biplanists.
-
-In the latter part of 1908, the Wrights seem to take possession of the
-record--Orville in America, and Wilbur in Europe--surpassing their own
-previous feats as well as those of others. Bleriot and Farman also
-steadily advance their performances to a more distinguished level.
-
-The record for 1909 starts off with three new names--Moore-Brabazon,
-and Legagneux in France, and Cody in England. Richardson, Count de
-Lambert, Calderara, Latham, Tissandier, Rougier, join the ranks of the
-aviators before the year is half gone, and a few days later Sommer and
-Paulhan add their names.
-
-Of these only Latham flies the monoplane type of machine, but at the
-Rheims tournament Delagrange appears as a monoplanist, increasing the
-little group to four; but, with Le Blon added later, they perform some
-of the most remarkable feats on record.
-
-The contest at Rheims in August is a succession of record-breaking and
-record-making achievements. But it is at Blackpool and Doncaster that
-the most distinct progress of the year is marked, by the daring flights
-of Le Blon and Latham in fierce gales. Spectators openly charged these
-men with foolhardiness, but it was of the first importance that it
-should be demonstrated that these delicately built machines can be
-handled safely in the most turbulent weather; and the fact that it has
-been done successfully will inspire every other aviator with a greater
-degree of confidence in his ability to control his machine in whatever
-untoward circumstances he may be placed. And such confidence is by far
-the largest element in safe and successful flying.
-
-
-NOTABLE AVIATION RECORDS TO CLOSE OF 1910
-
-    _December 17, 1903_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Kitty
-    Hawk, N. C., makes the first successful flight by man with
-    power-propelled machine, a distance of 852 feet, in 59 seconds.
-
-    _November 9, 1904_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Dayton, O.,
-    flies 3 miles in 4 minutes and 30 seconds. (He and Orville made
-    upward of 100 unrecorded flights in that year.)
-
-    _September 26, 1905_--Wilbur Wright with biplane “White Flier,”
-    at Dayton, O., flies 11 miles in 18 minutes and 9 seconds.
-
-    _September 29, 1905_--Orville Wright, with “White Flier,” at
-    Dayton, O., flies 12 miles in 19 minutes and 55 seconds.
-
-    _October 3, 1905_--Wilbur Wright, with “White Flier” at Dayton,
-    O., flies 15 miles in 25 minutes and 5 seconds.
-
-    _October 4, 1905_--Orville Wright with biplane “White Flier,” at
-    Dayton, O., flies 21 miles in 33 minutes and 17 seconds.
-
-    _October 5, 1905_--Wilbur Wright with “White Flier,” at Dayton,
-    O., flies 24 miles in 38 minutes. (He made many unrecorded
-    flights in that year.)
-
-    _August 22, 1906_--A. Santos-Dumont with biplane at Bagatelle,
-    France, made his first public flight with an aeroplane, hardly
-    more than rising clear of the ground.
-
-    _September 14, 1906_--Santos-Dumont with biplane, at Bagatelle,
-    flies for 8 seconds.
-
-[Illustration: Santos-Dumont flying at Bagatelle in his cellular
-biplane.]
-
-    _October 24, 1906_--Santos-Dumont with biplane, at Bagatelle,
-    flies 160 feet in 4 seconds.
-
-    _November 13, 1906_--Santos-Dumont with biplane, at Bagatelle,
-    flies 722 feet in 21 seconds. This feat is recorded as the first
-    aeroplane flight made in Europe.
-
-    _March 16, 1907_--Leon Delagrange with first Voisin biplane, at
-    Bagatelle, flies 30 feet.
-
-    _August 6, 1907_--Louis Bleriot with a Langley machine, at Issy,
-    France, flies 470 feet.
-
-    _October 15, 1907_--Henry Farman with biplane, at Issy, flies 937
-    feet in 21 seconds.
-
-    _October 19, 1907_--R. Esnault-Pelterie with monoplane, at Buc,
-    France, makes short flights.
-
-    _October 26, 1907_--Farman with biplane, at Issy, flies 2,529
-    feet in a half circle, in 52 seconds.
-
-    _November 17, 1907_--Santos-Dumont with biplane, at Issy, makes
-    several short flights, the longest being about 500 feet.
-
-    _November 21, 1907_--Santos-Dumont with monoplane at Bagatelle,
-    makes several short flights, the longest being about 400 feet.
-
-    _January 13, 1908_--Farman with biplane, at Issy, makes the
-    first flight in a circular course--3,279 feet in 1 minute and 28
-    seconds.
-
-    _March 12, 1908_--F. W. Baldwin with biplane “Red Wing,” at
-    Hammondsport, N. Y., flies 319 feet.
-
-    _March 21, 1908_--Farman with biplane, at Issy, flies 1.24 miles
-    in 3 minutes and 31 seconds.
-
-    _March 29, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Ghent, Belgium,
-    makes first recorded flight with one passenger (Farman), 453 feet.
-
-    _April 11, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane at Issy, flies 2.43
-    miles in 6 minutes and 30 seconds, winning the Archdeacon cup.
-
-    _May 18, 1908_--J. A. D. McCurdy with biplane “White Wing” at
-    Hammondsport, flies 600 feet.
-
-    _May 27, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Rome, in the presence
-    of the King of Italy, flies 7.9 miles in 15 minutes and 25
-    seconds.
-
-[Illustration: The early Voisin biplane flown by Farman at Issy.]
-
-    _May 30, 1908_--Farman with biplane, at Ghent, flies 0.77 miles
-    with one passenger (Mr. Archdeacon).
-
-    _June 8, 1908_--Esnault-Pelterie with monoplane, at Buc, flies
-    0.75 miles, reaching an altitude of 100 feet.
-
-    _June 22, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Milan, Italy, flies
-    10.5 miles in 16 minutes and 30 seconds.
-
-    _July 4, 1908_--Glenn H. Curtiss with biplane, at Hammondsport,
-    flies 5,090 feet, in 1 minute and 42 seconds, winning _Scientific
-    American_ cup.
-
-[Illustration: The “June Bug” flown by Curtiss winning the _Scientific
-American_ cup, July 4, 1908.]
-
-    _July 4, 1908_--Bleriot with monoplane, at Issy, flies 3.7 miles
-    in 5 minutes and 47 seconds, making several circles.
-
-    _July 6, 1908_--Farman in biplane, at Ghent, flies 12.2 miles in
-    19 minutes and 3 seconds, winning the Armengand prize.
-
-    _July 8, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Turin, Italy, flies
-    500 feet with the first woman passenger ever carried on an
-    aeroplane--Mrs. Peltier.
-
-    _August 9, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans, France,
-    makes several short flights to prove the ease of control of his
-    machine.
-
-    _August 8, 1908_--L. F. Ferber with biplane, at Issy, makes first
-    trial flights.
-
-    _September 6, 1908_--Delagrange with biplane, at Issy, flies
-    15.2 miles in 29 minutes and 52 seconds, beating existing French
-    records.
-
-    _September 8, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at Fort Myer,
-    Va., flies 40 miles in 1 hour and 2 minutes, rising to 100 feet.
-
-    _September 9, 10, 11, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at
-    Fort Myer, makes several flights, increasing in duration from 57
-    minutes to 1 hour ten minutes and 24 seconds.
-
-    _September 12, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at Fort Myer,
-    flies 50 miles in 1 hour, 14 minutes and 20 seconds, the longest
-    flight on record.
-
-    _September 12, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at Fort Myer,
-    flies for 9 minutes and 6 seconds with one passenger (Major
-    Squier), making a new record.
-
-    _September 17, 1908_--Orville Wright with biplane, at Fort Myer,
-    flies 3 miles in 4 minutes, with Lieutenant Selfridge. The
-    machine fell: Selfridge was killed and Wright severely injured.
-
-    _September 19, 1908_--L. F. Ferber with biplane, at Issy, flies
-    1,640 feet.
-
-    _September 21, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Auvours,
-    flies 41 miles in 1 hour and 31 minutes.
-
-    _September 25, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans,
-    France, flies 11 minutes and 35 seconds, with one passenger,
-    making a new record.
-
-    _October 3, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans,
-    France, flies 55 minutes and 37 seconds, with one passenger,
-    making new record.
-
-    _October 6, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans, flies
-    1 hour 4 minutes and 26 seconds, with one passenger, breaking all
-    records.
-
-    _October 10, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Auvours,
-    flies 46 miles in 1 hour and 9 minutes, with one passenger (Mr.
-    Painleve). Also carried 35 others on different trips, one at a
-    time.
-
-    _October 21, 1908_--Bleriot with monoplane, at Toury, France,
-    flies 4.25 miles in 6 minutes and 40 seconds.
-
-    _October 30, 1908_--Farman with biplane at Chalons, France, makes
-    a flight across country to Rheims--17 miles in 20 minutes.
-
-    _October 31, 1908_--Farman with biplane, at Chalons, flies 23
-    minutes, reaching a height of 82 feet.
-
-    _October 31, 1908_--Bleriot with monoplane, at Toury, flies 8.7
-    miles to Artenay, in 11 minutes, lands, and returns to Toury.
-
-    _December 18, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Auvours,
-    flies 62 miles in 1 hour and 54 minutes, rising to 360
-    feet--making a world record.
-
-    _December 31, 1908_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le Mans,
-    flies 76.5 miles in 2 hours 18 minutes and 53 seconds, making a
-    new world record, and winning the Michelin prize. The distance
-    traversed (unofficial) is claimed to have been actually over 100
-    miles.
-
-    _January 28, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon with biplane, at Chalons,
-    flies 3.1 miles, in practice with a Voison machine.
-
-    _February 14, 1909_--Legagneux with biplane, at Mourmelon,
-    France, flies 1.2 miles, and in a second flight of 6.2 miles (10
-    kilometres), traces two circles.
-
-    _February 22, 1909_--S. F. Cody with biplane, at Aldershot,
-    England, flies 1,200 feet in a 12-mile wind.
-
-    _February 23, 1909_--J. A. D. McCurdy, with the biplane “Silver
-    Dart,” at Baddeck, Cape Breton, flies 2,640 feet.
-
-    _February 24, 1909_--McCurdy, with the biplane “Silver Dart,” at
-    Baddeck, flies 4.5 miles.
-
-    _February 24, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon, with biplane, at Issy, flies
-    1.2 miles, tracing two circles.
-
-    _February 28, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon made several flights at Issy.
-
-    _March 8, 1909_--McCurdy, with biplane “Silver Dart,” at Baddeck,
-    made five flights, the longest about 8 miles in 11 minutes and 15
-    seconds.
-
-    _March 10, 1909_--Santos-Dumont, with monoplane “Libellule,” at
-    Bagatelle, flies 1,300 feet.
-
-    _March 11, 1909_--W. J. Richardson with a new form of aeroplane,
-    at Dayton, O., flies for 38 minutes, rising to a height of over
-    300 feet.
-
-    _March 11, 1909_--McCurdy with biplane “Silver Dart,” at Baddeck,
-    flies 19 miles in 22 minutes.
-
-    _March 17, 1909_--Count de Lambert (pupil of Wilbur Wright) made
-    his first flight alone in biplane, at Pau, France. He remained in
-    the air 3 minutes.
-
-    _March 18, 1909_--McCurdy, with biplane “Silver Dart,” at
-    Baddeck, flies 16 miles, completing a record of an even 1,000
-    miles in the air within a period of 10 months.
-
-    _March 18, 1909_--F. W. Baldwin with biplane “Silver Dart,” at
-    Baddeck, made a short flight.
-
-    _March 20, 1909_--Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at Pau, succeeds
-    in rising from the ground without the starting device previously
-    used. He makes several flights.
-
-    _March 24, 1909_--Count de Lambert with biplane, at Pau, flies
-    15.6 miles in 27 minutes and 11 seconds.
-
-    _April 10, 1909_--Santos-Dumont with monoplane “Demoiselle,” at
-    St. Cyr, France, flies 1.2 miles.
-
-    _April 13, 1909_--Count de Lambert with biplane, at Pau, flies
-    for 1 minute and 30 seconds, with one passenger (Leon Delagrange).
-
-    _April 16, 1909_--Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Rome, Italy,
-    made many flights, taking up many passengers, one at a time.
-
-    _April 27, 1909_--Legagneux with Voisin biplane, at Vienna, flies
-    2.5 miles in 3 minutes and 26 seconds.
-
-    _April 28, 1909_--Lieutenant Mario Calderara (pupil of Wilbur
-    Wright) with biplane, at Rome, made his first public flight,
-    remaining in the air 10 minutes.
-
-    _April 30, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon with biplane, in England, flies
-    4.5 miles.
-
-    _May 14, 1909_--S. F. Cody, with the army biplane, at Aldershot,
-    flies 1 mile.
-
-    _May 19, 1909_--Hubert Latham, with Antoinette monoplane, at
-    Chalons, flies 1,640 feet.
-
-    _May 20, 1909_--Paul Tissandier (pupil of Wilbur Wright) with
-    biplane at Pau, flies 35.7 miles.
-
-    _May 23, 1909_--Delagrange, with biplane, at Juvissy, flies 3.6
-    miles in 10 minutes and 18 seconds, winning the Lagatineri prize.
-
-    _May 23, 1909_--Henri Rougier, with biplane, at Juvissy, flies
-    18.6 miles (30 kilometres).
-
-    _May 30, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane at Issy, flies 8.7 miles.
-
-    _June 5, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Chalons, flies for 1
-    hour 7 minutes and 37 seconds in wind and rain.
-
-    _June 6, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Juvissy, flies 10
-    miles across country.
-
-    _June 12, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Juvissy, flies 30
-    miles in 39 minutes, winning the Goupy prize.
-
-    _June 12, 1909_--Delagrange, with biplane, at Juvissy, makes
-    cross country flight of 3.7 miles.
-
-    _June 12, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Juvissy, flies 984
-    feet, with two passengers--Santos-Dumont and Fournier.
-
-    _June 13 1909_--Ferber, with Voisin biplane, at Juvissy, flies
-    3.1 miles in 5 minutes and 30 seconds.
-
-    _June 19, 1909_--Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, at Issy, makes
-    several flights.
-
-    _July 4, 1909_--Roger Sommer with biplane, at Chalons, flies 3.75
-    miles on Farman machine.
-
-    _July 10, 1909_--Louis Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, France,
-    makes his first flight--1.25 miles.
-
-    _July 13, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola, L. I., flies
-    1.5 miles in 3 minutes.
-
-    _July 13, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Mondesir, makes a
-    flight of 26 miles across country in 44 minutes and 30 seconds.
-
-    _July 15, 1909_--Paulhan with biplane, at Douai, flies for 1
-    minute and 17 seconds, soaring to an altitude of 357 feet.
-
-    _July 17, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer,
-    flies 16 minutes and 40 seconds, at a speed of 40 miles an hour.
-
-    _July 17, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola, makes 15
-    miles in 21 minutes, describing circles in both directions, as in
-    the figure 8.
-
-    _July 18, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Hempstead Plains,
-    L. I., flies 29½ miles in 52 minutes and 30 seconds, a flight
-    exceeded only by the Wrights, in America, and Bleriot, Latham,
-    and Paulhan, in Europe.
-
-    _July 18, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Chalons, flies for 1
-    hour and 23 minutes, making his first long flight.
-
-    _July 18, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, makes his
-    longest flight--1 hour and 40 minutes.
-
-    _July 19, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Calais, France, makes
-    his first attempt to cross the Channel to Dover. He flies 11
-    miles, and then his machine falls into the sea.
-
-    _July 19, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, makes a
-    cross-country flight of 12.1 miles in 22 minutes and 53 seconds.
-
-    _July 20, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer,
-    flies 1 hour and 20 minutes.
-
-    _July 21, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer,
-    flies 1 hour and 29 minutes.
-
-    _July 21, 1909_--E. Lefebvre, with biplane, at La Haye, France,
-    flies 2 miles.
-
-    _July 21, 1909_--S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot, flies 4
-    miles.
-
-    _July 23, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Chalons, makes a
-    cross-country flight to Suippes--40 miles in 1 hour and five
-    minutes.
-
-    _July 23, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, flies 43.5
-    miles in 1 hour 17 minutes and 19 seconds.
-
-    _July 24, 1909_--Curtiss in biplane, at Hempstead Plains, flies
-    25 miles in 52 minutes and 30 seconds, winning the _Scientific
-    American_ cup the second time.
-
-    _July 25, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Calais, flies to
-    Dover, England, across the English Channel--32 miles in 37
-    minutes.
-
-    _July 27, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer,
-    flies 1 hour and 13 minutes, with one passenger, securing
-    acceptance of Wright machine by U. S. Government on the duration
-    specifications.
-
-    _July 27, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Calais, flies 20
-    miles in a second attempt to cross the English Channel. When near
-    Dover the machine fell.
-
-    _July 27, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, flies to
-    Vadenay and back--25 miles in 1 hour 23 minutes and 30 seconds.
-
-    _July 30, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Fort Myer,
-    established a world record with one passenger in a cross-country
-    flight to Shuter’s Hill and back--about 10 miles in 14 minutes
-    and 40 seconds, a speed of about 42 miles an hour--winning a
-    bonus of $25,000 from the U. S. Government.
-
-    _August 1, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, flies 1 hour
-    50 minutes and 30 seconds, at an average height of 80 feet, over
-    a distance estimated at 70 miles, surpassing all French records.
-
-    _August 2, 1909_--McCurdy, with a new type of machine, at
-    Petawawa, makes several flights.
-
-    _August 2, 1909_--F. W. Baldwin, with biplane, at Petawawa, makes
-    several short flights.
-
-    _August 2, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, flies to
-    Suippes--9 miles, at the rate of 45 miles an hour.
-
-    _August 4, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, in the effort
-    to beat Wilbur Wright’s record, flies for 2 hours 0 minutes and
-    10 seconds (Wright’s record flight was 2 hours 20 minutes and 23
-    seconds, made on December 31, 1908).
-
-    _August 5, 1909_--E. Bunau-Varilla, with Voisin biplane, at
-    Chalons, flies for 15 minutes.
-
-    _August 6, 1909_--Legagneux, with biplane, at Stockholm, flies
-    with one passenger, 3,280 feet.
-
-    _August 6, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Dunkerque, France,
-    flies for 18 minutes and 20 seconds, reaching an altitude of 200
-    feet.
-
-    _August 7, 1909_--Paulhan, with Voisin biplane, at Dunkerque,
-    flies 23 miles in 33 minutes.
-
-    _August 7, 1909_--Sommer, with Voisin biplane, at Chalons, flies
-    for 2 hours 27 minutes and 15 seconds, making new world record
-    for duration.
-
-    _August 13, 1909_--Charles F. Willard, with biplane, at Hempstead
-    Plains, made the longest cross-country flight on record for
-    America--about 12 miles in 19 minutes and 30 seconds. The
-    breaking of his engine caused him to come down. He landed without
-    mishap.
-
-    _August 22, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims, France, flies
-    1 hour 19 minutes and 30 seconds.
-
-    _August 22, 1909_--Legagneux, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2
-    miles in 9 minutes and 56 seconds, winning third prize for speed
-    over course of 10 kilometres.
-
-    _August 22, 1909_--Tissandier, with biplane, at Rheims, flies
-    18.6 miles in 29 minutes. (He won with this record the third
-    prize for speed over 30 kilometres.)
-
-    _August 22, 1909_--E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane, at Rheims,
-    flies 6.2 miles in 13 minutes and 30 seconds. (With this
-    record he won the thirteenth prize for speed over course of 10
-    kilometres.)
-
-    _August 23, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies
-    6.2 miles in 11 minutes and 4 seconds. (He won the tenth prize
-    for speed over 10 kilometres.)
-
-    _August 23, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2
-    miles in 8 minutes and 35 seconds--a speed of 42.3 miles an
-    hour--beating the record for speed over course of 10 kilometres.
-
-    _August 23, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 18.6
-    miles in 38 minutes and 12 seconds, reaching an altitude of 295
-    feet.
-
-    _August 23, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 34.8
-    miles in an endurance test.
-
-    _August 25, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 82
-    miles in 2 hours 43 minutes and 25 seconds. (With this record he
-    won the third prize for duration of flight.)
-
-    _August 25, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2
-    miles in 8 minutes and 44 seconds, again reducing the time for 10
-    kilometres.
-
-    _August 25, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2
-    miles in 8 minutes and 4 seconds, making a new record for speed
-    over the course of 10 kilometres.
-
-    _August 26, 1909_--Curtiss, in biplane, at Rheims, flies 19 miles
-    in 29 minutes. (With this record he won the tenth prize for
-    duration of flight.)
-
-    _August 26, 1909_--Count de Lambert, with biplane, at Rheims,
-    flies 72 miles in 1 hour and 52 minutes. (With this record he won
-    the fourth prize for duration of flight.)
-
-    _August 26, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies 96.5
-    miles in 2 hours 17 minutes and 21 seconds. (With this record he
-    won the second prize for duration of flight.)
-
-    _August 27, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 112
-    miles in 3 hours 4 minutes and 57 seconds. (This record won for
-    him the first prize for duration of flight.)
-
-[Illustration: Latham flying in his Antoinette at Rheims. To view this
-properly the picture should be held overhead.]
-
-    _August 27, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies to an
-    altitude of 508 feet. (With this record he won first prize for
-    altitude.)
-
-    _August 27, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies
-    31 miles. (With this record he won the eighth prize for duration
-    of flight.)
-
-    _August 27, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 37
-    miles. He won the seventh prize for distance.
-
-    _August 27, 1909_--Tissandier, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 69
-    miles. (This record won for him the sixth prize for distance.)
-
-    _August 27, 1909_--Lefebvre, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 12.4
-    miles in 20 minutes and 47 seconds, exhibiting great daring and
-    skill. (He was fined for “recklessness.”)
-
-    _August 27, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies 25
-    miles in 41 minutes. (This record won for him the ninth prize for
-    distance flown.)
-
-    _August 28, 1909_--Lefebvre, with biplane, at Rheims, makes a
-    spectacular flight for 11 minutes with one passenger.
-
-    _August 28, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 12.4
-    miles in 15 minutes and 56 seconds, winning the Gordon Bennett
-    cup.
-
-    _August 28, 1909_--Bleriot, with monoplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2
-    miles in 7 minutes and 48 seconds. (With this record he won the
-    first prize for speed over course of 10 kilometres.)
-
-    _August 29, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2
-    miles with two passengers, in 10 minutes and 30 seconds, winning
-    a prize.
-
-    _August 29. 1909--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 18.6
-    miles in 23 minutes and 30 seconds. (With this record he won the
-    first prize for speed over course of 30 kilometres.)
-
-    _August 29, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, flies 6.2
-    miles in 7 minutes and 51 seconds, winning the second prize for
-    speed over course of 10 kilometres.
-
-    _August 29, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Rheims, rises to a
-    height of 180 feet, winning the fourth prize for altitude.
-
-    _August 29, 1909_--E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane, at Rheims,
-    flies 18.6 miles in 38 minutes and 31 seconds. (With this record
-    he won the eighth prize for speed over course of 30 kilometres.)
-
-    _August 29, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, makes
-    several short flights.
-
-    _August 29, 1909_--S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot, flies
-    10 miles with one passenger.
-
-    _September 4, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin,
-    flies for 55 minutes.
-
-    _September 6, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Nancy, France,
-    flies 25 miles in 35 minutes. He takes up a number of passengers;
-    one at a time.
-
-    _September 7, 1909_--Lefebvre, with biplane, at Juvissy, is
-    killed by the breaking of his machine in the air after he had
-    flown 1,800 feet.
-
-    _September 8, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin,
-    flies 17 minutes with one passenger--Captain Hildebrandt.
-
-    _September 8, 1909_--S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot,
-    flies to Farnborough and back--46 miles in 1 hour and 3 minutes.
-    This is the first recorded cross-country flight in England.
-
-    _September 9, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin,
-    flies for 15 minutes with one passenger--Captain Englehardt.
-
-    _September 9, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Tournai, Belgium,
-    flies 12.4 miles in 17 minutes.
-
-    _September 9, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Brescia, flies 12
-    minutes and 10 seconds, soaring to a height of 328 feet.
-
-    _September 10, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Nancy, flies 18
-    miles, accompanying troops on review.
-
-    _September 11, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Nancy, flies to
-    Lenoncourt--24 miles.
-
-    _September 11, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Brescia, flies 31
-    miles in 49 minutes and 24 seconds, winning the first prize for
-    speed.
-
-    _September 12, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Brescia, flies 31
-    miles in 1 hour 10 minutes and 18 seconds, soaring to a height of
-    380 feet.
-
-    _September 12, 1909_--Calderara, with biplane, at Brescia, flies
-    6.3 miles with one passenger, winning a prize.
-
-    _September 13, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Tournai, flies to
-    Taintiguies and back in 1 hour and 35 minutes.
-
-    _September 13, 1909_--Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, at St. Cyr,
-    France, flies 5 miles in 12 minutes, to Buc, to visit Maurice
-    Guffroy, on a bet of $200 that each would be the first to visit
-    the other.
-
-    _September 15, 1909_--Ferber, with biplane, at Boulogne, France,
-    flies to Wimeroux--6 miles in 9 minutes.
-
-    _September 15, 1909_--Calderara, with biplane, at Brescia, flies
-    5.6 miles with one passenger, winning the Oldofredi prize.
-
-    _September 17, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin,
-    flies for 54 minutes and 26 seconds, rising to an altitude of
-    765 feet (estimated). He afterward flew for 47 minutes and 5
-    seconds with Captain Englehardt.
-
-    _September 17, 1909_--Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, at St. Cyr,
-    flies 10 miles in 16 minutes across country.
-
-    _September 17, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Ostend, Belgium,
-    flies 1.24 miles in 3 minutes and 16 seconds, along the water
-    front and out over the sea.
-
-    _September 18, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin,
-    establishes a world record by flying for 1 hour 35 minutes and 47
-    seconds, with one passenger--Captain Englehardt.
-
-    _September 18, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Ostend, flies for
-    1 hour over sea front, circling over the water; winning a prize
-    of $5,000.
-
-    _September 20, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Brescia, broke
-    the record for high flying by reaching an altitude of 645 feet
-    (official measurement).
-
-    _September 20, 1909_--Calderara, with biplane, at Brescia, flies
-    31 miles in 50 minutes and 51 seconds, winning the second prize
-    for speed.
-
-    _September 22, 1909_--Captain Ferber, with a biplane, at
-    Boulogne, flies 1 mile, when, his engine breaking in the air, his
-    machine falls and he is killed.
-
-    _September 25, 1909_--Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at New York,
-    flies from Governor’s Island around the Statue of Liberty.
-
-    _September 27, 1909_--Latham, in monoplane, at Berlin, flies 6.5
-    miles across country in 13 minutes.
-
-    _September 28, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin, flies 31
-    miles in 54 minutes, soaring to an altitude of 518 feet.
-
-    _September 29, 1909_--Latham in monoplane, at Berlin, flies 42
-    miles in 1 hour and 10 minutes, winning the second prize for
-    distance.
-
-    _September 29, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin, flies 48
-    miles in 1 hour and 35 minutes.
-
-    _September 29, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at New York, makes
-    flights about the harbor from Governor’s Island.
-
-    _September 30, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin,
-    soars to a height of 902 feet, making a world record for altitude.
-
-    _September 30, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Berlin, flies 51
-    miles in 1 hour and 23 minutes.
-
-    _October 1, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin, flies 80
-    miles in 2 hours and 38 minutes, winning the first prize for
-    distance and speed.
-
-    _October 2, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin, makes
-    a flight of 10 minutes’ duration with the Crown Prince of Germany.
-
-    _October 3, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Berlin, flies 62
-    miles in 1 hour and 40 minutes, winning the third prize for
-    distance and speed.
-
-    _October 4, 1909_--Orville Wright, with biplane, at Berlin,
-    soared to an altitude of 1,600 feet, making a world record.
-
-    _October 4, 1909_--Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at New York,
-    flies from Governor’s Island to Grant’s Tomb and back--21 miles
-    in 33 minutes and 33 seconds.
-
-    _October 10, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at St. Louis, Mo.,
-    makes several flights at the Centennial celebration.
-
-    _October 10, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt. Aviation, flies
-    21.5 miles in 21 minutes and 48 seconds.
-
-    _October 12, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt. Aviation, flies
-    3.6 miles in 6 minutes and 11 seconds, winning the prize for
-    slowest flight.
-
-    _October 16, 1909_--Curtiss, with biplane, at Chicago, makes
-    exhibition flights at 45 miles per hour.
-
-    _October 16, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Doncaster, England,
-    flies 9.7 miles in 21 minutes and 45 seconds, making the record
-    for Great Britain.
-
-    _October 16, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Doncaster,
-    flies 5.75 miles in 11 minutes and 25 seconds.
-
-    _October 16, 1909_--Cody, with biplane, at Doncaster, flies 3,000
-    feet, when his machine is wrecked, and he is injured.
-
-    _October 18, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Blackpool, England,
-    flies 14 miles in 25 minutes and 53 seconds.
-
-    _October 18, 1909_--Rougier, with biplane, at Blackpool, flies
-    17.7 miles in 24 minutes and 43 seconds, winning the second prize.
-
-    _October 18, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Blackpool, flies 14
-    miles in 23 minutes.
-
-    _October 18, 1909_--Le Blon, with monoplane, at Doncaster, flies
-    22 miles in 30 minutes, in a rainstorm, winning the Bradford cup.
-
-    _October 18, 1909_--Count de Lambert, with biplane, at Juvissy,
-    flies 31 miles to the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and back, in 49
-    minutes and 39 seconds.
-
-    _October 19, 1909_--Le Blon, with monoplane, at Doncaster, flies
-    15 miles in a gale.
-
-    _October 19, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Blackpool, flies
-    15.7 miles in 32 minutes and 18 seconds, winning the third prize.
-
-    _October 20, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Blackpool, flies 47
-    miles in 1 hour, 32 minutes, and 16 seconds, winning the first
-    prize--$10,000.
-
-    _October 20, 1909_--Le Blon, with monoplane, at Doncaster, makes
-    a spectacular flight in a fierce gale.
-
-    _October 21, 1909_--Count de Lambert, with biplane, at Pt.
-    Aviation, flies 1.25 miles in 1 minute and 57 seconds, winning
-    prize of $3,000 for speed.
-
-    _October 22, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Blackpool, flies
-    in a squally gale blowing from 30 to 50 miles an hour. When
-    headed into the wind the machine moved backward in relation to
-    points on the ground. Going before the wind, it passed points on
-    the ground at a speed of nearly 100 miles an hour. This flight,
-    twice around the course, is the most difficult feat accomplished
-    by any aviator up to this date.
-
-    _October 26, 1909_--Sommer, with biplane, at Doncaster, flies
-    29.7 miles in 44 minutes and 53 seconds, winning the Whitworth
-    cup.
-
-    _October 26, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Doncaster,
-    flies 6 miles in 7 minutes and 36 seconds--a speed of over 50
-    miles an hour.
-
-    _October 30, 1909_--Moore-Brabazon, with biplane, at Shell Beach,
-    England, wins a prize of $5,000 for flight with a British machine.
-
-    _November 3, 1909_--Farman, with biplane, at Mourmelon, France,
-    flies 144 miles in 4 hours 6 minutes and 25 seconds, far
-    surpassing his previous best record of 112 miles in 3 hours 4
-    minutes and 57 seconds, made at Rheims, and winning the Michelin
-    cup for duration and distance.
-
-    _November 19, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Mourmelon, broke
-    the record for height by ascending to 1,170 feet, in a wind
-    blowing from 20 to 25 miles an hour.
-
-    _November 19, 1909_--Latham, with Antoinette monoplane, surpassed
-    Paulhan’s record by rising to an altitude of 1,333 feet.
-
-    _November 20, 1909_--Paulhan, with biplane, at Mourmelon, flies
-    to Chalons and back--37 miles in 55 minutes.
-
-    _December 1, 1909_--Latham, with monoplane, at Mourmelon, soars
-    to 1,500 feet in a 40-mile gale.
-
-    _December 30, 1909_--Delagrange, with monoplane, at Juvissy,
-    flies 124 miles in 2 hours and 32 minutes--an average speed of
-    48.9 miles per hour, surpassing all previous records.
-
-    _December 31, 1909_--Farman at Chartres, France, flies to
-    Orleans--42 miles in 50 minutes.
-
-    _December 31, 1909_--Maurice Farman, at Mourmelon, defending his
-    brother Henry’s record against competing aviators, flies 100
-    miles in 2 hours and 45 minutes, without a fault. The Michelin
-    cup remains in his brother’s possession.
-
-    _January 7, 1910_--Latham, with Antoinette monoplane, at Chalons,
-    rises to height of 3,281 feet (world’s record).
-
-    _January 10, 1910_--Opening of aviation meet at Los Angeles, Cal.
-
-    _January 12, 1910_--Paulhan, Farman biplane, at Los Angeles,
-    rises to height of 4,146 feet. (World’s record.)
-
-    _January 17, 1910_--Paulhan, Farman biplane, at Los Angeles,
-    flies 75 miles in 1 hour 58 minutes and 27⅖ seconds.
-
-    _February 7, 1910_--First flight in South America. Bregi, Voisin
-    biplane, makes two flights near Buenos Aires.
-
-    _February 7, 1910_--Duray, with Farman biplane, at Heliopolis,
-    Egypt, flies 5 kilometres in 4 minutes and 12⅘ seconds. (World’s
-    record.)
-
-    _April 8, 1910_--D. Kinet, with Farman biplane, at Mourmelon,
-    flies for 2 hours 19 minutes and 4⅖ seconds with passenger,
-    covering 102 miles. (World’s record for passenger flight.)
-
-    _April 11, 1910_--E. Jeannin, with Farman biplane, flies 2 hours
-    1 minute and 55 seconds, at Johannisthal. (German record.)
-
-    _April 15, 1910_--Opening of Nice meeting.
-
-    _April 17, 1910_--Paulhan, with Farman biplane, flies from
-    Chevilly to Arcis-sur-Aube, 118 miles. (Record cross-country
-    flight.)
-
-    _April 23, 1910_--Grahame-White, with Farman biplane, flies from
-    Park Royal, London, to Rugby (83 miles) in 2 hours and 1 minute.
-    Starting again in 55 minutes, flies to Whittington in 1 hour and
-    5 minutes.
-
-    _April 27, 1910_--Paulhan, with Farman biplane, starts from
-    Hendon, London, at 5.31 P. M., flies within 5 mile circle
-    and continues to Lichfield, arriving 8.10 P. M. (117 miles).
-    Grahame-White starts from Wormwood Scrubs, London, at 6.29 P.
-    M., flies to Roade, arriving 7.55 P. M. (60 miles).
-
-    _April 28, 1910_--Paulhan flies from Lichfield to within 5 miles
-    of Manchester, winning the £10,000 _Daily Mail_ prize.
-
-    _April 30, 1910_--Opening of meeting at Tours, France.
-
-    _May 1, 1910_--Opening of flying-week at Barcelona.
-
-    _May 3, 1910_--Wiencziers, with Antoinette monoplane, twice
-    circles the Strassburg cathedral.
-
-    _May 6, 1910_--Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane, makes flight
-    of 18 minutes and 20 seconds above the sea at Barcelona, and over
-    the fortress of Monjuich.
-
-    _May 13, 1910_--Engelhardt, with Wright biplane, at Berlin, flies
-    2 hours 21 minutes and 45 seconds. (German record.)
-
-    _May 15, 1910_--Kinet, with Farman biplane, flies 2 hours and 51
-    minutes with a passenger at Mourmelon, making the world’s record
-    for passenger flight.
-
-    _May 15, 1910_--Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane, flies 15
-    miles over the sea at Genoa.
-
-    _May 21, 1910_--M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane, flies
-    from Calais to Dover in 37 minutes, winning £500 prize offered by
-    M. M. Ruinart.
-
-    _May 28, 1910_--G. Curtiss, with Curtiss biplane, starts from
-    Albany at 7.03 A. M., flies to Poughkeepsie in 1 hour and 21
-    minutes (70 miles). Leaves Poughkeepsie at 9.24 A. M., flies to
-    Spuyten Duyvil in 1 hour and 11 minutes (67 miles). Rises again
-    at 11.45, flies over New York, landing on Governor’s Island at
-    12.03 P. M. Wins prize of $10,000 given by the New York _World_.
-
-    _June 2, 1910_--Rolls, with Short-Wright biplane, leaves Dover
-    at 6.30 P. M., crosses Channel to French coast near Calais (7.15
-    P. M.), without landing re-crosses Channel to Dover, flies over
-    harbor, circles Dover Castle, and lands at 8.10 P. M. Wins second
-    Ruinart prize of £80.
-
-    _June 14, 1910_--Brookins, with Wright biplane, at Indianapolis,
-    reaches height of 4,380 feet. (World’s record.)
-
-    _June 25, 1910_--In Italian Parliament 25 million lire (about
-    $5,000,000) voted for aviation in the extraordinary estimates of
-    the Ministry of War.
-
-    _June 26, 1910_--Dickson, with Farman biplane, at Rouen, wins
-    total distance prize of £2,000 and the £400 for longest unbroken
-    flight. Distance flown, 466 miles.
-
-    _June 27, 1910_--M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane, flies
-    over Montreal for 49 minutes, covering about 30 miles at height
-    generally of 2,000 feet.
-
-    _July 6, 1910_--First German military aeroplane makes maiden
-    cross-country flight over Doeberitz.
-
-    _July 26, 1910_--M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane, starting
-    from Ile de Gros Bois in the St. Lawrence, makes trip of 40 miles
-    in 37 minutes.
-
-    _August 1, 1910_--Henry Farman takes up three passengers at
-    Mourmelon for 1 hour and 4 minutes.
-
-    _August 5, 1910_--Chavez, with Bleriot monoplane, attains height
-    of 5,750 feet. World’s record.
-
-    _August 7, 1910_--Lieutenants Cammerman and Villerme fly together
-    from Mourmelon to Nancy, 125 miles in 2½ hours, with a Farman
-    biplane.
-
-    _August 11, 1910_--Drexel, with Bleriot monoplane, at Lanark,
-    beats the world’s record for height, rising 6,600 feet.
-
-    _August 27, 1910_--First wireless telegram from a flying
-    aeroplane, sent by McCurdy from a Curtiss machine in the air,
-    at Atlantic City, N. J. The sending key was attached to the
-    steering wheel.
-
-    _August 28, 1910_--Dufaux, with biplane constructed by himself,
-    flies over Lake Geneva, wins prize of £200 offered by Swiss Aero
-    Club.
-
-    _August 29, 1910_--Breguet, with Breguet monoplane, makes a
-    flight at Lille, France, carrying five passengers, establishing
-    world’s record for passenger flight.
-
-    _August 29, 1910_--Morane, with Bleriot monoplane, at Havre,
-    beats world’s altitude record, reaches height of 7,166 feet.
-
-    _September 2, 1910_--Mlle. Hélène Dutrieux flies with a passenger
-    from Ostend to Bruges, Belgium, and back to Ostend. At Bruges she
-    circled around the famous belfry at a height of 1,300 feet, the
-    chimes pealing in honor of the feat--the most wonderful flight so
-    far accomplished by a woman.
-
-    _September 3, 1910_--M. Bielovucci lands at Bordeaux, France,
-    having made the trip from Paris, 366 miles, inside of 48 hours.
-    The actual time in the air was 7 hours 6 minutes. Strong head
-    winds blew him backward, forcing a landing three times on the
-    way. This is the fourth longest cross-country flight on record,
-    and makes the world’s record for sustained speed over a long
-    distance.
-
-[Illustration: Mlle. Hélène Dutrieux.]
-
-    _September 4, 1910_--Morane, at Havre, rises to height of 8,469
-    feet.
-
-    _September 7, 1910_--Weyman, with Farman biplane, flies from Buc
-    in attempt to reach the top of the Puy-de-Dôme, lands at Volvic,
-    5 miles from his destination. Establishes world’s record for
-    flight with passenger, having covered 139 miles without landing.
-
-    _September 28, 1910_--Chavez crosses the Alps on a Bleriot
-    monoplane from Brigue, in Switzerland, to Domodossola, in Italy,
-    flying over the Simplon Pass.
-
-    _October 1, 1910_--Henri Wynmalen, of Holland, with a biplane at
-    Mourmelon, France, rises to a height of 9,121 feet, making a new
-    world’s record for altitude.
-
-    _October 4, 1910_--Maurice Tabuteau recrossed the Pyrenees, in
-    his return trip from San Sebastian to Biarritz, without accident
-    or marked incident.
-
-    _October 5, 1910_--Leon Morane, the winner of nearly all the
-    contests in the English meets for 1910, fell with his monoplane
-    at Boissy St. Leger, during a contest for the Michelin cup, and
-    was seriously injured.
-
-    _October 8, 1910_--Archibald Hoxsey, with a biplane, makes the
-    longest continuous aeroplane flight recorded in America, between
-    Springfield, Ill., and St. Louis, Mo.--104 miles.
-
-    _October 12, 1910_--Alfred Leblanc, with monoplane, at St. Louis,
-    flies 13 miles in 10 minutes, a speed of 78 miles per hour.
-    It was not officially recorded, as a part of the distance was
-    outside of the prescribed course.
-
-    _October 14, 1910_--Grahame-White flies from the Bennings
-    Race Track 6 miles across the Potomac River to the Capitol at
-    Washington, circles the dome, and then circles the Washington
-    Monument, and finally alights with precision in Executive Street,
-    between the Executive Offices and the building of the State,
-    Army, and Navy Departments. After a brief call, he rose from the
-    narrow street--but 20 feet wider than his biplane--and returned
-    to the race track without untoward incident.
-
-    _October 16, 1910_--Wynmalen flies from Paris to Brussels, and
-    returns, with one passenger, within the elapsed time of 27 hours
-    50 minutes, winning two prizes amounting to $35,000. The distance
-    is 350 miles, and the actual time in the air was 15 hours 38
-    minutes.
-
-    _October 25, 1910_--J. Armstrong Drexel, with monoplane, at
-    Belmont Park, L. I., rises to height of 7,105 feet, breaking
-    previous records, and surpassing his own record of 6,600 feet,
-    made at Lanark, Scotland.
-
-    _October 26, 1910_--Ralph Johnstone, in biplane, at Belmont
-    Park, rises to the height of 7,313 feet, through sleet and snow,
-    breaking the new American record made by Drexel the day before.
-
-    _October 27, 1910_--Johnstone, with biplane, at Belmont Park,
-    rises to height of 8,471 feet, surpassing his own record of the
-    day before and establishing a new American record. The feat was
-    performed in a gale blowing nearly 60 miles per hour, and the
-    aviator was carried 55 miles away from his starting point before
-    he landed.
-
-    _October 28, 1910_--Tabuteau, with biplane, at Etampes, France,
-    makes a new world’s endurance record of 6 hours’ continuous
-    flight, covering a distance of 289 miles.
-
-    _October 29, 1910_--Grahame-White, with monoplane, at Belmont
-    Park, wins the International speed race over the distance of 62.1
-    miles, in 1 hour 1 minute 4⅗ seconds.
-
-    _October 29, 1910_--Leblanc, with monoplane, at Belmont Park,
-    makes a new world’s record for speed, reaching 70 miles per hour
-    during the International speed race. Through a lack of fuel he
-    lost the race to Grahame-White, after covering 59 miles in 52
-    minutes.
-
-    _October 30, 1910_--John B. Moisant, with monoplane, wins the
-    race from Belmont Park around the Statue of Liberty in New York
-    harbor, and the prize of $10,000. The distance is about 34 miles,
-    and Moisant covered it in 34 minutes 39 seconds.
-
-    _October 30, 1910_--James Radley, with monoplane, at Belmont
-    Park, wins the cross-country flight of 20 miles in 20 minutes 5
-    seconds.
-
-    _October 31, 1910_--Johnstone, with biplane, at Belmont Park,
-    rises to a height of 9,714 feet, breaking the previous world’s
-    record, made by Wynmalen on October 1.
-
-    _October 31, 1910_--Drexel, with monoplane, racing for altitude
-    with Johnstone, reaches a height of 8,370 feet.
-
-    _October 31, 1910_--Moisant, with monoplane, at Belmont Park,
-    wins the two-hour distance race with a record of 84 miles. His
-    next nearest competitor covered but 57 miles.
-
-    _November 14, 1910_--Eugene Ely, with biplane, flew from a
-    staging on the deck of the U. S. Cruiser _Birmingham_ 8 miles
-    to the shore near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. The flight was
-    intended to end at the Norfolk Navy Yard, but an accident to the
-    propeller at starting forced Ely to make directly for the shore.
-
-    _November 17, 1910_--Ralph Johnstone, holder of the world’s
-    altitude record of 9,714 feet, was killed at Denver, Col., by a
-    fall with his biplane.
-
-    _November 23, 1910_--Drexel, at Philadelphia, reaches an altitude
-    of 9,970 feet, passing all other altitude records. Coming down he
-    made a straight glide of seven miles.
-
-    _December 2, 1910_--Charles K. Hamilton, at Memphis, Tenn., flies
-    4 miles in 3 minutes 1 second, a speed of 79.2 miles per hour.
-    This is a new world’s record.
-
-
-
-
-Chapter XX.
-
-EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS.
-
-
-Every development in human progress is marked by a concurrent
-development in language. To express the new ideas, new words appear, or
-new meanings are given to words already in use.
-
-As yet, the vocabulary of aeronautics is in the same constructive and
-incomplete state as is the science to which it attempts to give voice,
-and the utmost that can be done at this time is to record such words
-and special meanings as are in use in the immediate present.
-
-
-A
-
-    _Adjusting Plane_--A small plane, or surface, at the outer end of
-    a wing, by which the lateral (from side to side) balance of an
-    aeroplane is adjusted. It is not connected with the controlling
-    mechanism, as are the ailerons--nor with any automatic device.
-
-    _Aerodrome_--A term used by Professor Langley as a better
-    name for the aeroplane; but latterly it has been applied to
-    the buildings in which airships are housed, and also in a few
-    instances, as a name for the course laid out for aeronautical
-    contests.
-
-    _Aerofoil_--Another name for the aeroplane, suggested as more
-    accurate, considering that the surfaces are not true planes.
-
-    _Aeronef_--Another name for an aeroplane.
-
-    _Aeroplane_--The type of flying machine which is supported
-    in the air by a spread of surfaces or planes, formerly flat,
-    and therefore truly “plane,” but of late more or less curved.
-    Even though not absolutely accurate, this term has resisted
-    displacement by any other.
-
-    _Aerostat_--A free balloon afloat in the air.
-
-    _Aeronate_--A captive balloon.
-
-    _Aileron_--A small movable plane at the wing-tips, or hinged
-    between the main planes, usually at their outer ends, operated by
-    the aviator to restore the lateral balance of the machine when
-    disturbed.
-
-    _Air-speed_--The speed of aircraft as related to the air in which
-    they are moving; as distinguished from land-speed (which see).
-
-    _Alighting Gear_--Devices on the under side of the aeroplane to
-    take up the jar of landing after flight, and at the same time to
-    check the forward motion at that moment.
-
-    _Angle of Entry_--The angle made by the tangent to the curve of
-    the aeroplane surface at its forward edge, with the direction, or
-    line, of travel.
-
-    _Angle of Incidence_--The angle made by the chord of the arc of a
-    curved “plane,” or by the line of a flat plane, with the line of
-    travel.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-    _Angle of Trail_--The angle made by the tangent to the rear edge
-    of a curved plane with the line of travel.
-
-    _Apteroid_--A form resembling the “short and broad” type of the
-    wings of certain birds--as distinguished from the pterygoid
-    (which see).
-
-    _Arc_--Any part of a circle, or other curved line.
-
-    _Arch_--The curve formed by bending the wings downward at the
-    tips, leaving them higher at the centre of the machine.
-
-    _Aspect_--The view of the top of an aeroplane as it appears when
-    looked down upon from above.
-
-    _Aspiration_--The (hitherto) unexplained tendency of a curved
-    surface--convex side upward--to rise and advance when a stream of
-    air blows against its forward edge and across the top.
-
-    _Attitude_--The position of a plane as related to the line of its
-    travel; usually expressed by the angle of incidence.
-
-    _Automatic Stability_--That stability which is preserved by
-    self-acting, or self-adjusting, devices which are not under the
-    control of the operator, nor a fixed part of the machine, as are
-    the adjusting planes.
-
-    _Aviation_--Flying by means of power-propelled machines which are
-    not buoyed up in the air, as with gas bags.
-
-    _Aviator_--The operator, driver, or pilot of an aeroplane.
-
-
-B
-
-    _Balance_--Equilibrium maintained by the controlling mechanism,
-    or by the automatic action of balancing-surfaces--as
-    distinguished from the equilibrium preserved by stabilizing
-    surfaces.
-
-    _Balancing Plane_--The surface which is employed either
-    intentionally, or automatically, to restore a disturbed balance.
-
-    _Biplane_--The type of aeroplane which has two main supporting
-    surfaces or planes, placed one above the other.
-
-    _Body_--The central structure of an aeroplane, containing the
-    machinery and the passenger space--as distinguished from the
-    wings, or planes, and the tail.
-
-    _Brace_--A construction member of the framing of aircraft
-    which resists a compression strain in a diagonal direction--as
-    distinguished from a “stay,” or “diagonal,” which supports a
-    pulling strain; also from a strut which supports a compression
-    strain in a vertical direction.
-
-
-C
-
-    _Camber_--The distance from the chord of the curve of a surface
-    to the highest point of that curve, measured at right angles to
-    the chord.
-
-    _Caster_, or _Castor_, _Wheel_--A wheel mounted on an upright
-    pivoted shaft placed forward of its axle, so that it swivels
-    automatically to assume the line of travel of an aeroplane when
-    landing: used in the alighting gear. To be distinguished from a
-    fixed wheel, which does not swivel.
-
-    _Cell_--A structure with enclosing sides--similar to a box
-    without top or bottom stood upon one side. The vertical walls
-    of the cell give lateral stability, and its horizontal walls
-    fore-and-aft stability.
-
-[Illustration: The first Santos-Dumont biplane, constructed of cells.]
-
-    _Centre of Gravity_--That point of a body where its weight
-    centres. If this point is supported, the body rests in exact
-    balance.
-
-    _Centre of Lift_--The one point at which the lifting forces of
-    the flying planes might be concentrated, and produce the same
-    effect.
-
-    _Centre of Resistance_--The one point at which the forces
-    opposing the flight of an air-craft might be concentrated, and
-    produce the same result.
-
-    _Centre of Thrust_--The one point at which the forces generated
-    by the revolving propellers might be concentrated, and produce
-    the same effect.
-
-    _Chassis_--The under-structure or “running-gear” of an aeroplane.
-
-    _Chord_--The straight line between the two ends of an arc of a
-    circle or other curved line.
-
-    _Compound Control_--A mechanical system by which several distinct
-    controls are operated through different manipulations of the same
-    lever or steering-wheel.
-
-    _Compression Side_--That side of a plane or propeller blade
-    against which the air is compressed--the under surface of a
-    flying plane, and the rear surface of a revolving propeller.
-
-    _Curtain_--The vertical surface of a cell--the wall which stands
-    upright.
-
-
-D
-
-    _Deck_--A main aeroplane surface. The term is used generally in
-    describing biplanes; as the upper deck, and the lower deck; or
-    with aeroplanes of many decks.
-
-    _Demountable_--A type of construction which permits a machine to
-    be easily taken apart for transportation.
-
-    _Derrick_--A tower-shaped structure in which a weight is raised
-    and allowed to fall to give starting impetus to an aeroplane.
-
-    _Dihedral_--That form of construction in which the wings of an
-    aeroplane start with an upward incline at their junction with the
-    body of the machine, instead of stretching out on a level.
-
-    _Dirigible_--The condition of being directable, or steerable:
-    applied generally to the balloons fitted with propelling power,
-    or airships.
-
-    _Double Rudder_--A rudder composed of two intersecting planes,
-    one vertical and the other horizontal, thus enabling the operator
-    to steer in any direction with the one rudder.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-    _Double-Surfaced_--Planes which are covered with fabric on both
-    their upper and lower surfaces, thus completely inclosing their
-    frames.
-
-    _Down-Wind_--Along with the wind; in the direction in which the
-    wind is blowing.
-
-    _Drift_--The recoil of an aeroplane surface forced through the
-    air: also the tendency to float in the same direction as the wind.
-
-
-E
-
-    _Elevator_--A shorter name for the elevating planes or elevating
-    rudder, used for directing the aeroplane upward or downward.
-
-    _Ellipse_--An oval figure outlined by cutting a cone through from
-    side to side on a plane not parallel to its base. Some inventors
-    use the curves of the ellipse in forming the wings of aeroplanes.
-    See Hyperbola and Parabola.
-
-    _Entry_--The penetration of the air by the forward edge of
-    aircraft surfaces. See Angle of Entry.
-
-    _Equivalent Head Area_--Such an area of flat surface as will
-    encounter head resistance equal to the total of that of the
-    construction members of the framework--struts, braces, spars,
-    diagonals, etc., of the aerial craft.
-
-
-F
-
-    _Feathering_--A form of construction in which mounting on hinges,
-    or pivots, permits the surfaces to engage the air flatwise in one
-    direction and to pass edgewise through it in other directions.
-
-    _Fin_--A fixed vertical stabilizing surface, similar in form to
-    the fin on the back of a fish.
-
-    _Fish Section_--A term applied to the lengthwise section of
-    an aircraft when the outline resembles the general shape of a
-    fish--blunted in front and tapering toward the rear. This form is
-    believed to encounter less resistance than any other, in passing
-    through the air.
-
-    _Fixed Wheel_--A wheel in a fixed mounting, so that it does not
-    swivel as does a caster wheel.
-
-    _Flapping Flight_--Flight by the up-and-down beating of wings,
-    similar to the common flight of pigeons.
-
-    _Flexible Propeller_--A propeller in which the blades are frames
-    covered more or less loosely with a fabric which is in a measure
-    free to adjust its form to the compression of the air behind it
-    as it revolves.
-
-    _Flying Angle_--The angle of incidence of the main surface of an
-    aeroplane when in flight. See Ground Angle.
-
-    _Footpound_--The amount of force required to raise one pound to
-    a height of one foot.
-
-    _Fore-and-aft_--From front to rear: lengthwise: longitudinal.
-
-    _Fuselage_--The framework of the body of an aeroplane.
-
-
-G
-
-    _Glider_--A structure similar to an aeroplane, but without motive
-    power.
-
-    _Gliding_--Flying down a slope of air with a glider, or with an
-    aeroplane in which the propelling power is cut off.
-
-    _Gliding Angle_--The flattest angle at which a given machine will
-    make a perfect glide. This angle differs with different machines.
-    The flatter the gliding angle the safer the machine.
-
-    _Ground Angle_--The angle of incidence of an aeroplane surface
-    when the machine is standing on the ground.
-
-    _Guy_--A wire attached to a more or less distant part of the
-    structure of any aircraft to prevent spreading. Also used to
-    denote controlling wires which transmit the movements of the
-    levers.
-
-    _Gyroscopic Action_--The resistance which a rotating wheel, or
-    wheel-like construction, exhibits when a disturbing force tends
-    to change its plane of rotation.
-
-
-H
-
-    _Hangar_--A structure for the housing of aeroplanes.
-
-    _Head Resistance_--The resistance encountered by a surface moving
-    through the air.
-
-    _Heavier-than-air_--A term applied to flying machines whose
-    weight is not counterbalanced or buoyed up by the lifting power
-    of some gas lighter than air; and which weigh more than the
-    volume of air displaced.
-
-    _Helicopater_--A type of flying machine in which propellers
-    revolving horizontally lift and sustain its weight in the air.
-
-    _Horizontal Rudder_--The rudder surface which is used to steer an
-    aircraft upward or downward: so-called because it lies normally
-    in a position parallel to the horizon; that is, level.
-
-    _Horse-power_--An amount of work equivalent to the lifting of
-    33,000 footpounds in one minute. See Footpound.
-
-    _Hyperbola_--The outline formed by the cutting of a cone by a
-    plane passing one side of its axis at such an angle that it would
-    also intersect another cone placed apex to apex on the same axis.
-
-
-K
-
-    _Keel_--A framework extending lengthwise under an aircraft to
-    stiffen the construction: usually employed on airships with
-    elongated gas-bags.
-
-
-L
-
-    _Lateral_--From side to side; that is, crossing the length
-    fore-and-aft, and generally at right angles to it.
-
-    _Land-speed_--The speed of aircraft as related to objects on the
-    ground. See Air-speed.
-
-    _Landing Area_--A piece of land specially prepared for the
-    alighting of aeroplanes without risk of injury.
-
-    _Leeway_--Movement of a machine aside from the intended course,
-    due to the lateral drift of the whole body of air; measured
-    usually at right angles to the course.
-
-    _Lift_--The raising, or sustaining effect of an aeroplane
-    surface. It is expressed in the weight thus overcome.
-
-    _Lighter-than-air_--A term used to designate aircraft which,
-    owing to the buoyancy of the gas attached, weigh less than the
-    volume of air which they displace.
-
-    _Longitudinal_--In a lengthwise, or fore-and-aft direction.
-
-
-M
-
-    _Main Plane_--The principal supporting surface of an aeroplane.
-    In the biplane, or the multiplane type, it denotes the lowest
-    surface, unless some other is decidedly larger.
-
-    _Main Landing Wheels_--Those wheels on the alighting gear which
-    take the shock in landing.
-
-    _Mast_--A vertical post or strut giving angular altitude to
-    guys or long stays. Also used (erroneously) to designate a spar
-    reaching out laterally or longitudinally in a horizontal position.
-
-    _Monoplane_--An aeroplane with one main supporting surface. A
-    Double Monoplane has two of such surfaces set one behind the
-    other (tandem) but on the same level.
-
-    _Multiplane_--An aeroplane having several main planes, at least
-    more than three (for which there is the special name of triplane).
-
-
-N
-
-    _Nacelle_--The framework, or body, of a dirigible balloon or
-    airship.
-
-    _Negative Angle of Incidence_--An angle of incidence below the
-    line of travel, and therefore expressed with a minus sign.
-    Surfaces bent to certain curves fly successfully at negative
-    angles of incidence, and exhibit a comparatively large lift.
-
-
-O
-
-    _Ornithopter_--A type of flying machine with wing surfaces which
-    are designed to raise and sustain the machine in the air by
-    flapping.
-
-
-P
-
-    _Panel_--Another name for Curtain--which see.
-
-    _Parabola_--The form outlined when a cone is cut by a plane
-    parallel to a line drawn on its surface from its apex to its
-    base. Declared to be the correct scientific curve for aeroplane
-    surfaces, but not so proven, as yet.
-
-    _Pilot_--A term widely used for an operator, or driver, of any
-    form of aircraft.
-
-    _Pitch_--The distance which a propeller would progress during one
-    revolution, if free to move in a medium which permitted no slip
-    (which see); just as the thread of a bolt travels in the groove
-    of its nut.
-
-    _Plane_--Speaking with exactness, a flat spread of surface; but
-    in aeronautics it includes also the curved sustaining surfaces of
-    aeroplanes.
-
-    _Polyplane_--Another term for Multiplane.
-
-    _Port_--The left-hand side of an aircraft, as one faces forward.
-    See Starboard.
-
-    _Projected Area_--The total area of an irregular structure as
-    projected upon a flat surface; like the total area of the shadow
-    of an object cast by the sun upon a plane fixed at right angles
-    to its rays.
-
-    _Propeller Reaction_--A force produced by a single revolving
-    propeller, which tends to revolve the machine which it is
-    driving, in the contrary direction. This is neutralized in
-    various ways in the machines driven by single propellers. Where
-    two propellers are used it is escaped by arranging them to move
-    in opposite directions.
-
-[Illustration: A pterygoid plane.]
