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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..da780f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #55200 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55200) diff --git a/old/55200-0.txt b/old/55200-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fafe42d..0000000 --- a/old/55200-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9615 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Book About Words, by George Frederick Graham - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Book About Words - -Author: George Frederick Graham - -Release Date: July 25, 2017 [EBook #55200] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BOOK ABOUT WORDS *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Hulse, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - Breves and macrons are accurately represented (ă ĕ ā ē etc). - - Some minor changes are noted at the end of the book. - - - - - A BOOK - - ABOUT - - WORDS. - - - BY - - G. F. GRAHAM, - - AUTHOR OF ‘ENGLISH, OR THE ART OF COMPOSITION,’ - ‘ENGLISH SYNONYMES,’ ‘ENGLISH STYLE,’ - ‘ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRACTICE,’ - ETC. - - - LONDON: - LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. - 1869. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The increased attention lately paid to our Language as a subject of -Education, has induced the Author to state in the following pages -his views on English (and other) Words. These views are the result -of a long professional career in tuition, together with the study -which such a calling naturally involves. - -Notwithstanding the rapid strides made of late years in the science -of Words, much still remains unknown to the general reader; but if -the following remarks be accepted as a small contribution to a more -extended knowledge of this interesting subject, the Author will be -amply compensated for any trouble it may have cost him to collect -them. - - KENSINGTON: - _May, 1869_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION ix - - - CHAPTER I. - - ORIGIN OF WORDS (SAXON)--FAMILIES OF WORDS 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS 23 - - - CHAPTER III. - - OLD AND NEW WORDS 38 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - DEGENERACY OF WORDS 63 - - - CHAPTER V. - - PLAY UPON WORDS 79 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT WORDS 96 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - GRAND WORDS 101 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE SPELLING OF WORDS 107 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, CONTRACTION, ETC. OF WORDS 122 - - - CHAPTER X. - - DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA 141 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - COMPOUND WORDS 150 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS 156 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - SLANG WORDS AND AMERICANISMS 169 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 185 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC., _continued_ 202 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS OF WORDS 215 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -What is meant by a Language? It is a collection of all the words, -phrases, grammatical forms, idioms, &c., which are used by one -people. It is the outward expression of the tendencies, turn of -mind, and habits of thought of some one nation, and the best -criterion of their intellect and feelings. If this explanation be -admitted, it will naturally follow that the connection between a -people and their language is so close, that the one may be judged -of by the other; and that the language is a lasting monument of the -nature and character of the people. - -Every language, then, has its genius; forms of words, idioms, and -turns of expression peculiar to itself; by which, independently of -other differences, one nation may be distinguished from another. -This condition may be produced by various causes; such as soil, -climate, conquest, immigration, &c. Out of the old Roman, or Latin, -there arose several modern languages of Europe; all known by the -generic name--Romance; viz. Italian, French, Provençal, Spanish, -and Portuguese. These may be called daughters of ancient Latin; and -the natives of all these countries down to the seventh century, -both spoke and wrote that language. But when the Scandinavian and -Germanic tribes invaded the West of Europe, the Latin was broken -up, and was succeeded by Italian, French, Spanish, &c. The Latin -now became gradually more and more corrupt, and was, at length, in -each of these countries, wholly remodelled. - -History has been called ‘the study of the law of change;’ i.e. the -process by which human affairs are transferred from one condition -to another. The history of a language has naturally a close -analogy with political history; the chief difference being that -the materials