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diff --git a/old/55200-0.txt b/old/55200-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fafe42d..0000000 --- a/old/55200-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9615 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Book About Words, by George Frederick Graham - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Book About Words - -Author: George Frederick Graham - -Release Date: July 25, 2017 [EBook #55200] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BOOK ABOUT WORDS *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Hulse, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - Breves and macrons are accurately represented (ă ĕ ā ē etc). - - Some minor changes are noted at the end of the book. - - - - - A BOOK - - ABOUT - - WORDS. - - - BY - - G. F. GRAHAM, - - AUTHOR OF ‘ENGLISH, OR THE ART OF COMPOSITION,’ - ‘ENGLISH SYNONYMES,’ ‘ENGLISH STYLE,’ - ‘ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRACTICE,’ - ETC. - - - LONDON: - LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. - 1869. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The increased attention lately paid to our Language as a subject of -Education, has induced the Author to state in the following pages -his views on English (and other) Words. These views are the result -of a long professional career in tuition, together with the study -which such a calling naturally involves. - -Notwithstanding the rapid strides made of late years in the science -of Words, much still remains unknown to the general reader; but if -the following remarks be accepted as a small contribution to a more -extended knowledge of this interesting subject, the Author will be -amply compensated for any trouble it may have cost him to collect -them. - - KENSINGTON: - _May, 1869_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION ix - - - CHAPTER I. - - ORIGIN OF WORDS (SAXON)--FAMILIES OF WORDS 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS 23 - - - CHAPTER III. - - OLD AND NEW WORDS 38 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - DEGENERACY OF WORDS 63 - - - CHAPTER V. - - PLAY UPON WORDS 79 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT WORDS 96 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - GRAND WORDS 101 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE SPELLING OF WORDS 107 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, CONTRACTION, ETC. OF WORDS 122 - - - CHAPTER X. - - DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA 141 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - COMPOUND WORDS 150 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS 156 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - SLANG WORDS AND AMERICANISMS 169 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 185 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC., _continued_ 202 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS OF WORDS 215 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -What is meant by a Language? It is a collection of all the words, -phrases, grammatical forms, idioms, &c., which are used by one -people. It is the outward expression of the tendencies, turn of -mind, and habits of thought of some one nation, and the best -criterion of their intellect and feelings. If this explanation be -admitted, it will naturally follow that the connection between a -people and their language is so close, that the one may be judged -of by the other; and that the language is a lasting monument of the -nature and character of the people. - -Every language, then, has its genius; forms of words, idioms, and -turns of expression peculiar to itself; by which, independently of -other differences, one nation may be distinguished from another. -This condition may be produced by various causes; such as soil, -climate, conquest, immigration, &c. Out of the old Roman, or Latin, -there arose several modern languages of Europe; all known by the -generic name--Romance; viz. Italian, French, Provençal, Spanish, -and Portuguese. These may be called daughters of ancient Latin; and -the natives of all these countries down to the seventh century, -both spoke and wrote that language. But when the Scandinavian and -Germanic tribes invaded the West of Europe, the Latin was broken -up, and was succeeded by Italian, French, Spanish, &c. The Latin -now became gradually more and more corrupt, and was, at length, in -each of these countries, wholly remodelled. - -History has been called ‘the study of the law of change;’ i.e. the -process by which human affairs are transferred from one condition -to another. The history of a language has naturally a close -analogy with political history; the chief difference being that -the materials of the latter are facts, events, and institutions; -whilst the former treats of words, forms, and constructions. Now, -in the same way as a nation never stands still, but is continually -undergoing a silent--perhaps imperceptible--transformation, so -it is with its language. This is proved both by experience and -reason. We need hardly say that the English of the present time -differ widely from the English of the fourteenth century; and we -may be quite sure that the language of this country, two or three -centuries hence, will be very different from what it is at present. -It would be impossible for a nation either to improve or decay, and -for its language at the same time to remain stationary. The one -being a reflex of the other, they must stand or fall together. - -What, then, is this law of change? On what principles is it -based? How are we to study or follow out its operations? These -questions are exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to answer -definitively. But there are circumstances connected with the -formation of certain languages which may throw some light on -them. It may be received as a principle that, when one nation is -overrun or conquered by another, the effect on the language of -the conquered depends mainly on the condition of that which is -brought in by the conquerors. If the victors be as superior to the -vanquished in civilisation and improvement as they have proved -themselves in physical power, they will impose their language on -the conquered people. If, on the other hand, that of the vanquished -be the more cultivated, the reverse will take place; the dialect of -the conquerors will be absorbed into that of the conquered. - -When the Visigoths settled in Spain in the fifth century, their -dialect made but little impression on the language afterwards known -as Spanish. The Latin element in the Peninsula, though at that time -falling into decay, was far more refined and polished than the -barbarous dialect then introduced; and it consequently remained, -with some slight modifications, the language of the country. The -same happened when the Northmen settled in France in the tenth -century. It is astonishing how rapidly the language of Rollo and -his followers was absorbed into French! This may have been assisted -by the intermarriage of the conquerors with the women of the -country; but it was produced chiefly by the different conditions of -the two languages. - -On the other hand, when the Normans, under William the Conqueror, -invaded England in the eleventh century, a different effect was -produced. The Norman French after a time, though not immediately, -enriched the English language with many words, but it did not, -in the slightest degree, either then or afterwards, affect its -grammatical forms or idioms. The cause of this was that the Saxon -language was, at that epoch, already fixed, and fit for literary -purposes. It was, indeed, much further advanced as a literary -language than the invading Norman-French. It therefore resisted -this external pressure; and though it afterwards admitted numerous -French terms, the English language remains to this day Saxon, and -not French, in its tone, character, and grammar. - -The climate of a country, or the temperament of a people, may -also strongly influence the character of the language. Given an -indolent and luxurious race, and we must expect that softness and -effeminacy will appear in their spoken and written expression. No -acute observer can fail to perceive a close connection between the -national character of the Italians and the softness and beauty of -their harmonious tongue. Again: the simplicity and somewhat homely -and rough vigour of the Teutonic race, are clearly shadowed forth -in the sounds and forms of the German language. - -The climate, too, in both cases, may have contributed towards these -results. A hot, enervating atmosphere produces languor of mind -as well as body; whilst a bracing cold air, though it may assist -in producing a phlegmatic temperament, at the same time infuses -vigour, energy, and power into those who are subjected to its -influence. - -There are also, no doubt, many hidden causes of gradual changes in -language. These are difficult to ascertain; and some of them escape -the sagacity of even the most acute observers. Political struggles, -foreign wars, domestic habits, literary studies, &c., may all -contribute to alter the character of a people, and so far to affect -their language. - -But whatever may be these mysterious laws of change, they must be -left to Nature herself, and no one must attempt to interfere with -them. There are no more miserable failures recorded in history -than the attempt by rulers to interfere with the laws of Nature. -We are told (though not on very good authority) that William the -Conqueror _ordered the Saxons to speak Norman-French_. He might -as well have ordered his new subjects to walk on their heads--the -one was quite as easy as the other. But no writer tells us with -what success this decree was executed. Ordericus Vitalis, indeed, -states that William endeavoured to learn Saxon, though he does not -say how far he succeeded. Now it is not very likely that he should -have studied a language which he was, at the same time, bent on -exterminating. Indeed, there is an air of extreme improbability -about the whole story. - -In more recent times, it is well known that Joseph II., of Germany, -issued an edict that all his subjects, Slavonic, Magyar, or German, -should adopt one uniform language--German. But it was soon found -impossible to execute this decree, for the people would as soon -have parted with their lives as with their language; the whole -empire was, therefore, immediately thrown into confusion. Many -of the provinces broke out into open rebellion, and it at length -became necessary to abandon the project. - -It is then clear that no one has the power, of his own will or -caprice, to add a single word to a language, or to cast one out -of it. These changes must be left to Nature, and all we can do is -to watch her operations, to observe and record facts. But we may -speculate on the origin of words, and may sometimes discover the -causes of their birth. We may also inquire into the circumstances -of their career, and the laws which regulate their forms, changes, -meanings, &c. These inquiries are particularly comprehensive and -interesting, because they naturally lead us to some knowledge of -what words represent, and also because they are closely connected -with the study of the human mind both as regards intellect and -passion. - - - - -A BOOK - -ABOUT - -WORDS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -ORIGIN OF WORDS--FAMILIES OF WORDS. - - -Most Philologists have hitherto held the opinion that, in general, -no satisfactory account can be given of the origin of language. -They can trace a word from one language to another, and can account -for its various forms and changes by laws now generally understood; -but they confess their inability to explain what determined the -original form of its root. They take that original form for -granted, as a sort of intuitive truth which must be admitted as a -necessity. They can explain the circumstances of its career; but -of its first cause or nature they profess to understand little or -nothing. - -But though this is the general opinion, all linguists admit that in -every language certain words, more especially those that convey -ideas of sound, are formed on the principle of _onomatopœia_; i.e. -an attempt to make the pronunciation conform to the sound. Such -English words as ‘hiss,’ ‘roar,’ ‘bang,’ ‘buzz,’ ‘crash,’ &c., are -of this class. One can hardly pronounce these words without, in -some sense, performing the acts which they represent. - -One school of linguists have lately expressed a belief that all -words were formed on this principle. A very curious illustration -of this view is given in Mr. Wedgwood’s ‘Origin of Language.’ -Explaining the interjection _Hem_, he says, it was originally an -attempt to stop some one. We are supposed to be walking behind -some person; we wish to stop him, and we exclaim, ‘_Hem!_’ This -is given as the primary meaning of the word. ‘The sound is here -an echo to the sense.’ But _hem_ is used in other ways; either as -a noun, or a verb; always, however, retaining its original idea -of restricting, or keeping back. The _hem_ of a garment is what -_prevents_ the thread from ravelling. Again, soldiers are sometimes -_hemmed_ in by the enemy; that is, _prevented_ from using their -free will to go where they choose. This illustration is intended to -prove that the principle of onomatopœia applies not only to words -that represent sound, but, by analogy, to other meanings derived -from that principle. There _is_ sound implied in the interjection -_hem_; though in the noun and the verb, both derived from that -interjection, no idea of sound is conveyed. - -This connection between sound and sense is certainly a natural -principle; and however scornfully it may have been ridiculed by -some philosophers, it has undoubtedly produced many very fine -passages in the poetry of both ancient and modern times. - -1. The chorus of frogs in Aristophanes, where their croaking is -represented by words invented for the occasion: - - Βρεκεκεξ, κοαξ, κοαξ. - -This is, to say the least of it, very ingenious, and, in its way, -beautiful, because true. - -2. The same principle seems to apply in the πολυφλοίσβοιο θαλάσσης -(poluphloisboio thalassēs) of Homer, where the first word was -probably intended to represent the roaring of the wave mounting on -the sea-shore; and the second, the hissing sound which accompanies -a receding billow. - -3. Another example of onomatopœia, in Virgil’s Æneid, viii. 452, -has been often quoted: - - ‘Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum;’ - -where the succession of dactyls is admirably adapted to represent -the sound of the hoofs of a galloping horse. - -4. Several examples of the same figure may be found in Milton. -Describing the thronging of the fallen angels in Pandemonium: - - Thick swarmed, both on the ground and in the air, - Bru_sh_ed with the hi_ss_ of ru_st_ling win_gs_. - -5. Also, speaking of the gates of hell: - - ... open fly - Th’ infe_r_nal doo_r_s; and on their hinges g_r_ates - Ha_r_sh thunde_r_ ... - -Here the recurrence of the letter _r_ is well calculated to convey -the idea of a harsh, creaking, grating sound. - -6. A similar effect is produced in Tasso’s ‘Gerusalemme Liberata.’ - - Il _r_auco son della Ta_r_tarea tromba. - -This connection between sound and sense may very probably exist in -many words where we now fail to perceive it; but in the present -state of our knowledge of the subject, we can hardly pronounce -positively in favour of this view as applied to the whole body of a -language. The question remains, for the present, in abeyance. - - -_Families of Words (Saxon)._ - -But setting aside the origin of words, it is not difficult to show -the affinity which many springing from the same root have for -each other. There are in English, as in other languages, hundreds -of words which may be said to have a family connection, and which -are traceable to one common origin, or root. This connection -may be found in the Saxon as well as the Romance part of our -language. _Th_ (soft) may be considered as the type of the idea -of demonstration. All the English pronouns and adverbs beginning -with these letters have that general meaning, which may be seen in -‘_th_at,’ ‘_th_e,’ ‘_th_ere,’ ‘_th_ence,’ ‘_th_is,’ ‘_th_ither,’ -‘_th_ose,’ ‘_th_us,’ and others. Again, the initial _wh_ may be -considered as the type of an interrogative, or relative meaning. -This also may be seen in many English pronouns and adverbs; as in -‘_wh_at,’ ‘_wh_en,’ ‘_wh_ence,’ ‘_wh_ere,’ ‘_wh_ither,’ ‘_wh_o,’ -‘_wh_om,’ ‘_wh_ose,’ &c. The principle of inversion has affected -the whole of this class of words. They are all of Saxon origin, -and were spelled in that language _hw_, and not _wh_; as in ‘hwæt’ -(what), ‘hwaer’ (where), ‘hwanne’ (when), &c. - - -_Tw._ - -The Saxon initial _tw_ corresponds with the Romance _du_. There -are many English words having this initial, which convey the idea -of ‘two.’ 1. The numeral itself, ‘_tw_o’ 2. ‘_Tw_ain,’ a now -obsolete form of ‘two.’ 3. ‘_Tw_in,’ one of _tw_o children born at -a birth. 4. ‘Be_tw_een,’ which is only another form of ‘by twain.’ -5. ‘_Tw_ilight,’ i.e. between _tw_o lights--daylight and lamplight. -6. ‘_Tw_ice’ is equivalent to ‘_tw_o’ times. 7. To ‘_tw_ist’ is -to bend _tw_o or more threads together. 8. To ‘_tw_ine’ is to -interlace, so as to form one body out of _tw_o. And 9. A ‘_tw_ig’ -is so called from its being easily twisted. - -It is said that the word ‘nose’ originally signified a -promontory--something prominent--and that it is so called from -being the prominent feature of the face. This view is supported -by its analogy with _naze_, a headland, and the Scotch _ness_ (as -in Inver_ness_), a part of the coast which juts forward. It may -be observed that the word meaning ‘nose’ has in most European -languages the form N-S-. This may be seen in the Greek νῆσος, an -island or promontory; the Latin _nasus_, the Italian _naso_, the -German _Nase_, the French _nez_, and the English _nose_. Whether -this be or be not an onomatopœia one thing is certain, viz. that -in English the initial sn (ns inverted) in so many cases expresses -nasal action, that it may be taken as a general type of that -meaning. This may be found in a multitude of words having that -initial, all expressing various actions of the nose. It may be -seen in ‘_sn_arl,’ ‘_sn_eer,’ ‘_sn_eeze,’ ‘_sn_iff,’ ‘_sn_ore,’ -‘_sn_ort,’ ‘_sn_ooze,’ ‘_sn_out,’ ‘_sn_ub,’ ‘_sn_uff,’ &c. - - -_Ber-an--to bear._ - -This is the source of our English verb ‘to bear.’ It produces -the following:--1. ‘Barrow,’ an implement used for carrying or -_bearing_. 2. ‘Berth,’ a place in which one is _borne_. 3. ‘Bier,’ -a coffin in which a corpse is _borne_ to the grave. 4. ‘Birth,’ the -_bearing_ of a child. 5. ‘Berry,’ the fruit which a tree _bears_. - - -_Bles-an--to blow._ - -From this verb we have, 1. ‘Blaze,’ a strong flame _blown_ forth. -2. ‘Blast,’ a violent _blowing_, or gust of wind. 3. ‘Blain,’ a -boil, or _blowing_ up of the flesh. 4. ‘Blight,’ injury done to -corn, &c., from being _blasted_. 5. ‘Blister,’ a _blowing_, or -rising, up of the skin. 6. ‘Blossom’ (or ‘bloom’), the _blowing_ -forth of the flower. 7. ‘Blush,’ a _blowing_ forth of the blood. 8. -‘Bluster,’ as the wind when _blowing_ hard. - - -_Brecc-an--to break._ - -1. The English verb ‘to break’ is directly from the above. 2. -‘Bridge,’ a building which _breaks_ a passage across a river, &c. -3. ‘Breach,’ that part of a wall or fortification _broken_ into by -artillery. 4. To ‘broach’ a cask of ale is to _break_ into it. 5. -A ‘brook’ is a stream of water which _breaks_ its way across the -country. - - -_Bug-an--to bend._ - -1. A ‘bay’ is a _bending_ in of the line of coast. 2. In sailors’ -language, a ‘bight’ is the hollow part of a bay, or a coil of -rope _bent_ round. 3. A ‘bow’ is so called from its being _bent_. -4. To make a ‘bow’ is to _bend_ the body. 5. ‘Beam’ (compare the -German ‘Baum’) is so named from its property of _bending_. 6. A -‘bough’ is the part of the tree that easily _bends_. 7. A ‘bower’ -is made of branches bowed or _bent_ down. 8. The adjective ‘buxom’ -(compare the German ‘biegsam’) is properly _bending_ or pliable. -9. ‘El_bow_’ is the bow of the ell, or that part where the arm -_bends_. ‘Big’ and ‘bag’ are probably from the same source; they -both convey the idea of something _bent_ round. - - -_Ceap-ān--to exchange._ - -The essence of buying and selling lies in the exchange of goods for -money, or money for goods. Hence come 1. the English word ‘chapman’ -(sometimes contracted into _chap_), which properly means a buyer -and seller. 2. To ‘chaffer’ is to bargain about a purchase. 3. -‘Cheap,’ bearing a low price, refers to a similar transaction. 4. -We have also ‘_Cheap_side’ and ‘East_cheap_,’ originally markets, -or places for buying and selling. 5. Chepstow, Chipping Norton, and -other names of market-towns in England, are from the same root. 6. -The wind is said to _chop_ when it changes from one point of the -compass to another. - - -_Ceaw-an--to chew._ - -1. The older form of ‘chew’ was ‘chaw,’ which we still occasionally -hear in ‘chaw-bacon.’ 2. The cud is the grass _chewed_ by -ruminating animals. 3. A quid of tobacco is a piece kept in the -mouth to be _chewed_. - - -_Dael-an--to divide._ - -1. To ‘deal’ is from the above verb. It is used in English in a -variety of senses, all containing the idea of dividing into parts. -2. A certain sort of wood is called ‘deal’ from being easily -_divided_, or cut into planks. 3. To ‘deal’ cards is to _divide_ -them into packets or parcels. 4. Tradesmen ‘deal’ in certain -articles when they sell them in small, _divided_ quantities. 5. -We also say ‘a great deal,’ speaking of a large part _divided_ -from the mass. [‘_Some-deal_’ was formerly said, but it is now -obsolete.] 6. A ‘dole’ is a small part or share _dealt_ out. -(Compare the German ‘theilen.’) - - -_Dic-ian--to dig._ - -From this Saxon verb we have, 1. To ‘dig.’ 2. ‘Dike,’ a mound of -earth ‘_dug_’ out. 3. ‘Ditch,’ a line ‘_dug_.’ 4. ‘Dagger,’ an -instrument used for ‘_digging_;’ and 5. ‘Dock,’ a place ‘_dug_’ -out on the side of a harbour or bank of a river, where ships are -repaired. - - -_Drag-an--to draw._ - -This Saxon verb gives the English ‘to draw.’ From this we have, 1. -‘Dray,’ a heavy cart _drawn_ along. 2. A ‘drain,’ a tube to _draw_ -off water. 3. A ‘draft,’ an order to _draw_ out money from a bank. -4. A ‘draught’ is a quantity of liquid _drawn_ into the mouth. -5. To ‘drawl’ is to drag on the voice heavily. 6. ‘Drudge,’ and -7. ‘Dredge’ (for oysters, &c.); both which express a dragging or -_drawing_. (Compare the German ‘tragen’ and the Latin ‘trahere.’) - - -_Dropi-an--to drop._ - -From this root comes 1. The verb ‘to drop.’ 2. To ‘droop,’ i.e. to -lean downwards. 3. To ‘drip,’ or fall continually. 4. To ‘dribble,’ -or to fall in small ‘_drops_.’ 5. A ‘driblet,’ or a very small -_drop_. - - -_Eri-an--to till._ - -1. To ‘ear,’ in the sense of ‘to plough,’ is now obsolete in -English, though we have an ‘ear,’ or spike, of corn--the result of -_tilling_; and 3. ‘Earth,’ that which is _tilled_ or cultivated. - - -_Far-an--to journey._ - -1. From this verb (German ‘fahren’) comes our verb to ‘fare;’ -literally, to go on, or make a journey. 2. The adverbs ‘fore,’ -‘forth,’ and ‘far’ convey a similar idea; viz. that of onward -movement. 3. The ‘ford’ of a river is that point at which it can -be ‘fared,’ or crossed; and 4. To ‘ferry’ is the act of faring, or -passing across a river or lake. 5. ‘Frith’ and ‘firth’ are formed -on the same principle; they are those parts of the sea where one -can be ferried across. 6. The first syllable (_fur_) in the word -‘furlough’ belongs to this family. It is leave (lough) granted to -a soldier to ‘fare,’ or journey, home for a time. All these forms -are devices to explain a variety of modes of _faring_, or moving -onwards. - - -_Fed-an--to feed._ - -This gives us, 1. To ‘feed.’ 2. ‘Fat,’ the result of being well -‘_fed_.’ 3. ‘Fodder,’ provision for cattle; and, 4. ‘Food,’ that -which ‘_feeds_,’ or supplies nourishment. - - -_Fi-an--to hate._ - -From this verb we have in English--1. A ‘fiend,’ one who _hates_. -2. Hence also comes ‘foe,’ an enemy, or one _hated_. 3. To the -same root may be traced ‘fie!’ an interjection expressing dislike -or _hatred_; 4. and also ‘foh!’ or ‘faugh!’ an exclamation of -disgust. - - -_Fleaw-an--to flow._ - -Hence come, 1. ‘To flow.’ 2. ‘Fleet;’ a number of ships that -‘_flow_,’ or swim, on the water. 3. The adjective ‘fleet,’ -qualifying what _flows_ by. 4. To ‘float,’ or swim, on the water; -and, 5. ‘Flood,’ a large _flow_ of water. - - -_Fuli-an--to make dirty._ - -From this root come, 1. ‘Foul’ (putrid, offensive). 2. To ‘defile;’ -to make ‘foul.’ 3. The noun ‘filth,’ dirt. 4. The adjective -‘filthy;’ and 5. ‘Fulsome;’ full of filth, nauseous, disgusting. - - -_G-an--to go._ - -1. ‘Gan’ is the Saxon verb whence the English ‘to go’ is derived. -2. This gives us ‘gait,’ i.e. a manner of ‘_going_;’ and, 3. -‘Gate,’ a door through which one ‘_goes_.’ To these may be added 4. -‘Gang,’ a number of people ‘_going_’ together; and, 5. the nautical -term ‘gang-way,’ i.e. a passage ‘to go’ through. 6. The verb ‘to -gad,’ i.e. to be continually ‘_going_’ from one place to another, -also probably belongs to this family. - - -_Glowi-an--to burn._ - -The verb ‘to low,’ in the sense of ‘to burn,’ does not now exist in -the language; but the above verb gives us, 1. To ‘glow,’ i.e. to -burn intensely; whence come the forms, 2. ‘Gleam;’ 3. ‘Glimmer;’ -and, 4. ‘Glimpse;’ 5. ‘Gloom,’ or a state into which light -‘gleams;’ and, 6. the word ‘light,’ which is a participial form of -the old verb to ‘low.’ In one English word the root ‘low’ is still -retained, viz. ‘whit_low_,’ a painful _white burning_ on the finger -or thumb. - - -_Graf-an--to dig._ - -From this verb we have in English, 1. ‘Grave,’ a pit _dug_. 2. To -‘engrave,’ i.e. to scratch or _dig_ in. 3. ‘Groove,’ a line _dug_ -in. 4. ‘Gravel,’ earth _dug_ up. 5. To ‘grovel,’ literally, to -_dig_ up earth; and, 6. To ‘grub,’ or scratch into the earth. - - -_Gyrd-an--to enclose._ - -The English words derived from ‘_gyrdan_,’ and having a cognate -meaning are, 1. To ‘gird,’ to _enclose_ by tying round. 2. -‘Girdle,’ a small band or cincture. 3. ‘Girth,’ the band which -‘girds’ the saddle on a horse. 4. ‘Garter,’ a band tied round the -leg; and, 5. ‘Garden,’ a space _enclosed_ for the cultivation of -fruit, vegetables, &c. - - -_Lang--long._ - -From the Anglo-Saxon and German ‘lang’ is derived, 1. our adjective -‘long;’ from which again comes, 2. the abstract noun ‘length.’ 3. -The adjective, ‘lean;’ and 4. ‘lanky’ are also members of this -family. 5. To ‘linger,’ i.e. to remain a _long_ time in a place. -6. To ‘lunge;’ to make a _long_ stroke with a rapier; and, 7. A -‘_link_,’ that which makes a chain ‘_longer_.’ - - -_Lecj-an--to lay._ - -1. Both the English verbs ‘lay’ and ‘lie’ (which is to lay oneself -down) come from this verb, 2. ‘Ledge,’ a place on which to _lay_ -anything; 3. ‘Ledger,’ a book which _lies_ on a merchant’s desk; -and, 4. ‘Law,’ a rule _laid_ down. - - -_Læd-an--to lead._ - -1. Besides the verb ‘to lead,’ we have from this source: 2. -‘Ladder,’ an instrument which _leads_ to a higher place. 3. -Load-star, and loadstone, i.e. a _leading_ star or stone. - - -_(H)lifi-an--to lift._ - -This is the source of, 1. our verb to ‘lift.’ Also, 2. ‘Loft,’ -i.e. a room ‘lifted’ high. 3. The adverb ‘aloft’--‘lifted up.’ 4. -‘Aloof;’ and 5. The adjective ‘lofty.’ - - -_Maw-an--to cut down._ - -From the Saxon root ‘maw’ comes immediately 1. Our verb to -‘mow,’--as well as a ‘mow’ (a barley-_mow_ or a hay-_mow_); i.e. a -quantity of barley or hay mown and heaped together. From this is -derived, 2. ‘Mead,’ i.e. a _mowed_ field; and, 3. Meadow, a large -mead. 4. Farmers still use the word after_math_, which, with them, -is a second mowing. 5, The now obsolete ‘mo’ or ‘moe,’ as used in -the sense of a collected quantity or heap by Chaucer and other -writers down to Lord Surrey, is said to give us the words ‘more’ -and ‘most’ as the comparative and superlative forms of ‘mo;’ but -this is doubted by many etymologists. - - -_Pocca--a bag._ - -There are several English derivatives from this root. 1. We find it -in the word ‘smallpox’ (or pocks), where it means little bags or -holes left in the skin by the action of this disease. 2. We once -had the word ‘poke’ in the sense of ‘a bag,’ as in the phrase ‘to -buy a pig in a _poke_.’ 3. ‘Pocket’ is a diminutive of poke, i.e. -a little bag. 4. To ‘poach;’ and 5. ‘Pouch’ are variations of the -same root; for to ‘poach’ is to steal game and conceal it in a -‘pouch.’ 5. A ‘peck,’ and 6. a ‘pack’ are both generic terms of a -similar meaning; and, 7. ‘Puckered’ cheeks are bagged or puffed -out with the cold. - - -_Scuf-ian--to push._ - -This root is a fertile source of English words; we find it, 1. in -our now not very elegant word ‘shove,’ that is, to push rudely -or roughly. 2. A ‘sheaf’ of corn takes its name from the stalks -of which it is composed being ‘shoved,’ or _pushed_ up together; -and, 3. the ‘shaft’ of a javelin is the wooden part which is -‘_shoved_’ into the iron. 4. A ‘shovel’ is a small instrument -used to ‘_shove_,’ or push into, coals, etc.; and, 5. our ‘shoes’ -are so called because we ‘_shove_’ our feet into them. 6. -‘Scuffle’ and ‘shuffle’ are only modified forms of the verb ‘to -shove,’ and express a repetition of that act. According to some -etymologists the word ‘sheep’ belongs to this family, as being an -animal ‘_shoved_’ or pushed along in flocks from place to place. -Hence, perhaps, the name; but this must be considered a doubtful -derivation. - - -_Scyr-an--to cut._ - -From this Saxon verb come, 1. To ‘shear’ and the noun ‘shears.’ -2. A ‘share’ of anything means, properly, a part ‘_cut_’ off, or -divided from the whole substance; and a ‘ploughshare’ is that -part of the implement which ‘_cuts_’ through the earth. 3. Common -experience tells us that the adjective ‘sharp’ qualifies what -easily _cuts_ or divides. 4. A ‘shire’ signifies a district _cut_ -off or divided from the rest of the country; and ‘sheriff’ is a -contraction of ‘shire-reeve,’ i.e. the officer of the ‘shire.’ 5. -‘Shirt’ and, 6. ‘Short’ both belong to the same class; the first -is a garment ‘_cut_’ off, and the second is a participle from the -verb ‘to shore’ or _divide_, the noun ‘shore’ meaning the line -which ‘_divides_’ the sea from the land. From the same root comes, -7. ‘Sheer.’ Sheer impudence and sheer nonsense mean impudence -and nonsense unqualified, i.e. ‘divided’ or _cut_ off from any -modesty and sense. Besides the above, we have the same general idea -in the expression, 8. ‘Shreds’ and patches, little snippings or -‘_cuttings_.’ 9. Shakspere’s ‘shard-borne’ beetle means the beetle -borne on his ‘shards,’ or scaly wings _divided_ in the middle. 10. -To these we may add ‘potsherd,’ a piece broken off or _divided_ -from a pot. The words ‘scar,’ ‘score,’ ‘scream,’ ‘screech,’ -‘shrill,’ ‘shriek,’ &c., belong to the same class, the leading idea -in them all being that of _cutting_ or dividing; and they are all -based upon the type ‘scr’ or ‘shr.’ - - -_Sitt-an--to sit._ - -1. This is the origin of our word to ‘sit;’ whence comes, 2. To -‘set.’ The latter is the transitive from the intransitive, formed -by a change of the vowel. 3. ‘Settle’ is a frequentative of -‘_sit_,’ and expresses a permanent sitting. 4. A ‘seat’ is from the -same root; it is that on which any one ‘_sits_;’ and, 5. A ‘saddle’ -is a seat on horseback. - - -_Sleaw--slow._ - -1. From the Anglo-Saxon ‘Sleaw’ comes our adjective ‘slow.’ Hence -we have, 2. ‘Sloth,’ or the quality of being _slow_; 3. ‘Sloven’ -(m.) and ‘slut’ (f.), which both convey the idea of being _slow_ -and negligent; 4. ‘Slug,’ a _slow_ animal, from which comes the -verb ‘to slug,’ to indulge in sloth; and, 7. ‘Sluggard,’ a lazy -indolent man. - - -_Stig-an--to mount._ - -This root gives us, 1. ‘Stair,’ a step to _mount_ by; 2. ‘Stile’ -(A.-S. Stigel), a gate to be _mounted_ or got over; 3. ‘Stirrup’ -(or stig-rope), a rope by which to _mount_; and, 4. ‘Stye,’ i.e. a -_rising_ pustule on the eyelid. - - -_Straeg-an--to spread._ - -From the A.-S. root ‘straeg’ we have the English words ‘straw’ and -‘strew.’ 1. ‘Straw’ is the dry stalks of certain plants ‘strewn’ -or scattered about. 2. To ‘stray’ means to go dispersedly or -separately. 3. ‘Straggle’ is a frequentative of the last word. 4. -The word ‘street’ is by some supposed to be connected with this -root. A ‘street’ is a way ‘strewn’ or paved with stones. - - -_Taepp-an--to draw drink._ - -Hence we have in English, 1. ‘To tap,’ and, 2. A ‘tap,’ the -instrument by which wine or beer is drawn from the cask; 3. -‘Tapster,’ one who draws liquor. 4. To ‘tope’ is to ‘tip’ off beer -or spirits. 5. A ‘toper’ is one who topes, and to ‘tipple’ is to -be continually toping. 6. One who ‘tipples’ is likely to be often -‘tipsy.’ - - -_Tell-an--to count._ - -The ordinary meaning of our English verb ‘to tell’ is to recount -the particulars of some event or occurrence. Hence comes a ‘tale,’ -which signifies the recounting of such particulars. The passage in -Milton’s ‘L’Allegro’-- - - Every shepherd _tells his tale_ - Under the hawthorn in the dale-- - -has been explained as ‘every shepherd _counts over his sheep_.’ -Shakspere has, ‘as thick as _tale_ came post with post,’ that is, -as rapidly as could be counted. From the same root comes ‘till,’ -a box into which money is _counted_. Again, when we speak of -‘tolling’ a bell, a similar meaning is implied, viz. the numbering -or _counting_ out the strokes; and a ‘toll’ is money _told_ or -_counted_ into the hands of the receiver. Again, accounts are said -to ‘_tally_’ when, after being reckoned or _counted_ up, they -amount to the same sum. - - -_Teog-an--to pull._ - -From this verb come, 1. To ‘tow,’ to _pull_ a boat or vessel along; -2. To ‘tug,’ to _pull_ with force. 3. The noun ‘tow’ means flax -which must be ‘tugged,’ or _pulled_, asunder. 4. The adjective -‘tough,’ which qualifies what must be _pulled_ hard. 5. ‘Team,’ -a number of horses _pulling_ together; and, 6. ‘Tight,’ what is -‘towed’ or _pulled_ together with force. 7. The sailor’s phrase ‘to -haul taut,’ is ‘to _pull_ tight.’ - - -_Wan-ian--to decrease._ - -1. We still say, ‘the moon waxes and “wanes,”’ i.e. apparently -increases and _decreases_ in size. 2. ‘Wan,’ an adjective which -expresses thinness or _decrease_ of health. 3. ‘Want’ signifies a -condition in which our means are _decreased_; and, 4. To ‘wean’ is -to gradually accustom any one to a ‘want.’ - - -_Weg-an--to move._ - -1. From this come the English ‘way,’ which means the space through -which one can ‘_move_.’ 2. To ‘wag’ (the tongue or the head), i.e. -to ‘_move_’ it rapidly. 3. A waggon (sometimes contracted into -‘wain’) is a vehicle which ‘_moves_’ goods, &c., from one place -to another. 4. To ‘sway’ is the intensive of wag--it is to _move_ -strongly; and, 5. ‘Swagger’ is the frequentative of ‘sway.’ - - -_Weri-an--to wear._ - -1. This is the origin of our word ‘to wear,’ in its ordinary sense. -2. From this we have ‘weary,’ the state of being ‘_worn_’ with -fatigue. 3. From the same root come ‘worse’ and ‘worst,’ which are -really the comparative and superlative degrees of ‘_wear_,’ i.e. -‘more worn’ and ‘most worn.’ 4. To ‘worry,’ i.e. to ‘_wear_ out’ by -importunity. - - -_Wit-an--to know._ - -From the root ‘wit’ in this Saxon verb came, in English, 1. The -old forms ‘wist’ and ‘wot,’ together with, 2. The modern word -‘wit,’ and the expression, ‘to wit’--all these imply _knowledge_. -3. We have ‘wise’ (which at first signified _knowing_ much), with -its derivative, ‘wisdom.’ 5. ‘Wizard’ and ‘witch’ are both from -the same source, and were terms originally applied to those who -were supposed to come by their ‘_knowledge_’ by a compact with -the powers of darkness. 6. The word ‘wittingly,’ i.e. of one’s -own _knowledge_; and, 7. A ‘witness,’ or one who tells us what he -‘_knows_’ about some fact. - - -_Wrid-an--to twist._ - -This is the source of many English words: 1. To ‘writhe,’ or -_twist_ the body in pain. 2. ‘Wrath.’ When in ‘wrath,’ one is -‘writhed’ or tortured by angry passion. 3. ‘Wry’ and ‘awry,’ i.e. -‘_twisted_’ on one side. 4. To ‘wring’ the hands is to ‘_twist_’ -them convulsively. 5. ‘Wrong’ properly means ‘wrung,’ or _twisted_ -out of the right path. 6. ‘Wrangle’ denotes a continual distortion -or perversity; and, 7. To ‘wriggle’ is the frequentative of ‘to -wring;’ it means to _twist_ about repeatedly. Beside these, we -have, 8. The wrist, i.e. the joint which ‘_twists_’ or turns -easily; and, 9. To ‘wrest’ and ‘wrestle.’ 10. To ‘wrench.’ These -are all modes of _twisting_. 11. To ‘wreathe’ is to _twist_ or -twine together, and, 13. A ‘wrinkle’ denotes a distortion of a -smooth surface. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS. - - -_Latin Roots._ - -English words which indicate mental actions, feelings, or general -abstractions, come to us from a Latin or a French source. These, -though not the most numerous, comprise a very considerable portion -of the English language. It must be understood that French is, in -the main, composed of Latin words; and we may conveniently divide -this portion of the English language into three classes:--1. Words -derived directly from Latin; 2. Words derived indirectly from -Latin, through a French medium; and, 3. Middle-age Latin words, -i.e. those formed from a corrupt Latin by the monks of the middle -ages. These last appear in French in a modified form, and come into -English still further altered in their spelling and pronunciation. - -I. In most cases English words of the first class are compounds -or derivatives. We have not adopted the roots themselves, but use -them only in composition, with some particle or preposition. For -example: the Latin root ‘clude’ is never found in English as an -independent word, though we have ‘exclude,’ ‘include,’ ‘preclude,’ -&c. It is also to be observed that a Latin verbal root, in many -cases, produces two forms in English; one containing the root -of the verb itself, and the other its participial form. Thus, -the above example will give us ‘exclude,’ from the Latin verb -‘excludĕre,’ and also ‘exclu_s_ion,’ ‘exclu_s_ive,’ from its -participle ‘exclusus.’ If we take any one of these roots, say -‘clud’ and ‘clus’ (shut), we may find it in modern English in a -great variety of forms. From the participial root (clus) come -‘clause’ (a part of a sentence _shut_ in); ‘cloister’ (a place -_shut_ in); ‘close’ (to _shut_ to); ‘closet’ (a small place _shut_ -up); ‘recluse,’ one _shut_ out from the world, &c., as well as the -verbs exclude, include, preclude, with their derivatives exclusion, -inclusion, preclusion; the adjectives ‘exclusive,’ ‘inclusive,’ -‘preclusive,’ and the adverbs ‘exclusively,’ ‘inclusively,’ &c. -These words are not often found in the vocabulary of the uneducated -classes; they belong rather to the language of books, or to the set -forms of eloquence, than to that of daily intercourse. We should -say, in common parlance, that a boy was _shut out_ of the room by -his companions; but we should hardly say that he was _excluded_. -In a secondary sense, however, such a word would be more properly -adopted. We should say correctly, ‘that such considerations were -_excluded_ from this view of the subject,’ where we could not very -well use ‘shut out.’ Again, we could not properly say that any -one was ‘included’ in a dungeon; meaning that he was ‘shut in.’ -Words drawn from these Latin roots have a very wide application in -English, but they are confined chiefly to a mental, and are seldom -used in a physical, sense. Saxon forms the basis of our language, -and is used in practical and domestic matters; while our spiritual -conceptions are expressed by French or Latin words. - -Another well-known Latin root is ‘cide’ (from cædĕre, to slay); -which corresponds in meaning with the more familiar Saxon word -‘kill.’ We have, not ‘cide,’ but ‘fratricide,’ ‘matricide,’ -‘regicide,’ ‘suicide,’ ‘parricide,’ ‘homicide,’ and ‘infanticide.’ -To these may be added, ‘concise,’ ‘precise,’ ‘decision,’ -‘incision,’ &c. All the latter are derived from the participle of -the same Latin verb--‘cæsus.’ - -Again: the root ‘sume’ (sumpt), from the Latin ‘sumĕre,’ to take, -gives us ‘assume,’ ‘consume,’ ‘presume,’ with their participial -derivatives, ‘assumption,’ ‘consumption,’ ‘presumption,’ -‘sumptuous,’ ‘presumptuous,’ &c. - -The Latin root ‘cede’ (cess) appears in English in two forms -of spelling; one, ‘cede,’ as ‘accede,’ ‘concede,’ ‘recede’; and -the other, ‘ceed,’ as in ‘exceed,’ ‘proceed,’ ‘succeed.’ These -also have their participial derivatives, as found in ‘excess,’ -‘success,’ ‘process,’ ‘accession,’ ‘succession,’ ‘procession.’ It -will be seen that in all these cases the rule holds good. _Cry_ -is a more household, domestic word, but ‘acclaim,’ ‘declaim,’ -‘proclaim’ are used on more important occasions. - -The principle of derivation by the change of an internal -vowel-sound prevailed in ancient Latin as well as in Saxon. -Thus, from the Latin verb ‘f_a_cĕre’ (to make or do) was formed -‘eff_i_cere’ (to effect or bring about), the _a_ in the root being -changed into an _i_ in the derivative; and we have English words -from both these sources:--fact, faculty, facility, &c., from -‘facĕre’; and defect, effect, deficient, efficient, &c., from the -other form. - -Some of these Latin roots are extremely prolific. For example, the -Latin verb ‘_ten_ere,’ to hold, produces a very large number of -English words. In certain verbs it appears in the form ‘_tain_,’ -as in to abs_tain_, apper_tain_, at_tain_, con_tain_, de_tain_, -main_tain_, ob_tain_, per_tain_, re_tain_, and sus_tain_. To -these may be added the derivatives, con_tin_ent, per_tin_ent, -and imper_tin_ent; besides which, we have from the same source, -‘_ten_ant,’ ‘_ten_able,’ ‘_ten_ure,’ ‘main_ten_ance,’ and -‘sus_ten_ance,’ &c. - -Again: the root ‘duce’ (from ‘ducĕre,’ to lead) gives rise to -many English derivatives. First we have (through French) the word -‘_Duke_,’ which originally meant the leader of an army. Then come -the verbs to ad_duce_, con_duce_, de_duce_, in_duce_, pro_duce_, -re_duce_, se_duce_, tra_duce_, in all which the idea of leading is -involved. To the same origin may be traced _duct_ile, aque_duct_, -via_duct_, con_duct_, and pro_duct_, besides de_duct_ion, -re_duct_ion, ab_duct_ion, pro_duct_ion, &c.--nineteen or twenty -words from one root! - -II. A rule has been laid down to enable us to determine whether an -English word is derived directly from Latin, or filtered from Latin -through French:--‘If the word comes directly from Latin, the only -change it will undergo will be in the ending. Thus “actio” in Latin -will be “actio_n_” in English; “innocentia” will make “innocence;” -“tormentum,” “torment,” &c. But if the word comes through French, -it will be more altered in its passage; it will be disturbed, not -only in its ending, but also internally. Thus “populus” in Latin is -“peuple” in French, and “people” in English. The Latin “thesaurus” -gives the French “trésor,” and the English “treasure.”’ This may be -accepted as a general rule, but it is often impossible to determine -by the outward form of a word whether we derive it directly from -its primitive Latin source, or take it at second hand from the -French. In most cases of doubt the probability is in favour of -the French, for there are still many English words which were at -first spelled, and probably pronounced, as in French, and whose -orthography, and perhaps pronunciation, was afterwards reformed and -brought back nearer to the Latin type. ‘Doubt’ and ‘debt’ are still -pronounced with the _b_ silent; but when first brought into English -they were both written and pronounced as in French--‘doute’ and -‘dette.’ Afterwards, when it became known that they were originally -derived from the Latin verbs ‘dubitare’ and ‘debere,’ the _b_ was -restored in the spelling, though the French pronunciation was -retained; and the same took place with many other Romance words. - -There are certain classes of English words from whose outward -form we may conclude that they are of Latin (or French) origin. -First, when an English noun ends in ‘_tion_’ preceded by a -vowel, we may be pretty sure that it is either directly from -Latin, or from Latin through French. Such words as ‘formation,’ -‘completion,’ ‘transition,’ ‘commotion,’ and ‘ablution,’ are -derived either directly or indirectly from Latin. We never meet -with this ending in words of purely Saxon origin. The termination -of these was in Latin ‘tio;’ in French they appear in ‘tion;’ -and in English the same ending (tion) is adopted. This Latin -ending, ‘tio,’ is, however, sometimes found in French in the form -_son_, which has thus been introduced into certain English words -of this class. The Latin ‘ratio’ gave the French ‘raison’ and the -English ‘reason.’ Again, ‘traditio’ in Latin became ‘trahison’ -in French and ‘treason’ in English. But in many cases the French -ending has not passed into English; for the words ‘declinaison,’ -‘conjugaison,’ ‘oraison,’ &c., appear in English as ‘declen_sion_,’ -‘conjuga_tion_,’ and ora_tion_, i.e. in their Latin rather than -their French forms. - -Another large class of originally Latin words appear in English -with the ending ‘_ty_.’ These are all abstract nouns, which in -Latin end in ‘_tas_.’ This final _tas_ is expressed in French by -_té_, and in English by _ty_. Thus the Latin ‘socie_tas_’ becomes -in French ‘socié_té_’ and in English ‘socie_ty_.’ In the same way, -from the Latin ‘bonitas’ come the French ‘bon_té_’ and the English -‘boun_ty_,’ &c. - -In many of these cases we find two forms of the same word, each -with its own meaning. One of these tends to the French, and the -other to the Latin, in spelling; and it may be observed that the -French has been more disturbed by contraction, abbreviation, or -inversion than the Latin. For example, the two words ‘secure’ and -‘sure’ are both originally from the Latin ‘securus;’ but the -former is directly from Latin, whereas the latter is from the -French contracted form--‘sûr.’ - -Another pair of these double forms may be found in ‘hospital’ -and ‘hôtel.’ The Latin ‘hospes’ signified either a ‘host’ or a -guest, i.e. the entertainer or the entertained. From ‘hospitalis’ -came the contracted French form ‘hôtel,’ in the sense of a house -where guests or travellers are entertained, as distinguished from -‘hôpital,’ where invalids are taken care of. From the French both -these words came into English, each retaining its original meaning. - -This principle of a divided meaning is also seen in ‘persecute’ -and ‘pursue,’ the latter of which was known in English before we -became acquainted with the former. ‘Pursue’ is from the French -‘poursuivre,’ and is used in the general sense of following after -eagerly. ‘Persecute,’ from the Latin ‘persecutus,’ the participle -of ‘persĕqui,’ is distinguished from ‘pursue’ by the meaning of ‘to -follow after with an intent to injure.’ - -Two other words of this class are ‘superficies’ and ‘surface.’ -The former is pure Latin; and is compounded of ‘super,’ ‘upon,’ -and ‘facies,’ a face. But this word is only used in a scientific -or mathematical sense; whereas ‘surface’ has a more general -signification, and means whatever we can see of the outside of any -material substance. - -We find a similar difference of meaning, as well as form, between -‘potion’ and ‘poison.’ Both these came originally from the Latin -‘potare,’ to drink. The former is the direct Latin, the latter -the French form, and both are now English. But the second denotes -a species of the first; for ‘poison,’ as is well known, is that -species of ‘potion’ which destroys life. - -This power of dividing a word into two meanings is not peculiar to -English; for many instances of it may be found in German, French, -and Italian. But it is of great advantage. It has the effect of -providing a large number of terms to express shades of thought by -slight differences of meaning, and it thus materially assists in -making language a more perfect exponent of human thought. - -The following list exhibits some of these double forms:-- - - outer utter - morrow morn - lance launch - wine vine - wind vent (peg) - wise guise - why how - wagon wain - deploy display - cattle chattels - cross cruise - milk milch - make match - metal mettle - nib neb - person parson - beacon beckon - to too - tone tune - discreet discrete - sauce souse - scatter shatter - stick stitch - cap cape - quell kill - glass glaze - grass graze - &c. &c. - -III. The third division of this class consists of Low Latin, or, as -they are sometimes called, ‘monkish Latin’ words. These have their -origin in classical Latin; but they are all corruptions of that -language, and were formed at a time when it had fallen into decay. -To this division belong such English words as ‘chance,’ ‘esquire,’ -‘ewer’, ‘forest,’ ‘justle,’ ‘manage,’ ‘noise,’ ‘noon,’ ‘pillage,’ -‘rear,’ &c. In all these we may recognise a Latin origin, though -the words themselves were unknown to the ancient Romans. - -From the Greek verb ‘βάλλειν,’ to cast, probably came the Italian -‘ballo,’ the French ‘bal,’ and the English ‘ball.’ Playing at -ball was, in the middle ages, often associated with _singing_ and -dancing. Hence the Romance word ‘ballare,’ and the Old Spanish -‘ballar,’ which both meant ‘to sing.’ The French ‘ballade’ and the -English ‘ballad’ may be thus accounted for. Apropos of ‘ball,’ it -may be here noted that the word ‘bull,’ as in the ‘Pope’s bull,’ is -derived from ‘bulla,’ the Latin for ‘ball.’ It was the custom, in -the middle ages, after writing any document or letter, to affix to -it a seal in the form of a ‘ball,’ so that the Pope’s ‘bull’ really -means the Pope’s ‘ball.’ - -Our word ‘chance’ was in old French ‘chéance,’ from ‘cheoir.’ These -are all from the Latin verb ‘cadĕre,’ to fall (out) or happen. The -French adjective ‘méchant’ is derived from the old participle -‘més-chéant,’ from ‘més-choir,’ to fall out badly or unluckily. We -have not adopted this adjective, but our noun ‘mischance’ may be -traced to this source. - -A curious case of a modern term derived from compound Latin roots -may be found in our word ‘squire.’ This is made up of the Latin -‘scutum,’ a shield, and ‘fero,’ I bear. Hence ‘scutifer,’ a -middle-age word, meant a shield-bearer, i.e. one who attended on -the knight, and carried his shield. In old French, ‘scutifer’ was -softened into ‘escuyer,’ or ‘écuyer;’ and it afterwards appeared in -English as ‘esquire,’ or ‘squire.’ - -The old French for ‘water’ was ‘aigue,’ from the Latin ‘aqua.’ From -this was formed the word ‘aiguière,’ a water-vessel; and this is -the origin of our English word ‘ewer,’as in ‘cream-ewer.’ - -Of the same class is the word ‘forest.’ This did not exist in -ancient Latin, but sprang up in later ages. The monks made the -word ‘foresta’ out of the Latin ‘foras,’ abroad, or out of doors; -the same root which produced the English words ‘foreign,’ and -‘foreigner,’ one who comes from abroad. The monkish Latin form was -‘foresta,’ the French ‘forêt,’ and the English ‘forest.’ - -Under this head may be also placed ‘comfort’ and ‘courage.’ -The former of these is well known to be peculiarly English, -and there is no word in any of the continental languages which -exactly translates it. True, the French are beginning to use -the word ‘comfortáble;’ but it may be fairly doubted whether it -realises with them the same idea as with us. It has evidently a -Latin element; and the second syllable is, no doubt, derived from -the Latin ‘fortis,’ strong. So that, what ‘comforts’ would, in -the first instance, probably mean, what strengthens, and would -especially apply to ‘creature-comforts’--food or drink, which -strengthens the body. Afterwards it would be used in a secondary -and more extended sense. - -The Italian word ‘coraggio’ is derived from ‘core,’ as the French -‘courage’ comes from ‘cœur;’ both these being originally from the -Latin ‘cor,’ the heart. From French the word ‘courage’ has passed -into English, where the spelling is the same, though it is somewhat -differently pronounced. But neither ‘comfort’ nor ‘courage’ is -found in classical Latin. - -The word ‘contrada’ in Italian and Provençal came into French in -the form ‘contrée,’ and into English as ‘country.’ It is derived -from the Latin preposition ‘contra,’ against; and means, properly, -the part of the land which lies over--_against_--us. But the -word is altogether of modern manufacture. (Compare the German -‘Gegenstand,’ where the meaning is precisely the same.) - -The Latin preposition ‘juxta’ has given rise to several words, -both French and English, which did not exist in ancient Latin. The -French ‘joust,’ a combat in which the antagonists rushed at, or -pushed _close to_, one another, is one of these. Also ‘ajouter,’ -to add or put one thing _close_ to another. From these we have, -in English, the adverb ‘just,’ as in the phrase ‘just now,’ i.e. -_close_ to the present time; and also the verb ‘to adjust,’ i.e. to -place things _close to_ each other. ‘To justle,’ or ‘jostle,’ is a -frequentative verb, formed from the above adverb ‘just.’ - -The word ‘danger’ is composed of two Latin roots: ‘damn-um,’ -loss, and ‘ger-o,’ I bear; these produced the Low Latin word -‘domigerium.’ This was afterwards corrupted and softened into the -French ‘danger,’ and in that form passed into English. - -Our word ‘manage’ is from the Latin ‘manus,’ a hand, through the -French ‘main.’ There was a Low Latin word, ‘managerium,’ which -meant occupation or actual possession, in the sense of holding -in the hand. Thence the word was transferred to the furniture -requisite for the occupation of a house, and, in the shape of the -French ‘ménage,’ to the household of the occupier. The identity of -this word with the English ‘manage’ may be seen in the expression -‘bon mesnagier,’ one who understands how to conduct a household--a -good manager. - -From the Latin ‘manēre,’ to remain, or dwell, are derived the -French ‘maison’ and the corresponding English ‘mansion;’ and from -the same source come the English words ‘manse,’ the clergyman’s -dwelling-house, and ‘manor,’ the lord’s dwelling-house. - -From ‘minutus,’ the Latin participle of the verb ‘minuo,’ come the -English adjective ‘minúte’ and the noun ‘mínute.’ Properly ‘minuto -primo’ was, in Italian, the first division of the hour; ‘minuto -secondo’ was the _second_, and ‘minuto terzo’ the _third_ division; -which is, in French, ‘_tierce_,’ i.e. the sixtieth part of a -second. The English word ‘mite’ is only a contraction of minute--it -is a minute insect; and a ‘minuet’ is a dance with _short_ steps. - -‘Noisome’ and ‘annoy’ are derived from the Latin ‘nocēre,’ to hurt -or injure; whence it may be conjectured also comes ‘noise,’ as -being something that annoys, as a stir, wrangle, or brawl. - -The word ‘peel’ means the rind of fruit or the bark of a stick. -This is from the Latin ‘pellis,’ skin, from which comes the French -‘peau.’ The radical sense of this word is, that which is stripped -off, or _pilled_. ‘Pillage’ is a derivative of ‘pill,’ or ‘peel.’ -It means a collection of things stripped off, or plundered. - -The English word ‘palm’ (of the hand) is from the Greek παλάμη, -through the Latin ‘palma.’ A certain tree is called a palm because -of its broad spreading leaves, which resemble the palm of the hand; -and a palmer was formerly a pilgrim carrying a palm-branch in his -hand, in sign of his expedition to the Holy Land. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -OLD AND NEW WORDS. - - -One very interesting point in the study of language is the cause -of the introduction of new, and the falling off of old, words. It -is to be observed that a new word is generally ushered in with a -sort of parade--a flourish of trumpets; many writers make a rush -at it, and drag it in, whether applicable or not. Its novelty is -attractive; and it is often used in a sense which really does -not belong to it. But it is not every word thus introduced that -maintains its place: it is often found, after all, that it has -more sound than sense, and is rather ornamental than useful; and -then it is sure to fall into neglect, dies away, and is heard of -no more. On the other hand, in the natural course of things, many -words which have done good service, and for a long period, are -at length discontinued, and give way to new, and sometimes more -useful, terms. These slip out of the language unperceived; they -are no longer wanted--no one enquires for them; some new and more -expressive terms push them out, and they are consigned to oblivion. - -It is quite ludicrous to observe how strangely uneducated or -illiterate people use words which, to them, are quite new. They -are so fascinated with their novelty, or, perhaps, with their -sound and length, that they apply them in all manner of odd -and eccentric meanings. Two of these words--‘promiscuous’ and -‘immaterial’--seem to be great favourites with a certain class: an -ignorant Englishman somehow imagines that the word ‘immaterial’ -conveys a sort of reproach, and he insults his fellow-workman by -calling him an ‘_immaterial_,’ meaning that he is a fellow of no -worth or respectability. The word ‘promiscuous’ is often used by -the lower orders in the same loose way. A witness in a trial, not -long ago, stated that ‘he met the prisoner “promiscuously” (or, -as he pronounced it, ‘permiskously’) in the streets;’ meaning, by -chance, or casually. - -If we trace the history of the English language through the -various phases of its career, from its earliest up to its present -condition, we shall find that it has been continually growing more -Romance and less Saxon. It is said that a process of decay had set -in even before the introduction of Anglo-Saxon into England--that -the language had already lost some of its inflections; and it is -well known that, in process of time, these endings, with some few -exceptions, wholly disappeared. Again, at a later period, many -Saxon nouns which had formed their plurals in _en_ rejected this -form, and adopted the Romance (or French) plural-ending, _s_. At -one time, the word ‘eye’ formed its plural ‘eyne,’ or ‘eyen;’ -‘tree’ made ‘treen;’ ‘shoe,’ ‘shoon;’ and even the Romance word -‘uncle,’ ‘unclen.’ These forms have now all departed, and in their -place we have ‘eye_s_,’ ‘tree_s_,’ ‘shoe_s_,’ &c. - -The mode of forming a plural by a change of the internal vowel, -which was common in Saxon nouns, has now almost vanished from the -language. We have some few left; but not more than five or six -examples, as ‘tooth,’ ‘goose,’ ‘foot,’ ‘man,’ ‘woman,’ and ‘mouse.’ -We may be quite confident that any new nouns brought into English -will form their plurals by the French, and not the German, system. - -Again, verbs of strong conjugation are much fewer than formerly. -Many verbs now form the past tense by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the -present which, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, changed -the internal vowel-sound for that purpose. To ‘climb’ formerly -made ‘clomb’ (a form used by Milton in the seventeenth century); -‘quake’ made ‘quoke;’ ‘laugh,’ ‘lofe;’ ‘reach,’ ‘raught;’ and many -others. All these now adopt the weak form of conjugation, and form -the past tense by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the root of the verb: -‘climb-_ed_,’ ‘laugh-_ed_,’ ‘reach-_ed_,’ ‘quak-_ed_,’ &c. And so -it will be with all verbs that may be hereafter brought into the -language; they will, one and all, form the past tense by adding -_ed_. - -But not only have we lost these Saxon characteristics: whole lists -of Saxon words have disappeared which once did good service in the -language. This may be easily shown by glancing over a few pages of -Chaucer or Mandeville, where we shall find a multitude of terms -which have been long disused. For example:-- - - clepen to call - thorpe village - grutchen to murmur - stound moment - sterve to die - swappen to strike - foryield to repay - reden to advise, &c. - -Even in Shakspere and Milton we may find many words which are now -obsolete. All these, again, are Saxon; so that it may be truly said -that our losses have been Saxon, whilst our additions have been all -Romance, i.e. Latin or French. - -In most cases substitutions have been made; but we shall always -find that the disused word was Saxon, while the one substituted -for it is French or Latin. Thus, for the Saxon compound -‘monath-seoc’ (month sick) we now have ‘lunatic;’ instead of -‘waeter-adl’ (water-illness), we have ‘dropsy.’ The old Anglo-Saxon -‘eorth-gemet’ (earth-measure) has given way to the Greek -‘geometry;’ and the Saxon ‘witena-gemot’ (meeting of wise men), has -been transformed into the French ‘parliament.’ - -In all probability it was the influence of the Norman conquest that -assisted this tendency to substitute single terms for compound -words. The French language not being favourable to such formations, -after a time pushed out many Saxon compounds; and yet, in point -of clearness, power, and feeling, the Saxon words were far more -effective. Their separate parts were significant, and familiar to -the commonest understanding; whereas the new word was, of course, -at first altogether foreign, and even after a time was far from -being so impressive as the other. For example, the meaning of the -Anglo-Saxon noun ‘_sige-beacan_’ must have been clear to the most -uneducated mind: ‘sige’ is ‘victory,’ and ‘beacan’ is ‘sign;’ -that is, ‘victory-sign.’ Now, for this was substituted ‘trophy,’ -which, being a more uncommon word, does not explain itself as the -other, and is, therefore, not so vivid or picturesque. Again, -‘_heah-setl_’ is translated into ‘throne.’ In the former word we -have two distinct ideas, ‘high’ and ‘seat,’ both familiar to the -most illiterate peasant; whereas the word ‘throne,’ though now -common enough, must at first have puzzled the people considerably. - -One very expressive Saxon word, ‘_wanhope_,’ has disappeared -from the language. This may be considered a real loss; ‘wanhope’ -expressed that condition of the mind in which we have not actually -lost all hope, but when it is beginning to _wane_, i.e. grow -gradually less, and we feel it slipping away from us. ‘Hope’ and -‘despair’ are the two opposite ends of the scale, and ‘wanhope’ -formerly expressed an intermediate state of mind. This was a -beautiful word, and we have now no equivalent for it. - -A host of Saxon derivatives have also vanished from the language -which were once in common use; and among them may be named those -having the prefix ‘_for_.’ We still retain the words ‘forbear,’ -‘forbid,’ ‘forget,’ ‘forgive,’ ‘forlorn,’ and ‘forswear;’ but in -the writings of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries we often meet -with ‘forfend,’ ‘fordrive,’ ‘forsay,’ ‘forspend,’ ‘forwither,’ -‘forwaste,’ &c., all of which are now dead and buried. One word of -this class survives, though in a different form, viz. the Saxon -verb ‘fordon.’ This verb, though given up, may be still seen in -the familiar expression ‘_to do for_.’ - -This tendency towards raising the French at the expense of -the Saxon portion of English may be accounted for by various -circumstances of our history. First, there can be no doubt that -the Norman conquest was mainly instrumental in producing this -effect. This event could not have failed to be unfavourable to -the prosperity of the Saxon. The relation in which the conquerors -stood to the conquered was of itself sufficient to account for it, -and though the enmity between the two races will explain how the -two languages were kept so long separated, when the fusion did -at length take place, the advantage was clearly in favour of the -governing classes. - -Another cause of this leaning to the French may have been the -number of French words introduced by Chaucer. The English language -(if, indeed, it then deserved that name) was in the latter part -of the reign of Edward III. only just beginning to be formed. The -Saxon element, which ever since the Conquest had been crushed, was -now lifting its head, whilst the French was somewhat discouraged. -But the language was not then fit for literary, especially for -poetical, purposes; and, therefore, at the very time when it first -appeared as English, a large influx of French words took place. - -But this result was assisted by other circumstances. The number of -Huguenot refugees who found shelter in England after the massacre -of St. Bartholomew added materially to the French population of -this country, and assisted in swelling the French vocabulary of the -English language. - -In the seventeenth century the marriage of Charles I. and Henrietta -Maria of France could not fail to produce some effect on the -language and literature of the age, and though this French taste -received a check during the rule of Cromwell, it returned with -double force at the Restoration. The foreign tastes acquired by -Charles II. in his wanderings on the continent mainly contributed -to this state of things, and on the return of the Stewarts, the -general tone of the court and nobility, as well as the literature -of the age, was French. - -But this was as nothing when compared with the consequences of -Louis XIV.’s revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in 1685. We are -told by Mr. Smiles that, in consequence of this cruel and impolitic -act, as many as 400,000 French emigrants found an asylum in this -country. It is impossible that this could have been without effect -on the English language, and although statistics on the subject -are wanting, we may confidently conclude that this immigration -considerably increased the French element of the English language. - -There can be little doubt that the style of Latinity which -Johnson adopted also led to the abandonment of many words of -Saxon origin. He was the most weighty authority in England in all -things regarding language, style, and literature, till the year -of his death, 1784; and his numerous imitators, maintaining his -peculiarities of style, still further contributed to the same state -of things. Add to all these influences the general leaning of most -writers of the present day, and we shall not be surprised at the -condition of the English language. - -When we consider the numerous and continual attacks which the -Saxon element of English has thus sustained, we may be inclined -to wonder that there should be any of it left--that it should not -have been utterly crushed and annihilated by these raids. But this -wonder will be increased when we find that it not only exists, but -constitutes to this day by far the larger portion of our language. -This is surely sufficient to prove the innate depth, force, and -vigour of that element; and we may fairly conclude that if it has -so far been able to make head against these innovations, it retains -an intrinsic power to resist future attacks of the same nature. - -In truth, Saxon is not so much an element as the very basis and -foundation of English. The great body of articles, pronouns, -numerals, conjunctions, prepositions, signs, auxiliaries, &c.--in -fine, all the framework and joints of the language--are drawn from -that source. - -There are, however, some French philologists who would have it -that the majority of words in English is much in favour of French. -M. Thommerel gives himself great pains to prove this conclusion, -but apparently on very insufficient grounds; and M. Génin, who -has written some valuable works on his own language, says, in his -‘Variations du langage Français,’ that the English are indebted -to the French for more than three quarters of their language! -‘Les Anglais,’ he writes, ‘ne sont riches que de nos dépouilles; -si l’on se mettait à cribler leur langue, et à reprendre ce qui -nous appartient, il ne leur resterait pas même de quoi se dire: -“Bonjour! comment vous portez-vous?” Leur fameuse formule, _How do -you do?_ est volée à la France.’ The tone of this remark is pretty -evident, and he surely here allows his patriotism to get the better -of his good sense; for he certainly ought to have known that, -though our language is enriched with many French words, the main -body of English, since the fourteenth century, has been, and is at -the present moment, drawn from a Saxon and not a French source. -In the case of ‘How do you do?’ however, he is probably right. He -quotes from several ballads of the twelfth century the expression -‘Comment le faites-vous?’ as then used in the English sense of ‘How -do you do?’ to prove that we have adopted--or rather, as he says, -stolen--this form from the French. It has been suggested that the -verb _do_, in this phrase, is derived from the Saxon ‘dugan,’ to -prosper or prevail, from which comes the more modern ‘doughty;’ as -in ‘_a doughty knight_.’ According to this explanation, ‘How do -you do?’ is equivalent to ‘How do you get on, or prosper?’ But Mr. -Wedgewood, in his ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ rejects this -view. He agrees here with M. Génin, that it is a close translation -of the old French ‘Comment le faites-vous?’ And so the matter now -stands. - -Various circumstances give rise to new words, which either remain -in or depart from the language as they may be found serviceable or -otherwise. One modern importation is ‘_Handbook_.’ This appears -an unnecessary innovation, more especially as we had already a -word which answered the same purpose, and quite as well, viz. -‘_Manual_,’ and which has the additional recommendation of being a -simple, not a compound, word. ‘Handbook’ is of German origin, and -probably owes its introduction to that German influence which came -in with the late Prince Consort. Mr. Murray has largely contributed -to its popularity by his numerous and well-known ‘handbooks,’ and -the word will now most probably retain its place in the language. - -D’Israeli the elder claims the honour of having introduced the word -‘_Fatherland_’ into English. This is certainly a useful addition -to our vocabulary. We had before no word to distinguish between -the two Latin meanings of ‘_rus_’ and ‘_patria_;’ ‘country’ being -equivocal in sense, since it may mean either the land of our birth, -or that part of it distinguished from the town. Here the French -have hitherto had the advantage of us: they have ‘patrie,’ for -‘Fatherland;’ ‘pays,’ for a territorial division; and ‘campagne,’ -in a rural sense. - -The exact date of the introduction of the term ‘_stand-point_’ is -not known, but it is among the new words of about thirty or forty -years’ standing; and we may conclude from its form that it is -German. This word is, no doubt, an improvement on ‘point of view,’ -as being a closer, and therefore more convenient, expression. It is -now in common use, especially with writers on mental philosophy. - -The noun ‘_antecedent_’ has been hitherto used exclusively as -a term of grammar, but of late years it has appeared in a new -sense. It is now often used, in the plural number, to signify the -actions and general conduct of some one whose reputation we wish -to ascertain. We must inquire, they say, into his ‘antecedents;’ -that is, try to find out what he has been doing, who were his -companions, how he has hitherto conducted himself, &c. This is -certainly a convenient term enough. It expresses concisely what -would otherwise require a rather ponderous circumlocution. Mr. -‘Punch,’ with his usual satirical spirit, said that it would -be more satisfactory to know something of a suspected man’s -_relatives_ than of his _antecedents_! - -We learn from Lord Macaulay that the word ‘gutted’ was first used -on the night in which James II. fled from London: ‘The king’s -printing-house ... was, to use a coarse metaphor, _which then for -the first time, came into fashion_, completely _gutted_.’ - -The first writer who used the word ‘anecdote’ was Procopius, the -Greek historian of the reign of Justinian. He wrote a work which he -called ‘Anecdotes,’ or a ‘Secret History.’ The Emperor Justinian -and his wife, Theodora, are here represented as two demons, who -had assumed a human form for the destruction of mankind. Procopius -tells us that he wrote this work as a supplement to his ‘History,’ -in which he could not, for fear of torture and death, speak of -some living persons as they deserved. The word ‘anecdote’ is -compounded from the Greek ἀν (an) not, ἐκ (ek) out, and δότα -(dota) given. It thus means a fact not given out or put forth--an -unpublished story. Though this was its original meaning, every -one, of course, knows that we have now whole volumes of published -anecdotes. - -The ending ‘ation’ is, in English, chiefly applied to Latin roots; -as in ‘consult_ation_,’ ‘cre_ation_,’ ‘don_ation_,’ &c. It is -said that Mr. Dundas, afterwards Lord Melville, was the first to -use the word ‘_starvation_,’ which he introduced in one of his -speeches in the House of Commons, on the American war, 1775. Here -we had, for the first time, a Saxon root--‘starve’--with a Latin -ending--‘ation;’ a hybrid formation. From this circumstance, -we are told that Mr. Dundas was ever afterwards called by his -acquaintances, ‘Starvation Dundas.’ But whatever objection may -have been made to it, the word has now taken a firm hold on the -language, and is used by the best writers as a perfectly legitimate -term. - -The mania of modern times for grand terms has produced some very -curious words. Tradesmen, in advertising some new invention or -article for sale, almost always endeavour to attract public -attention towards it by giving it an unusually grand name, -generally from a Greek source, but often a strange combination. To -take a few cases of these mysterious compounds:--‘_Rypophagon_’ -Soap. This, it may be presumed, means dirt-eating, or -dirt-consuming, soap. But, as all soap cleanses the skin, why -should this sort be designated as particularly cleansing? Simply -to sell the article. Indeed, we can hardly walk far in the streets -of London without seeing some fantastic term of this sort paraded -in the shop windows. The hair-dresser exhibits his ‘_Auricomous_’ -Fluid; and the son of Crispin his ‘_Antigropelos_’ Boots. These -meet us at every turn. One tradesman has lately advertised a -machine which he thinks proper to call a ‘_Dotosthene_;’ by which, -we may conjecture, he means, an instrument for strengthening the -back. - -Some years ago the writer, walking up Oxford Street, became aware -of a fellow carrying on his back before him a huge placard, on -which was inscribed the strange word ‘Therapolegeia.’ This was -a decided poser. On rubbing up his Greek, however, he at length -discovered that this curious word might possibly mean, ‘an office -for the registry of servants;’ and so it turned out. But which of -the two parties--the ladies who wished to hire the servants, or -the servants who wanted to be hired--best understood the word -‘Therapolegeia’ is a problem still to be solved. - -Tailors--I beg their pardon, _Merchant Clothiers_!--now persist -in calling coats and waistcoats ‘tunics’ and ‘vests;’ and -as for ‘trousers,’ the word is considered far too gross for -ears polite! And what has become of ladies’ bonnets? They are -gone--departed--vanished! but they have left their ghosts behind -them, in the shape of a wretched little bunch of silk and ribbons, -dignified by the name of ‘Head-dress!’ - -Some of these outlandish compounds are not very intelligible. One -of them--‘Orthopœdic’--is a term applied to an institution lately -established in Oxford Street, for operating on club-feet. The -name is probably intended to raise the establishment in public -estimation, but the form of the word has justly called forth the -censure of some critics. If this word, as seems probable, is meant -to convey the idea of ‘straight-footed,’ the third syllable should -be formed from the Greek ποῦς, ποδός, a foot, and the whole word -should stand ‘orth_o_podic,’ and not ‘orthop_œ_dic.’ - -‘Stereotype,’ a term now commonly known to printers, and, indeed, -to general readers, was invented and first used by Didot, the -well-known French printer. This word will certainly maintain its -place in English. - -The adjective ‘inimical’ is said to owe its origin to Mr. Windham, -who first introduced it in one of his speeches in the House of -Commons about eighty years ago. It is useful to mark a distinction -between private and public enmity; ‘inimical’ having the first, and -‘hostile’ the second, meaning. But the word is not very popular, in -spite of its four syllables, and does not appear to make its way. - -The great French Revolution of 1789, as might have been expected, -brought forth many new words, some of which have been adopted in -English. One, destined to become a very prominent feature of the -times, was ‘Guillotine.’ This well-known instrument was named after -its inventor, Dr. Guillotin. How or why they made it feminine, by -adding to it an _e_, is not clear; but the word now stands ‘_La_ -Guillotin_e_,’ and has secured for itself a permanent place in the -French language. - -Other words which were the offspring of those dreadful times have -disappeared from common use and parlance, and are only occasionally -referred to as memorials of the age which produced them. Such -are the new names then given to the months; as ‘Brumaire,’ -‘Vendémiaire,’ ‘Fructidor,’ ‘Thermidor,’ &c. When the fury of the -revolutionary spirit was at length exhausted, and things were -brought back to their former condition, these words naturally -fell into disuse, and at last disappeared. There were, however, -others belonging to this period which seem to have taken a stronger -hold on the people’s mind, and which form to this day part of the -legitimate vocabulary of the French language. In this class may be -named ‘fusillade’ and ‘noyade:’ those horrible wholesale shootings -and drownings of the Vendéans which formed such a frightful -picture of that awful period. ‘Terroriste’ first appeared under -Robespierre’s administration; and the assassins of the unfortunate -prisoners in September 1792 were termed ‘Septembriseurs.’ - -It is natural to suppose that political names would be born with -the parties which they designate. The terms ‘Whig’ and ‘Tory’ were -never heard of till the close of the seventeenth century; and it -is curious that there is much obscurity concerning the etymology -of both these words. All that is positively known on the subject -is, that the first is of Scotch, and the second of Irish, origin. -‘Whig’ was first applied to the Scotch covenanters, and ‘Tory’ to -the Popish outlaws who favoured the cause of King James II. in -Ireland. It may be remarked, by the way, that these two words, -though not wholly extinct, are now much less frequently heard -than formerly. Different circumstances of political warfare -have introduced new terms in both these cases. ‘Tories’ became -‘Protectionists’ during the great debates on the Corn-Laws; and now -they call themselves ‘Conservatives.’ The Whigs, again, appeared -on one occasion as ‘Reformers,’ and they are at present known as -‘Liberals.’ - -The name ‘Puritan,’ as applied to a religious sect, still -flourishes in English. It was first heard of in the reign of Queen -Elizabeth, and then given as a nickname to a party which would -have even reformed the Reformation. These ‘Puritans’ affected a -superhuman purity of morals, and hence their name. They were also -sometimes called ‘Precisians,’ from their excessive fastidiousness -about insignificant matters (this latter word has now fallen out of -use). - -The distinction between ‘Roundhead’ and ‘Cavalier’ first appeared -during the civil war between Charles I. and his Parliament. The -‘Roundhead,’ in his sour and sullen spirit, condemned all outward -ornament, and wore his hair cropped close; thus showing the _round_ -form of his _head_; in contradistinction to the chivalrous tone, -the romantic spirit, and the _flowing locks_ of the Cavalier. - -The opprobrious term ‘_Gueux_’ (Beggars) was adopted in 1566 -by the Dutch revolters against the rule of Philip II. Margaret -of Parma, then governor of the Netherlands, being somewhat -disconcerted at the numbers of that party, was reassured by her -minister, Barlaimont, who remarked to her, that there was nothing -to be feared from a crowd of ‘beggars.’ The party of confederates -accepted this name, and prided themselves on it; and in every -language in which the history of the revolt of the Netherlands has -been written, this French term, ‘gueux,’ is used to designate these -malcontents. - -Many popular authors, presuming on their own authority, have -endeavoured to introduce new and strange terms into the English -language. Coleridge, in his work ‘On Church and State,’ makes use -of the following extraordinary words:--‘Influencive,’ ‘extroitive, -‘retroitive,’ and ‘productivity.’ Bentley uses:--‘Commentitious,’ -‘aliene,’ ‘negoce,’ and ‘exscribe.’ But no other writers adopted -these words: a clear proof that they were not wanted. - -Charles Lamb used, in his writings, several words which have not -succeeded in maintaining a place in the language. Among them may be -named, ‘agnise,’ ‘burgeon,’ and ‘arride.’ - -Again, any subject of temporary excitement will generally give -birth to some new words. The Indian Mutiny gave us ‘to loot;’ and -during the American civil war, we made our first acquaintance -with ‘secesh,’ ‘skedaddle,’ and ‘stampede.’ Words born under such -circumstances may be long- or short-lived: some maintain a place in -the language, others have but a brief existence; they ‘fret their -hour upon the stage,’ and then are heard no more. - -We have also many examples of words which originated in some -question of passing interest, and which, though the causes of -their first appearance have long since passed away, still remain -in our language, and do us excellent service there. The general -belief in astrology in the Middle Ages left us several words of -this class. Though we no longer believe that the position of the -stars can affect our fortunes, we still use the word ‘disaster,’ in -the sense of a calamity or misfortune. From the same source come -the adjectives, ‘jovial,’ ‘mercurial,’ ‘martial,’ and ‘saturnine.’ -These express qualities supposed to belong to those heathen gods -whose names were given to the constellation under which any one was -born. In astrological phraseology a man’s fortune is still said to -be _in the ascendant_, or to _culminate_. Both these expressions -were first used by the astrologers, and referred to certain stars -which, when they had risen to their greatest height, were believed -to portend prosperity. The word ‘aspect,’ though now expressing the -general appearance of things, was first applied, astrologically, -to the physical appearance or outward view of the heavens; and -‘lunatic’ was first used in the sense of one supposed to be -mentally affected by a change of the moon. - -Other superstitions have produced words of a like nature. The -ancient Roman divination may be still traced in our English words -‘augur,’ ‘auspice,’ ‘omen,’ &c. The left hand was always regarded -by the ancients as portending ill-luck; and hence our modern word -‘sinister,’ which at first meant simply ‘left-handed,’ has now come -to signify ‘foreboding evil.’ - -‘Its,’ the possessive form of the neuter personal pronoun, is of -comparatively late introduction into our language. In Anglo-Saxon, -the same form served for both the masculine and neuter possessive; -thus:-- - - m. f. n. - Nom. He heo hit. - Gen. _His_ hire _his_. - -At first, the nominative neuter, ‘it,’ was used for the possessive -neuter, of which many instances occur in Shakspere. See ‘King -John,’ act. ii. sc. 1: ‘Go to _it_ grandame, child.’ The same may -be found in the authorised version of the Scriptures (of 1611); see -Leviticus xxv. 5: ‘That which groweth of “_it_” own accord.’ But -in this translation the word ‘its’ is not once found. Genesis i. -11: ‘The tree yielding fruit after _his_ kind.’ Mark. ix. 50: ‘If -the salt have lost _his_ saltness,’ &c. Milton avoids the use of -‘its.’ It seldom occurs in his prose works, and there are not more -than three or four instances of it in his poems. The precise date -and occasion of the first introduction of ‘_its_’ into the English -language have not been ascertained, but it was probably early in -the seventeenth century. It is said that the ‘Rowley’s Poems’ of -Chatterton was detected to be a forgery by the presence of the word -‘_its_’ several times in the MS. Rowley was represented as a monk -of the fifteenth century, when the word was certainly not in the -language. - - -_New French Words._ - -M. Génin, in his chapter on the age of certain French words and -phrases, mentions the following cases:[1]-- - -1. ‘Désagrément’ and ‘renaissance;’ mentioned by Père Bouhours as -new words in 1675, two years after the death of Molière. - -2. ‘Insidieux’ and ‘sécurité;’ established in the language by -Malherbe. - -3. ‘Sagacité;’ first found in the works of St.-Réal and Balzac. - -4. The sixteenth century was remarkable for an irruption of -diminutives, introduced chiefly by the influence of Ronsard and -his school. Most of these are now lost; but two of them, viz. -‘historiette’ and ‘amourette,’ are retained. - -5. It was Ménage who first used the word ‘prosateur.’ - -6. The negative words ‘intolérance,’ ‘inexpérimenter,’ ‘indévot,’ -‘irréligieux,’ and ‘impardonnable’ were subjects of much discussion -about the end of the seventeenth century, and did not take root in -the language till the eighteenth. - -7. The Abbé St.-Pierre first used the word ‘bienfaisance.’ - -8. St.-Évremond discusses the word ‘vaste,’ remarking that it was -then new, and not firmly established. - -9. Ronsard first used ‘avidité,’ and ‘ode;’ and Baïf introduced -‘épigramme,’ ‘aigredoux,’ and ‘élégie.’ - -10. In the seventeenth century, the literati of the Hôtel -Rambouillet produced several new words: Ségrais gave to the French -language ‘impardonnable;’ Desmarets, ‘plumeux;’ and Balzac, -‘féliciter.’ - -The members of the Port-Royal also furnished their contingent of -new words, which the Jesuits of course condemned as ridiculous and -detestable. Among these new terms were ‘hydrie’ and ‘amphore.’ The -first appears in a translation of Ecclesiastes xii. 6: ‘Antequam -conteratur _hydria_ ad fontem’--‘Before the _pitcher_ be broken -at the well.’ The second, ‘amphore,’ was used in a translation of -Horace’s ode, ‘Ad Amphoram.’ But ‘hydrie’ was not destined to live, -and has become obsolete; ‘amphore’ is still retained. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -DEGENERACY OF WORDS. - - -One point to be observed in the nature and history of words is -their tendency to contract in form and degenerate in meaning. -A word which, in the beginning of its career, has generally a -favourable, or at any rate a not disparaging, meaning, becomes, -as it grows older, weaker in effect and more contracted in form -and signification, and, in most cases, falls into an unfavourable -sense. It does not improve or extend, but contracts and -deteriorates in meaning. Archbishop Trench uses this fact as an -argument to prove the perversity and evil tendencies of mankind; -and it must be admitted to have considerable force. Take the two -verbs, to ‘resent’ and to ‘retaliate.’ The first of these means, -etymologically, ‘to feel back,’ or ‘feel in return.’ Of course, one -may feel kindly or unkindly, according to circumstances: but we -now never use this word in a favourable sense. We are never said -to ‘_resent_’ kindness or affection; but only injury, slander, ill -deeds, &c. Again, the derivation of ‘retaliate’ is from the Latin -‘re’ (back) and ‘talis’ (such); and it would naturally signify, -‘to give back such’ (as we have received). But we now retaliate -offences or indignities, and never favours or benefits. These words -were, however, once used in a much more extended sense. Dr. South, -a celebrated preacher of Charles II.’s time, in one of his sermons -has the expression, ‘resenting God’s favours,’ which, according to -the present restricted meaning of the word, would seem to a modern -reader positively blasphemous. But in the seventeenth century the -word ‘resent’ implied good as well as bad feeling; gratitude for -benefits received as well as anger for injury done. - -This tendency to degenerate will appear, perhaps, more evidently if -we inquire into the original source of certain English words which -are now used as the strongest terms of reproach in the language. -Among these may be named, ‘_thief_,’ ‘_villain_,’ and ‘_vagabond_.’ - -The first is of Saxon origin. ‘_Theow_’ was a term originally -applied to one of the servile classes of the Anglo-Saxon -population, and in its first sense implied no reproach. But, as -people in this position had many temptations to fraud and deceit, -the word at length came to have its modern signification; i.e. it -degenerated into the present meaning of ‘thief.’ - -‘_Villanus_’ was, in Latin, first used in the sense of a -farm-servant; but as those in this capacity acquired a bad -reputation by their immorality and brutal violence, the whole class -was stigmatised; and thus the word ‘villain’ now conveys, as every -one knows, a very different sense from that of farm-servant. - -There is no particular reproach conveyed in the etymology of -‘_vagabond_.’ It meant at first simply a wanderer. But as the -habits of a wanderer are likely to become unsteady, irregular, -and reckless, this term, in course of time, degenerated into its -present acceptation. It is now always associated with the ideas of -a loose morality and want of sobriety. - -‘_Prejudice_’ is another of those words which have gradually got -rid of their favourable meaning, and are, in most cases, used in -a bad sense. It is true, we sometimes say ‘prejudiced _in favour_ -of’ some person or thing; but, without this specification, there -is always a leaning towards the bad sense of the word. And yet the -derivation shows simply, ‘a _judgment_ formed _before_ sufficient -reflection,’ whether favourable or otherwise. - -In the same class may be placed ‘_animosity_.’ In Latin, -‘animosus’ meant courageous, full of soul, vigour, and ardour. -Now, it is wholly confined to the sense of a violent feeling of -anger, hatred, and resentment. In fine, it has lost all its beauty. -There is no longer the least trace of anything noble in the word -‘animosity.’ - -The words ‘_simple_’ and ‘_simplicity_’ still retain something -of their original charm, but it is much to be feared that they -are more frequently used in a contemptuous sense. We speak of a -‘simple’ fellow, as of one who is easily cheated or duped; one -wanting in shrewdness; anything but ‘_knowing_;’ which, by the -way, is another term which has degenerated into an unfavourable -acceptation. - -It may seem strange, but it is certainly true, that the word -‘_good_’ which is naturally associated with everything high, pure, -and noble, both in morals and intellect, has partaken of this -general tendency downwards, and is often used in the sense of -‘able to pay,’ or ‘having sufficient means to discharge’ debts. -This use of the word is found in the language as far back as -Shakspere’s time. In the ‘Merchant of Venice,’ Shylock says to -Bassanio:--‘Antonio is a _good_ man?’ and when Bassanio asks him -‘if he has heard any imputation to the contrary,’ he replies:--‘My -meaning in saying he is a _good_ man, is to have you understand me -that he is sufficient.’ This is still the common acceptation of -the word with city men; with them, a _good_ man is one who has a -large balance at his banker’s. - -If we look into the original meaning of the word ‘_cunning_,’ we -shall find that it was not at first used in its present bad sense. -This is one of a numerous Saxon family, based upon the type ‘_kn_’ -or ‘_cn_;’ as ‘ken,’ ‘know,’ ‘can,’ ‘king,’ ‘cunning,’ &c. We find -in Psalms cxxxvii. 5:--‘If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right -hand forget her “cunning,”’ where the word is used for skill or -art. This meaning is now seldom applied, while the word has kept -its sense of deceit or slyness. - -The same may be said of ‘_craft_.’ It had at first a good as well -as a bad sense. It meant ability or dexterity, as well as fraud -or artifice. Now its bad meaning is in the ascendant. If the -favourable sense is sometimes intended, this is the exception, not -the rule. - -Indeed, there are many English words which, though not taken in a -positively unfavourable sense, have yet a tendency that way--which -require qualifying, if we wish them to be understood favourably. -For instance, if we speak of any one’s ‘_curiosity_,’ meaning that -he has an inquiring spirit, it will be necessary to explain that -we mean a well-directed, and not a prying, impertinent curiosity; -for, without that explanation, it will be certainly understood in -the latter sense. In fine, when there are two meanings to a word, a -right and a wrong, the evil is sure to prevail. - -The words ‘_critic_’ and ‘_criticise_’ are in precisely the same -condition. These words do not of necessity imply fault-finding. -A critic is simply a judge; he may have to praise as well as -to blame; but every one knows full well that to ‘criticise’ is -generally looked upon as synonymous with ‘to censure,’ and, unless -qualified, is sure to be understood in the latter sense. - -In the very copious vocabulary of words which have ‘fallen from -their high estate,’ or undergone a pernicious transformation, -may be also ranged the word ‘_fellow_.’ In some cases it retains -a certain respectability, as when we speak of the ‘Fellow of a -college.’ Shakspere makes Hamlet say of Yorick, the jester:--‘He -was a “fellow” of infinite jest,’ where the sense is certainly -not intended to be disparaging. But now-a-days ‘fellow’ is, on -the whole, not looked upon very favourably. It is suggestive of -recklessness and disorderly conduct, and, unless qualified, is not -a very complimentary term. - -As to the word ‘_knave_,’ it is irrecoverably lost. It is the -lowest and most degrading term we can apply as a reproach and an -insult; and yet it meant originally nothing more than ‘boy,’ as -‘Knabe’ does to this day in German. By what process the ‘boy’ -became a ‘knave’ may be a speculation, but the word has obviously -lost its former good name. - -This perversity of human nature in turning words into an opposite -and unfavourable meaning may also be seen in many familiar and -every-day forms of speech. It is not uncommon to hear an abandoned -fellow spoken of as a ‘precious’ scoundrel, or some absurdity -referred to as ‘blessed’ nonsense. This perversion is not confined -to English. The French often use the word ‘sacré’ in a sense -diametrically opposed, to ‘holy,’ a meaning which existed in Latin, -from which French is derived. Virgil’s ‘auri “_sacra_” fames’ is -properly translated ‘_accursed_ lust for gold.’ The Latin ‘altus’ -also conveyed the distinct and opposite meanings of ‘high’ and -‘deep.’ - -Also the English word ‘silly’ has degenerated from ‘selig,’ which -in German preserves its meaning of ‘blessed;’ and ‘ninny’ took its -origin from the Spanish ‘niño,’ where it means simply ‘a child.’ - -Another example of a change for the worse may be seen in the word -‘prevent.’ The Church Service gives us this word in the literal -sense of ‘to go before, or guide:’ ‘_Prevent_ us, O Lord, in all -our doings,’ &c.; and in the Collect for the 17th Sunday after -Trinity:--‘We pray Thee that Thy grace may always “_prevent_” -and follow us.’ But this is not the present sense of the word; -it has now always the meaning of ‘to stop,’ rather than to guide -onwards--the very opposite of its former signification. This, like -other words, has degenerated. - - -_Contradictory Meanings._ - -Connected with this degeneracy of words is one very curious -phenomenon, viz. that in English we frequently meet with the same -word in two distinct meanings, directly opposed to each other. For -example, the verb ‘to let’ has generally the meaning of ‘to give -leave,’ or ‘allow.’ This is its ordinary acceptation, but in the -still common legal phrase, ‘without let or hindrance,’ it has the -very opposite meaning.[2] Again, Hamlet says:--‘I’ll make a ghost -of him that “lets” me,’ i.e. him that interferes with or hinders -me, where the sense is again the very reverse of the usual meaning. - -The verb ‘to cleave’ is another case of this contradiction of -meaning. ‘To cleave’ may mean either ‘to adhere to closely’ or ‘to -cut asunder.’[3] When we say the tongue ‘_cleaves_’ to the roof of -the mouth, it is used in the first sense; but the directly opposite -meaning is implied when people talk of ‘_cleaving_’ wood, i.e. -cutting it into parts. - -We may use the word ‘fast’ in two senses, opposed to each other. It -conveys the idea either of quiet rest or of rapid motion. ‘The door -was _fast_ locked,’ means that it was fixed and not to be moved; -whereas in the sentence, ‘He runs _fast_,’ it expresses quickness -of motion. - -To this class also belongs ‘nervous,’ which means either -_possessing_, or _wanting_ nerve. When ladies are said to be -‘nervous,’ we understand that they are weak, timid, easily -frightened; in fine, wanting nerve. On the other hand, a ‘nervous’ -style is one marked by vigour and energy. One use of the word -represents the absence, and the other the presence, of nerve. - -When Shakspere makes Hamlet say, ‘Would I had met my _dearest_ foe -in heaven,’ he means, ‘my most hated foe.’ As extremes are said to -meet, so does this word express the extremes of love and hatred. - -The adjective ‘fearful’ will also illustrate this principle. It -means either ‘affected by fear’ or ‘inspiring fear.’ The word -‘mortal’ is in the same condition. Its usual sense is ‘subject to -death,’ but it is also used subjectively, as ‘producing death.’ -Hence the difference between a ‘mortal wound’ and a ‘mortal being.’ - -‘To look’ may be understood in two opposed senses. When we say, ‘a -man _looks_ well into his affairs,’ the word is used in its active -meaning; but if we should say, ‘he _looks_ well,’ it would mean -that he appears to others to be in good health. - -The word ‘mistaken’ also is equivocal in meaning. ‘I am mistaken’ -may mean ‘I make a mistake,’ or ‘Others mistake me.’ This -perversity appears in various forms. When we say that a tradesman -‘_sells_ his goods,’ the word ‘sells’ is employed in a subjective -sense; but we not unfrequently hear that his goods _sell_ well, -where the same term is used objectively. In these cases, the -active form is used in a passive sense, and not _vice versâ_. ‘A -_walking_-stick’ does not mean a stick that walks, but a stick to -be walked with. Nor is a ‘_drinking_ cup’ one that drinks, but one -to be drunk out of. - -This difference of subjective and objective meaning may be -especially observed in that class of adjectives which ends in -‘able’ or ‘ible;’ such as, ‘port_able_,’ ‘pli_able_,’ ‘vis_ible_,’ -‘leg_ible_,’ &c. Most of these words have a passive or objective -sense. ‘Portable’ means ‘that which _can be carried_;’ ‘visible,’ -‘that which _can be seen_.’ But some of these convey an active or -subjective meaning. For example, ‘comfortable’ does not mean ‘_what -can be comforted_;’ but ‘_that which comforts_.’ A ‘comfortable’ -house or room is one which comforts the inmates. ‘Terrible,’ again, -does not mean ‘capable of receiving terror;’ but able to produce -that feeling in others. A ‘terrible’ accident is one which inspires -terror in the beholders. This active or subjective meaning is, -however, the exception. Most of this class of words are used in a -passive or recipient sense. - -Another case in which this contrariety of meaning may be -observed is in the use of the prefix ‘_in_.’ This prefix has, in -general, the force of a negative; as may be seen in the words -‘_in_complete,’ ‘_in_capable,’ ‘_in_delible,’ &c. But there are -certain adjectives in which it conveys a positive or intensive -meaning, i.e. the very opposite to the negative. When we say that -some one’s health was ‘_invigorated_,’ we do not mean that it was -weakened; but, on the contrary, that it was very much strengthened. -Instead of depriving the word of any of its meaning, the ‘_in_’ -here adds force to its positive signification. Some of this class -are, ‘_in_tense,’ ‘_in_fatuated,’ ‘_in_veterate,’ ‘_in_valuable;’ -but most of them are used in a negative sense. - -We occasionally meet with much confusion of sense in the -application of some English words. We commonly say that a man -_marries_ a woman, and also that a woman _marries_ a man; in -addition to which, the clergyman _marries_ them both. Perhaps, as -the word ‘marry’ is derived from the French ‘mari,’ and the Latin -‘maritus,’ a husband--which is from ‘mas, maris,’ a male, and marks -a difference of sex--it would be better to say, a man ‘marries’ a -woman, and a woman ‘is married to’ a man; and the priest joins them -in marriage. The use of the good old Saxon word ‘wed’ would obviate -all these difficulties; but, unfortunately, it is now much out of -fashion, and indeed rapidly disappearing from the language, though -the noun ‘wedding’ still holds its place. - -There is a tendency to contract or restrict in meaning certain -words of our language whose etymology would allow of their being -used much more extensively. This, in many instances, seems to be -caused by that deteriorating principle before mentioned; for, in -all these cases, the favourable meaning is ignored, and the bad one -retained. The word ‘condign’ is never used but with ‘punishment,’ -though its meaning might be reasonably applied to honours, -merits, or rewards. ‘Condign’ rewards would be rewards worthy -of the receiver’s actions. ‘Condign’ honours would mean honours -appropriate to certain merits, &c. - -The adjective ‘inveterate’ is in precisely the same predicament. -It is never applied to a good feeling, but always to some bad -passion. We commonly hear of inveterate resentment, malice, hatred, -animosity, &c.; but we never meet with inveterate love, kindness, -affection, or attachment. And yet why not? The true meaning of -‘inveterate’ is _what has gained strength by age_; and it is clear -that this quality would apply reasonably enough to such feelings as -love, kindness, or affection. An anecdote is told of Lord Byron, -that in a letter to one of his friends, he subscribed himself, -‘Yours inveterately, BYRON.’ This was, of course, done in a playful -spirit; but the word was perfectly well applied; and it is a pity -that this example had not been generally followed. - -In this class we may place the words ‘animadvert’ and ‘insinuate.’ -The first of these signifies literally to notice or observe (animum -vertere ad), to turn the mind to; but there is always coupled with -it the idea of censure or punishment. But surely we may observe in -order to praise as well as to blame! - -Again, ‘to insinuate’ is generally connected with a crooked -procedure of the mind. When people ‘insinuate,’ the result looked -for is rather evil than good. It is opposed to a straightforward -mode of action. - -On the other hand, certain French words have been admitted into -English in one sense, which many writers show a disposition to -extend. But this should be checked, and these words should be -confined to their legitimate meaning. For example: the French verb -‘demander’ is properly translated into English by ‘to ask.’ In -English, ‘_to demand_’ should be only used in the sense of to ask -as a right, in a case where justice must be satisfied, and should -not be applied to general cases. The French say, ‘demander pardon,’ -but we English ‘beg’--we do not ‘demand’--pardon. - -‘To _assist_,’ meaning to do a service, is good English; but in the -sense of ‘to be present,’ it is French, and not English. We may -‘assist’ a man in his work, or by giving him advice, &c., but we -cannot properly write that some one ‘assisted’ at a supper, if we -mean that he was one of the guests. - -To ‘_arrive_’ is another of the French words adopted in English -whose sense must not be stretched beyond its legitimate bounds. -When it signifies ‘to come to,’ it is properly applied; but in the -sense of ‘to happen,’ it is not English. We may say, ‘Our friends -are arrived;’ but we must not ask, ‘What has arrived?’ if we mean -‘What has happened?’ - -The verb ‘to _accord_’ is constantly used for ‘to give,’ or ‘to -grant,’ probably because it has two syllables instead of one. ‘To -accord with’ is properly used in the sense of ‘to agree,’ or ‘to -suit,’ as:--‘This arrangement “accords” with my views;’ but to say -that ‘he “accorded” his friends the use of his library,’ would be a -wrong application of the word. In the phrase, ‘according with,’ the -word is a participle; in ‘according to,’ it is a preposition. - -The mistake made in the word ‘_allude_’ is in using it for ‘to -mention’ or ‘to state.’ ‘To allude’ properly means merely to hint -at, or suggest; and it should never be used in the other sense. -This, again, seems to arise from the idea that it is not so common -a word as the others, and it is therefore adopted--as if the object -of writing should be to confuse and puzzle the reader! - -Now and then, however, we meet with words which retain their first -favourable acceptation, and have not been degraded to a lower -sense. Some few, indeed, have been ennobled, i.e. raised from a -comparatively humble meaning to a higher dignity. In the first -of these classes we may place the verb ‘_to reward_;’ and we are -labouring under a certain difficulty in consequence of its being -confined to the one meaning. We very much want a word which would -signify a just return for ill deeds; for, though we use the noun -‘retribution’ for this purpose, the verb ‘to retribute’ is not in -common use. The verb ‘to reward’ is always used in a favourable -sense. We can hardly say that ‘a felon was _rewarded_ for his -crimes.’ We speak of the ‘rewards’ of goodness or virtue, but not -of the ‘rewards’ of wickedness or immorality. - -Of those words which have been elevated in meaning, we may mention -‘angel,’ ‘martyr,’ and ‘Paradise;’ all three referring to religious -matters. These are all of Greek origin. ‘Angel,’ from ἄγγελος, -was at first merely ‘a messenger;’ but it is now used only in a -higher sense--‘a messenger of God.’ We certainly should not think -of calling an errand-boy ‘an angel.’ ‘Martyr,’ from μάρτυρος, a -witness, is now applied only to one who by his death bore witness -to the truth of Christianity. A witness who gives evidence in -a trial cannot now be called a martyr. Again, ‘Paradise,’ from -παράδεισος, has been raised from the ordinary sense of ‘garden’ to -that of Garden of Eden, or place of bliss. Cases of this sort are, -however, comparatively rare. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -PLAY UPON WORDS. - - -There are, in all languages, certain words which may be called -equivocal. Such are either those which are spelled exactly alike -and have different meanings, or are spelled differently and yet -have the same pronunciation. In most of these cases the two terms -have no necessary connection with each other, though it has -probably puzzled many a reader that the same word should have such -a variety of meanings so distinctly different from each other. -This phenomenon may be accounted for in English by the condition -of our language, especially its mixed nature. English draws words -from a multiplicity of sources. It frequently happens that several -distinctly different forms of foreign words fall into one and the -same form when incorporated into English, each of them retaining -its original signification. This may explain how the word ‘_light_’ -may mean something that burns bright, and may also have the -sense of ‘not heavy.’ In the first case, it is derived from the -Anglo-Saxon verb ‘leohtan;’ but, as an adjective, it comes from -the Saxon ‘liht,’ whence also is derived the verb ‘to light’ (or -‘to alight’), i.e. to come down gently. The verb ‘to lighten,’ in -an electrical sense, is connected with the first meaning; but ‘to -lighten,’ meaning to make less heavy, is from the second. - -But it sometimes happens that the same root will produce two -different meanings; and of this the word ‘_court_’ will furnish -an example. In the Middle Ages, the yard or court attached to -every castle (so called from the French ‘_cour_’) was used for two -purposes: 1st, as a place for games or amusements; and, 2nd, where -criminals were tried and sentenced. This is why a king’s palace is -still called ‘a Court.’ We say ‘the Court of St. James,’ or ‘the -Court of the Tuileries,’ &c.; and this is also why buildings where -law proceedings are carried on have the same name; as in ‘the Court -of Queen’s Bench,’ ‘the Court of Exchequer,’ &c. - -The adjective ‘fine,’ in the sense of handsome or beautiful, is -from the Saxon ‘fein,’ where it had the same meaning; but, in the -expression ‘in fine,’ it is from the French ‘enfin,’ and the Latin -‘finis,’ an end or boundary. Again, the noun ‘fine,’ meaning a sum -of money paid as a compensation for a misdemeanour, is from the -same source, ‘finis;’ for here it means the limit or _end_ to which -the law con_fin_es the magistrate in determining that sum--‘_Not -more_ than forty shillings,’ &c. - -Another of this class is the noun ‘_sack_.’ In its ordinary -acceptation it means a large bag, and is derived from the -Anglo-Saxon ‘sacc’ and the Latin ‘saccus.’ Hence comes the verb. To -‘sack’ a city is to carry off the plunder in a ‘bag.’ But another -meaning of this word is found in ‘sack,’ a sort of wine. Here it is -a corruption of the French ‘sec’ (originally the Latin ‘siccus’), -dry. ‘Un vin sec’ is what we should call ‘a _dry_ wine.’ - -These double meanings have probably in all nations given rise -to various perversions and corruptions of the language. One of -these--viz. punning--has been particularly prominent in modern -times, and has, in some degree, infected the great majority -of writers. Though the nations of antiquity seem to have been -comparatively free from this literary vice, there are not wanting -examples of it in the ancient classics. There is a collection -of so-called jokes, or silly sayings of pedants, attributed to -Hierocles, though it is now believed to have been the work of -another hand. Most of these would be now considered intolerably -stupid; and the only one among them that has the least approach to -wit is the story of the father who writes to his son urging him -to study hard, as he would have to _live_ by his books. To this -the son replies, that he had been already _living_ by his books -for some time, as he had been obliged to sell them. In Latin a -softened expression for ‘a thief’ was ‘homo trium literarum,’ a man -of three letters (f. u. r.); and Disraeli the elder mentions in his -‘Curiosities of Literature’ two puns attributed to Cicero. - -But the true source of modern punning must be looked for in Italy, -where it took rise after the revival of learning in the fifteenth -century, and whence this practice afterwards spread into all the -languages of Europe. In English, the vice of playing on words -infected all the writers of the Elizabethan period. Puns are sown -broadcast in Shakspere’s plays--even Milton is by no means free -from them; and it is hardly necessary to state that they form a -prominent feature in the drama and light literature of the present -day. - -Addison defines a pun, in the sixty-first number of the -‘Spectator,’ as ‘a conceit arising from the use of two words that -agree in the sound, but differ in the sense.’ Now the punster deals -in these equivocal words; and his whole art consists in using them -in one sense where we should naturally expect another. There are in -English several classes of equivocal words:-- - -I. Where the same form has several meanings, as 1. ‘Fair’ -(beautiful, or light-coloured). 2. ‘Fair’ (just, or equitable). 3. -‘Fair’ (a market-place). - -II. Where two words of different meaning are pronounced alike, -though spelled differently; as ‘son’ and ‘sun,’ ‘some’ and ‘sum,’ -‘sole’ and ‘soul,’ ‘peer’ and ‘pier,’ &c. - -III. A third class is of those which are spelled differently, and -pronounced nearly, though not quite, alike; such as ‘baron’ and -‘barren,’ ‘season’ and ‘seizing,’ &c.; though these more frequently -produce Malaprops than puns. - -IV. There are also many cases in which a phrase or idiom, -consisting of two or three words, may be used equivocally, and -these may be fairly considered as puns. - -Of the first class the following are specimens:-- - -1. ... beauty’s purchased by the _weight_, - Which therein works a miracle in nature, - Making them _lightest_ that wear most of it. - - _Merchant of Venice_, Act iii. sc. 2. - -2. At one light _bound_ high overleaped all _bound_. - - _Paradise Lost_, Book iv. - -3. Dean Ramsay tells a story of a Scotch minister who, having to -preach at some distance from home, was caught in a shower of rain. -On arriving at his kirk, he got a friend to rub down his clothes, -anxiously asking if he thought he was _dry_ enough. The latter -replied, ‘Never fear; you’ll be _dry_ enough when you get into the -pulpit!’ - -Under the second division may be placed such puns as the -following:-- - -1. Not on thy _sole_, but on thy _soul_, harsh Jew, - Thou makest thy knife keen. - - _Merchant of Venice_, Act iv. sc. 1. - -2. I should be still - _Peering_ in maps for ports, and _piers_, and roads. - - _Ib._, Act i. sc. 1. - -3. A story being told in the presence of Theodore Hook of an author -who invited his publisher to dinner, and treated him to a great -variety of wines--‘Then,’ said the wit, ‘I suppose he poured his -wine-_cellar_ into his book-_seller_.’ - -4. They went and _told_ the sexton, - And the sexton _tolled_ the bell.--_Hood._ - -5. I find - The shadow of myself formed in her eye, - Which, being but the shadow of your _son_, - Becomes a _sun_, and makes your _son_ a shadow. - - _King John_, Act i. sc. 2. - -To the third class belong such cases as:-- - -1. That of the lady who said that her doctor had put her on a new -_regiment_, and allowed her to drink nothing but water. ‘Ah!’ -replied some one present, ‘that must have been the _coldstream_.’ - -2. Under this head also come the sayings of Mrs. Malaprop in -the ‘Rivals,’ who talks of the ‘_contagious_’ (for contiguous) -countries; and who recommends a nice _derangement_ (arrangement) of -_epitaphs_ (epithets), &c. - -3. It is a positive vulgarism to confound ‘_genus_’ (a class, or -sort) with ‘_genius_’ (a high intellectual power). This is exactly -what Goldsmith meant, when he put into Tony Lumpkin’s mouth:-- - - Good liquor, I’ll stoutly maintain, - Gives _genus_ a better discerning. - -In the fourth class may be placed punning by the use of an -equivocal phrase. - -1. It was this form of the pun that Sydney Smith used when, hearing -of a boy who always read the word ‘patriarchs’ as ‘partridges,’ -declared it was too bad _to make game_ of them in that way. - -2. In this class we may also place Douglas Jerrold’s well-known -reply to a friend who told him he was afraid he was going to have a -_brain_ fever. ‘Never fear, my friend,’ said the wit, ‘_there is no -foundation for the fact_.’ - -3. The story related of Sydney Smith, who recommended the bishops -_laying their heads together_ to make a wooden pavement, may be -placed in the same category, and here the wit is quite as pungent -as in the other cases. - -4. For if the Jew do but cut deep enough, - I’ll pay it instantly _with all my heart_. - - _Merchant of Venice._ - -The instances of a play on words we meet with in Milton are not so -much puns, properly so called, as what the Italians called conceits -(concetti). This poet was deeply imbued with the spirit of Italian -literature; and this form of it often appears in his verses. The -following passages are examples:-- - -1. _Highly_ they raged against the _Highest_. - -2. _Surer_ to _prosper_ than _prosperity_ could have _assured_ us. - -3. The same form appears occasionally in other poets. Cowper in his -‘Conversation’ has - - His only _pleasure_ is to be _displeased_. - -One form of the pun which is just now not so frequently used is the -following:-- - -1. ‘There’s _something in that_,’ as the cat said when she peeped -into the milk-jug. - -2. ‘I’m _transported_ to see you,’ as the convict said to the -kangaroo. - -3. ‘_You are very pressing_,’ as the nut said to the nutcracker, &c. - -Punning has been generally considered a low form of wit; and some -have taken so unfavourable a view of it as even to declare that -‘he who will make a pun will pick a pocket.’ But all this is hardly -just; for it may be easily shown that the highest minds have not -hesitated to adopt it, and that in some writers it is a prominent -feature of their style. It is true that critics have frequently -condemned punning as a flaw in Shakspere’s style and manner; but -it should be remembered that it was one form of that Italian tone -which coloured all the English literature of the Elizabethan age, -and from which no writer of those times was wholly free. We surely -cannot utterly condemn any form of expression adopted by so great -a master; and though it may be admitted that an immoderate use of -puns should not usurp the place of the higher and more important -qualities of style, there seems no good reason why they should be -wholly excluded. - -The late poet Thomas Hood was so remarkable for the way in which -he used puns, that they formed an essential characteristic of his -style. Though looked upon by the purist as a contemptible figure -in literature, the pun proved in his hands a source of genuine -humour, and sometimes of deepest pathos. It is a received axiom, -that a keen perception of the ridiculous is a conclusive proof of -real genius; and this opinion certainly holds good in his case. -In him it was perfectly compatible with the deepest sympathy and -intensity of feeling. In every form of wit the effect consists -chiefly in the novelty of the application presented by the figure. -This always produces surprise--a naturally pleasing sensation, -especially when caused by a ludicrous or grotesque image. But, -in some instances, a pun suggests a far higher tone of thought -than the mere ludicrous: it may be connected with or produce very -sober reflections, or even occasionally lead the mind to a deeply -philosophical speculation:-- - - ... ridentem dicere verum - Quid vetat? - -In the popular conundrum which has been attributed to Burke, ‘What -is (m)ajest(y), when deprived of its externals, but a jest?’ this -effect may be observed, as well as in many of Hood’s puns. - -In the literary history of all nations, we find languages -affected by various peculiarities. Of these several, more or less -connected with punning, have, at different periods, prevailed in -English, viz. Alliteration, Rhyme, Euphuism, &c. Alliteration -was the principle on which the Anglo-Saxon poets founded their -versification. This has been called ‘head-rhyme,’ as distinguished -from end-rhyme, which is a more modern practice. The lines were -arranged in couplets grouped, not according to the sense, but to -the alliteration, which required that _two_ accented syllables -in the first, and _one_ in the second line, should begin with -the same letter when a consonant; and a different, if possible, -when a vowel. These three initial letters were called ‘rhyming -letters,’ the one in the second line being the _chief_ letter, -according to which the two in the first line of the couplet must be -regulated. These two, though they come first, are therefore called -‘_sub_-letters.’ In a couplet, there should not be more than three -accented syllables beginning with this letter; and the _chief_ -letter must begin the first accented syllable or word of the second -line. - -Finally: in very short verse, especially when the rhyming letters -are double, such as _sc_, _st_, _sw_, &c., there need be but -one _sub_-letter. This is the general doctrine of alliteration, -invariably adopted in Saxon poetry. - -The following specimen of alliteration, extracted from Rask’s -Anglo-Saxon Grammar, may serve to illustrate this explanation:-- - - In _Caines_ _c_ynne In Cain’s kin - Þone _c_wealm gewrǽc The murder avenged - _É_ce Drihten The Eternal Lord - Þaes þe he _A_bel slóg Because he slew Abel - Ne ge_f_eah he þære _f_aehde He got no joy from his hatred - Ac he hine _f_eor forwráec But he (the Creator) drove him - _M_etod for þý _m_áne For that misdeed - _M_ancynne fram Far from the human race - -But though no longer considered as an essential element in English -verse, alliteration was often employed by all our poets from -Chaucer to Spenser, though not according to the strict rules above -laid down. Spenser used it, in some cases, with much effect, as -shown in the following lines from the ‘Faëry Queen’:-- - - In _w_ilderness and _w_asteful deserts strayed. - Through _w_oods and _w_asteness _w_ild him daily sought. - _F_rom her _f_air head her _f_illet she undight. - And with the sight amazed, _f_orgot his _f_urious _f_orce. - -There is more alliteration in our modern poets than most readers -suspect; and though an immoderate use of this figure makes it -degenerate into a mere fantastic puerility, many examples may be -quoted where it adds a wonderful force to the expression. For -example, in the following lines from Macbeth:-- - - That shall, to all our days and nights to come, - Give _s_olely _s_overeign _s_way and masterdom. - -The grandeur of the effect is here powerfully assisted by the -repetition of the letter _s_. - -But the fondness of certain rhymesters for this figure was cleverly -caricatured by the brothers Horace and James Smith, in their -well-known ‘Rejected Addresses’:-- - - Lo! from _L_emnos _l_imping _l_ame_l_y, - _L_ags the _l_ow_l_y _L_ord of Fire! - -Rhyme may be almost considered a modern invention; it is seldom met -with in Greek or Latin, and was unknown to the Saxon poets. This -repetition of the same sound at the ends of verses was introduced -into England by the Anglo-Norman ballad-writers at, or soon after, -the Conquest. Since that time it has been regarded as one of the -greatest embellishments of poetical expression, and it is now -used in almost every form of poetry except blank verse. There is -no doubt that it deserves this reputation, though here, as in -other decorations, much of the effect depends on the judgment and -taste with which it is applied. Many a beautiful thought has been -probably sacrificed to the rigid requirements of rhyme; at the same -time many so-called rhymes are so unlike each other in sound as -scarcely to deserve the name. - -The effect of rhyme is materially heightened when there is a real -or fancied connection in meaning between the rhyming words; such -as ‘wine’ and ‘divine,’ ‘life’ and ‘strife,’ ‘fish’ and ‘dish,’ -‘lone’ and ‘moan,’ &c. It is also curious to observe how often -familiar proverbs are formed upon this principle. We have ‘Birds of -a _feather_ flock _together_;’ ‘’Twixt cup and _lip_ there’s many -a _slip_;’ ‘Fast _bind_, fast _find_;’ ‘No _pains_, no _gains_;’ -&c. And this is not confined to English proverbs. In the same way -the Italians have, ‘Chi va pi_ano_, va _sano_, e va lont_ano_;’ and -the Germans, ‘Morgenst_und_ hat Gold im _Mund_;’ ‘Ueber _Nacht_ ist -wohl ge_dacht_;’ ‘Wer _neidet_, der _leidet_,’ &c. The object in -these cases was, probably, to produce a pleasing effect, and, at -the same time, to assist the learner’s memory. - -Another proof of the popularity of rhyme may be found in many -double terms which are evidently formed on that principle. These, -though not often met with in the higher styles of composition, -are legitimate words in every-day and familiar conversation, and -have every right to be so considered. Such are ‘helter-skelter,’ -‘namby-pamby,’ ‘hoity-toity,’ ‘roly-poly,’ ‘harum-scarum,’ -‘willy-nilly,’ ‘nolens-volens,’ ‘hugger-mugger,’ and a host of -others. - -A particularly ludicrous effect is frequently presented by double -rhymes, which properly belong to the comic or burlesque in verse. -Here there is often as much wit and humour in the rhyme as in the -sentiment; and here, also, the rhyme frequently approaches to the -nature of a pun. - -Butler was distinguished for his double rhymes, and in his -‘Hudibras’ he displays a positive genius for comic rhyme, some -specimens of which follow:-- - - As if religion were in_tended_ - For nothing else than to be _mended_. - - Madam, I do, as is my _duty_, - Honour the shadow of your _shoe tie_. - - An ignis fatuus that be_witches_, - And leads men into pools and _ditches_. - - He was, in logic, a great _critic_, - Profoundly skilled in ana_lytic_. - - Besides, he was a shrewd phi_losopher_, - And had read every text and _gloss over_. - - Compound for sins they are in_clined to_, - By damning those they have no _mind to_. - -Another form of comic verse is where the rhyme is made by dividing -the word, being formed by a similar sound in the middle syllables; -as for example:-- - - Thou wast the daughter of my _Tu_- - tor, Law professor in the _U_- - niversity of Göttingen.