-
-    _Pterygoid_--That type of the wings of birds which is long and
-    narrow--as distinguished from the apteroid type.
-
-    _Pylon_--A tower-shaped structure used as a derrick (which see);
-    also for displaying signals to aeronauts.
-
-
-R
-
-    _Radial Spoke_--A wire spoke extending from the hub of an
-    alighting wheel straight outward from the centre to the rim of
-    the wheel. See Tangent Spoke.
-
-    _Rarefaction Side_--A correct term for the incorrect “vacuum
-    side,” so-called. The side opposite the compression side: the
-    forward side of a revolving propeller blade, or the upper side
-    of a flying surface, or the side of a rudder-surface turned away
-    from the wind.
-
-    _Reactive Stratum_--The layer of compressed air beneath a moving
-    aeroplane surface, or behind a moving propeller blade.
-
-    _Rib_--The smaller construction members used in building up
-    surfaces. Generally they run fore-and-aft, crossing the spars or
-    wing-bars at right angles, and they are bent to form the curve of
-    the wings or planes.
-
-    _Rising Angle_--Technically, the steepest angle at which any
-    given aeroplane will rise into the air.
-
-    _Rudder_--A movable surface by which the aeronaut is enabled to
-    steer his craft in a desired direction. See Horizontal Rudder and
-    Vertical Rudder.
-
-    _Runner_--A construction similar to the runners of a sleigh, used
-    for alighting on some machines, instead of the wheel alighting
-    gear; a skid.
-
-
-S
-
-    _Screw_--Another term for propeller; properly, screw-propeller.
-
-    _Single-surfaced_--A term used to designate wings or planes
-    whose frames are covered with fabric only on the upper side. See
-    Double-surfaced.
-
-    _Skid_--Another name for runner.
-
-    _Skin Friction_--The retarding effect of the adherence of the
-    air to surfaces moving rapidly through it. It is very slight
-    with polished surfaces, and in case of slow speeds is entirely
-    negligible.
-
-    _Slip_--The difference between the actual progress of a moving
-    propeller, and the theoretical progress expressed by its pitch.
-    It is much greater in some propellers than in others, due to the
-    “churning” of the air by blades of faulty design and construction.
-
-    _Soaring Flight_--The sailing motion in the air achieved by some
-    of the larger birds without the flapping of their wings. It is
-    to be distinguished from gliding in that it is in an upward
-    direction. Soaring has never been satisfactorily explained, and
-    is considered to be the secret whose discovery will bring about
-    the largest advance in the navigation of the air.
-
-    _Spar_--A stick of considerable length used in the framing of the
-    body of aeroplanes, or as the long members in wing structures.
-
-    _Stabilize_--To maintain balance by the automatic action
-    of adjunct surfaces, as distinguished from the intentional
-    manipulation of controlling devices.
-
-    _Stabilizer_--Any surface whose automatic action tends to the
-    maintaining of balance in the air.
-
-    _Stable Equilibrium_--That equilibrium which is inherent in the
-    construction of the machine, and does not depend upon automatic
-    or controlling balancing devices.
-
-    _Starboard_--The right-hand side of an aircraft as one faces
-    forward. See Port.
-
-    _Starting Area_--An area of ground specially prepared to
-    facilitate the starting of aeroplanes into flight.
-
-    _Starting Device_--Any contrivance for giving an aeroplane a
-    powerful impulse or thrust into the air. See Derrick.
-
-    _Starting Impulse_--The thrust with which an aeroplane is started
-    into the air for a flight. Most machines depend upon the thrust
-    of their own propellers, the machine being held back by force
-    until the engines have worked up to flying speed, when it is
-    suddenly released.
-
-    _Starting Rail_--The rail upon which the starting truck runs
-    before the aeroplane rises into the air.
-
-    _Starting Truck_--A small vehicle upon which the aeroplane rests
-    while it is gaining sufficient impulse to take flight.
-
-    _Stay_--A construction member of an aeroplane sustaining a
-    pulling strain. It is usually of wire.
-
-    _Straight Pitch_--That type of pitch (which see) in a propeller
-    blade in which every cross-section of the blade makes the same
-    angle with its axis of revolution.
-
-    _Strainer_--Another term for Turnbuckle--which see.
-
-    _Strut_--An upright, or vertical, construction member of an
-    aeroplane sustaining a compression strain; as distinguished from
-    a brace which sustains a diagonal compression strain.
-
-    _Supplementary Surface_--A comparatively small surface used as an
-    adjunct to the large surfaces for some special purpose; as, for
-    instance, the preserving of balance, or for steering.
-
-    _Sustaining Surface_--The large surfaces of the aeroplane
-    whose rapid movement through the air at a slight angle to the
-    horizontal sustains the weight of the machine.
-
-
-T
-
-    _Tail_--A rear surface on an aeroplane designed to assist in
-    maintaining longitudinal stability. It is in use principally on
-    monoplanes, and is often so arranged as to serve as a rudder.
-
-    _Tail Wheel_--A wheel mounted under the rear end of an aeroplane
-    as a part of the alighting gear.
-
-    _Tangent_--A straight line passing the convex side of a curved
-    line, and touching it at one point only. The straight line is
-    said to be tangent to the curve at the point of contact.
-
-    _Tangential_--In the position or direction of a tangent.
-
-    _Tangent Spoke_--A wire spoke extending from the outer edge of
-    the hub of a wheel along the line of a tangent until it touches
-    the rim. Its position is at right angles to the course of a
-    radial spoke (which see) from the same point on the hub.
-
-    _Tie_--A construction member connecting two points with a pulling
-    strain.
-
-    _Tightener_--A device for taking up the slack of a stay, or tie;
-    as the turnbuckle.
-
-    _Tractor Propeller_--A propeller placed in front, so that it
-    pulls the machine through the air, instead of pushing, or
-    thrusting, it from behind.
-
-    _Triplane_--An aeroplane with three main surfaces, or decks,
-    placed in a tier, one above another.
-
-    _Turnbuckle_--A device with a nut at each end, of contrary pitch,
-    so as to take a right-hand screw at one end, and a left-hand
-    screw at the other; used for drawing together, or toward each
-    other the open ends of a stay, or tie.
-
-
-U
-
-    _Uniform Pitch_--That varying pitch in a propeller blade which
-    causes each point in the blade to move forward in its own circle
-    the same distance in one revolution.
-
-    _Up-wind_--In a direction opposite to the current of the wind;
-    against the wind; in the teeth of the wind.
-
-
-V
-
-    _Vertical Rudder_--A rudder for steering toward right or left; so
-    called because its surface occupies normally a vertical position.
-
-
-W
-
-    _Wake_--The stream of disturbed air left in the rear of a moving
-    aircraft, due mainly to the slip of the propeller.
-
-    _Wash_--The air-currents flowing out diagonally from the sides of
-    a moving aeroplane.
-
-    _Wing Bar_--The larger construction members of a wing, running
-    from the body outward to the tips. The ribs are attached to the
-    wing bars, usually at right angles.
-
-    _Wing Plan_--The outline of the wing or main plane surface as
-    viewed from above.
-
-    _Wing Section_--The outline of the wing structure of an aeroplane
-    as it would appear if cut by a plane passing through it parallel
-    to the longitudinal centre of the machine.
-
-    _Wing Skid_--A small skid, or runner, placed under the tip of
-    the wings of an aeroplane, to prevent damage in case of violent
-    contact with the ground.
-
-    _Wing Tip_--The extreme outer end of a wing or main plane.
-
-    _Wing Warping_--A controlling device for restoring disturbed
-    lateral balance by the forcible pulling down or pulling up of the
-    tips of the wings, or of the outer ends of the main surface of
-    the aeroplane.
-
-    _Wing Wheel_--A small wheel placed under the outer end of a wing
-    or main plane to prevent contact with the ground. An improvement
-    on the wing skid.
-
-
-THE END
-
-
-[Transcriber’s Note:
-
-Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.]
-
-
-
-
-
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-Richard Ferris
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-
-Project Gutenberg's How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air, by Richard Ferris
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: How it Flies or, Conquest of the Air
-       The Story of Man's Endeavors to Fly and of the Inventions
-              by which He Has Succeeded
-
-Author: Richard Ferris
-
-Release Date: August 5, 2017 [EBook #55268]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW IT FLIES OR, CONQUEST OF AIR ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
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-</pre>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">ORVILLE WRIGHT IN THE 80-MILE-AN-HOUR “BABY WRIGHT” RACER.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span></p></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h1>
-How It Flies<br />
-
-<small>or,</small><br />
-
-<span class="x-large">THE CONQUEST OF THE AIR</span><br />
-
-<span class="large table">The Story of Man’s Endeavors to Fly and of the<br />
-Inventions by which He Has Succeeded</span><br />
-
-<small>By</small><br />
-
-RICHARD FERRIS, B.S., C.E.<br />
-
-<span class="medium table">Illustrated by Over One Hundred and Fifty Half-tones and Line<br />
-Drawings, Showing the Stages of Development from the<br />
-Earliest Balloon to the Latest Monoplane and Biplane</span><br />
-
-<span class="medium table">New York<br />
-THOMAS NELSON AND SONS<br />
-381-385 Fourth Avenue</span></h1>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p>
-
-<p class="copy table">Copyright, 1910, by<br />
-
-THOMAS NELSON &amp; SONS</p>
-
-<p class="caption">THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">In</span> these pages, by means of simple language and
-suitable pictures, the author has told the story of
-the Ships of the Air. He has explained the laws of
-their flight; sketched their development to the present
-day; shown how to build the flying machine and
-the balloon, and how to operate them; recounted
-what man has done, and what he hopes to do with
-their aid. In a word, all the essential facts that
-enter into the Conquest of the Air have been gathered
-into orderly form, and are here presented to
-the public.</p>
-
-<p>We who live to-day have witnessed man’s great
-achievement; we have seen his dream of ages come
-true. Man has learned to <i>fly</i>!</p>
-
-<p>The air which surrounds us, so intangible and so
-commonplace that it seldom arrests our attention, is
-in reality a vast, unexplored ocean, fraught with
-future possibilities. Even now, the pioneers of a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>
-countless fleet are hovering above us in the sky, while
-steadily, surely these wonderful possibilities are
-unfolded.</p>
-
-<p>The Publishers take pleasure in acknowledging
-their indebtedness to the <i>Scientific American</i> for
-their courtesy in permitting the use of many of the
-illustrations appearing in this book.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">New York</span>, October 20, 1910.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
-
-<table>
-  <tr class="small">
-    <td class="tdr">CHAPTER</td>
-    <td />
-    <td class="tdr3">PAGE</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td />
-    <td><a href="#PREFACE"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">7</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">I.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_I"><span class="smcap">Introductory</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">11</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">II.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_II"><span class="smcap">The Air</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">20</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">III.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_III"><span class="smcap">Laws of Flight</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">37</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_IV"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">55</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">V.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_V"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: The Biplane</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">78</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_VI"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: The Monoplane</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">112</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">VII.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_VII"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: Other Forms</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">141</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">VIII.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_VIII"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: How to Operate</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">151</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">IX.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_IX"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: How to Build</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">174</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">X.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_X"><span class="smcap">Flying Machines: Motors</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">193</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XI.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XI"><span class="smcap">Model Flying Machines</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">215</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XII"><span class="smcap">The Glider</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">241</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XIII.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XIII"><span class="smcap">Balloons</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">257<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XIV.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XIV"><span class="smcap">Balloons: The Dirigible</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">296</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XV.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XV"><span class="smcap">Balloons: How to Operate</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">340</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XVI.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XVI"><span class="smcap">Balloons: How to Make</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">351</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XVII.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XVII"><span class="smcap">Military Aeronautics</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">363</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XVIII.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XVIII"><span class="smcap">Biographies of Prominent Aeronauts</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">379</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XIX.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XIX"><span class="smcap">Chronicle of Aviation Achievements</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">407</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">XX.</td>
-    <td><a href="#Chapter_XX"><span class="smcap">Explanation of Aeronautical Terms</span></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr3">452</td>
-  </tr></table>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="xx-large" id="HOW_IT_FLIES">HOW IT FLIES</h2>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<h2 id="Chapter_I">Chapter I.<br />
-
-INTRODUCTORY.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The sudden awakening&mdash;Early successes&mdash;Influence of the gasoline
-engine on aeroplanes&mdash;On dirigible balloons&mdash;Interested
-inquiry&mdash;Some general terms defined.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">In</span> the year 1908 the world awakened suddenly to
-the realization that at last the centuries of man’s
-endeavor to fly mechanically had come to successful
-fruition.</p>
-
-<p>There had been a little warning. In the late
-autumn of 1906, Santos-Dumont made a flight of
-720 feet in a power-driven machine. There was an
-exclamation of wonder, a burst of applause&mdash;then a
-relapse into unconcern.</p>
-
-<p>In August, 1907, Louis Bleriot sped free of the
-ground for 470 feet; and in November, Santos-Dumont
-made two flying leaps of barely 500 feet.
-That was the year’s record, and it excited little comment.
-It is true that the Wright brothers had been
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>
-making long flights, but they were in secret. There
-was no public knowledge of them.</p>
-
-<p>In 1908 came the revelation. In March, Delagrange
-flew in a Voisin biplane 453 feet, carrying
-Farman with him as a passenger. Two weeks later
-he flew alone nearly 2½ miles. In May he flew
-nearly 8 miles. In June his best flight was 10½
-miles. Bleriot came on the scene again in July with
-a monoplane, in which he flew 3¾ miles. In September,
-Delagrange flew 15 miles&mdash;in less than 30 minutes.
-In the same month the Wrights began their
-wonderful public flights. Wilbur, in France, made
-records of 41, 46, 62, and 77 miles, while Orville
-flew from 40 to 50 miles at Fort Myer, Va. Wilbur
-Wright’s longest flight kept him in the air 2 hours
-and 20 minutes.</p>
-
-<p>The goal had been reached&mdash;men had achieved the
-apparently impossible. The whole world was roused
-to enthusiasm.</p>
-
-<p>Since then, progress has been phenomenally rapid,
-urged on by the striving of the inventors, the competition
-of the aircraft builders, and the contests for
-records among the pilots.</p>
-
-<p>By far the largest factor in the triumph of the
-aeroplane is the improved gasoline engine, designed
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>
-originally for automobiles. Without this wonderful
-type of motor, delivering a maximum of power with
-a minimum of weight, from concentrated fuel, the
-flying machine would still be resting on the earth.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Renard and Krebs airship <i>La France</i>, at Chalais-Meudon.</p></div>
-
-<p>Nor has the influence of the gasoline motor been
-much less upon that other great class of aircraft, the
-dirigible balloon. After 1885, when Renard and
-Krebs’ airship <i>La France</i> made its two historic
-voyages from Chalais-Meudon to Paris, returning
-safely to its shed, under the propulsion of an electric
-motor, the problem of the great airship lay dormant,
-waiting for the discovery of adequate motive power.
-If the development of the dirigible balloon seems
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span>
-less spectacular than that of the aeroplane, it is
-because the latter had to be created; the dirigible,
-already in existence, had only to be revivified.</p>
-
-<p>Confronted with these new and strange shapes in
-the sky, some making stately journeys of hundreds
-of miles, others whirring hither and thither with the
-speed of the whirlwind, wonder quickly gives way
-to the all-absorbing question: <i>How do they fly?</i> To
-answer fully and satisfactorily, it seems wise, for
-many readers, to recall in the succeeding chapters
-some principles doubtless long since forgotten.</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>As with every great advance in civilization, this
-expansion of the science of aeronautics has had its
-effect upon the language of the day. Terms formerly
-in use have become restricted in application, and
-other terms have been coined to convey ideas so entirely
-new as to find no suitable word existent in our
-language. It seems requisite, therefore, first to acquaint
-the reader with clear definitions of the more
-common terms that are used throughout this book.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aeronautics</i> is the word employed to designate the
-entire subject of aerial navigation. An <i>aeronaut</i> is
-a person who sails, or commands, any form of aircraft,
-as distinguished from a passenger.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Aviation</i> is limited to the subject of flying by machines
-which are not floated in the air by gas. An
-<i>aviator</i> is an operator of such machine.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_015.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A free balloon, with parachute.</p></div>
-
-<p>Both aviators and aeronauts are often called
-<i>pilots</i>.</p>
-
-<p>A <i>balloon</i> is essentially an envelope or bag filled
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>
-with some gaseous substance which is lighter, bulk
-for bulk, than the air at the surface of the earth, and
-which serves to float the apparatus in the air. In its
-usual form it is spherical, with a car or basket suspended
-below it. It is a <i>captive balloon</i> if it is attached
-to the ground by a cable, so that it may not
-rise above a certain level, nor float away in the wind.
-It is a <i>free balloon</i> if not so attached or anchored,
-but is allowed to drift where the wind may carry it,
-rising and falling at the will of the pilot.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A dirigible balloon.</p></div>
-
-<p>A <i>dirigible balloon</i>, sometimes termed simply a
-dirigible, usually has its gas envelope elongated in
-form. It is fitted with motive power to propel it,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
-and steering mechanism to guide it. It is distinctively
-the <i>airship</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aeroplanes</i> are those forms of flying machines
-which depend for their support in the air upon the
-spread of surfaces which are variously called wings,
-sails, or planes. They are commonly driven by propellers
-actuated by motors. When not driven by
-power they are called <i>gliders</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_017.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A biplane glider.</p></div>
-
-<p>Aeroplanes exist in several types: the <i>monoplane</i>,
-with one spread of surface; the <i>biplane</i>, with two
-spreads, one above the other; the <i>triplane</i>, with three
-spreads, or decks; the <i>multiplane</i>, with more than
-three.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p>
-
-<p>The <i>tetrahedral plane</i> is a structure of many small
-cells set one upon another.</p>
-
-<p><i>Ornithopter</i> is the name given to a flying machine
-which is operated by flapping wings.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A parachute descending.</p></div>
-
-<p><i>Helicopter</i> is used to designate machines which
-are lifted vertically and sustained in the air by propellers
-revolving in a horizontal plane, as distinguished
-from the propellers of the aeroplane, which
-revolve in vertical planes.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span></p>
-
-<p>A <i>parachute</i> is an umbrella-like contrivance by
-which an aeronaut may descend gently from a balloon
-in mid-air, buoyed up by the compression of the
-air under the umbrella.</p>
-
-<p>For the definition of other and more technical
-terms the reader is referred to the carefully prepared
-Glossary toward the end of the book.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_II">Chapter II.<br />
-
-THE AIR.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Intangibility of air&mdash;Its substance&mdash;Weight&mdash;Extent&mdash;Density&mdash;Expansion
-by heat&mdash;Alcohol fire&mdash;Turbulence of the air&mdash;Inertia&mdash;Elasticity&mdash;Viscosity&mdash;Velocity
-of winds&mdash;Aircurrents&mdash;Cloud
-levels&mdash;Aerological stations&mdash;High altitudes&mdash;Practical
-suggestions&mdash;The ideal highway.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> air about us seems the nearest approach to
-nothingness that we know of. A pail is commonly
-said to be empty&mdash;to have nothing in it&mdash;when
-it is filled only with air. This is because our
-senses do not give us any information about air. We
-cannot see it, hear it, touch it.</p>
-
-<p>When air is in motion (wind) we hear the noises
-it makes as it passes among other objects more substantial;
-and we feel it as it blows by us, or when we
-move rapidly through it.</p>
-
-<p>We get some idea that it exists as a substance
-when we see dead leaves caught up in it and whirled
-about; and, more impressively, when in the violence
-of the hurricane it seizes upon a body of great size
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>
-and weight, like the roof of a house, and whisks it
-away as though it were a feather, at a speed exceeding
-that of the fastest railroad train.</p>
-
-<p>In a milder form, this invisible and intangible air
-does some of our work for us in at least two ways
-that are conspicuous: it moves ships upon the ocean,
-and it turns a multitude of windmills, supplying the
-cheapest power known.</p>
-
-<p>That this atmosphere is really a fluid ocean, having
-a definite substance, and in some respects resembling
-the liquid ocean upon which our ships sail, and
-that we are only crawling around on the bottom of
-it, as it were, is a conception we do not readily
-grasp. Yet this conception must be the foundation
-of every effort to sail, to fly, in this aerial ocean, if
-such efforts are to be crowned with success.</p>
-
-<p>As a material substance the air has certain physical
-properties, and it is the part of wisdom for the
-man who would fly to acquaint himself with these
-properties. If they are helpful to his flight, he wants
-to use them; if they hinder, he must contrive to overcome
-them.</p>
-
-<p>In general, it may be said that the air, being in
-a gaseous form, partakes of the properties of all gases&mdash;and
-these may be studied in any text-book on
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>
-physics, Here we are concerned only with those
-qualities which affect conditions under which we
-strive to fly.</p>
-
-<p>Of first importance is the fact that air has <i>weight</i>.
-That is, in common with all other substances, it is
-attracted by the mass of the earth exerted through
-the force we call gravity. At the level of the sea,
-this attraction causes the air to press upon the earth
-with a weight of nearly fifteen pounds (accurately,
-14.7 lbs.) to the square inch, when the temperature
-is at 32° F. That pressure is the weight of a column
-of air one inch square at the base, extending upward
-to the outer limit of the atmosphere&mdash;estimated to
-be about 38 miles (some say 100 miles) above sea-level.
-The practical fact is that normal human
-life cannot exist above the level of 15,000 feet,
-or a little less than three miles; and navigation
-of the air will doubtless be carried on at a much
-lower altitude, for reasons which will appear as we
-continue.</p>
-
-<p>The actual weight of a definite quantity of dry
-air&mdash;for instance, a cubic foot&mdash;is found by weighing
-a vessel first when full of air, and again after the
-air has been exhausted from it with an air-pump. In
-this way it has been determined that a cubic foot of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
-dry air, at the level of the sea, and at a temperature
-of 32° F., weighs 565 grains&mdash;about 0.0807 lb. At a
-height above the level of the sea, a cubic foot of air
-will weigh less than the figure quoted, for its density
-decreases as we go upward, the pressure being less
-owing to the diminished attraction of the earth at
-the greater distance. For instance, at the height of
-a mile above sea-level a cubic foot of air will weigh
-about 433 grains, or 0.0619 lb. At the height of
-five miles it will weigh about 216 grains, or 0.0309
-lb. At thirty-eight miles it will have no weight at
-all, its density being so rare as just to balance the
-earth’s attraction. It has been calculated that the
-whole body of air above the earth, if it were all of
-the uniform density of that at sea-level, would extend
-only to the height of 26,166 feet. Perhaps a
-clearer comprehension of the weight and pressure of
-the ocean of air upon the earth may be gained by
-recalling that the pressure of the 38 miles of atmosphere
-is just equal to balancing a column of water
-33 feet high. The pressure of the air, therefore, is
-equivalent to the pressure of a flood of water 33 feet
-deep.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Comparative Elevations of Earth and Air.</p></div>
-
-<p>But air is seldom dry. It is almost always mingled
-with the vapor of water, and this vapor weighs
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>
-only 352 grains per cubic foot at sea-level. Consequently
-the mixture&mdash;damp air&mdash;is lighter than dry
-air, in proportion to the moisture it contains.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Apparatus to show effects of heat on air currents. <i>a</i>, alcohol lamp;
-<i>b</i>, ice. The arrows show direction of currents.</p></div>
-
-<p>Another fact very important to the aeronaut is
-that the air is in <i>constant motion</i>. Owing to its
-ready expansion by heat, a body of air occupying one
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span>
-cubic foot when at a temperature of 32° F. will
-occupy more space at a higher temperature, and less
-space at a lower temperature. Hence, heated air will
-flow upward until it reaches a point where the natural
-density of the atmosphere is the same as its expanded
-density due to the heating. Here another
-complication comes into play, for ascending air is
-cooled at the rate of one degree for every 183 feet it
-rises; and as it cools it grows denser, and the speed
-of its ascension is thus gradually checked. After
-passing an altitude of 1,000 feet the decrease in temperature
-is one degree for each 320 feet of ascent.
-In general, it may be stated that air is expanded one-tenth
-of its volume for each 50° F. that its temperature
-is raised.</p>
-
-<p>This highly unstable condition under ordinary
-changes of temperature causes continual movements
-in the air, as different portions of it are constantly
-seeking that position in the atmosphere where their
-density at that moment balances the earth’s attraction.</p>
-
-<p>Sir Hiram Maxim relates an incident which aptly
-illustrates the effect of change of temperature upon
-the air. He says: “On one occasion, many years
-ago, I was present when a bonded warehouse in
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span>
-New York containing 10,000 barrels of alcohol was
-burned.... I walked completely around the fire,
-and found things just as I expected. The wind was
-blowing a perfect hurricane through every street in
-the direction of the fire, although it was a dead calm
-everywhere else; the flames mounted straight in the
-air to an enormous height, and took with them a
-large amount of burning wood. When I was fully
-500 feet from the fire, a piece of partly burned one-inch
-board, about 8 inches wide and 4 feet long, fell
-through the air and landed near me. This board had
-evidently been taken up to a great height by the
-tremendous uprush of air caused by the burning
-alcohol.”</p>
-
-<p>That which happened on a small scale, with a violent
-change of temperature, in the case of the alcohol
-fire, is taking place on a larger scale, with milder
-changes in temperature, all over the world. The
-heating by the sun in one locality causes an expansion
-of air at that place, and cooler, denser air rushes
-in to fill the partial vacuum. In this way winds are
-produced.</p>
-
-<p>So the air in which we are to fly is in a state of
-constant motion, which may be likened to the rush
-and swirl of water in the rapids of a mountain torrent.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>
-The tremendous difference is that the perils
-of the water are in plain sight of the navigator, and
-may be guarded against, while those of the air are
-wholly invisible, and must be met as they occur,
-without a moment’s warning.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The solid arrows show the directions of a cyclonic wind on the earth’s surface.
-At the centre the currents go directly upward. In the upper air above the
-cyclone the currents have the directions of the dotted arrows.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>Next in importance, to the aerial navigator, is the
-air’s <i>resistance</i>. This is due in part to its density at
-the elevation at which he is flying, and in part to the
-direction and intensity of its motion, or the wind.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>
-While this resistance is far less than that of water
-to the passage of a ship, it is of serious moment to
-the aeronaut, who must force his fragile machine
-through it at great speed, and be on the alert every
-instant to combat the possibility of a fall as he passes
-into a rarer and less buoyant stratum.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Diagram showing disturbance of wind currents by inequalities of the ground,
-and the smoother currents of the upper air. Note the increase of density
-at A and B, caused by compression against the upper strata.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>Three properties of the air enter into the sum total
-of its resistance&mdash;inertia, elasticity, and viscosity.
-Inertia is its tendency to remain in the condition in
-which it may be: at rest, if it is still; in motion, if
-it is moving. Some force must be applied to disturb
-this inertia, and in consequence when the inertia is
-overcome a certain amount of force is used up in the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>
-operation. Elasticity is that property by virtue of
-which air tends to reoccupy its normal amount of
-space after disturbance. An illustration of this tendency
-is the springing back of the handle of a bicycle
-pump if the valve at the bottom is not open, and the
-air in the pump is simply compressed, not forced into
-the tire. Viscosity may be described as “stickiness”&mdash;the
-tendency of the particles of air to cling together,
-to resist separation. To illustrate: molasses,
-particularly in cold weather, has greater viscosity
-than water; varnish has greater viscosity than turpentine.
-Air exhibits some viscosity, though vastly
-less than that of cold molasses. However, though
-relatively slight, this viscosity has a part in the resistance
-which opposes the rapid flight of the airship
-and aeroplane; and the higher the speed, the greater
-the retarding effect of viscosity.</p>
-
-<p>The inertia of the air, while in some degree it
-blocks the progress of his machine, is a benefit to the
-aeronaut, for it is inertia which gives the blades of
-his propeller “hold” upon the air. The elasticity of
-the air, compressed under the curved surfaces of the
-aeroplane, is believed to be helpful in maintaining
-the lift. The effect of viscosity may be greatly reduced
-by using surfaces finished with polished varnish&mdash;just
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
-as greasing a knife will permit it to be
-passed with less friction through thick molasses.</p>
-
-<p>In the case of winds, the inertia of the moving
-mass becomes what is commonly termed “wind pressure”
-against any object not moving with it at an
-equal speed. The following table gives the measurements
-of wind pressure, as recorded at the station on
-the Eiffel Tower, for differing velocities of wind:</p>
-
-<table id="velocity" class="bbox">
-  <tr>
-    <th>Velocity<br />in Miles<br />per Hour</th>
-    <th>Velocity<br />in Feet<br />per Second</th>
-    <th>Pressure <br />in Pounds on<br />a Square Foot</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>2</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">2</span>.<span class="left">9</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">012</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>4</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">5</span>.<span class="left">9</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">048</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>6</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">8</span>.<span class="left">8</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">108</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>8</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">11</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">192</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>10</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">14</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">300</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>15</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">22</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">675</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>20</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">29</span>.<span class="left">4</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">1</span>.<span class="left">200</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>25</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">36</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">1</span>.<span class="left">875</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>30</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">44</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">2</span>.<span class="left">700</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>35</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">51</span>.<span class="left">3</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">3</span>.<span class="left">675</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>40</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">58</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">4</span>.<span class="left">800</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>45</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">66</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">6</span>.<span class="left">075</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>50</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">73</span>.<span class="left">4</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">7</span>.<span class="left">500</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>60</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">88</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">10</span>.<span class="left">800</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>70</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">102</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">14</span>.<span class="left">700</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>80</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">117</span>.<span class="left">2</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">19</span>.<span class="left">200</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>90</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">132</span>.<span class="left">0</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">24</span>.<span class="left">300</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>100</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">146</span>.<span class="left">7</span></td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">30</span>.<span class="left">000</span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>In applying this table, the velocity to be considered
-is the net velocity of the movements of the airship
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>
-and of the wind. If the ship is moving 20 miles
-an hour <i>against</i> a head wind blowing 20 miles an
-hour, the net velocity of the wind will be 40 miles an
-hour, and the pressure 4.8 lbs. a square foot of surface
-presented. Therefore the airship will be standing
-still, so far as objects on the ground are concerned.
-If the ship is sailing 20 miles an hour <i>with</i>
-the wind, which is blowing 20 miles an hour, the
-pressure per square foot will be only 1.2 lbs.; while
-as regards objects on the ground, the ship will be
-travelling 40 miles an hour.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Apparatus for the study of the action of air in motion; a blower at the farther
-end of the great tube sends a “wind” of any desired velocity through it.
-Planes and propellers of various forms are thus tested.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span></p>
-
-<p>Systematic study of the movements of the air
-currents has not been widespread, and has not progressed
-much beyond the gathering of statistics which
-may serve as useful data in testing existing theories
-or formulating new ones.</p>
-
-<p>It is already recognized that there are certain
-“tides” in the atmosphere, recurring twice daily in
-six-hour periods, as in the case of the ocean tides,
-and perhaps from the same causes. Other currents
-are produced by the earth’s rotation. Then there
-are the five-day oscillations noted by Eliot in India,
-and daily movements, more or less regular, due to the
-sun’s heat by day and the lack of it by night. The
-complexity of these motions makes scientific research
-extremely difficult.</p>
-
-<p>Something definite has been accomplished in the
-determination of wind velocities, though this varies
-largely with the locality. In the United States the
-average speed of the winds is 9½ miles per hour; in
-Europe, 10⅓ miles; in Southern Asia, 6½ miles; in
-the West Indies, 6⅕ miles; in England, 12 miles;
-over the North Atlantic Ocean, 29 miles per hour.
-Each of these average velocities varies with the time
-of year and time of day, and with the distance
-from the sea. The wind moves faster over water
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>
-and flat, bare land than over hilly or forest-covered
-areas. Velocities increase as we go upward in the
-air, being at 1,600 feet twice what they are at 100
-feet. Observations of the movements of cloud forms
-at the Blue Hill Observatory, near Boston, give the
-following results:</p>
-
-<table id="cloudform" class="bbox">
-  <tr>
-    <th>Cloud Form</th>
-    <th>Height<br />in Feet</th>
-    <th>Average Speed<br />per Hour</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Stratus</td>
-    <td>1,676</td>
-    <td>19 miles.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Cumulus</td>
-    <td>5,326</td>
-    <td>24 miles.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Alto-cumulus</td>
-    <td>12,724</td>
-    <td>34 miles.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Cirro-cumulus</td>
-    <td>21,888</td>
-    <td>71 miles.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>Cirrus</td>
-    <td>29,317</td>
-    <td>78 miles.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>In winter the speed of cirrus clouds may reach
-96 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<p>There are forty-nine stations scattered over Germany
-where statistics concerning winds are gathered
-expressly for the use of aeronauts. At many of these
-stations records have been kept for twenty years.
-Dr. Richard Assman, director of the aerological observatory
-at Lindenburg, has prepared a comprehensive
-treatise of the statistics in possession of these
-stations, under the title of <i>Die Winde in Deutschland</i>.
-It shows for each station, and for each season
-of the year, how often the wind blows from each
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>
-point of the compass; the average frequency of the
-several degrees of wind; when and where aerial voyages
-may safely be made; the probable drift of dirigibles,
-etc. It is interesting to note that Friedrichshafen,
-where Count Zeppelin’s great airship sheds
-are located, is not a favorable place for such vessels,
-having a yearly record of twenty-four stormy days,
-as compared with but two stormy days at Celle, four
-at Berlin, four at Cassel, and low records at several
-other points.</p>
-
-<p>In practical aviation, a controlling factor is the
-density of the air. We have seen that at an altitude
-of five miles the density is about three-eighths the
-density at sea-level. This means that the supporting
-power of the air at a five-mile elevation is so small
-that the area of the planes must be increased to more
-than 2½ times the area suited to flying near the
-ground, or that the speed must be largely increased.
-Therefore the adjustments necessary for rising at the
-lower level and journeying in the higher level are too
-large and complex to make flying at high altitudes
-practicable&mdash;leaving out of consideration the bitter
-cold of the upper regions.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch, director of the Blue Hill
-Observatory, in his valuable book, <i>The Conquest of</i>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
-<i>the Air</i>, gives this practical summary of a long
-series of studious observations: “At night, however,
-because there are no ascending currents, the wind is
-much steadier than in the daytime, making night the
-most favorable time for aerial navigation of all
-kinds.... A suitable height in the daytime, unless
-a strong westerly wind is sought, lies above the cumulus
-clouds, at the height of about a mile; but at night
-it is not necessary to rise so high; and in summer a
-region of relatively little wind is found at a height of
-about three-fourths of a mile, where it is also warmer
-and drier than in the daytime or at the ground.”</p>
-
-<p>Notwithstanding all difficulties, the fact remains
-that, once they are overcome, the air is the ideal highway
-for travel and transportation. On the sea, a
-ship may sail to right or left on one plane only. In
-the air, we may steer not only to right or left, but
-above and below, and obliquely in innumerable planes.
-We shall not need to traverse long distances in a
-wrong direction to find a bridge by which we may
-cross a river, nor zigzag for toilsome miles up the
-steep slopes of a mountain-side to the pass where we
-may cross the divide. The course of the airship is
-the proverbial bee-line&mdash;the most economical in time
-as well as in distance.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_III">Chapter III.<br />
-
-LAWS OF FLIGHT.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The bird&mdash;Nature’s models&mdash;Man’s methods&mdash;Gravity&mdash;The balloon&mdash;The
-airship&mdash;Resistance of the air&mdash;Winds&mdash;The
-kite&mdash;Laws of motion and force&mdash;Application to kite-flying&mdash;Aeroplanes.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">If</span> we were asked to explain the word “flying” to
-some foreigner who did not know what it meant,
-we should probably give as an illustration the bird.
-This would be because the bird is so closely associated
-in our thoughts with flying that we can hardly
-think of the one without the other.</p>
-
-<p>It is natural, therefore, that since men first had
-the desire to fly they should study the form and motions
-of the birds in the air, and try to copy them.
-Our ancestors built immense flopping wings, into the
-frames of which they fastened themselves, and with
-great muscular exertion of arms and legs strove to
-attain the results that the bird gets by apparently
-similar motions.</p>
-
-<p>However, this mental coupling of the bird with
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
-the laws of flight has been unfortunate for the
-achievement of flight by man. And this is true even
-to the present day, with its hundreds of successful
-flying machines that are not in the least like a bird.
-This wrongly coupled idea is so strong that scientific
-publications print pages of research by eminent contributors
-into the flight of birds, with the attempt to
-deduce lessons therefrom for the instruction of the
-builders and navigators of flying machines.</p>
-
-<p>These arguments are based on the belief that
-Nature never makes a mistake; that she made the
-bird to fly, and therefore the bird must be the most
-perfect model for the successful flying machine. But
-the truth is, the bird was not made primarily to fly,
-any more than man was made to walk. Flying is an
-incident in the life of a bird, just as walking is an
-incident in the life of a man. Flying is simply a
-bird’s way of getting about from place to place, on
-business or on pleasure, as the case may be.</p>
-
-<p>Santos-Dumont, in his fascinating book, <i>My Air-Ships</i>,
-points out the folly of blindly following Nature
-by showing that logically such a procedure
-would compel us to build our locomotives on the plan
-of gigantic horses, with huge iron legs which would
-go galloping about the country in a ridiculously terrible
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>
-fashion; and to construct our steamships on the
-plan of giant whales, with monstrous flapping fins
-and wildly lashing tails.</p>
-
-<p>Sir Hiram Maxim says something akin to this in
-his work, <i>Artificial and Natural Flight</i>: “It appears
-to me that there is nothing in Nature which is
-more efficient, or gets a better grip on the water, than
-a well-made screw propeller; and no doubt there
-would have been fish with screw propellers, providing
-Dame Nature could have made an animal in two
-pieces. It is very evident that no living creature
-could be made in two pieces, and two pieces are
-necessary if one part is stationary and the other revolves;
-however, the tails and fins very often approximate
-to the action of propeller blades; they
-turn first to the right and then to the left, producing
-a sculling effect which is practically the same. This
-argument might also be used against locomotives. In
-all Nature we do not find an animal travelling on
-wheels, but it is quite possible that a locomotive
-might be made that would walk on legs at the rate
-of two or three miles an hour. But locomotives with
-wheels are able to travel at least three times as fast
-as the fleetest animal with legs, and to continue
-doing so for many hours at a time, even when attached
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>
-to a very heavy load. In order to build a flying
-machine with flapping wings, to exactly imitate
-birds, a very complicated system of levers, cams,
-cranks, etc., would have to be employed, and these of
-themselves would weigh more than the wings would
-be able to lift.”</p>
-
-<p>As with the man-contrived locomotive, so the perfected
-airship will be evolved from man’s understanding
-of the obstacles to his navigation of the air,
-and his overcoming of them by his inventive genius.
-This will not be in Nature’s way, but in man’s own
-way, and with cleverly designed machinery such as
-he has used to accomplish other seeming impossibilities.
-With the clearing up of wrong conceptions, the
-path will be open to more rapid and more enduring
-progress.</p>
-
-<p>When we consider the problem of flying, the first
-obstacle we encounter is the attraction which the
-earth has for us and for all other objects on its surface.
-This we call weight, and we are accustomed
-to measure it in pounds.</p>
-
-<p>Let us take, for example, a man whose body is attracted
-by the earth with a force, or weight, of 150
-pounds. To enable him to rise into the air, means
-must be contrived not only to counteract his weight,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
-but to lift him&mdash;a force a little greater than 150
-pounds must be exerted. We may attach to him a
-bag filled with some gas (as hydrogen) for which the
-earth has less attraction than it has for air, and which
-the air will push out of the way and upward until a
-place above the earth is reached where the attraction
-of air and gas is equal. A bag of this gas large
-enough to be pushed upward with a force equal to
-the weight of the man, plus the weight of the bag,
-and a little more for lifting power, will carry the
-man up. This is the principle of the ordinary
-balloon.</p>
-
-<p>Rising in the air is not flying. It is a necessary
-step, but real flying is to travel from place to place
-through the air. To accomplish this, some mechanism,
-or machinery, is needed to propel the man after
-he has been lifted into the air. Such machinery will
-have weight, and the bag of gas must be enlarged to
-counterbalance it. When this is done, the man and
-the bag of gas may move through the air, and with
-suitable rudders he may direct his course. This combination
-of the lifting bag of gas and the propelling
-machinery constitutes the dirigible balloon, or airship.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Degen’s apparatus to lift the man and his flying mechanism with the aid of
-a gas-balloon. See <a href="#Chapter_IV">Chapter IV</a>.</p></div>
-
-<p>The airship is affected equally with the balloon by
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>
-prevailing winds. A breeze blowing 10 miles an
-hour will carry a balloon at nearly that speed in the
-direction in which it is blowing. Suppose the aeronaut
-wishes to sail in the opposite direction? If the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>
-machinery will propel his airship only 10 miles an
-hour in a calm, it will virtually stand still in the
-10-mile breeze. If the machinery will propel his
-airship 20 miles an hour in a calm, the ship will
-travel 10 miles an hour&mdash;as related to places on the
-earth’s surface&mdash;against the wind. But so far as the
-air is concerned, his speed through it is 20 miles
-an hour, and each increase of speed meets increased
-resistance from the air, and requires a greater expenditure
-of power to overcome. To reduce this resistance
-to the least possible amount, the globular
-form of the early balloon has been variously modified.
-Most modern airships have a “cigar-shaped”
-gas bag, so called because the ends look like the tip
-of a cigar. As far as is known, this is the balloon
-that offers less resistance to the air than any other.</p>
-
-<p>Another mechanical means of getting up into the
-air was suggested by the flying of kites, a pastime
-dating back at least 2,000 years, perhaps longer.
-Ordinarily, a kite will not fly in a calm, but with
-even a little breeze it will mount into the air by the
-upward thrust of the rushing breeze against its inclined
-surface, being prevented from blowing away
-(drifting) by the pull of the kite-string. The same
-effect will be produced in a dead calm if the operator,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>
-holding the string, runs at a speed equal to that
-of the breeze&mdash;with this important difference: not
-only will the kite rise in the air, but it will travel
-in the direction in which the operator is running, a
-part of the energy of the runner’s pull upon the
-string producing a forward motion, provided he
-holds the string taut. If we suppose the pull on the
-string to be replaced by an engine and revolving propeller
-in the kite, exerting the same force, we have
-exactly the principle of the aeroplane.</p>
-
-<p>As it is of the greatest importance to possess a
-clear understanding of the natural processes we propose
-to use, let us refer to any text-book on physics,
-and review briefly some of the natural laws relating
-to motion and force which apply to the problem of
-flight:</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>(<i>a</i>) Force is that power which changes or
-tends to change the position of a body, whether
-it is in motion or at rest.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>b</i>) A given force will produce the same effect,
-whether the body on which it acts is acted
-upon by that force alone, or by other forces
-at the same time.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>c</i>) A force may be represented graphically
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>
-by a straight line&mdash;the point at which the force
-is applied being the beginning of the line; the
-direction of the force being expressed by the direction
-of the line; and the magnitude of the
-force being expressed by the length of the line.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>d</i>) Two or more forces acting upon a body
-are called component forces, and the single
-force which would produce the same effect is
-called the resultant.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>e</i>) When two component forces act in different
-directions the resultant may be found by
-applying the principle of the parallelogram of
-forces&mdash;the lines (<i>c</i>) representing the components
-being made adjacent sides of a parallelogram,
-and the diagonal drawn from the included
-angle representing the resultant in
-direction and magnitude.</p>
-
-<p>(<i>f</i>) Conversely, a resultant motion may be
-resolved into its components by constructing a
-parallelogram upon it as the diagonal, either
-one of the components being known.</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Deutsch de la Muerthe dirigible balloon <i>Ville-de-Paris</i>; an example of the “cigar-shaped” gas envelope.</p></div>
-
-<p>Taking up again the illustration of the kite flying
-in a calm, let us construct a few diagrams to show
-graphically the forces at work upon the kite. Let
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>
-the heavy line AB represent the centre line of the
-kite from top to bottom, and C the point where the
-string is attached, at which point we may suppose all
-the forces concentrate their action upon the plane of
-the kite. Obviously, as the flyer of the kite is running
-in a horizontal direction, the line indicating the
-pull of the string is to be drawn horizontal. Let it
-be expressed by CD. The action of the air pressure
-being at right angles to the plane of the kite, we
-draw the line CE representing that force. But as
-this is a <i>pressing</i> force at the point C, we may express
-it as a <i>pulling</i> force on the other side of the
-kite by the line CF, equal to CE and in the opposite
-direction. Another force acting on the kite is its
-weight&mdash;the attraction of gravity acting directly
-downward, shown by CG. We have given, therefore,
-the three forces, CD, CF, and CG. We now wish to
-find the value of the pull on the kite-string, CD, in
-two other forces, one of which shall be a lifting force,
-acting directly upward, and the other a propelling
-force, acting in the direction in which we desire the
-kite to travel&mdash;supposing it to represent an aeroplane
-for the moment.</p>
-
-<p>We first construct a parallelogram on CF and CG,
-and draw the diagonal CH, which represents the resultant
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>
-of those two forces. We have then the two
-forces CD and CH acting on the point C. To avoid
-obscuring the diagram with too many lines, we draw
-a second figure, showing just these two forces acting
-on the point C. Upon these we construct a new parallelogram,
-and draw the diagonal CI, expressing
-their resultant. Again drawing a new diagram,
-showing this single force CI acting upon the point
-C, we resolve that force into two components&mdash;one,
-CJ, vertically upward, representing the lift; the
-other, CK, horizontal, representing the travelling
-power. If the lines expressing these forces in the
-diagrams had been accurately drawn to scale, the
-measurement of the two components last found
-would give definite results in pounds; but the weight
-of a kite is too small to be thus diagrammed, and
-only the principle was to be illustrated, to be used
-later in the discussion of the aeroplane.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Nor is the problem as simple as the illustration
-of the kite suggests, for the air is compressible, and
-is moreover set in motion in the form of a current
-by a body passing through it at anything like the ordinary
-speed of an aeroplane. This has caused the
-curving of the planes (from front to rear) of the
-flying machine, in contrast with the flat plane of the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>
-kite. The reasoning is along this line: Suppose the
-main plane of an aeroplane six feet in depth (from
-front to rear) to be passing rapidly through the air,
-inclined upward at a slight angle. By the time two
-feet of this depth has passed a certain point, the air
-at that point will have received a downward impulse
-or compression which will tend to make it flow in the
-direction of the angle of the plane. The second and
-third divisions in the depth, each of two feet, will
-therefore be moving with a partial vacuum beneath,
-the air having been drawn away by the first segment.
-At the same time, the pressure of the air
-from above remains the same, and the result is that
-only the front edge of the plane is supported, while
-two-thirds of its depth is pushed down. This condition
-not only reduces the supporting surface to
-that of a plane two feet in depth, but, what is much
-worse, releases a tipping force which tends to throw
-the plane over backward.</p>
-
-<p>In order that the second section of the plane may
-bear upon the air beneath it with a pressure equal
-to that of the first, it must be inclined downward at
-double the angle (with the horizon) of the first section;
-this will in turn give to the air beneath it a
-new direction. The third section of the plane must
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span>
-then be set at a still deeper angle to give it support.
-Connecting these several directions with a smoothly
-flowing line without angles, we get the curved line
-of section to which the main planes of aeroplanes are
-bent.</p>
-
-<p>With these principles in mind, it is in order to
-apply them to the understanding of how an aeroplane
-flies. Wilbur Wright, when asked what kept his
-machine up in the air&mdash;why it did not fall to the
-ground&mdash;replied: “It stays up because it doesn’t
-have time to fall.” Just what he meant by this may
-be illustrated by referring to the common sport of
-“skipping stones” upon the surface of still water.
-A flat stone is selected, and it is thrown at a high
-speed so that the flat surface touches the water. It
-continues “skipping,” again and again, until its
-speed is so reduced that the water where it touches
-last has time to get out of the way, and the weight
-of the stone carries it to the bottom. On the same
-principle, a person skating swiftly across very thin
-ice will pass safely over if he goes so fast that the
-ice hasn’t time to break and give way beneath his
-weight. This explains why an aeroplane must move
-swiftly to stay up in the air, which has much less
-density than either water or ice. The minimum
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>
-speed at which an aeroplane can remain in the air
-depends largely upon its weight. The heavier it is,
-the faster it must go&mdash;just as a large man must
-move faster over thin ice than a small boy. At
-some aviation contests, prizes have been awarded for
-the slowest speed made by an aeroplane. So far, the
-slowest on record is that of 21.29 miles an hour,
-made by Captain Dickson at the Lanark meet, Scotland,
-in August, 1910. As the usual rate of speed
-is about 46 miles an hour, that is slow for an aeroplane;
-and as Dickson’s machine is much heavier
-than some others&mdash;the Curtiss machine, for instance&mdash;it
-is remarkably slow for that type of aeroplane.</p>
-
-<p>Just what is to be gained by offering a prize for
-slowest speed is difficult to conjecture. It is like
-offering a prize to a crowd of boys for the one who
-can skate slowest over thin ice. The minimum speed
-is the most dangerous with the aeroplane as with the
-skater. Other things being equal, the highest speed
-is the safest for an aeroplane. Even when his engine
-stops in mid-air, the aviator is compelled to keep up
-speed sufficient to prevent a fall by gliding swiftly
-downward until the very moment of landing.</p>
-
-<p>The air surface necessary to float a plane is spread
-out in one area in the monoplane, and divided into
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>
-two areas, one above the other and 6 to 9 feet apart,
-in the biplane; if closer than this, the disturbance
-of the air by the passage of one plane affects the supporting
-power of the other. It has been suggested
-that better results in the line of carrying power
-would be secured by so placing the upper plane that
-its front edge is a little back of the rear edge of the
-lower plane, in order that it may enter air that is
-wholly free from any currents produced by the rushing
-of the lower plane.</p>
-
-<p>As yet, there is a difference of opinion among the
-principal aeroplane builders as to where the propeller
-should be placed. All of the monoplanes have
-it in front of the main plane. Most of the biplanes
-have it behind the main plane; some have it between
-the two planes. If it is in front, it works in undisturbed
-air, but throws its wake upon the plane. If
-it is in the rear, the air is full of currents caused
-by the passage of the planes, but the planes have
-smooth air to glide into. As both types of machine
-are eminently successful, the question may not be so
-important as it seems to the disputants.</p>
-
-<p>The exact form of curve for the planes has not
-been decided upon. Experience has proven that of
-two aeroplanes having the same surface and run at
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>
-the same speed, one may be able to lift twice as much
-as the other because of the better curvature of its
-planes. The action of the air when surfaces are
-driven through it is not fully understood. Indeed,
-the form of plane shown in the accompanying figure
-is called the aeroplane paradox. If driven in either
-direction it leaves the air with a <i>downward</i> trend,
-and therefore exerts a proportional lifting power.
-If half of the plane is taken away, the other half
-is pressed downward. All of the lifting effect is in
-the curving of the top side. It seems desirable, therefore,
-that such essential factors should be thoroughly
-worked out, understood, and applied.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Section of the “paradox” aeroplane.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_IV">Chapter IV.<br />
-
-FLYING MACHINES.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Mythological&mdash;Leonardo da Vinci&mdash;Veranzio&mdash;John Wilkins&mdash;Besnier&mdash;Marquis
-de Bacqueville&mdash;Paucton&mdash;Desforges&mdash;Meerwein&mdash;Stentzel&mdash;Henson&mdash;Von
-Drieberg&mdash;Wenham&mdash;Horatio
-Phillips&mdash;Sir Hiram Maxim&mdash;Lilienthal&mdash;Langley&mdash;Ader&mdash;Pilcher&mdash;Octave
-Chanute&mdash;Herring&mdash;Hargrave&mdash;The
-Wright brothers&mdash;Archdeacon&mdash;Santos-Dumont&mdash;Voisin&mdash;Bleriot.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> term Flying Machines is applied to all
-forms of aircraft which are heavier than air,
-and which lift and sustain themselves in the air by
-mechanical means. In this respect they are distinguished
-from balloons, which are lifted and sustained
-in the air by the lighter-than-air gas which
-they contain.</p>
-
-<p>From the earliest times the desire to fly in the air
-has been one of the strong ambitions of the human
-race. Even the prehistoric mythology of the ancient
-Greeks reflected the idea in the story of Icarus, who
-flew so near to the sun that the heat melted the wax
-which fastened his wings to his body, and he fell
-into the sea.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span></p>
-
-<p>Perhaps the first historical record in the line of
-mechanical flight worthy of attention exists in the
-remarkable sketches and plans for a flying mechanism
-left by Leonardo da Vinci at his death in 1519.
-He had followed the model of the flying bird as closely
-as possible, although when the wings were outspread
-they had an outline more like those of the bat.
-While extremely ingenious in the arrangement of the
-levers, the power necessary to move them fast enough
-to lift the weight of a man was far beyond the muscular
-strength of any human being.</p>
-
-<p>It was a century later, in 1617, that Veranzio, a
-Venetian, proved his faith in his inventive ability
-by leaping from a tower in Venice with a crude,
-parachute-like contrivance. He alighted without injury.</p>
-
-<p>In 1684, an Englishman, John Wilkins, then
-bishop of Chester, built a machine for flying in
-which he installed a steam-engine. No record exists
-of its performance.</p>
-
-<p>In 1678, a French locksmith by the name of Besnier
-devised what seems now a very crude apparatus
-for making descending flights, or glides, from elevated
-points. It was, however, at that date considered
-important enough to be described in the <i>Journal</i>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span>
-<i>of the Savants</i>. It was a wholly unscientific combination
-of the “dog-paddle” motion in swimming,
-with wing areas which collapsed on the upward motion
-and spread out on the downward thrust. If
-it was ever put to a test it must have failed completely.</p>
-
-<p>In 1742, the Marquis de Bacqueville constructed
-an apparatus which some consider to have been
-based on Besnier’s idea&mdash;which seems rather doubtful.
-He fastened the surfaces of his aeroplane directly
-to his arms and legs, and succeeded in making
-a long glide from the window of his mansion
-across the garden of the Tuileries, alighting upon
-a washerwoman’s bench in the Seine without injury.</p>
-
-<p>Paucton, the mathematician, is credited with the
-suggestion of a flying machine with two screw propellers,
-which he called “pterophores”&mdash;a horizontal
-one to raise the machine into the air, and an upright
-one to propel it. These were to be driven by hand.
-With such hopelessly inadequate power it is not surprising
-that nothing came of it, yet the plan was a
-foreshadowing of the machine which has in these
-days achieved success.</p>
-
-<p>The Abbé Desforges gained a place in the annals
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>
-of aeronautics by inventing a flying machine of
-which only the name “Orthoptere” remains.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Meerwein’s Flying Machine. <i>A</i>, shows the position of the man in the wings,
-their comparative size, and the operating levers; <i>B</i>, position when in flight.</p></div>
-
-<p>About 1780, Karl Friedrich Meerwein, an architect,
-and the Inspector of Public Buildings for
-Baden, Germany, made many scientific calculations
-and experiments on the size of wing surface needed
-to support a man in the air. He used the wild duck
-as a standard, and figured that a surface of 126
-square feet would sustain a man in the air. This
-agrees with the later calculations of such experimenters
-as Lilienthal and Langley. Other of Meerwein’s
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>
-conclusions are decidedly ludicrous. He held
-that the build of a man favors a horizontal position
-in flying, as his nostrils open in a direction which
-would be away from the wind, and so respiration
-would not be interfered with! Some of his reasoning
-is unaccountably astray; as, for instance, his argument
-that because the man hangs in the wings the
-weight of the latter need not be considered. It is
-almost needless to say that his practical trials were
-a total failure.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Plan of Degen’s apparatus.</p></div>
-
-<p>The next prominent step forward toward mechanical
-flight was made by the Australian watchmaker
-Degen, who balanced his wing surfaces with
-a small gas balloon. His first efforts to fly not being
-successful, he abandoned his invention and took to
-ballooning.</p>
-
-<p>Stentzel, an engineer of Hamburg, came next with
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span>
-a machine in the form of a gigantic butterfly. From
-tip to tip of its wings it measured 20 feet, and their
-depth fore and aft was 5½ feet. The ribs of the
-wings were of steel and the web of silk, and they
-were slightly concave on the lower side. The rudder-tail
-was of two intersecting planes, one vertical
-and the other horizontal. It was operated by a carbonic-acid
-motor, and made 84 flaps of the wings
-per minute. The rush of air it produced was so
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>
-great that any one standing near it would be almost
-swept off his feet. It did not reach a stage beyond
-the model, for it was able to lift only 75 lbs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Stentzel’s machine.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1843, the English inventor Henson built what
-is admitted to be the first aeroplane driven by motive
-power. It was 100 feet in breadth (spread) and 30
-feet long, and covered with silk. The front edge was
-turned slightly upward. It had a rudder shaped like
-the tail of a bird. It was driven by two propellers
-run by a 20-horse-power engine. Henson succeeded
-only in flying on a down grade, doubtless because of
-the upward bend of the front of his plane. Later
-investigations have proven that the upper surface of
-the aeroplane must be convex to gain the lifting effect.
-This is one of the paradoxes of flying planes
-which no one has been able to explain.</p>
-
-<p>In 1845, Von Drieberg, in Germany, revived the
-sixteenth-century ideas of flying, with the quite original
-argument that since the legs of man were better
-developed muscularly than his arms, flying should be
-done with the legs. He built a machine on this plan,
-but no successful flights are recorded.</p>
-
-<p>In 1868, an experimenter by the name of Wenham
-added to the increasing sum of aeronautical
-knowledge by discovering that the lifting power of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>
-a large supporting surface may be as well secured
-by a number of small surfaces placed one above another.
-Following up these experiments, he built a
-flying machine with a series of six supporting planes
-made of linen fabric. As he depended upon muscular
-effort to work his propellers, he did not succeed
-in flying, but he gained information which has been
-valuable to later inventors.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_062a.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Von Drieberg’s machine; view from above.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_062b.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Wenham’s arrangement of many narrow surfaces in six tiers, or decks. <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>,
-rigid framework; <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, levers working flapping wings; <i>e</i>, <i>e</i>, braces. The
-operator is lying prone.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The history of flying machines cannot be written
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span>
-without deferential mention of Horatio Phillips of
-England. The machine that he made in 1862 resembled
-a large Venetian blind, 9 feet high and over
-21 feet long. It was mounted on a carriage which
-travelled on a circular track 600 feet long, and it was
-driven by a small steam engine turning a propeller.
-It lifted unusually heavy loads, although not large
-enough to carry a man. It seems to open the way
-for experiments with an entirely new arrangement
-of sustaining surfaces&mdash;one that has never since
-been investigated. Phillips’s records cover a series
-of most valuable experiments. Perhaps his most important
-work was in the determination of the most
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>
-advantageous form for the surfaces of aeroplanes,
-and his researches into the correct proportion of motive
-power to the area of such surfaces. Much of
-his results have not yet been put to practical use by
-designers of flying machines.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Phillips’s Flying Machine&mdash;built of narrow slats like a Venetian blind.</p></div>
-
-<p>The year 1888 was marked by the construction by
-Sir Hiram Maxim of his great aeroplane which
-weighed three and one-half tons, and is said to have
-cost over $100,000. The area of the planes was
-3,875 square feet, and it was propelled by a steam
-engine in which the fuel used was vaporized naphtha
-in a burner having 7,500 jets, under a boiler of
-small copper water tubes. With a steam pressure of
-320 lbs. per square inch, the two compound engines
-each developed 180 horse-power, and each turned a
-two-bladed propeller 17½ feet in diameter. The machine
-was used only in making tests, being prevented
-from rising in the air by a restraining track. The
-thrust developed on trial was 2,164 lbs., and the lifting
-power was shown to have been in excess of 10,000 lbs.
-The restraining track was torn to pieces, and
-the machine injured by the fragments. The dynamometer
-record proved that a dead weight of 4½
-tons, in addition to the weight of the machine and
-the crew of 4 men, could have been lifted. The
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span>
-stability, speed, and steering control were not tested.