of the latter are facts, events, and institutions; -whilst the former treats of words, forms, and constructions. Now, -in the same way as a nation never stands still, but is continually -undergoing a silent--perhaps imperceptible--transformation, so -it is with its language. This is proved both by experience and -reason. We need hardly say that the English of the present time -differ widely from the English of the fourteenth century; and we -may be quite sure that the language of this country, two or three -centuries hence, will be very different from what it is at present. -It would be impossible for a nation either to improve or decay, and -for its language at the same time to remain stationary. The one -being a reflex of the other, they must stand or fall together. - -What, then, is this law of change? On what principles is it -based? How are we to study or follow out its operations? These -questions are exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to answer -definitively. But there are circumstances connected with the -formation of certain languages which may throw some light on -them. It may be received as a principle that, when one nation is -overrun or conquered by another, the effect on the language of -the conquered depends mainly on the condition of that which is -brought in by the conquerors. If the victors be as superior to the -vanquished in civilisation and improvement as they have proved -themselves in physical power, they will impose their language on -the conquered people. If, on the other hand, that of the vanquished -be the more cultivated, the reverse will take place; the dialect of -the conquerors will be absorbed into that of the conquered. - -When the Visigoths settled in Spain in the fifth century, their -dialect made but little impression on the language afterwards known -as Spanish. The Latin element in the Peninsula, though at that time -falling into decay, was far more refined and polished than the -barbarous dialect then introduced; and it consequently remained, -with some slight modifications, the language of the country. The -same happened when the Northmen settled in France in the tenth -century. It is astonishing how rapidly the language of Rollo and -his followers was absorbed into French! This may have been assisted -by the intermarriage of the conquerors with the women of the -country; but it was produced chiefly by the different conditions of -the two languages. - -On the other hand, when the Normans, under William the Conqueror, -invaded England in the eleventh century, a different effect was -produced. The Norman French after a time, though not immediately, -enriched the English language with many words, but it did not, -in the slightest degree, either then or afterwards, affect its -grammatical forms or idioms. The cause of this was that the Saxon -language was, at that epoch, already fixed, and fit for literary -purposes. It was, indeed, much further advanced as a literary -language than the invading Norman-French. It therefore resisted -this external pressure; and though it afterwards admitted numerous -French terms, the English language remains to this day Saxon, and -not French, in its tone, character, and grammar. - -The climate of a country, or the temperament of a people, may -also strongly influence the character of the language. Given an -indolent and luxurious race, and we must expect that softness and -effeminacy will appear in their spoken and written expression. No -acute observer can fail to perceive a close connection between the -national character of the Italians and the softness and beauty of -their harmonious tongue. Again: the simplicity and somewhat homely -and rough vigour of the Teutonic race, are clearly shadowed forth -in the sounds and forms of the German language. - -The climate, too, in both cases, may have contributed towards these -results. A hot, enervating atmosphere produces languor of mind -as well as body; whilst a bracing cold air, though it may assist -in producing a phlegmatic temperament, at the same time infuses -vigour, energy, and power into those who are subjected to its -influence. - -There are also, no doubt, many hidden causes of gradual changes in -language. These are difficult to ascertain; and some of them escape -the sagacity of even the most acute observers. Political struggles, -foreign wars, domestic habits, literary studies, &c., may all -contribute to alter the character of a people, and so far to affect -their language. - -But whatever may be these mysterious laws of change, they must be -left to Nature herself, and no one must attempt to interfere with -them. There are no more miserable failures recorded in history -than the attempt by rulers to interfere with the laws of Nature. -We are told (though not on very good authority) that William the -Conqueror _ordered the Saxons to speak Norman-French_. He might -as well have ordered his new subjects to walk on their heads--the -one was quite as easy as the other. But no writer tells us with -what success this decree was executed. Ordericus Vitalis, indeed, -states that William endeavoured to learn Saxon, though he does not -say how far he succeeded. Now it is not very likely that he should -have studied a language which he was, at the same time, bent on -exterminating. Indeed, there is an air of extreme improbability -about the whole story. - -In more recent times, it is well known that Joseph II., of Germany, -issued an edict that all his subjects, Slavonic, Magyar, or German, -should adopt one uniform language--German. But it was soon found -impossible to execute this decree, for the people would as soon -have parted with their lives as with their language; the whole -empire was, therefore, immediately thrown into confusion. Many -of the provinces broke out into open rebellion, and it at length -became necessary to abandon the project. - -It is then clear that no one has the power, of his own will or -caprice, to add a single word to a language, or to cast one out -of it. These changes must be left to Nature, and all we can do is -to watch her operations, to observe and record facts. But we may -speculate on the origin of words, and may sometimes discover the -causes of their birth. We may also inquire into the circumstances -of their career, and the laws which regulate their forms, changes, -meanings, &c. These inquiries are particularly comprehensive and -interesting, because they naturally lead us to some knowledge of -what words represent, and also because they are closely connected -with the study of the human mind both as regards intellect and -passion. - - - - -A BOOK - -ABOUT - -WORDS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -ORIGIN OF WORDS--FAMILIES OF WORDS. - - -Most Philologists have hitherto held the opinion that, in general, -no satisfactory account can be given of the origin of language. -They can trace a word from one language to another, and can account -for its various forms and changes by laws now generally understood; -but they confess their inability to explain what determined the -original form of its root. They take that original form for -granted, as a sort of intuitive truth which must be admitted as a -necessity. They can explain the circumstances of its career; but -of its first cause or nature they profess to understand little or -nothing. - -But though this is the general opinion, all linguists admit that in -every language certain words, more especially those that convey -ideas of sound, are formed on the principle of _onomatopœia_; i.e. -an attempt to make the pronunciation conform to the sound. Such -English words as ‘hiss,’ ‘roar,’ ‘bang,’ ‘buzz,’ ‘crash,’ &c., are -of this class. One can hardly pronounce these words without, in -some sense, performing the acts which they represent. - -One school of linguists have lately expressed a belief that all -words were formed on this principle. A very curious illustration -of this view is given in Mr. Wedgwood’s ‘Origin of Language.’ -Explaining the interjection _Hem_, he says, it was originally an -attempt to stop some one. We are supposed to be walking behind -some person; we wish to stop him, and we exclaim, ‘_Hem!_’ This -is given as the primary meaning of the word. ‘The sound is here -an echo to the sense.’ But _hem_ is used in other ways; either as -a noun, or a verb; always, however, retaining its original idea -of restricting, or keeping back. The _hem_ of a garment is what -_prevents_ the thread from ravelling. Again, soldiers are sometimes -_hemmed_ in by the enemy; that is, _prevented_ from using their -free will to go where they choose. This illustration is intended to -prove that the principle of onomatopœia applies not only to words -that represent sound, but, by analogy, to other meanings derived -from that principle. There _is_ sound implied in the interjection -_hem_; though in the noun and the verb, both derived from that -interjection, no idea of sound is conveyed. - -This connection between sound and sense is certainly a natural -principle; and however scornfully it may have been ridiculed by -some philosophers, it has undoubtedly produced many very fine -passages in the poetry of both ancient and modern times. - -1. The chorus of frogs in Aristophanes, where their croaking is -represented by words invented for the occasion: - - Βρεκεκεξ, κοαξ, κοαξ. - -This is, to say the least of it, very ingenious, and, in its way, -beautiful, because true. - -2. The same principle seems to apply in the πολυφλοίσβοιο θαλάσσης -(poluphloisboio thalassēs) of Homer, where the first word was -probably intended to represent the roaring of the wave mounting on -the sea-shore; and the second, the hissing sound which accompanies -a receding billow. - -3. Another example of onomatopœia, in Virgil’s Æneid, viii. 452, -has been often quoted: - - ‘Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum;’ - -where the succession of dactyls is admirably adapted to represent -the sound of the hoofs of a galloping horse. - -4. Several examples of the same figure may be found in Milton. -Describing the thronging of the fallen angels in Pandemonium: - - Thick swarmed, both on the ground and in the air, - Bru_sh_ed with the hi_ss_ of ru_st_ling win_gs_. - -5. Also, speaking of the gates of hell: - - ... open fly - Th’ infe_r_nal doo_r_s; and on their hinges g_r_ates - Ha_r_sh thunde_r_ ... - -Here the recurrence of the letter _r_ is well calculated to convey -the idea of a harsh, creaking, grating sound. - -6. A similar effect is produced in Tasso’s ‘Gerusalemme Liberata.’ - - Il _r_auco son della Ta_r_tarea tromba. - -This connection between sound and sense may very probably exist in -many words where we now fail to perceive it; but in the present -state of our knowledge of the subject, we can hardly pronounce -positively in favour of this view as applied to the whole body of a -language. The question remains, for the present, in abeyance. - - -_Families of Words (Saxon)._ - -But setting aside the origin of words, it is not difficult to show -the affinity which many springing from the same root have for -each other. There are in English, as in other languages, hundreds -of words which may be said to have a family connection, and which -are traceable to one common origin, or root. This connection -may be found in the Saxon as well as the Romance part of our -language. _Th_ (soft) may be considered as the type of the idea -of demonstration. All the English pronouns and adverbs beginning -with these letters have that general meaning, which may be seen in -‘_th_at,’ ‘_th_e,’ ‘_th_ere,’ ‘_th_ence,’ ‘_th_is,’ ‘_th_ither,’ -‘_th_ose,’ ‘_th_us,’ and others. Again, the initial _wh_ may be -considered as the type of an interrogative, or relative meaning. -This also may be seen in many English pronouns and adverbs; as in -‘_wh_at,’ ‘_wh_en,’ ‘_wh_ence,’ ‘_wh_ere,’ ‘_wh_ither,’ ‘_wh_o,’ -‘_wh_om,’ ‘_wh_ose,’ &c. The principle of inversion has affected -the whole of this class of words. They are all of Saxon origin, -and were spelled in that language _hw_, and not _wh_; as in ‘hwæt’ -(what), ‘hwaer’ (where), ‘hwanne’ (when), &c. - - -_Tw._ - -The Saxon initial _tw_ corresponds with the Romance _du_. There -are many English words having this initial, which convey the idea -of ‘two.’ 1. The numeral itself, ‘_tw_o’ 2. ‘_Tw_ain,’ a now -obsolete form of ‘two.’ 3. ‘_Tw_in,’ one of _tw_o children born at -a birth. 4. ‘Be_tw_een,’ which is only another form of ‘by twain.’ -5. ‘_Tw_ilight,’ i.e. between _tw_o lights--daylight and lamplight. -6. ‘_Tw_ice’ is equivalent to ‘_tw_o’ times. 7. To ‘_tw_ist’ is -to bend _tw_o or more threads together. 8. To ‘_tw_ine’ is to -interlace, so as to form one body out of _tw_o. And 9. A ‘_tw_ig’ -is so called from its being easily twisted. - -It is said that the word ‘nose’ originally signified a -promontory--something prominent--and that it is so called from -being the prominent feature of the face. This view is supported -by its analogy with _naze_, a headland, and the Scotch _ness_ (as -in Inver_ness_), a part of the coast which juts forward. It may -be observed that the word meaning ‘nose’ has in most European -languages the form N-S-. This may be seen in the Greek νῆσος, an -island or promontory; the Latin _nasus_, the Italian _naso_, the -German _Nase_, the French _nez_, and the English _nose_. Whether -this be or be not an onomatopœia one thing is certain, viz. that -in English the initial sn (ns inverted) in so many cases expresses -nasal action, that it may be taken as a general type of that -meaning. This may be found in a multitude of words having that -initial, all expressing various actions of the nose. It may be -seen in ‘_sn_arl,’ ‘_sn_eer,’ ‘_sn_eeze,’ ‘_sn_iff,’ ‘_sn_ore,’ -‘_sn_ort,’ ‘_sn_ooze,’ ‘_sn_out,’ ‘_sn_ub,’ ‘_sn_uff,’ &c. - - -_Ber-an--to bear._ - -This is the source of our English verb ‘to bear.’ It produces -the following:--1. ‘Barrow,’ an implement used for carrying or -_bearing_. 2. ‘Berth,’ a place in which one is _borne_. 3. ‘Bier,’ -a coffin in which a corpse is _borne_ to the grave. 4. ‘Birth,’ the -_bearing_ of a child. 5. ‘Berry,’ the fruit which a tree _bears_. - - -_Bles-an--to blow._ - -From this verb we have, 1. ‘Blaze,’ a strong flame _blown_ forth. -2. ‘Blast,’ a violent _blowing_, or gust of wind. 3. ‘Blain,’ a -boil, or _blowing_ up of the flesh. 4. ‘Blight,’ injury done to -corn, &c., from being _blasted_. 5. ‘Blister,’ a _blowing_, or -rising, up of the skin. 6. ‘Blossom’ (or ‘bloom’), the _blowing_ -forth of the flower. 7. ‘Blush,’ a _blowing_ forth of the blood. 8. -‘Bluster,’ as the wind when _blowing_ hard. - - -_Brecc-an--to break._ - -1. The English verb ‘to break’ is directly from the above. 2. -‘Bridge,’ a building which _breaks_ a passage across a river, &c. -3. ‘Breach,’ that part of a wall or fortification _broken_ into by -artillery. 