--_Canning._ - - At first I caught hold of the _wing_, - And kept away; but Mr. _Thing_- - umbob, the prompter man, - Gave with his hand my chaise a shove, - And said, ‘Go on, my pretty love, - Speak to ’em, little Nan.’--_Smith._ - -John Lyly, a dramatist and poet of the Elizabethan period, is -said to have originated a singular affectation of language known -as ‘Euphuism.’ He was the author of a romance entitled ‘Euphues;’ -in which the ‘pure and reformed English,’ as he called it, first -appeared. It became the fashion with the beauties of the court -to ‘parley Euphuism,’ which was soon considered a necessary -accomplishment for every one who had any pretensions to fashion or -good taste. Euphuism was made up of almost every sort of folly of -language combined, a mincing prettiness, alliteration, punning, -pedantry, elaborate nonsense, and far-fetched expression; in fine, -of almost every conceivable form of puerility. This was a mere -passing absurdity, and the only remains of it still left in the -language are said to be certain new modes of pronunciation then -first introduced. - -Language has been, like most other things, subject to many and -various abuses. Anagrams, chronograms, acrostics, &c., have, -each and all, ‘fretted their hour upon the stage, and now are -heard no more.’ But the pun seems likely to maintain its place, -both in conversation and in written composition. Let us not be -misunderstood. It is not the practice, but the abuse of it, that -is to be condemned. We are strongly of opinion that there can be -no greater pest to society than the inveterate and professional -punster--a man who sets traps for you, who lies in wait for every -phrase you utter, to twist and turn it into a meaning of his own, -and who is continually stopping the natural flow of discourse, and -bringing it to some ‘lame and impotent conclusion.’ But, as we -have endeavoured to show, the pun, when ‘telling’ and well-applied, -is as legitimate a form of wit as any other, and quite as conducive -to good feeling and good fellowship. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT WORDS. - - -In the order of nature, names would be first given to concrete -objects and their qualities, and to visible acts, i.e. to those -things and acts which are made known to us through the senses. But -whatever may have been the principle which determined the original -form of these words, it is well known that, in all languages, -the same vocabulary was afterwards used in a mental or secondary -sense. No new words were invented for the expression of thought or -feeling, but all the acts of the mind and soul were represented -by terms originally applied in a concrete sense. In a word, the -abstract was derived from the concrete. The original concrete -sense of the verb ‘to see’ was, to take in knowledge through the -eye, but the same word was afterwards used abstractly. ‘I see’ may -signify ‘I have the proper use of my eyes;’ and may also mean, ‘I -understand or perceive with my mind.’ A blind man cannot see in -the first of these senses, though he may in the second. To hear, to -taste, to touch, &c., have all these double meanings. There may be -some words not found in a secondary sense; but, on the other hand, -a very large number have lost their original physical signification. - -In English, most of the words which express operations of the mind -are drawn from a Latin, French, or Greek source. These were all -originally used in a concrete sense, which in English is now lost. - -Horace, in his well-known ninth Satire, has:-- - - _Occurrit_ quidam notus mihi nomine tantum. - -‘Occurrit’ cannot be here translated by ‘occurred.’ The word, in -English, has lost its concrete, and retains only its abstract, -meaning. With us, ideas or thoughts may ‘occur’ to the mind, but we -cannot properly speak of a friend ‘occurring’ (i.e. meeting) us in -the street. - -One essential difference between ancient and modern languages -consists in the relation between abstract, or mental, and concrete -expression. The languages of antiquity possessed a much nearer -relation to the original, primary sense of words. In them, all the -abstract had a much closer affinity with the concrete terms from -which they were derived. The Latin word ‘spiritus’ had not only -its abstract meaning of ‘cheerfulness,’ or ‘courage,’ but also its -concrete sense of ‘breath;’ whereas, in modern languages the word -has only an abstract sense, and it is only by a knowledge of its -etymology that we can get at its material origin. The result of -this loss is most complete when a modern, formed upon an ancient -language, is no longer in direct communication with the roots of -the words used. In this respect ancient languages possessed a charm -for which nothing can compensate, and, when in the hands of a great -poet, they produced most wonderful effects. But the condition of -modern languages is, in this respect, very different. Here, most -of the abstract words, being deprived of their original concrete -meaning, are, to the general reader, mere conventional signs, -wholly unable to produce that vividly picturesque effect found -in the ancient tongues. And herein chiefly lies the value of a -knowledge of derivation. For, although a word may now have lost its -original meaning, it is of the greatest importance that its primary -signification should be known, in order to arrive at a clear -knowledge of its exact and accurate modern application. We commonly -speak of a man ‘_applying_’ himself to his work. To the general -reader this conveys the idea of giving his mind or attention to -what he is about; but to those who are ignorant of the etymology -of the word ‘applying,’ the picture of the man _bending_ his body -to his task is wholly lost. And not only as regards the true -meaning of the single word, but as concerns the difference in -signification between terms apparently synonymous, this knowledge -will be of the greatest importance. The difference in meaning -between ‘to instil’ and ‘to inculcate’ is to be understood only -by a knowledge of their etymology. To the ordinary reader both -these words have the general meaning of ‘to teach,’ or instruct; -but it is only he who knows the meaning of their roots who will -understand that nice difference in the mode of teaching which they -respectively describe. The process of ‘dropping in’ knowledge by -degrees, conveyed by the former word, paints a very different -picture from the ‘stamping in’ of the latter. - -Some of our poets occasionally use abstract, especially Latin -words, in a primary meaning, which they, properly, no longer -possess. We may look upon this practice as a licence which may -be conceded to poets; but we should never adopt it in common -conversation, or in ordinary writing. Milton is especially addicted -to this practice. When he speaks of ‘Heaven’s _afflicting_ -thunder,’ he uses the word ‘afflicting’ in its original primary -sense of striking down bodily. The reprobate angels are thus -represented as being hurled down from heaven. But this is not -the present use of the verb ‘to afflict.’ It means to prostrate -as to mind or feeling, and is never used in a concrete sense. If -one man should meet another in anger and _knock_ him _down_, we -should not call that _afflicting_ him; and yet this is the sense -in which the word is employed in the passage referred to. In the -same poet we meet with ‘horrent’ (for bristling) arms; ‘savage’ -(for woody) hill; and ‘amiable’ (for lovely) fruit, &c. Thomson, -in his poem of ‘Winter,’ has, in like manner, ‘With dangling ice -all _horrid_’--the last word, in the sense of rough or bristling. -Modern usage does not sanction this application of such words in -ordinary discourse or writing. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -GRAND WORDS. - - -The almost universal mania for violent excitement and craving -after novelty, which is so marked a feature of modern society, -is, perhaps, in no instance more offensively obtrusive than in -the style of most of our present periodical writers. It seems -impossible for them to call things by their proper names. They -reject all simple words, and are continually soaring above their -subject into the regions of the sublime and magnificent. As long as -a word is out-of-the-way, unusual, or far-fetched, it is apparently -of little or no consequence to them whether it be applicable to -the case or not. The commonest and most familiar objects are thus -raised to a dignity quite out of keeping with their real nature; -and here, if anywhere, is verified the saying that ‘from the -sublime to the ridiculous there is but one step.’ Everything is -sacrificed to a false glare and glitter of language, and sense is -always made subservient to sound. Those beautiful English words -‘boys’ and ‘girls’ are almost banished from our modern vocabulary. -‘Boys’ and ‘girls’ are transformed into ‘juveniles;’ ‘workmen’ have -become ‘operatives;’ and ‘people’ in general are now ‘individuals.’ -These ‘individuals,’ be it observed, are never ‘dressed,’ but -always ‘attired’ or ‘arrayed;’ they are never ‘angry,’ but often -‘irate;’ they never ‘go into a shop,’ though they sometimes -condescend to ‘enter an emporium,’ or perhaps a ‘depôt;’ and -when they return home, they never ‘take off their things,’ but -‘divest themselves of their habiliments.’ Another practice with -these writers is to substitute for single terms milk-and-water -definitions of them. With them, a ‘fire’ is always ‘the devouring -element;’ a ‘man’ is ‘an individual of the masculine gender;’ -a ‘footman’ is a ‘superb menial;’ and a ‘schoolmaster’ is the -‘principal of a collegiate institution.’ - -This style originated in the penny-a-line system. It abounds in -our second and third-rate magazines, and, with some few honourable -exceptions, has infected all the periodical and light literature -of the day. The word ‘individual’ has the merit of possessing five -syllables; whereas ‘man,’ or ‘person,’ has but one or two, and -for this reason alone is rejected for the other word. But if Dean -Swift’s definition of a good style--‘Proper words in their proper -places’--is to have any weight as an authority, it is certainly -here not carried into practice. These high-flown terms are very -well in their proper places, but they are not adapted to the cases -to which they are applied, and therefore they are neither proper -words nor in their proper places. The worst of this practice -is, that it deprives all the sound sterling part of the English -language of its peculiar force and significance. Words that are -seldom used will at length inevitably disappear, and thus, if -not checked in time, this extravagance of expression will do an -irreparable injury to the English language. - -Another habit of these periodical writers is to sacrifice the idiom -of the language to their love for some particular word. Two verbs, -of which they seem especially fond, are, ‘to commence’ and ‘to -essay.’ These are French words, and are always preferred before -their corresponding Saxon synonyms, ‘to begin’ and ‘to try.’ But -in their liking for them, these writers are often betrayed into an -incorrect phraseology. To ‘begin’ may be followed by an infinitive -or a gerund. We may say, ‘he began to read,’ or ‘he began reading.’ -Not so may the verbs ‘to commence’ and ‘to essay’ be used. These -do not, correctly, take an infinitive as an object. We cannot say, -properly, ‘_he commenced to read_,’ or ‘_he essayed to do well_.’ -In such cases we must use ‘begin’ and ‘try.’ But the latter are -not sufficiently elevated to suit the views of the penny-a-liners, -and are therefore rejected. - -Another of these grand words is ‘intoxicated.’ In the newspapers, -for once that we read of a man being drunk, we find at least -nine or ten times that he is intoxicated. The word ‘drunk’ is -unfortunately too often required in our police reports; but the -reporters are either too squeamish, or too much inclined to the -long word, to hesitate in their choice. ‘Intoxicated’ has five -syllables; ‘drunk’ has but one: so that the odds in favour of the -former are literally as five to one. But even then they are not -satisfied: they add to it ‘_with drink_,’ thus putting two more -syllables to the phrase. We generally read that ‘the prisoner was -intoxicated with drink.’ This form of expression must occupy at -least a line of the printed matter, and is therefore worth to the -writer--exactly one penny! - -The use of the verb ‘replace,’ as frequently seen in the writings -of the periodical press, is open to objection. When anyone (we will -suppose) quits his office, they write that he was ‘replaced’ by -another, meaning that some one else filled his place. But the verb -‘to replace’ has not, correctly, this meaning. It signifies ‘to put -back in its place.’ If I take a book from the library shelf, and, -after reading it, put it back again, I _replace_ it; but I cannot -properly say that one man ‘_re_placed’ another in his office, if -I mean that he took his place. There seems to be here a confusion -between the two French verbs, ‘remplacer’ and ‘replacer.’ The first -means ‘to put _in_ the place of another,’ _i.e._ to furnish a -substitute; and the second is, ‘to put back in its own place.’ - -Another common fault is the use of the word ‘abstractedly’ for -‘abstractly.’ A man speaks ‘abstractedly’ when his mind is drawn -away from the subject before him; here, his manner is abstracted. -But a man speaks ‘abstractly’ when he treats of the ideal and not -the real--the abstract, and not the concrete. Here his subject is -abstract. Again: ‘to choose,’ or ‘to decide,’ is much too common a -term to suit the taste of these modern article-writers. According -to them, people never ‘choose:’ they always _elect_. We continually -read, for example, that some one ‘elected’ to go abroad, rather -than that he decided or determined on taking that step. - -Three words of suspicious length and somewhat mysterious meaning -have been lately added to our vocabulary, viz. ‘rehabilitate,’ -‘solidarity,’ and ‘desirability.’ These seem to be great -favourites, especially with news-writers. They talk of the -‘_desirability_’ of ‘_rehabilitating_’ our relations with a -certain continental State, in order to effect a ‘_solidarity_’ -between the two nations! - -One phase of this leaning to the grandiose style is an affectation -of foreign words and phrases. The extent to which this practice is -carried by some writers is extraordinary. They can scarcely call -anything by its proper English name, but must apply to it some -Italian or French word. Such writers describe people as ‘_blasés_,’ -or perhaps as having ‘_un air distingué_;’ and these people are -said to do everything ‘_à merveille_.’ Some few Italian phrases are -also occasionally introduced, such as ‘_in petto_,’ the ‘_dolce far -niente_,’ &c.; and the style of many writers learned in the ancient -classics is in like manner infected with Greek and Latin words and -idioms. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE SPELLING OF WORDS. - - -Since, before the invention of printing, there was no standard of -English spelling, our orthography can have no history before that -epoch. The variety of forms in which words appeared was endless; -for not only did different writers spell them differently, but one -writer would often present his readers with several forms of the -same word even in the same page. During the whole of our early -history, then, the language can hardly be said to have had any -fixed laws of spelling. - -The orthography of Anglo-Saxon itself seems to have been very -unsettled. Few words appeared invariably in the same form, and -some had as many as three or four different modes of spelling. We -find ‘ác’ and ‘æc’ (oak); ‘lang’ and ‘long’ (long); ‘geaf’ and -‘gef’ (give); ‘seolf,’ ‘self,’ and ‘sylf’ (self); ‘sweaster’ and -‘swuster’ (sister); ‘heauwod’ and ‘heafod’ (head), &c. &c. - -The accent also made a difference in both the pronunciation and -meaning of some words. Thus, ‘ís’ meant ice, but ‘is’ (without the -accent) was the 3rd singular present of the verb ‘to be.’ ‘God,’ -in Anglo-Saxon, was, in spelling and meaning, our word ‘God;’ but -‘gód’ (pronounced ‘gōād’) was our adjective ‘good,’ &c. - -The marked difference in form between the Saxon and the early -English was the substitution of _e_ for the Saxon endings _a_, _e_, -and _u_. Thus, ‘nam_a_,’ ‘end_e_,’ and ‘wud_u_’ appeared in early -English as nam_e_, end_e_, and wood_e_ (probably pronounced as two -syllables). At a still later period there was a tendency to get -rid not only of this _e_, but of the whole system of Anglo-Saxon -inflections; and the nouns, adjectives, and verbs were stripped of -nearly all their endings. - -The only two inflections of the noun which survived this decay, -and which may be traced to the present time, were the _es_ of the -possessive (or genitive) singular, and the _as_ of the subjective -(or nominative) plural. The Saxon for ‘of a smith’ was ‘smid_es_,’ -and the nominative plural of the same word was ‘smid_as_.’ -Wiclif often uses ‘_is_’ as a plural ending, as in ‘hous_is_,’ -‘barel_is_,’ &c. Caxton writes ‘thyng_es_,’ and More, tyth_es_, -arrow_es_, &c. Now the usual ending is _s_; as in ‘book_s_,’ -tree_s_, &c. - -All the inflections of the adjectives also fell off; and instead -of ‘god_ne_’ (acc. sing.), ‘god_es_’ (gen. sing.), ‘god_um_,’ -‘god_re_’ (dat. pl.) these endings disappeared, and the word was -reduced in all its cases and genders, and in both numbers, to ‘gód’ -(good), as we now have it. - -The verb lost its gerund, or rather the latter was confounded with -the participle in _ing_; so that ‘writtane’ (for the purpose of -writing) was used indiscriminately with ‘writende’ (writing); and -many other terminations, though they did not wholly disappear, were -weakened by the substitution of _e_ for _a_, or _en_ for _an_, as -‘bærn_en_’ for ‘bærn_an_.’ Afterwards the participle ending was -changed from _ende_ to _and_, thence to _inge_, and at last to -_ing_, as we now have it. Thus:--‘writende,’ ‘writand,’ ‘writinge,’ -‘writing.’ - -Between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries there was a constant -and increasing tendency to throw off the final _e_. Chaucer, -Wiclif, and other writers of the fourteenth century, have numbers -of words written with that ending, where it is now omitted, as -‘child_e_,’ ‘hert_e_,’ ‘fynd_e_,’ &c. But, in taking away this -final, it became necessary, in some cases, to make another change -in the spelling, in order to prevent a mispronunciation. The -earlier form ‘mete,’ being deprived of its final _e_, would leave -‘_met_.’ Therefore, to preserve the long sound, the _e_ medial was -doubled, and the word stood ‘_meet_.’ The same principle operated -in transforming ‘cloke’ into ‘cloak,’ ‘yere’ into ‘year,’ ‘scole’ -into ‘school,’ ‘grete’ into ‘great,’ &c. The _e_ final being taken -away, it was necessary, in order to preserve the pronunciation, to -lengthen the internal vowel. - -The art of printing exercised a very powerful influence over -English orthography. The first printers assumed at once an absolute -power, not only in the matter of spelling and punctuation, but even -in cases of expression and grammatical forms. The result was far -from favourable to uniformity; for, as every printer had his own -views on the subject, each consequently differed from the others, -and this entailed endless confusion. The author’s punctuation and -spelling were then always sacrificed to the printer’s convenience. -If the writer used any words of doubtful or unsettled orthography, -of which there was then a very large number, the printer assumed -it as his right to add to, or take from them as many letters as he -thought proper, to suit the length of the line. Many blunders also -arose from the ignorance of the copyists. The various manuscripts -of one poem sometimes differ so widely from each other, that modern -scholars have supposed these varieties to have been the result -of the author’s own revision. But the more probable cause of -these differences is that the manuscript was copied by a number -of different hands, and that consequently each differed from the -other according to the views of such matters which each copyist had -adopted. - -We may safely conclude that in orthography, as in other matters, -changes will take place. The phonographers say that, as the whole -object of writing is to represent on paper the sounds of the human -voice, every word should be spelled exactly as it is pronounced. -But there are grave objections to this view. First, pronunciation -itself is in a state of transition--as the present differs from the -past, so will the future differ from the present--and therefore -the spelling would have to be changed as often as the words were -differently pronounced. Secondly, there are so many, and such -delicate shades of sound in the human voice, that, to carry out -this design properly, it would be necessary to invent innumerable -characters to represent them. The remedy, then, would be worse than -the disease, for the multitude of new and strange characters which -this system would require would be far more puzzling to a learner -than any of the existing difficulties. - -On the other hand, the conservative party maintain that the -proposed changes in spelling should not be admitted because they -would obscure, if not destroy, the derivation of words. This -argument has certainly considerable force. In the study of English, -a knowledge of derivation is quite as important as correctness of -spelling. Surely the one should not be wholly sacrificed to the -other. Are we to lose the essence of the word for the mere sake -of its outward appearance? It would certainly be a great gain to -simplify our forms of spelling; but if, in so doing, we destroyed -the etymology of the language, would our gain or our loss be the -greater? The present forms of spelling are, in many cases, a key -to the derivation of the word. How did the _b_ get into ‘dou_b_t’ -and ‘de_b_t,’ or the _g_ into ‘fei_g_n’ and ‘impu_g_n?’ These -letters are left in the words expressly to show us their origin. -When first introduced into English, ‘debt’ and ‘doubt’ were both -written and pronounced as in French (‘dette’ and ‘doute’). But when -it afterwards became known that they were originally derived from -the Latin verbs ‘de_b_ēre’ and ‘du_b_itare,’ the _b_ was restored -in the spelling. - -Some argue that the influence of derivation on spelling is only -partial, and that other and more powerful causes are operating -changes in the forms of words. It is readily admitted that the -language will, _in time_, yield to this pressure. But we must -not precipitate matters; and there is something to be said on -the other side of the question. The study of English has lately -received a great impulse, and increased attention has been paid -to its nature and origin. It is surely somewhat inconsistent to -recommend this increased energy of study, and, at the same time, -to throw obstacles in the student’s way! It is remarkable how long -it takes to work a change of this sort. The writer can remember -the controversy about the substitution of the final _or_ for _our_ -for more than forty years back; and yet in that time very little -progress has been made in the proposed reform. But there are -obviously certain tendencies in the English language towards a new -orthography, and we may point out with tolerable certainty what -changes will be eventually effected. - -The law of contraction is in constant operation in the spelling -of words. It is this principle that has caused us to reject the -final _k_ in words of two or more syllables. _K_ final is now -confined chiefly to monosyllables. We retain it in ‘back,’ ‘peck,’ -‘stick,’ ‘rock,’ ‘duck,’ &c. Formerly ‘music,’ ‘critic,’ ‘traffic,’ -&c. retained the k; now it has disappeared from these words. But -it is evidently very loth to go; for it still holds its place in -‘attac_k_,’ ‘ransac_k_,’ ‘bulloc_k_,’ ‘hilloc_k_,’ &c., as well as -in compound words, as ‘shipwrec_k_,’ ‘weathercoc_k_,’ ‘wedloc_k_,’ -&c. It is possible that, at some future time, we shall be writing -‘bac,’ ‘pec,’ ‘stic,’ ‘roc,’ and ‘luc;’ but for the present we -must, in these cases, add the _k_. - -The same contracting tendency affects the forms of certain past -tenses of verbs. We write ‘sent’ for ‘sended,’ ‘built’ for -‘builded,’ &c. Some would extend this contraction to all verbs -ending in close consonants, as _p_, _ck_, _f_, or _s_. They would -have us write ‘slapt,’ ‘drest,’ ‘hisst,’ ‘hopt,’ and ‘snufft.’ -There is, no doubt, a leaning this way in the language. The verbs -‘creep,’ ‘feel,’ ‘sleep,’ &c. make, in the past tense, ‘crept,’ -‘felt,’ ‘slept,’ &c. But it will be some time before such forms as -quafft, peept, pickt, hopt, and supt are generally adopted. - -This contracting principle also originated the tendency to omit -the _u_ in the termination _our_. Most of the words which have -this ending come to us from Latin through French, where the ending -is _eur_, as seen in ‘honn_eur_,’ ‘vigu_eur_,’ ‘val_eur_,’ &c. -American writers leave out the _u_ in all these cases. They write -‘endeav_or_,’ ‘neighb_or_,’ behavi_or_, &c. There is, no doubt, a -tendency to omit the _u_ in such words. It may be observed that -most of the words which have lost this _u_ are names of agents, -as ‘act_or_,’ ‘auth_or_,’ ‘creat_or_,’ ‘doct_or_,’ ‘govern_or_,’ -‘orat_or_,’ ‘sail_or_,’ ‘tail_or_,’ and ‘warri_or_;’ whereas -comparatively few abstract nouns have rejected it, though it no -longer appears in ‘err_or_,’ ‘horr_or_,’ ‘stup_or_,’ ‘terr_or_,’ -and ‘torp_or_.’ - -Another pair of endings--_ise_ and _ize_--has given rise to a -divided practice in spelling. The leaning here is decidedly towards -_ise_. The words tempor_ise_, advert_ise_, author_ise_, &c. were -all formerly written with a _z_. Strictly speaking, _ize_ should be -used in those verbs of this class which can be traced directly to a -Greek source, as ‘bapt_ize_,’ ‘idol_ize_,’ ‘agon_ize_;’ especially -those used in a scientific sense, as catech_ize_, symbol_ize_, -epitom_ize_, &c. But many such words come to us through a French -medium, as ‘critic_ise_,’ ‘real_ise_,’ ‘civil_ise_.’ These should -be spelled _ise_. In all probability, we shall some day reject -the _z_ altogether. The letter _s_ seems to be taking its place -in these and many other cases, as in ‘arti_s_an,’ ‘parti_s_an,’ -&c. The late Dr. Donaldson was of opinion that all the above verbs -should be spelled _ise_. - -By the same law of contraction it is proposed to give up the -diphthongs _ae_ and _oe_, found in many English words derived from -Greek and Latin, and to spell them all with a simple _e_. Many -of this class have already adopted the change, for we now write -‘_E_gypt,’ ‘_e_conomy,’ ‘f_e_deral,’ ‘_e_nigma,’ ‘ph_e_nomenon,’ -‘p_e_nal,’ &c. But it is reasonable to expect that many of -them will retain the diphthong for some time. Proper names and -scientific terms are likely to keep it longer, whilst in more -familiar words it will, probably, give place to the single vowel. -Accordingly we may predict that the diphthong will remain in -‘_Æ_sop,’ _Œ_dipus,’ ‘_Æ_tna,’ ‘_Œ_ta,’ and ‘C_æ_sar,’ as well as -in ‘arch_æ_ology,’ ‘anap_æ_st,’ ‘_æ_sthetic,’ cyclop_æ_dia,’ and -‘hom_œ_opathy;’ while from such words as ‘_e_conomy,’ ‘pr_e_tor,’ -‘prim_e_val,’ ‘_e_qual,’ ‘_e_dile,’ ‘_e_difice,’ &c., if not -already gone, it will soon disappear altogether. There is here an -_e_conomical tendency in favour of the single _e_, and the longer -these words remain in the language, the more likely are they to be -spelled with the single vowel. - -In many English words there has been a sort of rivalry between the -letters _y_ and _i_, and the general tendency now is in favour -of _i_. This does not seem to be a question of contraction. It -is supposed to have arisen from a dislike of the printers to -the ugly appearance of _y_ in the middle of a word. Mandeville -writes ‘l_y_til’ (little), ‘w_y_se’ (wise), ‘t_y_mes’ (times); and -Wiclif has ‘with_y_nne’ (within), ‘rece_y_ve’ (receive), ‘wr_y_te’ -(write), ‘fa_y_le’ (fail), ‘everlast_y_ne’ (everlasting), &c. In -certain Greek words, however, the _y_ still holds its place, as in -‘h_y_mn,’ ‘t_y_pe,’ ‘h_y_dra,’ ‘t_y_rant,’ ‘l_y_re,’ &c. These will -probably long remain in the spelling. - -One innovation proposed by the phonographers was to substitute -a _k_ for the ending _que_. All our words of this class are from -the French, where the ending is invariably _que_. Many of these -have already conformed to the English tendency, and are written -with a _k_ final, as ‘mas_k_,’ ‘cas_k_,’ ‘bris_k_,’ ‘ris_k_,’ &c. -These are monosyllables. But we hesitate to extend this practice to -words of two or three syllables. We are not prepared to adopt such -forms as ‘pictures_k_,’ ‘grotes_k_,’ ‘burles_k_,’ &c. Nor is it -likely that we shall be easily reconciled to ‘opa_ke_,’ ‘anti_ke_,’ -‘obli_ke_,’ &c. In some few cases, if only to mark a difference -of meaning, it is expedient to have two forms of spelling; for -instance, between _bark_ (of a tree) and _barque_ (a vessel), -_check_ (a restraint) and _cheque_ (on a banker), _pike_ (a weapon) -and _pique_ (a petty quarrel), _mark_ (a note or sign) and _marque_ -(a reprisal) as in ‘letters of marque.’ - -We ought not to conclude, because changes of spelling have been -adopted in certain words, that similar changes should be applied -to all the words of that class--because, for instance, the old -forms ‘advaunce,’ ‘commaund,’ ‘chaunt,’ and others now appear as -‘advance,’ ‘command,’ ‘chant,’ we should, for this reason, write -‘tant,’ ‘hant,’ ‘dant,’ and ‘lanch’ instead of ‘taunt,’ ‘haunt,’ -‘daunt,’ and ‘launch.’ But nature and habit are not to be trifled -with. Both experience and reason combat all sudden changes. If -they are to be, they will come in good time; meanwhile let us watch -and follow. - -Again, the reformers of our spelling would have us cut off -the ending _ue_ from such words as ‘catalogue,’ ‘demagogue,’ -‘synagogue,’ ‘colleague,’ ‘harangue,’ ‘tongue,’ &c., and spell them -‘catalog,’ ‘demagog,’ &c. It may be most confidently predicted -that, whatever may happen in the course of future ages, this change -will not take place either in this or the next generation. - -Another proposed change is to invert the ending _re_, and write -it _er_, as being more in accordance with English pronunciation. -That this is the tendency of the language is not to be denied, -for it is well known that many English words now ending in _er_ -were formerly written _re_. Such are the Norman names of the -months--‘Septemb_re_,’ ‘Octob_re_,’ ‘Novemb_re_,’ ‘Decemb_re_,’ -&c. Some of this class have not yet adopted the change, and -still appear in their French forms, as ‘accout_re_,’ ‘cent_re_,’ -‘fib_re_,’ ‘lust_re_,’ ‘nit_re_,’ ‘och_re_,’ &c. But it is to be -noticed that these are not common words--not words of the homestead -or market-place--and that therefore they are much more likely to -retain their old forms. In some of them, also, it is desirable to -have two modes of spelling. We have ‘met_er_’ in the sense of a -measurer, as in ‘baromet_er_,’ ‘thermomet_er_,’ &c., and ‘met_re_’ -in versification. ‘Cent_er_’ appears as a verb, and ‘cent_re_’ as -a noun. That most of this class will, in time, be spelled with the -ending _er_ is highly probable, but the above remark may account -for their not having yet adopted that termination. - -It has often been objected to our language that its study, as -regards pronunciation and spelling, is more difficult than that -of any of the continental languages. Foreigners endeavouring to -master these difficulties are often quite overwhelmed by them, and -not unfrequently give up the study in despair. But no language is -without difficulties of this sort. Indeed, the difference between -written and spoken French offers quite as formidable obstacles to -the speller in French as could happen in English. The French words -‘_ver_’ (from ‘vermis,’ a worm), ‘_vert_’ (from ‘viridis,’ green), -and ‘_verre_’ (from ‘vitrum,’ glass) are all pronounced exactly -alike, and it is only by a knowledge of their derivation that one -can account for the difference of their forms. Again, _mère_ (from -mater, a mother), _mer_ (from mare, the sea), and _maire_ (from -major, greater) differ in spelling, though not in sound, because of -their different derivations. If all these words had the same form -of spelling because they have the same pronunciation, no one could -trace them to their source or account for their meaning. We may, -then, conclude that the proper spelling of a word depends mainly on -its etymology, and that the reason why bad spelling is looked upon -with such disfavour is, that it argues ignorance of derivation. - -In all probability, if the project of instituting an English -Academy for the regulation of our language were carried out, there -would immediately arise innumerable protests against its decisions. -It is well known that the literary decrees of the French Academy -are not generally accepted or adopted, and that the opinions of -some of the most eminent literati in France are directly against -its conclusions. Besides, the spirit of the English people is -so strongly opposed to dictation, in this as in other matters, -that such an institution would stand no chance of success in this -country. - -It is too much the fashion now-a-days to find fault with English -orthography, and it is also too much the fashion to acquiesce in -its general condemnation. But, in truth, it is only those who have -paid no attention to our language, as a scientific study, who -can fail to recognise the causes of these objections. The three -principal elements of English--viz. Saxon, French, and Latin--have, -each, and all, had some influence on the formation of our words; -and this will account for the various forms of our spelling. A -word, when introduced into a language, is at first spelled in -accordance with the genius of the nation from which it comes. By -degrees, and generally by slow degrees, it is moulded into a new -form by the genius and instinct of the language in which it is at -length naturalised; still, however, retaining sufficient of its -original form to indicate its source and etymology. Various causes -contribute to effect this change; a difference in pronunciation; -the influence of some local dialect, political, religious, or -literary disputes, the example of popular writers, &c. &c. may all -assist in working a change in the outward forms of words. - -But a study of the subject will prove that this operation must be -the work of time, and that no assumed power can, of itself, work -a sudden change in spelling. This alone is sufficient to account -for the failure of the phonographic system. It may also be laid -down for certain, that any newly-proposed form of spelling which -obscures or destroys the derivation of a word stands but little -chance of success. The general body of writers knew full well -that if they had at once adopted phonetic spelling, it would have -inevitably involved the language in confusion and ruin by the -destruction of its etymology, and would have thus effaced every -vestige of its beauty and variety. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORDS. - - -The history of English shows that it has been changed from a -synthetical, to an analytical language, that in the course of time -it has lost nearly all its inflections; and that for these endings -have been substituted signs and prepositions. Whether this change -has been for the better, or for the worse, may be a matter for -speculation; but allowing that, in some respects, the language may -have sustained a loss by this process, it is not difficult to show -that for this we have some compensating advantages--and that the -change has been favourable in at least two points: 1st. as regards -variety of sound in the endings of words: and 2. flexibility in -their use and application. - -In Latin, the recurrence of the verb in the same person naturally -produced a repetition of the same termination, which must have -had a very disagreeable and monotonous effect. In Cicero’s second -oration ‘in Catilinam,’ he has ‘Abi_it_, excess_it_, erup_it_, -evas_it_.’ Four consecutive words ending in _it_! Another example -of monotonous repetition, quoted by Cicero in his ‘De Naturâ -Deorum’ is, ‘clam_o_, postul_o_, obsecr_o_, or_o_, plor_o_, atque -implor_o_ fidem.’ Cæsar’s often-quoted letter, ‘Ven_i_, vid_i_, -vic_i_’ is open to the same objection, as well as the ‘tædet -h_arum_ quotidian_arum_ form_arum_’ of Terence. In all these cases, -the repetition of the endings must have produced a most harsh and -disagreeable effect; and if these passages were translated into -English, we should probably find that every word had a different -termination. - -But the flexibility of our language, which arises partly from the -same cause, is another, and perhaps more important consideration. -We can easily understand that the system of inflection, however -useful in itself, prevents the possibility of one part of speech -being used for another. In English, ‘love’ may be a noun or a verb; -but in Latin or French, we must use ‘amare’ or ‘aimer’ for the -verb, and ‘amor’ or ‘amour’ for the noun. This power of using one -part of speech for another, exists to such an extent in English, -that it may be almost said, that every word in the language may be -applied in a variety of senses and grammatical constructions. That -this is of incalculable advantage, every thoughtful English scholar -will surely allow; and it may be observed that not one of the -modern languages of Europe possesses this elastic power in the same -degree as English. This may be seen in the following cases:-- - -1st. Almost all our verbs in common use may be used as nouns. We -have ‘to walk,’ or to take ‘a walk;’ ‘to ride,’ or to enjoy ‘a -ride;’ ‘to talk,’ or to have ‘a talk; ‘to offer,’ or to make ‘an -offer;’ ‘to visit,’ or, to pay ‘a visit,’ &c. - -2. Nouns may be used as verbs:--We may say ‘a telegraph;’ or ‘to -telegraph’ a message; ‘butter,’ or ‘to butter’ bread; ‘sugar,’ or -‘to sugar’ tea; ‘a quarter,’ or ‘to quarter’ a regiment, &c. - -3. Adjectives are used as nouns:--We may say ‘a round table,’ or, -‘a round’ of visits; a ‘green’ tree, or to play on ‘the green;’ a -‘beautiful’ prospect, or a love for ‘the beautiful.’ And not only -can we use the adjective as a noun; we may even give it a plural -form. We often speak of ‘eatables and drinkables.’ A man may have -a fit of the ‘dismals,’ or the ‘blues;’ or he may be anxious about -his ‘good_s_,’ ‘moveable_s_,’ or ‘valuable_s_,’ &c. - -4. Adjectives are frequently used as verbs:--as, a ‘clear’ way, or -to ‘clear’ the way; a ‘long’ distance, or to ‘long’ for something; -a ‘still’ evening, or to ‘still’ the waves, &c. - -5. Comparative adjectives are occasionally used as verbs; as ‘a -better’ condition, or, ‘to better’ our condition; a ‘lower’ state, -or to ‘lower’ a rope; ‘further’ remarks, or ‘to further’ a design; -‘utter’ nonsense, or ‘to utter’ opinions, &c. - -6. Personal pronouns may be used as nouns: as, ‘A -downright _she_‘--(Byron.) ‘Left to be finished by such a -_she_.’--(Shakspere.) - -7. Conjunctions are frequently used as nouns; as, ‘But me no -_buts_’ How many ‘_thats_’ are there in the sentence? ‘Let us have -no more _ifs_ and _ands_,’ &c. - -8. Prepositions may be used in like manner: as, The _ins_ and -_outs_ of life. The ‘_ups_ and _downs_’ of fortune, &c. - -9. Even adverbs are sometimes constructed as nouns; as:--Which are -in the majority; the ‘_ayes_,’ or the ‘_noes_?’ - -This extraordinary plasticity of English applies particularly to -nouns signifying parts of the body. There is scarcely one of these -which may not be turned into a verb. For example, we commonly hear -that a man ‘_faces_’ his difficulties with courage. Hamlet says -of Polonius, ‘You may _nose_ him in the lobby.’ In Shakspere’s -‘Tempest’ we may read, ‘Full many a lady I have _eyed_ with best -regard.’ - -To _jaw_ is sometimes used, though not very elegantly, in the sense -of to chatter or scold. We often hear of a man ‘_elbowing_’ his -way through a crowd, and Goldsmith’s ‘Deserted Village’ gives us -‘_Shouldered_ his arms, and showed how fields were won.’ - -To ‘_hand_’ a plate, and to ‘_finger_’ a passage on the piano, -are everyday expressions. We also frequently hear of a coachman -‘_backing_’ his horses, and Shakspere has ‘to _foot_ it featly.’ -Besides these, may be noticed ‘to _thumb_ the leaves of a book’; to -‘_breast_ the waves;’ ‘to _palm_ off (for to cheat or deceive);’ to -_side_ with a party; and to _head_ an expedition. To these may be -added ‘to _bone_’ a fowl; ‘to _skin_’ a rabbit, and many others. -It may be reasonably doubted whether this power exists to anything -like the same extent in the continental languages. - -But not only the names of parts of the body; also those of many -articles of domestic use are employed in a similar way. We have -to _chair_ a member; we hear that people are _boarded_, and that -the earth is _carpeted_ with green. ‘_Curtained_’ sleep, and -‘_imbedded_’ in the earth, belong to the same class. One man is -said to _floor_ another in argument. To ‘_picture_ to yourself;’ -to _table_ the contents of a book; to be _closeted_ with a friend, -to _book_ a debt; to _pen_ a letter; to _ink_ a dress; to _paper_ -a room, and to _shelve_ a subject are all common and daily -expressions. They are, in every sense of the term, _household_ -words. - -In English, names of domestic animals are all Saxon; whereas wild -beasts for the most part retain their Latin or French names. Thus -‘cat,’ ‘hound,’ ‘horse,’ ‘sheep,’ ‘cow,’ ‘swine,’ &c., are of -Germanic origin; whilst ‘lion,’ ‘tiger,’ ‘elephant,’ ‘leopard,’ -‘panther,’ &c., come to us from Greek through Latin. The power we -have to use these names of animals as verbs is another instance of -the elasticity of our language. This can be done with some of the -above Saxon names, though not with those of wild beasts. The noun -‘horse’ is often used as a verb: a stable-keeper is said to _horse_ -a coach; i.e. to supply it with horses. We have also _to dodge_; -i.e. to follow a scent in and out like a dog. A man is _hounded_ on -to do such and such work; while to _rat_ is to desert your party. -Every one knows that to _duck_ is to dive in the water like a duck. -People are also said to be _gulled_ when they are easily deceived; -and to _drone_ when they read or speak monotonously. - -It is remarkable how often, colloquially, we use the names of -animals as types of temper or character. True, this is not peculiar -to the English language: though the practice is perhaps here more -extended. People continually employ the word ‘ass’ or ‘donkey’ in -the sense of a stupid loutish fellow. They also often stigmatise -a cunning man as a ‘fox;’ or a scolding shrew as a ‘vixen.’ A -proud little strut is called ‘a cock of the walk;’ and a reckless -spendthrift is a ‘sad dog;’ or sometimes a ‘jolly dog.’ ‘Puppy’ -is suggestive of conceit and self-sufficiency; and a slothful, -indolent man is spoken of as a lazy ‘hound.’ A ‘hog’ is sometimes -used as a metaphor for a glutton; and a ‘pig’ for a dirty fellow. -‘Pig-headed’ is also applied to one of stubborn temper; a ‘mule’ -is a type of obstinacy; and a ‘horse,’ in the sense of a beast -of burden, is found in ‘towel-horse,’ or ‘clothes-horse.’ Men of -rude manners are spoken of as ‘bears,’ and the weak or timid in -disposition are called ‘chicken’-hearted. A fond mother speaks -of her child as her pet ‘lamb,’ or little ‘duck.’ Silliness is -typified by ‘goose,’ and mischief by ‘monkey,’ &c. Here it will be -found that these words are, with one or two exceptions, used in -a disparaging, and not in a favourable, sense. They are, most of -them, terms of reproach, not of praise. - -Words have not only degenerated in sense; their outward form has -also suffered. One principle--contraction--has affected both the -pronunciation and spelling of many words. It may be taken as a -general rule that words, as they grow older, become softer and -shorter. They seldom expand, but almost always contract. This -probably originated in a loose careless way of speaking, which -afterwards affected the written language. Contractions appear -in a great variety of forms. 1st. They are made by cutting off -an initial syllable, as ‘‘prentice,’ for ‘apprentice;’ ‘‘peach,’ -for ‘impeach;’ ‘‘gin,’ for ‘engine;’ ‘‘suage,’ for ‘assuage;’ -‘‘cyclopædia,’ for ‘encyclopædia;’ &c. Among the words which have -lost their initial letters, three are to be especially noticed: -viz. ‘luck,’ ‘irksome,’ and ‘orchard.’ The first of these was -originally ‘Glück,’ and is still so spelled in German, whence -it comes. ‘Irksome’ was in Anglo-Saxon written ‘(w)eorcsam,’ -i.e. full of work, and therefore troublesome; and ‘orchard’ is -a corruption of ‘(w)ort-yard,’ that is, a yard in which (worts) -plants or vegetables were grown. 2nd. By cutting off a final -syllable; as in ‘pro and con,’ for ‘contra;’ ‘cit,’ for ‘citizen;’ -‘without,’ formerly ‘withouten;’ ‘incog,’ for ‘incognito;’ ‘hyp,’ -for ‘hypochondria;’ ‘consols,’ for ‘consolidated annuities,’ &c. -3rd. By taking a letter, or letters, from the middle of a word; as -‘else,’ for ‘elles;’ ‘lark,’ for ‘laverock;’ ‘last,’ for ‘latest;’ -‘lord,’ for ‘hlaford;’ ‘since,’ for ‘sithence;’ ‘parrot,’ for -‘perroquet;’ and ‘fortnight,’ for ‘fourteen nights;’ ‘cheer up’ -is contracted into ‘chirrup,’ and then into ‘chirp;’ ‘speak’ -comes from ‘sp_r_ecan;’ and the Anglo-Saxon ‘wi_f_man’ appears as -‘woman.’ By the same law are formed many proper names. ‘Twell,’ -for ‘at the well;’ ‘Thill,’ for ‘at the hill;’ ‘Oxford,’ for -‘Ox_en_ford;’ ‘Cambridge,’ for ‘Cant_e_brigge,’ &c. - -Many other cases may be cited as examples of this law. The word -‘(E)piscop(us)’ has suffered a mutilation at both the beginning -and the end; and appears in English as ‘Bishop.’ The prefix ‘ge,’ -commonly used in Saxon, and still retained in German participles, -lingered for some time in English in the softened form of _y_; as -in ‘_y_clept,’ ‘_y_clothed,’ &c.; but it has now vanished from the -language. Another instance of the same tendency may be seen in the -present pronunciation of participles ending in ‘ed.’ Formerly, the -word ‘used’ was always pronounced as a dissyllable--‘usèd;’ now it -is universally pronounced as a monosyllable. Indeed, this final -‘ed,’ as a distinct syllable though still occasionally heard in the -pulpit, is fast disappearing from our language. - -Contraction was the main principle on which the ancient Latin was -transformed into French. It is curious to observe that though this -contracting power did operate in Italian, it was not there carried -out to the same degree as in French; that is, though Italian words -are, in most cases, shorter than their Latin equivalents, they are -not so contracted as the French words of the same meaning. This may -be easily shown by comparison:-- - - _Latin._ _Italian._ _French._ - - apotheca bottega boutique - male-aptus malatto malade - quisque unus ciascuno chacun - ad hanc horam ancora encore - ad illam horam allora alors - ad satis assai assez - in simul insieme ensemble - semetipsissimus medesimo même - de retro dietro derrière - de illo dello du - homo uomo on - gaudium giojo joie - -and many others. - - -_Expansion._ - -On the other hand, there are some few cases where words are -expanded or widened by the insertion of a letter. 1st. Of -a vowel. We have ‘alar_u_m,’ for ‘alarm;’ ‘law_y_er,’ for -‘lawer;’ ‘cloth_i_er,’ for ‘clother.’ The _i_ is also inserted -in ‘parl_i_ament,’ ‘Sav_i_our,’ ‘hand_i_craft,’ ‘hand_i_work,’ -‘per_i_winkle,’ and a few others. - -2nd. Sometimes, _l_ or _r_ is inserted; as in ‘princip_l_e,’ from -‘principe;’ ‘syllab_l_e,’ from ‘syllabe;’ ‘cart_r_idge,’ from -‘cartouche;’ ‘part_r_idge,’ from the Latin ‘perdix,’ through the -French ‘perd_r_ix;’ ‘g_r_oom,’ from the Anglo-Saxon ‘guma,’ a man; -‘vag_r_ant,’ from ‘vagans;’ and ‘co_r_poral,’ from ‘caporal.’ - -3rd. P and B are often inserted after _m_; as ’em_p_ty,’ -Anglo-Saxon ‘æmtig,’ ‘tem_p_t,’ from the French ‘tenter;’ -’em_b_ers,’ from the Anglo-Saxon ‘æmyrje;’ ‘nim_b_le,’ from the -Anglo-Saxon ‘nemol.’ Also in ‘lam_b_,’ ‘lim_b_,’ ‘crum_b_,’ -‘thum_b_,’ and ‘num_b_,’ the _b_ forms no part of the root. - -4th. D naturally attaches itself to _n_ final; as in ‘soun_d_,’ -‘riban_d_,’ ‘len_d_,’ &c. This may probably account for certain -provincial pronunciations, as ‘gown_d_,’ ‘drown_d_,’ &c. Also in -‘thun_d_er,’ ‘kin_d_red,’ and ‘yon_d_er,’ the _d_ is parasitical. - - -_Assimilation._ - -Assimilation, or the coming together of letters which have an -affinity for each other, is a principle which affects the spelling, -as well as the pronunciation, of many English words. This law -softens the pronunciation, and will account for the frequent -occurrence of a double consonant at the beginning of a large class -of words. The rule is here:--‘_When a prefix ending in a consonant -is applied to a root beginning with one, that consonant disappears, -and there is substituted for it the initial consonant of the -root_.’ This happens most frequently in English words compounded -with Latin prepositions. The _d_ in the preposition ‘_ad_’ is often -assimilated to the initial consonant of the root to which it is -applied. - -The word ‘a_cc_ede’ is made up of ‘ad’ (to) and ‘cede’ (come). -But the initial _c_ in ‘cede’ assimilated to itself the _d_ in -‘ad,’ i.e. changed it into a _c_. Thus ‘adcede’ became ‘a_cc_ede.’ -This law will account for the double consonant in such forms as -‘a_cc_ost,’ ‘a_gg_rieve,’ ‘a_ll_ude,’ ‘a_mm_unition,’ ‘a_nn_ex,’ -‘a_pp_ly,’ ‘a_ss_ist,’ ‘a_tt_ract,’ and many others. In all these -cases the first syllable was originally ‘_ad_.’ - -This law applies with equal force to other Latin prepositions -which enter into the formation of English words; as ‘con,’ ‘in,’ -‘per,’ ‘sub,’ &c. We spell the word ‘co_ll_ect’ for ‘conlect;’ -‘co_mm_une,’ for ‘conmune,’ &c. On the same principle we write -‘i_ll_egal,’ for ‘inlegal;’ ‘i_rr_egular,’ for ‘inregular;’ -‘pe_ll_ucid,’ for ‘perlucid;’ ‘su_cc_umb,’ for ‘subcumb;’ and many -others. But when the root begins with a labial (_b_, _p_, or _m_), -then the final consonant of the preposition is always changed into -_m_. This is why we write ‘i_m_bibe,’ and not ‘ibbibe;’ ‘i_m_bue,’ -not ‘ibbue;’ and ‘i_m_possible,’ not ‘ipposible,’ &c. - -This principle of assimilation has operated in the formation of the -words ‘ha_mm_ock’ and ‘sti_rr_up.’ The first is from ‘hang-mat,’ -where the _ng_ has been assimilated to _m_. The second is from the -Anglo-Saxon ‘stig-rope’ (literally, ‘mount-rope,’ or rope to mount -by), where _r_ is substituted for the _g_ in ‘stig.’ - - -_Attraction._ - -Attraction is another principle which affects the forms of certain -words. Sometimes a consonant is drawn away from the word to -which it properly belongs, and becomes a part of its neighbour. -The effect of this law is especially remarkable in the article -‘_an_.’ In certain cases the _n_ (of a_n_) does not really belong -to the article, but is the initial letter of the noun following. -This happens in the case of ‘an orange;’ the word ‘orange’ is, in -Spanish, whence it is derived, ‘naranja,’ and we should therefore -write ‘a norange’ rather than ‘an orange.’ But the article _a_ has -attracted to itself the initial _n_ of the noun, and the result -is--‘an orange.’ For the same reason ‘an adder’ should be written -‘a natter,’ or ‘a nadder.’ On the other hand, there are cases in -which the _n_ of the article is attracted into the following word. -If the word ‘apron’ is from the French ‘naperon’ (from nappe, -cloth), we should write ‘a napron,’ and not ‘an apron.’ Several of -these cases may be pointed out. We say and write, ‘a neap tide,’ -instead of ‘an ebb tide;’ ‘a newt,’ for ‘an ewt’ (or eft); and, -on the other hand, ‘an auger,’ for ‘a nauger;’ ‘an awl,’ for ‘a -nawl;’ and ‘an umpire’ for ‘a nompire.’ The same principle operates -in certain French expressions. The province of Southern Italy -formerly known as ‘Apulia,’ is in French written ‘La Pouille.’ Here -the _a_ initial of ‘Apulia’ is attracted into the article. The -expression should be ‘L’Apouille,’ and not ‘La Pouille.’ In the -same way, the French call ‘Anatolia’ (Asia Minor), ‘La Natolie;’ -whereas it should be written ‘L’Anatolie.’ It is from the Greek -ἀνατολή--the rising of the sun. - - -_Accent._ - -The accent of an English word depends chiefly on its derivation. -In words of Saxon origin, it is placed on the root. For example, -‘lóve’ is an accented monosyllable, and preserves its accent on -the root, in all its derivations; as in ‘lóving,’ ‘lóveliness,’ -‘lóveable,’ &c. But in Romance words, the tendency is to put -the accent on the branches, and not on the root. In French, -the vocabulary is drawn mainly from Latin words without their -inflections. The French words ‘natúre,’ ‘fatál,’ ‘aimáble,’ &c., -have the accent on the second syllable, because they are formed -from the Latin ‘natúra,’ ‘fatális,’ and ‘amábilis,’ without the -endings. But in English all these and similar words are accented -on the first syllable; and we pronounce them ‘náture,’ ‘fátal,’ -‘ámiable.’ In Chaucer’s poetry, many French words are accented on -the second or third syllable, in accordance with the classical -principle; thus, we there find ‘honóur,’ ‘natión,’ ‘companý,’ -&c. All these, after Chaucer’s time, shifted the accent back to -the first syllable, thus conforming themselves to the genius -of the English language. There is, to this day, in English a -conflict in the accent between the two principles, the Teutonic -and the Romance; the former leaning to the root, and the latter -to the branches of the word. But even in classical words, as -regards accent, the Saxon genius clearly prevails. We accent -the word ‘órdinary’ on the first syllable, which contains the -pith of its meaning; whereas the French place the accent on the -last--‘ordináire.’ It was probably the antagonism between these -two principles--the Germanic tendency toward the beginning, -and the Romance toward the end, of the word, which caused the -accent in English to be so long unsettled. But the genius of the -Saxon eventually triumphed over the French element, in accent as -well as in grammatical forms, and the general rule in English -pronunciation, is to put the accent on the root. - -The spelling of certain English derivatives depends on the place of -the accent in their roots. Now, when the last syllable of the root -is accented, the final consonant must be doubled in the derivative. -This accounts for the root ‘rób’ (with one b), making ‘ro_bb_ed,’ -and ‘ro_bb_er,’ (with two b’s) admí_t_ (one _t_), making admi_tt_ed -(two t’s), &c. - -But when the accent lies on any other syllable of the root, the -final consonant must remain single in the derivative, as ‘límit,’ -‘lími_t_ed;’ ‘díffer,’ ‘díffe_r_ing;’ ‘bénefit,’ ‘bénefi_t_ed;’ &c. -This rule applies only to root-endings consisting of a single vowel -followed by a single consonant; for if a diphthong precede, the -consonant must remain single in the derivative. We must therefore -write ‘joi_n_er,’ ‘stea_m_ing,’ ‘toi_l_ing,’ ‘rea_d_er,’ &c., with -single consonants. - -But there are exceptions to this general rule. One especially -regards roots ending in _l_. These always double the _l_ in the -derivative, whether the last syllable of the root be accented -or not. The verb ‘to expél,’ will, by the above rule, naturally -make its past tense, ‘expelled;’ but why should ‘trável’ give -‘traveller,’ or ‘équal,’ ‘equalled?’ These, though universally -adopted, are clearly against the principle. Two other words are -also exceptions, ‘worship,’ and ‘bias.’ These make ‘worshipped,’ -and ‘biassed,’ with double consonants. The Americans refuse to -admit these exceptions, and they write ‘trave_l_er,’ ‘equa_l_ed,’ -‘worshi_p_ed,’ and ‘bia_s_ed,’ with single consonants. It must be -admitted that they are right in principle, but the general practice -in English is in these cases decidedly in favour of the double -consonant. - - -_Inversion._ - -There appears in certain letters a peculiar tendency to get out of -order--to slip into a wrong place--a restless desire for change. No -letter of the alphabet is more subject to this affection than the -liquid, _r_. Many French words ending in _re_, are found in English -to end in _er_. The French ‘lett_re_’ is in English ‘lett_er_.’ -The final syllables of ‘Septembre,’ ‘Octobre,’ ‘Novembre’ and -‘Décembre,’ are inverted in English, and are written ‘Septemb_er_,’ -&c. The Greek root ἑρπ (creep) gave in Latin ‘_rep_ĕre;’ whence -we have ‘_rep_tile,’ &c. ‘B_ru_nt,’ is derived from ‘b_ur_n.’ The -‘brunt’ of a battle is where it ‘burns’ most fiercely. Again: a -‘p_ur_pose’ is what we ‘p_ro_pose’ to do; and ‘to t_ru_ndle’ a hoop -is to ‘t_ur_n’ it repeatedly. The Saxon verb ‘_ur_nan,’ is the -source of the English ‘_ru_n.’ ‘B_ri_mstone’ is an inversion of -‘b_ur_n-stone;’ and the verb to ‘ask,’ was in Anglo-Saxon, ‘axian.’ -Chaucer has ‘drit’ for ‘dirt;’ ‘briddes,’ for ‘birds,’ &c. - - -_Corruption._ - -When a word is warped or distorted from its original form, either -by a vicious pronunciation, or by a mistaken notion of its -derivation, it is said to be a corruption. Though we must accept -and adopt the usual spelling of such words, it may be useful and -interesting to know what brought them into their present forms. - -When a word is first pronounced in the hearing of those who do -not know its meaning, its spelling naturally becomes with them, -a mere imitation of the sound. It is remarkable how often these -corruptions appear in the names of taverns and ships. Such words -being most frequently in the mouths of the illiterate, will soon -acquire a false pronunciation, which, after a time, leads to a -false spelling, and hence many of their present forms. It was this -rude attempt to imitate a sound that led the sailors to call their -ship ‘Bellerophon’ the ‘Billy Ruffian.’ From the same cause, the -sign of the ‘Boulogne Mouth’ was corrupted into ‘Bull and Mouth;’ -and the ‘Bacchanals’ (a very appropriate name for an inn), was -transformed into the ‘Bag of Nails.’ It is said that our soldiers -in India could never be taught to pronounce properly ‘Surajah -Dowlah,’ the name of that Bengal prince who figured in the affair -of the Black Hole. They persisted in calling him ‘Sir Roger Dowlas!’ - -Some of these corrupt forms are so firmly rooted in the language, -that they must now be recognised as correct, and adopted -accordingly. We are told that the word ‘grocer’ was originally -‘grosser,’ and meant one who sold articles in the gross (_en -gros_). This is probably the true explanation; but we must not, on -that account, revert to the old spelling. It would be eccentric -and pedantic in the extreme to write ‘rightwise’ for ‘righteous;’ -‘frontispice’ for ‘frontispiece,’ or ‘shamefast’ for ‘shamefaced;’ -for though the first may have been the true and original form of -these words, custom must here take precedence of derivation, and we -must spell them according to the present usual practice. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA. - - -It is worthy of observation that all nations do not express -the same idea by the same form of word, i.e. that in different -languages the same idea is often represented by a word of a -distinctly different root. How comes it, we may ask, that the -Romance languages of Europe, viz. French, Italian, Spanish, &c. -all use forms of the originally same word to express their idea of -‘_king_,’ viz. roi, re, rey? These languages being off-shoots of -Latin, the above words are all derived from the Latin ‘rex,’ from -‘rego,’ ‘I rule,’ or exert physical power. Now in the Teutonic -languages of Europe--Dutch, German, English, etc.--we find this -idea in a very different phase: ‘Konig,’ ‘König,’ ‘King.’ The root -of these words may be found in ‘kennen,’ ‘to know.’ From this it -would appear that the idea of a ruler in one class of nations was -a physically strong man, who, by means of his bodily strength, -could force his subjects to do his will. The Saxon for ‘king’ was -‘cyning,’ from ‘cnawan’ to know, i.e. one who ‘knew’ better than -his subjects or followers--who was superior to them in knowledge. -We may, perhaps, conclude from this that the Romance nations -regarded strength or physical power as the distinguishing quality -of a ruler; whereas the Germanic tribes saw in their leader one who -was able to guide them aright by his superior thought and judgment. -The Romans looked to the hand, the Germans to the head, in this -matter. Is it not likely that attention to such differences may -throw some light on national characteristics? - -Another example of this difference of view of the same idea may -be seen in the English word ‘finger,’ as compared with the French -‘doigt.’ ‘Finger’ is connected with the German ‘fangen,’ to take -hold of, and is a relation of our word ‘fang,’ i.e. the tooth with -which certain animals _hold_ their prey. In the Germanic view of -the word it is the instrument with which we ‘take hold.’ On the -other hand, the Greek δάκτυλος, from δείκνυμι, I show or point out, -appeared in Latin as ‘digitus;’ passed into Italian as ‘dito,’ and -into French as ‘doigt.’ The Romance view of the word would then be -‘a pointer or indicator,’ and the Teutonic a holder or catcher. - -The French word ‘mouchoir’ will also illustrate this difference of -view. This is from ‘(se) moucher,’ to wipe (the nose). It would -be considered extremely vulgar to call this article in English -‘a wiper,’ and yet this is literally its French meaning. The -Germans have named it ‘Schnupftuch,’ or ‘snuff-cloth,’ another -view of the same thing. But the corresponding English word, -‘handkerchief,’ presents us with a most curious anomaly. The -first form of the word was ‘kerchief,’ which is the old French -‘couvre-chef,’ i.e. a covering for the head, just as ‘curfew’ was -from ‘couvre-feu’--‘cover-fire.’ Milton has the word ‘kerchiefed’ -in the sense of ‘with the head covered.’ He speaks of Morn-- - - _Kerchiefed_ in a comely cloud.--_Penseroso._ - -Now, if to ‘kerchief’ we prefix ‘hand,’ we have a word which seems -to mean a covering for the head, held in the hand--which is a -manifest absurdity! But the climax of confusion is reached when we -qualify this word by ‘pocket.’ How the covering for the _head_ is -to be held in the _hand_, and yet carried in the _pocket_ is enough -to puzzle anyone. - -Another instance of this description may be seen in the word -‘heaven.’ In the Teutonic languages it represents the idea of -something raised on high, or _heaved_ up--from ‘heafan’ and -‘heben,’ to lift up, or elevate. But the Romance view of this word -is connected with the idea of hollowness or concavity. The Greek -κοῖλον; the Latin ‘cœlum;’ the Italian ‘cielo;’ and the French -‘ciel’--all involve the meaning of a hollow, or arched covering. - -A great variety of expression may be also seen if we compare -together the idioms of several European languages. These -peculiarities may be looked upon as characterising the tone and -habits of thought of a nation, and they deserve especial study and -attention. If we take the usual form of greeting in English--‘How -do you do?’ here we may see that the verb _do_ is indicative of -the activity and practical nature of the English mind. It would -seem as if in this country our bodily health actually depends upon -our _doing_; i.e. our business habits; that to be occupied is -equivalent to being in good health. Now if we take the ordinary -corresponding French phrase--‘Comment vous _portez_-vous?’--we -may fairly infer that the well-being in this case depends on the -_carriage_, or outward bearing of the person. The Germans, under -the same circumstances, say: ‘Wie befinden Sie sich?’ (literally, -‘how do they _find_ themselves?’) May not this form of expression -throw some light on the German character? May it not point to that -tendency to deep reflection which is known to be so strikingly -distinctive of the German tone of mind? From this we may conclude -that the German is so habituated to deep thought that he cannot -even tell you the state of his health, without searching till -he _finds_ it out. The Italian corresponding form, ‘Come sta?’ -(literally, ‘How does he stand?’), is referred to the _standing_ of -the Lombard merchants in the market-place; and in this case, the -well-being or health seems to have depended on the prosperity of -the dealer. In these remarks on the different forms of greeting, -there may appear something fanciful, but one thing is clear, viz. -that they all differ from each other, and it is but natural to -conclude, that each has some connection with the turn of mind of -the people to which it belongs. Of course it would be wrong to -form positive opinions concerning national character, from the -examination of only one idiom; and it would be necessary to collect -and compare a large number of examples to arrive at satisfactory -conclusions on this head. But we should look into the philosophy of -idiom more keenly, for here we are most likely to find a key to the -character of every civilised nation. - -Another example of this variety may be seen in the form of address -adopted in the different countries of Europe. We English speak -to one another in the second person plural, even when we address -one person. We say ‘you are,’ to one single person, and if we -have to address a thousand, we must use the same form. This may, -probably, partly account for the grammatical fault so commonly made -by the uneducated--‘_you was_.’ Feeling that they are speaking -to only one person, and not knowing that the pronoun (you) is, -strictly speaking, plural, they very naturally--though, of course, -incorrectly--put the ‘you’ and the ‘was’ together. - -The French also adopt the second person plural in the same -case--‘vous êtes.’ But they use the second person singular much -more frequently than we do, especially between relations and -intimate friends. ‘Tu’ and ‘toi,’ however, have lost much of their -former charm since the great revolution, when the levelling spirit -of the Government merged all differences of rank into one common -form of address. In certain circumstances, the French use the third -person singular as a mark of respect. When a lady goes into a shop -in Paris, the first question asked her is, ‘Qu’est-ce que madame -désire?’ and, in the same way, her servant says to her, ‘Madame, -a-t-elle sonné?’ - -The Germans, in the same circumstances, use the third person -plural--‘Sie sind,’ literally ‘they are.’ This usage has prevailed -in Germany ever since the sixteenth century, and is supposed to -express respect. But in cases of intimacy, or relationship, the -Germans also use the pronoun of the second person singular. A -German husband always addresses his wife, or a brother his sister, -as _du_, but if scorn or contempt be intended, then the third -person singular is adopted. In Germany, the best way to get rid -of an importunate beggar is to exclaim, ‘Was will _er_?’ which is -about equivalent to our ‘What does the fellow want?’ - -Majesty still speaks, in this country, in the plural number. The -Queen issues a proclamation, beginning with:--‘Given at _our_ -court of St. James’, &c. The editorial ‘we’ is also well known as -expressing a certain importance and authority. In Italy, the form -used in addressing any one is the third person singular, ‘Come -sta,’ literally, ‘How does he stand?’ - -If we compare the words which express degrees of kindred or -relationship in one language with those of a corresponding class in -another, we shall find distinctly different pictures. The French -words ‘mari’ and ‘femme,’ merely show a difference of sex. ‘Mari’ -is from the Latin ‘maritus’ (mas, maris), ‘a male,’ and ‘femme,’ -is derived from ‘femina,’ ‘female.’ But if we put against these -the corresponding English terms ‘husband’ and ‘wife,’ a totally -new scene is opened to our view. ‘Husband’ is etymologically, the -‘man of the house,’ or the ‘house-protector;’ and the ‘wife’ is -the ‘weaving-one.’ Indeed, we shall find that most of the Saxon -words expressing degrees of kindred, have reference to occupations. -The _hus_band was the head or protector of the house. The wife -(as her name shows) _wove_ the cloth for the use of the family. -But before the cloth could be woven, it must be _spun_, and this -was done by the grown-up unmarried women, for that reason called -‘_spinsters_.’ The word ‘daughter’ is traced to a Sanscrit root, -‘dhu’--milk; whence we infer that the daughters milked the cows, a -very appropriate occupation in a primitive state of society. The -word ‘son’ is supposed to be derived from a Sanscrit root ‘_su_’ or -‘_pu_,’ originally signifying ‘clean,’ from which we may conclude -that their office was to _clean_ out the house. The ‘husband’ then -was the ‘protector;’ the ‘wife,’ the ‘weaver;’ the ‘unmarried -women,’ the ‘spinners’ (or ‘spinsters’); the ‘daughters,’ the -‘milkers;’ and the ‘sons,’ the ‘cleaners.’ With what hallowed -feelings are all these words associated, and what a vivid picture -do they present of the primitive simplicity of family society! No -such picture of domestic life is exhibited in the Latin or French -words which express these relations, and we may look in vain for -anything of this sort in the Romance languages. - -The Teutonic view of the place of punishment in a future life, -somewhat differs from the Romance. We English call it _hell_, the -French and Italians, _enfer_ and _inferno_. Our word is derived -from the old Saxon verb ‘_helan_,’ ‘to cover up’ or ‘hide;’ ‘enfer’ -and ‘inferno’ are from ‘inferus,’ ‘below,’ so that the Germanic -idea is here ‘a concealed or covered place;’ the classical view of -the same is ‘the place below, or underground.’ - -If we compare the English word ‘_shoe_,’ with the French -‘_soulier_’ we shall also find a difference in the original -meaning. They both represent the same article of dress, but our -word ‘_shoe_’ is from ‘shove,’ it is that into which we ‘shove’ the -foot; whereas the French ‘_soulier_’ rather suggests ‘sandal’ than -‘shoe,’ properly so called. It means literally, something ‘bound -under’ (sous-lié), i.e. under the foot. - -Our common word ‘_thimble_,’ is connected with ‘thumb,’ on which -it was originally worn. The Germans choose to call this article -‘_Fingerhut_,’ literally, a ‘finger-hat,’ i.e. a hat or covering -for the finger. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -COMPOUND WORDS. - - -One of the greatest advantages a language can possess, is the power -of forming compound words. This materially contributes to its -conciseness;--makes it comparatively easy to express much in few -words--and thus assists, by concentrating its force, in rendering -it vigorous and impressive. This power of compounding is found -chiefly in the Teutonic languages of Europe; and is comparatively -unknown in the Romance. In our own case, it was considerably -modified by the Norman Conquest, which introduced a French (or -Latin) element into English. We still, however, possess this power -to a considerable extent; and herein we enjoy certain advantages -unknown to French or Italian. German, the most cultivated of all -the Teutonic languages, has much more of this characteristic; and, -in point of closeness and compactness of expression, is superior -to English. But there are symptoms of its still further decrease -in our language, and it is worthy of observation that the general -tendency with us is to give up Saxon compounds, and to substitute -for them Latin or French terms. The old word ‘deathsman’ has its -present equivalent in ‘executioner;’ ‘mildheartedness’ has become -‘mercy;’ ‘long-suffering,’ ‘patience,’ &c. The verb ‘to gainsay’ -still lingers in the language, but its place is now generally taken -by ‘to contradict.’ ‘To gainstrive’ is supplanted by ‘to oppose.’ -‘To inspect’ is preferred before ‘to look into;’ and ‘to despise’ -is used rather than ‘to look down upon.’ - -The first English poet who gave prominence to this power of -combination was Chapman, who applied it with wonderfully happy -effect in his Homer’s Iliad, in translating the compound Greek -epithets which so frequently occur in that poem; such as -‘swift-footed;’ ‘ivory-wristed;’ ‘white-armed;’ ‘many-headed;’ -‘rosy-fingered,’ &c. Most of these were afterwards adopted by Pope. -There is a tendency in some modern English writers to carry this -compounding power to an unwarrantable extent, a practice which -should certainly be resisted, as being opposed to the genius of -our language, and also giving evidence of aping after Germanic -forms, and thus transgressing the proper limits of the language. -The late Madame d’Arblay, in her ‘Memoirs of Dr. Burney,’ -speaks of the ‘very-handsome,-though-no-longer-in-her-bloom-Mrs. -Stevens!’ and this authoress also has the ‘sudden-at-the-moment- -though-from-lingering-illness-often-previously-expected-death.’ -But this is really too bad. ‘It out-Herods Herod;’ and in these -cases is a mere piece of affectation. - -The mania at one time for these long-tailed adjectives, was -very cleverly ridiculed by the brothers James and Horace -Smith, in their ‘Rejected Addresses.’ Here in caricaturing -the style of the ‘Morning Post,’ they speak of the -‘not-a-bit-the-less-on-that-account-to-be-universally-execrated- -monster-Bonaparte.’ Another of these extraordinary epithets -is:--‘That-deeply-to-be-abhorred-and-highly-to-be-blamed-stratagem- -the-Gunpowder-Plot!’ But the climax of the caricature is reached in -the following. Speaking of Covent-garden market, the writer calls it -‘The-in-general-strewn-with-cabbage-stalks-but-on-Saturday-night- -lighted-up-with-lamps-market-of-Covent-garden!!’ But such legitimate -compound forms as ‘ill-assorted,’ ‘cloud-capped,’ ‘far-darting,’ -&c., are highly valuable, and of great service to the language. It -is to be observed that none of these are literally translatable into -French. For such an adjective as ‘broken-hearted,’ there is no -corresponding equivalent in that language. The only way to express, -in French, any approach to the meaning of our word, is to use a -ponderous circumlocution, which will require at least three or four -terms. The expression is thus enfeebled by being broken up into a -number of words, and it loses all the force and vigour of the -English. A ‘broken-hearted father’ would be probably expressed in -French by ‘un père qui a le cœur brisé’--exactly five words for our -one. And so of all other compound terms. In fact, French does not -lend itself to closeness and compactness of expression; and, in -this respect, is far inferior to any of the Teutonic languages. - -One peculiarity of the Saxon part of English is its monosyllabic -nature. This was chiefly caused by the falling-off of the endings. -All our prepositions and conjunctions, beside most of the nouns, -verbs, and adjectives in common use, are monosyllables. These form -the staple of the English language, and are the chief elements -of closeness and brevity of expression. Our legitimate compound -words seldom consist of more than two, or at most three, elements. -The greater number are made up of monosyllables; as ‘milk-maid,’ -‘oat-meal,’ ‘foot-boy,’ ‘hail-storm,’ &c. In a few cases, they are -compounded of three terms, as ‘out-of-doors,’ ‘matter-of-fact,’ -‘out-of-the-way,’ &c.; but these are comparatively rare. There are -few, if perhaps any, cases of English words which have more than -seven syllables. This seems to be the length of our tether in this -respect. Perhaps it is as well that it should be so; for whatever -may be said of the use of the compounding principle, as giving -closeness and energy of expression, there is no doubt that, when -carried to excess, it has a directly contrary effect. When a very -large number of elements are fused together into one word, there is -naturally a difficulty in getting at the original root and primary -meaning of the whole; and the expression becomes cumbrous and -unintelligible. - -This combining or compounding power is of different degrees in -different languages, but in the Mexican language it is carried to -an incredible extent. Here, combinations are admitted so easily, -that the simplest ideas are buried under a load of accessories. -For example, the word for a ‘priest,’ consists of eleven -syllables, and is there called ‘notlazomahuizleopixcatatzin,’ -which means literally, ‘venerable minister of God, whom -I love as my father.’ A still more comprehensive word is -‘amatlacuilolitquitcatlaxtlahuitli,’ which means ‘the reward -given to a messenger who brings a hieroglyphical map conveying -intelligence.’ - -This system displays a most curious mechanism, which, by bringing -the greatest number of ideas into the smallest possible compass, -condenses whole sentences into a single word. Many of our older -writers indulged in derivatives and compound words to an extent -which the language does not now admit, in consequence of its having -lost part of its Saxon character. We still have ‘to undo;’ but to -‘unput’ (for to take away) and to ‘undestroy’ (for to rebuild) were -formerly used, and Fuller even employs the verb ‘_to ungrayhair_,’ -in the sense of ‘to pull out gray hairs.’ He writes of a man being -‘ungrayhaired,’ when all his gray hairs were plucked out of his -head! - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS. - - -It is simply impossible to express sound by writing, and therefore -all instruction in pronunciation should be given vivâ voce. A -pronouncing Dictionary may sometimes afford assistance; but in many -cases it must fail, as it is an attempt to explain varieties or -shades of sound by varieties of shape, i.e. combinations of written -letters--in fine, objects of one sense by those of another. - -It is not easy to fix a standard of pronunciation. At one time -the stage, then the bar, and, later still, the pulpit, have been -considered as authorities in this matter. But all these are now -rejected, and the conversation of the highest classes in London -society is now looked upon as the standard of English pronunciation. - -Pronunciation, like everything else connected with language, -varies continually with the influence of time and fashion; and -it is well known that, even fifty years ago, many English words -were pronounced differently from the present practice. It was -formerly the fashion to pronounce ‘leisure’ (which now rhymes with -‘pleasure’) as if written ‘leezure’ (to rhyme with ‘seizure’). -This was never a vulgar pronunciation; it was done by the highest -classes. It was also the fashion to pronounce ‘oblige’ more like -the French verb ‘obliger’ as if written ‘obl_ee_ge,’ and this also -was the practice with the best educated. ‘Gold’ also was formerly -pronounced by good speakers as if rhyming with ‘ruled;’ now it -properly rhymes with ‘old’ or ‘cold.’ - -We may conclude, from some of Pope’s rhymes, that, in the early -part of the eighteenth century, our language was not pronounced -exactly as it is at present. He has ‘line’ and ‘join’ rhyming with -each other; also ‘vice’ and ‘destroys,’ ‘power’ and ‘secure,’ -‘safe’ and ‘laugh,’ ‘obey’ and ‘tea,’ &c. Some of these may have -been peculiar to the poet himself, and may be regarded as bad -rhymes; still, as Pope was an authority for the language of his own -time, most of them were, in all probability, recognised as correct. - -Stories are told of the peculiar pronunciation of some of the -leading literati of the last century which appear scarcely -credible. Dr. Johnson is said to have pronounced the word ‘fair’ -like ‘fear,’ and the adverb ‘once’ as if written ‘woonse.’ He also -called ‘punch’ ‘poonsh.’ Garrick was often remarked for saying -‘shupreme’ and ‘shuperior’ for ‘supreme’ and ‘superior.’ He also -pronounced ‘Israel’ as ‘Isrel,’ ‘villain’ as if ‘villin,’ and, -still more strangely, ‘appeal’ as ‘appal.’ - -John Kemble had several peculiarities of pronunciation. He -is known to have always said ‘bird’ for ‘beard,’ ‘ferse’ for -‘fierce,’ and my head ‘aitches’ (for ‘aches’). He persisted, -too, in pronouncing ‘Cato’ with the _a_ broad, as if written -‘Cāāto.’ Of this peculiarity an amusing anecdote is related. ‘One -evening, at the Dublin Theatre, after the performance of Addison’s -tragedy, the manager appeared on the stage, and made the following -statement:--“Ladies and gentlemen, to-morrow evening, with your -permission, the tragedy of Cato will be repeated, the part of -‘_Cāāto_’ by Mr. Kemble.”’ - -Another story is told of the same eminent actor, who, when George -III. said to him: ‘Mr. Kemble, will you “obleege” me with a pinch -of your snuff?’ replied: ‘With pleasure, your Majesty; but it would -become your royal lips much better to say “oblīge.”’ - -Some of the actor Quin’s pronunciations would be now considered -very singular. He always pronounced the word ‘face’ as if written -‘fāāce,’ and said ‘trōpically’ for ‘trŏpically.’ Also, in a -certain classical drama, addressing the Roman guard, he desired -them to lower their ‘faces’ (meaning their ‘fasces’). - -But, whatever may be the recognised standard of pronunciation, -there always will be a refined and a vulgar mode of speech--one -adopted by the cultivated and well-informed, and the other used by -the rude and illiterate. It must be understood that there are only -two ways in which our pronunciation may be at fault. 1. The accent -may be placed on the wrong syllable; or, 2. a wrong sound may be -given to the vowels. Under the first head may be placed such faults -as the following:--Some will say ‘fánatic’ instead of ‘fanátic,’ -and perhaps as often ‘lunátic’ for ‘lúnatic.’ Again, ‘mischíevous’ -is wrong, both in accent and tone; for the accent should here -be on the first syllable, and the sound of the second should be -close--míschĭevous. We also not unfrequently hear people call the -word ‘extánt,’ instead of ‘éxtant;’ but, as the accent is always -on the first in words of a like formation--such as ‘cónstant,’ -‘dístant,’ ‘ínstant,’ &c.--there is no good reason why ‘éxtant’ -should be made an exception. Another word in which the accent is -often misplaced is ‘réspĭted.’ Many will say ‘respíted,’ which is -decidedly against good usage. - -In some words the accent still seems to be unsettled. Perhaps we -hear the word ‘óbdurate’ as often with the accent on the second as -on the first syllable. Many scholars pronounce the word ‘obdūrate,’ -probably because the _u_ is long in the Latin ‘dūrus;’ but this -must also follow the accent of similar forms. We always say -‘áccŭrate,’ ‘índŭrate,’ ‘áugŭrate,’ ‘sátŭrate,’ &c.; and therefore, -by analogy, it should be óbdŭrate.’ - -By many the accent is placed on the second syllable of the word -‘applicable;’ but the general custom is to lay it on the first, and -the best practice is to say ‘ápplicable,’ and not ‘applícable.’ - -Another case of wrong tone may be heard in the pronunciation of the -word ‘_ínfĭnĭte_.’ We still not unfrequently hear in the pulpit, -‘infinīte goodness,’ &c. In dissyllables ‘īte’ final is sometimes -pronounced long; as in ‘polīte,’ ‘finīte,’ ‘recīte,’ &c.; but in -words of more than two syllables the final ‘ite’ is, with few -exceptions, pronounced short. We always (properly) say ‘definĭte,’ -‘exquisĭte,’ ‘opposĭte,’ ‘favourĭte,’ &c. - -Many have special difficulties in the pronunciation of certain -consonants. The correct sound of _r_ is a medium between the strong -rough _R_ of the Irish, and the feeble indistinct tone given it -by the London cockney. The Irishman will tell you that he is very -‘wa_r_(u)m’ after his ‘wo_r_(u)k.’ But in London, one often hears, -instead of ‘garden,’ ‘g_au_den,’ for ‘forth’ ‘f_au_th,’ and for -‘card’ ‘c_au_d,’ &c. - -Many Englishmen have a difficulty in pronouncing the rough _r_, -substituting for it the sound of _w_. These say ‘_w_oom’ for -‘_r_oom,’ ‘p_w_oduct’ for ‘p_r_oduct,’ ‘_w_agged’ for ‘_r_agged,’ -&c. This habit, unless checked early, is likely to become incurable. - -Others again contract a vicious habit of pronouncing the _r_ far -back in the throat, instead of forming it by vibrating the tip of -the tongue. This is what the French call ‘_parler gras_.’ - -There is one very improper use of _r_ which must be here mentioned; -viz. the addition of this letter to certain words ending in _a_. -Some pronounce ‘sofa’ as if written ‘sofa_r_.’ Also they speak of -their papa_r_ and mamma_r_, &c. It is scarcely necessary to say -that this is a positive vulgarism. - -Nowhere, perhaps, is the perversity of our nature more evident than -in the pronunciation of, (1), _h_ silent and _h_ aspirate; and, -(2), _v_ and _w_. These sounds are constantly confounded. Many -pronounce _h_ where it is not required, and leave it out where -it should be sounded. They will say ‘abit’ for ‘habit,’ ‘erd’ -for ‘herd,’ ‘ill’ for ‘hill,’ ‘old’ for ‘hold,’ &c.; and, on the -other hand, ‘_h_all’ for ‘all,’ ‘_h_odd’ for ‘odd,’ ‘_h_uncle’ for -‘uncle,’ &c. - -The same vice exists in the pronunciation of _v_ and _w_. It is -clear that the speaker _can_ pronounce both these letters, but he -inveterately persists in misplacing them. He will say ‘_w_eal’ and -‘_w_inegar,’ and at the same time, ‘_V_y do you _v_eep?’ These -faults are made almost exclusively by ignorant, uneducated people. - -Under this head may be also mentioned the incorrect pronunciation -of _wh_ initial. By many the _h_ is here left out altogether, -and these pronounce the pronoun _which_ exactly as if written -‘_witch_.’ In Anglo-Saxon, whence all this class of words -comes, they were spelled, and probably pronounced, with the _h_ -first--‘_hw_;’ and even now, if we listen attentively to those who -pronounce them correctly, we shall always hear the aspirate first. -We should surely make a difference between ‘_wh_o’ and ‘_w_oo,’ -‘_wh_en’ and ‘_w_en,’ ‘_wh_ere’ and ‘_w_ear,’ &c.; and, though it -would be incorrect to mark the aspirate too roughly, the _h_ in -such words should be always fairly brought out. - -We also perpetually hear (especially in London) words ending -in ‘_ing_’ pronounced as if written ‘_in_;’ as, for example, -‘stand_in_,’ ‘runn_in_,’ ‘go_in_,’ for ‘stand_ing_,’ ‘runn_ing_,’ -go_ing_,’ &c. In one case a _k_ is put for the g. ‘Nothin_k_’ is -said for ‘nothing.’ - -There is a disposition in many readers and speakers to give a -sort of veiled sound to unaccented monosyllables, so that the -true pure tone of the vowel is not heard. This is a very common -fault. By such readers ‘for’ is pronounced ‘_fur_,’ ‘of’ is called -‘_uv_,’ ‘not’ ‘_nut_,’ ‘from’ ‘_frum_,’ and ‘was’ ‘_wuz_,’ &c. &c. -It should be remembered that, whether such words be, or be not, -accented, the sound of the vowel should always be full and pure. - -A point of great importance is to always carefully give the true -sound to an unaccented vowel which begins a word. We should never -let _e_motion degenerate into ‘_imm_otion,’ ‘_e_mergency’ into -‘_imm_ergency,’ ‘_o_bedience’ into ‘_ub_bedience,’ &c. No accent, -however, should be placed on these syllables, but the initial vowel -should be always pronounced in its proper and pure sound. - -It is right to be just as careful with vowels which are medial -and unaccented. We should not allow ‘mon_u_ment’ to sound as -‘mon_i_ment,’ nor must ‘calc_u_late’ be pronounced with the u -close. This fault often happens with words ending in ‘_e_ty’ or -‘_i_ty.’ We hear over and over again, in the pulpit, the words -‘trin_i_ty,’ ‘dign_i_ty,’ ‘soci_e_ty,’ &c. pronounced as if written -‘trin_a_ty,’ ‘dign_a_ty,’ ‘soci_a_ty,’ &c. - -The pronunciation of the word ‘knowledge,’ with the o long, is -still occasionally heard; but it is now almost universally called -‘knŏwledge’ (to rhyme with ‘college’). - -Some pronounce ‘haunt,’ ‘jaunt,’ ‘taunt,’ ‘jaundice,’ &c. with the -diphthong broad, having the same sound as in ‘r_aw_’ or ‘s_aw_.’ -But all these should rhyme with ‘aunt,’ which is never pronounced -broad. - -The ending ‘_ile_’ of certain adjectives sometimes offers a -difficulty of pronunciation. Here, in the words ‘hostīle,’ -‘missīle,’ ‘servīle,’ ‘reptīle,’ ‘puerīle,’ and ‘volatīle’ the -_i_ has a long sound; but in ‘fertĭle,’ ‘fragĭle,’ ‘futĭle,’ and -‘imbecĭle’ the _i_ must be short. - -Some incorrectly give the long sound ‘īle’ to the broader diphthong -‘_oi_l.’ They call ‘_oi_l’ ‘īle,’ ‘boil’ and ‘broil’ ‘bīle’ and -‘brīle,’ &c. In the age of the poet Pope, these two sounds were -probably closer to each other than they are now; for he makes -‘_join_’ rhyme with ‘_line_:‘-- - - While expletives their feeble aid do _join_, - And ten low words oft creep in one dull _line_. - -A story is told of some one dining at a tavern who was asked by the -waiter whether he wished to have his sole ‘_brīled_?’ To which he -replied that he did not care whether it was ‘brīled’ or ‘bīled,’ as -long as it was not ‘spīled!!’ - -The words ‘fast,’ ‘past,’ ‘mast,’ and other similar combinations -are often pronounced either too broad or too close. In the -provinces we often hear ‘m_au_ster,’ ‘f_au_st,’ ‘p_au_st,’ and -‘c_au_nt,’ whilst the affected Londoner says ‘m_ĕ_ster,’ ‘f_ĕ_st,’ -‘p_ĕ_st,’ &c. - -Neither of the two is right, but the proper pronunciation lies -between them. Again, ‘pūt’ (which rhymes with ‘foot’) must -not be called ‘pŭt’ (to rhyme with ‘bŭt’), nor must pūlpit be -called pŭlpit. Some persist in pronouncing ‘covetous’ as if -written ‘covet_i_ous,’ and ‘tremendous’ as ‘tremend_i_ous;’ and -these are apparently equally attached to ‘pron_ou_nciation’ and -‘ar_e_thmetic.’ Lastly, the participle of the verb ‘to be’ must -always sound exactly like the vegetable ‘bēan,’ and not as a -wine-‘bin.’ - -The letter _u_, in many words, is really a diphthong, and has the -double sound of e + oo. This is heard in such words as ‘tüne,’ -‘stüpid,’ ‘tübe,’ ‘prodüce,’ ‘solitüde,’ ‘pictüre,’ &c., which -should be sounded as if written ‘te + une,’ ‘ste + upid,’ ‘te -+ ube,’ &c., the one part uttered rapidly after the other. But -many pronounce such words, incorrectly, as if written ‘toone,’ -‘stoopid,’ ‘pict_er_,’ &c. This is a vicious cockney pronunciation. - -There is no termination we should be more careful to pronounce -fairly out than ‘_ow_’ final, which, when unaccented, frequently -degenerates into ‘_er_.’ The words are properly pronounced -‘wid_ow_,’ ‘wind_ow_,’ and ‘fell_ow_,’ &c., and not ‘widd_er_,’ -‘wind_er_,’ and ‘fell_er_!!’ - -The word ‘tobacc_o_’ also is often wrongly pronounced ‘tobacc_er_.’ - -Some, who would be over-refined in their pronunciation, make two -syllables (instead of one) of the words ‘sky,’ ‘kind.’ They expand -them into ‘ske-y,’ ‘key-ind,’ &c. This is an absurd affectation. - -A clear distinct articulation is an essential principle of a -correct pronunciation; for, unless every syllable be uttered -clearly, the word cannot have its proper effect. How often do we -hear careless readers and speakers push one monosyllable into -another, so as to convey the impression that there is but one word, -where, in fact, there are two. How often do we hear: ‘_Frin_ this -case,’ instead of ‘_For_ in this case;’ ‘_Fra_ time,’ for ‘_For_ a -time;’ ‘_Nevery_ occasion,’ for ‘_On_ every occasion;’ ‘_Tinders_,’ -for ‘_It_ hinders!’ &c. - -Special care should be taken to utter _unaccented_ syllables -distinctly; as these are the most likely to be neglected. It is -this neglect which produces such bad pronunciations as ‘reg’lar,’ -‘sing’lar,’ ‘sim’lar,’ and which makes ‘extr_a_ordinary,’ -‘extr_or_dinary;’ ‘us_u_al,’ ‘uzhal;’ and ‘vi_o_lent,’ ‘vilent.’ -It is from the same cause that the _d_ in ‘and’ (a word which is -seldom accented) is so frequently unheard, especially when the -following word begins with a vowel, in such forms as ‘He _an I_,’ -for ‘He _and_ I;’ ‘My uncle _an_ aunt,’ for ‘my uncle _and_ aunt,’ -&c. - -The Irish have several peculiarities of pronunciation, which must -be here noticed. - -1. They sound ‘ea’ (the long ē) as ‘ay;’ ‘plēase’ they pronounce -exactly as ‘plays,’ and ‘tēa’ as ‘tay.’ - -2. ‘Door’ and ‘floor’ properly rhyme with ‘more’ and ‘sore,’ but -the Irish give to these words the sound of ‘oo’ in ‘poor.’ - -3. They also pronounce ‘catch’ (which exactly rhymes with ‘match’) -as ‘ketch’ (to rhyme with ‘fetch’). This is also a vulgar -pronunciation in England. - -4. They give the short instead of the more open sound of _u_ in -the words ‘pudding,’ ‘cushion,’ and ‘foot.’ They make ‘pudding’ -rhyme with ‘sŭdden;’ ‘cushion’ with ‘rush on;’ and ‘foot’ with -‘but.’ They also give the same sound to the vowels in ‘strōve’ and -‘drōve,’ making them rhyme with ‘lŏve’ and ‘dŏve,’ and pronouncing -them as if they were written ‘struv’ and ‘druv.’ - -5. Another of their peculiarities is to leave out the ‘_g_’ in -‘strength’ and ‘length,’ pronouncing these words as if they were -written ‘strenth’ and ‘lenth.’ They also omit the ‘_d_,’ in -pronouncing ‘breadth,’ and call it ‘breth.’ - -6. They give the long sound of ‘_e_’ to the close ‘_i_’ in such -words as ‘del_i_cious,’ ‘mal_i_cious,’ ‘v_i_cious,’ &c., and call -them ‘del_ee_cious,’ ‘mal_ee_cious,’ ‘v_ee_cious.’ - -7. They pronounce ‘_o_’ before ‘_ld_’ like the ‘_ow_’ in ‘how,’ -and they pronounce ‘cold’ and ‘bold’ as if these words rhymed with -‘howled’ or ‘growled.’ - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -SLANG WORDS AND AMERICANISMS. - - -No language is, or ever has been, in the strict sense of the -word, _pure_. All languages are continually borrowing and -lending--adopting words from foreign sources, and contributing from -their own store to that of others. It is now well known that the -ancient Greeks borrowed largely from the Oriental tongues, and lent -words and forms to Latin. Latin, again, borrowed from Greek, and -contributed to form the modern Italian, Spanish, and French. The -modern German language is just now strongly affected by a French -influence; and French itself, though for the most part Latin, -contains many Celtic and not a few Germanic words. Spanish, which -is in the main Latin, has a very considerable admixture of Arabic, -brought in by the Moors in the eighth century; and English is well -known to be made up of Anglo-Saxon, Norman, French, and Latin. - -But languages are not only subject to these attacks from without, -a process of internal corruption is also set up, and appears in -various forms. One of these may be recognised in the principle of -contraction. It may be laid down as a rule that words, as they grow -older, degenerate in meaning and contract in form. This contraction -probably originated in a loose, careless way of speaking, which -afterwards affected the written language. Sometimes a letter or -syllable is cut off from the beginning of a word; sometimes one -is taken from the middle, or from the end. ‘_Bus_’ is now all we -have left (at any rate, in ordinary conversation) of ‘_omnibus_.’ -‘_Fantasy_’ has lost its middle syllable, and appears as ‘_fancy_’ -and ‘_cab_’ does duty for ‘_cabriolet_.’ One conclusion this result -enables us to draw is that the contracted forms are always the more -modern. The form ‘courtesy’ existed before ‘curtsy;’ ‘procurator’ -preceded ‘proctor;’ and ‘minute’ was known before ‘mite.’ Whether -these contractions are to be regarded favourably or otherwise may -be a question, but there is no doubt that they are all produced by -the operation of a natural law of language which no human power -will ever be able to prevent. - -When a word is warped or distorted from its original form, either -by a vicious or slovenly pronunciation, or from a mistaken notion -of its derivation, it is said to be a corruption. One of these -corruptions appears in our word ‘surgeon.’ The French ‘chirurgien,’ -from which it immediately comes, shows more clearly its Greek -origin--χεὶρ (cheir), a hand; and ἔργω (ergo), I work--i.e. a -hand-worker, or manual operator. But a careless pronunciation, -probably aided by a natural tendency to contraction, has caused the -word with us to dwindle down to ‘surgeon.’ - -As an illustration of corruption arising from a false notion of -its derivation, we may take the word ‘i_s_land.’ How did the _s_ -get into it? This _s_ is not sounded, and yet it must be written. -In the one word ‘island,’ there is a mixture of Latin and German. -The first syllable is of Romance, and the second of Teutonic -origin. The Latin for ‘island’ is ‘insula,’ from ‘in’ and ‘salo,’ -the ‘salt,’ i.e. in the salt (sea, understood). The Anglo-Saxon -word for the same idea was ‘ea-land.’ Here ‘_ea_’ means ‘water.’ -This ‘_ea_,’ or ‘_ey_,’ is found in many names of islands, -as ‘Angles_ea_,’ ‘Jers_ey_,’ ‘Guerns_ey_,’ &c. ‘_Ea_-land,’ -then meant ‘water-land,’ or ‘land surrounded by water.’ In the -earlier editions of ‘Paradise Lost,’ the word always appears -written ‘iland’ (without the _s_), which points more clearly to -its Saxon derivation, and is nearer in spelling to the modern -German--‘Eiland.’ The ‘_s_’ was afterwards inserted, from a -mistaken notion that the word was of Latin, and not German, origin. - -A false analogy will sometimes give rise to a corrupted form of -spelling. The past tense of ‘can’ was originally ‘coude,’ not -‘cou_l_d;’ and the _l_ was afterwards introduced, from the apparent -analogy of the word to ‘wou_l_d,’ from ‘will,’ and ‘shou_l_d,’ -from ‘shall.’ This, then, is a corruption. But, though at first -incorrect, the _l_ must, of course, be now retained. - -Proper names, both of places and persons, have suffered a good -deal from this influence. Words of this class are most likely to -be corrupted, because they are most frequently in the mouths of -the common people. That ‘Birmingham’ should be called ‘Brummagem,’ -‘Cirencester,’ ‘Siseter,’ and ‘Wavertree,’ ‘Wartree,’ is not -surprising when we remember that these corruptions originated with -those who had often to pronounce, but seldom, if ever, to write -these names. But what is, perhaps, more strange, many of these -corruptions are now adopted by the upper classes. Thus, in all -ranks of society, the proper name ‘Beauchamp’ is now pronounced -‘Beecham;’ ‘St. John’ is called ‘Sinjon;’ ‘Cholmondeley’ is -pronounced ‘Chumley,’ and ‘Marjoribanks’ ‘Marchbanks.’ - - -_Slang Words._ - -Among the many signs of the corruption of the English language, -one, which is not the least remarkable, is the prevalent use of -slang words and phrases. That certain terms should be peculiar -to certain callings, trades, or professions, may be naturally -expected, but that these should be extended into general -conversation, is a corroborative proof of the strong liking -people now have for any thing unusual or out-of-the-way. One very -curious fact may be here observed. While the style of most of -our periodical writers soars upwards, and affects the lofty and -sublime, that of general conversation is the very reverse, and -sinks to the low and vulgar. - -A difference must be here made between ‘cant’ and ‘slang.’ The -first signifies the secret language of thieves, beggars, and -tramps, by which they endeavour to conceal their evil deeds from -the public. The knowledge and practice of this kind of language -is confined to the above-named fraternities. But slang consists -of those vulgar, unauthorised terms, which have come into fashion -during the last eighty or ninety years, and which are not confined -to one class, but may be now heard in almost every grade of society. - -In all trades and professions there are certain terms peculiar -to each, which are properly called ‘technical;’ these can hardly -be denominated slang. For example, in the language of actors, a -‘_length_’ signifies forty-two lines of the part each has to study -for the stage. They say, a part consists of so many ‘lengths.’ -This, and other such terms, are seldom, if ever, heard beyond -the circle to which they properly belong. But slang is found in -almost all classes of society. That of high life is drawn from -various sources. One of its phases may be seen in the French -words and forms which would-be fashionable people so delight in -using. To call a breakfast a _déjeuner_ is absurd, especially -as we have a very good word of our own to express that meal. -Leaders of fashion never speak of the fashionable world; but -always of the ‘beau monde.’ This ‘beau monde,’ they tell us, give -‘recherchés’ entertainments, attended by the ‘élite’ of society. -Lady _So_-and-_So_ gave a ‘thé dansant,’ which, of course, ‘went -off with éclat,’ &c. &c. Many so-called fashionable ladies and -gentlemen would, probably, be deeply offended to hear such language -termed slang; but any words or forms which are not recognised -English certainly deserve to be so stigmatised. - -This form of slang is confined chiefly to the would-be -fashionables, and to those writers of very questionable taste, who -use what they think funny and startling expressions in a novel and -flippant way. Cookery also has given us much slang of this sort. If -we were to ask, in an ordinary English hotel, for ‘côtelettes à la -jardinière,’ or a ‘vol-au-vent à la financière,’ the people of the -house would probably stare at us; but these and such expressions -form the staple of the style of many popular novelists. - -Of parliamentary slang, too, there is no lack of examples. Lord -Palmerston, and Mr. Disraeli are perhaps better known as _Pam_ -and _Dizzy_, than by their proper names. A single vote to one -candidate at an election is called a ‘plumper;’ and those who -have boiled a pot in a house, to qualify themselves to vote, -are termed ‘potwallopers.’ Among military men, anyone unusually -particular about his dress or personal appearance, is a ‘dandy’ or -a ‘swell.’ They also call a ‘title’ a ‘handle to your name,’ and a -kind-hearted, good-natured fellow is, with them, a ‘trump,’ or a -‘brick.’ - -The Universities also have their slang terms. The graduates use -‘crib’ for a house; ‘deadmen’ for empty wine-bottles; ‘governor,’ -or ‘relieving-officer,’ for a father; ‘plucked,’ for defeated or -rejected in an examination; and ‘row’ for a disturbance. - -The Eton and Harrow boys make use among themselves of many slang -terms, which are not often heard outside their bounds; but -when they return home for the holidays, they frequently infect -their sisters with some of their strange phraseology. A boy will -sometimes puzzle his sisters at home, by asking them if they do not -find his ‘toggery’ absolutely ‘stunning;’ or what they think of his -‘tile,’ or white ‘choker;’ adding that they are not yet paid for; -but that he supposes the ‘governor’ will have to ‘stump up,’ or -‘fork out the blunt,’ &c. - -Lawyers also have their slang; and this is not surprising, when we -remember the many opportunities they must have of hearing it, from -their connection with the police courts, and with life in its worst -phases. With them, taking the benefit of the Insolvent Debtors Act, -is to be ‘white-washed;’ and to draw up a fraudulent balance-sheet -is to ‘cook’ accounts, &c. - -But of all the forms of slang, the one most abundant in variety of -terms is the mercantile. It has been calculated that there are as -many as thirty-six vulgar synonyms for the one simple word _money_. -The following are a few of them: ‘_blunt_,’ ‘_tin_,’ ‘_coppers_,’ -‘_browns_,’ ‘_shiners_,’ ‘_yellow-boys_,’ ‘_flimsies_’ (bank -notes); ‘_fivers_’ (five pound notes), &c. &c. In city phraseology, -100,000_l._ is called a _plum_, and one million sterling is a -_marigold_. On the Stock Exchange buyers and sellers for the -account are called ‘bulls’ and ‘bears:’ a broker who is unable to -pay his debts, is there called ‘a lame duck;’ and, if expelled from -the house, he is said ‘to waddle.’ - -But though most of these terms will never form a legitimate part -of the English language, some of them are certainly not considered -so vulgar as others. It is said that the elegant Lord Chesterfield -was the author of the word ‘humbug,’ which, though it may have -been considered as slang in his day, can hardly be so called now. -Another word, ‘hoax,’ was condemned by Swift as low and vulgar, -this, too, has made its way; and is now not so revolting to good -taste as it probably was when first used. Both these words, -‘humbug’ and ‘hoax,’ are to be found in Dr. Latham’s edition of -_Johnson’s Dictionary_. - -Thackeray immortalised ‘snob’ in his celebrated ‘papers;’ and -though the word is not to be recommended, it must be allowed that -it is very expressive. Lord Cairns, in a speech in the House of -Commons, called ‘dodge’ ‘that homely but expressive term.’ Nor is -‘crusty,’ in the sense of ‘peevish,’ so low as it was once thought. -It has long been a question, whether the word ‘bamboozle’ should be -admitted. This also is to be found in Latham’s _Johnson_, though it -is there entered as ‘colloquial.’ - -But though it may be allowed to use some of these terms -occasionally in familiar discourse, no one of any sense or good -taste will ever think of indulging in slang language, either spoken -or written. It is, no doubt, a bad sign of the times, and much to -be deplored, that it is so common. Some writers have calculated -that there are, at least, three thousand slang terms in common use. -The above are but a few examples of this widespread corruption. We -may regard it, as concerns our language, in the light of a pest -to society. It takes a long time to clear the atmosphere from the -baneful influences of certain epidemics. Now, the language of -every-day conversation is suffering from this infectious disease, -and it becomes the duty of every Englishman who has a proper -feeling for his language, to refrain from this evil himself, and to -throw in its way every possible discouragement. - - -_Americanisms._ - -The recklessness with which the Americans use the English language -bids fair to flood it with many new and strange terms. It is very -possible that some of these words may some day take their places as -forming part of the legitimate materials of our language; and it -is also possible, as the Americans themselves sometimes declare, -that some of the words and phrases which are now called American, -are, in reality, genuine English words which have become obsolete -in the mother tongue. But, in the mean time, they certainly must be -regarded as interlopers--candidates for an office to which they are -not yet, if they ever will be, entitled. - -One rather curious explanation has been given of the word ‘guess.’ -It is well known that the Americans use it in the sense of _to know -for certain_. ‘I guess’ is equivalent, in American phraseology, to -‘I know it’--‘I am sure of it.’ Now, it has been argued that this -is the proper meaning of the word--that it is derived from the -German ‘gewiss,’ which comes originally from ‘wissen,’ to know. -When first imported into America, in the seventeenth century, they -say that it had this meaning in English--that we in England have -since then altered the meaning of the word, and that the Americans -have preserved its original signification. Even supposing that this -could be proved, it does not follow that the American practice is -the right one; nor, of course, that we should alter our present -meaning of the word, and conform to the American custom. The -fountain-head of the English language is in England, and in no -other country; and all departures from the English use of English -words must be looked upon as faults against purity of style. - -Americanisms may be considered under two heads--1st, legitimate -English words used in a wrong sense; and, 2nd, words of a new -invention, mutilated or distorted from some known or unknown root. -In the first class we may place the adjective ‘tall.’ This the -Americans use in a novel and unrecognised sense. In English it is -properly applied only to concrete nouns; as, ‘a tall man,’ or ‘a -tall tree,’ &c. But, in the United States, we continually hear of -‘tall talk,’ or even ‘a tall smell,’ &c. It is not the word that -is here objected to, but the sense in which it is applied. To -‘raise’ is another of this class, which is constantly used for ‘to -educate,’ or ‘bring up.’ ‘Where were you raised?’ is, in America, -a very common question. Again, the word ‘liquor’ is a perfectly -good English noun; but what a strange innovation is ‘to liquor!’ -A genuine Yankee says, ‘Stranger, will you “liquor?”’ ‘Handsome,’ -‘clever,’ and ‘fix’ are all three genuine English, but ‘to play -_handsome_ on the flute’ is undoubtedly bad English. We sometimes -qualify persons, but never things, as ‘clever.’ A ‘clever’ boy, or -a ‘clever’ man, &c., but never, as in America, a ‘clever’ house -or a ‘clever’ cargo. Again, in America a very common use of ‘to -fix’ is ‘to prepare,’ or ‘put in order.’ This is not sanctioned -by English usage. But ‘a fix,’ in the sense of a dilemma or -predicament, is condemned by literary men in the United States as -a vulgarism. - -The other class consists of words wholly unrecognised in English in -any sense--in fine, genuine Americanisms; such words as ‘secesh,’ -‘skedaddle,’ ‘recuperate,’ ‘rowdy,’ ‘rile,’ ‘stampede,’ &c., which -can in no sense be said to belong to our language. Nor is it likely -that English writers of any pretensions to good taste will ever -adopt them. The Americans call the English ‘Britishers;’ to tease -or vex anyone is, with them, ‘to rile’ him; to make a set speech is -to ‘orate;’ a sudden panic and flight of soldiers is a ‘stampede,’ -&c. There are other words of this class which it would puzzle most -English writers to explain; such as ‘slick,’ ‘spry,’ ‘kedge,’ -‘boss,’ ‘absquatulate,’ &c. These are not English words, and we may -pretty confidently predict that they will never become English. - -There can be little doubt, however, that certain expressions now -known as Americanisms were, at one time, very commonly used in -English. Madame D’Arblay, as well as other writers of her time, -has, over and over again, ‘mighty fine,’ ‘mighty pretty,’ &c. -‘Mighty pretty’ is exactly on a par with ‘_uncommon_ nice.’ The one -is just as incorrect as the other. This is a form of expression -continually used by American writers. Forty or fifty years ago the -adjective ‘rare’ was commonly used for ‘underdone’ (meat). Now, -though common enough in the United States, it is seldom, if ever, -applied by us in that sense. Some of these peculiarities appear -to be making way in English, in spite of our struggles against -them. Such are ‘to progress’ for ‘to advance,’ ‘to effectuate’ for -‘to accomplish,’ ‘right off,’ or ‘right away,’ for ‘at once’ or -‘immediately,’ ‘laid over’ for ‘put off,’ &c. - -The Americans use ‘tiresome’ for ‘tiring;’ they speak of a -‘tiresome’--for a fatiguing--journey. Also a ‘good’ time is used -for a ‘pleasant’ time, ‘fall’ for ‘autumn,’ and to ‘go-a-head’ for -‘to prosper.’ One American word which seems likely to establish -itself in the English language is, ‘a loafer.’ This would seem to -be derived from the German ‘laufen,’ to run, though it has not that -meaning in the United States, where it signifies one who lounges -about lazily. - -In America many new terms are the offspring of a political -excitement, which is sure to occur every four years, i.e. as often -as a new President is elected. On these occasions such words as -‘Copperheads,’ ‘Ring-tailed Roarers,’ ‘Know-nothings,’ ‘Fenians,’ -‘Wolverines,’ &c., &c., are sure to make their appearance. These -words may have a meaning for those who invent and use them, but to -the great majority of Englishmen they are altogether a mystery. - -Language, in the hands of a great poet, has been often called -‘a flame of fire.’ However this may be, in the hands of certain -American journalists it does seem, now and then, very likely to -burn their own fingers. In the New York papers we meet with the -verb ‘to concertize,’ which may possibly mean to give a succession -of concerts. We remember hearing that process once called ‘going -about matinéeing!’ And there is quite as good authority for the -one as for the other of these expressions. Another unintelligible -phrase, drawn from the same source, is ‘an _emergent_ meeting.’ -This word is never used, in modern English, in a concrete sense. -We may say an _emergent_ occasion or _emergent_ doubts, but not an -_emergent_ candidate or an _emergent_ character. It is possible -that the writer meant a meeting called together on an emergency. - -The rapid communication established of late years between England -and the United States has brought the two nations into a much -closer connection with each other. This, in a commercial or a -political view, may be of great advantage to both countries. -But every advantage has its drawback, and it is very doubtful -whether this condition of things is likely to benefit the English -language. The Americans are well known to set great store by -liberty, and of course we have no right whatever to interfere -with their opinions concerning principles or forms of political -government. But it becomes a serious matter for us when they -think proper to take liberties with our language. They set up for -themselves, probably by way of showing their independence, new -modes of spelling; and they are perpetually introducing all sorts -of meanings, words, and phrases, none of which have the remotest -title to be called English. In the writings of the late N. P. -Willis, we meet with such terms as the following:--‘An unletupable -nature,’ ‘wideawakeity,’ ‘plumptitude,’ ‘pocketually speaking,’ -‘betweenity,’ and ‘go-awayness!’ In the same gentleman’s writings, -we occasionally come across such elegant forms of expression as -‘whipping creation,’ ‘flogging Europe,’ ‘a heap of opinions,’ -‘tarnation quick,’ &c. These and all such must be looked upon as -abortions or deformities of our language; and no English writer -who has any respect for his own reputation should ever think of -countenancing, far less of adopting, such monstrosities. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. - - -In old English spelling, we frequently meet with _y_ initial, -where we now use _th_; as in ‘_ye_ manners and _ye_ customs,’ &c. -This error probably arose from the blundering of the copyists, who -mistook one letter for another. Down to the close of the reign of -Edward III., two characters of the Saxon alphabet were in common -use, which we have now rejected; tha (þ) (_th_ hard), and edh -(ð) (_th_ soft). The first of these, (þ), somewhat resembled a -_y_ in shape; and hence the mistake. This is, probably, the true -explanation of the case, as _y_ was, in all these instances, used -where we now have _th_. - -Y initial, as indicating a participle or an intensive meaning, has -now become obsolete in English. But it lingered in the language -till the seventeenth century, as may be seen in Milton. ‘In heaven -_y_clept Euphrosyne.’ This is the _ge_ initial of the modern -German, as in ‘_ge_kannt,’ ‘_ge_brochen,’ &c. Our word ‘guess,’ -is supposed to be connected with the German ‘gewiss;’ where the -initial _ge_ may be referred to the same source. In comparing -certain German with English words, we may see that this prefix (_g_ -or _y_) has, in most cases, fallen off, though in some few words -it still retains its place. The German ‘_G_lück,’ is in English -‘luck,’ and the German ‘_g_leich’ has become with us ‘like.’ -Again,’to _g_low’ was, in Saxon, ‘hlowian.’ We retain the _g_ in -‘gleam,’ and ‘glimpse,’ though we lose it in ‘light.’ The same -connection may be observed between the German ‘_g_ern,’ and the -English ‘_y_earn.’ - -Many are puzzled when to use _ei_ and when _ie_ in the spelling of -certain English words, when these combinations are pronounced as a -long _e_. The rule is, that when a sibilant (_c_ or _s_) precedes, -_ei_ is the right spelling; but that when any other consonant -comes before, _ie_ should be written. Thus, ‘_sei_ze, con_cei_ve, -_cei_ling, de_cei_t,’ &c., must have _ei_; whilst ‘be_lie_ve, -pr_ies_t, _chie_f, re_trie_ve,’ &c., must be spelled _ie_. The word -‘siege’ is an exception; we here adopt the French spelling. - -It is generally well known that the prefixes _ante_ and _anti_ -have, in English, each a distinct meaning. ‘Ant_e_’ is the Latin -preposition for ‘before.’ It is found in ‘ant_e_date’ (to date -before); ‘ant_e_chamber’ (a waiting-room _before_ another); -‘ant_e_cedent’ (going _before_), &c. ‘Anti’ is originally Greek, -and means ‘against.’ It is found in ‘ant_i_pathy’ (a feeling -_against_); ‘ant_i_dote’ (a medicine given _against_); i.e. as a -preventive. But there is one exception to this explanation; viz. -‘ant_i_cipate.’ ‘Anti,’ in this case, does not mean ‘against,’ but -beforehand. To ‘anticipate’ is to enjoy or suffer prospectively. -The Latin _i_ always becomes an _e_ in French; and vice versâ. -This is considered as an organic law of transformation. The -Latin mih_i_, tib_i_, sib_i_, _i_n, _i_nter, &c., are in -French m_e_, t_e_, s_e_, _e_n, _e_ntre. On the other hand, the -Latin ‘impl_ē_re,’ ‘fall_ĕ_re,’ ‘leg_ĕ_re,’ ‘quaer_ĕ_re,’ and -‘flor_ĕ_re,’ are in French, rempl_i_r, ‘faill_i_r,’ ‘l_i_re,’ -‘quér_i_r,’ and ‘fleur_i_r.’ This may be seen in ‘antichambre,’ -‘antidater,’ &c.; and the English has, in this one case, -‘anticipate,’ adopted the French form of spelling. - -The difference in pronunciation between such words as ‘hōme,’ and -‘sŏme;’ ‘bōne’ and ‘dŏne;’ ‘alōne’ and ‘gŏne,’ depends on their -derivation. In these cases, the long ō corresponds with the modern -German ‘_ei_.’ The German ‘Heim’ is the English ‘hōme.’ ‘Bein’ is -in English bōne; ‘allein,’ ‘alōne,’ &c., whereas the closer sound -of _ŏ_ approaches to a closer sound of _a_ or _o_ in German. Hence, -the root _sam_ (as in _sam_meln), gives the English ‘sŏme.’ ‘Dŏne’ -is from ‘gethăn,’ ‘cŏme,’ from ‘kŏmmen,’ &c. From the same cause, -the adverb ‘_so_’ in English has the same long sound as in German; -whereas ‘_tŏ_’ and ‘_dŏ_,’ being from ‘zu’ and ‘thun,’ have a -closer pronunciation. - -It is natural to expect that as the genius of a people powerfully -influences the spelling of their common terms, the same cause -should operate in that of their proper names, both of persons and -places. With respect to names of places, there is now and then some -difficulty. The inhabitants of a town or country do not always give -it the name by which it is known to foreigners. An English tourist -who is a novice in continental travel, arrives at a town he has -been accustomed to call ‘_Aix_,’ or ‘Aix-la-Chapelle;’ and he is -not a little puzzled to hear it named ‘_Aachen_.’ It is doubtful -whether many English would recognise the German word; and yet it is -certainly the one used by the Prussians from time immemorial. There -are many other continental towns with whose names we English are, -in general, not familiar; for example, Lüttich (Liège), Regensburg -(Ratisbon), Bruxelles (Brussels), Kiobenhavn (Copenhagen), -Vliessingen (Flushing), Genf (Geneva), &c., &c. - -That these differences should exist was but natural in bygone times -when there was so scanty a communication between one country and -another. But nowadays, when one touch of the telegraph ‘should make -the whole world akin,’ and when steamboats and railroads seem to be -literally annihilating both time and space, it is to be regretted -that some one standard form for the spelling of names of places -should not be agreed on, which all should adopt, and which would -be intelligible to the whole civilised world. There appears to be -some probability of the continental states adopting a standard -coin which shall have a universal currency. Why should they not -also determine on one standard form of spelling for the names of -all their towns and districts? The one change would not be more -difficult than the other. - -One very striking peculiarity of the English language is the -extraordinary variety of senses in which many of our words, -especially those of Saxon origin, may be used. A curious instance -of this variety may be seen in the case of the verb ‘to get.’ For -example: ‘After I _got_ (received) your letter; I immediately _got_ -(mounted) on horseback; and when I _got_ to (reached) Canterbury, -I _got_ (procured) a chaise, and proceeded to town. But, the rain -coming on, I _got_ (caught) such a severe cold, that I could -not _get_ rid of it for some days. When I _got_ home, I _got_ -up-stairs, and _got_ to bed immediately; but the next morning -I found I could neither _get_ down stairs, _get_ my breakfast, -nor _get_ out of doors. I was afraid I should never _get_ over -this attack.’ It may be reasonably doubted whether any English -word of Latin or French origin has half so many and such various -significations. - -‘_To put_’ is a verb of unsettled derivation; but it has an -endless variety of meanings: and is compounded with almost every -preposition in the language. Latham’s edition of _Johnson’s -Dictionary_ gives about seventy different senses of this one verb, -some of which are as follows: ‘A man _puts by_ money when he -saves it up; or he _puts away_ his wife when he divorces her. An -insurrection may be _put down_; or a man may _put down_ his name as -a subscriber. A tree _puts forth_ leaves, or a man _puts into_ a -lottery. He _puts off_ his clothes, or he _puts off_ a disagreeable -task; he _puts out_ his money at interest; or he _puts out_ the -light when he goes to bed; and he is terribly _put out_ when things -do not go well with him. He can _put together_ his thoughts; but he -cannot _put up_ with an insult. It is unpleasant to be _put upon_; -and sometimes very hard to _put_ things _to rights_.’ - -The French adverb très (very), is the Latin ‘trans’ (over, or -across.) The prefix ‘trans’ is of frequent use in English as in -‘transfer,’ ‘transfix,’ ‘transform,’ &c. We have adopted the -French ‘très’ in only one word; viz. ‘trespass.’ This signifies -either in a physical or moral sense, ‘to pass a boundary.’ It is -still used in English, chiefly as a term of law. - -Some writers on language have objected to the order of words -generally adopted in certain colloquial expressions. They say that -in such phrases as ‘bred and born,’ ‘shoes and stockings,’ ‘coat -and waistcoat,’ &c., we put the cart before the horse. They would -have us say ‘born and bred,’ ‘stockings and shoes,’ &c. Their -argument is, that we should put these words in their _natural_ -order, as to time--that as a man must be born before he is bred, -the proper order is ‘born and bred,’ and so on, in all other -cases of this sort. This, however, does not seem to be the right -view of the matter. In these expressions it should be remembered -that whatever comes first to our knowledge, or makes the deepest -impression on the mind, is naturally first uttered. True, a man -must be born before he is bred; but the idea conveyed in ‘bred’ is -first impressed on the mind, and therefore ‘bred and born’ is the -right order. Again, we see the shoes; we can but partially see the -stockings; and this is why the usual order is adopted. - -Again: we never say ‘the sciences and arts;’ but always ‘the -arts and sciences.’ There is here, also, a very good reason for -the general practice. It must be remembered that the arts were -practised long before the sciences on which they are built were -discovered. Practice always precedes theory. Language was spoken -before grammars were written; music was played and sung before -the laws of harmony were understood; and therefore, it is but -reasonable that we should put the ‘arts before the sciences.’ - -It may seem strange that in addressing an audience, the English -always say ‘Ladies and Gentlemen!’ whereas in France we hear, -‘Messieurs et Mesdames,’ and in Germany, ‘Meine Herren und Damen.’ -This order may have been adopted at a time when ladies had not -the influence in society which they now possess. We have not the -reputation for gallantry which our continental neighbours enjoy; -and yet, in this instance, we may perhaps set them a lesson of -politeness. - -Connected with this subject may be mentioned that doubling of terms -which occurs in our Liturgy so frequently, that it may be regarded -as a characteristic of its style. The compilers of our Church -Service, probably in their anxiety to make the text intelligible -even to the commonest understanding, continually put two nouns or -two verbs together, the second generally explaining the first. In -these cases we shall find one of the terms of French, or Latin, -and the other of Saxon derivation. This seems to have been done -purposely, in order that, if any of the congregation, especially -the less educated, should not understand the one term, he should -catch the meaning of the other. In the early prayers of the -‘Morning Service,’ we have: ‘We _pray_ and _beseech_ thee.’ We also -find ‘We _acknowledge_ and _confess_,’ ‘_sins_ and _wickedness_;’ -‘_goodness_ and _mercy_;’ ‘_dissemble_ nor _cloak_;’ ‘_assemble_ -and _meet together_;’ ‘_requisite_ and _necessary_;’ ‘_erred_ and -_strayed_;’ ‘_pardoneth_ and _absolveth_,’ and many others. - -Certain writers on the English language have strongly objected to -the lately-introduced practice of forming participial adjectives -from nouns; especially in the case of the two words ‘talented’ -and ‘gifted.’ As well, say they, might we call a man ‘wisdomed,’ -‘geniused,’ or ‘knowledged.’ Coleridge, arguing against the -admission of the word ‘talented’ into English, says: ‘only imagine -other participles so formed, and conceive a man being said to be -‘pennied,’ ‘shillinged,’ and ‘pounded!’ But though we do not yet -use these latter terms, Coleridge seems to have forgotten that we -very commonly speak of a ‘moneyed’ man; and there is very little -doubt that these adjectives have struck too deep root in the -language to be easily eradicated. - -The word ‘_reliable_,’ a comparatively late introduction, is -another of those against which the purists have raised a loud -outcry. They argue that as we do not rely a man, but rely _on_ a -man, therefore the word, if used at all, should be ‘reli_on_able,’ -and not ‘reliable.’ But here is one of the many cases in which -philosophy must give way to custom; and, in spite of the above -objection, this word is too firmly fixed in the language to -be easily driven out. The real difference between ‘reliable’ -and ‘trustworthy’ is, that the former applies more property to -things, such as news, information, &c., and the latter to persons. -A ‘trustworthy’ messenger would probably bring us ‘reliable’ -information. But, whatever concession we may make in the case of -‘reliable,’ we should resist, with all our might, the introduction -of ‘reliability.’ - -Certain laws of transformation are found to operate in the Romance -languages. One of these is, that Latin or Italian words beginning -with _f_ appear in Spanish with an _h_ initial. Thus ‘filius,’ -‘figlio’ (a son), is, in Spanish, ‘hijo.’ By the same law the -Latin ‘femina’ (a woman) becomes, in Spanish ‘hembra,’ ‘formosus’ -(beautiful) is ‘_h_ermoso,’ ‘Fabulari,’ Italian ‘favellare’ (to -talk) is, in Spanish, ‘hablar.’ ‘Faba’ (a bean) is, in Spanish, -‘haba.’ The Latin ‘Facere,’ Italian ‘fare’ (to do), becomes -‘_h_acer,’ filum (thread) is ‘hilo,’ and folium (a leaf) ‘hoja,’ -&c. - -The Spanish word ‘hidalgo’ (a nobleman) is a contraction of ‘hijo -d’algo’ (filius alicujus), literally ‘the son of somebody,’ i.e., -of importance. - -It may also be observed that the combination _ct_ in Latin is found -in Italian _tt_ (or _t_), and in Spanish _ch_. This may be seen in -the following cases:-- - - Lat. Ital. Span. - - Fa_ct_us fa_tt_o he_ch_o - San_ct_us san_t_o san_ch_o - Di_ct_us de_tt_o di_ch_o - Dire_ct_us diri_tt_o dere_ch_o - -Again, _pl_ in Latin becomes _pi_ in Italian and _ll_ in Spanish, -as in the following:-- - - Lat. Ital. Span. - - _Pl_anus _pi_ano _ll_ano - _Pl_enus _pi_eno _ll_eno - _Pl_uvia _pi_ova _ll_uvia - _Pl_anctus _pi_anto _ll_anto - -Affinities also exist between certain letters of the alphabet; and -this relationship may be often seen in words transferred from one -language to another. For example, the labials, or lip-letters, are -frequently interchanged. Many English words beginning with an F are -derived from Latin (or French) words having a _P_ initial. This is -exemplified in the following list:-- - - Latin. French. German. English. - - _P_ater _p_ère _V_ater _f_ather - _P_iscis _p_oisson _F_isch _f_ish - _P_es-pedis _p_ied _F_uss _f_oot - _P_aucus _p_eu -- _f_ew - _P_er _p_our _f_ür _f_or - _P_ellis _p_eau _F_ell _f_ell - _P_ullus _p_oule _V_ogel _f_owl - _P_ugnus _p_oignée _F_aust _f_ist, &c. - -Another affinity may be observed between _G_ and _W_. Many French -words beginning with a _G_ guttural represent that letter in -English by a _W_. This may be seen in the following cases:-- - - French. English. - - _g_ages _w_ages - _g_agner _w_in - _G_alles _W_ales - _g_arant _w_arrant - _g_are (be)_w_are - _g_arde _w_ard - _g_arenne _w_arren - _g_âter _w_aste - _G_aultier _W_alter - _g_aufre _w_afer - _g_uède _w_oad - _g_uèpe _w_asp - _g_uerdon (re)_w_ard - _g_uerre _w_ar - _g_uetter _w_ait - _g_ueule _w_ell - _g_uichet _w_icket - _G_uillaume _W_illiam - _g_uise (like)_w_ise - -This connection between the _G_ and _W_ may be also seen at the end -of many English compared with German words. - - German. English. - - Sor_g_e sorro_w_ - Fol_g_en follo_w_ - mor_g_en morro_w_ - bor_g_en borro_w_ - bie_g_en bo_w_ - heili_g_en hallo_w_ - tra_g_en dra_w_ - le_g_en la_w_, &c. - -A relationship is also to be seen between _C_ guttural and _H_ -aspirate. The _C_ hard initial in the Romance languages is -represented in the Teutonic by an _H_. For example:-- - - Latin. French. German. English. - - _c_anis _c_hien _H_und _h_ound - _c_ollis _c_olline _H_ügel _h_ill - _c_entum _c_ent _h_undert _h_undred - _c_or _c_œur _H_erz _h_eart - _c_asa _c_hez _H_aus _h_ouse - _c_ornu _c_or _H_orn _h_orn - _c_annabis _c_hanvre _H_anf _h_emp - _c_arpo -- _H_erbst _h_arvest - _c_alx -- _H_iel _h_eel - _c_utis -- _H_aut _h_ide, &c. - -This connection between _c_ (or _k_) and _h_ appears in other -cases. A primitive English word ending in a guttural (_g_ or _k_) -often produces derivatives in which the guttural is softened into -_tch_, as in:-- - - ma_k_e ma_tch_ - wa_k_e wa_tch_ - ba_k_e ba_tch_ - fla_k_e fli_tch_ - wrec_k_ wre_tch_ - di_g_ di_tch_ - stic_k_ sti_tch_ - croo_k_ cru_tch_, &c. - -Some of our English pronouns have this ending (_ch_), where it is a -contraction of the word ‘like.’ Thus:-- - - Scottish. Saxon. English. - - who-like whilk hwlyc whi_ch_ - all-like ilk ælc ea_ch_ - so-like solch (Germ.) swylc su_ch_, &c. - -Another phenomenon of a certain class of words is the use of -an initial _s_, to give them an intensive meaning. This may be -observed in the following cases:-- - - knap snap - lash slash - mash smash - plash splash - quash squash - deep steep - nip snip - rip strip - din stun - pike spike - lack slack - lain slain - lay slay - melt smelt - meet smite - reach stretch - well swell - wipe sweep - light slight - pout spout - hoot shout - rub scrub - tumble stumble - cut scud - -A large class of English words beginning with _s_ followed by a -consonant are derived from French, where they are spelled with an -_e_ or _es_ initial; as:-- - - French. English. - - écarlate scarlet - échafaud scaffold - échantillon scantling - écharfe scarf - espace space - étrange strange - escadron squadron - esclave slave - étage stage - état state - étendard standard - espèce species - espion spy - épinard spinach - épine spine - esprit spirit - écrivain scrivener - échorcher scorch - école school - éponge sponge - époux spouse - estomac stomach - étroit strait - -According to some French philologists, when the _s_ in any of these -French words is pronounced, it is a sign that the word is of later -introduction. - -It may be observed of the letter _h_ (initial) that it is never -mute in Germanic words, and that whenever it is mute in English, -the word is of French derivation. - -Thus we have:-- - - French (mute). - - Honneur _h_onour - Héritier _h_eir - Honnête _h_onest - Heure _h_our - Humeur _h_umour - - German (aspirate). - - hart _h_ard - Herz _h_eart - Heide _h_eath - Hitze _h_eat - Hoffnung _h_ope, &c. - -The _h_ initial was prefixed to many Saxon words where it has now -disappeared from the English. This was chiefly before the liquids -_l_, _n_, and _r_. - - Saxon. English. - - _H_laf loaf - _H_laford lord - _H_rafn raven - _H_lædl ladle - _H_leopan leap - _H_lædan lead - _H_necca neck - _H_nægan neigh - _H_nut nut - _H_lud loud - _H_ring ring - _H_losian lose, &c. - -The German _z_ initial often corresponds with the English _t_; as:-- - - German. English. - - zahlen _t_ell - zahm _t_ame - Zahn _t_ooth - zehn _t_en - zerren _t_ear - Zinn _t_in - Zimmer _t_imber - Zeit _t_ide - zu _t_o - Zoll _t_oll - Zunge _t_ongue - Zug _t_ug - Zweig _t_wig - Zwilling _t_win - zwischen (be)_t_ween - zwölf _t_welve, &c. - -The German _t_ initial corresponds with the English _d_; as:-- - - German. English. - - _T_ag _d_ay - _T_ändeln _d_andle - _T_anz _d_ance - _T_aub _d_eaf - _T_aube _d_ove - _T_auch _d_uck - _T_eich _d_ough - _T_eufel _d_evil - _T_hal _d_ale - _T_hat _d_eed - _T_hau _d_ew - _T_heil _d_eal - _T_hier _d_eer - _T_hun _d_o, &c. - -Some are puzzled when to spell the ending ‘ledge’ and when ‘lege.’ -The following rule may be easily remembered:--Monosyllables and the -word ‘acknowle_d_ge’ are spelled with a _d_; therefore ‘le_d_ge,’ -‘fle_d_ge,’ ‘ple_d_ge,’ ‘se_d_ge,’ ‘sle_d_ge,’ and ‘acknowle_d_ge’ -retain that letter; whereas ‘sacrilege,’ ‘privilege,’ ‘allege,’ and -‘college’ must reject it. - -Some years ago, there was a sharp controversy concerning the -spelling of the word--whether it should be ‘_rein_-deer’ or -‘_rain_-deer.’ The dictionaries differed, many even giving both -forms. It was found in Johnson ‘r_a_in-deer,’ which of course -settled the dispute. In spite of this decision, there is no doubt -that the word is generally spelled ‘rein-deer.’ The Saxon form was -‘hr_a_na-deor,’ i.e. ‘the running animal.’ - -Some lament that we have adopted the French form of the word -‘programme.’ They say that by analogy it ought to be written -‘program.’ We have ‘anagram,’ ‘diagram,’ ‘epigram,’ &c.; and why -not ‘program?’ But the former is now the established spelling; and, -till some daring innovator adopt the new form, and his example be -generally followed, we must be content to use the old one. - -A few years ago, a new word was wanted to express ‘a message sent -by the telegraph;’ various forms were suggested, but at last the -word ‘telegram’ was adopted. This was another argument in favour of -‘program.’ - -The verb ‘to repair,’ in the sense of ‘to make better’ or ‘to -improve,’ is from the Latin ‘reparare,’ through the French -‘réparer;’ but when it means ‘to go back home’ it is from the Latin -‘repatriare,’ to return to your country. - -The second syllable in ‘impair’ is in no way connected with the -above. ‘Impair’ is from the French ‘_empirer_,’ ‘to make worse.’ - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC.--_continued._ - - -In the periodical and light literature of the day, we frequently -meet with forms of language which have been expressively called -‘slipshod English.’ These are of various kinds--uncertain -reference, superfluous words, incompatible terms, ungrammatical -forms, &c. &c. - -Of the first class may be quoted the tailor’s advertisement, in -which it was stated that ‘Gentlemen’s materials are made up, -and waited on at their own houses,’ where there is a glorious -uncertainty as to who or what may be waited on. - -The following is of the same nature:--In an examination in the -House of Commons, in 1809, a member said that ‘the witness had -been ordered to withdraw from the bar, in consequence of being -intoxicated by the motion of an honourable member.’ The word -‘intoxicated’ was here, perhaps, the right word; but it was -certainly not in the right place. - -A word is often written which has no function to perform in the -sentence, and therefore no business on the paper. These are -superfluous words; they occupy space, but, instead of assisting, -they rather clog the sense of the passage. The often-used -expression, ‘final completion,’ is a case in point. Every -‘completion’ is ‘final;’ the idea of ‘final’ is involved in the -word ‘completion,’ and therefore this is a wrong expression. - -Another of these superabundant forms is where we find ‘universal’ -and ‘all’ brought into the same construction. A man is sometimes -said to be ‘universally’ beloved by ‘all’ his friends. Here either -‘universally’ or ‘all’ should be taken out. If the love for him is -‘universal,’ of course ‘all’ love him; and the converse is equally -true. - -Sometimes words are found together which contradict each other. Of -this class of faults we may quote the not unfrequent form ‘further -backwards.’ ‘Further’ means more in advance, and ‘backwards’ has a -directly contrary meaning. It is impossible to go ‘further’ and, -at the same time, ‘backwards,’ and therefore the two words should -never be used together. - -‘Either’ and ‘neither’ cannot be properly applied to more than -two persons or things. Speaking of three or four people, it is -incorrect to say that ‘neither’ of them is clever, though we may -say that ‘none,’ or ‘no one,’ of them is clever. Nor would it be -good grammar to say, ‘either of the six children may go;’ we must -here say ‘any one.’ - -‘_All of them._’ This is a form which some critics have attacked, -and not without reason. They say that ‘_of_’ here means ‘out of;’ -that it corresponds exactly with the Latin preposition _e_, or -_ex_, and that therefore the expression must be incorrect. We do -not take ‘all of them,’ but we take ‘them all.’ We may correctly -say one, two, three, &c., or most of them, but when there is -question of _all_, no preposition should be used. - -‘_Equanimity of mind._’ As equanimity means evenness of mind, why -should ‘of mind’ be repeated? ‘Anxiety of mind’ is, of course, open -to the same objection. - -‘_Incorrect orthography._’ The fault in this very common expression -arises from the idea that ‘orthography’ means merely spelling -(good or bad), whereas the true meaning of the word is ‘_correct_ -spelling.’ Now, spelling cannot be correct and at the same time -incorrect, and therefore the two terms are incompatible. We may say -‘incorrect spelling,’ but we must not say ‘incorrect orthography.’ - -‘_A confirmed invalid._’ What is this? one who is strengthened -in his weakness? There is certainly here a contradiction, for no -weakness can be strong. - -‘_Old news_’ is another contradictory form, where the terms are -incompatible with each other. It may be placed in the same class -with ‘enjoying bad health.’ - -It is inaccurate to say that a man’s ‘_defects are improved_.’ A -defect means the want of some good quality, and to ‘improve’ means -‘to make better.’ Wants may be ‘decreased’ or ‘supplied,’ but they -cannot be made better; and, therefore, the two terms should not be -used together. - -It is a common error to use ‘quantity’ for ‘number.’ The former can -only be said of a collection or mass. A ‘quantity’ of meat or a -‘quantity’ of milk is good English, but not a quantity of pens or -books, &c. To separate individual objects we must apply ‘number,’ -but to a collected mass ‘quantity.’ We may say a ‘quantity’ of -wood, but it must be a ‘number’ of faggots. - -In many cases the wrong preposition is used; and, indeed, there -are few writers or speakers who are invariably correct in this -respect. The very common fault, ‘different to,’ we need hardly stop -to inquire into, but we often find equally wrong forms which pass -unnoticed. Occasionally we meet with ‘to disagree _from_,’ though -in general the form used is ‘to disagree _with_.’ Here the ‘dis’ -in ‘disagree’ and the preposition ‘with’ seem to pull two ways. -Which, then, is right--to disagree _from_ or _with_? The proper -phrase is to ‘assent _to_’ and to ‘dissent _from_;’ and if the -latter is correct, why not also ‘to disagree _from_?’ - -As it is admitted that ‘different _to_’ is wrong, on the same -principle, ‘averse _to_’ must be wrong. No one can go two ways at -once. The _a_ in ‘averse’ certainly means ‘from;’ and therefore the -word should be followed by ‘_from_,’ and not ‘_to_.’ The first is -already adopted by many good writers. - -The conjunction ‘than’ should not be used except after a -comparative adjective. ‘Soon_er_ than;’ ‘better than;’ ‘rather -than,’ &c., are correct; but ‘scarcely had he uttered these words -_than_,’ is bad English. ‘Hardly had he attained his majority -_than_’ is equally wrong. For ‘_than_’ we should here use ‘_when_.’ -‘But’ should not be used for ‘than,’ as, ‘no sooner had he finished -his work _but_.’ - -Another common mistake is to use ‘except’ for ‘unless.’ The former -is a preposition, and must be followed not by a proposition, but by -a noun or pronoun. It is bad grammar to say ‘no one should aspire -to this situation, _except_ he is competent to fulfil its duties.’ -(Here, we should read ‘unless’ for ‘except.’) - -‘Like’ is also frequently confounded with ‘as.’ The former is a -preposition, and should not be used as a conjunction. ‘Do you write -_like_ I do?’ is wrong. It should be ‘_as_ (not _like_) I do.’ - -‘Notwithstanding he thought so,’ is bad English. We should here use -‘although.’ ‘Notwithstanding’ is a preposition, and is followed by -its object. We say correctly, ‘notwithstanding his objections,’ but -not properly, ‘notwithstanding he objected.’ - -‘But’ is often redundant after the word ‘doubt.’ We continually -meet with ‘I have no doubt _but_ that,’ &c. This is a wrong form: -the ‘but’ should be omitted. - -As an example of a loose sentence; i.e. where the connection of the -parts is not sufficiently clear, the following advertisement of a -hair-dresser may be quoted:-- - -‘Seven lessons in hair-dressing may be had for one guinea, which -(?) _being imparted on a system_ entirely new, will enable any one -_so instructed_ to give the most complete satisfaction!’ - -The Anglo-Saxon ‘tíd’ meant ‘time’ (compare the German ‘Zeit’); -whence to ‘betide’ means to happen in time. The ‘tide’ is the -_time_ at which the water rises and falls. ‘Tidy,’ also, in old -English, signified properly ‘timely.’ - -In old English, we meet with the form ‘ton,’ which is for ‘the -one;’ and this may probably account for ‘t’other,’ or ‘the -t’other,’ which is, in fact, a contraction of ‘that other.’ But -‘t’other’ is now accounted a vulgarism. - -There is some difference of practice in the use of the article (a, -an). The rule is, that ‘an’ must be used before a vowel, or _h_ -mute. This is, in general, a good rule; but there is one vowel, -which must be sometimes considered an exception, viz. ‘_u_.’ It is -right to say ‘an apple,’ ‘an evil,’ ‘an idler,’ and ‘an orange;’ -but before _u_ we must pause; for here there is a double practice. -Now, this vowel has two sounds; open, as in ‘_u_nion;’ and close, -as in ‘_u_gly.’ Before the long sound, we should use the article -‘a;’ as ‘a unit,’ ‘a union,’ ‘a uniform,’ &c. But before the short -sound of ‘u,’ the article ‘an’ should be used; as ‘an uncle,’ -‘an ugly object,’ &c. Many good writers, however, use ‘an’ even -before a long _u_. We often meet with ‘_an_ united family,’ ‘_an_ -universal practice,’ &c. The question is here one of harmony; -and the best practice seems to be, to adopt the softer sound. No -one ever thinks of saying or writing ‘_an_ youth,’ or ‘_an_ yew -tree;’ and yet the sound in ‘_an_ uniform,’ or ‘_an_ universe,’ is -precisely the same, and of course equally harsh. - -Another case belonging to this question is the use of the article -in the frequently-seen expression ‘_such an one_.’ This form is -disagreeably harsh and unmusical. We might as well say: ‘such _an_ -woman,’ or ‘such _an_ wonder.’ It is true there are authorities for -both these forms--‘such a one,’ and ‘such an one;’ but in a case of -this sort, we had better adopt the more harmonious form; good taste -and a delicate ear will direct us to ‘such a one,’ rather than -‘such _an_ one.’ - -It has been remarked that there is a strong tendency in English to -get rid of inflections. Many of these were found in old English -which have now fallen off. The old infinitive-ending _en_ is now -altogether gone, though some adjectives in _en_ still remain; viz. -those which denote material, such as ‘golden,’ ‘earthen,’ ‘oaten,’ -&c. We had at one time ‘rosen,’ ‘silvern,’ ‘tinnen,’ ‘boxen,’ and -many others. These are now gone; and there seems to be a prevalent -disposition to cut off the endings of those which remain. Instead -of ‘a golden watch,’ we now say ‘a gold watch,’ using the noun -for the adjective. In the same way, we have ‘earthworks’ for -‘earthen works;’ though we still keep ‘earthenware.’ Many of these -adjectives in _en_ still hold their ground, though most of those -which are retained have lost a part of their sense. ‘Brazen’ has -now only a secondary meaning; and stands for ‘bold’ or ‘impudent.’ -In a concrete sense, the noun is used instead of the adjective. We -say a ‘brazen face,’ for an ‘impudent face;’ but ‘a brass knob,’ -or ‘a brass candlestick.’ Again: we have ‘a golden rule,’ in a -secondary; but a ‘gold’ ring in a primary sense. - -The word ‘pigmy’--derived from the Greek πυγμὴ, the fist--was first -spelled ‘p_y_gmy.’ It meant one whose stature was no higher than -from the elbow to the fist. The change from _y_ to _i_ was probably -caused by the dislike of the printers to _y_ in the middle of a -word. But it has here as good a right to its place as the _y_ in -‘h_y_mn,’ or ‘t_y_pe.’ It is, however, gone; and we must submit. - -Hundreds of words might be cited which have been brought into their -present forms by the influence of corruption. The now generally -received explanation of ‘Rotten Row’ is, that it is a corruption of -‘Route du Roi,’ originally the private road used by King William -III. when going from Piccadilly to Kensington. The old form -‘diamant’ was preferable to the more modern ‘diamond,’ because it -told its story more clearly. It was an inversion of ‘adamant,’ the -untameable, or invincible, so called because it is the hardest of -stones, and cannot be cut except by one of its own species. - -The modern spelling of the word ‘height’ is a corruption. We have -‘wid_th_,’ from ‘wide;’ ‘leng_th_,’ from ‘long;’ and ‘bread_th_,’ -from ‘broad.’ Why, then, not ‘highth,’ from ‘high?’ In the writings -of the seventeenth century we meet with various spellings of this -word. It is found ‘highth’ in the first edition of ‘Paradise Lost;’ -and also ‘heigth’ and ‘heygth.’ Now the inversion of _ht_ for _th_ -has corrupted it into ‘heig_ht_;’ and so, for the present, it will -probably remain. The _d_ in ‘admiral’ appears to be a corruption. -All our dictionaries give the derivation of this word from the -Arabic ‘amir,’ or ‘emir,’ a lord, or commander. Neither the French -‘amiral,’ nor the Italian ‘ammiraglio,’ has the _d_. Milton writes -the word ‘ammiral:’ - - the tallest pine - Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast - Of some great _ammiral_,-- - -though in this passage, the word means a ship, and not its -commander. Mr. Wedgewood says that, in many cases in Arabic, the -article is placed after the noun; and that the _ad_ initial is a -mere corruption of the first syllable of ‘amir’ or ‘emir.’ - -It was a fanciful etymology which gave us the word ‘Tartar.’ The -incorrect spelling ‘Tartars’ for ‘Tatars’ occurs at the same time -with the appearance of the Mongols in Europe, in the thirteenth -century; and was probably introduced by the superstitious monks -and writers who, struck with the seeming analogy between ‘Tatar’ -and Tartarus (the hell of the ancients), believed that these -ferocious invaders had come from the infernal regions. - -We are told by some writers that there are between 2,000 and 3,000 -words in the English language, for which there is no recognised -standard of spelling. Though this number is probably exaggerated, -there are, no doubt, many in this condition; and it naturally -becomes a question which of two forms is to be preferred. Here, -we should be at least consistent; we should hold to the one, and -altogether reject the other. - -The two forms, ‘chemist’ and ‘chymist’ arose from the word having -a disputed derivation; but the first is now received as correct. -Of course, its derivatives will therefore be spelled ‘chemical,’ -‘chemistry,’ &c. - -There was, at one time, a confusion between ‘choir’ and ‘quire.’ -The second word has no connection, except in sound, with the first, -which is from the Latin ‘chorus,’ through the French ‘chœur.’ -As ‘quire,’ in the sense of a number singing together, is now -obsolete, so is ‘quirister,’ which must be spelled ‘chorister.’ - -There are two forms--‘coit,’ and ‘quoit.’ The derivation of -this word is somewhat obscure; but if, as some suggest, it is -connected with _cut_, the form ‘coit’ is preferable to the other. -Another argument in favour of this form is that the word is always -pronounced as if beginning with a _c_ hard, or _k_; and not as if -with _qu_. - -There has been a rather sharp controversy lately concerning the two -forms ‘diocess’ and ‘diocese.’ The ‘Times’ adopts ‘diocess.’ Dr. -Latham says under the word, ‘diocese, frequently but improperly, -diocess.’ Webster says, ‘the orthography of “diocess” is opposed to -the derivation, and is against the best English usage.’ There is -little doubt that ‘diocess’ is the older, and ‘diocese’ the newer -form of the word: and there is also little doubt, in spite of the -‘Times,’ that ‘diocese’ is the proper form. - -Between ‘intire’ and ‘entire’ there is still a divided practice. -The word is a contraction of the Latin ‘integer,’ which will -account for the initial _i_. But it comes to us directly from the -French ‘entier.’ So that ‘entire’ will probably supplant ‘intire,’ -though we still have ‘Barclay and Co.’s _intire_.’ - -There are two forms of the word--‘referrible,’ and ‘referable.’ -These are both in common use, and both are given in the -dictionaries; but the second, ‘referable,’ is the proper form. -There was no Latin adjective ‘referibilis.’ Our word is a later -formation, where _a_ in such cases is always used rather than _i_; -and, therefore, it is better spelled ‘referable.’ Besides, this -form is in analogy with ‘preferable,’ ‘inferable,’ &c. - -Some still write ‘sirname’ incorrectly for ‘surname,’ probably from -an idea that the word means sire-name, or a name received from a -sire (father). But its real meaning is an added name; one name -added _to_ another. It is from the French ‘surnom,’ and should be -always spelled ‘surname.’ - -Between a ‘serjeant’-at-law, and a military ‘sergeant’ there is -this difference: that the first must be written with a _j_, and the -second with a _g_. The word is derived from the Latin ‘serviens,’ -and means, in both cases, one who serves; but the words are spelled -somewhat differently, to make a distinction in their application. - -A difference should be made between ‘story’ and ‘storey.’ The first -means an account of facts, and is a contraction of ‘history.’ It -is a history on a small scale. But ‘storey’ is a contraction of -‘stagery,’ and means the landing in a house; as in ‘first storey,’ -‘second storey,’ &c. Of course, the plural form of the first word -should be ‘stories,’ and of the second, ‘storeys.’ - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS OF WORDS. - - -_Abominable._ This word is from the Latin verb ‘abominor,’ which -again is from _ab_ and _omen_. The word involves the idea of what -is in a religious sense profane and detestable; in fine, of evil -omen. Milton always uses it in reference to devilish, profane or -idolatrous objects. It was once thought that the true etymology of -‘abominable’ was from _ab_ (from), and _homo_ (a man); and that its -proper meaning was _repugnant to human nature_. This, though not -the right derivation, may account for the word being still often -used in that sense. - -_Absurd_, which has the sense of ‘foolish,’ ‘inconsistent,’ &c., is -from the Latin ‘absurdus,’ compounded of ‘ab’ (from), and ‘surdus’ -(deaf). An ‘absurd’ answer is one you would probably get ‘from a -deaf’ man; i.e. one wholly irrelevant to the question. - -_Academy._ This word owes its origin to the name of a grove near -Athens, ἀκαδημία, where Plato and other philosophers used to give -lectures to their followers. Hence this name has been frequently -given to institutions for instruction. - -_Ajar._ The Anglo-Saxon ‘cerre’ is a turn; from ‘cerran,’ to turn; -hence a door is said to be ‘ajar,’ when it is on the turn. From the -same root we have to _churn_ milk; i.e. to _turn_ it about. Also -a _char_-woman--one who does a ‘turn’ of work. Compare the German -‘kehren.’ - -_Archipelago._ This name was given by the modern Greeks to the -Ægean Sea. It is a corruption of ἁγιὸς πέλαγος (Hagios pelagos), -‘Holy Sea.’ - -_Ban_, to proclaim or denounce. The original meaning is connected -with ‘_ban_ner,’ a flag, or standard; in feudal times, the rallying -point to which retainers flocked to do battle for their seigneur. -The word is supposed to be connected with ‘bend,’ in the sense of -to make a sign. ‘Bandit,’ a proclaimed outlaw, is from the same -source, as also ‘Banns,’ i.e. a proclamation of marriage. - -_Bankrupt._ The following circumstances gave rise to this word. -It was the custom in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries for -the Lombard merchants to expose their wares for sale in the -market-place, on _benches_. Whenever any one of their number -failed in his business, or could not pay his debts, all the other -merchants set upon him, drove him from the market, and _broke_ his -_bench_ to pieces. ‘Banco rotto’ is the Italian for bench-broken. -Hence came the word, which passed into French in the form -‘_banqueroute_;’ and into English as ‘_bankrupt_.’ - -_Barley-sugar._ Has nothing whatever to do with the grain -‘_barley_.’ The first part of the word is here an inversion--and at -the same time a corruption of the French brûlé (burnt). The whole -word was originally ‘sucre brûlé’ (burnt sugar), and it is still -sometimes called ‘sugar-barley.’ - -_Birmingham._ The name of an Anglo-Saxon family was often formed -by adding _ing_ to that of its founder; _ing_ meaning ‘son of,’ or -‘descended from.’ The estate or residence was called the ‘_ham_,’ -or home; and the name was formed by adding this syllable _ham_, to -the family name. Thus, the family of a Saxon leader named ‘Beorm’ -possessed a residence in Mercia, to which they gave the name of -‘Beorm-ing-ham,’ or the home of the sons of Beorm; now corrupted -into ‘Birmingham.’ Many places in England still retain the names -originally given them by Anglo-Saxon families; as ‘Nottingham,’ -‘Walsingham,’ &c. - -_Blackguard_ was a name first given to the lowest menials engaged -in the dirty work of a kitchen or household, as scullion, link-boy, -coal-carrier, &c. It was afterwards applied to any loose, idle -vagabonds. - -_Book._ In the same way as the Latin _liber_ (the bark of a tree), -was afterwards used in the sense of a book, because it was a -material used for writing on; so our word _book_ comes from the -Saxon ‘boc’ (a beech tree). In a rude, uncivilised age, it was the -custom to form alphabetical letters with the pliable twigs of the -beech. To this day, the German for ‘to spell’ is ‘buchstabiren’ -(from ‘Buch’ (beech), and ‘stab’ (a staff or twig)); i.e. to put -the beech-staves properly together. - -_Booty._ The Anglo-Saxon ‘bet’ meant ‘better’; and ‘betan’ was to -amend or make better. Thus a ‘booty’ would be that which betters -us; ‘bootless’ is ‘without effect or improvement,’ and ‘so much to -boot,’ is so much to our advantage. - -_Burglar._ This is from the Low Latin ‘burgilatro,’ a house-robber; -one who breaks into a house with a felonious intent. The old French -‘lerre’ is a contraction of the Latin ‘latro,’ a robber. - -_Cabal._ The usually received etymology of this word is that it -is formed of the initials of the names of the five ministers of -Charles II. who succeeded to the government of this country -after the banishment of Lord Clarendon--_C_lifford, _A_shley, -_B_uckingham, _A_rlington, and _L_auderdale. But Mr. Wedgewood -suggests that it comes from ‘Cabala,’ or the mysterious tradition -delivered to Moses with the Law, on Mount Sinai, and handed down -by the Jews from father to son. ‘Hence,’ he says, ‘Cabal came to -signify a secret machination or plotting.’ Lord Macaulay favours -the first explanation. - -_Caitiff._ This English word presents us with a curious lesson. It -is, in fact, only another form of ‘captive,’ though it has come to -signify a wretch capable of perpetrating the darkest crimes. The -Latin ‘captivus,’ a prisoner, is the source of the modern Italian -‘cattivo,’ which has the general sense of ‘bad;’ and the French -‘chétif,’ which signifies ‘mean,’ ‘pitiful,’ or ‘insignificant,’ -is another form of the same word. All these varieties point to the -same conclusion, viz. the moral degradation naturally produced in -the human mind by captivity. - -_Candidate._ In ancient Rome it was the custom for those who sued -for offices of state, to be dressed in white robes. Hence came -the word ‘candidate,’ which is derived from the Latin ‘candidus’ -(white); and which signifies literally--‘dressed in white.’ - -_Carat_ is from the Arabic ‘kaura,’ a bean, which varies very -little in weight. It was introduced into India as a standard weight -for diamonds. The Arabic words are _goort_, _girat_, and _gurat_; -corrupted into ‘_carat_.’ - -_Cardinal._ Certain dignitaries of the Church of Rome are called -‘cardinals.’ This word is derived from the Latin ‘cardo,’ a hinge. -One of the favourite comparisons by which the Church of Rome sought -to set herself up above all the other churches of Christendom, was -that it was the _hinge_ upon which all the rest of the church, as -the door, turned, or depended. Hence the higher clergy were called -cardinals, as being closely connected with the Pope, who was the -‘_cardo_,’ or hinge of them all. Certain virtues are also called -‘cardinal,’ as being those upon which all other virtues turn. - -_Caricature._ This is literally an overloaded or over-charged -representation. It is derived from the Italian ‘_caricare_,’ to -load. In a caricature, a resemblance is retained; but the details -are exaggerated. - -_Carnival_ is from the Latin ‘caro’ (flesh), and ‘vale’ (farewell). -It signifies literally ‘farewell to flesh;’ and is applied to the -holiday held in Roman Catholic countries the week before Lent. It -may be considered as a feast before a fast. - -_Caudle._ The derivation of this word is yet undecided. Latham -gives it as a corruption of ‘cordial;’ while Wedgewood derives it -from the French ‘chaudeau’ (from _chaud_, hot), a warm comforting -drink for the sick. - -_Chancel._ This means the part of a church enclosed or railed off -from the body of the building by lattice-work (Latin, _cancelli_). -Chancellors were originally law officers who stood at the railings -(ad cancellos) in a court of justice, and received the petitions -of the suitors. The verb ‘to cancel’ is from the same source. To -‘cancel’ a name is to efface it by drawing a pen across it in -diagonal lines, so as to make lattice-work over it. - -_Cheat._ From the Latin verb ‘cadĕre,’ to fall, came the old French -‘eschoir,’ and hence ‘escheats.’ This is a law-term signifying -lands which _fall_ to the lord by forfeiture, or by the death of -a tenant. The king’s ‘escheators’ were officers appointed to look -after the king’s ‘escheats;’ and as they had many opportunities of -practising fraud, and were much complained of on that score, the -term escheator (or cheater) came to signify any fraudulent person. -This is the origin of the present meaning of the verb ‘to cheat.’ - -_Church._ This word, though consisting of only one syllable, has in -it the elements of two roots. It is of Greek origin, and signifies -literally ‘the Lord’s House.’ Κύριος (Kyrios) is the Greek for -‘Lord;’ and οἶκος (oikos) means, in that language, ‘house,’ or -‘dwelling.’ Putting these two roots together we get ‘_Kyri-oik_.’ -This, by a natural law would contract into ‘kyrik.’ In Scotch we -find ‘kirk,’ and in German ‘Kirche.’ In English the guttural is -softened, and the word appears as ‘_church_.’ - -_Comedy._ This is derived, according to Aristotle, from κώμη -(komē), a village; and ᾠδὴ (odē), a song. It was at first a song -of joy of the villagers at the gathering in of the harvest--a -sort of harvest-home. This was a lighter and gayer song, and did -not partake of the more solemn, and at first, religious tone of -the tragedy. Others derive comedy from κῶμος, and ᾠδή, ‘a song of -revellers.’ - -_Companion._ Two derivations are given of this word. 1. From the -French ‘campagne,’ which is from the Latin ‘cum,’ and ‘pagus,’ a -village, or district. By this explanation it would mean one of -those who belonged to the same district. 2. From the Low Latin -‘companium,’ an association; formed from ‘cum’ (with), and ‘panis’ -(bread). This conveys the meaning of bread-sharer. Mr. Wedgewood -favours the second explanation. - -_Comrade._ There is no doubt that this word, which is in French -‘camarade,’ is derived from the Italian ‘camera,’ afterwards in -French ‘chambre,’ and that it was first applied to those who lived -together in the same room (chambre). - -_Cordwainer._ During the Moorish government of southern Spain, the -city of Cordŏva became celebrated for the manufacture of leather. -Hence, the French ‘cordovan’ meant originally the leather of -Cordova. Hence, also, the English ‘cordwainer,’ and the French -‘cordovanier’ (now contracted into ‘cordonnier,’) a worker in -leather. - -_Counterpane._ The middle-age Latin ‘culcita’ meant a mattrass. -This in French was ‘coulte,’ and in English became ‘quilt.’ -‘Culcita puncta’ meant a quilt punctured with stitches, so as to -form a pattern. This, in French, became ‘coulte-pointe;’ afterwards -converted into ‘conte-pointe,’ and ‘contre-pointe.’ Hence at length -came the English ‘counter-pane.’ - -_Country Dance._ Some think that this really means a dance of -country people. But the probable derivation is the French _contre_, -‘over against,’ or ‘opposite to,’ which has been corrupted into -‘country;’ and the whole word means a dance in which the partners -stand opposite to (contre) each other. - -_Curmudgeon._ It was suggested by Menage that this word is from -the French ‘cœur,’ and ‘méchant,’ wicked heart. But the more -probable derivation is from ‘corn-mudgin.’ Corn-mudgins were -dealers in corn, who were unpopular, as it was thought that -they hoarded, and kept up the price of corn, to serve their own -interests. Hence the word came to signify an avaricious monopolist. - -_Delirious_ comes from the Latin compound ‘de’ (from), and ‘lira’ -(a furrow, or ridge). The word is a metaphor, taken from those who -deviate from the straight line, or furrow, in ploughing. It is now -applied to those who rove in mind, or are disordered in intellect. - -_Ecstasy._ This word has the meaning of violent excitement. It is -now generally used in the sense of some pleasurable feeling, though -it was formerly much more extended in signification. It is derived -from the Greek ἐκ (out), and στάσις (a standing); i.e. literally -‘a standing out.’ It is curious that in the Saxon part of our -language, there is a corresponding phrase which exactly explains -this word; viz. ‘_to be beside oneself_.’ We commonly say, ‘He was -beside himself with joy.’ In a state of ‘ecstasy,’ the soul may be -said to leap out, as it were, and stand forth from the body. - -_Fanatic_ is from the Latin ‘fanum,’ a temple. This adjective -was at first applied to people affected by a strong religious -feeling--possessed by an incontrollable enthusiasm. - -_Favour._ Ladies in their most brilliant attire were generally -spectators of the tournaments of the Middle Ages. They were, -severally, interested in the knights, and encouraged them, by -looks, tokens, or gestures, to do their duty manfully. They -frequently threw them a portion of their dress, such as a sleeve, -mantle, or bow of ribbons, called a _favour_, which the knight wore -on his armour, and forfeited if he was vanquished. From this custom -has descended, to our days, the fashion of distributing bows of -ribbon, still called _favours_, to the guests and attendants at a -wedding. - -_Faubourg._ This is considered by French philologists, to be a -corruption of ‘_forsbourg_.’ The old French ‘fors’ (now _hors_), -is from the Latin ‘foras,’ ‘outside,’ or ‘abroad.’ Faubourg (the -present orthography) would naturally lead to the idea that it meant -‘false town,’ or ‘unreal town:’ whereas it means and literally -corresponds with the English ‘suburb,’ i.e. a district or place -situated ‘foras burgi,’ outside the town. - -_Feud._ According to M. Guizot, the word ‘feodum’ appears for the -first time in a charter of Charles Le Gros, 884. The etymology is -uncertain; but two suggestions have been made, either of which is -probable. Some think the word is connected with the Latin ‘fides,’ -faith, and means ‘land given,’ for which the holder was bound in -_fidelity_ to his suzerain lord. According to others, ‘feod’ is of -Germanic origin; and is derived from ‘fe’ (or fee)--still used in -English in the sense of a recompense--and ‘od’ an old Germanic root -now obsolete, meaning ‘goods,’ or ‘property.’ Thus, ‘feod’ would -mean reward-land. M. Guizot favours the second explanation. - -_Foolscap._ By a statute of Queen Anne certain duties were imposed -on all paper imported from abroad. Among the various sorts of paper -herein mentioned is the Genoa ‘foolscap.’ This word is a corruption -of the Italian ‘foglio capo,’ a chief, or full-sized, sheet of -paper. Foglio (leaf), is from the Latin ‘folium,’ which appears in -French as ‘feuille.’ - -_Garment_ is a contraction of the French ‘garnement,’ from the -verb ‘garnir,’ to decorate or garnish. It is now restricted to the -meaning of ‘garnishing’ or decorating the body by dress. - -_Gew-gaw._ The derivation of this word still remains doubtful, -though many suggestions have been made of its origin. May it not be -from the French ‘jou-jou,’ a plaything? - -_Gooseberry._ Dr. Johnson, whose etymologies are not always to be -depended on, especially those of Saxon words, explains the word -‘gooseberry’--‘a fruit eaten as a sauce for goose.’ But it is, in -truth, a corruption of the German ‘krausbeere,’ or ‘krautelbeere,’ -from ‘kraus’ or ‘gorse,’ ‘crisp;’ and the fruit is so called from -the upright hairs with which it is covered. So that ‘gooseberry,’ -is really, a corruption of ‘gorseberry.’ But what is gooseberry -_fool_? ‘Fool’ is here also a corruption--it is from the French -‘foulé,’ ‘mashed’ or ‘crushed,’ and the whole word means ‘crushed -gooseberries.’ - -_Gossip._ ‘Sib’ was an Anglo-Saxon word, meaning ‘relation,’ -and the term ‘gossip’ was first applied to the relation between -godfathers and godmothers in baptism, so that a gossip (or -God-sib), meant a relation in God (i.e. in a religious sense). It -has now passed into the sense of a great chatterer or talker; but -the above explanation accounts for its origin. - -_Hammercloth._ In the olden time, before there was any hotel -accommodation in England for travellers, it was the custom with -those going on a journey to fill a ‘hanaper’ (or hamper) with -provisions, and throw a cloth over it, to conceal its somewhat -homely appearance. This was placed in front of the carriage, and -served as a seat for the driver. Thus, from ‘hanaper-cloth,’ came -‘hammer-cloth.’ - -_Harbour._ The two roots of this compound word are the Anglo-Saxon -‘here,’ an army; and ‘beorgan,’ to protect. A harbour is then, -literally, a place to protect an army. - -_Heir-loom._ From the Saxon ‘geloma,’ tools, utensils, or pieces -of furniture. These in law are called personal chattels, and when -they descended in inheritance from father to son, they were called -‘heir-looms.’ - -_Homage_ is derived from the French ‘homme,’ a man. The ceremony -of ‘homage’ was, in the Middle Ages, a solemn declaration of the -vassal that he would be the man (homme) of his future lord. He -knelt down; placed both his hands between those of his lord; with -his head bare, and without his arms; and then swore that he would -use his hands and his weapons, when they should be restored to him, -in his future lord’s service. - -_Hurry._ ‘Here’ was the Anglo-Saxon for an army (compare the German -‘Heer’); and ‘herian’ was to act as an army, viz. to ravage, -despoil, and plunder a country. Hence come the English words -‘hurry,’ ‘harry,’ and ‘harrow.’ - -_Hustings_ is from the Saxon ‘Hus’ (a house) and ‘Ting’ (a -council). This was the name given to the municipal court of the -City of London, where probably the elections were originally -conducted. Now, the word signifies the booths where speeches are -made at an election. - -_Jeopardy._ This is from the Middle-Age Latin; ‘jocus partitus’ -(French, ‘jeu-parti’), i.e. a divided game, where the chances are -even--a choice of alternatives. - -_Kickshaws_ is a corruption of the French ‘quelque chose;’ -_something_ so disguised by cooking as scarcely to be recognised. - -_Late_ is from the Anglo-Saxon ‘lætan;’ to let, or allow. ‘Lazy’ is -from the same root, as is also ‘loiter.’ He who ‘loiters’ must be -‘late.’ - -_Lout._ This comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb ‘lutian,’ to bow. It -was originally applied to a cringing menial, who was continually -_bowing_ before his master; and as in this case, the act was -probably performed in a clownish, ungraceful way, the word thus -came to signify an awkward, clumsy fellow. - -_Menial._ This adjective is derived from the old French noun -‘mesnie’ (or meny), which, in the Middle Ages, meant the servants -or household of some noble or chieftain taken collectively. A -_menial_ occupation was, originally, one performed by some member -of the ‘mesnie.’ It is from this last that the English expression -‘a many’ is derived. It was at first ‘a mesnie,’ or a collective -number of servants. - -_Meringue._ Shakspere says that ‘great events from trivial causes -spring.’ But we may sometimes reverse this saying, and say with -equal truth, that trivial effects spring from great causes. It may -appear strange that the French could not hit upon a more dignified -way of commemorating a victory than by giving its name to a then -newly invented cake, but such is the fact. The battle of Marengo -produced the ‘Meringue’!! - -_Miscreant_, which is from the French mécreant (or mécroyant), was -first used in the times of the Crusades, and then signified simply -an unbeliever. But disbelief in Christianity being at that time -regarded as the worst of crimes, the word soon passed into the more -general sense of a wicked wretch. - -_Mouchard._--In the latter part of the sixteenth century, when -the French Government was on the look-out for heretics, a certain -Antoine _Mouchy_, a doctor of the Sorbonne and canon of Noyon, made -himself notorious by his zeal against the Reformers. The secret -spies he employed in detecting the heretics were called, from -his name, _Mouchards_, a word which now signifies the basest and -meanest of betrayers. - -_Mountebank._--This means a quack medicine vendor, so called from -the Italian ‘montare’ (to mount) and ‘banco’ (a bench). Literally, -one who mounts a bench, to boast of his infallible skill in curing -diseases. - -_Naught._ ‘Aught’ is a contraction of the Saxon ‘a wiht’ (or, a -whit), any creature or thing. ‘Naught’ is the negative of ‘aught,’ -and means ‘not a whit.’ The adjective ‘naughty’ is now confined in -its application to the behaviour of children; but it was once much -more extensively used. - -_Palace._ This term, which is now used in a general sense for -a king’s residence, was first applied to a dwelling of the -Roman Emperor Nero. One of the seven hills of Rome was called -‘Palatinus,’ from Pales, a pastoral deity whose festival was there -celebrated on April 21 as the birthday of Rome. Under Nero, all -the private houses on the ‘collis Palatinus’ were pulled down to -make room for the Emperor’s new residence. This house was called -‘Palatium,’ and it afterwards became the type of all the palaces of -the kings and emperors of Europe. - -_Palfrey._--This is a contraction of the French ‘par le frein’ -(by the bridle). It is a horse used on state occasions, and -distinguished from the war horse--a horse led by the bridle, ‘_mené -par le frein_.’ - -_Pamphlet._--It is supposed that this word is a contraction of the -French ‘par un filet.’ It means a small book, not bound, but held -together by a thread--‘_tenu par un filet_.’ - -_Pavilion_ is derived directly from the French ‘pavillon,’ where it -is used in the sense of a tent or flag. But the origin of the word -is the Latin ‘papilio,’ a butterfly. Tents or flags would be so -called, because of their flapping about as a butterfly. - -_Person._ This word was originally a theatrical term, and properly -meant an actor. The theatres of the ancient Romans were built so -large as to contain between 30,000 and 40,000 people. Now it was -impossible for the actors to make themselves heard through so large -a space; and they therefore wore masks, inside of which, close to -the aperture for the mouth, was a certain mechanical contrivance, -which made the voice more sonorous, so that the actors’ words could -be heard in all parts of the theatre. The Latin for a mask is -‘persona,’ so called because the voice _sounded through it_. _Per_ -is in Latin, ‘through;’ and _son_ is the root of the verb ‘sonare’ -to sound. By a common figure of speech, the word meaning ‘mask’ -(persona) was afterwards applied to its wearer; and thus ‘persona’ -came to signify ‘actor.’ This was its original, theatrical meaning. -But, as all human beings are, in one sense, actors--as they all -have a part to play on the stage of life, the word ‘person’ was -afterwards used in a general sense to signify any one man or woman. -In one special case, it appears in the form ‘parson,’ to designate -the ‘chief person,’ or priest, of a parish. In this sense, however, -the word is now falling into disuse. - -_Pet._ The French adjective ‘petit’ (small) is derived from the -Latin participle, ‘petitus,’ sought after. From this root came the -English word ‘pet.’ ‘My pet’ means literally, ‘my sought after or -desired one.’ ‘Petty’ is also from the French ‘petit;’ but it has -degenerated: and is now always used in a bad sense, as in a ‘petty -action.’ - -_Pert_ is nothing else than the old French ‘aperte,’ (from the -Latin apertus) open, public, without concealment. The sense has now -degenerated into ‘saucy’ or ‘impudent.’ ‘Malapert’ had that meaning -from the beginning; but this word is now seldom used. ‘Pert’ seems -to have taken its place. - -_Poltroon._ The derivation of this word is still undecided; but -the following account of it has been offered. In the later ages -of the Roman empire, the ancient valour of the citizens had so -degenerated that, rather than fight, many actually cut off their -right thumbs, in order to disable themselves from using the pike. -The Latin for ‘thumb’ is ‘pollex’; and ‘truncus’ means, in that -language, ‘maimed’ or ‘mutilated.’ These two roots put together -give us ‘pol-troon’ from ‘_pol_lice _trun_cus,’ i.e. with the thumb -cut off. As this was done with a cowardly motive, the word very -naturally came to signify a coward, a meaning which it retains to -this day. - -_Pontiff_ (Lat. pontifex). There are various etymologies of this -word. Varro derives it from ‘pons,’ a bridge, and ‘facĕre,’ to make -or build. He says that the pontiffs had built the ‘pons sublicius’ -(over the Tiber); and afterwards restored it, that sacrifices might -be performed on each side of the river. It is now used only as a -title of the Pope of Rome. - -_Porpoise._ This word is from the French porc (hog) and poisson -(fish); so called from its resemblance to a hog. Spenser spells the -word ‘porcpisces.’ It is singular that, in this case, the French -should have adopted the Teutonic word ‘marsouin’ (mereswine); while -in English it is known by its French name--‘porc-poisson.’ - -_Post._ The apparently contradictory meanings of this word may -give it a peculiar interest. In its original sense, it means -something _placed_; from the Latin participle ‘positum’; as, for -example, a pillar fixed in the street. But we also hear of _post_ -haste, _post_ horses, &c., and, in these cases, the meaning -seems directly opposed to the etymology. When letters, parcels, -&c. were first transmitted from place to place, stations (or -posts) were placed at intervals from each other, and letters were -rapidly passed on by messengers from one station to the next, and -so on, across the whole country. This was called _post_ haste; -i.e. in such haste as was used when letters were sent in the -above-described way. - -_Punch._ The well-known beverage called punch is said to be -derived from the Hindostani panch--five. It means a mixture of -five ingredients: 1. spirit, 2. water, 3. sugar, 4. acid, and 5. -essential oil of lemon. - -_Puny._ This is an English form of the French puis-né, -or (de)puis-né (Latin, post natus), born since. It is in -contradistinction to the French aîné (ante-natus) elder or born -before; and now signifies weak, ill-conditioned in growth. A junior -judge is still, in legal phrase, a puisne judge. - -_Quack._ The whole word is in German ‘qualksalber,’ of which -‘quack’ is a contraction. ‘To quack’ is to talk boastfully--to make -a great fuss; and ‘salber’ is from _salve_, something to _heal_; -so that quacksalber may be explained, one who talks noisily and -fussily about his healing medicines. - -_Quandary._ This is a corruption of the French ‘qu’en dirai-(je)?’ -‘what shall I say of it?’ It expresses that condition of doubt or -uncertainty in which such a question would be naturally asked. - -_Ragoût._ This French noun, which may be now considered as -naturalised in English, is a contraction of the Italian ‘miro -gusto,’ ‘wonderful taste.’ - -_Raiment_ is derived from ‘to array,’ and is a contraction for -‘arrayment.’ - -_Ransack._ This word is founded in Swedish, ‘ransacka,’ where it -means to search a house for stolen goods. It is compounded of the -O.N. ‘rann,’ a house, and Sw. ‘soka,’ to seek. - -_Religion_ is from the Latin ‘_re_’ (back), and ‘_ligare_,’ ‘to -bind;’ literally, that which binds back, or restrains us from the -commission of sin. - -_Right_ and _Wrong_. The first of these words, in a secondary -sense, has a meaning analogous to proceeding in a straight line, -the Latin ‘rectus,’ from which it is derived, having that meaning. -The French ‘droit’ is from ‘directus.’ Our word ‘wrong’ is only -another form of ‘wrung,’ i. e. ‘_twisted_’ (out of the right line). -It may be observed, by the way, that the French ‘tort’ (wrong) -is from the Latin ‘tortus,’ twisted; so that the same principle -operates in both cases. - -_Romance._ A name given to certain European languages (especially -the Provençal), which grew out of the old Roman or Latin, The -Troubadours, or poets, who wrote in the Provençal language being -notorious for their exaggerated sentiment, the word has come to -mean a wildly imaginative fiction; and it is even sometimes used as -a softened expression for a falsehood. - -_Salary._ This is from the Latin ‘salarium.’ According to Pliny, it -is derived from ‘sal’ (salt), that being the most necessary article -for the maintenance of life. In the reign of the Emperor Augustus -it comprised the provisions as well as the pay of the Roman -military officers. From ‘salary’ probably came the expression, ‘he -is not worth his _salt_,’ i.e. his pay, or wages. - -_Sarcasm._--The root of this word is the Greek σάρξ (sarx) flesh, -from which comes σαρκάζω (sarcazo) ‘I tear flesh.’ The derivation -throws a strong light on its true meaning--a tearing of the flesh. -But it is now used only in a secondary sense. - -_Saunter._ It is said that, in the time of the Crusades, many -foreign mendicants overran England. They professed to be on their -return from a pilgrimage to the ‘Sainte Terre:’ and the popular -voice gave these vagabonds the name of ‘saunterers.’ - -_Sedition_ is from the Latin ‘se’ (apart), and ‘itio,’ a going -(from ‘eo’ I go). Sedition, then, means ‘a going apart,’ i.e. a -departure from submission to the laws. It now implies a violent -opposition to government, and involves the idea of commotion and -disturbance of the peace. - -_Seneschal._ This is a compound of the Latin ‘senex’ (old) and the -Gothic ‘scalco’ (a servant). The seneschal of a castle was, in the -Middle Ages, an _aged servant_, whose duty it was to keep the keys, -take care of the house, and superintend the feasts and domestic -ceremonies. ‘Seneschal’ means ‘aged servant,’ as ‘marshal’ (‘mara -scalco’) means, literally, ‘horse servant.’ - -_Sincere._ One suggestion concerning the etymology of this word -is, that it was compounded from the Latin ‘sine’ (without), and -‘cerâ’ (wax)--‘without wax.’ In this view, the term is referred to -a practice of the ancient sculptors, who, when they found a flaw in -the marble of which they were forming a statue, filled up the place -with wax, in order to conceal the defect. Those pieces of statuary -that had no flaws were, consequently, ‘sine cerâ’ (without wax); -and the word ‘sincere’ thus acquired its present meaning; viz. -perfect, whole, without flaw. Many etymologists, however, reject -this derivation, and the origin of the word is still considered as -doubtful. - -_Simple._ Whether ‘sincere’ be or be not from ‘sine cerâ,’ it -is generally allowed that ‘simple’ is from the Latin ‘sine,’ -and ‘plico,’ I fold; i.e. literally, ‘without fold.’ The Latin -‘simplex,’ ‘duplex,’ ‘triplex,’ &c. are in English, ‘sim_ple_,’ -‘dou_ble_,’ ‘tri_ple_,’ &c. - -_Soldier._ This English word comes directly from the French -‘soldat,’ which, again, is from the Latin ‘solidus,’ Italian -‘soldo,’ and French ‘solde,’ ‘sou’ (pay)--the name of a coin which -a man received as his pay for fighting. The word originally meant -one who performed military service, not in fulfilment of the feudal -obligation, but upon contract, and for stipulated pay. - -_Somerset._ The corruption of a word often obscures its -derivation; as is the case here. This is originally from the -Italian ‘soprasalto,’ an over-leap. The French corrupted the word -into ‘sobresault,’ and the English to ‘somersault,’ and then to -‘somerset.’ But it should be always spelled ‘somersault.’ It -properly means a _leap_ in which the heels are thrown _over_ the -head. - -_Spouse._ The origin of this word may be traced to the Greek verb -σβέννυμι (sbennumi), ‘I pour out;’ which passed into Latin as -‘spondeo’ (sponsus). The Latin verb came to signify ‘to make a -contract’ or promise. In making contracts, it was a custom with -the Romans _to pour out_ libations to the gods. Hence, any one -who contracted an engagement (especially in the case of marriage) -was called ‘sponsus,’ i.e. ‘engaged,’ or ‘betrothed.’ The modern -Italians softened the word into ‘sposo,’ and the French transformed -it into ‘époux.’ Then it passed into English in the form of -‘spouse.’ Godfathers and godmothers are called ‘sponsors,’ for the -same reason; because they engage, or bind themselves, in certain -contingencies, to instruct a child in his religious duties. - -_Stalwart_ is often written, in early English, ‘stal-ward.’ It is -from the Anglo-Saxon ‘stal-weorth,’ i.e. worth stealing, or taking. -The word is now used in the sense of strong-limbed, noble, manly in -appearance. - -_Stationer._ The word ‘statio’ meant, in the Middle Ages, ‘a -stall,’ or ‘shop,’ and was at last used for a shop where books -and paper were sold. Hence came ‘_stationarius_,’ one who held a -station, or who dealt in books, paper, &c. - -_Tawdry._ According to the legend, St. Etheldreda (Saint Audrey) -is said to have died of a quinsy, which she considered sent her as -a judgment for her vanity concerning necklaces in her youth. Hence -‘tawdry’ has been explained as the necklace of St. Audrey. The word -now qualifies any silly, frivolous ornamentation; fine and showy, -but without taste or elegance. - -_Thing._ There is a close connection between the noun ‘thing’ and -the verb ‘to think.’ In fact, the one is derived from the other. -For what is a _thing_? It is whatever causes us to _think_. There -is the same connection between the Latin noun ‘res’ and the verb -‘reor.’ We may also observe that the Italian ‘cosa’ and the French -‘chose’ are formed by the same analogy. They both mean ‘cause,’ i. -e. cause of ideas or thoughts. - -_Tragedy._ It was a custom with the Greek peasants, when they -gathered in the vintage, to recite or sing an ode in honour of -Bacchus, their tutelary god of wine; and on this solemn occasion, -by way of propitiating that divinity, they sacrificed to him a -he-goat. The Greek for a ‘he-goat’ is τράγος; and a song (or ode) -is, in that language, ᾠδὴ (odē). Putting together τράγος and ᾠδὴ -we get ‘tragœdia’ (tragedy); literally, ‘the song of the goat,’ -or, the song sung when the goat was sacrificed to Bacchus. Various -additions were afterwards made, such as dialogue, chorus, &c., till -at length the drama appeared in its present form. - -_Wiseacre._ This word has, really, no connection whatever with -‘acre.’ The two roots, ‘wise’ and ‘acre,’ are clearly incompatible. -How then, did they come together? The word is, both in spelling -and pronunciation, a corruption of the German ‘weissager,’ a -‘wise-_sayer_,’ or sayer of wise maxims, or precepts. - -_Wont._ The Anglo-Saxon ‘wunian’ meant to dwell, which naturally -involved the idea of being accustomed to; for we must become -accustomed to the dwelling in which we live. ‘He was _wont_ to -say,’ means he was in the habit of saying. Compare the German -‘wohnen’ and ‘Wohnung.’ - -_Zero._ The name given to the arithmetical ‘0’ is said to be -a contraction of the Italian ‘zephiro,’ a zephyr; i.e. a mere -nothing; having no more substance than a breeze, or breath of air. -It is also sometimes called a ‘cipher,’ from the Arabic ‘cifr,’ -empty. - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY - SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE - AND PARLIAMENT STREET - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] See Génin, Variations du Langage français, p. 312. - -[2] In some cases, this difference of meaning may be accounted -for by a difference of etymology. ‘To let,’ in the sense of ‘to -hinder,’ is from the Saxon verb ‘letjan;’ but when it means ‘to -allow,’ it is from the Saxon ‘lætan.’ See Mätzner, _Englische -Grammatik_, vol. i. p. 189. - -[3] ‘To cleave,’ meaning ‘to adhere to,’ is from the Anglo-Saxon -‘cleofan,’ ‘clufan;’ but in the sense of ‘to split,’ it is from -‘clifan,’ ‘clifian.’ See Mätzner, vol. i. p. 202. - - - - - * * * * * - - -_Works by the same Author._ - - - ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRACTICE; or, Exercises on the Etymology, Syntax, - and Prosody of the English Language. Adapted to every form of - Tuition. Revised Edition, in fcp. 8vo. price 4_s._ 6_d._ - -‘A volume of exercises which seem to have been selected with a ripe -judgment.’ - - SPECTATOR. - -‘This treatise contains not merely the ordinary grammatical -rudiments, but exercises in punctuation, prosody, and -versification. It will be found very useful, especially to learners -who are somewhat advanced.’ - - WEEKLY DISPATCH. - -‘So far as we have examined this work, its nomenclature seems much -more simple than that of the majority of English grammars published -of late years. The chief feature, however, of Mr. GRAHAM’S book is -the abundance of its exercises; and these can be worked out after -each rule, so that the young learner can really confirm his own -progress step by step. There are also appended copious exercises in -prosody and versification--a branch of English grammar not usually -studied in schools as thoroughly as its importance deserves.’ - - CRITIC. - -‘Not only are the rules here expressed in very simple and -intelligible language, but each is immediately followed by an -exercise, in which the principle on which the rule rests is -illustrated and enforced by repeated examples. This is, we think, -the only method of making a clear impression upon a mind of average -capacity; and even where unusually good abilities make its adoption -not absolutely necessary, it may be employed with considerable -advantage in stimulating the pupil’s zeal by enabling him to -feel at every successful application of the principle involved a -very encouraging sense of progress.... The most novel feature in -Mr. GRAHAM’S book is a treatise on prosody, which, though a very -necessary part of English grammar, we do not remember to have seen -in any previous work of this kind.’ - - PARTHENON. - -‘Mr. GRAHAM’S volume of grammar-practice aims at being more -practical than grammars usually are. The rules are concise; -the exercises full and numerous; there are sections on correct -spelling, and others on the logical analysis of sentences. This -book should be specially acceptable to the masters of private -academies, where, too often, the grammar lessons are as useless as -they are antiquated.’ - - PAPERS _for the_ SCHOOLMASTER. - -‘Mr. GRAHAM’S purpose in this practical little volume is to impress -upon the young learner’s mind the definitions and rules of grammar, -by setting him a series of progressive exercises, arranged under -and exemplifying each rule successively. 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To which -are added Commission Tables at One-Eighth and One-Fourth per Cent. -8vo. price 15_s._ - -=MAUNDER’S TREASURY of KNOWLEDGE and LIBRARY of Reference=: -comprising an English Dictionary and Grammar, Universal Gazetteer, -Classical Dictionary, Chronology, Law Dictionary, a Synopsis of the -Peerage, useful Tables, &c. Revised Edition. Fcp. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - - - -INDEX. - - - ACTON’S Modern Cookery, 27 - - ALCOCK’S Residence in Japan, 22 - - ALLIES on Formation of Christendom, 20 - - Alpine Guide (The), 23 - - ALVENSLEBEN’S Maximilian in Mexico, 5 - - APJOHN’S Manual of the Metalloids, 12 - - ARNOLD’S Manual of English Literature, 7 - - ARNOTT’S Elements of Physics, 11 - - Arundines Cami, 25 - - Autumn holidays of a Country Parson, 8 - - AYRE’S Treasury of Bible Knowledge, 19 - - - BACON’S Essays, by WHATELY, 5 - - ---- Life and Letters, by SPEDDING, 5 - - ---- Works, 6 - - BAIN on the Emotions and Will, 9 - - ---- on the Senses and Intellect, 9 - - ---- on the Study of Character, 9 - - BALL’S Alpine Guide, 22 - - BARNARD’S Drawing from Nature, 16 - - BAYLDON’S Rents and Tillages, 18 - - Beaten Tracks, 22 - - BECKER’S Charicles _and_ Gallus, 23 - - BEETHOVEN’S Letters, 4 - - BENFEY’S Sanskrit Dictionary, 8 - - BERRY’S Journals and Correspondence, 4 - - Billiard Book (The), 26 - - BLACK’S Treatise on Brewing, 28 - - BLACKLEY and FRIEDLANDER’S German and English Dictionary, 8 - - BLAINE’S Rural Sports, 25 - - ---- Veterinary Art, 26 - - BLIGHT’S Week at the Land’s End, 23 - - BOOTH’S Epigrams, 9 - - BOURNE on Screw Propeller, 17 - - BOURNE’S Catechism of the Steam Engine, 17 - - ---- Handbook of Steam Engine, 17 - - ---- Treatise on the Steam Engine, 17 - - ---- Examples of Steam, Air, and Gas Engines, 17 - - BOWDLER’S Family SHAKSPEARE, 25 - - BOYD’S Manual for Naval Cadets, 27 - - BRAMLEY-MOORE’S Six Sisters of the Valleys, 23 - - BRANDE’S Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art, 13 - - BRAY’S (C.) Education of the Feelings, 10 - - ---- Philosophy of Necessity, 10 - - ---- on Force, 10 - - BRINTON on Food and Digestion, 27 - - BRISTOW’S Glossary of Mineralogy, 11 - - BRODIE’S (Sir C. B.) Works, 15 - - ---- Constitutional History, 2 - - BROWNE’S Exposition 39 Articles, 18 - - BUCKLE’S History of Civilization, 2 - - BULL’S Hints to Mothers, 28 - - ---- Maternal Management of Children, 28 - - BUNSEN’S (Baron) Ancient Egypt, 3 - - ---- God in History, 3 - - ---- Memoirs, 4 - - BUNSEN (E. DE) on Apocrypha, 20 - - ----‘s Keys of St. Peter, 20 - - BURKE’S Vicissitudes of Families, 5 - - BURTON’S Christian Church, 3 - - - Cabinet Lawyer, 28 - - CALVERT’S Wife’s Manual, 21 - - CATES’S Biographical Dictionary, 4 - - CATS’ and FARLIE’S Moral Emblems, 16 - - CHESNEY’S Indian Polity, 23 - - Chorale Book for England, 16 - - Christian Schools and Scholars, 10 - - CLOUGH’S Lives from Plutarch, 2 - - COLENSO (Bishop) on Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, 19 - - COLLINS’S Horse-Trainer’s Guide, 26 - - Common-place Philosopher in Town and Country, 8 - - CONINGTON’S Chemical Analysis, 14 - - ---- Translation of VIRGIL’S _Æneid_, 25 - - CONTANSEAU’S Pocket French and English Dictionary, 8 - - ---- Practical ditto, 8 - - CONYBEARE and HOWSON’S Life and Epistles of St. Paul, 18 - - COOK on the Acts, 18 - - COPLAND’S Dictionary of Practical Medicine, 15 - - COULTHART’S Decimal Interest Tables, 28 - - Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit, 8 - - COX’S Manual of Mythology, 24 - - ---- Tales of the Great Persian War, 2 - - ---- Tales from Greek Mythology, 24 - - ---- Tales of the Gods and Heroes, 24 - - ---- Tales of Thebes and Argos, 24 - - ---- Tales from Ancient Greece, 24 - - CRESY’S Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering, 17 - - Critical Essays of a Country Parson, 8 - - CROWE’S History of France, 2 - - CRUMP on Banking, Currency, & Exchanges, 27 - - - DART’S Iliad of Homer, 25 - - D’AUBIGNE’S History of the Reformation in the time of CALVIN, 2 - - DAVIDSON’S Introduction to New Testament, 19 - - DAYMAN’S Dante’s Divina Commedia, 25 - - Dead Shot (The), by MARKSMAN, 26 - - DE BURGH’S Maritime International Law, 27 - - DE LA RIVE’S Treatise on Electricity, 11 - - DE MORGAN on Matter and Spirit, 9 - - DE TOCQUEVILLE’S Democracy in America, 2 - - DISRAELI’S Speeches on Parliamentary Reform, 6 - - DOBSON on the Ox, 27 - - DOVE on Storms, 10 - - DYER’S City of Rome, 2 - - - EASTLAKE’S Hints on Household Taste, 17 - - EDWARDS’ Shipmaster’s Guide, 27 - - Elements of Botany, 13 - - ELLICOTT’S Commentary on Ephesians, 19 - - ---- Lectures on Life of Christ, 19 - - ---- Commentary on Galatians, 19 - - ---- ---- Pastoral Epist., 19 - - ---- ---- Philippians, &c., 19 - - ---- ---- Thessalonians, 19 - - ENGEL’S Introduction to National Music, 15 - - Essays and Reviews, 20 - - ---- on Religion and Literature, edited by MANNING, FIRST _and_ - SECOND SERIES, 20 - - EWALD’S History of Israel, 19 - - - FAIRBAIRN on Iron Shipbuilding, 17 - - FAIRBAIRN’S Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building, 17 - - ---- Information for Engineers, 17 - - ---- Treatise on Mills & Millwork, 17 - - FARRAR’S Chapters on Language, 7 - - FELKIN on Hosiery and Lace Manufactures, 18 - - FFOULKES’S Christendom’s Divisions, 20 - - FLIEDNER’S (Pastor) Life, 5 - - FRANCIS’S Fishing Book, 26 - - ---- (Sir P.) Memoir and Journal, 4 - - Friends in Council, 9 - - FROUDE’S History of England, 1 - - ---- Short Studies on Great Subjects, 8 - - - GANOT’S Elementary Physics, 11 - - GILBERT and CHURCHILL’S Dolomite Mountains, 22 - - GILL’S Papal Drama, 3 - - GILLY’S Shipwrecks of the Navy, 22 - - GOODEVE’S Elements of Mechanism, 17 - - GORLE’S Questions on BROWNE’S Exposition of the 39 Articles, 18 - - GOULD’S Silver Store, 10 - - GRANT’S Ethics of Aristotle, 5 - - Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson, 8 - - GRAY’S Anatomy, 14 - - GREENE’S Corals and Sea Jellies, 12 - - ---- Sponges and Animalculæ, 12 - - GROVE on Correlation of Physical Forces, 11 - - GWILT’S Encyclopædia of Architecture, 16 - - - Handbook of Angling, by EPHEMERA, 26 - - HARE on Election of Representatives, 6 - - HARLEY and BROWN’S Histological Demonstrations, 15 - - HARTWIG’S Harmonies of Nature, 12 - - ---- Polar World, 12 - - ---- Sea and its Living Wonders, 12 - - ---- Tropical World, 12 - - HAUGHTON’S Manual of Geology, 11 - - HAWKER’S Instructions to Young Sportsmen, 26 - - HEARN’S Plutology, 1 - - ---- on English Government, 1 - - HELPS’S Spanish Conquest in America, 2 - - HENDERSON’S Folk-Lore of the Northern Counties, 10 - - HERSCHEL’S Outlines of Astronomy, 10 - - HEWITT on Diseases of Women, 14 - - HODGSON’S Time and Space, 9 - - HOLMES’S System of Surgery, 14 - - ---- Surgical Diseases of Infancy, 14 - - HOOKER and WALKER-ARNOTT’S British Flora, 13 - - HOPKINS’S Hawaii, 11 - - HORNE’S Introduction to the Scriptures, 19 - - ---- Compendium of ditto, 19 - - HORSLEY’S Manual of Poisons, 15 - - HOSKYNS’S Occasional Essays, 9 - - How we Spent the Summer, 22 - - HOWARD’S Gymnastic Exercises, 15 - - HOWITT’S Australian Discovery, 22 - - ---- Rural Life of England, 23 - - ---- Visits to Remarkable Places, 23 - - HUDSON’S Executor’s Guide, 28 - - HUGHES’S (W.) Manual of Geography, 10 - - HULLAH’S Collection of Sacred Music, 16 - - ---- Lectures on Modern Music, 15 - - ---- Transition Musical Lectures, 15 - - HUMPHREYS’ Sentiments of Shakspeare, 16 - - HUTTON’S Studies in Parliament, 8 - - - INGELOW’S Poems, 25 - - ---- Story of Doom, 25 - - - JAMESON’S Legends of the Saints and Martyrs, 16 - - ---- Legends of the Madonna, 16 - - ---- Legends of the Monastic Orders, 16 - - JAMESON and EASTLAKE’S History of Our Lord, 16 - - JENNER’S Holy Child, 25 - - JOHNSTON’S Gazetteer, or Geographical Dictionary, 10 - - JORDAN’S Vis Inertiæ in the Ocean, 10 - - - KALISCH’S Commentary on the Bible, 7 - - ---- Hebrew Grammar, 7 - - KEITH on Fulfilment of Prophecy, 18 - - ---- Destiny of the World, 18 - - KELLER’S Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, 12 - - KESTEVEN’S Domestic Medicine, 15 - - KIRBY and SPENCE’S Entomology, 13 - - KNIGHT’S Arch of Titus, 22 - - - Lady’s Tour Round Monte Rosa, 22 - - LANDON’S (L. E. L.) Poetical Works, 25 - - LATHAM’S English Dictionary, 7 - - ---- River Plate, 10 - - LAWRENCE on Rocks, 11 - - LECKY’S History of Rationalism, 3 - - LEIGH’S Homeward Ride, 25 - - Leisure Hours in Town, 8 - - Lessons of Middle Age, 8 - - LEWES’ History of Philosophy, 3 - - Letters of Distinguished Musicians, 4 - - LIDDELL and SCOTT’S Greek-English Lexicon, 7 - - ---- ---- Abridged ditto, 7 - - Life of Man Symbolised, 16 - - LINDLEY and MOORE’S Treasury of Botany, 13 - - LONGMAN’S Lectures on the History of England, 2 - - LOUDON’S Agriculture, 18 - - ---- Cottage, Farm, Villa Architecture, 18 - - ---- Gardening, 18 - - ---- Plants, 13 - - ---- Trees and Shrubs, 13 - - LOWNDES’S Engineer’s Handbook, 17 - - Lyra Domestica, 21 - - ---- Eucharistica, 21 - - ---- Germanica, 16, 21 - - ---- Messianica, 21 - - ---- Mystica, 21 - - ---- Sacra, 21 - - - MACAULAY’S (Lord) Essays, 3 - - ---- History of England, 1 - - ---- Lays of Ancient Rome, 24 - - ---- Miscellaneous Writings, 8 - - ---- Speeches, 6 - - ---- Works, 1 - - MACFARREN’S Lectures on Harmony, 15 - - MACLEOD’S Elements of Political Economy, 6 - - ---- Dictionary of Political Economy, 6 - - ---- Elements of Banking, 27 - - ---- Theory and Practice of Banking, 27 - - MCCULLOCH’S Dictionary of Commerce, 27 - - ---- Geographical Dictionary, 10 - - MAGUIRE’S Irish in America, 23 - - ---- Life of Father Mathew, 4 - - ---- Rome and its Rulers, 4 - - MALLESON’S French in India, 3 - - MANNING on Holy Ghost, 20 - - ----‘s England and Christendom, 20 - - MARSHALL’S Physiology, 14 - - MARSHMAN’S Life of Havelock 5 - - ---- History of India, 3 - - MARTINEAU’S Endeavours after the Christian Life, 21 - - MASSEY’S History of England, 2 - - ---- (G.) on Shakspeare’s Sonnets, 25 - - MASSINGBERD’S History of the Reformation, 4 - - MAUNDER’S Biographical Treasury, 5 - - ---- Geographical Treasury, 11 - - ---- Historical Treasury, 3 - - ---- Scientific and Literary Treasury, 13 - - ---- Treasury of Knowledge, 28 - - ---- Treasury of Natural History, 13 - - MAURY’S Physical Geography, 10 - - MAY’S Constitutional History of England, 2 - - MELVILLE’S Digby Grand, 24 - - ---- General Bounce, 24 - - ---- Gladiators, 24 - - ---- Good for Nothing, 24 - - ---- Holmby House, 24 - - ---- Interpreter, 24 - - ---- Kate Coventry, 24 - - ---- Queen’s Maries, 24 - - MENDELSSOHN’S Letters, 4 - - MERIVALE’S (H.) Historical Studies, 2 - - ---- (C.) Fall of the Roman Republic, 3 - - ---- Romans under the Empire, 3 - - MILES on Horse’s Foot and Horse-shoeing, 26 - - ---- on Horses’ Teeth and Stables, 26 - - MILL on Liberty, 6 - - ---- on Representative Government, 6 - - ---- on Utilitarianism, 6 - - MILL’S Dissertations and Discussions, 6 - - ---- Political Economy, 6 - - ---- System of Logic, 6 - - ---- Hamilton’s Philosophy, 6 - - ---- St. Andrews’ Inaugural Address, 6 - - MILLER’S Elements of Chemistry, 14 - - MITCHELL’S Manual of Assaying, 18 - - MONSELL’S Beatitudes, 21 - - ---- His Presence--not his Memory, 21 - - ---- ‘Spiritual Songs’, 21 - - MONTGOMERY on Pregnancy, 14 - - MOORE’S Irish Melodies, 24 - - ---- Lalla Rookh, 24 - - ---- Poetical Works, 24 - - ---- (Dr. G.) First Man, 12 - - MORELL’S Elements of Psychology, 9 - - ---- Mental Philosophy, 9 - - MOSHEIM’S Ecclesiastical History, 21 - - MOZART’S Letters, 4 - - MÜLLER’S (MAX) Chips from a German Workshop, 9 - - ---- ---- Lectures on the Science of Language, 7 - - ---- (K. O.) Literature of Ancient Greece, 2 - - MURCHISON on Continued Fevers, 14 - - MURE’S Language and Literature of Greece, 2 - - - New Testament, illustrated with Wood Engravings from the Old - Masters, 16 - - NEWMAN’S History of his Religious Opinions, 4 - - NICHOLAS’S Pedigree of the English People, 9 - - NICHOLS’ Handbook to the British Museum, 28 - - NIGHTINGALE’S Notes on Hospitals, 28 - - NILSSON’S Scandinavia, 12 - - - ODLING’S Animal Chemistry, 14 - - ---- Course of Practical Chemistry, 14 - - ---- Manual of Chemistry, 14 - - Original Designs for Wood Carving, 17 - - OWEN’S Lectures on the Invertebrate Animals, 12 - - ---- Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrate Animals, 12 - - OXENHAM on Atonement, 20 - - - PACKE’S Guide to the Pyrenees, 22 - - PAGET’S Lectures on Surgical Pathology, 14 - - PEREIRA’S Manual of Materia Medica, 22 - - PERKINS’S Tuscan Sculptors, 17 - - PHILLIPS’S Guide to Geology, 11 - - Pictures in Tyrol, 22 - - PIESSE’S Art of Perfumery, 18 - - ---- Chemical, Natural, and Physical Magic, 18 - - PIKE’S English and their Origin, 9 - - PITT on Brewing, 28 - - Playtime with the Poets, 25 - - PLOWDEN’S Travels in Abyssinia, 22 - - PRATT’S Law of Building Societies, 28 - - PRESCOTT’S Scripture Difficulties, 19 - - PROCTOR’S Saturn, 10 - - ---- Handbook of the Stars, 10 - - PYCROFT’S Course of English Reading, 7 - - ---- Cricket Field, 26 - - - RAIKES’S Englishman in India, 23 - - READE’S Poetical Works, 25 - - Recreations of a Country Parson, 8 - - REILY’S Map of Mont Blanc, 22 - - REIMANN on Aniline, 15 - - REYNOLDS’S Alice Rushton, 25 - - RIVERS’S Rose Amateur’s Guide, 13 - - ROGERS’S Correspondence of Greyson, 9 - - ---- Eclipse of Faith, 9 - - ---- Defence of ditto, 9 - - ---- Essays from the _Edinburgh Review_, 9 - - ---- Reason and Faith, 9 - - ROGET’S Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, 7 - - RONALDS’S Fly-Fisher’s Entomology, 26 - - ROWTON’S Debater, 7 - - RUDD’S Aristophanes, 25 - - RUSSELL on Government and Constitution, 1 - - - SANDARS’S Justinian’s Institutes, 5 - - SCHUBERT’S Life, translated by COLERIDGE, 5 - - SCOTT’S Lectures on the Fine Arts, 15 - - SEEBOHM’S Oxford Reformers of 1498, 2 - - SEWELL’S After Life, 23 - - ---- Amy Herbert, 23 - - ---- Cleve Hall, 23 - - ---- Earl’s Daughter, 23 - - ---- Examination for Confirmation, 20 - - ---- Experience of Life, 23 - - ---- Gertrude, 23 - - ---- Glimpse of the World, 23 - - ---- History of the Early Church, 3 - - ---- Ivors, 23 - - ---- Journal of a Home Life, 23 - - ---- Katharine Ashton, 23 - - ---- Laneton Parsonage, 23 - - ---- Margaret Percival, 23 - - ---- Passing Thoughts on Religion, 20 - - ---- Preparation for Communion, 20 - - ---- Principles of Education, 20 - - ---- Readings for Confirmation, 20 - - ---- Readings for Lent, 20 - - ---- Tales and Stories, 23 - - ---- Ursula, 23 - - SHAW’S Work on Wine, 28 - - SHEPHERD’S Iceland, 21 - - SHIPLEY’S Church and the World, 19 - - ---- Tracts for the Day, 20 - - Short Whist, 28 - - SHORT’S Church History, 3 - - SMITH’S (SOUTHWOOD) Philosophy of Health, 28 - - ---- (J.) Paul’s Voyage and Shipwreck, 18 - - ---- (G.) King David, 19 - - ---- Wesleyan Methodism, 4 - - ---- (SYDNEY) Miscellaneous Works, 8 - - ---- Moral Philosophy, 8 - - ---- Wit and Wisdom, 9 - - SMITH on Cavalry Drill and Manœuvres, 26 - - SOUTHEY’S (Doctor), 7 - - ---- Poetical Works, 24 - - Springdale Abbey, 23 - - STANLEY’S History of British Birds, 12 - - STEBBING’S Analysis of MILL’S Logic, 6 - - STEPHEN’S Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography, 5 - - ---- Lectures on History of France, 2 - - STIRLING’S Secret of Hegel, 9 - - STONEHENGE on the Dog, 26 - - ---- on the Greyhound, 27 - - Story of Mairwara, 23 - - Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church of a Scottish University City - (Aberdeen), 8 - - - TAYLOR’S (Jeremy) Works, edited by EDEN, 21 - - ---- (E.) Selections from some Contemporary Poets, 25 - - TENNENT’S Ceylon, 13 - - ---- Wild Elephant, 13 - - THIRLWALL’S History of Greece, 2 - - THOMSON’S (Archbishop) Laws of Thought, 6 - - ---- (A. T.) Conspectus, 15 - - TIMBS’S Curiosities of London, 23 - - TODD (A.) on Parliamentary Government, 1 - - TODD and BOWMAN’S Anatomy and Physiology of Man, 15 - - TROLLOPE’S Barchester Towers, 23 - - ---- Warden, 23 - - TWISS’S Law of Nations, 27 - - TYNDALL’S Lectures on Heat, - - ---- Sound, - - ---- Memoir of FARADAY, - - - URE’S Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines, - - - VAN DER HOEVEN’S Handbook of Zoology, - - VAUGHAN’S (R.) Revolutions in English History, - - ---- Way to Rest, - - - WALKER on the Rifle, - - WARD’S Workmen and Wages, - - WATSON’S Principles and Practice of Physics, - - WATTS’S Dictionary of Chemistry, - - WEBB’S Objects for Common Telescopes, - - WEBSTER & WILKINSON’S Greek Testament, - - WELD’S Florence, - - WELLINGTON’S Life, by the Rev. G. R. GLEIG, - - WELLS on Dew, - - WENDT’S Papers on Maritime Law, - - WEST on Children’s Diseases, - - WHATELY’S English Synonymes, - - ---- Logic, - - ---- Rhetoric, - - ---- Life and Correspondence, - - WHATELY on the Truth of Christianity, - - ---- Religious Worship, - - Whist, what to lead, by CAM, - - WHITE and RIDDLE’S Latin-English Dictionaries, - - WINSLOW on Light, - - WOOD’S Bible Animals, - - ---- Homes without Hands, - - WRIGHT’S Homer’s Iliad, - - - YONGE’S English-Greek Lexicon, - - ---- Abridged ditto, - - ---- Horace, - - YOUNG’S Nautical Dictionary, - - YOUATT on the Dog, - - ---- on the Horse, - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY - SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE - AND PARLIAMENT STREET - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - - Many printing errors in punctuation, missing or misplaced italic, - or a missing quote mark, have been corrected for consistency when - the context is a single paragraph. - - At the back of the book is a large Publisher’s Catalog and an Index - to that Catalog. 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