-Sir Hiram Maxim made unnumbered experiments
-with models, gaining information which has been invaluable
-in the development of the aeroplane.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">View of a part of Maxim’s aeroplane, showing one of the immense propellers.
-At the top is a part of the upper plane.</p></div>
-
-<p>The experiments of Otto Lilienthal in gliding
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>
-with a winged structure were being conducted at this
-period. He held that success in flying must be
-founded upon proficiency in the art of balancing the
-apparatus in the air. He made innumerable glides
-from heights which he continually increased until he
-was travelling distances of nearly one-fourth of a
-mile from an elevation of 100 feet. He had reached
-the point where he was ready to install motive power
-to drive his glider when he met with a fatal accident.
-Besides the inspiration of his daring personal experiments
-in the air, he left a most valuable series
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>
-of records and calculations, which have been of the
-greatest aid to other inventors in the line of artificial
-flight.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Lilienthal in his biplane glider.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1896, Professor Langley, director of the Smithsonian
-Institution at Washington, made a test of a
-model flying machine which was the result of years
-of experimenting. It had a span of 15 feet, and a
-length of 8½ feet without the extended rudder.
-There were 4 sails or planes, 2 on each side, 30
-inches in width (fore-and-aft measurement). Two
-propellers revolving in opposite directions were driven
-by a steam engine. The diameter of the propellers
-was 3 feet, and the steam pressure 150 lbs.
-per square inch. The weight of the machine was
-28 lbs. It is said to have made a distance of 1
-mile in 1 minute 45 seconds. As Professor Langley’s
-experiments were conducted in strict secrecy,
-no authoritative figures are in existence. Later a
-larger machine was built, which was intended to
-carry a man. It had a spread of 46 feet, and was
-35 feet in length. It was four years in building,
-and cost about $50,000. In the first attempt to
-launch it, from the roof of a house-boat, it plunged
-into the Potomac River. The explanation given was
-that the launching apparatus was defective. This
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>
-was remedied, and a second trial made, but the same
-result followed. It was never tried again. This
-machine was really a double, or tandem, monoplane.
-The framework was built of steel tubing almost as
-thin as writing paper. Every rib and pulley was
-hollowed out to reduce the weight. The total weight
-of the engine and machine was 800 lbs., and the
-supporting surface of the wings was 1,040 square
-feet. The aeroplanes now in use average from 2 to
-4 lbs. weight to the square foot of sustaining surface.</p>
-
-<p>About the same time the French electrician Ader,
-after years of experimenting, with the financial aid
-of the French Government, made some secret trials
-of his machine, which had taken five years to build.
-It had two bat-like wings spreading 54 feet, and was
-propelled by two screws driven by a 4-cylinder
-steam engine which has been described as a marvel
-of lightness. The inventor claimed that he was able
-to rise to a height of 60 feet, and that he made flights
-of several hundred yards. The official tests, however,
-were unsatisfactory, and nothing further was
-done by either the inventor or the government to continue
-the experiments. The report was that in every
-trial the machines had been wrecked.</p>
-
-<p>The experiments of Lilienthal had excited an interest
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
-in his ideas which his untimely death did not
-abate. Among others, a young English marine engineer,
-Percy S. Pilcher, took up the problem of
-gliding flight, and by the device of using the power
-exerted by running boys (with a five-fold multiplying
-gear) he secured speed enough to float his glider horizontally
-in the air for some distance. He then built
-an engine which he purposed to install as motive
-power, but before this was done he was killed by a
-fall from his machine while in the air.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_069.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Plan of Chanute’s movable-wing glider.</p></div>
-
-<p>Before the death of Lilienthal his efforts had attracted
-the attention of Octave Chanute, a distinguished
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>
-civil engineer of Chicago, who, believing
-that the real problem of the glider was the maintenance
-of equilibrium in the air, instituted a series
-of experiments along that line. Lilienthal had preserved
-his equilibrium by moving his body about as
-he hung suspended under the wings of his machine.
-Chanute proposed to accomplish the same end by
-moving the wings automatically. His attempts were
-partially successful. He constructed several types of
-gliders, one of these with two decks exactly in the
-form of the present biplane. Others had three or
-more decks. Upward of seven hundred glides were
-made with Chanute’s machines by himself and assistants,
-without a single accident. It is of interest
-to note that a month before the fatal accident to
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>
-Lilienthal, Chanute had condemned that form of
-glider as unsafe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Chanute’s two-deck glider.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1897, A. M. Herring, who had been one of
-the foremost assistants of Octave Chanute, built a
-double-deck (biplane) machine and equipped it with
-a gasoline motor between the planes. The engine
-failed to produce sufficient power, and an engine
-operated by compressed air was tried, but without
-the desired success.</p>
-
-<p>In 1898, Lawrence Hargrave of Sydney, New
-South Wales, came into prominence as the inventor
-of the cellular or box kite. Following the researches
-of Chanute, he made a series of experiments upon
-the path of air currents under variously curved
-surfaces, and constructed some kites which, under
-certain conditions, would advance against a wind believed
-to be absolutely horizontal. From these results
-Hargrave was led to assert that “soaring
-sails” might be used to furnish propulsion, not only
-for flying machines, but also for ships on the ocean
-sailing against the wind. The principles involved
-remain in obscurity.</p>
-
-<p>During the years 1900 to 1903, the brothers
-Wright, of Dayton, Ohio, had been experimenting
-with gliders among the sand dunes of Kitty Hawk,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>
-North Carolina, a small hamlet on the Atlantic
-Coast. They had gone there because the Government
-meteorological department had informed them that at
-Kitty Hawk the winds blew more steadily than at
-any other locality in the United States. Toward the
-end of the summer of 1903, they decided that the
-time was ripe for the installation of motive power,
-and on December 17, 1903, they made their first
-four flights under power, the longest being 853 feet
-in 59 seconds&mdash;against a wind blowing nearly 20
-miles an hour, and from a starting point on level
-ground.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Wilbur Wright gliding at Kitty Hawk, N. C., in 1903.</p></div>
-
-<p>During 1904 over one hundred flights were made,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span>
-and changes in construction necessary to sail in circles
-were devised. In 1905, the Wrights kept on
-secretly with their practice and development of their
-machine, first one and then the other making the
-flights until both were equally proficient. In the
-latter part of September and early part of October,
-1905, occurred a series of flights which the Wrights
-allowed to become known to the public. At a meeting
-of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain,
-held in London on December 15, 1905, a letter from
-Orville Wright to one of the members was read.
-It was dated November 17, 1905, and an excerpt
-from it is as follows:</p>
-
-<p>“During the month of September we gradually
-improved in our practice, and on the 26th made a
-flight of a little over 11 miles. On the 30th we increased
-this to 12⅕th miles; on October 3, to 15⅓
-miles; on October 4, to 20¾ miles, and on October 5,
-to 24¼ miles. All these flights were made at about
-38 miles an hour, the flight of October 5 occupying
-30 minutes 3 seconds. Landings were caused by the
-exhaustion of the supply of fuel in the flights of
-September 26 and 30, and October 8, and in those
-of October 3 and 4 by the heating of the bearings
-in the transmission, of which the oil cups had been
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>
-omitted. But before the flight on October 5, oil cups
-had been fitted to all the bearings, and the small
-gasoline can had been replaced with one that carried
-enough fuel for an hour’s flight. Unfortunately, we
-neglected to refill the reservoir just before starting,
-and as a result the flight was limited to 38 minutes....</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A Wright machine in flight.</p></div>
-
-<p>“The machine passed through all of these flights
-without the slightest damage. In each of these
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
-flights we returned frequently to the starting point,
-passing high over the heads of the spectators.”</p>
-
-<p>These statements were received with incredulity
-in many parts of Europe, the more so as the
-Wrights refused to permit an examination of their
-machine, fearing that the details of construction
-might become known before their patents were
-secured.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Archdeacon machine on the Seine.</p></div>
-
-<p>During the summer of 1905, Captain Ferber and
-Ernest Archdeacon of Paris had made experiments
-with gliders. One of the Archdeacon machines
-was towed by an automobile, having a bag of
-sand to occupy the place of the pilot. It rose
-satisfactorily in the air, but the tail became disarranged,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>
-and it fell and was damaged. It was rebuilt
-and tried upon the waters of the Seine, being
-towed by a fast motor-boat at a speed of 25 miles
-an hour. The machine rose about 50 feet into the
-air and sailed for about 500 feet.</p>
-
-<p>Archdeacon gathered a company of young men
-about him who speedily became imbued with his enthusiasm.
-Among them were Gabriel Voisin, Louis
-Bleriot, and Leon Delagrange. The two former,
-working together, built and flew several gliders, and
-when Santos-Dumont made his historic flight of 720
-feet with his multiple-cell machine on November 13,
-1906 (the first flight made in Europe), they were
-spurred to new endeavors.</p>
-
-<p>Within a few months Voisin had finished his
-first biplane, and Delagrange made his initial
-flight with it&mdash;a mere hop of 30 feet&mdash;on March
-16, 1907.</p>
-
-<p>Bleriot, however, had his own ideas, and on August
-6, 1907, he flew for 470 feet in a monoplane
-machine of the tandem type. He succeeded in steering
-his machine in a curved course, a feat which had
-not previously been accomplished in Europe.</p>
-
-<p>In October of the same year, Henri Farman, then
-a well-known automobile driver, flew the second
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span>
-Voisin biplane in a half circle of 253 feet&mdash;a notable
-achievement at that date.</p>
-
-<p>But Santos-Dumont had been pushing forward
-several different types of machines, and in November
-he flew first a biplane 500 feet, and a few days later
-a monoplane 400 feet.</p>
-
-<p>At this point in our story the past seems to give
-place to the present. The period of early development
-was over, and the year 1908 saw the first of
-those remarkable exploits which are recorded in the
-chapter near the end of this work entitled, “Chronicle
-of Aviation Achievements.”</p>
-
-<p>It is interesting to note that the machines then
-brought out are those of to-day. Practically, it may
-be said that there has been no material change from
-the original types. More powerful engines have
-been put in them, and the frames strengthened in
-proportion, but the Voisin, the Bleriot, and the
-Wright types remain as they were at first. Other
-and later forms are largely modifications and combinations
-of their peculiar features.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_V">Chapter V.<br />
-
-FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Successful types of aeroplanes&mdash;Distinguishing features&mdash;The
-Wright biplane&mdash;Construction&mdash;New type&mdash;Five-passenger
-machine&mdash;The Voisin biplane&mdash;New racing type&mdash;The Curtiss
-biplane&mdash;The Cody biplane&mdash;The Sommer biplane&mdash;The
-Baldwin biplane&mdash;New stabilizing plane&mdash;The Baddeck
-No. 2&mdash;Self-sustaining radiator&mdash;The Herring biplane&mdash;Stabilizing
-fins.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">In</span> the many contests for prizes and records, two
-types of flying machines have won distinctive
-places for themselves&mdash;the biplane and the monoplane.
-The appearance of other forms has been
-sporadic, and they have speedily disappeared without
-accomplishing anything which had not been better
-done by the two classes named.</p>
-
-<p>This fact, however, should not be construed as
-proving the futility of all other forms, nor that the
-ideal flying machine must be of one of these two
-prominent types. It is to be remembered that record-making
-and record-breaking is the most serious
-business in which any machines have so far been
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>
-engaged; and this, surely, is not the field of usefulness
-to humanity which the ships of the air may be
-expected ultimately to occupy. It may yet be proved
-that, successful as these machines have been in what
-they have attempted, they are but transition forms
-leading up to the perfect airship of the future.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Wright biplane in flight.</p></div>
-
-<p>The distinguishing feature of the biplane is not
-alone that it has two main planes, but that they are
-placed one above the other. The double (or tandem)
-monoplane also has two main planes, but they are on
-the same level, one in the rear of the other.</p>
-
-<p>A review of the notable biplanes of the day must
-begin with the Wright machine, which was not only
-the first with which flights were made, but also the
-inspiration and perhaps the pattern of the whole
-succeeding fleet.</p>
-
-<h3>THE WRIGHT BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The Wright biplane is a structure composed of
-two main surfaces, each 40 feet long and 6 feet 6
-inches wide, set one above the other, parallel, and
-6 feet apart. The planes are held rigidly at this distance
-by struts of wood, and the whole structure is
-trussed with diagonal wire ties. It is claimed by
-the Wrights that these dimensions have been proven
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>
-by their experiments to give the maximum lift with
-the minimum weight.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_081.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Diagram showing the construction of the Wright biplane. The lever <i>R</i> is connected by the bar <i>A</i> with the rudder gearing <i>C</i>,
-and is pivoted at the bottom on a rolling shaft <i>B</i>, through which the warping wires <i>W</i><sup>1</sup>, <i>W</i><sup>2</sup> are operated. The semicircular
-planes <i>F</i> aid in stabilizing the elevator system.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The combination of planes is mounted on two
-rigid skids, or runners (similar to the runners of a
-sleigh), which are extended forward and upward to
-form a support for a pair of smaller planes in parallel,
-used as the elevator (for directing the course
-of the aeroplane upward or downward). It has been
-claimed by the Wrights that a rigid skid under-structure
-takes up the shock of landing, and checks
-the momentum at that moment, better than any other
-device. But it necessitated a separate starting apparatus,
-and while the starting impulse thus received
-enabled the Wrights to use an engine of less power
-(to keep the machine going when once started), and
-therefore of less dead weight, it proved a handicap
-to their machines in contests where they were met by
-competing machines which started directly with their
-own power. A later model of the Wright biplane
-is provided with a wheeled running gear, and an
-engine of sufficient power to raise it in the air after
-a short run on the wheels.</p>
-
-<p>Two propellers are used, run by one motor. They
-are built of wood, are of the two-bladed type, and
-are of comparatively large diameter&mdash;8 feet. They
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>
-revolve in opposite directions at a speed of 450 revolutions
-per minute, being geared down by chain
-drive from the engine speed of 1,500 revolutions per
-minute.</p>
-
-<p>The large elevator planes in front have been a distinctive
-feature of the Wright machine. They have
-a combined area of 80 square feet, adding that much
-more lifting surface to the planes in ascending, for
-then the under side of their surfaces is exposed to
-the wind. If the same surfaces were in the rear
-of the main planes their top sides would have to be
-turned to the wind when ascending, and a depressing
-instead of a lifting effect would result.</p>
-
-<p>To the rear of the main planes is a rudder composed
-of two parallel vertical surfaces for steering
-to right or left.</p>
-
-<p>The feature essential to the Wright biplane, upon
-which the letters patent were granted, is the flexible
-construction of the tips of the main planes, in virtue
-of which they may be warped up or down to restore
-disturbed equilibrium, or when a turn is to be made.
-This warping of the planes changes the angle of incidence
-for the part of the plane which is bent.
-(The angle of incidence is that which the plane
-makes with the line in which it is moving. The
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>
-bending downward of the rear edge would enlarge the
-angle of incidence, in that way increasing the compression
-of the air beneath, and lifting that end of
-the plane.) The wing-warping controls are actuated
-by the lever at the right hand of the pilot, which
-also turns the rudder at the rear&mdash;that which steers
-the machine to right or to left. The lever at the left
-hand of the pilot moves the elevating planes at the
-front of the machine.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Sketch showing relative positions of planes and of the operator in the Wright
-machine: <i>A</i>, <i>A</i>, the main planes; <i>B</i>, <i>B</i>, the elevator planes. The motor
-is placed beside the operator.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The motor has 4 cylinders, and develops 25 to
-30 horse-power, giving the machine a speed of 39
-miles per hour.</p>
-
-<p>A newer model of the Wright machine is built
-without the large elevating planes in front, a single
-elevating plane being placed just back of the rear
-rudder. This arrangement cuts out the former lifting
-effect described above, and substitutes the depressing
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>
-effect due to exposing the top of a surface
-to the wind.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="small"><i>Courtesy of N. Y. Times.</i></p>
-
-<p class="caption">The new model Wright biplane&mdash;without forward elevator.</p></div>
-
-<p>The smallest of the Wright machines, popularly
-called the “Baby Wright,” is built upon this plan,
-and has proven to be the fastest of all the Wright
-series.</p>
-
-<h3>THE VOISIN BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>While the Wrights were busily engaged in developing
-their biplane in America, a group of enthusiasts
-in France were experimenting with gliders of
-various types, towing them with high speed automobiles
-along the roads, or with swift motor-boats
-upon the Seine. As an outcome of these experiments,
-in which they bore an active part, the Voisin
-brothers began building the biplanes which have
-made them famous.</p>
-
-<p>As compared with the Wright machine, the Voisin
-aeroplane is of much heavier construction. It
-weighs 1,100 pounds. The main planes have a lateral
-spread of 37 feet 9 inches, and a breadth of 7
-feet, giving a combined area of 540 square feet, the
-same as that of the Wright machine. The lower
-main plane is divided at the centre to allow the introduction
-of a trussed girder framework which carries
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>
-the motor and propeller, the pilot’s seat, the
-controlling mechanism, and the running gear below;
-and it is extended forward to support the elevator.
-This is much lower than in the Wright machine,
-being nearly on the level of the lower plane. It is
-a single surface, divided at the centre, half being
-placed on each side of the girder. It has a combined
-area of 42 square feet, about half of that of
-the Wright elevator, and it is only 4 feet from the
-front edge of the main planes, instead of 10 feet as
-in the Wright machine. A framework nearly square
-in section, and about 25 feet long, extends to the
-rear, and supports a cellular, or box-like, tail, which
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
-forms a case in which is the rudder surface for steering
-to right or to left.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_087.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram showing details of construction of the Voisin biplane. <i>C</i>, <i>C</i>, the
-curtains forming the stabilizing cells.</p></div>
-
-<p>A distinctive feature of the Voisin biplane is the
-use of four vertical planes, or curtains, between the
-two main planes, forming two nearly square “cells”
-at the ends of the planes.</p>
-
-<p>At the rear of the main planes, in the centre, is
-the single propeller. It is made of steel, two-bladed,
-and is 8 feet 6 inches in diameter. It is coupled
-directly to the shaft of the motor, making with it
-1,200 revolutions per minute. The motor is of the
-V type, developing 50 horse-power, and giving a
-speed of 37 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Diagram showing the simplicity of control of the Voisin machine, all operations
-being performed by the wheel and its sliding axis.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The controls are all actuated by a rod sliding back
-and forth horizontally in front of the pilot’s seat,
-having a wheel at the end. The elevator is fastened
-to the rod by a crank lever, and is tilted up or down
-as the rod is pushed forward or pulled back. Turning
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>
-the wheel from side to side moves the rudder in
-the rear. There are no devices for controlling the
-equilibrium. This is supposed to be maintained automatically
-by the fixed vertical curtains.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Voisin biplanes at the starting line at Rheims in August, 1909. They were flown by Louis Paulhan, who won
-third prize for distance, and Henri Rougier, who won fourth prize for altitude. In the elimination races
-to determine the contestants for the Bennett Cup, Paulhan won second place with the Voisin machine, being
-defeated only by Tissandier with a Wright machine. Other noted aviators who fly the Voisin machine are
-M. Bunau-Varilla and the Baroness de la Roche.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The machine is mounted on two wheels forward,
-and two smaller wheels under the tail.</p>
-
-<p>This description applies to the standard Voisin
-biplane, which has been in much favor with many
-of the best known aviators. Recently the Voisins
-have brought out a new type in which the propeller
-has been placed in front of the planes, exerting
-a pulling force upon the machine, instead of
-pushing it as in the earlier type. The elevating
-plane has been removed to the rear, and combined
-with the rudder.</p>
-
-<p>A racing type also has been produced, in which
-the vertical curtains have been removed and a parallel
-pair of long, narrow ailerons introduced between
-the main planes on both sides of the centre. This
-machine, it is claimed, has made better than 60 miles
-per hour.</p>
-
-<p>The first Voisin biplane was built for Delagrange,
-and was flown by him with success.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p>
-
-<h3>THE FARMAN BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The second biplane built by the Voisins went into
-the hands of Henri Farman, who made many flights
-with it. Not being quite satisfied with the machine,
-and having an inventive mind, he was soon building
-a biplane after his own designs, and the Farman biplane
-is now one of the foremost in favor among
-both professional and amateur aviators.</p>
-
-<p>It is decidedly smaller in area of surface than the
-Wright and Voisin machines, having but 430 square
-feet in the two supporting planes. It has a spread
-of 33 feet, and the planes are 7 feet wide, and set 6
-feet apart. In the Farman machine the vertical curtains
-of the Voisin have been dispensed with. The
-forward elevator is there, but raised nearly to the
-level of the upper plane, and placed 9 feet from the
-front edge of the main planes. To control the equilibrium,
-the two back corners of each plane are cut
-and hinged so that they hang vertically when not in
-flight. When in motion these flaps or ailerons
-stream out freely in the wind, assuming such position
-as the speed of the passing air gives them. They
-are pulled down by the pilot at one end or the other,
-as may be necessary to restore equilibrium, acting
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>
-in very much the same manner as the warping tips
-of the Wright machine. A pair of tail planes are set
-in parallel on a framework about 20 feet in the rear
-of the main planes, and a double rudder surface behind
-them. Another model has hinged ailerons on
-these tail planes, and a single rudder surface set upright
-between them. These tail ailerons are moved
-in conjunction with those of the main planes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_092.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Farman biplane, showing the position of the hinged ailerons when at rest. At full speed these surfaces stream out in
-the wind in line with the planes to which they are attached.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram of the Farman biplane. A later type has the hinged ailerons also
-on the tail planes.</p></div>
-
-<p>The motor has 4 cylinders, and turns a propeller
-made of wood, 8 feet 6 inches in diameter, at a speed
-of 1,300 revolutions per minute&mdash;nearly three times
-as fast as the speed of the Wright propellers, which
-are about the same size. The propeller is placed just
-under the rear edge of the upper main plane, the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>
-lower one being cut away to make room for the revolving
-blades. The motor develops 45 to 50 horse-power,
-and drives the machine at a speed of 41 miles
-per hour.</p>
-
-<p>The “racing Farman” is slightly different, having
-the hinged ailerons only on one of the main
-planes. The reason for this is obvious. Every depression
-of the ailerons acts as a drag on the air
-flowing under the planes, increasing the lift at the
-expense of the speed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sketch of Farman machine, showing position of operator. <i>A</i>, <i>A</i>, main planes;
-<i>B</i>, elevator; <i>C</i>, motor; <i>P</i>, tail planes.</p></div>
-
-<p>The whole structure is mounted upon skids with
-wheels attached by a flexible connection. In case
-of a severe jar, the wheels are pushed up against the
-springs until the skids come into play.</p>
-
-<p>The elevator and the wing naps are controlled by
-a lever at the right hand of the pilot. This lever
-moves on a universal joint, the side-to-side movement
-working the flaps, and the forward-and-back
-motion the elevator. Steering to right or left is
-done with a bar operated by the feet.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Henri Farman carrying a passenger across country.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span></p></div>
-
-<p>Farman has himself made many records with
-his machine, and so have others. With a slightly
-larger and heavier machine than the one described,
-Farman carried two passengers a distance of 35
-miles in one hour.</p>
-
-<h3>THE CURTISS BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>This American rival of the Wright biplane is the
-lightest machine of this type so far constructed. The
-main planes are but 29 feet in spread, and 4 feet 6
-inches in width, and are set not quite 5 feet apart.
-The combined area of the two planes is 250 square
-feet. The main planes are placed midway of the
-length of the fore-and-aft structure, which is nearly
-30 feet. At the forward end is placed the elevator,
-and at the rear end is the tail&mdash;one small plane surface&mdash;and
-the vertical rudder surface in two parts,
-one above and the other below the tail plane. Equilibrium
-is controlled by changing the slant of two
-small balancing planes which are placed midway between
-the main planes at the outer ends, and in line
-with the front edges. These balancing planes are
-moved by a lever standing upright behind the pilot,
-having two arms at its upper end which turn forward
-so as to embrace his shoulders. The lever is
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>
-moved to right or to left by the swaying of the pilot’s
-body.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Glenn H. Curtiss in his machine ready to start. The fork of the balancing lever is plainly seen at his shoulders. Behind
-him is the radiator, with the engine still further back.</p></div>
-
-<p>The motor is raised to a position where the shaft
-of the propeller is midway between the levels of the
-main planes, and within the line of the rear edges,
-so that they have to be cut away to allow the passing
-of the blades. The motor is of the V type, with 8
-cylinders. It is 30 horse-power and makes 1,200
-revolutions per minute. The propeller is of steel,
-two-bladed, 6 feet in diameter, and revolves at the
-same speed as the shaft on which it is mounted.
-The high position of the engine permits a low running
-gear. There are two wheels under the rear
-edges of the main planes, and another is placed half-way
-between the main planes and the forward rudder,
-or elevator. A brake, operated by the pilot’s
-foot, acts upon this forward wheel to check the speed
-at the moment of landing.</p>
-
-<p>Another type of Curtiss machine has the ailerons
-set in the rear of the main planes, instead of between
-them.</p>
-
-<p>The Curtiss is the fastest of the biplanes, being
-excelled in speed only by some of the monoplanes.
-It has a record of 51 miles per hour.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span></p>
-
-<h3>THE CODY BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The Cody biplane has the distinction of being
-the first successful British aeroplane. It was designed
-and flown by Captain S. F. Cody, at one time
-an American, but for some years an officer in the
-British army.</p>
-
-<p>It is the largest and heaviest of all the biplanes,
-weighing about 1,800 lbs., more than three times
-the weight of the Curtiss machine. Its main planes
-are 52 feet in lateral spread, and 7 feet 6 inches in
-width, and are set 9 feet apart. The combined area
-of these sustaining surfaces is 770 square feet.
-The upper plane is arched, so that the ends of the
-main planes are slightly closer together than at the
-centre.</p>
-
-<p>The elevator is in two parts placed end to end,
-about 12 feet in front of the main planes. They
-have a combined area of 150 square feet. Between
-them and above them is a small rudder for steering
-to right or left in conjunction with the large rudder
-at the rear of the machine. The latter has an area
-of 40 square feet.</p>
-
-<p>There are two small balancing planes, set one at
-each end of the main planes, their centres on the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>
-rear corner struts, so that they project beyond the
-tips of the planes and behind their rear lines.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Cody biplane in flight. Captain Cody has both hands raised above his head, showing the automatic stability of his machine.</p></div>
-
-<p>The biplane is controlled by a lever rod having
-a wheel at the end. Turning the wheel moves the
-rudders; pushing or pulling the wheel works the
-elevator; moving the wheel from side to side moves
-the balancing planes.</p>
-
-<p>There are two propellers, set one on each side of
-the engine, and well forward between the main
-planes. They are of wood, of the two-bladed type,
-7 feet in diameter. They are geared down to make
-600 revolutions per minute. The motor has 8 cylinders
-and develops 80 horse-power at 1,200 revolutions
-per minute.</p>
-
-<p>The machine is mounted on a wheeled running
-gear, two wheels under the front edge of the main
-planes and one a short distance forward in the centre.
-There is also a small wheel at each extreme end of
-the lower main plane.</p>
-
-<p>The Cody biplane has frequently carried a passenger,
-besides the pilot, and is credited with a
-speed of 38 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<p>The first aeroplane flights ever made in England
-were by Captain Cody on this biplane, January 2,
-1909.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span></p>
-
-<h3>THE SOMMER BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The Sommer biplane is closely similar to the Farman
-machine, but has the hinged ailerons only on
-the upper plane. Another difference is that the tail
-has but one surface, and the rudder is hung beneath
-it. Its dimensions are:&mdash;Spread of main planes,
-34 feet; depth (fore-and-aft), 6 feet 8 inches; they
-are set 6 feet apart. The area of the main planes
-is 456 square feet; area of tail, 67 square feet; area
-of rudder, 9 square feet. It is driven by a 50-horsepower
-Gnome motor, turning an 8-foot, two-bladed
-propeller.</p>
-
-<p>M. Sommer has flown with three passengers, a
-total weight of 536 lbs., besides the weight of the
-machine.</p>
-
-<h3>THE BALDWIN BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The Baldwin biplane, designed by Captain Thomas
-S. Baldwin, the distinguished balloonist, resembles
-the Farman type in some features, and the Curtiss
-in others. It has the Curtiss type of ailerons, set
-between the wings, but extending beyond them laterally.
-The elevator is a single surface placed in
-front of the machine, and the tail is of the biplane
-type with the rudder between. The spread of the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>
-main planes is 31 feet 3 inches, and their depth 4
-feet 6 inches. A balancing plane of 9 square feet
-is set upright (like a fin) above the upper main
-plane, on a swivel. This is worked by a fork fitting
-on the shoulders of the pilot, and is designed to restore
-equilibrium by its swinging into head-resistance
-on one side or the other as may be necessary.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_103.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Baldwin biplane, showing balancing plane above upper main plane.</p></div>
-
-<p>The motive power is a 4-cylinder Curtiss motor,
-which turns a propeller 7 feet 6 inches in diameter,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>
-set just within the rear line of the main planes, which
-are cut away to clear the propeller blades.</p>
-
-<h3>THE BADDECK BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The newest biplane of the Aerial Experiment Association
-follows in general contour its successful
-precursor, the “Silver Dart,” with which J. A. D. McCurdy
-made many records. The “Baddeck No. 2”
-is of the biplane type, and both the planes are arched
-toward each other. They have a spread of 40 feet,
-and are 7 feet in depth at the centre, rounding to 5
-feet at the ends, where the wing tips, 5 feet by 5
-feet, are hinged. The elevator is also of the biplane
-type, two surfaces each 12 feet long and 28 inches
-wide, set 30 inches apart. This is mounted 15 feet
-in front of the main planes. The tail is mounted
-11 feet in the rear of the main planes, and is the
-same size and of the same form as the elevator.</p>
-
-<p>The controls are operated by the same devices as
-in the Curtiss machine. The propeller is 7 feet 8
-inches in diameter, and is turned by a six-cylinder
-automobile engine of 40 horse-power running at
-1,400 revolutions per minute. The propeller is
-geared down to run at 850 revolutions per minute.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>
-The motor is placed low down on the lower plane,
-but the propeller shaft is raised to a position as
-nearly as possible that of the centre of resistance of
-the machine. The speed attained is 40 miles per
-hour.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_105.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The McCurdy biplane, “Baddeck No. 2.”</p></div>
-
-<p>A unique feature of the mechanism is the radiator,
-which is built of 30 flattened tubes 7 feet 6
-inches long, and 3 inches wide, and very thin. They
-are curved from front to rear like the main planes,
-and give sufficient lift to sustain their own weight
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>
-and that of the water carried for cooling the cylinders.
-The running gear is of three wheels placed
-as in the Curtiss machine. The “Baddeck No. 2”
-has made many satisfactory flights with one passenger
-besides the pilot.</p>
-
-<h3>THE HERRING BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>At the Boston Aircraft Exhibition in February,
-1910, the Herring biplane attracted much attention,
-not only because of its superiority of mechanical
-finish, but also on account of its six triangular stabilizing
-fins set upright on the upper plane. Subsequent
-trials proved that this machine was quite
-out of the ordinary in action. It rose into the air
-after a run of but 85 feet, and at a speed of only
-22 miles per hour, and made a 40-degree turn at a
-tipping angle of 20 degrees. As measured by the
-inventor, the machine rose in the air with the pilot
-(weighing 190 lbs.), with a thrust of 140 lbs., and
-required only a thrust of from 80 to 85 lbs. to keep
-it flying.</p>
-
-<p>The spread of the planes is 28 feet, and they are
-4 feet in depth, with a total supporting surface of
-220 feet. A 25 horse-power Curtiss motor turns a
-4-bladed propeller of 6 feet diameter and 5-foot pitch
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>
-(designed by Mr. Herring) at the rate of 1,200 revolutions
-per minute.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_107.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The L. A. W. (League of American Wheelmen) biplane at the Boston Aircraft Exhibition, February, 1910. Note the peculiar
-curve of the divided planes. The motor is of the rotating type, of 50 horse-power.</p></div>
-
-<p>The elevator consists of a pair of parallel surfaces
-set upon hollow poles 12 feet in front of the main
-planes. The tail is a single surface.</p>
-
-<p>The stabilizing fins act in this manner: when the
-machine tips to one side, it has a tendency to slide
-down an incline of air toward the ground. The fins
-offer resistance to this sliding, retarding the upper
-plane, while the lower plane slides on and swings as
-a pendulum into equilibrium again.</p>
-
-<h3>THE BREGUET BIPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The Breguet biplane is conspicuous in having a
-biplane tail of so large an area as to merit for the
-machine the title “tandem biplane.” The main
-planes have a spread of 41 feet 8 inches, and an area
-of 500 square feet. The tail spreads 24 feet, and
-its area is about 280 square feet. The propeller is
-three-bladed, 8 feet in diameter, and revolves at a
-speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute. It is placed
-in front of the main plane, after the fashion of the
-monoplanes. The motive power is an 8-cylinder
-R-E-P engine, developing 55 horse-power.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="small"><i>Courtesy of N. Y. Sun.</i></p>
-<blockquote>
-
-<p class="caption">The Seddon tandem biplane, constructed by Lieutenant Seddon of the British Navy. The area of its planes is 2,000 square feet.
-Compare its size with that of the monoplane in the background. It is intended to carry ten persons.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span></p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_110.jpg" alt="" />
-
-<p class="table w100">
-<span class="tcell tdc">Wright biplane.</span>
-<span class="tcell tdc">Curtiss biplane.</span>
-</p>
-
-<p class="caption">Comparative build and area of prominent American biplanes.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_111.jpg" alt="" />
-
-<p class="table w100">
-<span class="tcell tdc">Voisin biplane.</span>
-<span class="tcell tdc">Breguet biplane.</span>
-</p>
-
-<p class="caption">Comparative build and area of prominent European biplanes.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span></p></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_VI">Chapter VI.<br />
-
-FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The common goal&mdash;Interchanging features&mdash;The Bleriot machine&mdash;First
-independent flyer&mdash;Construction and controls&mdash;The
-“Antoinette”&mdash;Large area&mdash;Great stability&mdash;Santos-Dumont’s
-monoplane&mdash;Diminutive size&mdash;R-E-P monoplane&mdash;encased
-structure&mdash;Hanriot machine&mdash;Boat body&mdash;Sturdy
-build&mdash;Pfitzner machine&mdash;Lateral type&mdash;Thrusting
-propeller&mdash;Fairchild, Burlingame, Cromley, Chauviere,
-Vendome, and Moisant monoplanes.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">In</span> all the ardent striving of the aviators to beat
-each other’s records, a surprisingly small amount
-of personal rivalry has been developed. Doubtless
-this is partly because their efforts to perform definite
-feats have been absorbing; but it must also be that
-these men, who know that they face a possible fall in
-every flight they make, realize that their competitors
-are as brave as themselves in the face of the same
-danger; and that they are actually accomplishing
-marvellous wonders even if they do no more than just
-escape disastrous failure. Certain it is that each,
-realizing the tremendous difficulties all must overcome,
-respects the others’ ability and attainments.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p>
-
-<p>Consequently we do not find among them two distinctly
-divergent schools of adherents, one composed
-of the biplanists, the other of the monoplanists. Nor
-are the two types of machines separated in this book
-for any other purpose than to secure a clearer understanding
-of what is being achieved by all types in the
-progress toward the one common goal&mdash;the flight of
-man.</p>
-
-<p>The distinctive feature of the monoplane is that
-it has but one main plane, or spread of surface, as
-contrasted with the two planes, one above the other,
-of the biplane. Besides the main plane, it has a secondary
-plane in the rear, called the tail. The office
-of this tail is primarily to secure longitudinal, or
-fore-and-aft, balance; but the secondary plane has
-been so constructed that it is movable on a horizontal
-axis, and is used to steer the machine upward or
-downward. While most of the biplanes now have a
-horizontal tail-plane, they were not at first so provided,
-but carried the secondary plane (or planes) in
-front of the main planes. Even in the latest type
-brought out by the conservative Wright brothers, the
-former large-surfaced elevator in front has been removed,
-and a much smaller tail-plane has been added
-in the rear, performing the same function of steering
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>
-the machine up or down, but also providing the fore-and-aft
-stabilizing feature formerly peculiar to the
-monoplane. Another feature heretofore distinctively
-belonging to the monoplane has been adopted by some
-of the newer biplanes, that of the traction propeller&mdash;pulling
-the machine behind it through the air, instead
-of pushing it along by a thrusting propeller
-placed behind the main planes.</p>
-
-<p>The continual multiplication of new forms of the
-monoplane makes it possible to notice only those
-which exhibit the wider differences.</p>
-
-<h3>THE BLERIOT MONOPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The Bleriot monoplane has the distinction of
-being the first wholly successful flying machine.
-Although the Wright machine was making flights
-years before the Bleriot had been built, it was still
-dependent upon a starting device to enable it to leave
-the ground. That is, the Wright machine was not
-complete in itself, and was entirely helpless at even
-a short distance from its starting tower, rail, and car,
-which it was unable to carry along. Because of its
-completeness, M. Bleriot was able to drive his machine
-from Toury to Artenay, France (a distance of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>
-8¾ miles) on October 31, 1908, make a landing, start
-on the return trip, make a second landing, and again
-continue his journey back to Toury, all under his
-own unassisted power. This feat was impossible to
-the Wright machine as it was then constructed, thus
-leaving the Bleriot monoplane in undisputed pre-eminence
-in the history of aviation.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_115.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A Bleriot monoplane, “No. XI,” in flight.</p></div>
-
-<p>At a little distance, where the details of construction
-are not visible, the Bleriot machine has the appearance
-of a gigantic bird. The sustaining surface,
-consisting of a single plane, is divided into two wings
-made of a stiff parchment-like material, mounted one
-on each side of a framework of the body, which is
-built of mahogany and whitewood trussed with diagonal
-ties of steel wire.</p>
-
-<p>The main plane has a lateral spread of 28 feet
-and a depth of 6 feet, and is rounded at the ends. It
-has an area of about 150 square feet, and is slightly
-concave on the under side. The tail-plane is 6 feet
-long and 2 feet 8 inches in depth; at its ends are
-the elevators, consisting of pivoted wing tips each
-about 2 feet 6 inches square with rounded extremities.
-The rudder for steering to left or right is
-mounted at the extreme rear end of the body, and has
-an area of 9 square feet.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Bleriot “No. XII.,” showing new form of tail, and the complete encasing with fabric.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span></p></div>
-
-<p>The body is framed nearly square in front and
-tapers to a wedge-like edge at the rear. It extends
-far enough in front of the main plane to give room
-for the motor and propeller. The seat for the pilot
-is on a line with the rear edge of the main plane, and
-above it. The forward part of the body is enclosed
-with fabric.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_118.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Forward chassis of Bleriot monoplane, showing caster mounting of wheels.
-The framing of the body is shown by the dotted lines.</p></div>
-
-<p>The machine is mounted on three wheels attached
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>
-to the body: two at the front, with a powerful spring
-suspension and pivoted like a caster, and the other
-rigidly at a point just forward of the rudders.</p>
-
-<p>The lateral balance is restored by warping the tips
-of the main plane; if necessary, the elevator tips at
-the rear may be operated to assist in this. All the
-controls are actuated by a single lever and a drum
-to which the several wires are attached.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_119.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Diagram of Bleriot “No. XI.,” from the rear. <i>A</i>, <i>A</i>, main plane; <i>B</i>, tail; <i>C</i>,
-body; <i>D</i>, <i>D</i>, wing tips of tail; <i>E</i>, rudder; <i>H</i>, propeller; <i>M</i>, motor; <i>O</i>, axis
-of wing tips; <i>R</i>, radiator; <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, spars of wings; <i>h</i>, <i>h</i>, guy wires;
-<i>p</i>, <i>k</i>, truss.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The motors used on the Bleriot machines have varied
-in type and power. In the “No. XI.,” with
-which M. Bleriot crossed the English Channel, the
-motor was a 3-cylinder Anzani engine, developing
-24 horse-power at 1,200 revolutions per minute. The
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span>
-propeller was of wood, 2-bladed, and 6 feet 9 inches
-in diameter. It was mounted directly on the shaft,
-and revolved at the same speed, giving the machine
-a velocity of 37 miles per hour. This model has
-also been fitted with a 30 horse-power R-E-P (R.
-Esnault-Pelterie) motor, having 7 cylinders. The
-heavier type “No. XII.” has been fitted with the
-50 horse-power Antoinette 8-cylinder engine, or the
-7-cylinder rotating Gnome engine, also of 50 horse-power.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_120.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sketches showing relative size, construction, and position of pilot in the
-Bleriot machines; “No. XI.” (the upper), and “No. XII.” (the lower).
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span></p></div>
-
-<p>The total weight of the “No. XI.” monoplane is
-462 pounds, without the pilot.</p>
-
-<h3>THE ANTOINETTE MONOPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The Antoinette is the largest and heaviest of the
-monoplanes. It was designed by M. Levavasseur,
-and has proved to be one of the most remarkable of
-the aeroplanes by its performances under adverse conditions;
-notably, the flight of Hubert Latham in a
-gale of 40 miles per hour at Blackpool in October,
-1909.</p>
-
-<p>The Antoinette has a spread of 46 feet, the surface
-being disposed in two wings set at a dihedral
-angle; that is, the outer ends of the wings incline
-upward from their level at the body, so that at the
-front they present the appearance of a very wide open
-“V.” These wings are trapezoidal in form, with the
-wider base attached to the body, where they are 10
-feet in depth (fore and aft). They are 7 feet in
-depth at the tips, and have a total combined area of
-377 square feet. The great depth of the wings requires
-that they be made proportionally thick to be
-strong enough to hold their form. Two trussed
-spars are used in each wing, with a short mast on
-each, half-way to the tip, reaching below the wing
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
-as well as above it. To these are fastened guy wires,
-making each wing an independent truss. A mast
-on the body gives attachment for guys which bind
-the whole into a light and rigid construction. The
-framework of the wings is covered on both sides with
-varnished fabric.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_122.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Antoinette monoplane in flight.</p></div>
-
-<p>The body is of triangular section. It is a long
-girder; at the front, in the form of a pyramid, expanding
-to a prism at the wings, and tapering toward
-the tail. It is completely covered with the fabric,
-which is given several coats of varnish to secure the
-minimum of skin friction.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_123.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram showing construction of the Antoinette monoplane.</p></div>
-
-<p>The tail is 13 feet long and 9 feet wide, in the
-form of a diamond-shaped kite. The rear part
-of it is hinged to be operated as the elevator. There
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>
-is a vertical stabilizing fin set at right angles to the
-rigid part of the tail. The rudder for steering to
-right or left is in two triangular sections, one above
-and the other below the tail-plane. The entire length
-of the machine is 40 feet, and its weight is 1,045
-pounds.</p>
-
-<p>It is fitted with a motor of the “V” type, having
-8 cylinders, and turning a 2-bladed steel propeller
-1,100 revolutions per minute, developing from 50
-to 55 horse-power.</p>
-
-<p>The control of the lateral balance is by ailerons
-attached to the rear edges of the wings at their outer
-ends. These are hinged, and may be raised as well
-as lowered as occasion demands, working in opposite
-directions, and thus doubling the effect of similar
-ailerons on the Farman machine, which can only be
-pulled downward.</p>
-
-<p>The machine is mounted on two wheels under the
-centre of the main plane, with a flexible wood skid
-projecting forward. Another skid is set under the
-tail.</p>
-
-<p>It is claimed for the Antoinette machine that its
-inherent stability makes it one of the easiest of all
-for the beginner in aviation. With as few as five
-lessons many pupils have become qualified pilots, even
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>
-winning prizes against competitors of much wider
-experience.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_125.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagrams showing comparative size and position of surfaces and structure of the Bleriot (left) and Antoinette
-(right) monoplanes.</p></div>
-
-<h3>THE SANTOS-DUMONT MONOPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>This little machine may be called the “runabout”
-of the aeroplanes. It has a spread of only 18 feet,
-and is but 20 feet in total length. Its weight is
-about 245 pounds.</p>
-
-<p>The main plane is divided into two wings, which
-are set at the body at a dihedral angle, but curve
-downward toward the tips, forming an arch. The
-depth of the wings at the tips is 6 feet. For a space
-on each side of the centre they are cut away to 5
-feet in depth, to allow the propeller to be set within
-their forward edge. The total area of the main plane
-is 110 square feet.</p>
-
-<p>The tail-plane is composed of a vertical surface
-and a horizontal surface intersecting. It is arranged
-so that it may be tilted up or down to serve as an
-elevator, or from side to side as a rudder. Its horizontal
-surface has an area of about 12 square feet.</p>
-
-<p>The engine is placed above the main plane and the
-pilot’s seat below it. The body is triangular in section,
-with the apex uppermost, composed of three
-strong bamboo poles with cross-pieces held in place by
-aluminum sockets, and cross braced with piano wire.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Santos-Dumont’s <i>La Demoiselle</i> in flight.</p></div>
-
-<p>The motor is of the opposed type, made by Darracq,
-weighing only 66 pounds, and developing 30
-horse-power at 1,500 revolutions per minute. The
-propeller is of wood, 2-bladed, and being mounted
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>
-directly on the shaft of the motor, revolves at the
-same velocity. The speed of the Santos-Dumont
-machine is 37 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_128.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Darracq motor and propeller of the Santos-Dumont machine. The
-conical tank in the rear of the pilot’s seat holds the gasoline.</p></div>
-
-<p>The lateral balance is preserved by a lever which
-extends upward and enters a long pocket sewed on
-the back of the pilot’s coat. His leaning from side
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>
-to side warps the rear edges of the wings at their
-tips. The elevator is moved by a lever, and the rudder
-by turning a wheel.</p>
-
-<p>While this machine has not made any extended
-flights, Santos-Dumont has travelled in the aggregate
-upward of 2,000 miles in one or another of this type.</p>
-
-<p>The plans, with full permission to any one to build
-from them, he gave to the public as his contribution
-to the advancement of aviation. Several manufacturers
-are supplying them at a cost much below that
-of an automobile.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sketch showing position of pilot in Santos-Dumont machine. <i>A</i>, main plane;
-<i>B</i>, tail plane; <i>C</i>, motor.</p></div>
-
-<h3>THE R-E-P MONOPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The Robert Esnault-Pelterie (abbreviated by its
-inventor to R-E-P) monoplane, viewed from above,
-bears a striking resemblance to a bird with a fan-shaped
-tail. It is much shorter in proportion to its
-spread than any other monoplane, and the body being
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>
-entirely covered with fabric, it has quite a distinct
-appearance.</p>
-
-<p>The plane is divided into two wings, in form very
-much like the wings of the Antoinette machine.
-Their spread, however, is but 35 feet. Their depth
-at the body is 8 feet 6 inches, and at the tips, 5 feet.
-Their total combined area is 226 square feet.</p>
-
-<p>The body of the R-E-P machine has much the appearance
-of a boat, being wide at the top and coming
-to a sharp keel below. The boat-like prow in front
-adds to this resemblance. As the body is encased
-in fabric, these surfaces aid in maintaining vertical
-stability.</p>
-
-<p>A large stabilizing fin extends from the pilot’s seat
-to the tail. The tail is comparatively large, having
-an area of 64 square feet. Its rear edge may be
-raised or lowered to serve as an elevator. The rudder
-for steering to right or left is set below in the
-line of the body, as in a boat. It is peculiar in that
-it is of the “compensated” type; that is, pivoted
-near the middle of its length, instead of at the forward
-end.</p>
-
-<p>The control of the lateral balance is through warping
-the wings. This is by means of a lever at the
-left hand of the pilot, with a motion from side to side.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>
-The same lever moved forward or backward controls
-the elevator. The steering lever is in front of
-the pilot’s seat, and moves to right or to left.</p>
-
-<table class="images">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="w50"><img src="images/i_131a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
-    <td class="w50">Elevation, showing large stabilizing
-    fin; boat-like body encased in fabric;
-    and compensated rudder, pivoted
-    at the rear end of the fin.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="w50"><img src="images/i_131b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
-    <td class="w50">Plan, showing comparative spread
-    of surfaces, and the attachment of
-    wheels at the wing tips.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><p class="caption">Graphic sketch showing elevation and plan of the R-E-P monoplane.</p></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>The motor is an invention of M. Esnault-Pelterie,
-and may be of 5, 7, or 10 cylinders, according to
-the power desired. The cylinders are arranged
-in two ranks, one in the rear of the other, radiating
-outward from the shaft like spokes in a wheel.
-The propeller is of steel, 4-bladed, and revolves at
-1,400 revolutions per minute, developing 35 horse-power,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span>
-and drawing the machine through the air at
-a speed of 47 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<h3>THE HANRIOT MONOPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>Among the more familiar machines which have
-been contesting for records at the various European
-meets during the season of 1910, the Hanriot monoplane
-earned notice for itself and its two pilots, one
-of them the fifteen-year-old son of the inventor. At
-Budapest the Hanriot machine carried off the honors
-of the occasion with a total of 106 points for “best
-performances,” as against 84 points for the Antoinette,
-and 77 points for the Farman biplane. A
-description of its unusual features will be of interest
-by way of comparison.</p>
-
-<p>In general appearance it is a cross between the
-Bleriot and the Antoinette, the wings being shaped
-more like the latter, but rounded at the rear of the
-tips like the Bleriot. Its chief peculiarity is in the
-body of the machine, which is in form very similar
-to a racing shell&mdash;of course with alterations to suit
-the requirements of the aeroplane. Its forward
-part is of thin mahogany, fastened upon ash ribs,
-with a steel plate covering the prow. The rear part
-of the machine is covered simply with fabric.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span></p>
-
-<p>The spread of the plane is 24 feet 7 inches,
-and it has an area of 170 square feet. The length of
-the machine, fore-and-aft, is 23 feet. Its weight is
-463 pounds. It is mounted on a chassis having both
-wheels and skids, somewhat like that of the Farman
-running gear, but with two wheels instead of four.</p>
-
-<p>The Hanriot machine is sturdily built all the way
-through, and has endured without damage some serious
-falls and collisions which would have wrecked
-another machine.</p>
-
-<p>It is fitted either with a Darracq or a Clerget motor,
-and speeds at about 44 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<h3>THE PFITZNER MONOPLANE.</h3>
-
-<p>The Pfitzner monoplane has the distinction of
-being the first American machine of the single-plane
-type. It was designed and flown by the late Lieut.
-A. L. Pfitzner, and, though meeting with many mishaps,
-has proved itself worthy of notice by its performances,
-through making use of an entirely new
-device for lateral stability. This is the sliding wing
-tip, by which the wing that tends to fall from its
-proper level may be lengthened by 15 inches, the
-other wing being shortened as much at the same time.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p>
-
-<p>There is no longitudinal structure, as in the other
-monoplanes, the construction being transverse and
-built upon four masts set in the form of a square,
-6 feet apart, about the centre. These are braced
-by diagonal struts, and tied with wires on the edges
-of the squares. They also support the guys reaching
-out to the tips of the wings.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The Pfitzner monoplane from the rear, showing the sliding wing tips; dihedral
-angle of the wings; square body; and transverse trussed construction.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The plane proper is 31 feet in spread, to which
-the wing tips add 2½ feet, and is 6 feet deep, giving
-a total area of 200 square feet. A light framework
-extending 10 feet in the rear carries a tail-plane 6
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>
-feet in spread and 2 feet in depth. Both the elevator
-and the rudder planes are carried on a similar framework,
-14 feet in front of the main plane.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_135.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Pfitzner monoplane, showing the structure of the body; the two conical gasoline tanks above;
-the propeller in the rear. Lieutenant Pfitzner at the wheel.</p></div>
-
-<p>The wings of the main plane incline upward from
-the centre toward the tips, and are trussed by vertical
-struts and diagonal ties.</p>
-
-<p>The motor is placed in the rear of the plane, instead
-of in front, as in all other monoplanes. It is
-a 4-cylinder Curtiss motor, turning a 6-foot propeller
-at 1,200 revolutions per minute, and developing 25
-horse-power.</p>
-
-<p>The Pfitzner machine has proved very speedy, and
-has made some remarkably sharp turns on an even
-keel.</p>
-
-<h3>OTHER MONOPLANES.</h3>
-
-<p>Several machines of the monoplane type have been
-produced, having some feature distinct from existing
-forms. While all of these have flown successfully,
-few of them have made any effort to be classed among
-the contestants for honors at the various meets.</p>
-
-<p>One of these, the Fairchild monoplane, shows resemblances
-to the R-E-P, the Antoinette, and the
-Bleriot machines, but differs from them all in having
-two propellers instead of one; and these revolve in
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span>
-the same direction, instead of in contrary directions,
-as do those of all other aeroplanes so equipped. The
-inventor claims that there is little perceptible gyroscopic
-effect with a single propeller, and even less
-with two. The propeller shafts are on the level of
-the plane, but the motor is set about 5 feet below,
-connections being made by a chain drive.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_137.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Beach type of the Antoinette, an American modification of the French
-machine, at the Boston Exhibition, 1910.</p></div>
-
-<p>The Burlingame monoplane has several peculiarities.
-Its main plane is divided into two wings, each
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>
-10 feet in spread and 5 feet in depth, and set 18
-inches apart at the body. They are perfectly rigid.
-The tail is in two sections, each 4 feet by 5 feet, and
-set with a gap of 6 feet between the sections, in which
-the rudder is placed. Thus the spread of the tail
-from tip to tip is 16 feet, as compared with the 21½
-foot spread of the main plane. The sections of the
-tail are operated independently, and are made to serve
-as ailerons to control the lateral balance, and also
-as the elevator.</p>
-
-<p>The Cromley monoplane, another American machine,
-is modelled after the Santos-Dumont <i>Demoiselle</i>.
-It has a main plane divided into two wings,
-each 9 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, with a gap of 2 feet
-between at the body; the total area being 117 square
-feet. At the rear of the outer ends are hinged
-ailerons, like those of the Farman biplane, to control
-the lateral balance. The tail is 12 feet in the rear,
-and is of the “box” type, with two horizontal surfaces
-and two vertical surfaces. This is mounted
-with a universal joint, so that it can be moved in
-any desired direction. The complete structure, without
-the motor, weighs but 60 pounds.</p>
-
-<p>The Chauviere monoplane is distinct in having a
-rigid spar for the front of the plane, but no ribs.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>
-The surface is allowed to spread out as a sail and
-take form from the wind passing beneath. The rear
-edges may be pulled down at will to control the lateral
-balance. It is driven by twin screws set far back
-on the body, nearly to the tail.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The Morok monoplane at the Boston Exhibition. It has the body of the
-Bleriot, the wings of the Santos-Dumont, and the sliding wing tips of
-the Pfitzner.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The smallest and lightest monoplane in practical
-use is that of M. Raoul Vendome. It is but 16 feet
-in spread, and is 16 feet fore and aft. It is equipped
-with a 12 horse-power motor, and flies at a speed of
-nearly 60 miles per hour. Without the pilot, its
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>
-entire weight is but 180 pounds. The wings are
-pivoted so that their whole structure may be tilted
-to secure lateral balance.</p>
-
-<p>The new Moisant monoplane is built wholly of
-metal. The structure throughout is of steel, and the
-surfaces of sheet aluminum in a succession of small
-arches from the centre to the tips. No authentic reports
-of its performances are available.</p>
-
-<p>In the Tatin monoplane, also called the Bayard-Clement,
-the main plane is oval in outline, and the
-tail a smaller oval. The surfaces are curved upward
-toward the tips for nearly half their length in both
-the main plane and the tail. The propeller is 8½ feet
-in diameter, and is turned by a Clerget motor, which
-can be made to develop 60 horse-power for starting
-the machine into the air, and then cut down to 30
-horse-power to maintain the flight.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_VII">Chapter VII.<br />
-
-FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The triplane&mdash;The quadruplane&mdash;The multiplane&mdash;Helicopters&mdash;Their
-principle&mdash;Obstacles to be overcome&mdash;The Cornu
-helicopter&mdash;The Leger helicopter&mdash;The Davidson gyropter&mdash;The
-Breguet gyroplane&mdash;The de la Hault ornithopter&mdash;The
-Bell tetrahedrons&mdash;The Russ flyer.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">While</span> the efforts of inventors have been
-principally along the lines of the successful
-monoplanes and biplanes, genius and energy have
-also been active in other directions. Some of these
-other designs are not much more than variations
-from prevailing types, however.</p>
-
-<p>Among these is the English Roe triplane, which is
-but a biplane with an extra plane added; the depths
-of all being reduced to give approximately the same
-surface as the biplane of the same carrying power.
-The tail is also of the triplane type, and has a combined
-area of 160 square feet&mdash;just half that of the
-main planes. The triplane type has long been familiar
-to Americans in the three-decker glider used extensively
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>
-by Octave Chanute in his long series of
-experiments at Chicago.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_142.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Roe triplane in flight.</p></div>
-
-<p>The quadruplane of Colonel Baden-Powell, also
-an English type, is practically the biplane with unusually
-large forward and tail planes.</p>
-
-<p>The multiplane of Sir Hiram Maxim should also
-be remembered, although he never permitted it to
-have free flight. His new multiplane, modelled after
-the former one, but equipped with an improved gasoline
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>
-motor instead of the heavy steam-engine of the
-first model, will doubtless be put to a practical test
-when experiments with it are completed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sir Hiram Maxim standing beside his huge multiplane.</p></div>
-
-<p>Quite apart from these variants of the aeroplanes
-are the helicopters, ornithopters, gyropters, gyroplanes,
-and tetrahedral machines.</p>
-
-<h3>HELICOPTERS.</h3>
-
-<p>The result aimed at in the helicopter is the ability
-to rise vertically from the starting point, instead of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>
-first running along the ground for from 100 to 300
-feet before sufficient speed to rise is attained, as the
-aeroplanes do. The device employed to accomplish
-this result is a propeller, or propellers, revolving horizontally
-above the machine. After the desired altitude
-is gained it is proposed to travel in any direction
-by changing the plane in which the propellers
-revolve to one having a small angle with the horizon.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The force necessary to keep the aeroplane moving in its horizontal path is the
-same as that required to move the automobile of equal weight up the same
-gradient&mdash;much less than its total weight.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The great difficulty encountered with this type of
-machine is that the propellers must lift the entire
-weight. In the case of the aeroplane, the power of
-the engine is used to slide the plane up an incline of
-air, and for this much less power is required. For
-instance, the weight of a Curtiss biplane with the
-pilot on board is about 700 pounds, and this weight
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>
-is easily slid up an inclined plane of air with a
-propeller thrust of about 240 pounds.</p>
-
-<p>Another difficulty is that the helicopter screws, in
-running at the start before they can attain speed sufficient
-to lift their load, have established downward
-currents of air with great velocity, in which the
-screws must run with much less efficiency. With
-the aeroplanes, on the contrary, their running gear
-enables them to run forward on the ground almost
-with the first revolution of the propeller, and as they
-increase their speed the currents&mdash;technically called
-the “slip”&mdash;become less and less as the engine speed
-increases.</p>
-
-<p>In the Cornu helicopter, which perhaps has come
-nearer to successful flight than any other, these
-downward currents are checked by interposing
-planes below, set at an angle determined by the operator.
-The glancing of the currents of air from the
-planes is expected to drive the helicopter horizontally
-through the air. At the same time these planes offer
-a large degree of resistance, and the engine power
-must be still further increased to overcome this,
-while preserving the lift of the entire weight. With
-an 8-cylinder Antoinette motor, said to be but 24
-horse-power, turning two 20-foot propellers, the machine
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span>
-is reported as lifting itself and two persons&mdash;a
-total weight of 723 pounds&mdash;to a height of 5
-feet, and sustaining itself for 1 minute. Upon the
-interposing of the planes to produce the horizontal
-motion the machine came immediately to the ground.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_146.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram showing principle of the Cornu helicopter. <i>P</i>, <i>P</i>, propelling planes.