4. To ‘broach’ a cask of ale is to _break_ into it. 5. -A ‘brook’ is a stream of water which _breaks_ its way across the -country. - - -_Bug-an--to bend._ - -1. A ‘bay’ is a _bending_ in of the line of coast. 2. In sailors’ -language, a ‘bight’ is the hollow part of a bay, or a coil of -rope _bent_ round. 3. A ‘bow’ is so called from its being _bent_. -4. To make a ‘bow’ is to _bend_ the body. 5. ‘Beam’ (compare the -German ‘Baum’) is so named from its property of _bending_. 6. A -‘bough’ is the part of the tree that easily _bends_. 7. A ‘bower’ -is made of branches bowed or _bent_ down. 8. The adjective ‘buxom’ -(compare the German ‘biegsam’) is properly _bending_ or pliable. -9. ‘El_bow_’ is the bow of the ell, or that part where the arm -_bends_. ‘Big’ and ‘bag’ are probably from the same source; they -both convey the idea of something _bent_ round. - - -_Ceap-ān--to exchange._ - -The essence of buying and selling lies in the exchange of goods for -money, or money for goods. Hence come 1. the English word ‘chapman’ -(sometimes contracted into _chap_), which properly means a buyer -and seller. 2. To ‘chaffer’ is to bargain about a purchase. 3. -‘Cheap,’ bearing a low price, refers to a similar transaction. 4. -We have also ‘_Cheap_side’ and ‘East_cheap_,’ originally markets, -or places for buying and selling. 5. Chepstow, Chipping Norton, and -other names of market-towns in England, are from the same root. 6. -The wind is said to _chop_ when it changes from one point of the -compass to another. - - -_Ceaw-an--to chew._ - -1. The older form of ‘chew’ was ‘chaw,’ which we still occasionally -hear in ‘chaw-bacon.’ 2. The cud is the grass _chewed_ by -ruminating animals. 3. A quid of tobacco is a piece kept in the -mouth to be _chewed_. - - -_Dael-an--to divide._ - -1. To ‘deal’ is from the above verb. It is used in English in a -variety of senses, all containing the idea of dividing into parts. -2. A certain sort of wood is called ‘deal’ from being easily -_divided_, or cut into planks. 3. To ‘deal’ cards is to _divide_ -them into packets or parcels. 4. Tradesmen ‘deal’ in certain -articles when they sell them in small, _divided_ quantities. 5. -We also say ‘a great deal,’ speaking of a large part _divided_ -from the mass. [‘_Some-deal_’ was formerly said, but it is now -obsolete.] 6. A ‘dole’ is a small part or share _dealt_ out. -(Compare the German ‘theilen.’) - - -_Dic-ian--to dig._ - -From this Saxon verb we have, 1. To ‘dig.’ 2. ‘Dike,’ a mound of -earth ‘_dug_’ out. 3. ‘Ditch,’ a line ‘_dug_.’ 4. ‘Dagger,’ an -instrument used for ‘_digging_;’ and 5. ‘Dock,’ a place ‘_dug_’ -out on the side of a harbour or bank of a river, where ships are -repaired. - - -_Drag-an--to draw._ - -This Saxon verb gives the English ‘to draw.’ From this we have, 1. -‘Dray,’ a heavy cart _drawn_ along. 2. A ‘drain,’ a tube to _draw_ -off water. 3. A ‘draft,’ an order to _draw_ out money from a bank. -4. A ‘draught’ is a quantity of liquid _drawn_ into the mouth. -5. To ‘drawl’ is to drag on the voice heavily. 6. ‘Drudge,’ and -7. ‘Dredge’ (for oysters, &c.); both which express a dragging or -_drawing_. (Compare the German ‘tragen’ and the Latin ‘trahere.’) - - -_Dropi-an--to drop._ - -From this root comes 1. The verb ‘to drop.’ 2. To ‘droop,’ i.e. to -lean downwards. 3. To ‘drip,’ or fall continually. 4. To ‘dribble,’ -or to fall in small ‘_drops_.’ 5. A ‘driblet,’ or a very small -_drop_. - - -_Eri-an--to till._ - -1. To ‘ear,’ in the sense of ‘to plough,’ is now obsolete in -English, though we have an ‘ear,’ or spike, of corn--the result of -_tilling_; and 3. ‘Earth,’ that which is _tilled_ or cultivated. - - -_Far-an--to journey._ - -1. From this verb (German ‘fahren’) comes our verb to ‘fare;’ -literally, to go on, or make a journey. 2. The adverbs ‘fore,’ -‘forth,’ and ‘far’ convey a similar idea; viz. that of onward -movement. 3. The ‘ford’ of a river is that point at which it can -be ‘fared,’ or crossed; and 4. To ‘ferry’ is the act of faring, or -passing across a river or lake. 5. ‘Frith’ and ‘firth’ are formed -on the same principle; they are those parts of the sea where one -can be ferried across. 6. The first syllable (_fur_) in the word -‘furlough’ belongs to this family. It is leave (lough) granted to -a soldier to ‘fare,’ or journey, home for a time. All these forms -are devices to explain a variety of modes of _faring_, or moving -onwards. - - -_Fed-an--to feed._ - -This gives us, 1. To ‘feed.’ 2. ‘Fat,’ the result of being well -‘_fed_.’ 3. ‘Fodder,’ provision for cattle; and, 4. ‘Food,’ that -which ‘_feeds_,’ or supplies nourishment. - - -_Fi-an--to hate._ - -From this verb we have in English--1. A ‘fiend,’ one who _hates_. -2. Hence also comes ‘foe,’ an enemy, or one _hated_. 3. To the -same root may be traced ‘fie!’ an interjection expressing dislike -or _hatred_; 4. and also ‘foh!’ or ‘faugh!’ an exclamation of -disgust. - - -_Fleaw-an--to flow._ - -Hence come, 1. ‘To flow.’ 2. ‘Fleet;’ a number of ships that -‘_flow_,’ or swim, on the water. 