-The arrow shows direction of travel with planes at angle shown.</p></div>
-
-<p>This performance must necessarily be compared
-with that of the aeroplanes, as, for instance, the
-Wright machine, which, with a 25 to 30 horse-power
-motor operating two 8-foot propellers, raises a weight
-of 1,050 pounds and propels it at a speed of 40 miles
-an hour for upward of 2 hours.</p>
-
-<p>Another form of helicopter is the Leger machine,
-so named after its French inventor. It has two propellers
-which revolve on the same vertical axis, the
-shaft of one being tubular, encasing that of the other.
-By suitable gearing this vertical shaft may be inclined
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>
-after the machine is in the air in the direction
-in which it is desired to travel.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Vitton-Huber helicopter at the Paris aeronautical salon in 1909. It has the double concentric axis of
-the Leger helicopter and the propelling planes of the Cornu machine.</p></div>
-
-<p>The gyropter differs from the Cornu type of helicopter
-in degree rather than in kind. In the Scotch
-machine, known as the Davidson gyropter, the propellers
-have the form of immense umbrellas made up
-of curving slats. The frame of the structure has the
-shape of a T, one of the gyropters being attached to
-each of the arms of the T. The axes upon which the
-gyropters revolve may be inclined so that their power
-may be exerted to draw the apparatus along in a horizontal
-direction after it has been raised to the desired
-altitude.</p>
-
-<p>The gyropters of the Davidson machine are 28
-feet in diameter, the entire structure being 67 feet
-long, and weighing 3 tons. It has been calculated
-that with the proposed pair of 50 horse-power engines
-the gyropters will lift 5 tons. Upon a trial with a
-10 horse-power motor connected to one of the gyropters,
-that end of the apparatus was lifted from the
-ground at 55 revolutions per minute&mdash;the boiler
-pressure being 800 lbs. to the square inch, at which
-pressure it burst, wrecking the machine.</p>
-
-<p>An example of the gyroplane is the French Breguet
-apparatus, a blend of the aeroplane and the helicopter.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>
-It combines the fixed wing-planes of the one
-with the revolving vanes of the other. The revolving
-surfaces have an area of 82 square feet, and the fixed
-surfaces 376 square feet. The total weight of machine
-and operator is about 1,350 lbs. Fitted with
-a 40 horse-power motor, it rose freely into the air.</p>
-
-<p>The ornithopter, or flapping-wing type of flying
-machine, though the object of experiment and research
-for years, must still be regarded as unsuccessful.
-The apparatus of M. de la Hault may be taken
-as typical of the best effort in that line, and it is yet
-in the experimental stage. The throbbing beat of the
-mechanism, in imitation of the bird’s wings, has
-always proved disastrous to the structure before sufficient
-power was developed to lift the apparatus.</p>
-
-<p>The most prominent exponent of the tetrahedral
-type&mdash;that made up of numbers of small cells set
-one upon another&mdash;is the <i>Cygnet</i> of Dr. Alexander
-Graham Bell, which perhaps is more a kite than a
-true flying machine. The first <i>Cygnet</i> had 3,000
-cells, and lifted its pilot to a height of 176 feet. The
-<i>Cygnet II</i>. has 5,000 tetrahedral cells, and is propelled
-by a 50 horse-power motor. It has yet to
-make its record.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most recently devised machines is that
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span>
-known as the Fritz Russ flyer. It has two wings,
-each in the form of half a cylinder, the convex curve
-upward. It is driven by two immense helical screws,
-or spirals, set within the semi-cylinders. No details
-of its performances are obtainable.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_VIII">Chapter VIII.<br />
-
-FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Instinctive balance&mdash;When the motor skips&mdash;Progressive experience&mdash;Plum
-Island School methods&mdash;Lilienthal’s conclusions&mdash;The
-Curtiss mechanism and controls&mdash;Speed records&mdash;Cross-country
-flying&mdash;Landing&mdash;Essential qualifications&mdash;Ground
-practice&mdash;Future relief.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">Any</span> one who has learned to ride a bicycle will
-recall the great difficulty at first experienced
-to preserve equilibrium. But once the knack was
-gained, how simple the matter seemed! Balancing
-became a second nature, which came into play instinctively,
-without conscious thought or effort. On
-smooth roads it was not even necessary to grasp the
-handle-bars. The swaying of the body was sufficient
-to guide the machine in the desired direction.</p>
-
-<p>Much of this experience is paralleled by that of
-the would-be aviator. First, he must acquire the art
-of balancing himself and his machine in the air
-without conscious effort. Unfortunately, this is even
-harder than in the case of the bicycle. The cases
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>
-would be more nearly alike if the road beneath and
-ahead of the bicyclist were heaving and falling as in
-an earthquake, with no light to guide him; for the
-air currents on which the aviator must ride are in
-constant and irregular motion, and are as wholly invisible
-to him as would be the road at night to the
-rider of the wheel.</p>
-
-<p>And there are other things to distract the attention
-of the pilot of an aeroplane&mdash;notably the roar
-of the propeller, and the rush of wind in his face,
-comparable only to the ceaseless and breath-taking
-force of the hurricane.</p>
-
-<p>The well-known aviator, Charles K. Hamilton,
-says:&mdash;“So far as the air currents are concerned,
-I rely entirely on instinctive action; but my ear is
-always on the alert. The danger signal of the aviator
-is when he hears his motor miss an explosion.
-Then he knows that trouble is in store. Sometimes
-he can speed up his engine, just as an automobile
-driver does, and get it to renew its normal action.
-But if he fails in this, and the motor stops, he must
-dip his deflecting planes, and try to negotiate a landing
-in open country. Sometimes there is no preliminary
-warning from the motor that it is going to
-cease working. That is the time when the aviator
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>
-must be prepared to act quickly. Unless the deflecting
-planes are manipulated instantly, aviator
-and aeroplane will rapidly land a tangled mass on
-the ground.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Result of a failure to deflect the planes quickly enough when the engine stopped.
-The operator fortunately escaped with but a few bruises.</p></div>
-
-<p>At the same time, Mr. Hamilton says: “Driving
-an aeroplane at a speed of 120 miles an hour is not
-nearly so difficult a task as driving an automobile
-60 miles an hour. In running an automobile at high
-speed the driver must be on the job every second.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>
-Nothing but untiring vigilance can protect him from
-danger. There are turns in the road, bad stretches
-of pavement, and other like difficulties, and he can
-never tell at what moment he is to encounter some
-vehicle, perhaps travelling in the opposite direction.
-But with an aeroplane it is a different proposition.
-Once a man becomes accustomed to aeroplaning, it
-is a matter of unconscious attention.... He has
-no obstacles to encounter except cross-currents of air.
-Air and wind are much quicker than a man can
-think and put his thought into action. Unless experience
-has taught the aviator to maintain his equilibrium
-instinctively, he is sure to come to grief.”</p>
-
-<p>The Wright brothers spent years in learning the
-art of balancing in the air before they appeared in
-public as aviators. And their method of teaching
-pupils is evidence that they believe the only road to
-successful aviation is through progressive experience,
-leading up from the use of gliders for short
-flights to the actual machines with motors only after
-one has become an instinctive equilibrist.</p>
-
-<p>At the Plum Island school of the Herring-Burgess
-Company the learner is compelled to begin at
-the beginning and work the thing out for himself.
-He is placed in a glider which rests on the ground.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>
-The glider is locked down by a catch which may be
-released by pulling a string. To the front end of the
-glider is attached a long elastic which may be
-stretched more or less, according to the pull desired.
-The beginner starts with the elastic stretched but a
-little. When all is ready he pulls the catch free, and
-is thrown forward for a few feet. As practice gains
-for him better control, he makes a longer flight; and
-when he can show a perfect mastery of his craft for
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span>
-a flight of 300 feet, and not till then, he is permitted
-to begin practice with a motor-driven machine.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_155.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A French apparatus for instructing pupils in aviation.</p></div>
-
-<p>The lamented Otto Lilienthal, whose experience
-in more than 2,000 flights gives his instructions
-unquestionable weight, urges that the “gradual development
-of flight should begin with the simplest apparatus
-and movements, and without the complication
-of dynamic means. With simple wing surfaces
-... man can carry out limited flights ... by
-gliding through the air from elevated points in paths
-more or less descending. The peculiarities of wind
-effects can best be learned by such exercises....
-The maintenance of equilibrium in forward flight
-is a matter of practice, and can be learned only by
-repeated personal experiment.... Actual practice
-in individual flight presents the best prospects for
-developing our capacity until it leads to perfected
-free flight.”</p>
-
-<p>The essential importance of thorough preparation
-in the school of experience could scarcely be made
-plainer or stronger. If it seems that undue emphasis
-has been laid upon this point, the explanation
-must be found in the deplorable death record among
-aviators from accidents in the air. With few exceptions,
-the cause of accident has been reported as,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span>
-“The aviator seemed to lose control of his machine.”
-If this is the case with professional flyers, the need
-for thorough preliminary training cannot be too
-strongly insisted upon.</p>
-
-<p>Having attained the art of balancing, the aviator
-has to learn the mechanism by which he may control
-his machine. While all of the principal machines
-are but different embodiments of the same principles,
-there is a diversity of design in the arrangement of
-the means of control. We shall describe that of the
-Curtiss biplane, as largely typical of them all.</p>
-
-<p>In general, the biplane consists of two large sustaining
-planes, one above the other. Between the
-planes is the motor which operates a propeller located
-in the rear of the planes. Projecting behind
-the planes, and held by a framework of bamboo rods,
-is a small horizontal plane, called the tail. The rudder
-which guides the aeroplane to the right or the
-left is partially bisected by the tail. This rudder
-is worked by wires which run to a steering wheel located
-in front of the pilot’s seat. This wheel is similar
-in size and appearance to the steering wheel of
-an automobile, and is used in the same way for
-guiding the aeroplane to the right or left. (See <a href="#Chapter_V">illustration
-of the Curtiss machine in Chapter V</a>.)
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span></p>
-
-<p>In front of the planes, supported on a shorter projecting
-framework, is the altitude rudder, a pair
-of planes hinged horizontally, so that their front
-edges may tip up or down. When they tilt up, the
-air through which the machine is passing catches on
-the under sides and lifts them up, thus elevating
-the front of the whole aeroplane and causing it
-to glide upward. The opposite action takes place
-when these altitude planes are tilted downward.
-This altitude rudder is controlled by a long rod
-which runs to the steering wheel. By pushing on the
-wheel the rod is shoved forward and turns the altitude
-planes upward. Pulling the wheel turns the
-rudder planes downward. This rod has a backward
-and forward thrust of over two feet, but the
-usual movement in ordinary wind currents is rarely
-more than an inch. In climbing to high levels or
-swooping down rapidly the extreme play of the rod
-is about four or five inches.</p>
-
-<p>Thus the steering wheel controls both the horizontal
-and vertical movements of the aeroplane. More
-than this, it is a feeler to the aviator, warning him
-of the condition of the air currents, and for this reason
-must not be grasped too firmly. It is to be held
-steady, yet loosely enough to transmit any wavering
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>
-force in the air to the sensitive touch of the pilot,
-enabling him instinctively to rise or dip as the current
-compels.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_159.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="small"><i>Courtesy N. Y. Times.</i></p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>View of the centre of the new Wright machine, showing method of operating. Archibald Hoxsey in the pilot’s
-seat. In his right hand he holds a lever with two handles, one operating the warping of the wing tips,
-and the other the rudder. Both handles may be grasped at once, operating both rudder and wing tips
-at the same moment. In his left hand Hoxsey grasps the lever operating the elevating plane&mdash;at the
-rear in this type. The passenger’s seat is shown at the pilot’s right.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The preserving of an even keel is accomplished
-in the Curtiss machine by small planes hinged between
-the main planes at the outer ends. They
-serve to prevent the machine from tipping over sideways.
-They are operated by arms, projecting from
-the back of the aviator’s seat, which embrace his
-shoulders on each side, and are moved by the swaying
-of his body. In a measure, they are automatic
-in action, for when the aeroplane sags downward
-on one side, the pilot naturally leans the other way
-to preserve his balance, and that motion swings the
-ailerons (as these small stabilizing planes are called)
-in such a way that the pressure of the wind restores
-the aeroplane to an even keel. The wires which connect
-them with the back of the seat are so arranged
-that when one aileron is being pulled down at its
-rear edge the rear of the other one is being raised,
-thus doubling the effect. As the machine is righted
-the aviator comes back to an upright position, and
-the ailerons become level once more.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_161.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Starting a Wright machine. When the word is given both assistants pull vigorously downward on the propeller blades.</p></div>
-
-<p>There are other controls which the pilot must
-operate consciously. In the Curtiss machine these
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>
-are levers moved by the feet. With a pressure of the
-right foot he short-circuits the magneto, thus cutting
-off the spark in the engine cylinders and stopping
-the motor. This lever also puts a brake on the forward
-landing wheels, and checks the speed of the
-machine as it touches the ground. The right foot
-also controls the pump which forces the lubricating
-oil faster or slower to the points where it is needed.</p>
-
-<p>The left foot operates the lever which controls the
-throttle by which the aviator can regulate the flow
-of gas to the engine cylinders. The average speed
-of the 7-foot propeller is 1,100 revolutions per minute.
-With the throttle it may be cut down to 100
-revolutions per minute, which is not fast enough to
-keep afloat, but will help along when gliding.</p>
-
-<p>Obviously, travelling with the wind enables the
-aviator to make his best speed records, for the speed
-of the wind is added to that of his machine through
-the air. Again, since the wind is always slower near
-the ground, the aviator making a speed record will
-climb up to a level where the surface currents no
-longer affect his machine. But over hilly and wooded
-country the air is often flowing or rushing in conflicting
-channels, and the aviator does not know what
-he may be called upon to face from one moment to
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>
-the next. If the aeroplane starts to drop, it is only
-necessary to push the steering wheel forward a little&mdash;perhaps
-half an inch&mdash;to bring it up again.
-Usually, the machine will drop on an even keel.
-Then, in addition to the motion just described, the
-aviator will lean toward the higher side, thus moving
-the ailerons by the seat-back, and at the same
-time he will turn the steering wheel toward the lower
-side. This movement of the seat-back is rarely
-more than 2 inches.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_163.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Diagram showing action of wind on flight of aeroplane. The force and direction
-of the wind being represented by the line <i>A B</i>, and the propelling
-force and steered direction being <i>A C</i>, the actual path travelled will be <i>A D</i>.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>In flying across country a sharp lookout is kept
-on the land below. If it be of a character unfit for
-landing, as woods, or thickly settled towns, the aviator
-must keep high up in the air, lest his engine
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span>
-stop and he be compelled to glide to the earth. A
-machine will glide forward 3 feet for each foot that
-it drops, if skilfully handled. If he is up 200 feet,
-he will have to find a landing ground within 600
-feet. If he is up 500 feet, he may choose his alighting
-ground anywhere within 1,500 feet. Over a city
-like New York, a less altitude than 1,500 feet would
-hardly be safe, if a glide became necessary.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Clifford B. Harmon, who was an aeronaut
-of distinction before he became an aviator, under the
-instruction of Paulhan, has this to say: “It is like
-riding a bicycle, or running an automobile. You
-have to try it alone to really learn how. When one
-first handles a flying machine it is advisable to keep
-on the ground, just rolling along. This is a harder
-mental trial than you will imagine. As soon as one
-is seated in a flying machine he wishes to fly. It is
-almost impossible to submit to staying near the earth.
-But until the manipulation of the levers and the
-steering gear has become second nature, this must be
-done. It is best to go very slow in the beginning.
-Skipping along the ground will teach a driver much.
-When one first gets up in the air it is necessary to
-keep far from all obstacles, like buildings, trees, or
-crowds. There is the same tendency to run into
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>
-them that an amateur bicycle rider has in regard
-to stones and ruts on the ground. When he keeps
-his eye on them and tries with all his might to steer
-clear of them, he runs right into them.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_165.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Practicing with a monoplane, 20 feet above the ground.</p></div>
-
-<p>When asked what he regarded the fundamental
-requirements in an aviator, Mr. Harmon said:
-“First, he must be muscularly strong; so that he
-will not tire. Second, he should have a thorough
-understanding of the mechanism of the machine he
-drives. Third, mental poise&mdash;the ability to think
-quick and to act instantly upon your thought.
-Fourth, a feeling of confidence in the air, so that
-he will not feel strange or out of place. This familiarity
-with the air can be best obtained by first
-being a passenger in a balloon, then by controlling
-one alone, and lastly going up in a flying machine.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_167.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Grahame-White on his Bleriot No. XII. The lever in front of him operates
-all the controls through the movement of the drum at its base.</p></div>
-
-<p>Mr. Claude Grahame-White, the noted English
-aviator, has this to say of his first experience with
-his big “No. XII.” Bleriot monoplane&mdash;which differs
-in many important features from the “No.
-XI.” machine in which M. Bleriot crossed the English
-Channel: “After several disappointments, I
-eventually obtained the delivery of my machine in
-working order.... As I had gathered a good deal
-of information from watching the antics and profiting
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>
-by the errors made by other beginners on Bleriot
-monoplanes, I had a good idea of what <i>not</i> to do
-when the engine was started up and we were ready
-for our first trial.... It was a cold morning, but
-the engine started up at the first quarter turn. After
-many warnings from M. Bleriot’s foreman not on
-any account to accelerate my engine too much, I
-mounted the machine along with my friend as passenger,
-and immediately gave the word to let go, and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span>
-we were soon speeding along the ground at a good
-sixty kilometers (about 37 miles) per hour....
-Being very anxious to see whether the machine would
-lift off the ground, I gave a slight jerk to the elevating
-plane, and soon felt the machine rise into the
-air; but remembering the warnings of the foreman,
-and being anxious not to risk breaking the machine,
-I closed the throttle and contented myself with running
-around on the ground to familiarize myself with
-the handling of the machine.... The next day we
-got down to Issy about five o’clock in the morning,
-some two hours before the Bleriot mechanics turned
-up. However, we got the machine out, and tied it
-to some railings, and then I had my first experience
-of starting an engine, which to a novice at first sight
-appears a most hazardous undertaking; for unless
-the machine is either firmly held by several men, or
-is strongly tied up, it has a tendency to immediately
-leap forward. We successfully started the engine,
-and then rigged up a leash, and when we had
-mounted the machine, we let go; and before eight
-o’clock we had accomplished several very successful
-flights, both with and against the wind. These experiences
-we continued throughout the day, and by
-nightfall I felt quite capable of an extended flight,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>
-if only the ground had been large enough.... The
-following day M. Bleriot returned, and he sent for
-me and strongly urged me not to use the aeroplane
-any more at Issy, as he said the ground was far too
-small for such a powerful machine.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_169.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Diagram of Bleriot monoplane, showing controlling lever <i>L</i> and bell-shaped
-drum <i>C</i>, to which all controlling wires are attached. When the bell is
-rocked back and forward the elevator tips on the rear plane are moved;
-rocking from side to side moves the stabilizing tips of the main plane.
-Turning the bell around moves the rudder.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span></p>
-
-<table class="images">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="w50"><img src="images/i_170.jpg" alt="" /></td>
-    <td>The Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum,
-    devised to secure
-    automatic stability of aeroplanes.
-    The wheels are
-    driven by the aeroplane motor
-    at high speed. The pendulum
-    rod is extended upward
-    above the axis and
-    carries a vane which is engaged
-    by any gust of wind
-    from either side of the aeroplane,
-    tending to tilt the
-    pendulum, and bringing its
-    gyroscopic resistance into
-    play to warp the wings, or
-    operate ailerons.</td>
-  </tr></table>
-
-<p>The caution shown by these experienced aviators
-cannot be too closely followed by a novice. These
-men do not say that their assiduous practice on the
-ground was the fruit of timidity. On the contrary,
-although they are long past the preliminary stages,
-their advice to beginners is uniformly in the line of
-caution and thorough practice.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_171.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>When the aeroplane is steered to the left, the pendulum swings to the right and
-depresses the right side of the plane, as in (<i>c</i>). The reaction of the air
-raises the right side of the plane until both surfaces are perpendicular
-to the inclined pendulum, as in (<i>d</i>).</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="caption">Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Even after one has become an expert, the battle
-is not won, by any means. While flying in calm
-weather is extremely pleasurable, a protracted flight
-is very fatiguing; and when it is necessary to wrestle
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span>
-with gusts of high wind and fickle air currents, the
-strain upon the strongest nerve is a serious source
-of danger in that the aviator is liable to be suddenly
-overcome by weariness when he most needs to be
-on the alert.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_172.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>In that inclined position the aeroplane makes the turn, and when the course
-again becomes straight, both the gyroscopic and centrifugal forces cease,
-and the pendulum under the influence of gravity becomes vertical. In
-this position it is inclined to the left with respect to the planes, on which
-its effect is to depress the left wing and so right the aeroplane, as in (<i>e</i>).</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="caption">Diagram showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.</p></div>
-
-<p>Engine troubles are much fewer than they used
-to be, and a more dependable form of motor relieves
-the mind of the aviator from such mental disturbance.
-Some device in the line of a wind-shield
-would be a real boon, for even in the best weather
-there is the ceaseless rush of air into one’s face at
-45 to 50 miles an hour. The endurance of this for
-hours is of itself a tax upon the most vigorous
-physique.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span></p>
-
-<p>With the passing of the present spectacular stage
-of the art of flying there will doubtless come a more
-reliable form of machine, with corresponding relief
-to the operator. Automatic mechanism will supplant
-the intense and continual mental attention now
-demanded; and as this demand decreases, the joys of
-flying will be considerably enhanced.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_173.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>If, when pursuing a straight course, the aeroplane is tilted by a sideways wind
-(<i>b</i>), the action of the pendulum as described above restores it to an even
-keel, as in (<i>a</i>).</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="caption">Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_IX">Chapter IX.<br />
-
-FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Santos-Dumont’s gift&mdash;<i>La Demoiselle</i>&mdash;Mechanical skill required&mdash;Preparatory
-practice&mdash;General dimensions&mdash;The
-frame&mdash;The motor&mdash;The main planes&mdash;The rudder-tail&mdash;The
-propeller&mdash;Shaping the blades&mdash;Maxim’s experience&mdash;The
-running gear&mdash;The controls&mdash;Scrupulous workmanship.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">When</span> Santos-Dumont in 1909 gave to the
-world the unrestricted privilege of building
-monoplanes after the plans of his famous No. 20&mdash;afterward
-named <i>La Demoiselle</i>&mdash;he gave not only
-the best he knew, but as much as any one knows
-about the building of flying machines. Santos-Dumont
-has chosen the monoplane for himself because
-his long experience commends it above others,
-and <i>La Demoiselle</i> was the crowning achievement
-of years spent in the construction and operation of
-airships of all types. In view of Santos-Dumont’s
-notable successes in his chosen field of activity, no
-one will go astray in following his advice.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span></p>
-
-<p>Of course, the possession of plans and specifications
-for an aeroplane does not make any man a
-skilled mechanic. It is well to understand at the
-start that a certain degree of mechanical ability is
-required in building a machine which will be entirely
-safe. Nor does the possession of a successful machine
-make one an aeronaut. As in the case of bicycling,
-there is no substitute for actual experience, while in
-the airship the art of balancing is of even greater
-importance than on the bicycle.</p>
-
-<p>The would-be aviator is therefore advised to put
-himself through a course of training of mind and
-body.</p>
-
-<p>Intelligent experimenting with some one of the
-models described in Chapter XI. will teach much of
-the action of aeroplanes in calms and when winds are
-blowing; and practice with an easily constructed
-glider (see <a href="#Chapter_XII">Chapter XII</a>.) will give experience in
-balancing which will be of the greatest value when
-one launches into the air for the first time with a
-power-driven machine. An expert acquaintance with
-gasoline motors and magnetos is a prime necessity.
-In short, every bit of information on the subject of
-flying machines and their operation cannot fail to be
-useful in some degree.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span></p>
-
-<p>The dimensions of the various parts of the Santos-Dumont
-monoplane are given on the original
-plans according to the metric system. In reducing
-these to “long measure” inches, all measurements
-have been given to the nearest eighth of an inch.</p>
-
-<p>In general, we may note some of the peculiarities
-of <i>La Demoiselle</i>. The spread of the plane is
-18 feet from tip to tip, and it is 20 feet over all
-from bow to stern. In height, it is about 4 feet 2
-inches when the propeller blades are in a horizontal
-position. The total weight of the machine is 265
-lbs., of which the engine weighs about 66 lbs. The
-area of the plane is 115 square feet, so that the total
-weight supported by each square foot with Santos-Dumont
-(weighing 110 lbs.) on board is a trifle
-over 3 lbs.</p>
-
-<p>The frame of the body of the monoplane is largely
-of bamboo, the three main poles being 2 inches in
-diameter at the front, and tapering to about 1 inch
-at the rear. They are jointed with brass sockets
-just back of the plane, for convenience of taking
-apart for transportation. Two of these poles extend
-from the axle of the wheels backward and slightly
-upward to the rudder-post. The third extends from
-the middle of the plane between the wings, backward
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>
-and downward to the rudder-post. In cross-section
-the three form a triangle with the apex at
-the top. These bamboo poles are braced about every
-2 feet with struts of steel tubing of oval section,
-and the panels so formed are tied by diagonals of
-piano wire fitted with turn-buckles to draw them
-taut.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_177.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Side view of the Santos-Dumont monoplane. <i>MP</i>, main plane with radiator, <i>R</i>, hung underneath; <i>RP</i>, rudder plane worked by
-wires <i>HC</i>, attached to lever <i>L</i>; <i>VC</i>, vertical control wires; <i>WT</i>, tube through which run the warping wires worked by lever
-<i>K</i>, in a pocket of the pilot’s coat; <i>B</i>, <i>B</i>, bamboo poles of frame; <i>S</i>, <i>S</i>, brass, or aluminum sockets; <i>D</i>, <i>D</i>, struts of bicycle tubing;
-<i>G</i>, gasoline; <i>RG</i>, reserve gasoline; <i>M</i>, motor; <i>P</i>, propeller; <i>Q</i>, <i>Q</i>, outer rib of plane, showing camber; <i>N</i>, skid.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the Santos-Dumont machine a 2-cylinder,
-opposed Darracq motor of 30 horse-power was used.
-It is of the water-cooled type, the cooling radiator
-being a gridiron of very thin ⅛-inch copper tubing,
-and hung up on the under side of the plane on either
-side of the engine. The cylinders have a bore of
-about 4⅛ inches, and a stroke of about 4¾ inches.
-The propeller is 2-bladed, 6½ feet across, and is
-run at 1,400 revolutions per minute, at which speed
-it exerts a pull of 242 lbs.</p>
-
-<p>Each wing of the main plane is built upon 2
-transverse spars extending outward from the upper
-bamboo pole, starting at a slight angle upward and
-bending downward nearly to the horizontal as they
-approach the outer extremities. These spars are of
-ash, 2 inches wide, and tapering in thickness from
-1⅛ inches at the central bamboo to about ⅞ inch at
-the tips of the wings. They are bent into shape by
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span>
-immersion in hot water, and straining them around
-blocks nailed to the floor of the workshop, in the
-form shown at QQ, p. 177.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_179.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Front view of the Santos-Dumont monoplane, showing position of tubular struts supporting the engine and the wings; also the
-guys, and warping wires entering the tubes inside the wheels. <i>MP</i>, the main plane; <i>TP</i>, tail plane in the rear; <i>R</i>, radiators;
-<i>M</i>, motor; <i>P</i>, propeller, the arrow showing direction of revolution.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The front spar is set about 9 inches back from the
-front edge of the plane, and the rear one about 12
-inches forward of the back edge of the plane. Across
-these spars, and beneath them, running fore and aft,
-are bamboo rods about ¾ of an inch in diameter
-at the forward end, and tapering toward the rear.
-They are set 8½ inches apart (centre to centre), except
-at the tips of the wings. The two outer panels
-are 10¼ inches from centre to centre of the rods, to
-give greater elasticity in warping. These fore-and-aft
-rods are 6 feet 5 inches long, except directly
-back of the propeller, where they are 5 feet 8 inches
-long; they are bound to the spars with brass wire
-No. 25, at the intersections. They also are bent to
-a curved form, as shown in the plans, by the aid of
-the hot-water bath. Diagonal guys of piano wire are
-used to truss the frame in two panels in each wing.</p>
-
-<p>Around the outer free ends of the rods runs a
-piano wire No. 20, which is let into the tips of the
-rods in a slot ⅜ inch deep. To prevent the splitting
-of the bamboo, a turn or two of the brass wire may
-be made around the rod just back of the slot; but
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>
-it is much better to provide thin brass caps for the
-ends of the rods, and to cut the slots in the metal
-as well as in the rods. Instead of caps, ferrules will
-do. When the slots are cut, let the tongue formed
-in the cutting be bent down across the bamboo to
-form the floor to the slot, upon which the piano wire
-may rest. The difference in weight and cost is very
-little, and the damage that may result from a split
-rod may be serious.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_181.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Plan and details of construction of <i>La Demoiselle</i>.</p></div>
-
-<p>After the frame of the plane is completed it is
-to be covered with cloth on both sides, so as entirely
-to enclose the frame, except only the tips of the rods,
-as shown in the plans. In the Santos-Dumont monoplane
-the cloth used is of closely woven silk, but a
-strong, unbleached muslin will do&mdash;the kind made
-especially for aeroplanes is best.</p>
-
-<p>Both upper and lower surfaces must be stretched
-taut, the edges front and back being turned over the
-piano wire, and the wire hemmed in. The upper
-and lower surfaces are then sewed together&mdash;“through
-and through,” as a seamstress would say&mdash;along
-both sides of each rod, so that the rods are
-practically in “pockets.” Nothing must be slighted,
-if safety in flying is to be assured.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_183a.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sectional diagram of 2-cylinder Darracq opposed motor.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_183b.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram of 4-cylinder Darracq opposed motor.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_183c.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram of 3-cylinder Anzani motor.</p>
-
-<p class="caption">Motors suitable for <i>La Demoiselle</i> monoplane.</p></div>
-
-<p>The tail of the monoplane is a rigid combination
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>
-of two planes intersecting each other at right angles
-along a central bamboo pole which extends back 3
-feet 5½ inches from the rudder-post, to which it is
-attached by a double joint, permitting it to move
-upon either the vertical or the horizontal axis.</p>
-
-<p>Although this tail, or rudder, may seem at first
-glance somewhat complicated in the plans, it will not
-be found so if the frame of the upright or vertical
-plane be first constructed, and that of the level or
-horizontal plane afterward built fast to it at right
-angles.</p>
-
-<p>As with the main plane, the tail is to be covered
-on both sides with cloth, the vertical part first; the
-horizontal halves on either side so covered that the
-cloth of the latter may be sewed above and below
-the central pole. All of the ribs in the tail are to be
-stitched in with “pockets,” as directed for the rods
-of the main plane.</p>
-
-<p>The construction of the motor is possible to an
-expert machinist only, and the aeroplane builder will
-save time and money by buying his engine from a
-reliable maker. It is not necessary to send to
-France for a Darracq motor. Any good gasoline
-engine of equal power, and about the same weight,
-will serve the purpose.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p>
-
-<p>The making of the propeller is practicable for a
-careful workman. The illustrations will give a better
-idea than words of how it should be done. It
-should be remembered, however, that the safety of
-the aviator depends as much upon the propeller as
-upon any other part of the machine. The splitting
-of the blades when in motion has been the cause of
-serious accidents. The utmost care, therefore, should
-be exercised in the selection of the wood, and in the
-glueing of the several sections into one solid mass,
-allowing the work to dry thoroughly under heavy
-pressure.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_185.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Diagram showing how the layers of wood are placed for glueing: <i>A</i>, at the hub;
-<i>B</i>, half way to the tip of the blade; <i>C</i>, at the tip. The dotted lines show
-the form of the blade at these points.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The forming of the blades requires a good deal of
-skill, and some careful preliminary study. It is apparent
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>
-that the speed of a point at the tip of a revolving
-blade is much greater than that of a point
-near the hub, for it traverses a larger circle in the
-same period of time. But if the propeller is to do
-effective work without unequal strain, the twist in the
-blade must be such that each point in the length of
-the blade is exerting an equal pull on the air. It
-is necessary, therefore, that the slower-moving part
-of the blade, near the hub, or axis, shall cut “deeper”
-into the air than the more swiftly moving tip of
-the blade. Consequently the blade becomes continually
-“flatter” (approaching the plane in which it
-revolves) as we work from the hub outward toward
-the tip. This “flattening” is well shown in the
-nearly finished blade clamped to the bench at the
-right of the illustration&mdash;which shows a four-bladed
-propeller, instead of the two-bladed type needed for
-the monoplane.</p>
-
-<p>The propeller used for propulsion in air differs
-from the propeller-wheel used for ships in water,
-in that the blades are curved laterally; the forward
-face of the blade being convex, and the rearward
-face concave. The object of this shaping is the same
-as for curving the surface of the plane&mdash;to secure
-smoother entry into the air forward, and a compression
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
-in the rear which adds to the holding power on
-the substance of the air. It is extremely difficult to
-describe this complex shape, and the amateur builder
-of a propeller will do well to inspect one made by a
-professional, or to buy it ready made with his engine.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_187.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Forming a 4-blade propeller out of 8 layers of wood glued firmly together.</p></div>
-
-<p>The following quotation from Sir Hiram Maxim’s
-account of his most effective propeller may aid the
-ambitious aeroplane builder: “My large screws were
-made with a great degree of accuracy; they were perfectly
-smooth and even on both sides, the blades being
-thin and held in position by a strip of rigid wood
-on the back of the blade.... Like the small screws,
-they were made of the very best kind of seasoned
-American white pine, and when finished were varnished
-on both sides with hot glue. When this was
-thoroughly dry, they were sand-papered again, and
-made perfectly smooth and even. The blades were
-then covered with strong Irish linen fabric of the
-smoothest and best make. Glue was used for attaching
-the fabric, and when dry another coat of glue
-was applied, the surface rubbed down again, and
-then painted with zinc white in the ordinary way and
-varnished. These screws worked exceedingly well.”</p>
-
-<p>The covering of the blades with linen glued fast
-commends itself to the careful workman as affording
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>
-precaution against the splintering of the blades
-when in rapid motion. Some propellers have their
-wooden blades encased with thin sheet aluminum to
-accomplish the same purpose, but for the amateur
-builder linen is far easier to apply.</p>
-
-<table class="images">
-  <tr>
-    <td><blockquote>
-
-    <p>This method of mounting the
-    wheels of the chassis has
-    been found the most satisfactory.
-    The spring takes
-    up the shock of a sudden
-    landing and the pivot working
-    in the hollow post allows
-    the entire mounting to swing
-    like a caster, and adapt itself
-    to any direction at which
-    the machine may strike the
-    ground.</p></blockquote></td>
-    <td class="w50"><img src="images/i_189.jpg" alt="" /></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>The wheels are of the bicycle type, with wire
-spokes, but with hubs six inches long. The axle is
-bent to incline upward at the ends, so that the wheels
-incline outward at the ground, the better to take
-the shock of a sideways thrust when landing. The
-usual metal or wood rims may be used, but special
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
-tires of exceptionally light construction, made for
-aeroplanes, should be purchased.</p>
-
-<p>The controlling wires or cords for moving the rudder
-(or tail) and for warping the tips of the wings
-are of flexible wire cable, such as is made for use
-as steering rope on small boats. The cable controlling
-the horizontal plane of the rudder-tail is fastened
-to a lever at the right hand of the operator. The
-cable governing the vertical plane of the rudder-tail
-is attached to a wheel at the left hand of the operator.
-The cables which warp the tips of the wings
-are fastened to a lever which projects upward just
-back of the operator’s seat, and which is slipped
-into a long pocket sewed to the back of his coat, so
-that the swaying of his body in response to the fling
-of the tipping machine tends to restore it to an even
-keel. Springs are attached to all of these controlling
-wires, strong enough to bring them back to a normal
-position when the operator removes his hands from
-the steering apparatus.</p>
-
-<p>The brass sockets used in connecting the tubular
-struts to the main bamboos and the rudder-post, and
-in fastening the axle of the wheels to the lower bamboos
-and elsewhere, should be thoroughly made and
-brazed by a good mechanic, for no one should risk
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span>
-the chance of a faulty joint at a critical spot, when
-an accident may mean the loss of life.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_191.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram of Bleriot monoplane showing sizes of parts, in metres. Reduced to
-feet and inches these measurements are:</p>
-
-<table class="tdr">
-  <tr>
-    <td>0.60 metres</td>
-    <td>1 ft.</td>
-    <td>11½ in.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>1.50 metres</td>
-    <td>4 ft.</td>
-    <td>11   in.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>2.10 metres</td>
-    <td>6 ft.</td>
-    <td>10½ in.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>3.50 metres</td>
-    <td>11 ft.</td>
-    <td> 6   in.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>8.00 metres</td>
-    <td>26 ft.</td>
-    <td> 3   in.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td>8.60 metres</td>
-    <td>28 ft.</td>
-    <td> 2½    in.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The diagram being drawn to scale other dimensions may be found. In both
-the plan (upper figure) and elevation (lower figure), <i>A</i>, <i>A</i>, is the main plane;
-<i>B</i>, tail plane; <i>C</i>, body; <i>D</i>, elevator wing-tips; <i>E</i>, rudder; <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, rigid spar;
-<i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, flexible spar; <i>r</i>, <i>r</i>, points of attachment for warping-wires; <i>h</i>, <i>h</i>, guys;
-<i>H</i>, propeller; <i>M</i>, motor; <i>R</i>, radiator; <i>S</i>, pilot’s seat; <i>P</i>, chassis.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>For the rest, it has seemed better to put the details
-of construction on the plans themselves, where they
-will be available to the aeroplane builder without the
-trouble of continually consulting the text.</p>
-
-<p>Some of the work on an aeroplane will be found
-simple and easy; some of it, difficult and requiring
-much patience; and some impracticable to any one
-but a trained mechanic. But in all of it, the worker’s
-motto should be, “Fidelity in every detail.”
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_X">Chapter X.<br />
-
-FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Early use of steam&mdash;Reliability necessary&mdash;The gasoline motor&mdash;Carburetion&mdash;Compression&mdash;Ignition&mdash;Air-cooling&mdash;Water-cooling&mdash;Lubrication&mdash;The
-magneto&mdash;Weight&mdash;Types of
-motors&mdash;The propeller&mdash;Form, size, and pitch&mdash;Slip&mdash;Materials&mdash;Construction.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> possibility of the existence of the flying
-machine as we have it to-day has been ascribed
-to the invention of the gasoline motor. While this
-is not to be denied, it is also true that the gasoline
-motors designed and built for automobiles and motor-boats
-have had to be wellnigh revolutionized to make
-them suitable for use in the various forms of aircraft.
-And it is to be remembered, doubtless to their
-greater credit, that Henson, Hargrave, Langley, and
-Maxim had all succeeded in adapting steam to the
-problem of the flight of models, the two latter using
-gasoline to produce the steam.</p>
-
-<p>Perhaps the one predominant qualification demanded
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>
-of the aeroplane motor is reliability. A
-motor-car or motor-boat can be stopped, and engine
-troubles attended to with comparatively little inconvenience.
-The aeroplane simply cannot stop without
-peril. It is possible for a skilful pilot to reach the
-earth when his engine stops, if he is fortunately high
-enough to have space for the downward glide which
-will gain for him the necessary headway for steering.
-At a lesser height he is sure to crash to the earth.</p>
-
-<p>An understanding of the principles on which the
-gasoline motor works is essential to a fair estimate
-of the comparative advantages of the different types
-used to propel aeroplanes. In the first place, the radical
-difference between the gasoline motor and other
-engines is the method of using the fuel. It is not
-burned in ordinary fashion, but the gasoline is first
-vaporized and mixed with a certain proportion of air,
-in a contrivance called a carburetor. This gaseous
-mixture is pumped into the cylinder of the motor
-by the action of the motor itself, compressed into
-about one-tenth of its normal volume, and then exploded
-by a strong electric spark at just the right
-moment to have its force act most advantageously to
-drive the machinery onward.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_195.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The “Fiat” 8-cylinder air-cooled motor, of the “V” type, made in France.</p></div>
-
-<p>It is apparent that there are several chances for
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>
-failure in this series. The carburetor may not do
-its part accurately. The mixture of air and vapor
-may not be in such proportions that it will explode;
-in that case, the power from that stroke will be missing,
-and the engine will falter and slow down. Or
-a leakage in the cylinder may prevent the proper
-compression of the mixture, the force from the explosion
-will be greatly reduced, with a corresponding
-loss of power and speed. Or the electric spark may
-not be “fat” enough&mdash;that is, of sufficient volume
-and heat to fire the mixture; or it may not “spark”
-at just the right moment; if too soon, it will exert
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>
-its force against the onward motion: if too late, it
-will not deliver the full power of the explosion at the
-time when its force is most useful. The necessity
-for absolute perfection in these operations is obvious.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_196.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A near view of the Holmes engine from the driving side.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_197.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Holmes rotative engine, 7-cylinder 35 horse-power, weighing 160 pounds.<br />
-An American engine built in Chicago, Ill.</p></div>
-
-<p>Other peculiarities of the gasoline motor affect
-considerably its use for aeroplanes. The continual
-and oft-repeated explosions of the gaseous mixture
-inside of the cylinder generate great heat, and this
-not only interferes with its regularity of movement,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>
-but within a very brief time checks it altogether.
-To keep the cylinder cool enough to be serviceable,
-two methods are in use: the air-cooling system and
-the water-cooling system. In the first, flanges of
-very thin metal are cast on the outside of the cylinder
-wall. These flanges take up the intense heat,
-and being spread out over a large surface in this
-way, the rushing of the air through them as the machine
-flies (or sometimes blown through them with
-a rotary fan) cools them to some degree. With the
-water-cooling system, the cylinder has an external
-jacket, the space between being filled with water
-which is made to circulate constantly by a small
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>
-pump. In its course the water which has just taken
-up the heat from the cylinder travels through a radiator
-in which it is spread out very thin, and this
-radiator is so placed in the machine that it receives
-the full draught from the air rushing through the
-machine as it flies. The amount of water required
-for cooling a motor is about 1⅕ lbs. per horse-power.
-With an 8-cylinder 50 horse-power motor, this water
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>
-would add the very considerable item of 60 lbs. to the
-weight the machine has to carry. As noted in a previous
-chapter, the McCurdy biplane has its radiator
-formed into a sustaining plane, and supports its own
-weight when travelling in the air.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_198.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The 180 horse-power engine of Sir Hiram Maxim; of the “opposed” type,
-compound, and driven by steam.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_199.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The Anzani motor and propeller which carried M. Bleriot across the English
-Channel. The curved edge of the propeller blades is the entering edge,
-the propeller turning from the right of the picture over to the left. The
-Anzani is of the “radiant” type and is of French build.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is an unsettled point with manufacturers
-whether the greater efficiency (generally acknowledged)
-of the water-cooled engine more than compensates
-for the extra weight of the water.</p>
-
-<p>Another feature peculiar to the gasoline motor is
-the necessity for such continual oiling that it is styled
-“lubrication,” and various devices have been invented
-to do the work automatically, without attention
-from the pilot further than the watching of his
-oil-gauge to see that a full flow of oil is being pumped
-through the oiling system.</p>
-
-<p>The electric current which produces the spark
-inside of the cylinder is supplied by a magneto, a
-machine formed of permanent magnets of horseshoe
-form, between the poles of which a magnetized armature
-is made to revolve rapidly by the machinery
-which turns the propeller. This magneto is often
-connected with a small storage battery, or accumulator,
-which stores up a certain amount of current for
-use when starting, or in case the magneto gives out.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_201.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Sectional drawings showing details of construction of the Anzani motor. The flanges of the air-cooling system are distinctly shown. The
-section at the left is from the side; that at the right, from the front. All measurements are in millimètres. A millimètre is 0.039 inch.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span></p></blockquote></div>
-
-<p>The great rivalry of the builders of motors has
-been in cutting down the weight per horse-power to
-the lowest possible figure. It goes without saying
-that useless weight is a disadvantage in an aeroplane,
-but it has not been proven that the very lightest engines
-have made a better showing than those of sturdier
-build.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_202.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The “Gobron” engine of the “double opposed,” or cross-shaped type.
-A water-cooled engine, with 8 cylinders.</p></div>
-
-<p>One of the items in the weight of an engine has
-been the fly-wheel found necessary on all motors of
-4 cylinders or less to give steadiness to the running.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span>
-With a larger number of cylinders, and a consequently
-larger number of impulses in the circuit of
-the propeller, the vibration is so reduced that the
-fly-wheel has been dispensed with.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Emerson 6-cylinder aviation engine, of the “tandem” type, water-cooled;
-60 horse-power; made at Alexandria, Va.</p></div>
-
-<p>There are several distinct types of aircraft engines,
-based on the arrangement of the cylinders.
-The “tandem” type has the cylinders standing upright
-in a row, one behind another. There may be
-as many as eight in a row. The Curtiss and Wright
-engines are examples. Another type is the “opposed”
-arrangement, the cylinders being placed in a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>
-horizontal position and in two sets, one working opposite
-the other. An example of this type is seen in
-the Darracq motor used on the Santos-Dumont monoplane.
-Another type is the “V” arrangement, the
-cylinders set alternately leaning to right and to left,
-as seen in the “Fiat” engine. Still another type
-is the “radiant,” in which the cylinders are all above
-the horizontal, and disposed like rays from the rising
-sun. The 3-cylinder Anzani engine and the 5- and
-7-cylinder R-E-P engines are examples. The “star”
-type is exemplified in the 5 and 7-cylinder engines
-in which the cylinders radiate at equal angles
-all around the circle. The “double opposed” or
-cross-shaped type is shown in the “Gobron” engine.
-In all of these types the cylinders are stationary,
-and turn the propeller shaft either by cranks or by
-gearing.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_204.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Elbridge engine, of the “tandem” type and water-cooled. It is an American engine, built
-at Rochester, N. Y.</p></div>
-
-<p>An entirely distinct type of engine, and one which
-has been devised solely for the aeroplane, is the rotative&mdash;often
-miscalled the rotary, which is totally
-different. The rotative type may be illustrated by
-the Gnome motor. In this engine the seven cylinders
-turn around the shaft, which is stationary. The
-propeller is fastened to the cylinders, and revolves
-with them. This ingenious effect is produced by an
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span>
-offset of the crank-shaft of half the stroke of the pistons,
-whose rods are all connected with the crank-shaft.
-The entire system revolves around the main
-shaft as a centre, the crank-shaft being also stationary.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_206.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The famous Gnome motor; 50 horse-power, 7-cylinder, air-cooled; of the
-rotative type; made in France. This illustration shows the Gnome steel
-propeller.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_207a.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sectional diagram of the 5-cylinder R-E-P motor; of the “radiant” type.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_207b.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sectional diagram of the 5-cylinder Bayard-Clement motor; of the “star”
-type.</p></div>
-
-<p>Strictly speaking, the propeller is not a part of the
-motor of the flying machine, but it is so intimately
-connected with it in the utilization of the power created
-by the motor, that it will be treated of briefly
-in this chapter.</p>
-
-<p>The form of the air-propeller has passed through
-a long and varied development, starting with that of
-the marine propeller, which was found to be very inefficient
-in so loose a medium as air. On account of
-this lack of density in the air, it was found necessary
-to act on large masses of it at practically the same
-time to gain the thrust needed to propel the aeroplane
-swiftly, and this led to increasing the diameter
-of the propeller to secure action on a proportionally
-larger area of air. The principle involved is simply
-the geometric rule that the areas of circles are to
-each other as the squares of their radii. Thus the
-surface of air acted on by two propellers, one of 6
-feet diameter and the other of 8 feet diameter, would
-be in the proportion of 9 to 16; and as the central
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>
-part of a propeller has practically no thrust effect,
-the efficiency of the 8-foot propeller is nearly twice
-that of the 6-foot propeller&mdash;other factors being
-equal. But these other factors may be made to vary
-widely. For instance, the number of revolutions
-may be increased for the smaller propeller, thus engaging
-more air than the larger one at a lower speed;
-and, in practice, it is possible to run a small propeller
-at a speed that would not be safe for a large
-one. Another factor is the pitch of the propeller,
-which may be described as the distance the hub of
-the propeller would advance in one complete revolution
-if the blades moved in an unyielding medium, as
-a section of the thread of an ordinary bolt moves in
-its nut. In the yielding mass of the air the propeller
-advances only a part of its pitch, in some cases not
-more than half. The difference between the theoretical
-advance and the actual advance is called the
-“slip.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_209.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The Call Aviation Engine, of the opposed type; water-cooled. The cylinders are large and
-few in number. The 100 horse-power engine has but 4 cylinders, and weighs only
-250 pounds. (The Gnome 100 horse-power engine has 14 cylinders.) This is an
-American engine, built at Girard, Kansas.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>In practical work the number of blades which have
-been found to be most effective is two. More blades
-than two seem to so disturb the air that there is no
-hold for the propeller. In the case of slowly revolving
-propellers, as in most airship mechanisms, four-bladed
-propellers are used with good effect. But
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>
-where the diameter of the propeller is about 8 feet,
-and the number of revolutions about 1,200 per minute,
-the two-bladed type is used almost exclusively.</p>
-
-<p>The many differing forms of the blades of the
-propeller is evidence that the manufacturers have not
-decided upon any definite shape as being the best.
-Some have straight edges nearly or quite parallel;
-others have the entering edge straight and the rear
-edge curved; in others the entering edge is curved,
-and the rear edge straight; or both edges may be
-curved. The majority of the wooden propellers are
-of the third-mentioned type, and the curve is fashioned
-so that at each section of its length the blade
-presents the same area of surface in the same time.
-Hence the outer tip, travelling the fastest, is narrower
-than the middle of the blade, and it is also
-much thinner to lessen the centrifugal force acting
-upon it at great speeds. Near the hub, however,
-where the travel is slowest, the constructional problem
-demands that the blade contract in width and
-be made stout. In fact, it becomes almost round in
-section.</p>
-
-<p>Many propellers are made of metal, with tubular
-shanks and blades of sheet metal, the latter either
-solid sheets or formed with a double surface and hollow
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>
-inside. Still others have a frame of metal with
-blades of fabric put on loosely, so that it may adapt
-itself to the pressure of the air in revolving. That
-great strength is requisite becomes plain when it is
-considered that the speed of the tip of a propeller
-blade often reaches seven miles a minute! And at
-this velocity the centrifugal force excited&mdash;tending to
-tear the blades to splinters&mdash;is prodigious.</p>
-
-<p>Just as the curved surface of the planes of an
-aeroplane is more effective than a flat surface in
-compressing the air beneath them, and thus securing
-a firmer medium on which to glide, so the propeller
-blades are curved laterally (across their width) to
-compress the air behind them and thus secure a better
-hold. The advancing side of the blade is formed
-with a still greater curve, to gain the advantage due
-to the unexplained lift of the paradox aeroplane.</p>
-
-<p>Where the propeller is built of wood it is made of
-several layers, usually of different kinds of wood,
-with the grain running in slightly different directions,
-and all carefully glued together into a solid
-block. Ash, spruce, and mahogany, in alternating
-layers, are a favorite combination. In some instances
-the wooden propeller is sheathed in sheet
-aluminum; in others, it is well coated with glue
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>
-which is sandpapered down very smooth, then varnished,
-and then polished to the highest lustre&mdash;to
-reduce the effect of the viscosity of the air to the
-minimum.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_213.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Two propellers, the one on the left of left-hand pitch; the other of right-hand
-pitch. Both are thrusting propellers, and are viewed from the rear.
-These fine models are of the laminated type, and are of American make;
-the one to the left a Paragon propeller made in Washington, D. C.; the
-other a Brauner propeller made in New York.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>In order to get the best results, the propeller and
-the motor must be suited to each other. Some motors
-which “race” with a propeller which is slightly
-too small, work admirably with one a little heavier,
-or with a longer diameter.</p>
-
-<p>The question as to whether one propeller, or two,
-is the better practice, has not been decided. The
-majority of aeroplanes have but one. The Wright
-and the Cody machines have two. The certainty of
-serious consequences to a machine having two,
-should one of them be disabled, or even broken so
-as to reduce the area, seems to favor the use of but
-one.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XI">Chapter XI.<br />
-
-MODEL FLYING MACHINES.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Awakened popular interest&mdash;The workshop’s share&mdash;Needed devices&mdash;Super-sensitive
-inventions&mdash;Unsolved problems&mdash;Tools
-and materials&mdash;A model biplane&mdash;The propeller&mdash;The
-body&mdash;The steering plane&mdash;The main planes&mdash;Assembling
-the parts&mdash;The motive power&mdash;Flying the model&mdash;A monoplane
-model&mdash;Carving a propeller&mdash;Many ideas illustrated&mdash;Clubs
-and competitions&mdash;Some remarkable records.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">It</span> is related of Benjamin Franklin that when he
-went out with his famous kite with the wire
-string, trying to collect electricity from the thundercloud,
-he took a boy along to forestall the ridicule that
-he knew would be meted out to him if he openly flew
-the kite himself.</p>
-
-<p>Other scientific experimenters, notably those working
-upon the problem of human flight in our own
-time, have encountered a similar condition of the
-public mind, and have chosen to conduct their trials
-in secret rather than to contend with the derision,
-criticism, and loss of reputation which a sceptical
-world would have been quick to heap upon them.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span></p>
-
-<p>But such a complete revolution of thought has been
-experienced in these latter days that groups of notable
-scientific men gravely flying kites, or experimenting
-with carefully made models of flying machines,
-arouse only the deepest interest, and their
-smallest discoveries are eagerly seized upon by the
-daily press as news of the first importance.</p>
-
-<p>So much remains to be learned in the field of
-aeronautics that no builder and flyer of the little
-model aeroplanes can fail to gain valuable information,
-if that is his intention. On the other hand,
-if it be the sport of racing these model aeroplanes
-which appeals to him, the instruction given in the
-pages following will be equally useful.</p>
-
-<p>The earnest student of aviation is reminded that
-the progressive work in this new art of flying is
-not being done altogether, nor even in large part,
-by the daring operators who, with superb courage, are
-performing such remarkable feats with the flying machines
-of the present moment. Not one of them
-would claim that his machine is all that could be desired.
-On the contrary, these intrepid men more
-than any others are fully aware of the many and
-serious defects of the apparatus they use for lack of
-better. The scientific student in his workshop, patiently
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>
-experimenting with his models, and working
-to prove or disprove untested theories, is doubtless
-doing an invaluable part in bringing about the sort
-of flying which will be more truly profitable to humanity
-in general, though less spectacular.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_217.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A model flying machine built and flown by Louis Paulhan, the noted aviator, at a prize contest for models in France.
-The design is after Langley’s model, with tandem monoplane surfaces placed at a dihedral angle.</p></div>
-
-<p>One of the greatest needs of the present machines
-is an automatic balancer which shall supersede the
-concentrated attention which the operator is now
-compelled to exercise in order to keep his machine
-right side up. The discovery of the principle upon
-which such a balancer must be built is undoubtedly
-within the reach of the builder and flyer of models.
-It has been asserted by an eminent scientific experimenter
-in things aeronautic that “we cannot hope
-to make a sensitive apparatus quick enough to take
-advantage of the rising currents of the air,” etc.
-With due respect to the publicly expressed opinion
-of this investigator, it is well to reassure ourselves
-against so pessimistic an outlook by remembering
-that the construction of just such supersensitive
-apparatus is a task to which man has frequently
-applied his intellectual powers with signal success.
-Witness the photomicroscope, which records faithfully
-an enlarged view of objects too minute to be
-even visible to the human eye; the aneroid barometer,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>
-so sensitive that it will indicate the difference in
-level between the table and the floor; the thermostat,
-which regulates the temperature of the water flowing
-in the domestic heating system with a delicacy impossible
-to the most highly constituted human organism;
-the seismograph, detecting, recording, and
-almost locating earth tremors originating thousands
-of miles away; the automatic fire sprinkler; the
-safety-valve; the recording thermometer and other
-meteorological instruments; and last, if not of least
-importance, the common alarm-clock. And these are
-but a few of the contrivances with which man does
-by blind mechanism that which is impossible to his
-sentient determination.</p>
-
-<p>Even if the nervous system could be schooled into
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span>
-endurance of the wear and tear of consciously balancing
-an aeroplane for many hours, it is still imperative
-that the task be not left to the exertion of
-human wits, but controlled by self-acting devices
-responding instantly to unforeseen conditions as they
-occur.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_219.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram showing turbulent air currents produced when a flat plane is forced
-through the air at a large angle of incidence in the direction A-B.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_220.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram showing smoothly flowing air currents caused by correctly shaped
-plane at proper angle of incidence.</p></div>
-
-<p>Some of the problems of which the model-builder
-may find the solution are: whether large screws revolving
-slowly, or small screws revolving rapidly,
-are the more effective; how many blades a propeller
-should have, and their most effective shape; what is
-the “perfect” material for the planes (Maxim found
-that with a smooth wooden plane he could lift 2½
-times the weight that could be lifted with the best
-made fabric-covered plane); whether the centre of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span>
-gravity of the aeroplane should be above or below
-the centre of lift, or should coincide with it; new
-formulas for the correct expression of the lift in
-terms of the velocity, and angle of inclination&mdash;the
-former formulas having been proved erroneous by
-actual experience; how to take the best advantage of
-the “tangential force” announced by Lilienthal, and
-reasserted by Hargrave; and many others. And
-there is always the “paradox aeroplane” to be explained&mdash;and
-when explained it will be no longer a
-paradox, but will doubtless open the way to the most
-surprising advance in the art of flying.</p>
-
-<p>It is not assumed that every reader of this chapter
-will become a studious experimenter, but it is unquestionably
-true that every model-builder, in his
-effort to produce winning machines, will be more
-than likely to discover some fact of value in the
-progress making toward the ultimate establishment
-of the commercial navigation of the air.</p>
-
-<p>The tools and materials requisite for the building
-of model aeroplanes are few and inexpensive. For
-the tools&mdash;a small hammer; a small iron “block”
-plane; a fine-cut half-round file; a pair of round-nose
-pliers; three twist drills (as used for drilling metals),
-the largest 1/16 inch diameter, and two smaller sizes,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span>
-with an adjustable brad-awl handle to hold them;
-a sharp pocket knife; and, if practicable, a small
-hand vise. The vise may be dispensed with, and
-common brad-awls may take the place of the drills,
-if necessary.</p>
-
-<p>For the first-described model&mdash;the simplest&mdash;the
-following materials are needed: some thin whitewood,
-1/16 inch thick (as prepared for fret-sawing);
-some spruce sticks, ¼ inch square (sky-rocket sticks
-are good); a sheet of heavy glazed paper; a bottle of
-liquid glue; some of the smallest (in diameter) brass
-screws, ¼ to ½ inch long; some brass wire, 1/20 inch in
-diameter; 100 inches of square rubber (elastic)
-“cord,” such as is used on return-balls, but 1/16 inch
-square; and a few strips of draughtsman’s tracing
-cloth.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_223.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, blank from which propeller
-is shaped; <i>P</i>, <i>P</i>, pencil lines at
-centre of bend; <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, sections of
-blade at points opposite; <i>E</i>, <i>G</i>, propeller
-after twisting; <i>H</i>, view of
-propeller endwise, showing outward
-twist of tips; also shaft.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>As the propeller is the most difficult part to make,
-it is best to begin with it. The flat blank is cut out
-of the whitewood, and subjected to the action of
-steam issuing from the spout of an actively boiling
-tea-kettle. The steam must be hot; mere vapor will
-not do the work. When the strip has become pliable,
-the shaping is done by slowly bending and twisting
-at the same time&mdash;perhaps “coaxing” would be the
-better word, for it must be done gently and with
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>
-patience&mdash;and the steam must be playing on the wood
-all the time, first on one side of the strip, then on
-the other, at the point where the fibres are being bent.