3. The adjective ‘fleet,’ -qualifying what _flows_ by. 4. To ‘float,’ or swim, on the water; -and, 5. ‘Flood,’ a large _flow_ of water. - - -_Fuli-an--to make dirty._ - -From this root come, 1. ‘Foul’ (putrid, offensive). 2. To ‘defile;’ -to make ‘foul.’ 3. The noun ‘filth,’ dirt. 4. The adjective -‘filthy;’ and 5. ‘Fulsome;’ full of filth, nauseous, disgusting. - - -_G-an--to go._ - -1. ‘Gan’ is the Saxon verb whence the English ‘to go’ is derived. -2. This gives us ‘gait,’ i.e. a manner of ‘_going_;’ and, 3. -‘Gate,’ a door through which one ‘_goes_.’ To these may be added 4. -‘Gang,’ a number of people ‘_going_’ together; and, 5. the nautical -term ‘gang-way,’ i.e. a passage ‘to go’ through. 6. The verb ‘to -gad,’ i.e. to be continually ‘_going_’ from one place to another, -also probably belongs to this family. - - -_Glowi-an--to burn._ - -The verb ‘to low,’ in the sense of ‘to burn,’ does not now exist in -the language; but the above verb gives us, 1. To ‘glow,’ i.e. to -burn intensely; whence come the forms, 2. ‘Gleam;’ 3. ‘Glimmer;’ -and, 4. ‘Glimpse;’ 5. ‘Gloom,’ or a state into which light -‘gleams;’ and, 6. the word ‘light,’ which is a participial form of -the old verb to ‘low.’ In one English word the root ‘low’ is still -retained, viz. ‘whit_low_,’ a painful _white burning_ on the finger -or thumb. - - -_Graf-an--to dig._ - -From this verb we have in English, 1. ‘Grave,’ a pit _dug_. 2. To -‘engrave,’ i.e. to scratch or _dig_ in. 3. ‘Groove,’ a line _dug_ -in. 4. ‘Gravel,’ earth _dug_ up. 5. To ‘grovel,’ literally, to -_dig_ up earth; and, 6. To ‘grub,’ or scratch into the earth. - - -_Gyrd-an--to enclose._ - -The English words derived from ‘_gyrdan_,’ and having a cognate -meaning are, 1. To ‘gird,’ to _enclose_ by tying round. 2. -‘Girdle,’ a small band or cincture. 3. ‘Girth,’ the band which -‘girds’ the saddle on a horse. 4. ‘Garter,’ a band tied round the -leg; and, 5. ‘Garden,’ a space _enclosed_ for the cultivation of -fruit, vegetables, &c. - - -_Lang--long._ - -From the Anglo-Saxon and German ‘lang’ is derived, 1. our adjective -‘long;’ from which again comes, 2. the abstract noun ‘length.’ 3. -The adjective, ‘lean;’ and 4. ‘lanky’ are also members of this -family. 5. To ‘linger,’ i.e. to remain a _long_ time in a place. -6. To ‘lunge;’ to make a _long_ stroke with a rapier; and, 7. A -‘_link_,’ that which makes a chain ‘_longer_.’ - - -_Lecj-an--to lay._ - -1. Both the English verbs ‘lay’ and ‘lie’ (which is to lay oneself -down) come from this verb, 2. ‘Ledge,’ a place on which to _lay_ -anything; 3. ‘Ledger,’ a book which _lies_ on a merchant’s desk; -and, 4. ‘Law,’ a rule _laid_ down. - - -_Læd-an--to lead._ - -1. Besides the verb ‘to lead,’ we have from this source: 2. -‘Ladder,’ an instrument which _leads_ to a higher place. 3. -Load-star, and loadstone, i.e. a _leading_ star or stone. - - -_(H)lifi-an--to lift._ - -This is the source of, 1. our verb to ‘lift.’ Also, 2. ‘Loft,’ -i.e. a room ‘lifted’ high. 3. The adverb ‘aloft’--‘lifted up.’ 4. -‘Aloof;’ and 5. The adjective ‘lofty.’ - - -_Maw-an--to cut down._ - -From the Saxon root ‘maw’ comes immediately 1. Our verb to -‘mow,’--as well as a ‘mow’ (a barley-_mow_ or a hay-_mow_); i.e. a -quantity of barley or hay mown and heaped together. From this is -derived, 2. ‘Mead,’ i.e. a _mowed_ field; and, 3. Meadow, a large -mead. 4. Farmers still use the word after_math_, which, with them, -is a second mowing. 5, The now obsolete ‘mo’ or ‘moe,’ as used in -the sense of a collected quantity or heap by Chaucer and other -writers down to Lord Surrey, is said to give us the words ‘more’ -and ‘most’ as the comparative and superlative forms of ‘mo;’ but -this is doubted by many etymologists. - - -_Pocca--a bag._ - -There are several English derivatives from this root. 1. We find it -in the word ‘smallpox’ (or pocks), where it means little bags or -holes left in the skin by the action of this disease. 2. We once -had the word ‘poke’ in the sense of ‘a bag,’ as in the phrase ‘to -buy a pig in a _poke_.’ 3. ‘Pocket’ is a diminutive of poke, i.e. -a little bag. 4. To ‘poach;’ and 5. ‘Pouch’ are variations of the -same root; for to ‘poach’ is to steal game and conceal it in a -‘pouch.’ 5. A ‘peck,’ and 6. a ‘pack’ are both generic terms of a -similar meaning; and, 7. ‘Puckered’ cheeks are bagged or puffed -out with the cold. - - -_Scuf-ian--to push._ - -This root is a fertile source of English words; we find it, 1. in -our now not very elegant word ‘shove,’ that is, to push rudely -or roughly. 