-The utmost care should be taken to have the two
-blades bent exactly alike&mdash;although, of course, with
-a contrary twist, the one to the right and the other to
-the left, on each side of the centre. A lead-pencil
-line across each blade at exactly the same distance
-from the centre will serve to fix accurately the centre
-of the bend. If two blocks are made with slots cut
-at the angle of 1 inch rise to 2¼ inches base, and
-nailed to the top of the work bench just far enough
-apart to allow the tips of the screw to be slid into the
-slots, the drying in perfect shape will be facilitated.
-The centre may be held to a true upright by two other
-blocks, one on each side of the centre. Some strips
-of whitewood may be so rigid that the steam will not
-make them sufficiently supple. In this case it may be
-necessary to dip them bodily into the boiling water,
-or even to leave them immersed for a few minutes;
-afterward bending them in the hot steam. But a
-wetted stick requires longer to dry and set in the screw
-shape. When the propeller is thoroughly dry and set
-in proper form, it should be worked into the finished
-shape with the half-round file, according to the several
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>
-sections shown beside the elevation for each part
-of the blade. The two strengthening piece’s are then
-to be glued on at the centre of the screw, and when
-thoroughly dry, worked down smoothly to shape.
-When all is dry and hard it should be smoothed with
-the finest emery cloth and given a coat of shellac varnish,
-which, in turn, may be rubbed to a polish with
-rotten stone and oil.</p>
-
-<p>It may be remarked, in passing, that this is a crude
-method of making a propeller, and the result cannot
-be very good. It is given here because it is the easiest
-way, and the propeller will work. A much better
-way is described further on&mdash;and the better the propeller,
-the better any model will fly. But for a novice,
-no time will be lost in making this one, for the
-experience gained will enable the model-builder to
-do better work with the second one than he could do
-without it.</p>
-
-<p>For the aeroplane body we get out a straight spar
-of spruce, ¼ inch square and 15½ inches long. At the
-front end of this&mdash;on the upper side&mdash;is to be glued
-a small triangular piece of wood to serve as a support
-for the forward or steering plane, tilting it up
-at the front edge at the angle represented by a rise
-of 1 in 8. This block should be shaped on its upper
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>
-side to fit the curve of the under side of the steering-plane,
-which will be screwed to it.</p>
-
-<p>The steering-plane is cut according to plan, out
-of 1/16 inch whitewood, planed down gradually to be
-at the ends about half that thickness. This plane is
-to be steamed and bent to a curve (fore and aft) as
-shown in the sectional view. The steam should play
-on the <i>convex</i> side of the bend while it is being
-shaped. To hold it in proper form until it is set,
-blocks with curved slots may be used, or it may be
-bound with thread to a moulding block of equal
-length formed to the proper curve. When thoroughly
-dry it is to be smoothed with the emery cloth,
-and a strip of tracing cloth&mdash;glossy face out&mdash;is to
-be glued across each end, to prevent breaking in case
-of a fall. It is then to be varnished with shellac,
-and polished, as directed for the propeller. Indeed, it
-should be said once for all that every part of the
-model should be as glossy as it is possible to make
-it without adding to the weight, and that all “entering
-edges” (those which push into and divide the air
-when in flight) should be as sharp as is practicable
-with the material used.</p>
-
-<p>The steering-plane is to be fastened in place by
-a single screw long enough to pierce the plane and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>
-the supporting block, and enter the spar. The hole
-for this screw (as for all screws used) should be
-drilled carefully, to avoid the least splitting of the
-wood, and just large enough to have the screw “bite”
-without forcing its way in. This screw which holds
-the plane is to be screwed “home” but not too tight,
-so that in case the flying model should strike upon
-it in falling, the slender plane will swivel, and not
-break. It will be noticed that while this screw passes
-through the centre of the plane sideways, it is nearer
-to the forward edge than to the rear edge.</p>
-
-<p>If the work has been accurate, the plane will balance
-if the spar is supported&mdash;upon the finger, perhaps,
-as that is sensitive to any tendency to tipping.
-If either wing is too heavy, restore the balance by
-filing a little from the tip of that wing.</p>
-
-<p>The main planes are next to be made. The lower
-deck of the biplane is of the 1/16 inch whitewood, and
-the upper one is of the glazed paper upon a skeleton
-framework of wood. The upright walls are of paper.
-The wooden deck is to be bent into the proper curve
-with the aid of steam, and when dry and set in form
-is to be finished and polished. The frame for the
-upper deck is made of the thin whitewood, and is
-held to its position by two diagonal struts of whitewood
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>
-bent at the ends with steam, and two straight
-upright struts or posts. It is better to bend all cross-pieces
-into the curve of the plane with steam, but
-they may be worked into the curve on the top side
-with plane and file, and left flat on the lower side.
-The drawings show full details of the construction,
-drawn accurately to scale.</p>
-
-<p>It is best to glue all joints, and in addition to insert
-tiny screws, where shown in the plans, at the time
-of gluing.</p>
-
-<p>When all the wooden parts are in place the entire
-outline of the upper plane and the upright walls is
-to be formed of silk thread carried from point to
-point, and tied upon very small pins (such as are
-used in rolls of ribbon at the stores) inserted in the
-wood. The glazed paper is put on double, glossy
-side out. Cut the pieces twice as large (and a trifle
-more) than is needed, and fold so that the smooth
-crease comes to the front and the cut edges come together
-at the rear. The two inner walls should be
-put in place first, so as to enclose the thread front
-and back, and the post, between the two leaves of the
-folded paper. Cutting the paper half an inch too
-long will give one fourth of an inch to turn flat top
-and bottom to fasten to the upper and lower decks
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>
-respectively. The two outer walls and the upper deck
-may be cut all in one piece, the under leaf being slit
-to pass on either side of the inner walls. A bit of
-glue here and there will steady the parts to their
-places. The cut edges at the rear of the deck and
-walls should be caught together with a thin film of
-glue, so as to enclose the rear threads.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_229.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, plan, and <i>C</i>, section, of steering plane; <i>H</i>, section of lower main plane; <i>L</i>, wood skeleton of upper
-plane; <i>T</i>, <i>T</i>, silk thread; <i>O</i>, <i>O</i>, posts; <i>J</i>, <i>J</i>, braces; <i>E</i>, rubber strands; <i>D</i>, forward hook; <i>G</i>, shaft;
-<i>F</i>, thrust-block; <i>K</i>, upper plane of paper; <i>M</i>, elevation of main planes, from the rear.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>When the biplane is completed it is to be fastened
-securely to the spar in such a position that it is accurately
-balanced&mdash;from side to side. The spar may
-be laid on a table, and the biplane placed across it
-in its approximate position. Then move the plane to
-one side until it tips down, and mark the spot on the
-rear edge of the plane. Repeat this operation toward
-the other side, and the centre between the two marks
-should be accurately fastened over the centre line of
-the spar. Even with the greatest care there may still
-be failure to balance exactly, but a little work with a
-file on the heavy side, or a bit of chewing gum stuck
-on the lighter side, will remedy the matter.</p>
-
-<p>The body of the aeroplane being now built, it is
-in order to fit it with propelling mechanism. The
-motive power to whirl the propeller we have already
-prepared is to be the torsion, or twisting strain&mdash;in
-this case the force of untwisting&mdash;of india rubber.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>
-When several strands of pure rubber cord are twisted
-up tight, their elasticity tends to untwist them with
-considerable force. The attachment for the rubber
-strands at the front end of the spar is a sort of bracket
-made of the brass wire. The ends of the wire are
-turned up just a little, and they are set into little
-holes in the under side of the spar. Where the wire
-turns downward to form the hook it is bound tightly
-to the spar with silk thread. The hook-shaped tip is
-formed of the loop of the wire doubled upon itself.
-The rear attachment of the rubber strands is a loop
-upon the propeller shaft itself. As shown in the
-drawings, this shaft is but a piece of the brass wire.
-On one end (the rear) an open loop is formed, and
-into this is slipped the centre of the propeller. The
-short end of the loop is then twisted around the
-longer shank&mdash;very carefully, lest the wire cut into
-and destroy the propeller. Two turns of the wire is
-enough, and then the tip of the twisted end should
-be worked down flat with the file, to serve as a bearing
-for the propeller against the thrust-block. This
-latter is made of a piece of sheet brass (a bit of
-printers’ brass “rule” is just the thing) about 1/40
-of an inch thick. It should be ¼ of an inch wide
-except at the forward end, where it is to be filed to a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>
-long point and bent up a trifle to enter the wood of
-the spar. The rear end is bent down (not too sharply,
-lest it break) to form the bearing for the propeller,
-a hole being drilled through it for the propeller shaft,
-just large enough for the shaft to turn freely in it.
-Another smaller hole is to be drilled for a little screw
-to enter the rear end of the spar. Next pass the
-straight end of the propeller shaft through the hole
-drilled for it, and with the pliers form a round hook
-for the rear attachment of the rubber strands. Screw
-the brass bearing into place, and for additional
-strength, wind a binding of silk thread around it
-and the spar.</p>
-
-<p>Tie the ends of the rubber cord together, divide it
-into ten even strands, and pass the loops over the two
-hooks&mdash;and the machine is ready for flight.</p>
-
-<p>To wind up the rubber it will be necessary to turn
-the propeller in the opposite direction to which it
-will move when the model is flying. About 100 turns
-will be required. After it is wound, hold the machine
-by the rear end of the spar, letting the propeller
-press against the hand so it cannot unwind. Raise
-it slightly above the head, holding the spar level,
-or inclined upward a little (as experience may dictate),
-and launch the model by a gentle throw forward.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span>
-If the work has been well done it may fly
-from 150 to 200 feet.</p>
-
-<p>Many experiments may be made with this machine.
-If it flies too high, weight the front end of the spar;
-if too low, gliding downward from the start, weight
-the rear end. A bit of chewing gum may be enough
-to cause it to ride level and make a longer and prettier
-flight.</p>
-
-<p>A very graceful model is that of the monoplane
-type illustrated in the accompanying reproductions
-from photographs. The front view shows the little
-machine just ready to take flight from a table. The
-view from the rear is a snap-shot taken while it was
-actually flying. This successful model was made by
-Harold S. Lynn, of Stamford, Conn. Before discussing
-the details of construction, let us notice some
-peculiar features shown by the photographs. The
-forward plane is arched; that is, the tips of the plane
-bend slightly downward from the centre. On the
-contrary, the two wings of the rear plane bend slightly
-upward from the centre, making a dihedral angle,
-as it is called; that is, an angle between two surfaces,
-as distinguished from an angle between two lines.
-The toy wheels, Mr. Lynn says, are put on principally
-for “looks” but they are also useful in permitting
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span>
-a start to be made from a table or even from
-the floor, instead of the usual way of holding the
-model in the hands and giving it a slight throw
-to get it started. However, the wheels add to the
-weight, and the model will not fly quite so far with
-them as without.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_234.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Front view of the Lynn model of the monoplane type, about to take flight.</p></div>
-
-<p>The wood from which this model was made was
-taken from a bamboo fish-pole, such as may be
-bought anywhere for a dime. The pole was split
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>
-up, and the suitable pieces whittled and planed down
-to the proper sizes, as given in the plans. In putting
-the framework of the planes together, it is well to
-notch very slightly each rib and spar where they
-cross. Touch the joint with a bit of liquid glue, and
-wind quickly with a few turns of sewing silk and tie
-tightly. This must be done with delicacy, or the
-frames will be out of true. If the work is done rapidly
-the glue will not set until all the ties on the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>
-plane are finished. Another way is to touch the joinings
-with a drop of glue, place the ribs in position
-on the spars, and lay a board carefully on the work,
-leaving it there until all is dry, when the tying can be
-done. It either case the joinings should be touched
-again with the liquid glue and allowed to dry hard.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_235.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Lynn model monoplane in flight, from below and from the rear.</p></div>
-
-<p>The best material for covering these frames is the
-thinnest of China silk. If this is too expensive, use
-the thinnest cambric. But the model will not fly so
-far with the cambric covering. The material is cut
-one-fourth of an inch too large on every side, and
-folded over, and the fold glued down. Care should
-be taken that the frame is square and true before the
-covering is glued on.</p>
-
-<p>The motive power is produced by twisting up rubber
-tubing. Five and three-quarter feet of pure rubber
-tubing are required. It is tied together with silk
-so as to form a continuous ring. This is looped over
-two screw-hooks of brass, one in the rear block and
-the other constituting the shaft. This looped tubing
-is twisted by turning the propeller backward about
-two hundred turns. As it untwists it turns the propeller,
-which, in this model, is a “traction” screw,
-and pulls the machine after it as it advances through
-the air.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_237.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Details and plans of the Harold Lynn model monoplane. <i>W</i>, tail block; <i>Y</i>,
-thrust-block; <i>S</i>, mounting of propeller showing glass bead next the thrust-block,
-and one leather washer outside the screw; <i>B</i>, glass bead; <i>C</i>, tin
-washer; <i>M</i>, <i>M</i>, tin lugs holding axle of wheels.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span></p>
-
-<p>The propeller in this instance is formed from a
-piece of very thin tin, such as is used for the tops of
-cans containing condensed milk. Reference to the
-many illustrations throughout this book showing propellers
-of flying machines will give one a very good
-idea of the proper way to bend the blades. The
-mounting with the glass bead and the two leather
-washers is shown in detail in the plans.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_238.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Method of forming propeller of the laminated, or layer, type. The layers
-of wood are glued,in the position shown and the blades carved out according
-to the sections. Only one blade is shown from the axle to the tip.
-This will make a right hand propeller.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The wheels are taken from a toy wagon, and a
-pair of tin ears will serve as bearings for the axle.</p>
-
-<p>The sport of flying model aeroplanes has led to the
-formation of many clubs in this country as well as
-in Europe. Some of the mechanisms that have been
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>
-devised, and some of the contrivances to make the
-models fly better and further, are illustrated in the
-drawings.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_239.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>At <i>A</i> is shown a method of mounting the propeller with a glass or china bead to
-reduce friction, and a brass corner to aid in strengthening. <i>B</i> shows a
-transmission of power by two spur wheels and chain. <i>C</i> is a device for
-using two rubber twists acting on the two spur wheels <i>S</i>, <i>S</i>, which in turn are
-connected with the propeller with a chain drive. <i>D</i> shows a launching
-apparatus for starting. <i>W</i>, the model; <i>V</i>, the carriage; <i>F</i>, the trigger
-guard; <i>T</i>, trigger; <i>E</i>, elastic cord for throwing the carriage forward to
-the stop <i>K</i>.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>Records have been made which seem marvellous
-when it is considered that 200 feet is a very good
-flight for a model propelled by rubber. For instance,
-at the contest of the Birmingham Aero Club (England)
-in September, one of the contestants won the
-prize with a flight of 447 feet, lasting 48 seconds.
-The next best records for duration of flight were 39
-seconds and 38 seconds. A model aeroplane which
-is “guaranteed to fly 1,000 feet,” according to the
-advertisement in an English magazine, is offered for
-sale at $15.</p>
-
-<p>The American record for length of flight is held
-by Mr. Frank Schober, of New York, with a distance
-of 215 feet 6 inches. His model was of the
-Langley type of tandem monoplane, and very highly
-finished. The problem is largely one of adequate
-power without serious increase of weight.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XII">Chapter XII.<br />
-
-THE GLIDER.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Aerial balancing&mdash;Practice necessary&mdash;Simplicity of the glider
-Materials&mdash;Construction&mdash;Gliding&mdash;Feats with the Montgomery
-glider&mdash;Noted experimenters&mdash;Glider clubs.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">It</span> is a matter of record that the Wright brothers
-spent the better part of three years among the
-sand dunes of the North Carolina sea-coast practising
-with gliders. In this way they acquired that confidence
-while in the air which comes from intimate acquaintance
-with its peculiarities, and which cannot be
-gained in any other way. It is true that the Wrights
-were then developing not only themselves, but also
-their gliders; but the latter work was done once for
-all. To develop aviators, however, means the repeating
-of the same process for each individual&mdash;just
-as each for himself must be taught to read. And the
-glider is the “First Reader” in aeronautics.</p>
-
-<p>The long trail of wrecks of costly aeroplanes marking
-the progress in the art of flying marks also the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>
-lack of preparatory training, which their owners
-either thought unnecessary, or hoped to escape by
-some royal road less wearisome than persistent personal
-practice. But they all paid dearly to discover
-that there is no royal road. Practice, more practice,
-and still more practice&mdash;that is the secret of successful
-aeroplane flight.</p>
-
-<p>For this purpose the glider is much superior to
-the power-driven aeroplane. There are no controls
-to learn, no mechanism to manipulate. One simply
-launches into the air, and concentrates his efforts
-upon balancing himself and the apparatus; not as two
-distinct bodies, however, but as a united whole. When
-practice has made perfect the ability to balance the
-glider instinctively, nine-tenths of the art of flying
-an aeroplane has been achieved. Not only this, but
-a new sport has been laid under contribution; one
-beside which coasting upon a snow-clad hillside is a
-crude form of enjoyment.</p>
-
-<p>Fortunately for the multitude, a glider is easily
-made, and its cost is even less than that of a bicycle.
-A modest degree of skill with a few carpenter’s tools,
-and a little “gumption” about odd jobs in general,
-is all that is required of the glider builder.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_243.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A gliding slope with starting platform, erected for club use.</p></div>
-
-<p>The frame of the glider is of wood, and spruce is
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span>
-recommended, as it is stronger and tougher for its
-weight than other woods. It should be of straight
-grain and free from knots; and as there is considerable
-difference in the weight of spruce from different
-trees, it is well to go over the pile in the lumber yard
-and pick out the lightest boards. Have them planed
-down smooth on both sides, and to the required thickness,
-at the mill&mdash;it will save much toilsome hand
-work. The separate parts may also be sawed out at
-the mill, if one desires to avoid this labor.</p>
-
-<p>The lumber needed is as follows:</p>
-
-<table>
-  <tr class="tdr">
-    <td>4</td>
-    <td class="tdl">spars</td>
-    <td style="padding: 0 2em">20 ft. long,</td>
-    <td>1¼ in. wide,</td>
-    <td>¾ in. thick.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="tdr">
-    <td>12</td>
-    <td class="tdl">struts</td>
-    <td style="padding: 0 2em">3 ft. long,</td>
-    <td>1¼ in. wide,</td>
-    <td>¾ in. thick.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="tdr">
-    <td>2</td>
-    <td class="tdl">rudder bars</td>
-    <td style="padding: 0 2em">8 ft. long,</td>
-    <td>¾ in. wide,</td>
-    <td>½ in. thick.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="tdr">
-    <td>12</td>
-    <td class="tdl">posts</td>
-    <td style="padding: 0 2em">4 ft. long,</td>
-    <td>1½ in. wide,</td>
-    <td>½ in. thick.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="tdr">
-    <td>41</td>
-    <td class="tdl">ribs</td>
-    <td style="padding: 0 2em">4 ft. long,</td>
-    <td>½ in. wide,</td>
-    <td>½ in. thick.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="tdr">
-    <td>2</td>
-    <td class="tdl">arm rests</td>
-    <td style="padding: 0 2em">4 ft. long,</td>
-    <td>2 in. wide,</td>
-    <td>1 in. thick.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr class="tdr">
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">For rudder frame.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">24 running ft.,</td>
-    <td>1 in. wide,</td>
-    <td>1 in. thick.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>If it be impossible to find clear spruce lumber 20
-feet in length, the spars may be built up by splicing
-two 10-foot sticks together. For this purpose, the
-splicing stick should be as heavy as the single spar&mdash;1¼
-inches wide, and ¾ inches thick&mdash;and at least 4 feet
-long, and be bolted fast to the spar with six ⅛ inch
-round-head carriage bolts with washers of large bearing
-surface (that is, a small hole to fit the bolt, and a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span>
-large outer diameter) at both ends of the bolt, to prevent
-crushing the wood. A layer of liquid glue
-brushed between will help to make the joint firmer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_245.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Otto Lilienthal in his single-plane glider. The swinging forward of his feet
-tends to turn the glider toward the ground, and increase its speed.</p></div>
-
-<p>Wherever a bolt is put in, a hole should be bored
-for it with a bit of such size that the bolt will fit
-snug in the hole without straining the grain of the
-wood.</p>
-
-<p>The corners of the finished spar are to be rounded
-off on a large curvature.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span></p>
-
-<p>The ends of the struts are to be cut down on a
-slight slant of about 1/16 inch in the 1¼ inches that
-it laps under the spar&mdash;with the idea of tipping the
-top of the spar forward so that the ribs will spring
-naturally from it into the proper curve.</p>
-
-<p>The ribs should be bent by steaming, and allowed
-to dry and set in a form, or between blocks nailed
-upon the floor to the line of the correct curve. They
-are then nailed to the frames, the front end first:
-21 to the frame of the upper plane, and 20 to that
-of the lower plane, omitting one at the centre, where
-the arm pieces will be placed.</p>
-
-<p>Some builders tack the ribs lightly into place with
-small brads, and screw clamps formed from sheet
-brass or aluminum over them. Others use copper
-nails and clinch them over washers on the under side.
-Both methods are shown in the plans, but the clamps
-are recommended as giving greater stiffness, an essential
-feature.</p>
-
-<p>At the front edge of the frames the ribs are fastened
-flush, and being 4 feet long and the frame but
-3 feet wide, they project over the rear about 1 foot.</p>
-
-<p>The arm pieces are bolted to the spars of the lower
-frame 6½ inches on each side of the centre, so as to
-allow a free space of 13 inches between them. This
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span>
-opening may be made wider to accommodate a stouter
-person.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_247.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Plan and details of Glider. The upper plane has a rib at the centre instead of the two arm pieces.</p></div>
-
-<p>The posts are then put into place and bolted to
-the struts and the spars, as shown, with ⅛inch bolts.</p>
-
-<p>The entire structure is then to be braced diagonally
-with No. 16 piano wire. The greatest care must be
-taken to have these diagonals pull just taut, so that
-they shall not warp the lines of the frames out of true.
-A crooked frame will not fly straight, and is a source
-of danger when making a landing.</p>
-
-<p>The frames are now to be covered. There is a
-special balloon cloth made which is best for the purpose,
-but if that cannot be procured, strong cambric
-muslin will answer. Thirty yards of goods 1 yard
-wide will be required for the planes and the rudder.
-From the piece cut off 7 lengths for each plane,
-4 feet 6 inches long. These are to be sewed together,
-selvage to selvage, so as to make a sheet about 19
-feet 6 inches long and 4 feet 6 inches wide. As this
-is to be tacked to the frame, the edges must be double-hemmed
-to make them strong enough to resist tearing
-out at the tacks. Half an inch is first folded down
-all around; the fold is then turned back on the goods
-2½ inches and sewed. This hem is then folded back
-1 inch upon itself, and again stitched. Strips 3
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>
-inches wide and a little over 4 feet long are folded
-“three-double” into a width of 1 inch, and sewed
-along both edges to the large sheet exactly over where
-the ribs come. These are to strengthen the fabric
-where the ribs press against it. Sixteen-ounce tacks
-are used, being driven through a felt washer the size
-of a gun wad at intervals of four inches. If felt is
-not readily obtainable, common felt gun wads will do.
-The tacking is best begun at the middle of the frame,
-having folded the cloth there to get the centre. Then
-stretch smoothly out to the four corners and tack at
-each. It may then be necessary to loosen the two
-centre tacks and place them over again, to get rid of
-wrinkles. The next tacks to drive are at the ends
-of the struts; then half-way between; and so on until
-all are in, and the sheet is taut and smooth. For
-a finer finish, brass round-head upholsterer’s nails
-may be used.</p>
-
-<p>The rudder, so-called, is rather a tail, for it is not
-movable and does not steer the glider. It does steady
-the machine, however, and is very important in preserving
-the equilibrium when in flight. It is formed
-of two small planes intersecting each other at right
-angles and covered on both sides with the cloth, the
-sections covering the vertical part being cut along
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span>
-the centre and hemmed on to the upper and lower
-faces of the horizontal part. The frame for the vertical
-part is fastened to the two rudder bars which
-stretch out toward the rear, one from the upper
-plane, and the other from the lower. The whole construction
-is steadied by guys of the piano wire.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_250.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Lilienthal in his double-deck glider. It proved unmanageable and fell, causing
-his death. The hill is an artificial one built for his own use in experimenting.</p></div>
-
-<p>All wooden parts should be smoothed off with sandpaper,
-and given a coat of shellac varnish.</p>
-
-<p>To make a glide, the machine is taken to an elevated
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>
-point on a slope, not far up to begin with.
-Lift the glider, get in between the arm rests, and
-raise the apparatus until the rests are snug under
-the arms. Run swiftly for a few yards and leap
-into the air, holding the front of the planes slightly
-elevated. If the weight of the body is in the right
-position, and the speed sufficient, the glider will take
-the air and sail with you down the slope. It may be
-necessary at first to have the help of two assistants,
-one at each end, to run with the glider for a good
-start.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_251.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Diagram showing differing lines of flight as controlled by changing the position of the body. The wind must be blowing
-against the direction of flight; in the illustration this would be from left to right.</p></div>
-
-<p>The position of the body on the arm rests can best
-be learned by a few experiments. No two gliders are
-quite alike in this respect, and no rule can be given.
-As to the requisite speed, it must be between 15 and
-20 miles an hour; and as this speed is impossible to
-a man running, it is gained by gliding against the
-wind, and thus adding the speed of the wind to the
-speed of the runner. The Wrights selected the sand
-dunes of the North Carolina coast for their glider
-experiments because of the steady winds that blow
-in from the ocean, across the land. These winds
-gave them the necessary speed of air upon which to
-sail their gliders.</p>
-
-<p>The first flights attempted should be short, and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
-as experience is gained longer ones may be essayed.</p>
-
-<p>Balancing the glider from side to side is accomplished
-by swaying the lower part of the body like a
-pendulum, the weight to go toward the side which
-has risen. Swinging the body forward on the arm
-rests will cause the machine to dip the planes and
-glide more swiftly down the incline. Holding the
-weight of the body back in the arm rests will cause
-the machine to fly on a higher path and at a slower
-speed. This is objectionable because the glider is
-more manageable at a higher speed, and therefore
-safer. The tendency at first is to place the weight
-too far back, with a consequent loss of velocity, and
-with that a proportionate loss of control. The proper
-position of the body is slightly forward of the mechanical
-centre of the machine.</p>
-
-<p>The landing is accomplished by shoving the body
-backward, thus tilting up the front of the plane.
-This checks the speed, and when the feet touch the
-ground a little run, while holding back, will bring
-the glide to an end. Landing should be practised
-often with brief glides until skill is gained, for it is
-the most difficult operation in gliding.</p>
-
-<p>After one becomes expert, longer flights may be
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span>
-secured by going to higher points for the start. From
-an elevation of 300 feet a glide of 1,200 feet is possible.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_254.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Gliding with a Chanute three-decker. A start with two assistants.</p></div>
-
-<p>While it is necessary to make glides against the
-wind, it is not wise to attempt flights when the wind
-blows harder than 10 miles an hour. While the
-flight may be successful, the landing may be disastrous.</p>
-
-<p>The accomplished glider operator is in line for
-the aeroplane, and it is safe to say that he will not
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span>
-be long without one. The skilful and practised operator
-of a glider makes the very best aeroplane
-pilot.</p>
-
-<p>This chapter would not be complete without an
-adequate reference to the gliders devised by Professor
-Montgomery of Santa Clara, California. These machines
-were sent up with ordinary hot-air balloons
-to various heights, reaching 4,000 feet in some instances,
-when they were cut loose and allowed to
-descend in a long glide, guided by their pilots. The
-time of the descent from the highest altitude was
-twenty minutes, during which the glider travelled
-about eight miles. The landing was made accurately
-upon a designated spot, and so gently that there was
-no perceptible jar. Two of the pilots turned completely
-over sideways, the machine righting itself
-after the somersault and continuing its regular course.
-Professor Montgomery has made the assertion that
-he can fasten a bag of sand weighing 150 lbs. in the
-driver’s seat of his glider, and send it up tied upside
-down under a balloon, and that after being cut
-loose, the machine will right itself and come safely
-to the ground without any steering.</p>
-
-<p>Lilienthal in Germany, Pilcher in England, and
-Chanute in the United States are names eminent in
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>
-connection with the experiments with gliders which
-have been productive of discoveries of the greatest
-importance to the progress of aviation. The illustration
-of the Chanute glider shows its peculiarities
-plainly enough to enable any one to comprehend
-them.</p>
-
-<p>The establishment of glider clubs in several parts
-of the country has created a demand for ready-made
-machines, so that an enthusiast who does not wish
-to build his own machine may purchase it ready
-made.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XIII">Chapter XIII.<br />
-
-BALLOONS.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>First air vehicle&mdash;Principle of Archimedes&mdash;Why balloons rise&mdash;Inflating
-gases&mdash;Early history&mdash;The Montgolfiers&mdash;The
-hot-air balloon&mdash;Charles’s hydrogen balloon&mdash;Pilatre de
-Rozier&mdash;The first aeronaut&mdash;The first balloon voyage&mdash;Blanchard
-and Jeffries&mdash;Crossing the English Channel&mdash;First
-English ascensions&mdash;Notable voyages&mdash;Recent long-distance
-journeys and high ascensions&mdash;Prize balloon
-races&mdash;A fascinating sport&mdash;Some impressions, adventures,
-and hardships&mdash;Accident record&mdash;Increasing interest in
-ballooning.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> balloon, though the earliest and crudest
-means of getting up in the air, has not become
-obsolete. It has been in existence practically
-in its present general form for upwards of 500 years.
-Appliances have been added from time to time, but
-the big gas envelope enclosing a volume of some gas
-lighter than an equal volume of air, and the basket,
-or car, suspended below it, remain as the typical form
-of aerial vehicle which has not changed since it was
-first devised in times so remote as to lie outside the
-boundaries of recorded history.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span></p>
-
-<p>The common shape of the gas bag of a balloon is
-that of the sphere, or sometimes of an inverted pear.
-It is allowed to rise and float away in the air as the
-prevailing wind may carry it. Attempts have been
-made to steer it in a desired direction, but they
-did not accomplish much until the gas bag was made
-long horizontally, in proportion to its height and
-width. With a drag-rope trailing behind on the
-ground from the rear end of the gas bag, and sails
-on the forward end, it was possible to guide the
-elongated balloon to some extent in a determined
-direction.</p>
-
-<p>In explaining why a balloon rises in the air, it is
-customary to quote the “principle of Archimedes,”
-discovered and formulated by that famous philosopher
-centuries before the Christian era. Briefly
-stated, it is this: Every body immersed in a fluid is
-acted upon by a force pressing upward, which is
-equal to the weight of the amount of the fluid displaced
-by the immersed body.</p>
-
-<p>It remained for Sir Isaac Newton to explain the
-principle of Archimedes (by the discovery of the law
-of gravitation), and to show that the reason why the
-immersed body is apparently pushed upward, is that
-the displaced fluid is attracted downward. In the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span>
-case of a submerged bag of a gas lighter than air,
-the amount of force acting on the surrounding air
-is greater than that acting on the gas, and the latter
-is simply crowded out of the way by the descending
-air, and forced up to a higher level where its lighter
-bulk is balanced by the gravity acting upon it.</p>
-
-<p>The fluid in which the balloon is immersed is the
-air. The force with which the air crowds down
-around and under the balloon is its weight&mdash;weight
-being the measure of the attraction which gravity
-exerts upon any substance.</p>
-
-<p>The weight of air at a temperature of 32° Fahr.,
-at the normal barometer pressure at the sea-level
-(29.92 inches of mercury), is 0.0807 lbs. per cubic
-foot. The gas used to fill a balloon must therefore
-weigh less than this, bulk for bulk, in order to be
-crowded upward by the heavier air&mdash;and thus exert
-its “lifting power,” as it is commonly called.</p>
-
-<p>In practice, two gases have been used for inflating
-balloons&mdash;hydrogen, and illuminating gas, made ordinarily
-from coal, and called “coal gas.” Hydrogen
-is the lightest substance known; that is, it is
-attracted less by gravity than any other known substance,
-in proportion to its bulk.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_260.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">One of the earliest attempts to steer a spherical balloon by retarding its
-speed with the drag-rope, and adjusting the sail to the passing wind.</p></div>
-
-<p>A cubic foot of hydrogen weighs but 0.0056 lbs.,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span>
-and it will therefore be pushed upward in air by
-the difference in weight, or 0.0751 lbs. per cubic foot.
-A cubic foot of coal gas weighs about 0.0400 lbs., and
-is crowded upward in air with a force of 0.0407 lbs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_261.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Apparatus to illustrate the principle of Archimedes. At the left, the small
-solid glass ball and large hollow glass sphere are balanced in the free air.
-When the balance is moved under the bell-glass of the air pump (at the
-right), and the air exhausted, the large sphere drops, showing that its
-previous balance was due to the upward pressure of the air, greater
-because of its larger bulk.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is readily seen that a very large bulk of hydrogen
-must be used if any considerable weight is to be
-lifted. For to the weight of the gas must be added
-the weight of the containing bag, the car, and the
-network supporting it, the ballast, instruments, and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span>
-passengers, and there must still be enough more to
-afford elevating power sufficient to raise the entire
-load to the desired level.</p>
-
-<p>Let us assume that we have a balloon with a volume
-of 20,000 cubic feet, which weighs with its
-appurtenances 500 pounds. The hydrogen it would
-contain would weigh about 112 pounds, and the
-weight of the air it would displace would be about
-1,620 pounds. The total available lifting power
-would be about 1,000 pounds. If a long-distance
-journey is to be undertaken at a comparatively low
-level, this will be sufficient to carry the necessary
-ballast, and a few passengers. If, however, it is intended
-to rise to a great height, the problem is different.
-The weight of the air, and consequently its
-lifting pressure, decreases as we go upwards. If the
-balloon has not been entirely filled, the gas will expand
-as the pressure is reduced in the higher altitude.
-This has the effect of carrying the balloon
-higher. Heating of the contained gas by the sun will
-also cause a rise. On the other hand, the diffusion
-of the gas through the envelope into the air, and the
-penetration of air into the gas bag will produce a
-mixture heavier than hydrogen, and will cause the
-balloon to descend. The extreme cold of the upper
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>
-air has the same effect, as it tends to condense to a
-smaller bulk the gas in the balloon. To check a
-descent the load carried by the gas must be lightened
-by throwing out some of the ballast, which is carried
-simply for this purpose. Finally a level is reached
-where equilibrium is established, and above which
-it is impossible to rise.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest recorded ascent of a balloon is credited
-to the Chinese, on the occasion of the coronation
-of the Emperor Fo-Kien at Pekin in the year
-1306. If this may be called historical, it gives evidence
-also that it speedily became a lost art. The
-next really historic record belongs in the latter part
-of the seventeenth century, when Cyrano de Bergerac
-attempted to fly with the aid of bags of air attached
-to his person, expecting them to be so expanded by
-the heat of the sun as to rise with sufficient force to
-lift him. He did not succeed, but his idea is plainly
-the forerunner of the hot-air balloon.</p>
-
-<p>In the same century Francisco de Lana, who was
-clearly a man of much intelligence and keen reasoning
-ability, having determined by experiment that the
-atmosphere had weight, decided that he would be able
-to rise into the air in a ship lifted by four metal
-spheres 20 feet in diameter from which the air had
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span>
-been exhausted. After several failures he abandoned
-his efforts upon the religious grounds that the
-Almighty doubtless did not approve such an overturning
-in the affairs of mankind as would follow
-the attainment of the art of flying.</p>
-
-<p>In 1757, Galen, a French monk, published a book,
-“The Art of Navigating in the Air,” in which he
-advocated filling the body of the airship with air
-secured at a great height above the sea-level, where
-it was “a thousand times lighter than water.” He
-showed by mathematical computations that the upward
-impulse of this air would be sufficient to lift a
-heavy load. He planned in detail a great airship to
-carry 4,000,000 persons and several million packages
-of goods. Though it may have accomplished
-nothing more, this book is believed to have been the
-chief source of inspiration to the Montgolfiers.</p>
-
-<p>The discovery of hydrogen by Cavendish in 1776
-gave Dr. Black the opportunity of suggesting that it
-be used to inflate a large bag and so lift a heavy load
-into the air. Although he made no attempt to construct
-such an apparatus, he afterward claimed that
-through this suggestion he was entitled to be called
-the real inventor of the balloon.</p>
-
-<p>This is the meagre historical record preceding the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span>
-achievements of the brothers Stephen and Joseph
-Montgolfier, which marked distinctly the beginning
-of practical aeronautics. Both of these men were
-highly educated, and they were experienced workers
-in their father’s paper factory. Joseph had made
-some parachute drops from the roof of his house as
-early as 1771.</p>
-
-<p>After many experiments with steam, smoke, and
-hydrogen gas, with which they tried ineffectually to
-inflate large paper bags, they finally succeeded with
-heated air, and on June 5, 1783, they sent up a
-great paper hot-air balloon, 35 feet in diameter.
-It rose to a height of 1,000 feet, but soon came to
-earth again upon cooling. It appears that the Montgolfiers
-were wholly ignorant of the fact that it
-was the rarefying of the air by heating that caused
-their balloon to rise, and they made no attempt
-to keep it hot while the balloon was in the air.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_266.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">An early Montgolfier balloon.</p></div>
-
-<p>About the same time the French scientist, M.
-Charles, decided that hydrogen gas would be better
-than hot air to inflate balloons. Finding that this
-gas passed readily through paper, he used silk coated
-with a varnish made by dissolving rubber. His balloon
-was 13 feet in diameter, and weighed about
-20 pounds. It was sent up from the Champ de
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span>
-Mars on August 29, 1783, amidst the booming of
-cannon, in the presence of 300,000 spectators who
-assembled despite a heavy rain. It rose swiftly, disappearing
-among the clouds, and soon burst from
-the expansion of the gas in the higher and rarer atmosphere&mdash;no
-allowance having been made for this
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>
-unforeseen result. It fell in a rural region near Paris,
-where it was totally destroyed by the inhabitants, who
-believed it to be some hideous form of the devil.</p>
-
-<p>The Montgolfiers had already come to Paris, and
-had constructed a balloon of linen and paper. Before
-they had opportunity of sending it up it was
-ruined by a rainstorm with a high wind. They immediately
-built another of waterproof linen which
-made a successful ascension on September 19, 1783,
-taking as passengers a sheep, a cock, and a duck.
-The balloon came safely to earth after being up eight
-minutes&mdash;falling in consequence of a leak in the air-bag
-near the top. The passengers were examined
-with great interest. The sheep and the duck seemed
-in the same excellent condition as when they went
-up, but the cock was evidently ailing. A consultation
-of scientists was held and it was the consensus
-of opinion that the fowl could not endure breathing
-the rarer air of the high altitude. At this juncture
-some one discovered that the cock had been trodden
-upon by the sheep, and the consultation closed
-abruptly.</p>
-
-<p>The Montgolfier brothers were loaded with honors,
-Stephen receiving the larger portion; and the
-people of Paris entered enthusiastically into the sport
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span>
-of making and flying small balloons of the Montgolfier
-type.</p>
-
-<p>Stephen began work at once upon a larger balloon
-intended to carry human passengers. It was fifty
-feet in diameter, and 85 feet high, with a capacity
-of 100,000 cubic feet. The car for the passengers
-was swung below from cords in the fashion that has
-since become so familiar.</p>
-
-<p>In the meantime Pilatre de Rozier had constructed
-a balloon on the hot-air principle, but with an arrangement
-to keep the air heated by a continuous
-fire in a pan under the mouth of the balloon. He
-made the first balloon ascent on record on October
-15, 1783, rising to a height of eighty feet, in the captive
-balloon. On November 21, in the same year, de
-Rozier undertook an expedition in a free balloon with
-the Marquis d’Arlandes as a companion. The experiment
-was to have been made with two condemned
-criminals, but de Rozier and d’Arlandes succeeded in
-obtaining the King’s permission to make the attempt,
-and in consequence their names remain as those of
-the first aeronauts. They came safely to the ground
-after a voyage lasting twenty-five minutes. After
-this, ascensions speedily became a recognized sport,
-even for ladies.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p>
-
-<p>The greatest altitude reached by these hot-air balloons
-was about 9,000 feet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_269.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Pilatre de Rozier’s balloon.</p></div>
-
-<p>The great danger from fire, however, led to the
-closer consideration of the hydrogen balloon of Professor
-Charles, who was building one of 30 feet diameter
-for the study of atmospheric phenomena. His
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span>
-mastery of the subject is shown by the fact that his
-balloon was equipped with almost every device afterward
-in use by the most experienced aeronauts. He
-invented the valve at the top of the bag for allowing
-the escape of gas in landing, the open neck to permit
-expansion, the network of cords to support the car,
-the grapnel for anchoring, and the use of a small
-pilot balloon to test the air-currents before the ascension.
-He also devised a barometer by which he was
-able to measure the altitude reached by the pressure
-of the atmosphere.</p>
-
-<p>To provide the hydrogen gas required he used the
-chemical method of pouring dilute sulphuric acid on
-iron filings. The process was so slow that it took
-continuous action for three days and three nights to
-secure the 14,000 cubic feet needed, but his balloon
-was finally ready on December 1, 1783. One of the
-brothers Robert accompanied Charles, and they travelled
-about 40 miles in a little less than 4 hours,
-alighting at Nesles. Here Robert landed and Charles
-continued the voyage alone. Neglecting to take on
-board ballast to replace the weight of M. Robert,
-Charles was carried to a great height, and suffered
-severely from cold and the difficulty of breathing in
-the highly rarefied air. He was obliged to open his
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>
-gas valve and descend after half an hour’s flight
-alone.</p>
-
-<p>Blanchard, another French inventor, about this
-time constructed a balloon with the intention of being
-the first to cross the English Channel in the air.
-He took his balloon to Dover and with Dr. Jeffries,
-an American, started on January 7, 1785. His balloon
-was leaky and he had loaded it down with a lot
-of useless things in the way of oars, provisions, and
-other things. All of this material and the ballast
-had to be thrown overboard at the outset, and books
-and parts of the balloon followed. Even their clothing
-had to be thrown over to keep the balloon out of
-the sea, and at last, when Dr. Jeffries had determined
-to jump out to enable his friend to reach the
-shore, an upward current of wind caught them and
-with great difficulty they landed near Calais. The
-feat was highly lauded and a monument in marble
-was erected on the spot to perpetuate the record of
-the achievement.</p>
-
-<p>De Rozier lost his life soon after in the effort to
-duplicate this trip across the Channel with his combination
-hydrogen and hot-air balloon. His idea seems
-to have been that he could preserve the buoyancy of
-his double balloon by heating up the air balloon at intervals.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span>
-Unfortunately, the exuding of the hydrogen
-as the balloons rose formed an explosive mixture with
-the air he was rising through, and it was drawn to
-his furnace, and an explosion took place which blew
-the entire apparatus into fragments at an altitude of
-over 1,000 feet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_272.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Car and hoop of the Blanchard balloon, the first to cross the English Channel.</p></div>
-
-<p>Count Zambeccari, an Italian, attempted to improve
-the de Rozier method of firing a balloon by substituting
-a large alcohol lamp for the wood fire. In
-the first two trial trips he fell into the sea, but was
-rescued. On the third trip his balloon was swept
-into a tree, and the overturned lamp set it on fire.
-To escape being burned, he threw himself from the
-balloon and was killed by the fall.</p>
-
-<p>The year before these feats on the Continent two
-notable balloon ascensions had taken place in England.
-On August 27, 1784, an aeronaut by the name
-of Tytler made the first balloon voyage within the
-boundaries of Great Britain. His balloon was of
-linen and varnished, and the record of his ascension
-indicates that he used hydrogen gas to inflate it.
-He soared to a great height, and descended safely.</p>
-
-<p>A few weeks later, the Italian aeronaut Lunardi
-made his first ascent from London. The spectacle
-drew the King and his councillors from their deliberations,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span>
-and the balloon was watched until it disappeared.
-He landed in Standon, near Ware, where
-a stone was set to record the event. On October 12,
-he made his famous voyage from Edinburgh over the
-Firth of Forth to Ceres; a distance of 46 miles in
-35 minutes, or at the rate of nearly 79 miles per
-hour; a speed rarely equalled by the swiftest railroad
-trains.</p>
-
-<p>From this time on balloons multiplied rapidly and
-the ascents were too numerous for recording in these
-pages. The few which have been selected for mention
-are notable either for the great distances traversed,
-or for the speed with which the journeys were
-made. It should be borne in mind that the fastest
-method of land travel in the early part of the period
-covered was by stage coach; and the sailing ship was
-the only means of crossing the water. It is no wonder
-that often the people among whom the aeronauts
-landed on a balloon voyage refused to believe the
-statements made as to the distance they had come,
-and the marvellously short time it had taken. And
-even as compared with the most rapid transit of the
-present day, the speeds attained in many cases have
-never been equalled.</p>
-
-<p>A remarkable English voyage was made in June,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>
-1802, by the French aeronaut Garnerin and Captain
-Snowdon. They ascended from Chelsea Gardens and
-landed in Colchester, 60 miles distant, in 45 minutes:
-an average speed of 80 miles an hour.</p>
-
-<p>On December 16, 1804, Garnerin ascended from
-the square in front of Notre Dame, Paris; passing
-over France and into Italy, sailing above St. Peter’s
-at Rome, and the Vatican, and descending into Lake
-Bracciano&mdash;a distance of 800 miles in 20 hours.
-This voyage was made as a part of the coronation
-ceremonies of Napoleon I. The balloon was afterwards
-hung up in a corridor of the Vatican.</p>
-
-<p>On October 7, 1811, Sadler and Burcham voyaged
-from Birmingham to Boston (England), 112 miles
-in 1 hour 40 minutes, a speed of 67 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<p>On November 17, 1836, Charles Green and Monck
-Mason started on a voyage in the great balloon of the
-Vauxhall Gardens. It was pear-shaped, 60 feet
-high and 50 feet in diameter, and held 85,000 cubic
-feet of gas. It was cut loose at half-past one in the
-afternoon, and in 3 hours had reached the English
-Channel, and in 1 hour more had crossed it,
-and was nearly over Calais. During the night it
-floated on over France in pitchy darkness and such
-intense cold that the oil was frozen. In the morning
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>
-the aeronauts descended a few miles from Weilburg,
-in the Duchy of Nassau, having travelled about
-500 miles in 18 hours. At that date, by the fastest
-coaches the trip would have consumed three
-days. The balloon was rechristened “The Great
-Balloon of Nassau” by the enthusiastic citizens of
-Weilburg.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_276.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Prof. T. S. C. Lowe’s mammoth balloon “City of New York,” a feature of
-the year 1860, in which it made many short voyages in the vicinity of
-New York and Philadelphia.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>In 1849, M. Arban crossed the Alps in a balloon,
-starting at Marseilles and landing at Turin&mdash;a distance
-of 400 miles in 8 hours. This remarkable record
-for so long a distance at a high speed has rarely
-been equalled. It was exceeded as to distance at the
-same speed by the American aeronaut, John Wise, in
-1859.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most famous balloons of recent times
-was the “Geant,” built by M. Nadar, in Paris, in
-1853. The immense gas-bag was made of silk of the
-finest quality costing at that time about $1.30 a yard,
-and being made double, it required 22,000 yards. It
-had a capacity of 215,000 cubic feet of gas, and lifted
-4½ tons. The car was 13 feet square, and had an
-upper deck which was open. On its first ascent it
-carried 15 passengers, including M. Nadar as captain,
-and the brothers Godard as lieutenants. A few
-weeks later this balloon was set free for a long-distance
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span>
-journey, and 17 hours after it left Paris it
-landed at Nieuburg in Hanover, having traversed
-750 miles, a part of the time at the speed of fully
-90 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<p>In July, 1859, John Wise, an American aeronaut,
-journeyed from St. Louis, Mo., to Henderson, N. Y.,
-a distance of 950 miles in 19 hours. His average
-speed was 50 miles per hour. This record for duration
-at so high a rate of speed has never been exceeded.</p>
-
-<p>During the siege of Paris in 1870, seventy-three
-balloons were sent out from that city carrying mail
-and dispatches. These were under Government direction,
-and receive notice in a subsequent chapter
-devoted to Military Aeronautics. One of these balloons
-is entitled to mention among those famous for
-rapid journeys, having travelled to the Zuyder Zee, a
-distance of 285 miles, in 3 hours&mdash;an average speed
-of 95 miles per hour. Another of these postal balloons
-belongs in the extreme long-distance class, having
-come down in Norway nearly 1,000 miles from
-Paris.</p>
-
-<p>In July, 1897, the Arctic explorer Andrée started
-on his voyage to the Pole. As some of his instruments
-have been recently recovered from a wandering
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span>
-band of Esquimaux, it is believed that a record
-of his voyage may yet be secured.</p>
-
-<p>In the same year a balloon under the command of
-Godard ascended at Leipsic, and after a wandering
-journey in an irregular course, descended at Wilna.
-The distance travelled was estimated at 1,032 miles,
-but as balloon records are always based on the airline
-distance between the places of ascent and descent,
-this record has not been accepted as authoritative.
-The time consumed was 24¼ hours.</p>
-
-<p>In 1899, Captain von Sigsfield, Captain Hildebrandt,
-and a companion started from Berlin in a
-wind so strong that it prevented the taking on of an
-adequate load of ballast. They rose into a gale, and
-in two hours were over Breslau, having made the
-distance at a speed of 92 miles per hour. In the
-grasp of the storm they continued their swift journey,
-landing finally high up in the snows of the
-Carpathian Alps in Austria. They were arrested
-by the local authorities as Russian spies, but succeeded
-in gaining their liberty by telegraphing to an
-official more closely in touch with the aeronautics of
-the day.</p>
-
-<p>In 1900 there were several balloon voyages notable
-for their length. Jacques Balsan travelled from
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span>
-Vincennes to Dantzig, 757 miles; Count de la Vaulx
-journeyed from Vincennes to Poland, 706 miles;
-Jacques Faure from Vincennes to Mamlity, 753
-miles. In a subsequent voyage Jacques Balsan travelled
-from Vincennes to Rodom, in Russia, 843 miles,
-in 27½ hours.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_280.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The balloon in which Coxwell and Glaisher made their famous ascent of
-29,000 feet.</p></div>
-
-<p>One of the longest balloon voyages on record in
-point of time consumed is that of Dr. Wegener of the
-Observatory at Lindenberg, in 1905. He remained
-in the air for 52¾ hours.</p>
-
-<p>The longest voyage, as to distance, up to 1910,
-was that of Count de La Vaulx and Count Castillon
-de Saint Victor in 1906, in the balloon “Centaur.”
-This was a comparatively small balloon, having a
-capacity of only 55,000 cubic feet of gas. The start
-was made from Vincennes on October 9th, and the
-landing at Korostischeff, in Russia, on October 11th.
-The air-line distance travelled was 1,193 miles, in
-35¾ hours. The balloon “Centaur” was afterward
-purchased by the Aero Club of America, and has
-made many voyages in this country.</p>
-
-<p>The Federation Aeronautique Internationale, an
-association of the aeronauts of all nations, was
-founded in 1905. One of its functions is an annual
-balloon race for the International Challenge Cup,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>
-presented to the association by James Gordon Bennett,
-to be an object for competition until won three
-times by some one competing national club.</p>
-
-<p>The first contest took place in September, 1906,
-and was won by the American competitor, Lieut.
-Frank P. Lahm, with a voyage of 402 miles.</p>
-
-<p>The second contest was from St. Louis, Mo., in
-1907. There were three German, two French, one
-English, and three American competitors. The race
-was won by Oscar Erbslöh, one of the German competitors,
-with an air-line voyage of 872¼ miles, landing
-at Bradley Beach, N. J. Alfred Leblanc, now
-a prominent aviator, was second with a voyage of
-867 miles, made in 44 hours. He also landed in New
-Jersey.</p>
-
-<p>The third race started at Berlin in October, 1908,
-and was won by the Swiss balloon “Helvetia,” piloted
-by Colonel Schaeck, which landed in Norway
-after having been 74 hours in the air, and
-covering a journey of 750 miles. This broke the
-previous duration record made by Dr. Wegener in
-1905.</p>
-
-<p>The fourth contest began on October 3, 1909, from
-Zurich, Switzerland. There were seventeen competing
-balloons, and the race was won by E. W. Mix,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span>
-representing the Aero Club of America, with a voyage
-of 589 miles.</p>
-
-<p>The fifth contest began at St. Louis, October 17,
-1910. It was won by Alan P. Hawley and Augustus
-Post, with the “America II.” They travelled 1,355
-miles in 46 hours, making a new world’s record for
-distance.</p>
-
-<p>Among other notable voyages may be mentioned
-that of the “Fielding” in a race on July 4, 1908,
-from Chicago. The landing was made at West
-Shefford, Quebec, the distance travelled being 895
-miles.</p>
-
-<p>In November of the same year A. E. Gaudron,
-Captain Maitland, and C. C. Turner, made the longest
-voyage on record from England. They landed at
-Mateki Derevni, in Russia, having travelled 1,117
-miles in 31½ hours. They were driven down to the
-ground by a severe snowstorm.</p>
-
-<p>On December 31, 1908, M. Usuelli, in the balloon
-“Ruwenzori” left the Italian lakes and passed over
-the Alps at a height of 14,750 feet, landing in
-France. This feat was followed a few weeks later&mdash;February
-9, 1909&mdash;by Oscar Erbslöh, who left St.
-Moritz with three passengers, crossing the Alps at an
-altitude of 19,000 feet, and landed at Budapest after
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span>
-a voyage of 33 hours. Many voyages over and among
-the Alps have been made by Captain Spelterini, the
-Swiss aeronaut, and he has secured some of the most
-remarkable photographs of the mountain scenery in
-passing. In these voyages at such great altitudes it
-is necessary to carry cylinders of oxygen to provide
-a suitable air mixture for breathing. In one of his
-recent voyages Captain Spelterini had the good fortune
-to be carried almost over the summit of Mont
-Blanc. He ascended with three passengers at Chamounix,
-and landed at Lake Maggiore seven hours
-later, having reached the altitude of 18,700 feet, and
-travelled 93 miles.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_284.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Photograph of the Alps from a balloon by Captain Spelterini.</p></div>
-
-<p>In the United States there were several balloon
-races during the year 1909, the most important being
-the St. Louis Centennial race, beginning on October
-4th. Ten balloons started. The race was won by
-S. von Phul, who covered the distance of 550 miles
-in 40 hours 40 minutes. Clifford B. Harmon and
-Augustus Post in the balloon “New York” made
-a new duration record for America of 48 hours 26
-minutes. They also reached the highest altitude attained
-by an American balloon&mdash;24,200 feet.</p>
-
-<p>On October 12th, in a race for the Lahm cup, A.
-Holland Forbes and Col. Max Fleischman won.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span>
-They left St. Louis, Mo., and landed 19 hours and
-15 minutes later at Beach, Va., near Richmond, having
-travelled 697 miles.</p>
-
-<p>In 1910, in the United States, a remarkable race,
-with thirteen competitors, started at Indianapolis.
-This was the elimination race for the International
-race on October 17th. It was won by Alan P. Hawley
-and Augustus Post in the balloon “America II.”
-They crossed the Alleghany Mountains at an elevation
-of about 20,000 feet, and landed at Warrenton,
-Va., after being 44 hours 30 minutes in the air;
-and descended only to escape being carried out over
-Chesapeake Bay.</p>
-
-<p>In recent years the greatest height reached by a
-balloon was attained by the Italian aeronauts Piacenza
-and Mina in the “Albatross,” on August 9,
-1909. They went up from Turin to the altitude of
-30,350 feet. The world’s height record rests with
-Professors Berson and Suring of Berlin, who on
-July 31, 1901, reached 35,500 feet. The record of
-37,000 feet claimed by Glaisher and Coxwell in their
-ascension on September 5, 1862, has been rejected as
-not authentic for several discrepancies in their observations,
-and on the ground that their instruments
-were not of the highest reliability. As they carried
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>
-no oxygen, and reported that for a time they were
-both unconscious, it is estimated that the highest
-point they could have reached under the conditions
-was less than 31,000 feet.</p>
-
-<p>The greatest speed ever recorded for any balloon
-voyage was that of Captain von Sigsfield and Dr.
-Linke in their fatal journey from Berlin to Antwerp,
-during which the velocity of 125 miles per hour was
-recorded.</p>
-
-<p>Ballooning as a sport has a fascination all its own.
-There is much of the spice of adventure in the fact
-that one’s destiny is quite unknown. Floating with
-the wind, there is no consciousness of motion.
-Though the wind may be travelling at great speed,
-the balloon seems to be in a complete calm. A lady
-passenger, writing of a recent trip, has thus described
-her experience:&mdash;“The world continues slowly to unroll
-itself in ever-varying but ever-beautiful panorama&mdash;patchwork
-fields, shimmering silver streaks,
-toy box churches and houses, and white roads like the
-joints of a jig-saw puzzle. And presently cotton-wool
-billows come creeping up, with purple shadows and
-fleecy outlines and prismatic rainbow effects. Sometimes
-they invade the car, and shroud it for a while
-in clinging warm white wreaths, and anon they fall
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>
-below and shut out the world with a glorious curtain,
-and we are all alone in perfect silence, in perfect
-peace, and in a realm made for us alone.</p>
-
-<p>“And so the happy, restful hours go smoothly by,
-until the earth has had enough of it, and rising up
-more or less rapidly to invade our solitude, hits the
-bottom of our basket, and we step out, or maybe roll
-out, into every-day existence a hundred miles away.”</p>
-
-<p>The perfect smoothness of motion, the absolute
-quiet, and the absence of distracting apparatus combine
-to render balloon voyaging the most delightful
-mode of transit from place to place. Some of the
-most fascinating bits of descriptive writing are those
-of aeronauts. The following quotation from the report
-of Capt. A. Hildebrandt, of the balloon corps
-of the Prussian army, will show that although his
-expeditions were wholly scientific, he was far from
-indifferent to the sublimer influences of nature by
-which he was often surrounded.</p>
-
-<p>In his account of the journey from Berlin to Markaryd,
-in Sweden, with Professor Berson as a companion
-aeronaut, he says: “The view over Rügen and
-the chalk cliffs of Stubbenkammer and Arkona was
-splendid: the atmosphere was perfectly clear. On
-the horizon we could see the coasts of Sweden and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span>
-Denmark, looking almost like a thin mist; east and
-west there was nothing but the open sea.</p>
-
-<p>“About 3:15 the balloon was in the middle of the
-Baltic; right in the distance we could just see Rügen
-and Sweden. The setting of the sun at 4 P.M.
-was a truly magnificent spectacle. At a height of
-5,250 feet, in a perfectly clear atmosphere, the effect
-was superb. The blaze of color was dimly reflected
-in the east by streaks of a bluish-green. I have seen
-sunsets over France at heights of 10,000 feet, with
-the Alps, the Juras, and the Vosges Mountains in
-the distance; but this was quite as fine.</p>
-
-<p>“The sunsets seen by the mountaineer or the sailor
-are doubtless, magnificent; but I hardly think the
-spectacle can be finer than that spread out before the
-gaze of the balloonist. The impression is increased
-by the absolute stillness which prevails; no sound
-of any kind is heard.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_290.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Landscape as seen from a balloon at an altitude of 3,000 feet.</p></div>
-
-<p>“As soon as the sun went down, it was necessary
-to throw out some ballast, owing to the decrease of
-temperature.... We reached the Swedish coast
-about 5 o’clock, and passed over Trelleborg at a
-height of 2,000 feet. The question then arose
-whether to land, or to continue through the night.
-Although it was well past sunset, there was sufficient
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>
-light in consequence of the snow to see our way to
-the ground, and to land quite easily.... However,
-we wanted to do more meteorological work, and it
-was thought that there was still sufficient ballast to
-take us up to a much greater height. We therefore
-proposed to continue for another sixteen hours during
-the night, in spite of the cold.... Malmö was
-therefore passed on the left, and the university town
-of Lund on the right. After this the map was of no
-further use, as it was quite dark and we had no lamp.
-The whole outlook was like a transformation scene.
-Floods of light rose up from Trelleborg, Malmö,
-Copenhagen, Landskrona, Lund, Elsinore, and Helsingborg,
-while the little towns beneath our feet
-sparkled with many lights. We were now at a height
-of more than 10,000 feet, and consequently all these
-places were within sight. The glistening effect of
-the snow was heightened by the blaze which poured
-from the lighthouses along the coasts of Sweden and
-Denmark. The sight was as wonderful as that of the
-sunset, though of a totally different nature.”</p>
-
-<p>Captain Hildebrandt’s account of the end of this
-voyage illustrates the spice of adventure which is
-likely to be encountered when the balloon comes down
-in a strange country. It has its hint also of the hardships
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span>
-for which the venturesome aeronaut has to be
-prepared. He says:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>“Sooner or later the balloon would have been at
-the mercy of the waves. The valve was opened, and
-the balloon descended through the thick clouds. We
-could see nothing, but the little jerks showed us that
-the guide-rope was touching the ground. In a few
-seconds we saw the ground, and learned that we
-were descending into a forest which enclosed a number
-of small lakes. At once more ballast was thrown
-out, and we skimmed along over the tops of the trees.
-Soon we crossed a big lake, and saw a place that
-seemed suitable for a descent. The valve was then
-opened, both of us gave a tug at the ripping cord,
-and after a few bumps we found ourselves on the
-ground. We had come down in deep snow on the
-side of a wood, about 14 miles from the railway station
-at Markaryd.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_293.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Making a landing with the aid of bystanders to pull down upon the trail-rope
-and a holding rope.</p></div>
-
-<p>“We packed up our instruments, and began to
-look out for a cottage; but this is not always an
-easy task in the dead of night in a foreign country.
-However, in a quarter of an hour we found a farm,
-and succeeded in rousing the inmates. A much more
-difficult job was to influence them to open their front
-door to two men who talked some sort of double
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span>
-Dutch, and who suddenly appeared at a farmyard
-miles off the highway in the middle of the night
-and demanded admittance. Berson can talk in six
-languages, but unfortunately Swedish is not one of
-them. He begged in the most humble way for shelter
-... and at the end of three-quarters of an hour
-the farmer opened the door. We showed him some
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>
-pictures of a balloon we had with us, and then they
-began to understand the situation. We were then received
-with truly Swedish hospitality, and provided
-with supper. They even proposed to let us have their
-beds; but this we naturally declined with many
-thanks.... The yard contained hens, pigs, cows,
-and sheep; but an empty corner was found, which
-was well packed with straw, and served as a couch for
-our tired limbs. We covered ourselves with our great-coats,
-and tried to sleep. But the temperature was
-10° Fahr., and as the place was only an outhouse
-of boards roughly nailed together, and the wind
-whistling through the cracks and crevices, we were
-not sorry when the daylight came.”</p>
-
-<p>Lest the possibility of accident to travellers by
-balloon be judged greater than it really is, it may
-be well to state that records collected in Germany in
-1906 showed that in 2,061 ascents in which 7,570
-persons participated, only 36 were injured&mdash;or but 1
-out of 210. Since that time, while the balloon itself
-has remained practically unchanged, better knowledge
-of atmospheric conditions has aided in creating
-an even more favorable record for recent years.</p>
-
-<p>That the day of ordinary ballooning has not been
-dimmed by the advent of the airship and the aeroplane
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>
-is evidenced by the recently made estimate that
-not less than 800 spherical balloons are in constant
-use almost daily in one part or another of Christendom.
-And it seems entirely reasonable to predict that
-with a better comprehension of the movements of
-air-currents&mdash;to which special knowledge the scientific
-world is now applying its investigations as never
-before&mdash;they will come a great increase of interest in
-simple ballooning as a recreation.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XIV">Chapter XIV.<br />
-
-BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Elongation of gas-bag&mdash;Brisson&mdash;Meusnier&mdash;Air-ballonnets&mdash;Scott&mdash;Giffard&mdash;Haenlein&mdash;Tissandier&mdash;Renard
-and Krebs&mdash;Schwartz&mdash;Santos-Dumont&mdash;Von
-Zeppelin&mdash;Roze&mdash;Severo&mdash;Bradsky-Leboun&mdash;The
-Lebaudy dirigible&mdash;Zeppelin II&mdash;Parseval
-I&mdash;Unequal wind pressures&mdash;Zeppelin III&mdash;Nulli
-Secundus&mdash;La Patrie&mdash;Ville-de-Paris&mdash;Zeppelin IV&mdash;Gross
-I&mdash;Parseval II&mdash;Clement-Bayard I&mdash;Ricardoni’s airship&mdash;Gross
-II&mdash;The new Zeppelin II&mdash;La Republique&mdash;The
-German fleet of dirigibles&mdash;Parseval V&mdash;The Deutschland&mdash;The
-Erbslöh&mdash;Gross III&mdash;Zeppelin VI&mdash;The America&mdash;Clement-Bayard
-III&mdash;The Capazza lenticular dirigible.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> dirigible balloon, or airship, is built on the
-same general principles as the ordinary balloon&mdash;that
-is, with the envelope to contain the lifting
-gas, the car to carry the load, and the suspending
-cordage&mdash;but to this is added some form of propelling
-power to enable it to make headway against the
-wind, and a rudder for steering it.</p>
-
-<p>Almost from the very beginning of ballooning,
-some method of directing the balloon to a pre-determined
-goal had been sought by inventors. Drifting
-at the fickle pleasure of the prevailing wind
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span>
-did not accord with man’s desire for authority and
-control.</p>
-
-<p>The first step in this direction was the change
-from the spherical form of the gas-bag to an elongated
-shape, the round form having an inclination to
-turn round and round in the air while floating, and
-having no bow-and-stern structure upon which steering
-devices could operate. The first known proposal
-in this direction was made by Brisson, a French scientist,
-who suggested building the gas-bag in the
-shape of a horizontal cylinder with conical ends, its
-length to be five or six times its diameter. His idea
-for its propulsion was the employment of large-bladed
-oars, but he rightly doubted whether human
-strength would prove sufficient to work these rapidly
-enough to give independent motion to the airship.</p>
-
-<p>About the same time another French inventor had
-actually built a balloon with a gas-bag shaped like
-an egg and placed horizontally with the blunt end
-foremost. The reduction in the resistance of the air
-to this form was so marked that the elongated gas-bag
-quickly displaced the former spherical shape.
-This balloon was held back from travelling at the
-full speed of the wind by the clever device of a rope
-dragging on the ground; and by a sail rigged so as
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>
-to act on the wind which blew past the retarded
-balloon, the navigator was able to steer it within
-certain limits. It was the first dirigible balloon.</p>
-
-<p>In the same year the brothers Robert, of Paris,
-built an airship for the Duke of Chartres, under the
-direction of General Meusnier, a French officer of
-engineers. It was cylindrical, with hemispherical
-ends, 52 feet long and 32 feet in diameter, and contained
-30,000 cubic feet of gas. The gas-bag was
-made double to prevent the escape of the hydrogen,
-which had proved very troublesome in previous balloons,
-and it was provided with a spherical air balloon
-inside of the gas-bag, which device was expected
-to preserve the form of the balloon unchanged by
-expanding or contracting, according to the rising or
-falling of the airship. When the ascension was made
-on July 6, 1784, the air-balloon stuck fast in the
-neck of the gas-bag, and so prevented the escape of
-gas as the hydrogen expanded in the increasing altitude.
-The gas-bag would have burst had not the
-Duke drawn his sword and slashed a vent for the
-imprisoned gas. The airship came safely to earth.</p>
-
-<p>It was General Meusnier who first suggested the
-interior ballonnet of air to preserve the tense outline
-of the form of the airship, and the elliptical form for
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span>
-the gas-bag was another of his inventions. In the
-building of the airship of the Duke de Chartres he
-made the further suggestion that the space between
-the two envelopes be filled with air, and so connected
-with the air-pumps that it could be inflated or deflated
-at will. For the motive power he designed
-three screw propellers of one blade each, to be turned
-unceasingly by a crew of eighty men.</p>
-
-<p>Meusnier was killed in battle in 1793, and aeronautics
-lost its most able developer at that era.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_299.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Scott airship, showing the forward “pocket” partially drawn in.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1789, Baron Scott, an officer in the French
-army, devised a fish-shaped airship with two outside
-balloon-shaped “pockets” which could be forcibly
-drawn into the body of the airship to increase its
-density, and thus cause its descent.</p>
-
-<p>It began to be realized that no adequate power existed
-by which balloons could be propelled against
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>
-even light winds to such a degree that they were
-really controllable, and balloon ascensions came to be
-merely an adjunct of the exhibit of the travelling
-showman. For this reason the early part of the
-nineteenth century seems barren of aeronautical incident
-as compared with the latter part of the preceding
-century.</p>
-
-<p>In 1848, Hugh Bell, an Englishman, built a cylindrical
-airship with convex pointed ends. It was 55
-feet long and 21 feet in diameter. It had a keel-shaped
-framework of tubes to which the long narrow
-car was attached, and there was a screw propeller on
-each side, to be worked by hand, and a rudder to
-steer with. It failed to work.</p>
-
-<p>In 1852, however, a new era opened for the airship.
-Henry Giffard, of Paris, the inventor of the
-world-famed injector for steam boilers, built an elliptical
-gas-bag with cigar-shaped ends, 144 feet long,
-and 40 feet in diameter, having a cubic content of
-88,000 cubic feet. The car was suspended from a
-rod 66 feet long which hung from the net covering
-the gas-bag. It was equipped with a 3-horse-power
-steam engine which turned a two-bladed screw propeller
-11 feet in diameter, at the rate of 110 revolutions
-per minute. Coke was used for fuel. The
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span>
-steering was done with a triangular rudder-sail.
-Upon trial on September 24, 1852, the airship
-proved a success, travelling at the rate of nearly 6
-miles an hour.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_301.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The first Giffard dirigible.</p></div>
-
-<p>Giffard built a second airship in 1855, of a much
-more elongated shape&mdash;235 feet long and 33 feet in
-diameter. He used the same engine which propelled
-his first ship. After a successful trial trip, when
-about to land, the gas-bag unaccountably turned up
-on end, allowing the net and car to slide off, and, rising
-slightly in the air, burst. Giffard and his companion
-escaped unhurt.</p>
-
-<p>Giffard afterward built the large captive balloon
-for the London Exhibition in 1868, and the still
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span>
-larger one for the Paris Exposition in 1878. He
-designed a large airship to be fitted with two boilers
-and a powerful steam-engine, but became blind,
-and died in 1882.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_302.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Haenlein airship inflated with coal gas and driven by a gas-engine.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1865, Paul Haenlein devised a cigar-shaped
-airship to be inflated with coal gas. It was to be
-propelled by a screw at the front to be driven by a
-gas-engine drawing its fuel from the gas in the body
-of the ship. An interior air-bag was to be expanded
-as the gas was consumed, to keep the shape intact.
-A second propeller revolving horizontally was intended
-to raise or lower the ship in the air.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span></p>
-
-<p>It was not until 1872 that he finally secured the
-building of an airship, at Vienna, after his plans.
-It was 164 feet long, and 30 feet in diameter.
-The form of the gas-bag was that described by the
-keel of a ship rotated around the centre line of its
-deck as an axis. The engine was of the Lenoir type,
-with four horizontal cylinders, developing about 6
-horse-power, and turned a propeller about 15 feet
-in diameter at the rate of 40 revolutions per minute.
-The low lifting power of the coal gas with which it
-was inflated caused it to float quite near the ground.
-With a consumption of 250 cubic feet of gas per
-hour, it travelled at a speed of ten miles an hour.
-The lack of funds seems to have prevented further
-experiments with an invention
-which was at least very promising.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_303.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sketch of the De Lome airship.</p></div>
-
-<p>In the same year a dirigible
-balloon built by Dupuy de
-Lome for use by the French
-Government during the siege
-of Paris, was given a trial.
-It was driven by a screw propeller turned by eight
-men, and although it was 118 feet long, and 49
-feet in diameter, it made as good a speed record
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span>
-as Giffard’s steam-driven airship&mdash;six miles an
-hour.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_304.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Car of the Tissandier dirigible; driven by electricity.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1881, the brothers Albert and Gaston Tissandier
-exhibited at the Electrical Exhibition in Paris
-a model of an electrically driven airship, originally
-designed to establish communication with Paris during
-the siege of the Franco-Prussian War. In 1883,
-the airship built after this model was tried. It was
-92 feet long, and 30 feet at its largest diameter.
-The motive power was a Siemens motor run by 24
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span>
-bichromate cells of 17 lbs. each. At full speed the
-motor made 180 revolutions per minute, developing
-1½ horse-power. The pull was 26 lbs. The propeller
-was 9 feet in diameter, and a speed of a little
-more than 6 miles an hour was attained.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_305.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sketch of the Renard and Krebs airship <i>La France</i>, driven by a storage battery.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1884, two French army engineers, Renard
-and Krebs, built an airship, the now historic <i>La
-France</i>, with the shape of a submarine torpedo. It
-was 165 feet long and about 27 feet in diameter at
-the largest part. It had a gas content of 66,000
-cubic feet. A 9 horse-power Gramme electric motor
-was installed, driven by a storage battery. This
-operated the screw propeller 20 feet in diameter,
-which was placed at the forward end of the long car.
-The trial was made on the 9th of August, and was
-a complete success. The ship was sailed with the
-wind for about 2½ miles, and then turned about and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span>
-made its way back against the wind till it stood directly
-over its starting point, and was drawn down
-to the ground by its anchor ropes. The trip of about
-5 miles was made in 23 minutes. In seven voyages
-undertaken the airship was steered back safely to its
-starting point five times.</p>
-
-<p>This first airship which really deserved the name
-marked an era in the development of this type of
-aircraft. In view of its complete success it is astonishing
-that nothing further was done in this line
-in France for fifteen years, when Santos-Dumont began
-his series of record-making flights. Within this
-period, however, the gasoline motor had been adapted
-to the needs of the automobile, and thus a new and
-light-weight engine, suitable in every respect, had
-been placed within the reach of aeronauts.</p>
-
-<p>In the meantime, a new idea had been brought to
-the stage of actual trial. In 1893, in St. Petersburg,
-David Schwartz built a rigid airship, the gas receptacle
-of which was sheet aluminum. It was braced
-by aluminum tubes, but while being inflated the interior
-work was so badly broken that it was abandoned.</p>
-
-<p>Schwartz made a second attempt in Berlin in
-1897. The airship was safely inflated, and managed
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span>
-to hold its position against a wind blowing 17 miles
-an hour, but could not make headway against it.
-After the gas had been withdrawn, and before it
-could be put under shelter, a severe windstorm damaged
-it, and the mob of spectators speedily demolished
-it in the craze for souvenirs of the occasion.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_307.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Wreck of the Schwartz aluminum airship, at Berlin, in 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_308.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The type of the earlier Santos-Dumont dirigibles. This shape showed a tendency to “buckle,” or double
-up in the middle like a jackknife. To avoid this the later Santos-Dumonts were of much larger proportional
-diameter amidships.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>In 1898, the young Brazilian, Santos-Dumont,
-came to Paris imbued with aeronautic zeal, and determined
-to build a dirigible balloon that would surpass
-the former achievements of Giffard and Renard,
-which he felt confident were but hints of what
-might be accomplished by that type of airship. He
-began the construction of the series of dirigible balloons
-which eventually numbered 12, each successive
-one being an improvement on the preceding. He
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span>
-made use of the air-bag suggested by Meusnier for
-the balloon of the Duke of Chartres in 1784, although
-in an original way, at first using a pneumatic
-pump to inflate it, and later a rotatory fan. Neither
-prevented the gas-bag from “buckling” and coming
-down with consequences more or less serious to the
-airship&mdash;but Santos-Dumont himself always escaped
-injury. His own record of his voyages in his book,
-<i>My Air-Ships</i>, gives a more detailed account of his
-contrivances and inventions than can be permitted
-here. If Santos-Dumont did not greatly surpass his
-predecessors, he is at least to be credited with an enthusiasm
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span>
-which aroused the interest of the whole
-world in the problems of aeronautics; and his later
-achievements in the building and flying of aeroplanes
-give him a unique place in the history of man’s conquest
-of the air.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_309.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Type of the later Santos-Dumont’s dirigibles.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1900, Count von Zeppelin’s great airship, which
-had been building for nearly two years, was ready
-for trial. It had the form of a prism of 24 sides,
-with the ends arching to a blunt point. It was 420
-feet long, and 38 feet in diameter. The structure
-was rigid, of aluminum lattice work, divided into
-17 compartments, each of which had a separate gas-bag
-shaped to fit its compartment. Over all was
-an outer envelope of linen and silk treated with
-pegamoid. A triangular keel of aluminum lattice
-strengthened the whole, and there were two cars of
-aluminum attached to the keel. Each car held a
-16 horse-power Daimler gasoline motor, operating
-two four-bladed screw propellers which were rigidly
-connected with the frame of the ship a little below
-the level of its axis. A sliding weight was run to
-either end of the keel as might be required to depress
-the head or tail, in order to rise or fall in the
-air. The cars were in the shape of boats, and the
-ship was built in a floating shed on the Lake of Constance
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span>
-near Friedrichshafen. At the trial the airship
-was floated out on the lake, the car-boats resting
-on the water. Several accidents happened, so that
-though the ship got up into the air it could not be
-managed, and was brought down to the water again
-without injury. In a second attempt a speed of
-20 miles an hour was attained. The construction
-was found to be not strong enough for the great
-length of the body, the envelope of the balloon was
-not sufficiently gas tight, and the engines were not
-powerful enough. But few trips were made in it,
-and they were short. The Count set himself to work
-to raise money to build another ship, which he did
-five years later.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_311.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">View of the Zeppelin I, with portion of the aluminum shell and external fabric removed to show the internal framing and
-separate balloons. In the distance is shown the great balloon shed.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1901, an inventor named Roze built an airship
-in Colombo, having two gas envelopes with the engines
-and car placed between them. He expected to
-do away with the rolling and pitching of single airships
-by the double form, but the ship did not work
-satisfactorily, ascending to barely 50 feet.</p>
-
-<p>In 1902, Augusto Severo, a Brazilian, arranged
-an airship with the propelling screws at the axis of
-the gas-bag, one at each end of the ship. Instead
-of a rudder, he provided two small propellers to
-work in a vertical plane and swing the ship sideways.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span>
-Soon after ascending it was noticed that the propellers
-were not working properly, and a few minutes
-later the car was seen to be in flames and the
-balloon exploded. Severo and his companion Sache
-were killed, falling 1,300 feet.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_313a.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Sketch of the Severo airship, showing arrangement of the driving propellers
-on the axis of the gas-bag, and the steering propellers.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_313b.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>End view of Severo’s
-airship, showing the
-longitudinal division
-of the gas-bag to allow
-the driving shaft
-of the propellers to
-be placed at the axis
-of the balloon.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the same year Baron Bradsky-Leboun
-built an airship with partitions
-in the gas-bag which was
-just large enough to counterbalance
-the weight of the ship and
-its operators. It was lifted or lowered
-by a propeller working horizontally.
-Another propeller drove
-the ship forward. Through some
-lack of stability the car turned
-over, throwing out the two aeronauts, who fell 300
-feet and were instantly killed.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_314.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The first Lebaudy airship.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1902, a dirigible balloon was built for the
-brothers Lebaudy by the engineer Juillot and the
-aeronaut Surcouf. The gas envelope was made
-cigar-shaped and fastened rigidly to a rigid elliptical
-keel-shaped floor 70 feet long and 19 feet wide, made
-of steel tubes&mdash;the object being to prevent rolling
-and pitching. It was provided with both horizontal
-and vertical rudders. A 35 horse-power Daimler-Mercedes
-motor was used to turn two twin-bladed
-screws, each of 9 feet in diameter. Between the
-25th of October, 1902, and the 21st of November,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span>
-1903, 33 experimental voyages were made, the longest
-being 61 miles in 2 hours and 46 minutes; 38.7
-miles in 1 hour and 41 minutes; 23 miles in 1 hour
-and 36 minutes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_315.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Framing of the floor and keel of the Lebaudy airship.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1904 this ship was rebuilt. It was lengthened
-to 190 feet and the rear end rounded off. Its capacity
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span>
-was increased to 94,000 cubic feet, and a new
-covering of the yellow calico which had worked so
-well on the first model was used on the new one.
-It was coated with rubber both on the outside and inside.
-The interior air-bag was increased in size to
-17,650 cubic feet, and partitioned into three compartments.
-During 1904 and 1905 30 voyages were
-made, carrying in all 195 passengers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_316.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The car and propellers of the Lebaudy airship.</p></div>
-
-<p>The success of this airship led to a series of trials
-under the direction of the French army, and in all
-of these trials it proved satisfactory. After the 76th
-successful voyage it was retired for the winter of
-1905-6.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span></p>
-
-<p>In November, 1905, the rebuilt Zeppelin airship
-was put upon trial. While superior to the first one,
-it met with serious accident, and was completely
-wrecked by a windstorm in January, 1906.</p>
-
-<p>In May, 1906, Major von Parseval’s non-rigid
-airship passed through its first trials successfully.
-This airship may be packed into small compass for
-transportation, and is especially adapted for military
-use. In plan it is slightly different from previous
-types, having two air-bags, one in each end
-of the envelope, and the front end is hemispherical
-instead of pointed.</p>
-
-<p>As the airship is designed to force its way through
-the air, instead of floating placidly in it, it is evident
-that it must have a certain tenseness of outline
-in order to retain its shape, and resist being doubled
-up by the resistance it encounters. It is estimated
-that the average velocity of the wind at the elevation
-at which the airship sails is 18 miles per hour. If
-the speed of the ship is to be 20 miles per hour, as
-related to stations on the ground, and if it is obliged
-to sail against the wind, it is plain that the wind
-pressure which it is compelled to meet is 38 miles
-per hour&mdash;a gale of no mean proportions. When the
-large expanse of the great gas-bags is taken into consideration,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span>
-it is evident that ordinary balloon construction
-is not sufficient.</p>
-
-<p>Attempts have been made to meet the outside pressure
-from the wind and air-resistance by producing
-mechanically a counter-pressure from the inside.
-Air-bags are placed inside the cavity of the gas-bag,
-usually one near each end of the airship, and these
-are inflated by pumping air into them under pressure.
-In this way an outward pressure of as much
-as 7 lbs. to the square foot may be produced, equivalent
-to the resistance of air at a speed (either of the
-wind, or of the airship, or of both combined) of 48
-miles per hour. It is evident, however, that the pressure
-upon the front end of an airship making headway
-against a strong wind will be much greater than
-the pressure at the rear end, or even than that amidships.
-It was this uneven pressure upon the outside
-of the gas-bag that doubled up the first two airships
-of Santos-Dumont, and led him to increase the proportional
-girth at the amidship section in his later
-dirigibles. The great difficulty of adjusting these
-varying pressures warrants the adherence of Count
-von Zeppelin to his design with the rigid structure
-and metallic sheathing.</p>
-
-<p>The loss of the second Zeppelin airship so discouraged
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span>
-its designer that he decided to withdraw
-from further aeronautical work. But the German
-Government prevailed on him to continue, and by
-October, 1906, he had the Zeppelin III in the air.
-This airship was larger than Zeppelin II in both
-length and diameter, and held 135,000 cubic feet
-more of gas. The motive power was supplied by two
-gasoline motors, each of 85 horse-power. The gas
-envelope had 16 sides, instead of 24, as in the earlier
-ship. At its trial the Zeppelin III proved highly
-successful. It made a trip of 69 miles, with 11 passengers,
-in 2¼ hours&mdash;a speed of about 30 miles an
-hour.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_319.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Zeppelin III backing out of the floating shed at Friedrichshafen. The illustration shows the added fin at the top, the rudders,
-dipping planes, and balancing planes.</p></div>
-
-<p>The German Government now made an offer of
-$500,000 for an airship which would remain continuously
-in the air for 24 hours, and be able to land
-safely. Count von Zeppelin immediately began work
-upon his No. IV, in the effort to meet these requirements,
-in the meantime continuing trips with No.
-III. The most remarkable of these trips was made
-in September, 1907, a journey of 211 miles in 8
-hours.</p>
-
-<p>In October, 1907, the English airship “Nulli Secundus”
-was given its first trial. The gas envelope
-had been made of goldbeater’s skins, which are considered
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span>
-impermeable to the contained gas, but are
-very expensive. This airship was of the non-rigid
-type. It made the trip from Aldershot to London, a
-distance of 50 miles, in 3½ hours&mdash;an apparent speed
-of 14 miles per hour, lacking information as to the
-aid or hindrance of the prevailing wind. Several
-other trials were made, but with small success.</p>
-
-<p>The offer of the German Government had stimulated
-other German builders besides Count von Zeppelin,
-and on October 28, 1907, the Parseval I,
-which had been improved, and the new Gross dirigible,
-competed for the government prize, at Berlin.
-The Parseval kept afloat for 6½ hours, and the Gross
-for 8¼ hours.</p>
-
-<p>Meanwhile, in France, the Lebaudys had been
-building a new airship which was named “La Patrie.”
-It was 197 feet long and 34 feet in diameter.
-In a trial for altitude it was driven to an elevation
-of 4,300 feet. On November 23, 1907, the “Patrie”
-set out from Paris for Verdun, a distance of
-146 miles. The journey was made in 6¾ hours, at
-an average speed of 25 miles per hour, and the fuel
-carried was sufficient to have continued the journey
-50 miles further. Soon after reaching Verdun a
-severe gale tore the airship away from the regiment
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span>
-of soldiers detailed to assist the anchors in holding
-it down, and it disappeared into the clouds. It is
-known to have passed over England, for parts of its
-machinery were picked up at several points, and
-some days later the gas-bag was seen floating in the
-North Sea.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_322.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The “Ville-de-Paris” of M. de la Meurthe.</p></div>
-
-<p>Following close upon the ill-fated “Patrie” came
-the “Ville-de-Paris,” a dirigible which had been
-built by Surcouf for M. Henri Deutsch de la
-Meurthe, an eminent patron of aeronautic experiments.
-In size this airship was almost identical with
-the lost “Patrie,” but it was quite different in appearance.
-It did not have the flat framework at the
-bottom of the gas envelope, but was entirely round
-in section, and the long car was suspended below.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span>
-At the rear the gas-bag was contracted to a cylindrical
-form, and four groups of two ballonnets each
-were attached to act as stabilizers. It was offered
-by M. de la Meurthe to the French Government to
-take the place of the “Patrie” in the army manœuvres
-at Verdun, and on January 15, 1908, made
-the trip thither from Paris in about 7 hours. It
-was found that the ballonnets exerted considerable
-drag upon the ship.</p>
-
-<p>In June, 1908, the great “Zeppelin IV” was
-completed and given its preliminary trials, and on
-July 1 it started on its first long journey. Leaving
-Friedrichshafen, its route was along the northerly
-shore of Lake Constance nearly to Schaffhausen,
-then southward to and around Lake Lucerne, thence
-northward to Zurich, thence eastward to Lake Constance,
-and to its shed at Friedrichshafen. The distance
-traversed was 236 miles, and the time consumed
-12 hours. This voyage without a single mishap
-aroused the greatest enthusiasm among the German
-people. After several short flights, during
-which the King of Württemberg, the Queen, and
-some of the royal princes were passengers, the Zeppelin
-IV set out on August 4 to win the Government
-reward by making the 24-hour flight. Sailing eastward
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span>
-from Friedrichshafen it passed over Basle,
-then turning northward it followed the valley of the
-Rhine, passing over Strasburg and Mannheim, and
-had nearly reached Mayence when a slight accident
-necessitated a landing. Repairs were made, and the
-journey resumed after nightfall. Mayence was
-reached at 11 <small>P. M.</small>, and the return trip begun. When
-passing over Stuttgart, at 6 <small>A. M.</small>, a leak was discovered,
-and a landing was made at Echterdingen, a
-few miles farther on. Here, while repairs were being
-made, a squall struck the airship and bumped
-it heavily on the ground. Some gasoline was spilled,
-in some unknown way, which caught fire, and in a
-few moments the great balloon was totally destroyed.
-It had been in continuous flight 11 hours up to the
-time of the first landing, and altogether 20¾ hours,
-and had travelled 258 miles.</p>
-
-<p>The German people immediately started a public
-subscription to provide Count von Zeppelin with the
-funds needed to build another airship, and in a few
-days the sum of $1,500,000 was raised and turned
-over to the unfortunate inventor. The “Zeppelin
-III” was taken in hand, and lengthened, and more
-powerful engines installed.</p>
-
-<p>The “Gross II” was ready to make its attempt for
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>
-the Government prize on September 11, 1908. It
-sailed from Tegel to Magdeburg and back to Tegel,
-a distance of 176 miles, in 13 hours, without
-landing.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_325.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Clement-Bayard dirigible entering its shed.</p></div>
-
-<p>Four days later the “Parseval II” made a trip
-between the same points in 11½ hours, but cut the
-distance travelled down to 157 miles. In October,
-the “Parseval II” was sent up for an altitude test,
-and rose to a height of 5,000 feet above Tegel, hovering
-over the city for upward of an hour.</p>
-
-<p>During 1908, an airship designed by M. Clement,
-the noted motor-car builder, was being constructed
-in France. It made its first voyage on October 29,
-carrying seven passengers from Sartrouville to Paris
-and back, at a speed of from 25 to 30 miles per hour.
-The illustration gives a very good idea of the peculiar
-ballonnets attached to the rear end of the gas
-envelope. These ballonnets open into the large gas-bag,
-and are practically a part of it.</p>
-
-<p>In Italy a remarkable dirigible has been built by
-Captain Ricaldoni, for military purposes. It has
-the form of a fish, blunt forward, and tapering
-straight away to the rear. It has a large finlike surface
-on the under side of the gas-bag toward the
-rear. Its performances show that its efficiency as
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span>
-compared with its motive power is larger than any
-other dirigible in commission.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_327.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Engine of the Clement-Bayard dirigible; 7-cylinder; 55 horse-power; weighing only 155 pounds.</p></div>
-
-<p>In May, 1909, the rebuilt “Zeppelin III,” now rechristened
-“Zeppelin II,” after many successful short
-flights was prepared for the Government trial. On
-May 29, 1909, with a crew of six men, Count von
-Zeppelin started from Friedrichshafen for Berlin,
-360 miles away. The great ship passed over Ulm,
-Nuremburg, Bayreuth, and Leipzig; and here it encountered
-so strong a head wind from the north, that
-it was decided to turn about at Bitterfeld and return
-to Friedrichshafen. The distance travelled had
-been nearly 300 miles in 21 hours. The course followed
-was quite irregular, and took the ship over
-Wurtzburg, and by a wide detour to Heilbron and
-Stuttgart. The supply of gasoline running low, it
-was decided to land at Goeppingen, where more
-could be obtained. It was raining heavily, and
-through some mistake in steering, or some sudden
-veering of the wind, the prow of the great dirigible
-came into collision with a tree upon the hillside.
-The envelope was badly torn, and a part of the aluminum
-inner structure wrecked. However, the mechanics
-on board were able to make such repairs that
-the ship was able to resume the voyage the next day,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span>
-and made port without further mishap. The vessel
-having been 38 hours in the air at the time of the
-accident, so much of the Government’s stipulations
-had been complied with. But it had not succeeded
-in landing safely. Nevertheless it was accepted by
-the Government. The entire journey has been variously
-estimated at from 680 to 900 miles, either figure
-being a record for dirigibles.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_329.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Accident to the new “Zeppelin II” at Goeppingen. The damage was repaired and the airship continued its voyage the next day.</p></div>
-
-<p>On August 4, the dirigible “Gross II” made a
-voyage from Berlin to Apolda, and returned; a distance
-of 290 miles in 16 hours. This airship also
-was accepted by the German Government and added
-to its fleet.</p>
-
-<p>In August, the Zeppelin II was successfully sailed
-to Berlin, where Count von Zeppelin was welcomed
-by an immense and enthusiastic multitude of his
-countrymen, including the Emperor and the royal
-family.</p>
-
-<p>On September 26, the new French dirigible, “La
-Republique,” built on the model of the successful
-Lebaudy airships, met with an accident while in the
-air. A blade of one of the propellers broke and
-slashed into the envelope. The ship fell from a
-height of 6,000 feet, and its crew of four men lost
-their lives.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_331.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">View of the damaged Zeppelin from the front, showing the tree against which it collided.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span></p></div>
-
-<p>On April 22, 1910, a fleet of German dirigibles,
-comprising the “Zeppelin II,” the “Gross II,” and
-the “Parseval I,” sailed from Cologne to Hamburg,
-where they were reviewed by Emperor William. A
-strong wind having arisen, the “Gross II,” which
-is of the semi-rigid type, was deflated, and shipped
-back to Cologne by rail. The non-rigid “Parseval”
-made the return flight in safety. The rigid “Zeppelin
-II” started on the return voyage, but was compelled
-to descend at Limburg, where it was moored.
-The wind increasing, it was forced away, and finally
-was driven to the ground at Weilburg and demolished.</p>
-
-<p>In May, 1910, the “Parseval V,” the smallest
-dirigible so far constructed, being but 90 feet in
-length, was put upon its trial trip. It made a circular
-voyage of 80 miles in 4 hours.</p>
-
-<p>For several months a great Zeppelin passenger
-dirigible had been building by a stock company
-financed by German capital, under the direction of
-the dauntless Count von Zeppelin. It was 490 feet
-long, with a capacity of 666,900 cubic feet. A passenger
-cabin was built with ¼-inch mahogany veneer
-upon a framework of aluminum, the inside being
-decorated with panels of rosewood inlaid with
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span>
-mother-of-pearl. The seats were wicker chairs, and
-the window openings had no glass. It was christened
-the “Deutschland.”</p>
-
-<p>After many days waiting for propitious weather
-the first “air-liner” set sail on June 22, 1910, from
-Friedrichshafen for Düsseldorf, carrying 20 passengers
-who had paid $50 each for their passage. In
-addition there were 13 other persons on board.</p>
-
-<p>The start was made at three o’clock in the morning,
-and the course laid was up the valley of the
-Rhine, as far as Cologne. Düsseldorf was reached at
-three o’clock in the afternoon, the airline distance
-of 300 miles having been covered in 9 hours of actual
-sailing. From Mannheim to Düsseldorf, favored
-by the wind, the great ship reached the speed
-of 50 miles per hour, for this part of the trip, outstripping
-the fastest express trains which consume
-6 hours in the winding track up the valley.</p>
-
-<p>The next morning the “Deutschland” left Düsseldorf
-on an excursion trip, carrying several ladies
-among its passengers. The voyage was in every way
-a great success, and public enthusiasm was widespread.</p>
-
-<p>On June 29, a test trip was decided upon. No
-passengers were taken, but 19 newspaper correspondents
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span>
-were invited guests. The Count had been
-warned of weather disturbances in the neighborhood,
-but he either disregarded them or felt confidence in
-his craft. It was intended that the voyage should
-last four hours, but the airship soon encountered a
-storm, and after 6 hours of futile striving against it,
-the fuel gave out. Caught in an upward draft, the
-“Deutschland” rose to an altitude of over 5,000
-feet, losing considerable gas, and then, entering a
-rainstorm, was heavily laden with moisture. Suddenly,
-without definite reason, it began to fall vertically,
-and in a few moments had crashed into the
-tops of the trees of the Teutoberg forest. No one
-on board received more than slight injury, and all
-alighted safely by means of ladders. The “Deutschland”
-was a wreck, and was taken apart and shipped
-back to Friedrichshafen.</p>
-
-<p>On July 13, another giant passenger airship, designed
-by Oscar Erbslöh, who won the international
-balloon race in 1907 by a voyage from St. Louis to
-Asbury Park, met with fatal disaster. It was sailing
-near Cologne at an altitude of about 2,500 feet
-when it burst, and Erbslöh and his four companions
-were killed in the fall.</p>
-
-<p>On July 28, the “Gross III” left Berlin with the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span>
-object of beating the long distance record for dirigibles.
-Soon after passing Gotha the airship returned
-to that place, and abandoned the attempt. In 13
-hours a distance of 260 miles had been traversed.</p>
-
-<p>Undismayed by the catastrophes which had destroyed
-his airships almost as fast as he built them,
-Count von Zeppelin had his number VI ready to
-sail on September 3. With a crew of seven and
-twelve passengers he sailed from Baden to Heidelberg&mdash;53
-miles in 65 minutes. It was put into commission
-as an excursion craft, and made several successful
-voyages. On September 14, as it was being
-placed in its shed at the close of a journey, it took
-fire unaccountably, and was destroyed together with
-the shed, a part of the framework only remaining.</p>
-
-<p>On October 15, 1910, the Wellman dirigible
-“America” which had been in preparation for many
-weeks, left Asbury Park in an attempt to cross the
-Atlantic. Its balloon was 228 feet long, with a diameter
-of 52 feet, containing 345,000 cubic feet of
-gas. The car was 156 feet in length, and was arranged
-as a tank in which 1,250 gallons of gasoline
-were carried. A lifeboat was attached underneath
-the car. There were two engines, each of 80 horse-power,
-and an auxiliary motor of 10 horse-power.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span>
-Sleeping quarters were provided for the crew of six,
-and the balloon was fitted with a wireless telegraph
-system. All went well until off the island of Nantucket,
-where strong north winds were encountered,
-and the dirigible was swept southward toward Bermuda.
-As an aid in keeping the airship at an elevation
-of about 200 feet above the sea, an enlarged
-trail-rope, called the equilibrator, had been constructed
-of cans which were filled with gasoline.
-This appendage weighed 1½ tons, and the lower part
-of it was expected to float upon the sea. In practice
-it was found that the jarring of this equilibrator,
-when the sea became rough, disarranged the machinery,
-so that the propellers would not work, and the
-balloon was compelled to drift with the wind. Toward
-evening of the second day a ship was sighted,
-and the America’s crew were rescued. The airship
-floated away in the gale, and was soon out of sight.</p>
-
-<p>On October 16, a new Clement-Bayard dirigible,
-with seven men on board, left Paris at 7.15 o’clock
-in the morning, and sailed for London. At 1 <small>P. M.</small>
-it circled St. Paul’s Cathedral, and landed at the
-hangar at Wormwood Scrubbs a half hour later.
-The distance of 259 miles (airline) was traversed
-at the rate of 41 miles per hour, and the journey
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span>
-surpassed in speed any previous journey by any other
-form of conveyance.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_337.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="small"><i>Copyright by Pictorial News Company.</i></p>
-
-<p class="caption">Wellman dirigible “America” starting for Europe, October 15, 1910.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>On November 5, 1910, the young Welsh aeronaut,
-Ernest T. Willows, who sailed his small dirigible
-from Cardiff to London in August, made a trip
-from London across the English Channel to Douai,
-France. This is the third time within a month that
-the Channel had been crossed by airships.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_338.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Diagram of the Capazza dirigible from the side. <i>A A</i>, stabilizing fins; <i>B</i>, air-ballonnet;
-<i>R</i>, rudder; <i>M M</i>, motors; <i>FS</i>, forward propeller; <i>SS</i>, stern
-propeller.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>Toward the close of 1910, 52 dirigibles were in
-commission or in process of construction. In the
-United States there were 7; in Belgium, 2; in England,
-6; in France, 12; in Germany, 14; in Italy, 5;
-in Russia, 1; in Spain, 1.</p>
-
-<p>The new Capazza dirigible is a decided departure
-from all preceding constructions, and may mark a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span>
-new era in the navigation of the air. Its gas envelope
-is shaped like a lens, or a lentil, and is arranged
-to sail flatwise with the horizon, thus partaking
-of the aeroplane as well as the balloon type.
-No definite facts concerning its achievements have
-been published.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_339.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Capazza dirigible from the front. From above it is an exact circle in outline.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span></p></div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XV">Chapter XV.<br />
-
-BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Preliminary inspection&mdash;Instruments&mdash;Accessories&mdash;Ballast&mdash;Inflating&mdash;Attaching
-the car&mdash;The ascension&mdash;Controls&mdash;Landing&mdash;Some
-things to be considered&mdash;After landing&mdash;Precautions.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> actual operation of a balloon is always entrusted
-to an experienced pilot, or “captain”
-as he is often called, because he is in command, and
-his authority must be recognized instantly whenever
-an order is given. Nevertheless, it is often of great
-importance that every passenger shall understand the
-details of managing the balloon in case of need; and
-a well-informed passenger is greatly to be preferred
-to an ignorant one.</p>
-
-<p>It is ordinarily one of the duties of the captain
-to inspect the balloon thoroughly; to see that there
-are no holes in the gas-bag, that the valve is in perfect
-working order, and particularly that the valve
-rope and the ripping cord are not tangled. He should
-also gather the instruments and equipment to be carried.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span></p>
-
-<p>The instruments are usually an aneroid barometer,
-and perhaps a mercury barometer, a barograph (recording
-barometer), a psychrometer (recording thermometer),
-a clock, a compass, and an outfit of maps
-of the country over which it is possible that the
-balloon may float. Telegraph blanks, railroad time
-tables, etc., may be found of great service. A camera
-with a supply of plates will be indispensable
-almost, and the camera should be provided with a
-yellow screen for photographing clouds or distant
-objects.</p>
-
-<p>The ballast should be inspected, to be sure that it
-is of dry sand, free from stones; or if water is used
-for ballast, it should have the proper admixture of
-glycerine to prevent freezing.</p>
-
-<p>It is essential that the inflating be properly done,
-and the captain should be competent to direct this
-process in detail, if necessary. What is called the
-“circular method” is the simplest, and is entirely
-satisfactory unless the balloon is being filled with
-pure hydrogen for a very high ascent, in which case
-it will doubtless be in the hands of experts.</p>
-
-<p>When inflating with coal-gas, the supply is usually
-taken from a large pipe adapted for the purpose. At
-a convenient distance from the gas-main the ground
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span>
-is made smooth, and the ground cloths are spread out
-and pegged down to keep them in place.</p>
-
-<p>The folded balloon is laid out on the cloths with
-the neck opening toward the gas-pipe. The balloon
-is then unfolded, and so disposed that the valve will
-be uppermost, and in the centre of a circle embracing
-the upper half of the sphere of the balloon, the
-opening of the neck projecting a few inches beyond
-the rim of the circle. The hose from the gas-main
-may then be connected with the socket in the neck.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_342.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Balloon laid out in the circular method, ready for inflation. The valve is seen
-at the centre. The neck is at the right.</p></div>
-
-<p>Having made sure that the ripping cord and the
-valve rope are free from each other, and properly
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span>
-connected with their active parts, and that the valve
-is fastened in place, the net is laid over the whole,
-and spread out symmetrically. A few bags of ballast
-are hooked into the net around the circumference
-of the balloon as it lies, and the assistants distributed
-around it. It should be the duty of one man to hold
-the neck of the balloon, and not to leave it for any
-purpose whatever. The gas may then be turned on,
-and, as the balloon fills, more bags of ballast are
-hung symmetrically around the net; and all are continually
-moved downward as the balloon rises.</p>
-
-<p>Constant watching is necessary during the inflation,
-so that the material of the balloon opens fully
-without creases, and the net preserves its correct position.
-When the inflation is finished the hoop and
-car are to be hooked in place. The car should be
-fitted up and hung with an abundance of ballast.
-Disconnect the gas hose and tie the neck of the balloon
-in such fashion that it may be opened with a
-pull of the cord when the ascent begins.</p>
-
-<p>The ballast is then transferred to the hoop, or ring,
-and the balloon allowed to rise until this is clear of
-the ground. The car is then moved underneath, and
-the ballast moved down from the ring into it. The
-trail-rope should be made fast to the car directly
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span>
-under the ripping panel, the object being to retard
-that side of the balloon in landing, so that the gas
-may escape freely when the panel is torn open, and
-not underneath the balloon, as would happen if the
-balloon came to earth with the ripping panel underneath.</p>
-
-<p>The balloon is now ready to start, and the captain
-and passengers take their places in the car. The neck
-of the balloon is opened, and a glance upward will
-determine if the valve rope hangs freely through it.
-The lower end of this should be tied to one of the
-car ropes. The cord to the ripping panel should be
-tied in a different place, and in such fashion that no
-mistake can be made between them. The assistants
-stand around the edge of the basket, holding it so
-that it shall not rise until the word is given. The
-captain then adjusts the load of ballast, throwing off
-sufficient to allow the balloon to pull upward lightly
-against the men who are holding it. A little more
-ballast is then thrown off, and the word given to let
-go. The trail-rope should be in charge of some one
-who will see that it lifts freely from the ground.</p>
-
-<p>The balloon rises into the air to an altitude where
-a bulk of the higher and therefore lighter air equal
-to the bulk of the balloon has exactly the same weight.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span>
-This is ordinarily about 2,000 feet. If the sun
-should be shining the gas in the balloon will be expanded
-by the heat, and some of it will be forced out
-through the neck. This explains the importance of
-the open neck. In some of the early ascensions no
-such provision for the expansion of the gas was made,
-and the balloons burst with disastrous consequences.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_345.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Inflating a military balloon. The net is being adjusted smoothly as the balloon rises. The bags of ballast surround the balloon
-ready to be attached as soon as the buoyancy of the gas lifts it from the earth.</p></div>
-
-<p>When some of the gas has been driven out by the
-heat, there is less <i>weight</i> of gas in the balloon, though
-it occupies the same space. It therefore has a tendency
-to rise still higher. On the other hand, if it
-passes into a cloud, or the sun is otherwise obscured,
-the volume of the gas will contract; it will become
-denser, and the balloon will descend. To check the
-descent the load carried by the balloon must be lightened,
-and this is accomplished by throwing out some
-ballast; generally, a few handfuls is enough.</p>
-
-<p>There is always more or less leakage of gas
-through the envelope as well as from the neck, and
-this also lessens the lifting power. To restore the
-balance, more ballast must be thrown out, and in
-this way an approximate level is kept during the
-journey.</p>
-
-<p>When the ballast is nearly exhausted it will be
-necessary to come down, for a comfortable landing
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span>
-cannot be made without the use of ballast. A good
-landing place having been selected, the valve is
-opened, and the balloon brought down within a few
-yards of the ground. The ripping cord is then pulled
-and ballast thrown out so that the basket will touch
-as lightly as possible. Some aeronauts use a small
-anchor or grapnel to assist in making a landing, but
-on a windy day, when the car is liable to do some
-bumping before coming to rest, the grapnel often
-makes matters much worse for the passengers by a
-series of holdings and slippings, and sometimes causes
-a destructive strain upon the balloon.</p>
-
-<p>In making an ascent with a balloon full of gas
-there is certain to be a waste of gas as it expands.
-This expansion is due not only to the heat of the
-sun, but also to the lighter pressure of the air in the
-upper altitudes. It is therefore the custom with
-some aeronauts to ascend with a partially filled balloon,
-allowing the expansion to completely fill it.
-This process is particularly advised if a very high
-altitude is sought. When it is desired to make a
-long voyage it is wise to make the start at twilight,
-and so avoid the heat of the sun. The balloon will
-then float along on an almost unchanging level without
-expenditure of ballast. Rain and even the moisture
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span>
-from clouds will sometimes wet the balloon so
-that it will cause a much greater loss of ballast than
-would have been required to be thrown out to rise
-above the cloud or storm. Such details in the handling
-of a balloon during a voyage will demand the
-skilled judgment of the captain.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_348.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A balloon ready for ascent. Notice that the neck is still tied.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span></p></div>
-
-<p>The trail-rope is a valuable adjunct when the balloon
-is travelling near the ground. The longer the
-part of the trail-rope that is dragging on the ground
-the less weight the balloon is carrying. And at
-night, when it is impossible to tell the direction in
-which one is travelling in any other way, the line
-of the trailing rope will show the direction from
-which the wind is blowing, and hence the drift of the
-balloon.</p>
-
-<p>The care of the balloon and its instruments upon
-landing falls upon the captain, for he is not likely
-to find assistants at hand competent to relieve him
-of any part of the necessary work. The car and the
-ring are first detached. The ropes are laid out free
-and clear, and the valve is unscrewed and taken off.
-The material of the balloon is folded smoothly, gore
-by gore. The ballast bags are emptied. After all
-is bundled up it should be packed in the car, the covering
-cloth bound on with ropes, and definite instructions
-affixed for transportation to the starting-point.</p>
-
-<p>It is apparent that the whole of the gas is lost at
-the end of the journey. The cost of this is the largest
-expense of ballooning. For a small balloon of
-about 50,000 cubic feet, the coal-gas for inflating
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span>
-will cost about $35 to $40. If hydrogen is used, it
-will cost probably ten times as much.</p>
-
-<p>In important voyages it is customary to send up
-pilot balloons, to discover the direction of the wind
-currents at the different levels, so that the level which
-promises the best may be selected before the balloon
-leaves the ground. A study of the weather conditions
-throughout the surrounding country is a wise precaution,
-and no start should be made if a storm is
-imminent. The extent of control possible in ballooning
-being so limited, all risks should be scrupulously
-avoided, both before and during the voyage,
-and nothing left to haphazard.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XVI">Chapter XVI.<br />
-
-BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The fabrics used&mdash;Preliminary varnishing&mdash;Varnishes&mdash;Rubberized
-fabrics&mdash;Pegamoid&mdash;Weight of varnish&mdash;Latitudes of
-the balloon&mdash;Calculating gores&mdash;Laying out patterns and
-cutting&mdash;Sewing&mdash;Varnishing&mdash;Drying&mdash;Oiling&mdash;The neck&mdash;The
-valve&mdash;The net&mdash;The basket.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">The</span> making of a balloon is almost always placed
-in the hands of a professional balloon-maker.
-But as the use of balloons increases, and their owners
-multiply, it is becoming a matter of importance
-that the most improved methods of making them
-should be known to the intending purchaser, as well
-as to the amateur who wishes to construct his own
-balloon.</p>
-
-<p>The fabric of which the gas envelope is made may
-be either silk, cotton (percale), or linen. It should
-be of a tight, diagonal weave, of uniform and strong
-threads in both warp and woof, unbleached, and
-without dressing, or finish. If it is colored, care
-should be exercised that the dye is one that will not
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span>
-affect injuriously the strength or texture of the fabric.
-Lightness in weight, and great strength (as
-tested by tearing), are the essentials.</p>
-
-<p>The finest German percale weighs about 2½ ounces
-per square yard; Russian percale, 3⅓ ounces, and
-French percale, 3¾ounces, per square yard. The
-white silk used in Russian military balloons weighs
-about the same as German percale, but is very much
-stronger. Pongee silk is a trifle heavier. The silk
-used for sounding balloons is much lighter, weighing
-only a little over one ounce to the square yard.</p>
-
-<p>Goldbeater’s skin and rubber have been used to
-some extent, but the great cost of the former places
-it in reach only of governmental departments, and
-the latter is of use only in small balloons for scientific
-work&mdash;up to about 175 cubic feet capacity.</p>
-
-<p>The fabric is first to be varnished, to fill up the
-pores and render it gas-tight. For this purpose a
-thin linseed-oil varnish has been commonly used.
-To 100 parts of pure linseed-oil are added 4 parts
-of litharge and 1 part of umber, and the mixture is
-heated to about 350° Fahr., for six or seven hours,
-and stirred constantly. After standing a few days
-the clear part is drawn off for use. For the thicker
-varnish used on later coats, the heat should be raised
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span>
-to 450° and kept at about that temperature until it
-becomes thick. This operation is attended with
-much danger of the oil taking fire, and should be
-done only by an experienced varnish-maker.</p>
-
-<p>The only advantages of the linseed-oil varnish are
-its ease of application, and its cheapness. Its drawbacks
-are stickiness&mdash;requiring continual examination
-of the balloon envelope, especially when the
-deflated bag is stored away&mdash;its liability to spontaneous
-combustion, particularly when the varnish is
-new, and its very slow drying qualities, requiring a
-long wait between the coats.</p>
-
-<p>Another varnish made by dissolving rubber in benzine,
-has been largely used. It requires vulcanizing
-after application. It is never sticky, and is always
-soft and pliable. However, the rubber is liable to decomposition
-from the action of the violet ray of light,
-and a balloon so varnished requires the protection
-of an outer yellow covering&mdash;either of paint, or an
-additional yellow fabric. Unfortunately, a single
-sheet of rubberized material is not gas-tight, and it
-is necessary to make the envelope of two, or even
-three, layers of the fabric, thus adding much to the
-weight.</p>
-
-<p>The great gas-bags of the Zeppelin airships are
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span>
-varnished with “Pegamoid,” a patent preparation
-the constituents of which are not known. Its use by
-Count Zeppelin is the highest recommendation possible.</p>
-
-<p>The weight of the varnish adds largely to the
-weight of the envelope. French pongee silk after
-receiving its five coats of linseed-oil varnish, weighs
-8 ounces per square yard. A double bag of percale
-with a layer of vulcanized rubber between, and a
-coating of rubber on the inside, and painted yellow
-on the outside, will weigh 11 ounces per square
-yard. Pegamoid material, which comes ready prepared,
-weighs but about 4 ounces per square yard,
-but is much more costly.</p>
-
-<p>In cutting out the gores of the envelope it is possible
-to waste fully ⅓ of the material unless the
-work is skilfully planned. Taking the width of
-the chosen material as a basis, we must first deduct
-from ¾ of an inch to 1½ inches, in proportion to the
-size of the proposed balloon, for a broad seam and
-the overlapping necessary. Dividing the circumference
-at the largest diameter&mdash;the “equator” of the
-balloon&mdash;by the remaining width of the fabric gives
-the number of gores required. To obtain the breadth
-of each gore at the different “latitudes” (supposing
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span>
-the globe of the balloon to be divided by parallels
-similar to those of the earth) the following table is
-to be used; 0° representing the equator, and 90° the
-apex of the balloon. The breadth of the gore in inches
-at any latitude is the product of the decimal
-opposite that latitude in the table by the original
-width of the fabric in inches, thus allowing for
-seams.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_355.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Finsterwalder’s method of cutting material for a spherical balloon, by which
-over one-fourth of the material, usually wasted in the common method,
-may be saved. It has the further advantage of saving more than half of
-the usual sewing. The balloon is considered as a spherical hexahedron
-(a six-surfaced figure similar to a cube, but with curved sides and edges).
-The circumference of the sphere divided by the width of the material
-gives the unit of measurement. The dimensions of the imagined hexahedron
-may then be determined from the calculated surface and the
-cutting proceed according to the illustration above, which shows five
-breadths to each of the six curved sides. The illustration shows the seams
-of the balloon made after the Finsterwalder method, when looking down
-upon it from above.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Table for Calculating Shape of Gores for Spherical
-Balloons</span></h3>
-
-<table>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">0°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">1</span>.<span class="left">000</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">3°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">998</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">6°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">994</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">9°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">988</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">12°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">978</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">15°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">966</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">18°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">951</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">21°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">934</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">24°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">913</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">27°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">891</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">30°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">866</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">33°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">839</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">36°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">809</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">39°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">777</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">42°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">743</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">45°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">707</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">48°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">669</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">51°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">629</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">54°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">588</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">57°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">544</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">60°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">500</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">63°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">454</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">66°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">407</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">69°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">358</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">72°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">309</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">75°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">259</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">78°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">208</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">81°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">156</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">84°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">104</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">87°</td>
-    <td class="decimal"><span class="right">0</span>.<span class="left">052⅓</span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>In practice, the shape of the gore is calculated by
-the above table, and plotted out on a heavy pasteboard,
-generally in two sections for convenience in
-handling. The board is cut to the plotted shape and
-used as the pattern for every gore. In large establishments
-all the gores are cut at once by a machine.</p>
-
-<p>The raw edges are hemmed, and folded into one
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span>
-another to give a flat seam, and are then sewn together
-“through and through,” in twos and threes:
-afterward these sections are sewn together. Puckering
-must be scrupulously avoided. In the case of
-rubberized material, the thread holes should be
-smeared with rubber solution, and narrow strips of
-the fabric cemented over the seams with the same
-substance.</p>
-
-<p>Varnishing is the next process, the gores being
-treated in turn. Half of the envelope is varnished
-first, and allowed to dry in a well-ventilated place
-out of reach of the sun’s rays. The other half is
-varnished when the first is dry. A framework which
-holds half of the balloon in the shape of a bell is
-usually employed. In case of haste, the balloon may
-be blown up with air, but this must be constantly renewed
-to be of any service.</p>
-
-<p>The first step in varnishing is to get one side (the
-outer, or the inner) coated with a varnish thin
-enough to penetrate the material: then turn the envelope
-the other side out and give that a coat of the
-thin varnish. Next, after all is thoroughly dry, give
-the outer side a coat of thick varnish closing all pores.
-When this is dry give the inner side a similar coat.
-Finally, after drying thoroughly, give both sides a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span>
-coat of olive oil to prevent stickiness. The amount
-of varnish required is, for the first coat 1½ times the
-weight of the envelope, and for the second coat ½ the
-weight&mdash;of the thin varnish. For the thick coat on
-the outer side ⅓ of the weight of the envelope, and
-on the inner side about half as much. For the olive-oil
-coat, about ⅛ of the weight of the envelope will be
-needed. These figures are approximate, some material
-requiring more, some less; and a wasteful
-workman will cause a greater difference.</p>
-
-<p>The neck of the balloon (also called the tail) is in
-form a cylindrical tube of the fabric, sewn to an
-opening in the bottom of the balloon, which has been
-strengthened by an extra ring of fabric to support
-it. The lower end of the tube, called the mouth, is
-sewn to a wooden ring, which stiffens it. The size
-of the neck is dependent upon the size of the balloon.
-Its diameter is determined by finding the cube of
-one-half the diameter of the balloon, and dividing it
-by 1,000. In length, the neck should be at least
-four times its diameter.</p>
-
-<p>The apex of the balloon envelope is fitted with a
-large valve to permit the escape of gas when it is desired
-that the balloon shall descend. The door of
-the valve is made to open inward into the envelope,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span>
-and is pulled open by the valve-cord which passes
-through the neck of the balloon into the basket,
-or car. This valve is called the manœuvring valve,
-and there are many different designs equally efficient.
-As they may be had ready made, it is best
-for the amateur, unless he is a machinist, to purchase
-one. The main point to see to is that the seat
-of the valve is of soft pliable rubber, and that the
-door of the valve presses a comparatively sharp edge
-of metal or wood so firmly upon the seat as to indent
-it; and the springs of the valve should be strong
-enough to hold it evenly to its place.</p>
-
-<p>The making of the net of the balloon is another
-part of the work which must be delegated to professionals.
-The material point is that the net distributes
-the weight evenly over the surface of the upper
-hemisphere of the envelope. The strength of the
-cordage is an item which must be carefully tested.
-Different samples of the same material show such
-wide variations in strength that nothing but an actual
-test will determine. In general, however, it may
-be said that China-grass cordage is four times as
-strong as hemp cordage, and silk cordage is ten times
-as strong as hemp&mdash;for the same size cords.</p>
-
-<p>The meshes of the net should be small, allowing
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span>
-the use of a small cord. Large cords mean large
-knots, and these wear seriously upon the balloon envelope,
-and are very likely to cause leaks. In large
-meshes, also, the envelope puffs out between the cords
-and becomes somewhat stretched, opening pores
-through which much gas is lost by diffusion.</p>
-
-<p>The “star,” or centre of the net at the apex of the
-balloon, must be fastened immovably to the rim of
-the valve. The suspension cords begin at from 30°
-to 45° below the equator of the envelope, and are
-looped through rings in what are called “goose-necks.”
-These allow a measure of sliding motion
-to the cordage as the basket sways in the wind.</p>
-
-<p>For protecting the net against rotting from frequent
-wetting, it is recommended to saturate it thoroughly
-with a solution of acetate of soda, drying immediately.
-Paraffin is sometimes used with more or
-less success, but tarring should be avoided, as it materially
-weakens the cordage. Oil or grease are even
-worse.</p>
-
-<p>At the bottom of the net proper the few large cords
-into which the many small cords have been merged
-are attached to the ring of the balloon. This is
-either of steel or of several layers of wood well bound
-together. The ropes supporting the basket are also
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span>
-fastened to this ring, and from it hang the trail-rope
-and the holding ropes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_361.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Sketch showing the diamond mesh of balloon cordage and the method of distributing
-the rings for the goose-necks; also the merging of netting cords
-into the suspension cords which support the car. The principal knots
-used in tying balloon nets are shown on the right.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>The basket is also to be made by a professional,
-as upon its workmanship may depend the lives of its
-occupants, though every other feature of the balloon
-be faultless. It must be light, and still very strong
-to carry its load and withstand severe bumping. It
-should be from 3 to 4 feet deep, with a floor space
-of 4 feet by 5 feet. It is usually made of willow and
-rattan woven substantially together. The ropes supporting
-the car are passed through the bottom and
-woven in with it. Buffers are woven on to the outside,
-and the inside is padded. The seats are small
-baskets in which is stored the equipment. With the
-completion of these the balloon is ready for its furnishings
-and equipment, which come under the direction
-of the pilot, or captain, as detailed in the preceding
-chapter.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XVII">Chapter XVII.<br />
-
-MILITARY AERONAUTICS.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The pioneer Meusnier&mdash;L’Entreprenant&mdash;First aerostiers&mdash;First
-aerial warship&mdash;Bombardment by balloons&mdash;Free balloons in
-observations&mdash;Ordering artillery from balloon&mdash;The postal
-balloons of Paris&mdash;Compressed hydrogen&mdash;National experiments&mdash;Bomb
-dropping&mdash;Falling explosives&mdash;Widespread
-activity in gathering fleets&mdash;Controversies&mdash;Range of vision&mdash;Reassuring
-outlook.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">Almost</span> from the beginning of success in traversing
-the air the great possibilities of all
-forms of aircraft as aids in warfare have been
-recognized by military authorities, and, as has so
-often been the case with other inventions by non-military
-minds, the practically unlimited funds at
-the disposal of national war departments have been
-available for the development of the balloon at first,
-then the airship, and now of the aeroplane.</p>
-
-<p>The Montgolfiers had scarcely proved the possibility
-of rising into the air, in 1783, before General
-Meusnier was busily engaged in inventing improvements
-in their balloon with the expressed purpose of
-making it of service to his army, and before he was
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span>
-killed in battle he had secured the appointment of
-a commission to test the improved balloon as to its
-efficiency in war. The report of the committee being
-favorable, a balloon corps was formed in April, 1794,
-and the balloon <i>L’Entreprenant</i> was used during the
-battle of Fleurus, on June 26th, by Meusnier’s successor,
-General Jourdan, less than a year after Meusnier’s
-death. In 1795 this balloon was used in the
-battle of Mayence. In both instances it was employed
-for observation only.</p>
-
-<p>But when the French entered Moscow, they found
-there, and captured, a balloon laden with 1,000
-pounds of gunpowder which was intended to have
-been used against them.</p>
-
-<p>In 1796 two other balloons were used by the
-French army then in front of Andernach and Ehrenbreitstein,
-and in 1798 the 1st Company of Aerostiers
-was sent to Egypt, and operated at the battle
-of the Nile, and later at Cairo. In the year following,
-this balloon corps was disbanded.</p>
-
-<p>In 1812 Russia secured the services of a German
-balloon builder named Leppich, or Leppig, to build
-a war balloon. It had the form of a fish, and was
-so large that the inflation required five days, but the
-construction of the framework was faulty, and some
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span>
-important parts gave way during inflation, and the
-airship never left the ground. As it was intended
-that this balloon should be dirigible and supplied
-with explosives, and take an active part in attacks
-on enemies, it may be regarded as the first aerial
-warship.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_365.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A military dirigible making a tour of observation.</p></div>
-
-<p>In 1849, however, the first actual employment of
-the balloon in warfare took place. Austria was engaged
-in the bombardment of Venice, and the range
-of the besieging batteries was not great enough to
-permit shells to be dropped into the city. The engineers
-formed a balloon detachment, and made a
-number of Montgolfiers out of paper. These were of
-a size sufficient to carry bombs weighing 30 pounds
-for half an hour before coming down. These war
-balloons were taken to the windward side of the city,
-and after a pilot balloon had been floated over the
-point where the bombs were to fall, and the time
-consumed in the flight ascertained, the fuses of the
-bombs were set for the same time, and the war balloons
-were released. The actual damage done by the
-dropping of these bombs was not great, but the moral
-effect upon the people of the city was enormous. The
-balloon detachment changed its position as the wind
-changed, and many shells were exploded in the heart
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span>
-of the city, one of them in the market place. But
-the destruction wrought was insignificant as compared
-with that usually resulting from cannonading.
-As these little Montgolfiers were sent up unmanned,
-perhaps they are not strictly entitled to be dignified
-by the name of war balloon, being only what in this
-day would be called aerial bombs.</p>
-
-<p>The next use of the balloon in warfare was by
-Napoleon III, in 1859. He sent up Lieutenant
-Godard, formerly a manufacturer of balloons, and
-Nadar, the balloonist, at Castiglione. It was a tour
-of observation only, and Godard made the important
-discovery that the inhabitants were gathering their
-flocks of domestic animals and choking the roads
-with them, to oppose the advance of the French.</p>
-
-<p>The first military use of balloons in the United
-States was at the time of the Civil War. Within
-a month after the war broke out, Professor T. S. C.
-Lowe, of Washington, put himself and his balloon
-at the command of President Lincoln, and on June
-18, 1861, he sent to the President a telegram from
-the balloon&mdash;the first record of the kind in history.</p>
-
-<p>After the defeat at Manassas, on July 24, 1861,
-Professor Lowe made a free ascent, and discovered
-the true position of the Confederates, and proved
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span>
-the falsity of rumors of their advance. The organization
-of a regular balloon corps followed, and it
-was attached to McClellan’s army, and used in reconnoitering
-before Yorktown. The balloons were
-operated under heavy artillery fire, but were not
-injured.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_368.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A small captive military balloon fitted for observation. A cylinder of compressed
-hydrogen to replace leakage is seen at F.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span></p></div>
-
-<p>On May 24th, for the first time in history, a general
-officer&mdash;in this case, General Stoneman&mdash;directed
-the fire of artillery at a hidden enemy from a balloon.</p>
-
-<p>Later in the month balloons were used at Chickahominy,
-and again at Fair Oaks and Richmond, being
-towed about by locomotives. On the retreat from
-before Richmond, McClellan’s balloons and gas generators
-were captured and destroyed.</p>
-
-<p>In 1869, during the siege of a fort at Wakamatzu
-by the Imperial Japanese troops, the besieged sent
-up a man-carrying kite. After making observations,
-the officer ascended again with explosives, with which
-he attempted to disperse the besieging army, but
-without success.</p>
-
-<p>During the siege of Paris, in 1870, there were
-several experienced balloonists shut up in the city,
-and the six balloons at hand were quickly repaired
-and put to use by the army for carrying dispatches
-and mail beyond the besieging lines. The first trips
-were made by the professional aeronauts, but, as they
-could not return, there was soon a scarcity of pilots.
-Sailors, and acrobats from the Hippodrome, were
-pressed into the service, and before the siege was
-raised 64 of these postal balloons had been dispatched.
-Fifty-seven out of the 64 landed safely on French
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span>
-territory, and fulfilled their mission; 4 were captured
-by the Germans; 1 floated to Norway; 1 was
-lost, with its crew of two sailors, who faithfully
-dropped their dispatches on the rocks near the Lizard
-as they were swept out to sea; and 1 landed on
-the islet Hoedic, in the Atlantic. In all, 164 persons
-left Paris in these balloons, always at night,
-and there were carried a total of 9 tons of dispatches
-and 3,000,000 letters. At first dogs were carried
-to bring back replies, but none ever returned. Then
-carrier pigeons were used successfully. Replies were
-set in type and printed. These printed sheets were
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span>
-reduced by photography so that 16 folio pages of
-print, containing 32,000 words, were reduced to a
-space of 2 inches by 1¼ inches on the thinnest of
-gelatine film. Twenty of these films were packed
-in a quill, and constituted the load for each pigeon.
-When received in Paris, the films were enlarged by
-means of a magic lantern, copied, and delivered to
-the persons addressed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_370.jpg" alt="" />
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Spherical canister of compressed hydrogen for use in inflating military balloons.
-A large number of these canisters may be tapped at the same time and the
-inflation proceed rapidly; a large balloon being filled in two hours.</p></blockquote>
-</div>
-
-<p>In more recent times the French used balloons at
-Tonkin, in 1884; the English, in Africa, in 1885;
-the Italians, in Abyssinia, in 1888; and the United
-States, at Santiago, in 1898. During the Boer War,
-in 1900, balloons were used by the British for directing
-artillery fire, and one was shot to pieces by
-well-aimed Boer cannon. At Port Arthur, both the
-Japanese and the Russians used balloons and man-carrying
-kites for observation. The most recent use
-is that by Spain, in her campaign against the Moors,
-in 1909.</p>
-
-<p>The introduction of compressed hydrogen in compact
-cylinders, which are easily transported, has simplified
-the problem of inflating balloons in the field,
-and of restoring gas lost by leakage.</p>
-
-<p>The advent of the dirigible has engaged the active
-attention of the war departments of all the civilized
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span>
-nations, and experiments are constantly progressing,
-in many instances in secret. It is a fact at once
-significant and interesting, as marking the rapidity
-of the march of improvement, that the German Government
-has lately refused to buy the newest Zeppelin
-dirigible, on the ground that it is built of aluminum,
-which is out of date since the discovery of
-its lighter alloys.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_372.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The German military non-rigid dirigible Parseval II. It survived the storm
-which wrecked the Zeppelin II in April, 1910, and reached its shed at
-Cologne in safety.</p></div>
-
-<p>Practically all the armies are being provided with
-fleets of aeroplanes, ostensibly for use in scouting.
-But there have been many contests by aviators in
-“bomb-dropping” which have at least proved that
-it is possible to drop explosives from an aeroplane
-with a great degree of accuracy. The favorite target
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span>
-in these contests has been the life-sized outline of
-a battleship.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_373.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The German military Zeppelin dirigible, which took part in the manœuvres at Hamburg in April, 1910,
-and was wrecked by a high wind at Weilburg on the return journey to Cologne.</p></div>
-
-<p>Glenn Curtiss, after his trip down the Hudson
-from Albany, declared that he could have dropped
-a large enough torpedo upon the Poughkeepsie
-Bridge to have wrecked it. His subsequent feats
-in dropping “bombs,” represented by oranges, have
-given weight to his claims.</p>
-
-<p>By some writers it is asserted that the successful
-navigation of the air will guarantee universal peace;
-that war with aircraft will be so destructive that
-the whole world will rise against its horrors. Against
-a fleet of flying machines dropping explosives into
-the heart of great cities there can be no adequate
-defence.</p>
-
-<p>On the other hand, Mr. Hudson Maxim declares
-that the exploding of the limited quantities of dynamite
-that can be carried on the present types of
-aeroplanes, on the decks of warships would not do
-any vital damage. He also says that many tons of
-dynamite might be exploded in Madison Square,
-New York City, with no more serious results than
-the blowing out of the windows of the adjacent buildings
-as the air within rushed out to fill the void
-caused by the uprush of air heated by the explosion.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_375.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The Lebaudy airship “La Patrie.” As compared with the first Lebaudy, it shows the rounded stern with
-stabilizing planes, and the long fin beneath, with rudder and dipping planes.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span></p></div>
-
-<p>As yet, the only experience that may be instanced
-is that of the Russo-Japanese War, where cast-iron
-shells, weighing 448 lbs., containing 28 lbs. of powder,
-were fired from a high angle into Port Arthur,
-and did but little damage.</p>
-
-<p>In 1899 the Hague Conference passed a resolution
-prohibiting the use of aircraft to discharge projectiles
-or explosives, and limited their use in war to observation.
-Germany, France, and Italy withheld
-consent upon the proposition.</p>
-
-<p>In general, undefended places are regarded as exempt
-from attack by bombardment of any kind.</p>
-
-<p>Nevertheless, there are straws which show how
-the wind is blowing. German citizens and clubs
-which purchase a type of airship approved by the
-War Office of the German Empire are to receive a
-substantial subsidy, with the understanding that in
-case of war the aircraft is to be at the disposal of
-the Government. Under this plan it is expected that
-the German Government will control a large fleet of
-ships of the air without being obliged to own them.</p>
-
-<p>And, in France, funds were raised recently, by
-popular subscription, sufficient to provide the nation
-with a fleet of fourteen airships (dirigibles) and
-thirty aeroplanes. These are already being built,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span>
-and it will not be long before France will have the
-largest air-fleet afloat.</p>
-
-<p>The results of the German manœuvres with a fleet
-of four dirigibles in a night attack upon strong fortresses
-have been kept a profound secret, as if of
-great value to the War Office.</p>
-
-<p>In the United States the Signal Corps has been
-active in operating the Baldwin dirigible and the
-Wright aeroplanes owned by the Government. To
-the latter, wireless telegraphic apparatus has been
-attached and is operated successfully when the machines
-are in flight. In addition, the United States
-Aeronautical Reserve has been formed, with a large
-membership of prominent amateur and professional
-aviators.</p>
-
-<p>Some military experts, however, assert that the
-dirigible is hopelessly outclassed for warfare by the
-aeroplane, which can operate in winds in which the
-dirigible dare not venture, and can soar so high above
-any altitude that the dirigible can reach as to easily
-destroy it. Another argument used against the availability
-of the dirigible as a war-vessel is, that if it
-were launched on a wind which carried it over the
-enemy’s country, it might not be able to return at
-sufficient speed to escape destruction by high-firing
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span>
-guns, even if its limited fuel capacity did not force
-a landing.</p>
-
-<p>Even the observation value of the aircraft is in
-some dispute. The following table is quoted as giving
-the ranges possible to an observer in the air:</p>
-
-<table>
-  <tr>
-    <th>Altitude in feet.</th>
-    <th colspan="2">Distance of horizon.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">500</td>
-    <td class="tdc">30</td>
-    <td class="tdc">miles.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">1,000</td>
-    <td class="tdc">42</td>
-    <td class="tdc">“</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">2,000</td>
-    <td class="tdc">59</td>
-    <td class="tdc">“</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">3,000</td>
-    <td class="tdc">72</td>
-    <td class="tdc">“</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">4,000</td>
-    <td class="tdc">84</td>
-    <td class="tdc">“</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr">5,000</td>
-    <td class="tdc">93</td>
-    <td class="tdc">“</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>As a matter of fact, the moisture ordinarily in
-the air effectually limits the range of both natural
-vision and the use of the camera for photographing
-objects on the ground. The usual limit of practical
-range of the best telescope is eight miles.</p>
-
-<p>All things considered, however, it is to be expected
-that the experimenting by army and navy officers all
-over the world will lead to such improvement and
-invention in the art of navigating the air as will
-develop its benevolent, rather than its malevolent,
-possibilities&mdash;“a consummation devoutly to be
-wished.”
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XVIII">Chapter XVIII.<br />
-
-BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS.</h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The Wright Brothers&mdash;Santos-Dumont&mdash;Louis Bleriot&mdash;Gabriel
-Voisin&mdash;Leon Delagrange&mdash;Henri Farman&mdash;Robert
-Esnault-Pelterie&mdash;Count von Zeppelin&mdash;Glenn H. Curtiss&mdash;Charles
-K. Hamilton&mdash;Hubert Latham&mdash;Alfred Leblanc&mdash;Claude
-Grahame-White&mdash;Louis Paulhan&mdash;Clifford B.
-Harmon&mdash;Walter Brookins&mdash;John B. Moisant&mdash;J. Armstrong
-Drexel&mdash;Ralph Johnstone.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">On</span> January 1, 1909, it would have been a brief
-task to write a few biographical notes about
-the “prominent” aviators. At that date there were
-but five who had made flights exceeding ten minutes
-in duration&mdash;the Wright brothers, Farman, Delagrange,
-and Bleriot. At the close of 1910 the roll of
-aviators who have distinguished themselves by winning
-prizes or breaking previous records has increased
-to more than 100, and the number of qualified pilots
-of flying machines now numbers over 300. The impossibility
-of giving even a mention of the notable
-airmen in this chapter is apparent, and the few whose
-names have been selected are those who have more
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span>
-recently in our own country come into larger public
-notice, and those of the pioneers whose names will
-never lose their first prominence.</p>
-
-<h3>THE WRIGHT BROTHERS.</h3>
-
-<p>The Wright Brothers have so systematically
-linked their individual personalities in all their work,
-in private no less than in public, that the brief life
-story to be told here is but one for them both. In
-fact, until Wilbur went to France in 1908, and
-Orville to Washington, the nearest approach to a
-separation is illustrated by a historic remark of
-Wilbur’s to an acquaintance in Dayton, one afternoon:
-“Orville flew 21 miles yesterday; I am going
-to beat that to-day.” And he did&mdash;by 3 miles.</p>
-
-<p>Their early life in their home town of Dayton,
-Ohio, was unmarked by significant incident. They
-were interested in bicycles, and at length went into
-the business of repairing and selling these machines.</p>
-
-<p>Their attention seems to have been strongly turned
-to the subject of human flight by the death of Lilienthal
-in August, 1896, at which time the press published
-some of the results of his experiments. A
-magazine article by Octave Chanute, himself an experimenter
-with gliders, led to correspondence with
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span>
-him, and the Wrights began a series of similar investigations
-with models of their own building.</p>
-
-<p>By 1900 they had succeeded in flying a large glider
-by running with a string, as with a kite, and in the
-following year they had made some flights on their
-gliders, of which they had several of differing types.
-For two years the Wrights studied and tested and
-disproved nearly every formula laid down by scientific
-works for the relations of gravity to air, and
-finally gave themselves up to discovering by actual
-trial what the true conditions were, and to the improvement
-of their gliders accordingly. Meanwhile
-they continued their constant personal practice in
-the air.</p>
-
-<p>The most of this experimental work was done at
-Kitty Hawk, N. C.; for the reason that there the
-winds blow more uniformly than at any other place
-in the United States, and the great sand dunes there
-gave the Wrights the needed elevation from which
-to leap into the wind with their gliders. Consequently,
-when at last they were ready to try a machine
-driven by a motor, it was at this secluded spot that
-the first flights ever made by man with a heavier-than-air
-machine took place. On December 17, 1903,
-their first machine left the ground under its own
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span>
-power, and remained in the air for twelve seconds.
-From this time on progress was even slower than
-before, on account of the complications added by the
-motive power; but by the time another year had
-passed they were making flights which lasted five
-minutes, and had their machine in such control that
-they could fly in a circle and make a safe landing
-within a few feet of the spot designated.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_382.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Turpin, Taylor, Orville Wright, Wilbur Wright, Brookins, and Johnstone discussing the merits of the Wright
-machine.</p></div>
-
-<p>On the 5th of October, 1905, Wilbur Wright made
-his historic flight of 24 miles at Dayton, Ohio, beating
-the record of Orville, made the day before, of
-21 miles. The average speed of these flights was 38
-miles an hour. No contention as to the priority of the
-device known as wing-warping can ever set aside the
-fact that these long practical flights were made more
-than a year before any other man had flown 500 feet,
-or had remained in the air half a minute, with a
-heavier-than-air machine driven by power.</p>
-
-<p>The Wrights are now at the head of one of the
-largest aeroplane manufactories in the world, and
-devote the larger part of their time to research work
-in the line of the navigation of the air.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span></p>
-
-<h3>ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONT.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Alberto Santos-Dumont</span> was born in Brazil in
-1877. When but a lad he became intensely interested
-in aeronautics, having been aroused by witnessing
-the ascension at a show of an ordinary hot-air
-balloon. Within the next few years he had made
-several trips to Paris, and in 1897 made his first
-ascent in a balloon with the balloon builder Machuron,
-the partner of the famous Lachambre.</p>
-
-<p>In 1898 he began the construction of his notable
-series of dirigibles, which eventually reached twelve
-in number. With his No. 6 he won the $20,000 prize
-offered by M. Deutsch (de la Meurthe) for the first
-trip from the Paris Aero Club’s grounds to and
-around the Eiffel Tower in 30 minutes or less. The
-distance was nearly 7 miles. It is characteristic of
-M. Santos-Dumont that he should give $15,000 of
-the prize to relieve distress among the poor of Paris,
-and the remainder to his mechanicians who had built
-the balloon.</p>
-
-<p>His smallest dirigible was the No. 9, which held
-7,770 cubic feet of gas; the largest was the No. 10,
-which held 80,000 cubic feet.</p>
-
-<p>In 1905, when Bleriot, Voisin, and their comrades
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span>
-were striving to accomplish flight with machines heavier
-than air, Santos-Dumont turned his genius upon
-the same problem, and on August 14, 1906, he made
-his first flight with a cellular biplane driven by a 24
-horse-power motor. On November 13th of the same
-year he flew 720 feet with the same machine. These
-were the first flights of heavier-than-air machines in
-Europe, and the first public flights anywhere. Later
-he turned to the monoplane type, and with “La
-Demoiselle” added new laurels to those already won
-with his dirigibles.</p>
-
-<h3>LOUIS BLERIOT.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Louis Bleriot</span>, designer and builder of the celebrated
-Bleriot monoplanes, and himself a pilot of the
-first rank, was born in Cambrai, France, in 1872.
-He graduated from a noted technical school, and soon
-attached himself to the group of young men&mdash;all under
-thirty years of age&mdash;who were experimenting
-with gliders in the effort to fly. His attempts at first
-were with the flapping-wing contrivances, but he
-soon gave these up as a failure, and devoted his energy
-to the automobile industry; and the excellent
-Bleriot acetylene headlight testifies to his constructive
-ability in that field.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span></p>
-
-<p>Attracted by the experiments of M. Ernest Archdeacon
-he joined his following, and with Gabriel
-Voisin engaged in building gliders of the biplane
-type. By 1907 he had turned wholly to the monoplane
-idea, and in April of that year made his first
-leap into the air with a power-driven monoplane.
-By September he had so improved his machine that
-he was able to fly 600 feet, and in June, 1908, he
-broke the record for monoplanes by flying nearly a
-mile. Again and again he beat his own records, and
-at length the whole civilized world was thrilled by
-his triumphant flight across the British Channel on
-July 25, 1909.</p>
-
-<p>The Bleriot machines hold nearly all the speed
-records, and many of those in other lines of achievement,
-and M. Bleriot enjoys the double honor of
-being an eminently successful manufacturer as well
-as a dauntless aviator of heroic rank.</p>
-
-<h3>GABRIEL VOISIN.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gabriel Voisin</span>, the elder of the two Voisin brothers,
-was born in 1879 at Belleville-sur-Saone, near
-the city of Lyons, France. He was educated as an
-architect, but early became interested in aeronautics,
-and engaged in gliding, stimulated by the achievements
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span>
-of Pilcher, in England, and Captain Ferber,
-in his own country. He assisted M. Archdeacon in
-his experiments on the Seine, often riding the gliders
-which were towed by the swift motor boats.</p>
-
-<p>In 1906 he associated himself with his brother in
-the business of manufacturing biplane machines, and
-in March, 1907, he himself made the first long flight
-with a power-driven machine in Europe. This aeroplane
-was built for his friend Delagrange, and was
-one in which the latter was soon breaking records
-and winning prizes. The second machine was for
-Farman, who made the Voisin biplane famous by
-winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,000
-for making a flight of 1,093 yards in a circle.</p>
-
-<p>The Voisin biplane is distinctive in structure, and
-is accounted one of the leading aeroplanes of the
-present day.</p>
-
-<h3>LEON DELAGRANGE.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Leon Delagrange</span> was born at Orleans, France,
-in 1873. He entered the School of Arts as a student
-in sculpture, about the same time that Henri Farman
-went there to study painting, and Gabriel Voisin,
-architecture. He exhibited at the Salon, and
-won several medals. In 1905, he took up aeronautics,
-assisted at the experiments of M. Archdeacon.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span>
-His first aeroplane was built by Voisin, and he made
-his first flight at Issy, March 14, 1907. Less than
-a month later&mdash;on April 11&mdash;he made a new record
-for duration of flight, remaining in the air for 9
-minutes and 15 seconds&mdash;twice as long as the previous
-record made by Farman.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_388.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Leblanc, Bleriot, and Delagrange,
-(from left to right) in aviation dress, standing in front of the Bleriot machine
-which crossed the English Channel.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span></p></div>
-
-<p>At Rheims, in 1909, he appeared with a Bleriot
-monoplane, and continued to fly with that type of
-machine until his death. At Doncaster, England,
-he made the world record for speed up to that time,
-travelling at the rate of 49.9 miles per hour. He
-was killed at Bordeaux, France, in January, 1910,
-by the fall of his machine.</p>
-
-<h3>HENRI FARMAN.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Henri Farman</span>, justly regarded as the most prominent
-figure in the aviation world today, was born
-in France in 1873. His father was an Englishman.</p>
-
-<p>While a mere boy he became locally famous as a
-bicycle racer, and later achieved a wider fame as a
-fearless and skillful driver in automobile races. In
-1902 he won the Paris-Vienna race.</p>
-
-<p>In September, 1907, he made his first attempt to
-fly, using the second biplane built by his friend Gabriel
-Voisin, and in the following year he won with
-it the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,000. He
-then built a machine after his own ideas, which more
-resembles the Wright machine than the Voisin, and
-with it he has won many prizes, and made many
-world records. Demands for machines, and for
-teaching the art of handling them, have poured in
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span>
-upon him, necessitating a continual increase of manufacturing
-facilities until it may safely be said that
-he has the largest plant for building flying machines
-in the world, turning out the largest number of machines,
-and through his school for aviators is instructing
-a larger number of pupils annually than
-any other similar establishment.</p>
-
-<h3>ROBERT ESNAULT-PELTERIE.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Robert Esnault-Pelterie</span> was born in 1880,
-and educated in the city of Paris. He early showed
-a mechanical turn of mind, and was interested particularly
-in scientific studies. He became an enthusiast
-in matters aeronautic, and devoted himself
-to the construction of gasoline engines suitable for
-aviation purposes. After satisfying his ideal in this
-direction with the now famous “R-E-P” motor, he
-designed a new type of flying machine which is
-known as the “R-E-P monoplane.” His first flights
-were made at Buc in October, 1907, and while they
-were short, they proved the possibility of steering a
-flying machine so that it would describe a curved
-line&mdash;at that time a considerable achievement among
-European aviators. In April, 1908, he flew for ¾
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span>
-of a mile, and reached a height of 100 feet. This
-feat eclipsed all previous records for monoplanes.</p>
-
-<p>His fame, however, rests upon his motors, which
-are quite original in design and construction.</p>
-
-<h3>COUNT FERDINAND VON ZEPPELIN.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin</span> was born in
-1838, on the shores of the Lake Constance, where
-his great airships have had their initial trials.</p>
-
-<p>It is an interesting fact that Count von Zeppelin
-made his first balloon ascension in a war-balloon attached
-to the army corps commanded by his friend,
-Carl Schurz, during the Civil War.</p>
-
-<p>It was only after years of absorbing study of all
-that human knowledge could contribute that Count
-von Zeppelin decided upon the type of dirigible which
-bears his name. Under the patronage of the King
-of Würtemberg he began his first airship, having
-previously built an immense floating shed, which,
-swinging by a cable, always had its doors facing away
-from the wind.</p>
-
-<p>The successful flights of the series of magnificent
-Zeppelin airships have been marvellous in an age
-crowded with wonders. And the misfortune which
-has followed close upon their superb achievements
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span>
-with complete destruction would long ago have undone
-a man of less energy and courage than the
-dauntless Count. It should be borne in mind, however,
-that of the hundreds of passengers carried in
-his ships of the air, all have come to land safely&mdash;a
-record that it would be difficult to match with any
-other form of travel. The accidents which have destroyed
-the Zeppelins have never happened in the
-air, excepting only the wrecking of the <i>Deutschland</i>
-by a thunderstorm.</p>
-
-<p>The indefatigable Count is now constructing another
-airship with the new alloy, electron, instead
-of aluminum. He estimates that 5,000 pounds’
-weight can be saved in this way.</p>
-
-<h3>CAPTAIN THOMAS S. BALDWIN.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Captain Thomas S. Baldwin</span>, balloonist and
-aviator, was born in Mississippi in 1855. His first
-aeronautical experience was as a parachute rider from
-a balloon in the air. He invented the parachute he
-used, and received for it a gold medal from the Balloon
-Society of Great Britain. Exhibiting this parachute,
-Captain Baldwin made an extensive tour of
-the civilized world.</p>
-
-<p>In 1892 he built his first airship, a combination
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span>
-of a balloon, a screw propeller, and a bicycle, the last
-to furnish the motive power. It was not until 1902,
-when be installed an automobile engine in his airship,
-that he succeeded in making it sail. It was not
-yet dirigible, however; but after two years of devising
-and experimenting, he sailed away from Oakland,
-Cal., on August 2, 1904, against the wind, and after
-a short voyage, turned and came back to his balloon-shed.
-From this time on he made several successful
-dirigibles, and in 1908 he met all the requirements
-of the United States Government for a military dirigible,
-and sold to it the only dirigible it possesses.</p>
-
-<p>He became interested in the experiments of Curtiss
-and McCurdy at Hammondsport, in 1908, and aided
-in building the remarkable series of biplanes with
-which record flights were made. The newer design,
-known as the Baldwin biplane, is unique in the pivoted
-balancing plane set upright above the upper
-plane, a device entirely distinct from the warping or
-other manipulation of horizontal surfaces for the purpose
-of restoring lateral balance.</p>
-
-<h3>GLENN HAMMOND CURTISS.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Glenn Hammond Curtiss</span> was born at Hammondsport,
-N. Y., on the shore of Lake Keuka, in
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span>
-1878. From boyhood he was a competitor and winner
-in all sorts of races where speed was the supreme
-test. By nature a mechanic, he became noted for his
-ingenious contrivances in this line, and built a series
-of extremely fast motor-cycles, with one of which he
-made the record of one mile in 26⅖ seconds, which
-still stands as the fastest mile ever made by man with
-any form of mechanism.</p>
-
-<p>Through the purchasing of one of his light engines
-by Captain Baldwin for his dirigible, Curtiss
-became interested in aeronautical matters, and soon
-built a glider with which he sailed down from the
-Hammondsport hills. The combination of his motor
-and the glider was the next step, and on July 4, 1908,
-he flew 1½ miles with the <i>June Bug</i>, winning the
-<i>Scientific American</i> trophy.</p>
-
-<p>Learning that the United States was not to be represented
-at the Rheims meet in August, 1909, he
-hastily built a biplane and went there. He won the
-first prize for the course of 30 kilometres (18.6
-miles), second prize for the course of 10 kilometres,
-the James Gordon Bennett cup, and the tenth prize
-in the contest for distance. From Rheims he went
-to Brescia, Italy, and there won the first prize for
-speed. In all these contests he was matching his
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span>
-biplane against monoplanes which were acknowledged
-to be a faster type than the biplane.</p>
-
-<p>On May 29, 1910, Mr. Curtiss made the first stated
-aeroplane tour to take place in this country, travelling
-from Albany to New York City, 137 miles, with
-but one stop for fuel. With this flight he won a
-prize of $10,000.</p>
-
-<p>He has made many other notable flights and stands
-in the foremost rank of the active aviators. At the
-same time he is busily engaged in the manufacture
-of the Curtiss biplane and the Curtiss engine, both
-staple productions in their line.</p>
-
-<h3>CHARLES KEENEY HAMILTON.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Charles Keeney Hamilton</span> is justly regarded
-as one of the most skilful of aviators. He was born
-in Connecticut in 1881, and showed his “bent” by
-making distressing, and often disastrous, leaps from
-high places with the family umbrella for a parachute.</p>
-
-<p>In 1904 he worked with Mr. Israel Ludlow, who
-at that time was experimenting with gliders of his
-own construction, and when Mr. Ludlow began towing
-them behind automobiles, Hamilton rode on the
-gliders and steered them. Later he became interested
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span>
-in ballooning, and made a tour of Japan with
-a small dirigible.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_396.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Hamilton and Latham.</p></div>
-
-<p>He early became famous in the aviation world by
-his spectacular glides from a great height. He has
-said that the first of these was unintentional, but his
-motor having stopped suddenly while he was high
-in the air, he had only the other alternative of falling
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span>
-vertically. The sensation of the swift gliding
-having pleased him, he does it frequently “for the
-fun of it.” These glides are made at so steep an
-angle that they have gained the distinctive name,
-“Hamilton dives.”</p>
-
-<p>Hamilton came most prominently before the public
-at large with his flight from Governor’s Island to
-Philadelphia and back, on June 13, 1910. Following
-close upon Curtiss’s flight from Albany to New
-York, it was not only a record-breaking achievement,
-but helped to establish in this country the value of
-the aeroplane as a vehicle for place-to-place journeyings.</p>
-
-<h3>HUBERT LATHAM.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hubert Latham</span>, the famous Antoinette pilot, is
-a graduate of Oxford. His father was a naturalized
-Frenchman.</p>
-
-<p>His first aeronautical experience was as companion
-to his cousin, Jacques Faure, the balloonist, on his
-famous trip from London to Paris in 6½ hours, the
-fastest time ever made between the two places until
-the Clement-Bayard dirigible surpassed it by a few
-minutes on October 16, 1910.</p>
-
-<p>The Antoinette monoplane with which M. Latham
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span>
-has identified himself began with the ingenious engine
-of Levavasseur, which was speedily made use
-of for aeroplanes by Santos-Dumont, Bleriot, and
-Farman. Levavasseur also had ideas about aeroplanes,
-and persuaded some capitalists to back him
-in the enterprise. When it was done, no one could
-be found to fly it. Here M. Latham, a lieutenant of
-miners and sappers in the French army, stepped into
-the breach, and has made a name for himself and
-for the Antoinette machine in the forefront of the
-progress of aviation.</p>
-
-<p>After winning several contests he set out, on July
-19, 1909, to cross the British Channel. After flying
-about half the distance he fell into the sea. Six
-days later Bleriot made the crossing successfully,
-and Latham made a second attempt on July 27th,
-and this time got within a mile of the Dover coast
-before he again came down in the water.</p>
-
-<p>He has shown unsurpassed daring and skill in
-flying in gales blowing at 40 miles per hour, a record
-which few other aviators have cared to rival.</p>
-
-<h3>ALFRED LEBLANC.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Alfred Leblanc</span>, the champion cross-country flier
-of the world, was born in France in 1879. By profession
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span>
-he is a metallurgist. A friend of Bleriot,
-he became interested in monoplane flying, the
-more readily because he was already a skilled balloonist.</p>
-
-<p>At the time Bleriot made his historic flight across
-the British Channel, Leblanc preceded him, and,
-standing on the Dover shore, signalled Bleriot where
-to strike the land.</p>
-
-<p>He organized Bleriot’s school for aviators at Pau,
-and became its director. Its excellence is exhibited
-in the quality of its pupils; among them Chavez,
-Morane, and Aubrun.</p>
-
-<p>The achievement through which Leblanc is most
-widely known is his winning of the 489-mile race
-over the northern part of France in August, 1910,
-and with the victory the prize of $20,000 offered.</p>
-
-<h3>CLAUDE GRAHAME-WHITE.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Claude Grahame-White</span>, the most famous of
-British aviators, learned to fly in France, under the
-tutelage of M. Bleriot, Having accomplished so
-much, he went to Mourmelon, the location of Farman’s
-establishment, and made himself equally proficient
-on the Farman biplane. While in France he
-taught many pupils, among them Armstrong Drexel.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span>
-Returning to England, he opened a school for English
-aviators.</p>
-
-<p>He came into prominent public notice in his contest
-with Paulhan in the race from London to Manchester,
-and although Paulhan won the prize,
-Grahame-White received a full share of glory for
-his plucky persistence against discouraging mishaps.</p>
-
-<p>At the Boston-Harvard meet, in September, 1910,
-Grahame-White carried off nearly all the prizes, and
-in addition won for himself a large measure of personal
-popularity.</p>
-
-<p>On October 14th he flew from the Benning Race
-Track 6 miles away, over the Potomac River, around
-the dome of the Capitol, the Washington Monument,
-and over the course of Pennsylvania Avenue, up to
-the State, War, and Navy Department building,
-alighting accurately with his 40-foot biplane in the
-60-foot street. Having ended his “call,” he mounted
-his machine and rose skilfully into the air and returned
-to his starting point.</p>
-
-<p>At the Belmont Park meet, in October, Grahame-White
-captured the international speed prize with
-his 100-horse-power Bleriot monoplane, and finished
-second in the race around the Statue of Liberty,
-being beaten by only 43 seconds.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span></p>
-
-<h3>LOUIS PAULHAN.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Louis Paulhan</span> was, in January, 1909, a mechanic
-in Mourmelon, France, earning the good
-wages in that country of $15 per week. He became
-an aviator, making his first flight on July 10, 1909,
-of 1¼ miles. Five days later he flew over 40 miles,
-remaining in the air 1 hour 17 minutes, and rising
-to an altitude of 357 feet, then the world’s record.
-He flew constantly in public through the remainder
-of 1909, winning many prizes and breaking and
-making records.</p>
-
-<p>In January, 1910, he was the most prominent aviator
-at the Los Angeles meet, and there made a new
-world’s record for altitude, 4,166 feet.</p>
-
-<p>Within the 13 months and 3 weeks (up to October
-1, 1910) that he has been flying, he has won
-over $100,000 in prizes, besides receiving many
-handsome fees for other flights and for instruction
-to pupils.</p>
-
-<h3>CLIFFORD B. HARMON.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Clifford B. Harmon</span> has the double distinction
-of being not only the foremost amateur aviator of
-America, but his feats have also at times excelled
-those of the professional airmen. On July 2, 1910,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">402</span>
-Mr. Harmon made a continuous flight of more than
-2 hours, breaking all American records, and this he
-held for several months.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Harmon’s first experience in the air was as
-a balloonist, and in this capacity he held the duration
-record of 48 hours 26 minutes for a year. On
-this same voyage, at the St. Louis Centennial, he
-made a new record in America for altitude attained,
-24,400 feet.</p>
-
-<p>At the Los Angeles aviation meet, in January,
-1910, where he went with his balloon <i>New York</i>, he
-met Paulhan, and became his pupil. At that meet
-Paulhan made a new world’s record for altitude with
-a Farman biplane, and this machine Mr. Harmon
-bought, and brought to Mineola, L. I., where he
-practised assiduously, crowning his minor achievements
-by flying from there across Long Island Sound
-to Greenwich, Conn.</p>
-
-<p>At the Boston-Harvard aviation meet, in September,
-1910, Mr. Harmon won every prize offered to
-amateur contestants.</p>
-
-<h3>WALTER BROOKINS.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Walter Brookins</span> is one of the youngest of noted
-aviators. He was born in Dayton, Ohio, in 1890,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span>
-and went to school to Miss Katherine Wright, sister
-of the Wright brothers. Young Walter was greatly
-interested in the experiments made by the Wrights,
-and Orville one day promised him that when he grew
-up they would build a flying machine for him.
-Brookins appeared at Dayton in the early part of
-1910, after several years’ absence, during which he
-had grown up, and demanded the promised flying
-machine. The Wrights met the demand, and developed
-Brookins into one of the most successful American
-aviators.</p>
-
-<p>Brookins’s first leap into prominence was at the
-Indianapolis meet, in June, 1910, where he made a
-new world’s record for altitude, 4,803 feet. This
-being beaten soon after in Europe, by J. Armstrong
-Drexel, with 6,600 feet, Brookins attempted, at Atlantic
-City, in September, to excel Drexel’s record,
-and rose to a height of 6,175 feet, being forced to
-come down by the missing of his motor.</p>
-
-<p>On September 29, 1910, he left Chicago for
-Springfield, Ill. He made two stops on the way
-for repairs and fuel, and reached Springfield in 7
-hours 9 minutes elapsed time. His actual time in
-the air was 5 hours 47 minutes. The air-line distance
-between the two cities is 187 miles, but as
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">404</span>
-Brookins flew in the face of a wind blowing 10 miles
-an hour, he actually travelled 250 miles. During
-the journey Brookins made a new cross-country record
-for America in a continuous flight for 2 hours
-38 minutes.</p>
-
-<h3>JOHN B. MOISANT.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">John B. Moisant</span> is an architect of Chicago, born
-there of Spanish parentage in 1883. Becoming interested
-in aviation, he went to France in 1909, and
-began the construction of two aeroplanes, one of them
-entirely of metal. He started to learn to fly on a
-Bleriot machine, and one day took one of his mechanicians
-aboard and started for London. The mechanician
-had never before been up in an aeroplane.
-After battling with storms and repairing consequent
-accidents to his machine, Moisant landed his passenger
-in London three weeks after the start. It was
-the first trip between the two cities for an aeroplane
-carrying a passenger, and although Moisant failed
-to win the prize which had been offered for such a
-feat, he received a great ovation, and a special medal
-was struck for him.</p>
-
-<p>At the Belmont Park meet, in October, 1910,
-Moisant, after wrecking his own machine in a gale,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span>
-climbed into Leblanc’s Bleriot, which had been secured
-for him but a few minutes before, and made
-the trip around the Statue of Liberty in New York
-Bay and returned to the Park in 34 minutes 38 seconds.
-As the distance is over 34 miles, the speed was
-nearly a mile a minute. This feat won for him, and
-for America, the grand prize of the meet&mdash;$10,000.</p>
-
-<h3>J. ARMSTRONG DREXEL.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">J. Armstrong Drexel</span> is a native of Philadelphia.
-He was taught to fly a Bleriot machine at
-Pau by Grahame-White, and he has frequently surpassed
-his instructor in contests where both took part.
-At the English meets in 1910 he won many of the
-prizes, being excelled in this respect only by Leon
-Morane.</p>
-
-<p>At Lanark, Scotland, he established a new world’s
-record for altitude, 6,600 feet. At the Belmont Park
-meet he passed his former record with an altitude
-of 7,185 feet, making this the American record,
-though it had been excelled in Europe. At Philadelphia,
-November 23, 1910, he reached an altitude
-of 9,970 feet, according to the recording barometer
-he carried, thus making a new world’s record. This
-record was disputed by the Aero Club, and it may
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">406</span>
-be reduced. A millionaire, he flies for sheer love of
-the sport.</p>
-
-<h3>RALPH JOHNSTONE.</h3>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ralph Johnstone</span> was born in Kansas City, Mo.,
-in 1880. He became an expert bicycle rider, and
-travelled extensively in many countries giving exhibitions
-of trick bicycle riding, including the feat
-known as “looping the loop.” He joined the staff
-of the Wright Brothers’ aviators in April, 1910, and
-speedily became one of the most skilful aeroplane
-operators.</p>
-
-<p>He made a specialty of altitude flying, breaking
-his former records day after day, and finally, at the
-International Aviation Meet at Belmont Park, L. I.,
-in October, 1910, he made a new world’s altitude
-record of 9,714 feet, surpassing the previous record
-of 9,121 feet made by Wynmalen at Mourmelon,
-on October 1st.</p>
-
-<p>Johnstone was instantly killed at Denver, Col.,
-on November 14, 1910, by a fall with his machine
-owing to the breaking of one of the wings at a
-height of 800 feet.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XIX">Chapter XIX.<br />
-
-CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS.</h2>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">How</span> feeble the start, and how wondrously rapid
-the growth of the art of flying! Nothing can
-better convey a full idea of its beginnings and its
-progress than the recorded facts as given below.
-And these facts show beyond dispute that the credit
-of laying the foundation for every accomplishment
-in the entire record must be largely due to the men
-whose names stand alone for years as the only aeroplanists
-in the world&mdash;the Wright Brothers.</p>
-
-<p>After the first flight on December 17, 1903, the
-Wrights worked steadily toward improving their machines,
-and gaining a higher degree of the art of
-balancing, without which even the most perfect machines
-would be useless. Most of their experimenting
-having been done in secret, the open record of
-their results from time to time is very meagre. It
-may be noted, however, that for nearly three years
-no one else made any records at all.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span></p>
-
-<p>The next name to appear on the roll is that of
-Santos-Dumont, already famous for his remarkable
-achievements in building and navigating dirigible
-balloons, or airships. His first aeroplane flight was
-on August 22, 1906, and was but little more than
-rising clear of the ground.</p>
-
-<p>It was nearly seven months later when Delagrange
-added his name to the three then on the list of practical
-aviators. In about five months Bleriot joined
-them, and in a few more weeks Farman had placed
-his name on the roll. It is interesting to compare
-the insignificant figures of the first flights of these
-men with their successive feats as they gain in experience.</p>
-
-<p>Up to October 19, 1907, the flights recorded had
-been made with machines of the biplane type, but on
-that date, R. Esnault-Pelterie made a few short
-flights with a monoplane. A month later Santos-Dumont
-had gone over to the monoplane type, and
-the little group of seven had been divided into two
-classes&mdash;five biplanists and two monoplanists.</p>
-
-<p>On March 29, 1908, Delagrange started a new
-column in the record book by taking a passenger up
-with him, in this case, Farman. They flew only 453
-feet, but it was the beginning of passenger carrying.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span></p>
-
-<p>During the first six months of 1908 only two more
-names were added to the roll&mdash;Baldwin and McCurdy&mdash;both
-on the biplane side. On July 4, 1908,
-Curtiss comes into the circle with his first recorded
-flight, in which he used a biplane of his own construction.
-The same day in France, Bleriot changed
-to the ranks of the monoplane men, with a flight
-measured in miles, instead of in feet. Two days
-later, Farman advanced his distance record from
-1.24 miles to 12.2 miles, and his speed record from
-about 21 miles an hour to nearly 39 miles an hour.
-In two days more, Delagrange had taken up the first
-woman passenger ever carried on an aeroplane; and
-a month later, Captain L. F. Ferber had made his
-first flights in public, and added his name to the
-growing legion of the biplanists.</p>
-
-<p>In the latter part of 1908, the Wrights seem to
-take possession of the record&mdash;Orville in America,
-and Wilbur in Europe&mdash;surpassing their own previous
-feats as well as those of others. Bleriot and Farman
-also steadily advance their performances to a
-more distinguished level.</p>
-
-<p>The record for 1909 starts off with three new
-names&mdash;Moore-Brabazon, and Legagneux in France,
-and Cody in England. Richardson, Count de Lambert,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span>
-Calderara, Latham, Tissandier, Rougier, join
-the ranks of the aviators before the year is half gone,
-and a few days later Sommer and Paulhan add their
-names.</p>
-
-<p>Of these only Latham flies the monoplane type of
-machine, but at the Rheims tournament Delagrange
-appears as a monoplanist, increasing the little group
-to four; but, with Le Blon added later, they perform
-some of the most remarkable feats on record.</p>
-
-<p>The contest at Rheims in August is a succession of
-record-breaking and record-making achievements.
-But it is at Blackpool and Doncaster that the most
-distinct progress of the year is marked, by the daring
-flights of Le Blon and Latham in fierce gales.
-Spectators openly charged these men with foolhardiness,
-but it was of the first importance that it should
-be demonstrated that these delicately built machines
-can be handled safely in the most turbulent weather;
-and the fact that it has been done successfully will
-inspire every other aviator with a greater degree of
-confidence in his ability to control his machine in
-whatever untoward circumstances he may be placed.
-And such confidence is by far the largest element in
-safe and successful flying.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">411</span></p>
-
-<h3>NOTABLE AVIATION RECORDS TO CLOSE OF 1910</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>December 17, 1903</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane,
-at Kitty Hawk, N. C., makes the first successful
-flight by man with power-propelled machine, a
-distance of 852 feet, in 59 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 9, 1904</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane, at
-Dayton, O., flies 3 miles in 4 minutes and 30 seconds.
-(He and Orville made upward of 100 unrecorded
-flights in that year.)</p>
-
-<p><i>September 26, 1905</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane
-“White Flier,” at Dayton, O., flies 11 miles in
-18 minutes and 9 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 29, 1905</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with “White
-Flier,” at Dayton, O., flies 12 miles in 19 minutes
-and 55 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 3, 1905</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright, with “White
-Flier” at Dayton, O., flies 15 miles in 25 minutes
-and 5 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 4, 1905</i>&mdash;Orville Wright with biplane
-“White Flier,” at Dayton, O., flies 21 miles in
-33 minutes and 17 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 5, 1905</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with “White
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">412</span>
-Flier,” at Dayton, O., flies 24 miles in 38 minutes.
-(He made many unrecorded flights in that
-year.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 22, 1906</i>&mdash;A. Santos-Dumont with biplane
-at Bagatelle, France, made his first public flight
-with an aeroplane, hardly more than rising clear
-of the ground.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 14, 1906</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont with biplane,
-at Bagatelle, flies for 8 seconds.</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_412.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Santos-Dumont flying at Bagatelle in his cellular biplane.</p></div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>October 24, 1906</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont with biplane, at
-Bagatelle, flies 160 feet in 4 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 13, 1906</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont with biplane,
-at Bagatelle, flies 722 feet in 21 seconds. This
-feat is recorded as the first aeroplane flight made
-in Europe.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 16, 1907</i>&mdash;Leon Delagrange with first Voisin
-biplane, at Bagatelle, flies 30 feet.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">413</span></p>
-
-<p><i>August 6, 1907</i>&mdash;Louis Bleriot with a Langley machine,
-at Issy, France, flies 470 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 15, 1907</i>&mdash;Henry Farman with biplane, at
-Issy, flies 937 feet in 21 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 19, 1907</i>&mdash;R. Esnault-Pelterie with monoplane,
-at Buc, France, makes short flights.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 26, 1907</i>&mdash;Farman with biplane, at Issy,
-flies 2,529 feet in a half circle, in 52 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 17, 1907</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont with biplane,
-at Issy, makes several short flights, the longest
-being about 500 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 21, 1907</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont with monoplane
-at Bagatelle, makes several short flights,
-the longest being about 400 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>January 13, 1908</i>&mdash;Farman with biplane, at Issy,
-makes the first flight in a circular course&mdash;3,279
-feet in 1 minute and 28 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 12, 1908</i>&mdash;F. W. Baldwin with biplane “Red
-Wing,” at Hammondsport, N. Y., flies 319 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 21, 1908</i>&mdash;Farman with biplane, at Issy, flies
-1.24 miles in 3 minutes and 31 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 29, 1908</i>&mdash;Delagrange with biplane, at
-Ghent, Belgium, makes first recorded flight with
-one passenger (Farman), 453 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>April 11, 1908</i>&mdash;Delagrange with biplane at Issy,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">414</span>
-flies 2.43 miles in 6 minutes and 30 seconds, winning
-the Archdeacon cup.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 18, 1908</i>&mdash;J. A. D. McCurdy with biplane
-“White Wing” at Hammondsport, flies 600
-feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 27, 1908</i>&mdash;Delagrange with biplane, at Rome,
-in the presence of the King of Italy, flies 7.9
-miles in 15 minutes and 25 seconds.</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_414.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The early Voisin biplane flown by Farman at Issy.</p></div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>May 30, 1908</i>&mdash;Farman with biplane, at Ghent,
-flies 0.77 miles with one passenger (Mr. Archdeacon).</p>
-
-<p><i>June 8, 1908</i>&mdash;Esnault-Pelterie with monoplane, at
-Buc, flies 0.75 miles, reaching an altitude of 100
-feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 22, 1908</i>&mdash;Delagrange with biplane, at Milan,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">415</span>
-Italy, flies 10.5 miles in 16 minutes and 30 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 4, 1908</i>&mdash;Glenn H. Curtiss with biplane, at
-Hammondsport, flies 5,090 feet, in 1 minute and
-42 seconds, winning <i>Scientific American</i> cup.</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_415.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The “June Bug” flown by Curtiss winning the <i>Scientific American</i> cup,
-July 4, 1908.</p></div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>July 4, 1908</i>&mdash;Bleriot with monoplane, at Issy, flies
-3.7 miles in 5 minutes and 47 seconds, making
-several circles.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 6, 1908</i>&mdash;Farman in biplane, at Ghent, flies
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">416</span>
-12.2 miles in 19 minutes and 3 seconds, winning
-the Armengand prize.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 8, 1908</i>&mdash;Delagrange with biplane, at Turin,
-Italy, flies 500 feet with the first woman passenger
-ever carried on an aeroplane&mdash;Mrs. Peltier.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 9, 1908</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le
-Mans, France, makes several short flights to
-prove the ease of control of his machine.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 8, 1908</i>&mdash;L. F. Ferber with biplane, at Issy,
-makes first trial flights.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 6, 1908</i>&mdash;Delagrange with biplane, at
-Issy, flies 15.2 miles in 29 minutes and 52 seconds,
-beating existing French records.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 8, 1908</i>&mdash;Orville Wright with biplane, at
-Fort Myer, Va., flies 40 miles in 1 hour and 2
-minutes, rising to 100 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 9, 10, 11, 1908</i>&mdash;Orville Wright with biplane,
-at Fort Myer, makes several flights, increasing
-in duration from 57 minutes to 1 hour
-ten minutes and 24 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 12, 1908</i>&mdash;Orville Wright with biplane,
-at Fort Myer, flies 50 miles in 1 hour, 14
-minutes and 20 seconds, the longest flight on
-record.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 12, 1908</i>&mdash;Orville Wright with biplane,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">417</span>
-at Fort Myer, flies for 9 minutes and 6 seconds
-with one passenger (Major Squier), making a
-new record.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 17, 1908</i>&mdash;Orville Wright with biplane,
-at Fort Myer, flies 3 miles in 4 minutes, with
-Lieutenant Selfridge. The machine fell: Selfridge
-was killed and Wright severely injured.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 19, 1908</i>&mdash;L. F. Ferber with biplane, at
-Issy, flies 1,640 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 21, 1908</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane,
-at Auvours, flies 41 miles in 1 hour and 31 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 25, 1908</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane,
-at Le Mans, France, flies 11 minutes and 35 seconds,
-with one passenger, making a new record.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 3, 1908</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane, at
-Le Mans, France, flies 55 minutes and 37 seconds,
-with one passenger, making new record.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 6, 1908</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le
-Mans, flies 1 hour 4 minutes and 26 seconds,
-with one passenger, breaking all records.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 10, 1908</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane, at
-Auvours, flies 46 miles in 1 hour and 9 minutes,
-with one passenger (Mr. Painleve). Also carried
-35 others on different trips, one at a time.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">418</span></p>
-
-<p><i>October 21, 1908</i>&mdash;Bleriot with monoplane, at
-Toury, France, flies 4.25 miles in 6 minutes and
-40 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 30, 1908</i>&mdash;Farman with biplane at Chalons,
-France, makes a flight across country to Rheims&mdash;17
-miles in 20 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 31, 1908</i>&mdash;Farman with biplane, at Chalons,
-flies 23 minutes, reaching a height of 82
-feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 31, 1908</i>&mdash;Bleriot with monoplane, at
-Toury, flies 8.7 miles to Artenay, in 11 minutes,
-lands, and returns to Toury.</p>
-
-<p><i>December 18, 1908</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane, at
-Auvours, flies 62 miles in 1 hour and 54 minutes,
-rising to 360 feet&mdash;making a world record.</p>
-
-<p><i>December 31, 1908</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane,
-at Le Mans, flies 76.5 miles in 2 hours 18 minutes
-and 53 seconds, making a new world record,
-and winning the Michelin prize. The distance
-traversed (unofficial) is claimed to have been actually
-over 100 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>January 28, 1909</i>&mdash;Moore-Brabazon with biplane,
-at Chalons, flies 3.1 miles, in practice with a
-Voison machine.</p>
-
-<p><i>February 14, 1909</i>&mdash;Legagneux with biplane, at
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">419</span>
-Mourmelon, France, flies 1.2 miles, and in a second
-flight of 6.2 miles (10 kilometres), traces
-two circles.</p>
-
-<p><i>February 22, 1909</i>&mdash;S. F. Cody with biplane, at Aldershot,
-England, flies 1,200 feet in a 12-mile
-wind.</p>
-
-<p><i>February 23, 1909</i>&mdash;J. A. D. McCurdy, with the
-biplane “Silver Dart,” at Baddeck, Cape Breton,
-flies 2,640 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>February 24, 1909</i>&mdash;McCurdy, with the biplane
-“Silver Dart,” at Baddeck, flies 4.5 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>February 24, 1909</i>&mdash;Moore-Brabazon, with biplane,
-at Issy, flies 1.2 miles, tracing two circles.</p>
-
-<p><i>February 28, 1909</i>&mdash;Moore-Brabazon made several
-flights at Issy.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 8, 1909</i>&mdash;McCurdy, with biplane “Silver
-Dart,” at Baddeck, made five flights, the longest
-about 8 miles in 11 minutes and 15 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 10, 1909</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont, with monoplane
-“Libellule,” at Bagatelle, flies 1,300 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 11, 1909</i>&mdash;W. J. Richardson with a new
-form of aeroplane, at Dayton, O., flies for 38
-minutes, rising to a height of over 300 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 11, 1909</i>&mdash;McCurdy with biplane “Silver
-Dart,” at Baddeck, flies 19 miles in 22 minutes.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">420</span></p>
-
-<p><i>March 17, 1909</i>&mdash;Count de Lambert (pupil of Wilbur
-Wright) made his first flight alone in biplane,
-at Pau, France. He remained in the air
-3 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 18, 1909</i>&mdash;McCurdy, with biplane “Silver
-Dart,” at Baddeck, flies 16 miles, completing a
-record of an even 1,000 miles in the air within
-a period of 10 months.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 18, 1909</i>&mdash;F. W. Baldwin with biplane “Silver
-Dart,” at Baddeck, made a short flight.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 20, 1909</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at
-Pau, succeeds in rising from the ground without
-the starting device previously used. He makes
-several flights.</p>
-
-<p><i>March 24, 1909</i>&mdash;Count de Lambert with biplane,
-at Pau, flies 15.6 miles in 27 minutes and 11
-seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>April 10, 1909</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont with monoplane
-“Demoiselle,” at St. Cyr, France, flies 1.2 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>April 13, 1909</i>&mdash;Count de Lambert with biplane, at
-Pau, flies for 1 minute and 30 seconds, with one
-passenger (Leon Delagrange).</p>
-
-<p><i>April 16, 1909</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright with biplane, at
-Rome, Italy, made many flights, taking up many
-passengers, one at a time.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">421</span></p>
-
-<p><i>April 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Legagneux with Voisin biplane, at
-Vienna, flies 2.5 miles in 3 minutes and 26 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>April 28, 1909</i>&mdash;Lieutenant Mario Calderara (pupil
-of Wilbur Wright) with biplane, at Rome, made
-his first public flight, remaining in the air 10
-minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>April 30, 1909</i>&mdash;Moore-Brabazon with biplane, in
-England, flies 4.5 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 14, 1909</i>&mdash;S. F. Cody, with the army biplane,
-at Aldershot, flies 1 mile.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 19, 1909</i>&mdash;Hubert Latham, with Antoinette
-monoplane, at Chalons, flies 1,640 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 20, 1909</i>&mdash;Paul Tissandier (pupil of Wilbur
-Wright) with biplane at Pau, flies 35.7 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 23, 1909</i>&mdash;Delagrange, with biplane, at Juvissy,
-flies 3.6 miles in 10 minutes and 18 seconds,
-winning the Lagatineri prize.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 23, 1909</i>&mdash;Henri Rougier, with biplane, at Juvissy,
-flies 18.6 miles (30 kilometres).</p>
-
-<p><i>May 30, 1909</i>&mdash;Bleriot, with monoplane at Issy,
-flies 8.7 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 5, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at Chalons,
-flies for 1 hour 7 minutes and 37 seconds in wind
-and rain.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">422</span></p>
-
-<p><i>June 6, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at Juvissy,
-flies 10 miles across country.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 12, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at Juvissy,
-flies 30 miles in 39 minutes, winning the
-Goupy prize.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 12, 1909</i>&mdash;Delagrange, with biplane, at Juvissy,
-makes cross country flight of 3.7 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 12, 1909</i>&mdash;Bleriot, with monoplane, at Juvissy,
-flies 984 feet, with two passengers&mdash;Santos-Dumont
-and Fournier.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 13 1909</i>&mdash;Ferber, with Voisin biplane, at Juvissy,
-flies 3.1 miles in 5 minutes and 30 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 19, 1909</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, at
-Issy, makes several flights.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 4, 1909</i>&mdash;Roger Sommer with biplane, at Chalons,
-flies 3.75 miles on Farman machine.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 10, 1909</i>&mdash;Louis Paulhan, with biplane, at
-Douai, France, makes his first flight&mdash;1.25 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 13, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola,
-L. I., flies 1.5 miles in 3 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 13, 1909</i>&mdash;Bleriot, with monoplane, at Mondesir,
-makes a flight of 26 miles across country in
-44 minutes and 30 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 15, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan with biplane, at Douai,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">423</span>
-flies for 1 minute and 17 seconds, soaring to an
-altitude of 357 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 17, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane, at
-Fort Myer, flies 16 minutes and 40 seconds, at a
-speed of 40 miles an hour.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 17, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola,
-makes 15 miles in 21 minutes, describing circles
-in both directions, as in the figure 8.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Hempstead
-Plains, L. I., flies 29½ miles in 52 minutes and
-30 seconds, a flight exceeded only by the Wrights,
-in America, and Bleriot, Latham, and Paulhan,
-in Europe.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Farman, with biplane, at Chalons,
-flies for 1 hour and 23 minutes, making his first
-long flight.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons,
-makes his longest flight&mdash;1 hour and 40 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 19, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at Calais,
-France, makes his first attempt to cross the Channel
-to Dover. He flies 11 miles, and then his
-machine falls into the sea.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 19, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai,
-makes a cross-country flight of 12.1 miles in 22
-minutes and 53 seconds.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">424</span></p>
-
-<p><i>July 20, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane, at
-Fort Myer, flies 1 hour and 20 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 21, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane, at
-Fort Myer, flies 1 hour and 29 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 21, 1909</i>&mdash;E. Lefebvre, with biplane, at La
-Haye, France, flies 2 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 21, 1909</i>&mdash;S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot,
-flies 4 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 23, 1909</i>&mdash;Farman, with biplane, at Chalons,
-makes a cross-country flight to Suippes&mdash;40
-miles in 1 hour and five minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 23, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai,
-flies 43.5 miles in 1 hour 17 minutes and 19
-seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 24, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss in biplane, at Hempstead
-Plains, flies 25 miles in 52 minutes and 30 seconds,
-winning the <i>Scientific American</i> cup the
-second time.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 25, 1909</i>&mdash;Bleriot, with monoplane, at Calais,
-flies to Dover, England, across the English Channel&mdash;32
-miles in 37 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane, at
-Fort Myer, flies 1 hour and 13 minutes, with one
-passenger, securing acceptance of Wright machine
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">425</span>
-by U. S. Government on the duration specifications.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at Calais,
-flies 20 miles in a second attempt to cross the
-English Channel. When near Dover the machine
-fell.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons,
-flies to Vadenay and back&mdash;25 miles in 1 hour
-23 minutes and 30 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 30, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane, at
-Fort Myer, established a world record with one
-passenger in a cross-country flight to Shuter’s
-Hill and back&mdash;about 10 miles in 14 minutes and
-40 seconds, a speed of about 42 miles an hour&mdash;winning
-a bonus of $25,000 from the U. S. Government.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 1, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons,
-flies 1 hour 50 minutes and 30 seconds, at an
-average height of 80 feet, over a distance estimated
-at 70 miles, surpassing all French records.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 2, 1909</i>&mdash;McCurdy, with a new type of machine,
-at Petawawa, makes several flights.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 2, 1909</i>&mdash;F. W. Baldwin, with biplane, at
-Petawawa, makes several short flights.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 2, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">426</span>
-flies to Suippes&mdash;9 miles, at the rate of 45 miles
-an hour.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 4, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons,
-in the effort to beat Wilbur Wright’s record,
-flies for 2 hours 0 minutes and 10 seconds
-(Wright’s record flight was 2 hours 20 minutes
-and 23 seconds, made on December 31, 1908).</p>
-
-<p><i>August 5, 1909</i>&mdash;E. Bunau-Varilla, with Voisin biplane,
-at Chalons, flies for 15 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 6, 1909</i>&mdash;Legagneux, with biplane, at Stockholm,
-flies with one passenger, 3,280 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 6, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Dunkerque,
-France, flies for 18 minutes and 20 seconds,
-reaching an altitude of 200 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 7, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with Voisin biplane, at
-Dunkerque, flies 23 miles in 33 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 7, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with Voisin biplane, at
-Chalons, flies for 2 hours 27 minutes and 15
-seconds, making new world record for duration.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 13, 1909</i>&mdash;Charles F. Willard, with biplane,
-at Hempstead Plains, made the longest cross-country
-flight on record for America&mdash;about 12
-miles in 19 minutes and 30 seconds. The breaking
-of his engine caused him to come down. He
-landed without mishap.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">427</span></p>
-
-<p><i>August 22, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims,
-France, flies 1 hour 19 minutes and 30 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 22, 1909</i>&mdash;Legagneux, with biplane, at
-Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 9 minutes and 56 seconds,
-winning third prize for speed over course
-of 10 kilometres.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 22, 1909</i>&mdash;Tissandier, with biplane, at
-Rheims, flies 18.6 miles in 29 minutes. (He
-won with this record the third prize for speed
-over 30 kilometres.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 22, 1909</i>&mdash;E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane,
-at Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 13 minutes and 30
-seconds. (With this record he won the thirteenth
-prize for speed over course of 10 kilometres.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 23, 1909</i>&mdash;Delagrange, with monoplane, at
-Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 11 minutes and 4 seconds.
-(He won the tenth prize for speed over
-10 kilometres.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 23, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims,
-flies 6.2 miles in 8 minutes and 35 seconds&mdash;a
-speed of 42.3 miles an hour&mdash;beating the record
-for speed over course of 10 kilometres.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 23, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims,
-flies 18.6 miles in 38 minutes and 12 seconds,
-reaching an altitude of 295 feet.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">428</span></p>
-
-<p><i>August 23, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at
-Rheims, flies 34.8 miles in an endurance test.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 25, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims,
-flies 82 miles in 2 hours 43 minutes and 25
-seconds. (With this record he won the third
-prize for duration of flight.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 25, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims,
-flies 6.2 miles in 8 minutes and 44 seconds, again
-reducing the time for 10 kilometres.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 25, 1909</i>&mdash;Bleriot, with monoplane, at
-Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 8 minutes and 4 seconds,
-making a new record for speed over the
-course of 10 kilometres.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 26, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, in biplane, at Rheims,
-flies 19 miles in 29 minutes. (With this record
-he won the tenth prize for duration of flight.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 26, 1909</i>&mdash;Count de Lambert, with biplane,
-at Rheims, flies 72 miles in 1 hour and 52 minutes.
-(With this record he won the fourth prize
-for duration of flight.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 26, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at
-Rheims, flies 96.5 miles in 2 hours 17 minutes
-and 21 seconds. (With this record he won the
-second prize for duration of flight.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Farman, with biplane, at Rheims,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">429</span>
-flies 112 miles in 3 hours 4 minutes and 57 seconds.
-(This record won for him the first prize
-for duration of flight.)</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_429.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Latham flying in his Antoinette at Rheims. To view this properly the picture
-should be held overhead.</p></div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at
-Rheims, flies to an altitude of 508 feet. (With
-this record he won first prize for altitude.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Delagrange, with monoplane, at
-Rheims, flies 31 miles. (With this record he won
-the eighth prize for duration of flight.)
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">430</span></p>
-
-<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims,
-flies 37 miles. He won the seventh prize for distance.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Tissandier, with biplane, at
-Rheims, flies 69 miles. (This record won for him
-the sixth prize for distance.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Lefebvre, with biplane, at
-Rheims, flies 12.4 miles in 20 minutes and 47
-seconds, exhibiting great daring and skill. (He
-was fined for “recklessness.”)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Bleriot, with monoplane, at
-Rheims, flies 25 miles in 41 minutes. (This record
-won for him the ninth prize for distance
-flown.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 28, 1909</i>&mdash;Lefebvre, with biplane, at Rheims,
-makes a spectacular flight for 11 minutes with
-one passenger.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 28, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims,
-flies 12.4 miles in 15 minutes and 56 seconds,
-winning the Gordon Bennett cup.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 28, 1909</i>&mdash;Bleriot, with monoplane, at
-Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 7 minutes and 48 seconds.
-(With this record he won the first prize
-for speed over course of 10 kilometres.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>&mdash;Farman, with biplane, at Rheims,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">431</span>
-flies 6.2 miles with two passengers, in 10 minutes
-and 30 seconds, winning a prize.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 29. 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims,
-flies 18.6 miles in 23 minutes and 30 seconds.
-(With this record he won the first prize for
-speed over course of 30 kilometres.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims,
-flies 6.2 miles in 7 minutes and 51 seconds, winning
-the second prize for speed over course of 10
-kilometres.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>&mdash;Rougier, with biplane, at Rheims,
-rises to a height of 180 feet, winning the fourth
-prize for altitude.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>&mdash;E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane,
-at Rheims, flies 18.6 miles in 38 minutes and
-31 seconds. (With this record he won the
-eighth prize for speed over course of 30 kilometres.)</p>
-
-<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane, at
-Berlin, makes several short flights.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 29, 1909</i>&mdash;S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot,
-flies 10 miles with one passenger.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 4, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane,
-at Berlin, flies for 55 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 6, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Nancy,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">432</span>
-France, flies 25 miles in 35 minutes. He
-takes up a number of passengers; one at a time.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 7, 1909</i>&mdash;Lefebvre, with biplane, at Juvissy,
-is killed by the breaking of his machine
-in the air after he had flown 1,800 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 8, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane,
-at Berlin, flies 17 minutes with one passenger&mdash;Captain
-Hildebrandt.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 8, 1909</i>&mdash;S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Aldershot,
-flies to Farnborough and back&mdash;46 miles
-in 1 hour and 3 minutes. This is the first recorded
-cross-country flight in England.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 9, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane,
-at Berlin, flies for 15 minutes with one passenger&mdash;Captain
-Englehardt.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 9, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Tournai,
-Belgium, flies 12.4 miles in 17 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 9, 1909</i>&mdash;Rougier, with biplane, at Brescia,
-flies 12 minutes and 10 seconds, soaring to
-a height of 328 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 10, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at
-Nancy, flies 18 miles, accompanying troops on
-review.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 11, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at
-Nancy, flies to Lenoncourt&mdash;24 miles.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">433</span></p>
-
-<p><i>September 11, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Brescia,
-flies 31 miles in 49 minutes and 24 seconds,
-winning the first prize for speed.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 12, 1909</i>&mdash;Rougier, with biplane, at
-Brescia, flies 31 miles in 1 hour 10 minutes
-and 18 seconds, soaring to a height of 380 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 12, 1909</i>&mdash;Calderara, with biplane, at
-Brescia, flies 6.3 miles with one passenger, winning
-a prize.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 13, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at
-Tournai, flies to Taintiguies and back in 1 hour
-and 35 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 13, 1909</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont, with monoplane,
-at St. Cyr, France, flies 5 miles in 12
-minutes, to Buc, to visit Maurice Guffroy, on a
-bet of $200 that each would be the first to visit
-the other.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 15, 1909</i>&mdash;Ferber, with biplane, at Boulogne,
-France, flies to Wimeroux&mdash;6 miles in 9
-minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 15, 1909</i>&mdash;Calderara, with biplane, at
-Brescia, flies 5.6 miles with one passenger, winning
-the Oldofredi prize.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 17, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane,
-at Berlin, flies for 54 minutes and 26 seconds,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">434</span>
-rising to an altitude of 765 feet (estimated). He
-afterward flew for 47 minutes and 5 seconds with
-Captain Englehardt.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 17, 1909</i>&mdash;Santos-Dumont, with monoplane,
-at St. Cyr, flies 10 miles in 16 minutes
-across country.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 17, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Ostend,
-Belgium, flies 1.24 miles in 3 minutes and
-16 seconds, along the water front and out over
-the sea.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane,
-at Berlin, establishes a world record by flying for
-1 hour 35 minutes and 47 seconds, with one
-passenger&mdash;Captain Englehardt.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Ostend,
-flies for 1 hour over sea front, circling over
-the water; winning a prize of $5,000.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 20, 1909</i>&mdash;Rougier, with biplane, at
-Brescia, broke the record for high flying by
-reaching an altitude of 645 feet (official measurement).</p>
-
-<p><i>September 20, 1909</i>&mdash;Calderara, with biplane, at
-Brescia, flies 31 miles in 50 minutes and 51 seconds,
-winning the second prize for speed.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 22, 1909</i>&mdash;Captain Ferber, with a biplane,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">435</span>
-at Boulogne, flies 1 mile, when, his engine
-breaking in the air, his machine falls and
-he is killed.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 25, 1909</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright, with biplane,
-at New York, flies from Governor’s Island around
-the Statue of Liberty.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 27, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, in monoplane, at
-Berlin, flies 6.5 miles across country in 13 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 28, 1909</i>&mdash;Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin,
-flies 31 miles in 54 minutes, soaring to an altitude
-of 518 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 29, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham in monoplane, at Berlin,
-flies 42 miles in 1 hour and 10 minutes,
-winning the second prize for distance.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 29, 1909</i>&mdash;Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin,
-flies 48 miles in 1 hour and 35 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 29, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at New
-York, makes flights about the harbor from Governor’s
-Island.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 30, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane,
-at Berlin, soars to a height of 902 feet, making
-a world record for altitude.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 30, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at
-Berlin, flies 51 miles in 1 hour and 23 minutes.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">436</span></p>
-
-<p><i>October 1, 1909</i>&mdash;Rougier, with biplane, at Berlin,
-flies 80 miles in 2 hours and 38 minutes, winning
-the first prize for distance and speed.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 2, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane, at
-Berlin, makes a flight of 10 minutes’ duration
-with the Crown Prince of Germany.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 3, 1909</i>&mdash;Farman, with biplane, at Berlin,
-flies 62 miles in 1 hour and 40 minutes, winning
-the third prize for distance and speed.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 4, 1909</i>&mdash;Orville Wright, with biplane, at
-Berlin, soared to an altitude of 1,600 feet, making
-a world record.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 4, 1909</i>&mdash;Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at
-New York, flies from Governor’s Island to
-Grant’s Tomb and back&mdash;21 miles in 33 minutes
-and 33 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 10, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at St.
-Louis, Mo., makes several flights at the Centennial
-celebration.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 10, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt.
-Aviation, flies 21.5 miles in 21 minutes and 48
-seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 12, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt.
-Aviation, flies 3.6 miles in 6 minutes and 11 seconds,
-winning the prize for slowest flight.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">437</span></p>
-
-<p><i>October 16, 1909</i>&mdash;Curtiss, with biplane, at Chicago,
-makes exhibition flights at 45 miles per hour.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 16, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Doncaster,
-England, flies 9.7 miles in 21 minutes and
-45 seconds, making the record for Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 16, 1909</i>&mdash;Delagrange, with monoplane, at
-Doncaster, flies 5.75 miles in 11 minutes and 25
-seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 16, 1909</i>&mdash;Cody, with biplane, at Doncaster,
-flies 3,000 feet, when his machine is wrecked,
-and he is injured.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Blackpool,
-England, flies 14 miles in 25 minutes and
-53 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Rougier, with biplane, at Blackpool,
-flies 17.7 miles in 24 minutes and 43 seconds,
-winning the second prize.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Farman, with biplane, at Blackpool,
-flies 14 miles in 23 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Le Blon, with monoplane, at
-Doncaster, flies 22 miles in 30 minutes, in a rainstorm,
-winning the Bradford cup.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 18, 1909</i>&mdash;Count de Lambert, with biplane,
-at Juvissy, flies 31 miles to the Eiffel Tower in
-Paris, and back, in 49 minutes and 39 seconds.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">438</span></p>
-
-<p><i>October 19, 1909</i>&mdash;Le Blon, with monoplane, at
-Doncaster, flies 15 miles in a gale.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 19, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at Blackpool,
-flies 15.7 miles in 32 minutes and 18 seconds,
-winning the third prize.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 20, 1909</i>&mdash;Farman, with biplane, at Blackpool,
-flies 47 miles in 1 hour, 32 minutes, and
-16 seconds, winning the first prize&mdash;$10,000.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 20, 1909</i>&mdash;Le Blon, with monoplane, at
-Doncaster, makes a spectacular flight in a fierce
-gale.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 21, 1909</i>&mdash;Count de Lambert, with biplane,
-at Pt. Aviation, flies 1.25 miles in 1 minute
-and 57 seconds, winning prize of $3,000 for
-speed.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 22, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at
-Blackpool, flies in a squally gale blowing from
-30 to 50 miles an hour. When headed into the
-wind the machine moved backward in relation
-to points on the ground. Going before the wind,
-it passed points on the ground at a speed of nearly
-100 miles an hour. This flight, twice around
-the course, is the most difficult feat accomplished
-by any aviator up to this date.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 26, 1909</i>&mdash;Sommer, with biplane, at Doncaster,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">439</span>
-flies 29.7 miles in 44 minutes and 53 seconds,
-winning the Whitworth cup.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 26, 1909</i>&mdash;Delagrange, with monoplane, at
-Doncaster, flies 6 miles in 7 minutes and 36 seconds&mdash;a
-speed of over 50 miles an hour.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 30, 1909</i>&mdash;Moore-Brabazon, with biplane, at
-Shell Beach, England, wins a prize of $5,000 for
-flight with a British machine.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 3, 1909</i>&mdash;Farman, with biplane, at Mourmelon,
-France, flies 144 miles in 4 hours 6 minutes
-and 25 seconds, far surpassing his previous
-best record of 112 miles in 3 hours 4 minutes
-and 57 seconds, made at Rheims, and winning
-the Michelin cup for duration and distance.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 19, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at
-Mourmelon, broke the record for height by ascending
-to 1,170 feet, in a wind blowing from 20
-to 25 miles an hour.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 19, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with Antoinette monoplane,
-surpassed Paulhan’s record by rising to
-an altitude of 1,333 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 20, 1909</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with biplane, at
-Mourmelon, flies to Chalons and back&mdash;37 miles
-in 55 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>December 1, 1909</i>&mdash;Latham, with monoplane, at
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">440</span>
-Mourmelon, soars to 1,500 feet in a 40-mile
-gale.</p>
-
-<p><i>December 30, 1909</i>&mdash;Delagrange, with monoplane,
-at Juvissy, flies 124 miles in 2 hours and 32 minutes&mdash;an
-average speed of 48.9 miles per hour,
-surpassing all previous records.</p>
-
-<p><i>December 31, 1909</i>&mdash;Farman at Chartres, France,
-flies to Orleans&mdash;42 miles in 50 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>December 31, 1909</i>&mdash;Maurice Farman, at Mourmelon,
-defending his brother Henry’s record
-against competing aviators, flies 100 miles in 2
-hours and 45 minutes, without a fault. The
-Michelin cup remains in his brother’s possession.</p>
-
-<p><i>January 7, 1910</i>&mdash;Latham, with Antoinette monoplane,
-at Chalons, rises to height of 3,281 feet
-(world’s record).</p>
-
-<p><i>January 10, 1910</i>&mdash;Opening of aviation meet at Los
-Angeles, Cal.</p>
-
-<p><i>January 12, 1910</i>&mdash;Paulhan, Farman biplane, at
-Los Angeles, rises to height of 4,146 feet.
-(World’s record.)</p>
-
-<p><i>January 17, 1910</i>&mdash;Paulhan, Farman biplane, at
-Los Angeles, flies 75 miles in 1 hour 58 minutes
-and 27⅖ seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>February 7, 1910</i>&mdash;First flight in South America.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">441</span>
-Bregi, Voisin biplane, makes two flights near
-Buenos Aires.</p>
-
-<p><i>February 7, 1910</i>&mdash;Duray, with Farman biplane, at
-Heliopolis, Egypt, flies 5 kilometres in 4 minutes
-and 12⅘ seconds. (World’s record.)</p>
-
-<p><i>April 8, 1910</i>&mdash;D. Kinet, with Farman biplane, at
-Mourmelon, flies for 2 hours 19 minutes and 4⅖
-seconds with passenger, covering 102 miles.
-(World’s record for passenger flight.)</p>
-
-<p><i>April 11, 1910</i>&mdash;E. Jeannin, with Farman biplane,
-flies 2 hours 1 minute and 55 seconds, at Johannisthal.
-(German record.)</p>
-
-<p><i>April 15, 1910</i>&mdash;Opening of Nice meeting.</p>
-
-<p><i>April 17, 1910</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with Farman biplane,
-flies from Chevilly to Arcis-sur-Aube, 118 miles.
-(Record cross-country flight.)</p>
-
-<p><i>April 23, 1910</i>&mdash;Grahame-White, with Farman biplane,
-flies from Park Royal, London, to Rugby
-(83 miles) in 2 hours and 1 minute. Starting
-again in 55 minutes, flies to Whittington in 1
-hour and 5 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>April 27, 1910</i>&mdash;Paulhan, with Farman biplane,
-starts from Hendon, London, at 5.31 <small>P. M.</small>, flies
-within 5 mile circle and continues to Lichfield,
-arriving 8.10 <small>P. M.</small> (117 miles). Grahame-White
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">442</span>
-starts from Wormwood Scrubs, London, at
-6.29 <small>P. M.</small>, flies to Roade, arriving 7.55 <small>P. M.</small>
-(60 miles).</p>
-
-<p><i>April 28, 1910</i>&mdash;Paulhan flies from Lichfield to
-within 5 miles of Manchester, winning the £10,000
-<i>Daily Mail</i> prize.</p>
-
-<p><i>April 30, 1910</i>&mdash;Opening of meeting at Tours,
-France.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 1, 1910</i>&mdash;Opening of flying-week at Barcelona.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 3, 1910</i>&mdash;Wiencziers, with Antoinette monoplane,
-twice circles the Strassburg cathedral.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 6, 1910</i>&mdash;Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane,
-makes flight of 18 minutes and 20 seconds above
-the sea at Barcelona, and over the fortress of
-Monjuich.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 13, 1910</i>&mdash;Engelhardt, with Wright biplane, at
-Berlin, flies 2 hours 21 minutes and 45 seconds.
-(German record.)</p>
-
-<p><i>May 15, 1910</i>&mdash;Kinet, with Farman biplane, flies
-2 hours and 51 minutes with a passenger at
-Mourmelon, making the world’s record for passenger
-flight.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 15, 1910</i>&mdash;Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane,
-flies 15 miles over the sea at Genoa.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 21, 1910</i>&mdash;M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">443</span>
-flies from Calais to Dover in 37 minutes,
-winning £500 prize offered by M. M. Ruinart.</p>
-
-<p><i>May 28, 1910</i>&mdash;G. Curtiss, with Curtiss biplane,
-starts from Albany at 7.03 <small>A. M.</small>, flies to Poughkeepsie
-in 1 hour and 21 minutes (70 miles).
-Leaves Poughkeepsie at 9.24 <small>A. M.</small>, flies to Spuyten
-Duyvil in 1 hour and 11 minutes (67 miles).
-Rises again at 11.45, flies over New York,
-landing on Governor’s Island at 12.03 <small>P. M.</small>
-Wins prize of $10,000 given by the New York
-<i>World</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 2, 1910</i>&mdash;Rolls, with Short-Wright biplane,
-leaves Dover at 6.30 <small>P. M.</small>, crosses Channel to
-French coast near Calais (7.15 <small>P. M.</small>), without
-landing re-crosses Channel to Dover, flies over
-harbor, circles Dover Castle, and lands at 8.10
-<small>P. M.</small> Wins second Ruinart prize of £80.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 14, 1910</i>&mdash;Brookins, with Wright biplane, at
-Indianapolis, reaches height of 4,380 feet.
-(World’s record.)</p>
-
-<p><i>June 25, 1910</i>&mdash;In Italian Parliament 25 million
-lire (about $5,000,000) voted for aviation in the
-extraordinary estimates of the Ministry of War.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 26, 1910</i>&mdash;Dickson, with Farman biplane, at
-Rouen, wins total distance prize of £2,000 and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">444</span>
-the £400 for longest unbroken flight. Distance
-flown, 466 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>June 27, 1910</i>&mdash;M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane,
-flies over Montreal for 49 minutes, covering
-about 30 miles at height generally of 2,000
-feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 6, 1910</i>&mdash;First German military aeroplane
-makes maiden cross-country flight over Doeberitz.</p>
-
-<p><i>July 26, 1910</i>&mdash;M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot monoplane,
-starting from Ile de Gros Bois in the St.
-Lawrence, makes trip of 40 miles in 37 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 1, 1910</i>&mdash;Henry Farman takes up three passengers
-at Mourmelon for 1 hour and 4 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 5, 1910</i>&mdash;Chavez, with Bleriot monoplane,
-attains height of 5,750 feet. World’s record.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 7, 1910</i>&mdash;Lieutenants Cammerman and Villerme
-fly together from Mourmelon to Nancy,
-125 miles in 2½ hours, with a Farman biplane.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 11, 1910</i>&mdash;Drexel, with Bleriot monoplane,
-at Lanark, beats the world’s record for height,
-rising 6,600 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 27, 1910</i>&mdash;First wireless telegram from a
-flying aeroplane, sent by McCurdy from a Curtiss
-machine in the air, at Atlantic City, N. J.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">445</span>
-The sending key was attached to the steering
-wheel.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 28, 1910</i>&mdash;Dufaux, with biplane constructed
-by himself, flies over Lake Geneva, wins prize of
-£200 offered by Swiss Aero Club.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 29, 1910</i>&mdash;Breguet, with Breguet monoplane,
-makes a flight at Lille, France, carrying five passengers,
-establishing world’s record for passenger
-flight.</p>
-
-<p><i>August 29, 1910</i>&mdash;Morane, with Bleriot monoplane,
-at Havre, beats world’s altitude record, reaches
-height of 7,166 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 2, 1910</i>&mdash;Mlle. Hélène Dutrieux flies
-with a passenger from Ostend to Bruges, Belgium,
-and back to Ostend. At Bruges she circled
-around the famous belfry at a height of
-1,300 feet, the chimes pealing in honor of the
-feat&mdash;the most wonderful flight so far accomplished
-by a woman.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 3, 1910</i>&mdash;M. Bielovucci lands at Bordeaux,
-France, having made the trip from Paris,
-366 miles, inside of 48 hours. The actual time
-in the air was 7 hours 6 minutes. Strong head
-winds blew him backward, forcing a landing
-three times on the way. This is the fourth longest
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">446</span>
-cross-country flight on record, and makes the
-world’s record for sustained speed over a long
-distance.</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_446.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">Mlle. Hélène Dutrieux.</p></div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>September 4, 1910</i>&mdash;Morane, at Havre, rises to
-height of 8,469 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 7, 1910</i>&mdash;Weyman, with Farman biplane,
-flies from Buc in attempt to reach the top of the
-Puy-de-Dôme, lands at Volvic, 5 miles from his
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">447</span>
-destination. Establishes world’s record for flight
-with passenger, having covered 139 miles without
-landing.</p>
-
-<p><i>September 28, 1910</i>&mdash;Chavez crosses the Alps on a
-Bleriot monoplane from Brigue, in Switzerland,
-to Domodossola, in Italy, flying over the Simplon
-Pass.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 1, 1910</i>&mdash;Henri Wynmalen, of Holland, with
-a biplane at Mourmelon, France, rises to a height
-of 9,121 feet, making a new world’s record for
-altitude.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 4, 1910</i>&mdash;Maurice Tabuteau recrossed the
-Pyrenees, in his return trip from San Sebastian
-to Biarritz, without accident or marked incident.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 5, 1910</i>&mdash;Leon Morane, the winner of nearly
-all the contests in the English meets for 1910,
-fell with his monoplane at Boissy St. Leger, during
-a contest for the Michelin cup, and was seriously
-injured.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 8, 1910</i>&mdash;Archibald Hoxsey, with a biplane,
-makes the longest continuous aeroplane flight recorded
-in America, between Springfield, Ill., and
-St. Louis, Mo.&mdash;104 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 12, 1910</i>&mdash;Alfred Leblanc, with monoplane,
-at St. Louis, flies 13 miles in 10 minutes, a speed
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">448</span>
-of 78 miles per hour. It was not officially recorded,
-as a part of the distance was outside of
-the prescribed course.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 14, 1910</i>&mdash;Grahame-White flies from the
-Bennings Race Track 6 miles across the Potomac
-River to the Capitol at Washington, circles the
-dome, and then circles the Washington Monument,
-and finally alights with precision in Executive
-Street, between the Executive Offices and the
-building of the State, Army, and Navy Departments.
-After a brief call, he rose from the narrow
-street&mdash;but 20 feet wider than his biplane&mdash;and
-returned to the race track without untoward
-incident.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 16, 1910</i>&mdash;Wynmalen flies from Paris to
-Brussels, and returns, with one passenger, within
-the elapsed time of 27 hours 50 minutes, winning
-two prizes amounting to $35,000. The distance
-is 350 miles, and the actual time in the air was
-15 hours 38 minutes.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 25, 1910</i>&mdash;J. Armstrong Drexel, with monoplane,
-at Belmont Park, L. I., rises to height of
-7,105 feet, breaking previous records, and surpassing
-his own record of 6,600 feet, made at
-Lanark, Scotland.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">449</span></p>
-
-<p><i>October 26, 1910</i>&mdash;Ralph Johnstone, in biplane, at
-Belmont Park, rises to the height of 7,313 feet,
-through sleet and snow, breaking the new American
-record made by Drexel the day before.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 27, 1910</i>&mdash;Johnstone, with biplane, at Belmont
-Park, rises to height of 8,471 feet, surpassing
-his own record of the day before and establishing
-a new American record. The feat was
-performed in a gale blowing nearly 60 miles per
-hour, and the aviator was carried 55 miles away
-from his starting point before he landed.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 28, 1910</i>&mdash;Tabuteau, with biplane, at
-Etampes, France, makes a new world’s endurance
-record of 6 hours’ continuous flight, covering
-a distance of 289 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 29, 1910</i>&mdash;Grahame-White, with monoplane,
-at Belmont Park, wins the International speed
-race over the distance of 62.1 miles, in 1 hour
-1 minute 4⅗ seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 29, 1910</i>&mdash;Leblanc, with monoplane, at Belmont
-Park, makes a new world’s record for speed,
-reaching 70 miles per hour during the International
-speed race. Through a lack of fuel he lost
-the race to Grahame-White, after covering 59
-miles in 52 minutes.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">450</span></p>
-
-<p><i>October 30, 1910</i>&mdash;John B. Moisant, with monoplane,
-wins the race from Belmont Park around
-the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor, and
-the prize of $10,000. The distance is about 34
-miles, and Moisant covered it in 34 minutes 39
-seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 30, 1910</i>&mdash;James Radley, with monoplane,
-at Belmont Park, wins the cross-country flight of
-20 miles in 20 minutes 5 seconds.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 31, 1910</i>&mdash;Johnstone, with biplane, at Belmont
-Park, rises to a height of 9,714 feet, breaking
-the previous world’s record, made by Wynmalen
-on October 1.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 31, 1910</i>&mdash;Drexel, with monoplane, racing
-for altitude with Johnstone, reaches a height of
-8,370 feet.</p>
-
-<p><i>October 31, 1910</i>&mdash;Moisant, with monoplane, at
-Belmont Park, wins the two-hour distance race
-with a record of 84 miles. His next nearest
-competitor covered but 57 miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 14, 1910</i>&mdash;Eugene Ely, with biplane,
-flew from a staging on the deck of the U. S.
-Cruiser <i>Birmingham</i> 8 miles to the shore near
-the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. The flight was
-intended to end at the Norfolk Navy Yard, but
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">451</span>
-an accident to the propeller at starting forced
-Ely to make directly for the shore.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 17, 1910</i>&mdash;Ralph Johnstone, holder of
-the world’s altitude record of 9,714 feet, was
-killed at Denver, Col., by a fall with his biplane.</p>
-
-<p><i>November 23, 1910</i>&mdash;Drexel, at Philadelphia,
-reaches an altitude of 9,970 feet, passing all
-other altitude records. Coming down he made a
-straight glide of seven miles.</p>
-
-<p><i>December 2, 1910</i>&mdash;Charles K. Hamilton, at Memphis,
-Tenn., flies 4 miles in 3 minutes 1 second, a
-speed of 79.2 miles per hour. This is a new
-world’s record.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">452</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2 id="Chapter_XX">Chapter XX.<br />
-
-EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS.</h2>
-
-<p class="drop"><span class="uppercase">Every</span> development in human progress is
-marked by a concurrent development in language.
-To express the new ideas, new words appear,
-or new meanings are given to words already in use.</p>
-
-<p>As yet, the vocabulary of aeronautics is in the
-same constructive and incomplete state as is the science
-to which it attempts to give voice, and the utmost
-that can be done at this time is to record such
-words and special meanings as are in use in the immediate
-present.</p>
-
-<h3>A</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Adjusting Plane</i>&mdash;A small plane, or surface, at the
-outer end of a wing, by which the lateral (from
-side to side) balance of an aeroplane is adjusted.
-It is not connected with the controlling mechanism,
-as are the ailerons&mdash;nor with any automatic
-device.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aerodrome</i>&mdash;A term used by Professor Langley as
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">453</span>
-a better name for the aeroplane; but latterly it
-has been applied to the buildings in which airships
-are housed, and also in a few instances, as
-a name for the course laid out for aeronautical
-contests.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aerofoil</i>&mdash;Another name for the aeroplane, suggested
-as more accurate, considering that the surfaces
-are not true planes.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aeronef</i>&mdash;Another name for an aeroplane.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aeroplane</i>&mdash;The type of flying machine which is
-supported in the air by a spread of surfaces or
-planes, formerly flat, and therefore truly
-“plane,” but of late more or less curved. Even
-though not absolutely accurate, this term has resisted
-displacement by any other.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aerostat</i>&mdash;A free balloon afloat in the air.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aeronate</i>&mdash;A captive balloon.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aileron</i>&mdash;A small movable plane at the wing-tips, or
-hinged between the main planes, usually at their
-outer ends, operated by the aviator to restore
-the lateral balance of the machine when disturbed.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Air_speed">Air-speed</i>&mdash;The speed of aircraft as related to the
-air in which they are moving; as distinguished
-from <a href="#Land_speed">land-speed</a> (which see).
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">454</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Alighting Gear</i>&mdash;Devices on the under side of the
-aeroplane to take up the jar of landing after
-flight, and at the same time to check the forward
-motion at that moment.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Angle_of_Entry">Angle of Entry</i>&mdash;The angle made by the tangent to
-the curve of the aeroplane surface at its forward
-edge, with the direction, or line, of travel.</p>
-
-<p><i>Angle of Incidence</i>&mdash;The angle made by the chord
-of the arc of a curved “plane,” or by the line of
-a flat plane, with the line of travel.</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_454.jpg" alt="" /></div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Angle of Trail</i>&mdash;The angle made by the tangent to
-the rear edge of a curved plane with the line of
-travel.</p>
-
-<p><i>Apteroid</i>&mdash;A form resembling the “short and
-broad” type of the wings of certain birds&mdash;as
-distinguished from the <a href="#Pterygoid">pterygoid</a> (which see).</p>
-
-<p><i>Arc</i>&mdash;Any part of a circle, or other curved line.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">455</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Arch</i>&mdash;The curve formed by bending the wings
-downward at the tips, leaving them higher at the
-centre of the machine.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aspect</i>&mdash;The view of the top of an aeroplane as it
-appears when looked down upon from above.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aspiration</i>&mdash;The (hitherto) unexplained tendency
-of a curved surface&mdash;convex side upward&mdash;to
-rise and advance when a stream of air blows
-against its forward edge and across the top.</p>
-
-<p><i>Attitude</i>&mdash;The position of a plane as related to the
-line of its travel; usually expressed by the angle
-of incidence.</p>
-
-<p><i>Automatic Stability</i>&mdash;That stability which is preserved
-by self-acting, or self-adjusting, devices
-which are not under the control of the operator,
-nor a fixed part of the machine, as are the adjusting
-planes.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aviation</i>&mdash;Flying by means of power-propelled
-machines which are not buoyed up in the air, as
-with gas bags.</p>
-
-<p><i>Aviator</i>&mdash;The operator, driver, or pilot of an aeroplane.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>B</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Balance</i>&mdash;Equilibrium maintained by the controlling
-mechanism, or by the automatic action of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">456</span>
-balancing-surfaces&mdash;as distinguished from the
-equilibrium preserved by stabilizing surfaces.</p>
-
-<p><i>Balancing Plane</i>&mdash;The surface which is employed
-either intentionally, or automatically, to restore
-a disturbed balance.</p>
-
-<p><i>Biplane</i>&mdash;The type of aeroplane which has two main
-supporting surfaces or planes, placed one above
-the other.</p>
-
-<p><i>Body</i>&mdash;The central structure of an aeroplane, containing
-the machinery and the passenger space&mdash;as
-distinguished from the wings, or planes, and
-the tail.</p>
-
-<p><i>Brace</i>&mdash;A construction member of the framing of
-aircraft which resists a compression strain in a
-diagonal direction&mdash;as distinguished from a
-“stay,” or “diagonal,” which supports a pulling
-strain; also from a strut which supports a compression
-strain in a vertical direction.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>C</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Camber</i>&mdash;The distance from the chord of the curve
-of a surface to the highest point of that curve,
-measured at right angles to the chord.</p>
-
-<p><i>Caster</i>, or <i>Castor</i>, <i>Wheel</i>&mdash;A wheel mounted on an
-upright pivoted shaft placed forward of its axle,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">457</span>
-so that it swivels automatically to assume the line
-of travel of an aeroplane when landing: used in
-the alighting gear. To be distinguished from a
-fixed wheel, which does not swivel.</p>
-
-<p><i>Cell</i>&mdash;A structure with enclosing sides&mdash;similar to
-a box without top or bottom stood upon one side.
-The vertical walls of the cell give lateral stability,
-and its horizontal walls fore-and-aft stability.</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_457.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">The first Santos-Dumont biplane, constructed of cells.</p></div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Centre of Gravity</i>&mdash;That point of a body where its
-weight centres. If this point is supported, the
-body rests in exact balance.</p>
-
-<p><i>Centre of Lift</i>&mdash;The one point at which the lifting
-forces of the flying planes might be concentrated,
-and produce the same effect.</p>
-
-<p><i>Centre of Resistance</i>&mdash;The one point at which the
-forces opposing the flight of an air-craft might
-be concentrated, and produce the same result.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">458</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Centre of Thrust</i>&mdash;The one point at which the forces
-generated by the revolving propellers might be
-concentrated, and produce the same effect.</p>
-
-<p><i>Chassis</i>&mdash;The under-structure or “running-gear” of
-an aeroplane.</p>
-
-<p><i>Chord</i>&mdash;The straight line between the two ends of
-an arc of a circle or other curved line.</p>
-
-<p><i>Compound Control</i>&mdash;A mechanical system by which
-several distinct controls are operated through different
-manipulations of the same lever or steering-wheel.</p>
-
-<p><i>Compression Side</i>&mdash;That side of a plane or propeller
-blade against which the air is compressed&mdash;the
-under surface of a flying plane, and the rear surface
-of a revolving propeller.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Curtain">Curtain</i>&mdash;The vertical surface of a cell&mdash;the wall
-which stands upright.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>D</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Deck</i>&mdash;A main aeroplane surface. The term is used
-generally in describing biplanes; as the upper
-deck, and the lower deck; or with aeroplanes of
-many decks.</p>
-
-<p><i>Demountable</i>&mdash;A type of construction which permits
-a machine to be easily taken apart for transportation.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">459</span></p>
-
-<p><i id="Derrick">Derrick</i>&mdash;A tower-shaped structure in which a
-weight is raised and allowed to fall to give starting
-impetus to an aeroplane.</p>
-
-<p><i>Dihedral</i>&mdash;That form of construction in which the
-wings of an aeroplane start with an upward incline
-at their junction with the body of the machine,
-instead of stretching out on a level.</p>
-
-<p><i>Dirigible</i>&mdash;The condition of being directable, or
-steerable: applied generally to the balloons fitted
-with propelling power, or airships.</p>
-
-<p><i>Double Rudder</i>&mdash;A rudder composed of two intersecting
-planes, one vertical and the other horizontal,
-thus enabling the operator to steer in any direction
-with the one rudder.</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_459.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i id="Double_Surfaced">Double-Surfaced</i>&mdash;Planes which are covered with
-fabric on both their upper and lower surfaces,
-thus completely inclosing their frames.</p>
-
-<p><i>Down-Wind</i>&mdash;Along with the wind; in the direction
-in which the wind is blowing.</p>
-
-<p><i>Drift</i>&mdash;The recoil of an aeroplane surface forced
-through the air: also the tendency to float in the
-same direction as the wind.</p></blockquote>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">460</span></p>
-
-<h3>E</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Elevator</i>&mdash;A shorter name for the elevating planes
-or elevating rudder, used for directing the aeroplane
-upward or downward.</p>
-
-<p><i>Ellipse</i>&mdash;An oval figure outlined by cutting a cone
-through from side to side on a plane not parallel
-to its base. Some inventors use the curves of the
-ellipse in forming the wings of aeroplanes. See
-<a href="#Hyperbola">Hyperbola</a> and <a href="#Parabola">Parabola</a>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Entry</i>&mdash;The penetration of the air by the forward
-edge of aircraft surfaces. See <a href="#Angle_of_Entry">Angle of Entry</a>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Equivalent Head Area</i>&mdash;Such an area of flat surface
-as will encounter head resistance equal to
-the total of that of the construction members of
-the framework&mdash;struts, braces, spars, diagonals,
-etc., of the aerial craft.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>F</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Feathering</i>&mdash;A form of construction in which
-mounting on hinges, or pivots, permits the surfaces
-to engage the air flatwise in one direction
-and to pass edgewise through it in other directions.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fin</i>&mdash;A fixed vertical stabilizing surface, similar in
-form to the fin on the back of a fish.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">461</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Fish Section</i>&mdash;A term applied to the lengthwise section
-of an aircraft when the outline resembles the
-general shape of a fish&mdash;blunted in front and
-tapering toward the rear. This form is believed
-to encounter less resistance than any other, in
-passing through the air.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fixed Wheel</i>&mdash;A wheel in a fixed mounting, so that
-it does not swivel as does a caster wheel.</p>
-
-<p><i>Flapping Flight</i>&mdash;Flight by the up-and-down beating
-of wings, similar to the common flight of pigeons.</p>
-
-<p><i>Flexible Propeller</i>&mdash;A propeller in which the blades
-are frames covered more or less loosely with a
-fabric which is in a measure free to adjust its
-form to the compression of the air behind it as it
-revolves.</p>
-
-<p><i>Flying Angle</i>&mdash;The angle of incidence of the main
-surface of an aeroplane when in flight. See
-<a href="#Ground_Angle">Ground Angle</a>.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Footpound">Footpound</i>&mdash;The amount of force required to raise
-one pound to a height of one foot.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fore-and-aft</i>&mdash;From front to rear: lengthwise: longitudinal.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fuselage</i>&mdash;The framework of the body of an aeroplane.</p></blockquote>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">462</span></p>
-
-<h3>G</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Glider</i>&mdash;A structure similar to an aeroplane, but
-without motive power.</p>
-
-<p><i>Gliding</i>&mdash;Flying down a slope of air with a glider,
-or with an aeroplane in which the propelling
-power is cut off.</p>
-
-<p><i>Gliding Angle</i>&mdash;The flattest angle at which a given
-machine will make a perfect glide. This angle
-differs with different machines. The flatter the
-gliding angle the safer the machine.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Ground_Angle">Ground Angle</i>&mdash;The angle of incidence of an aeroplane
-surface when the machine is standing on
-the ground.</p>
-
-<p><i>Guy</i>&mdash;A wire attached to a more or less distant part
-of the structure of any aircraft to prevent spreading.
-Also used to denote controlling wires which
-transmit the movements of the levers.</p>
-
-<p><i>Gyroscopic Action</i>&mdash;The resistance which a rotating
-wheel, or wheel-like construction, exhibits when
-a disturbing force tends to change its plane of rotation.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>H</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Hangar</i>&mdash;A structure for the housing of aeroplanes.</p>
-
-<p><i>Head Resistance</i>&mdash;The resistance encountered by a
-surface moving through the air.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">463</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Heavier-than-air</i>&mdash;A term applied to flying machines
-whose weight is not counterbalanced or buoyed
-up by the lifting power of some gas lighter than
-air; and which weigh more than the volume of
-air displaced.</p>
-
-<p><i>Helicopater</i>&mdash;A type of flying machine in which propellers
-revolving horizontally lift and sustain its
-weight in the air.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Horizontal_Rudder">Horizontal Rudder</i>&mdash;The rudder surface which is
-used to steer an aircraft upward or downward:
-so-called because it lies normally in a position
-parallel to the horizon; that is, level.</p>
-
-<p><i>Horse-power</i>&mdash;An amount of work equivalent to the
-lifting of 33,000 footpounds in one minute. See
-<a href="#Footpound">Footpound</a>.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Hyperbola">Hyperbola</i>&mdash;The outline formed by the cutting of a
-cone by a plane passing one side of its axis at
-such an angle that it would also intersect another
-cone placed apex to apex on the same axis.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>K</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Keel</i>&mdash;A framework extending lengthwise under an
-aircraft to stiffen the construction: usually employed
-on airships with elongated gas-bags.</p></blockquote>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">464</span></p>
-
-<h3>L</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Lateral</i>&mdash;From side to side; that is, crossing the
-length fore-and-aft, and generally at right angles
-to it.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Land_speed">Land-speed</i>&mdash;The speed of aircraft as related to objects
-on the ground. See <a href="#Air_speed">Air-speed</a>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Landing Area</i>&mdash;A piece of land specially prepared
-for the alighting of aeroplanes without risk of
-injury.</p>
-
-<p><i>Leeway</i>&mdash;Movement of a machine aside from the intended
-course, due to the lateral drift of the
-whole body of air; measured usually at right angles
-to the course.</p>
-
-<p><i>Lift</i>&mdash;The raising, or sustaining effect of an aeroplane
-surface. It is expressed in the weight thus
-overcome.</p>
-
-<p><i>Lighter-than-air</i>&mdash;A term used to designate aircraft
-which, owing to the buoyancy of the gas attached,
-weigh less than the volume of air which they displace.</p>
-
-<p><i>Longitudinal</i>&mdash;In a lengthwise, or fore-and-aft direction.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>M</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Main Plane</i>&mdash;The principal supporting surface of
-an aeroplane. In the biplane, or the multiplane
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">465</span>
-type, it denotes the lowest surface, unless some
-other is decidedly larger.</p>
-
-<p><i>Main Landing Wheels</i>&mdash;Those wheels on the alighting
-gear which take the shock in landing.</p>
-
-<p><i>Mast</i>&mdash;A vertical post or strut giving angular altitude
-to guys or long stays. Also used (erroneously)
-to designate a spar reaching out laterally
-or longitudinally in a horizontal position.</p>
-
-<p><i>Monoplane</i>&mdash;An aeroplane with one main supporting
-surface. A Double Monoplane has two of
-such surfaces set one behind the other (tandem)
-but on the same level.</p>
-
-<p><i>Multiplane</i>&mdash;An aeroplane having several main
-planes, at least more than three (for which there
-is the special name of triplane).</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>N</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Nacelle</i>&mdash;The framework, or body, of a dirigible
-balloon or airship.</p>
-
-<p><i>Negative Angle of Incidence</i>&mdash;An angle of incidence
-below the line of travel, and therefore expressed
-with a minus sign. Surfaces bent to certain
-curves fly successfully at negative angles of incidence,
-and exhibit a comparatively large lift.</p></blockquote>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">466</span></p>
-
-<h3>O</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Ornithopter</i>&mdash;A type of flying machine with wing
-surfaces which are designed to raise and sustain
-the machine in the air by flapping.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>P</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Panel</i>&mdash;Another name for <a href="#Curtain">Curtain</a>&mdash;which see.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Parabola">Parabola</i>&mdash;The form outlined when a cone is cut by
-a plane parallel to a line drawn on its surface
-from its apex to its base. Declared to be the correct
-scientific curve for aeroplane surfaces, but
-not so proven, as yet.</p>
-
-<p><i>Pilot</i>&mdash;A term widely used for an operator, or
-driver, of any form of aircraft.</p>
-
-<p><i id="pitch">Pitch</i>&mdash;The distance which a propeller would progress
-during one revolution, if free to move in
-a medium which permitted no <a href="#Slip">slip</a> (which see);
-just as the thread of a bolt travels in the groove
-of its nut.</p>
-
-<p><i>Plane</i>&mdash;Speaking with exactness, a flat spread of
-surface; but in aeronautics it includes also the
-curved sustaining surfaces of aeroplanes.</p>
-
-<p><i>Polyplane</i>&mdash;Another term for Multiplane.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Port">Port</i>&mdash;The left-hand side of an aircraft, as one faces
-forward. See <a href="#Starboard">Starboard</a>.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">467</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Projected Area</i>&mdash;The total area of an irregular
-structure as projected upon a flat surface; like
-the total area of the shadow of an object cast
-by the sun upon a plane fixed at right angles to
-its rays.</p>
-
-<p><i>Propeller Reaction</i>&mdash;A force produced by a single
-revolving propeller, which tends to revolve the
-machine which it is driving, in the contrary direction.
-This is neutralized in various ways in
-the machines driven by single propellers. Where
-two propellers are used it is escaped by arranging
-them to move in opposite directions.</p></blockquote>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i_467.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">A pterygoid plane.</p></div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i id="Pterygoid">Pterygoid</i>&mdash;That type of the wings of birds which
-is long and narrow&mdash;as distinguished from the
-apteroid type.</p>
-
-<p><i>Pylon</i>&mdash;A tower-shaped structure used as a <a href="#Derrick">derrick</a>
-(which see); also for displaying signals to aeronauts.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>R</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i id="Radial_spoke">Radial Spoke</i>&mdash;A wire spoke extending from the hub
-of an alighting wheel straight outward from the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">468</span>
-centre to the rim of the wheel. See <a href="#Tangent_Spoke">Tangent
-Spoke</a>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rarefaction Side</i>&mdash;A correct term for the incorrect
-“vacuum side,” so-called. The side opposite the
-compression side: the forward side of a revolving
-propeller blade, or the upper side of a flying
-surface, or the side of a rudder-surface turned
-away from the wind.</p>
-
-<p><i>Reactive Stratum</i>&mdash;The layer of compressed air beneath
-a moving aeroplane surface, or behind a
-moving propeller blade.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rib</i>&mdash;The smaller construction members used in
-building up surfaces. Generally they run fore-and-aft,
-crossing the spars or wing-bars at right
-angles, and they are bent to form the curve of the
-wings or planes.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rising Angle</i>&mdash;Technically, the steepest angle at
-which any given aeroplane will rise into the air.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rudder</i>&mdash;A movable surface by which the aeronaut
-is enabled to steer his craft in a desired direction.
-See <a href="#Horizontal_Rudder">Horizontal Rudder</a> and <a href="#Vertical_Rudder">Vertical Rudder</a>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Runner</i>&mdash;A construction similar to the runners of a
-sleigh, used for alighting on some machines, instead
-of the wheel alighting gear; a skid.</p></blockquote>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">469</span></p>
-
-<h3>S</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Screw</i>&mdash;Another term for propeller; properly, screw-propeller.</p>
-
-<p><i>Single-surfaced</i>&mdash;A term used to designate wings or
-planes whose frames are covered with fabric only
-on the upper side. See <a href="#Double_Surfaced">Double-Surfaced</a>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Skid</i>&mdash;Another name for runner.</p>
-
-<p><i>Skin Friction</i>&mdash;The retarding effect of the adherence
-of the air to surfaces moving rapidly
-through it. It is very slight with polished surfaces,
-and in case of slow speeds is entirely negligible.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Slip">Slip</i>&mdash;The difference between the actual progress of
-a moving propeller, and the theoretical progress
-expressed by its pitch. It is much greater in
-some propellers than in others, due to the “churning”
-of the air by blades of faulty design and
-construction.</p>
-
-<p><i>Soaring Flight</i>&mdash;The sailing motion in the air
-achieved by some of the larger birds without the
-flapping of their wings. It is to be distinguished
-from gliding in that it is in an upward direction.
-Soaring has never been satisfactorily explained,
-and is considered to be the secret whose discovery
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">470</span>
-will bring about the largest advance in the navigation
-of the air.</p>
-
-<p><i>Spar</i>&mdash;A stick of considerable length used in the
-framing of the body of aeroplanes, or as the long
-members in wing structures.</p>
-
-<p><i>Stabilize</i>&mdash;To maintain balance by the automatic
-action of adjunct surfaces, as distinguished from
-the intentional manipulation of controlling devices.</p>
-
-<p><i>Stabilizer</i>&mdash;Any surface whose automatic action
-tends to the maintaining of balance in the air.</p>
-
-<p><i>Stable Equilibrium</i>&mdash;That equilibrium which is inherent
-in the construction of the machine, and
-does not depend upon automatic or controlling
-balancing devices.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Starboard">Starboard</i>&mdash;The right-hand side of an aircraft as
-one faces forward. See <a href="#Port">Port.</a></p>
-
-<p><i>Starting Area</i>&mdash;An area of ground specially prepared
-to facilitate the starting of aeroplanes into
-flight.</p>
-
-<p><i>Starting Device</i>&mdash;Any contrivance for giving an
-aeroplane a powerful impulse or thrust into the
-air. See <a href="#Derrick">Derrick</a>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Starting Impulse</i>&mdash;The thrust with which an aeroplane
-is started into the air for a flight. Most
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">471</span>
-machines depend upon the thrust of their own
-propellers, the machine being held back by force
-until the engines have worked up to flying
-speed, when it is suddenly released.</p>
-
-<p><i>Starting Rail</i>&mdash;The rail upon which the starting
-truck runs before the aeroplane rises into the air.</p>
-
-<p><i>Starting Truck</i>&mdash;A small vehicle upon which the
-aeroplane rests while it is gaining sufficient impulse
-to take flight.</p>
-
-<p><i>Stay</i>&mdash;A construction member of an aeroplane sustaining
-a pulling strain. It is usually of wire.</p>
-
-<p><i>Straight Pitch</i>&mdash;That type of <a href="#pitch">pitch</a> (which see) in
-a propeller blade in which every cross-section of
-the blade makes the same angle with its axis of
-revolution.</p>
-
-<p><i>Strainer</i>&mdash;Another term for Turnbuckle&mdash;which see.</p>
-
-<p><i>Strut</i>&mdash;An upright, or vertical, construction member
-of an aeroplane sustaining a compression strain;
-as distinguished from a brace which sustains a
-diagonal compression strain.</p>
-
-<p><i>Supplementary Surface</i>&mdash;A comparatively small
-surface used as an adjunct to the large surfaces
-for some special purpose; as, for instance, the
-preserving of balance, or for steering.</p>
-
-<p><i>Sustaining Surface</i>&mdash;The large surfaces of the aeroplane
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">472</span>
-whose rapid movement through the air at
-a slight angle to the horizontal sustains the
-weight of the machine.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>T</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Tail</i>&mdash;A rear surface on an aeroplane designed to
-assist in maintaining longitudinal stability. It
-is in use principally on monoplanes, and is often
-so arranged as to serve as a rudder.</p>
-
-<p><i>Tail Wheel</i>&mdash;A wheel mounted under the rear end
-of an aeroplane as a part of the alighting gear.</p>
-
-<p><i>Tangent</i>&mdash;A straight line passing the convex side of
-a curved line, and touching it at one point only.
-The straight line is said to be tangent to the
-curve at the point of contact.</p>
-
-<p><i>Tangential</i>&mdash;In the position or direction of a tangent.</p>
-
-<p><i id="Tangent_Spoke">Tangent Spoke</i>&mdash;A wire spoke extending from the
-outer edge of the hub of a wheel along the line
-of a tangent until it touches the rim. Its position
-is at right angles to the course of a <a href="#Radial_spoke">radial
-spoke</a> (which see) from the same point on the
-hub.</p>
-
-<p><i>Tie</i>&mdash;A construction member connecting two points
-with a pulling strain.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">473</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Tightener</i>&mdash;A device for taking up the slack of a
-stay, or tie; as the turnbuckle.</p>
-
-<p><i>Tractor Propeller</i>&mdash;A propeller placed in front, so
-that it pulls the machine through the air, instead
-of pushing, or thrusting, it from behind.</p>
-
-<p><i>Triplane</i>&mdash;An aeroplane with three main surfaces,
-or decks, placed in a tier, one above another.</p>
-
-<p><i>Turnbuckle</i>&mdash;A device with a nut at each end, of
-contrary pitch, so as to take a right-hand screw
-at one end, and a left-hand screw at the other;
-used for drawing together, or toward each other
-the open ends of a stay, or tie.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>U</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Uniform Pitch</i>&mdash;That varying pitch in a propeller
-blade which causes each point in the blade to move
-forward in its own circle the same distance in
-one revolution.</p>
-
-<p><i>Up-wind</i>&mdash;In a direction opposite to the current of
-the wind; against the wind; in the teeth of the
-wind.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>V</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i id="Vertical_Rudder">Vertical Rudder</i>&mdash;A rudder for steering toward
-right or left; so called because its surface occupies
-normally a vertical position.</p></blockquote>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">474</span></p>
-
-<h3>W</h3>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p><i>Wake</i>&mdash;The stream of disturbed air left in the rear
-of a moving aircraft, due mainly to the slip of the
-propeller.</p>
-
-<p><i>Wash</i>&mdash;The air-currents flowing out diagonally from
-the sides of a moving aeroplane.</p>
-
-<p><i>Wing Bar</i>&mdash;The larger construction members of a
-wing, running from the body outward to the tips.
-The ribs are attached to the wing bars, usually
-at right angles.</p>
-
-<p><i>Wing Plan</i>&mdash;The outline of the wing or main plane
-surface as viewed from above.</p>
-
-<p><i>Wing Section</i>&mdash;The outline of the wing structure of
-an aeroplane as it would appear if cut by a plane
-passing through it parallel to the longitudinal
-centre of the machine.</p>
-
-<p><i>Wing Skid</i>&mdash;A small skid, or runner, placed under
-the tip of the wings of an aeroplane, to prevent
-damage in case of violent contact with the
-ground.</p>
-
-<p><i>Wing Tip</i>&mdash;The extreme outer end of a wing or
-main plane.</p>
-
-<p><i>Wing Warping</i>&mdash;A controlling device for restoring
-disturbed lateral balance by the forcible pulling
-down or pulling up of the tips of the wings, or of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">475</span>
-the outer ends of the main surface of the aeroplane.</p>
-
-<p><i>Wing Wheel</i>&mdash;A small wheel placed under the outer
-end of a wing or main plane to prevent contact
-with the ground. An improvement on the wing
-skid.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3>THE END</h3>
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<h3>Transcriber’s Note:</h3>
-
-<p>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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