2. A ‘sheaf’ of corn takes its name from the stalks -of which it is composed being ‘shoved,’ or _pushed_ up together; -and, 3. the ‘shaft’ of a javelin is the wooden part which is -‘_shoved_’ into the iron. 4. A ‘shovel’ is a small instrument -used to ‘_shove_,’ or push into, coals, etc.; and, 5. our ‘shoes’ -are so called because we ‘_shove_’ our feet into them. 6. -‘Scuffle’ and ‘shuffle’ are only modified forms of the verb ‘to -shove,’ and express a repetition of that act. According to some -etymologists the word ‘sheep’ belongs to this family, as being an -animal ‘_shoved_’ or pushed along in flocks from place to place. -Hence, perhaps, the name; but this must be considered a doubtful -derivation. - - -_Scyr-an--to cut._ - -From this Saxon verb come, 1. To ‘shear’ and the noun ‘shears.’ -2. A ‘share’ of anything means, properly, a part ‘_cut_’ off, or -divided from the whole substance; and a ‘ploughshare’ is that -part of the implement which ‘_cuts_’ through the earth. 3. Common -experience tells us that the adjective ‘sharp’ qualifies what -easily _cuts_ or divides. 4. A ‘shire’ signifies a district _cut_ -off or divided from the rest of the country; and ‘sheriff’ is a -contraction of ‘shire-reeve,’ i.e. the officer of the ‘shire.’ 5. -‘Shirt’ and, 6. ‘Short’ both belong to the same class; the first -is a garment ‘_cut_’ off, and the second is a participle from the -verb ‘to shore’ or _divide_, the noun ‘shore’ meaning the line -which ‘_divides_’ the sea from the land. From the same root comes, -7. ‘Sheer.’ Sheer impudence and sheer nonsense mean impudence -and nonsense unqualified, i.e. ‘divided’ or _cut_ off from any -modesty and sense. Besides the above, we have the same general idea -in the expression, 8. ‘Shreds’ and patches, little snippings or -‘_cuttings_.’ 9. Shakspere’s ‘shard-borne’ beetle means the beetle -borne on his ‘shards,’ or scaly wings _divided_ in the middle. 10. -To these we may add ‘potsherd,’ a piece broken off or _divided_ -from a pot. The words ‘scar,’ ‘score,’ ‘scream,’ ‘screech,’ -‘shrill,’ ‘shriek,’ &c., belong to the same class, the leading idea -in them all being that of _cutting_ or dividing; and they are all -based upon the type ‘scr’ or ‘shr.’ - - -_Sitt-an--to sit._ - -1. This is the origin of our word to ‘sit;’ whence comes, 2. To -‘set.’ The latter is the transitive from the intransitive, formed -by a change of the vowel. 3. ‘Settle’ is a frequentative of -‘_sit_,’ and expresses a permanent sitting. 4. A ‘seat’ is from the -same root; it is that on which any one ‘_sits_;’ and, 5. A ‘saddle’ -is a seat on horseback. - - -_Sleaw--slow._ - -1. From the Anglo-Saxon ‘Sleaw’ comes our adjective ‘slow.’ Hence -we have, 2. ‘Sloth,’ or the quality of being _slow_; 3. ‘Sloven’ -(m.) and ‘slut’ (f.), which both convey the idea of being _slow_ -and negligent; 4. ‘Slug,’ a _slow_ animal, from which comes the -verb ‘to slug,’ to indulge in sloth; and, 7. ‘Sluggard,’ a lazy -indolent man. - - -_Stig-an--to mount._ - -This root gives us, 1. ‘Stair,’ a step to _mount_ by; 2. ‘Stile’ -(A.-S. Stigel), a gate to be _mounted_ or got over; 3. ‘Stirrup’ -(or stig-rope), a rope by which to _mount_; and, 4. ‘Stye,’ i.e. a -_rising_ pustule on the eyelid. - - -_Straeg-an--to spread._ - -From the A.-S. root ‘straeg’ we have the English words ‘straw’ and -‘strew.’ 1. ‘Straw’ is the dry stalks of certain plants ‘strewn’ -or scattered about. 2. To ‘stray’ means to go dispersedly or -separately. 3. ‘Straggle’ is a frequentative of the last word. 4. -The word ‘street’ is by some supposed to be connected with this -root. A ‘street’ is a way ‘strewn’ or paved with stones. - - -_Taepp-an--to draw drink._ - -Hence we have in English, 1. ‘To tap,’ and, 2. A ‘tap,’ the -instrument by which wine or beer is drawn from the cask; 3. -‘Tapster,’ one who draws liquor. 4. To ‘tope’ is to ‘tip’ off beer -or spirits. 5. A ‘toper’ is one who topes, and to ‘tipple’ is to -be continually toping. 6. One who ‘tipples’ is likely to be often -‘tipsy.’ - - -_Tell-an--to count._ - -The ordinary meaning of our English verb ‘to tell’ is to recount -the particulars of some event or occurrence. Hence comes a ‘tale,’ -which signifies the recounting of such particulars. The passage in -Milton’s ‘L’Allegro’-- - - Every shepherd _tells his tale_ - Under the hawthorn in the dale-- - -has been explained as ‘every shepherd _counts over his sheep_.’ -Shakspere has, ‘as thick as _tale_ came post with post,’ that is, -as rapidly as could be counted. From the same root comes ‘till,’ -a box into which money is _counted_. Again, when we speak of -‘tolling’ a bell, a similar meaning is implied, viz. the numbering -or _counting_ out the strokes; and a ‘toll’ is money _told_ or -_counted_ into the hands of the receiver. Again, accounts are said -to ‘_tally_’ when, after being reckoned or _counted_ up, they -amount to the same sum. - - -_Teog-an--to pull._ - -From this verb come, 1. To ‘tow,’ to _pull_ a boat or vessel along; -2. To ‘tug,’ to _pull_ with force. 3. The noun ‘tow’ means flax -which must be ‘tugged,’ or _pulled_, asunder. 4. The adjective -‘tough,’ which qualifies what must be _pulled_ hard. 5. ‘Team,’ -a number of horses _pulling_ together; and, 6. ‘Tight,’ what is -‘towed’ or _pulled_ together with force. 7. The sailor’s phrase ‘to -haul taut,’ is ‘to _pull_ tight.’ - - -_Wan-ian--to decrease._ - -1. We still say, ‘the moon waxes and “wanes,”’ i.e. apparently -increases and _decreases_ in size. 2. ‘Wan,’ an adjective which -expresses thinness or _decrease_ of health. 3. ‘Want’ signifies a -condition in which our means are _decreased_; and, 4. To ‘wean’ is -to gradually accustom any one to a ‘want.’ - - -_Weg-an--to move._ - -1. From this come the English ‘way,’ which means the space through -which one can ‘_move_.’ 2. To ‘wag’ (the tongue or the head), i.e. -to ‘_move_’ it rapidly. 3. A waggon (sometimes contracted into -‘wain’) is a vehicle which ‘_moves_’ goods, &c., from one place -to another. 4. To ‘sway’ is the intensive of wag--it is to _move_ -strongly; and, 5. ‘Swagger’ is the frequentative of ‘sway.’ - - -_Weri-an--to wear._ - -1. This is the origin of our word ‘to wear,’ in its ordinary sense. -2. From this we have ‘weary,’ the state of being ‘_worn_’ with -fatigue. 3. From the same root come ‘worse’ and ‘worst,’ which are -really the comparative and superlative degrees of ‘_wear_,’ i.e. -‘more worn’ and ‘most worn.’ 4. To ‘worry,’ i.e. to ‘_wear_ out’ by -importunity. - - -_Wit-an--to know._ - -From the root ‘wit’ in this Saxon verb came, in English, 1. The -old forms ‘wist’ and ‘wot,’ together with, 2. The modern word -‘wit,’ and the expression, ‘to wit’--all these imply _knowledge_. -3. We have ‘wise’ (which at first signified _knowing_ much), with -its derivative, ‘wisdom.’ 5. ‘Wizard’ and ‘witch’ are both from -the same source, and were terms originally applied to those who -were supposed to come by their ‘_knowledge_’ by a compact with -the powers of darkness. 6. The word ‘wittingly,’ i.e. of one’s -own _knowledge_; and, 7. A ‘witness,’ or one who tells us what he -‘_knows_’ about some fact. - - -_Wrid-an--to twist._ - -This is the source of many English words: 1. To ‘writhe,’ or -_twist_ the body in pain. 2. ‘Wrath.’ When in ‘wrath,’ one is -‘writhed’ or tortured by angry passion. 3. ‘Wry’ and ‘awry,’ i.e. -‘_twisted_’ on one side. 4. To ‘wring’ the hands is to ‘_twist_’ -them convulsively. 5. ‘Wrong’ properly means ‘wrung,’ or _twisted_ -out of the right path. 6. ‘Wrangle’ denotes a continual distortion -or perversity; and, 7. To ‘wriggle’ is the frequentative of ‘to -wring;’ it means to _twist_ about repeatedly. Beside these, we -have, 8. The wrist, i.e. the joint which ‘_twists_’ or turns -easily; and, 9. To ‘wrest’ and ‘wrestle.’ 10. To ‘wrench.’ These -are all modes of _twisting_. 11. To ‘wreathe’ is to _twist_ or -twine together, and, 13. A ‘wrinkle’ denotes a distortion of a -smooth surface. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS. - - -_Latin Roots._ - -English words which indicate mental actions, feelings, or general -abstractions, come to us from a Latin or a French source. These, -though not the most numerous, comprise a very considerable portion -of the English language. It must be understood that French is, in -the main, composed of Latin words; and we may conveniently divide -this portion of the English language into three classes:--1. Words -derived directly from Latin; 2. Words derived indirectly from -Latin, through a French medium; and, 3. Middle-age Latin words, -i.e. those formed from a corrupt Latin by the monks of the middle -ages. These last appear in French in a modified form, and come into -English still further altered in their spelling and pronunciation. - -I. In most cases English words of the first class are compounds -or derivatives. We have not adopted the roots themselves, but use -them only in composition, with some particle or preposition. For -example: the Latin root ‘clude’ is never found in English as an -independent word, though we have ‘exclude,’ ‘include,’ ‘preclude,’ -&c. It is also to be observed that a Latin verbal root, in many -cases, produces two forms in English; one containing the root -of the verb itself, and the other its participial form. Thus, -the above example will give us ‘exclude,’ from the Latin verb -‘excludĕre,’ and also ‘exclu_s_ion,’ ‘exclu_s_ive,’ from its -participle ‘exclusus.’ If we take any one of these roots, say -‘clud’ and ‘clus’ (shut), we may find it in modern English in a -great variety of forms. From the participial root (clus) come -‘clause’ (a part of a sentence _shut_ in); ‘cloister’ (a place -_shut_ in); ‘close’ (to _shut_ to); ‘closet’ (a small place _shut_ -up); ‘recluse,’ one _shut_ out from the world, &c., as well as the -verbs exclude, include, preclude, with their derivatives exclusion, -inclusion, preclusion; the adjectives ‘exclusive,’ ‘inclusive,’ -‘preclusive,’ and the adverbs ‘exclusively,’ ‘inclusively,’ &c. -These words are not often found in the vocabulary of the uneducated -classes; they belong rather to the language of books, or to the set -forms of eloquence, than to that of daily intercourse. We should -say, in common parlance, that a boy was _shut out_ of the room by -his companions; but we should hardly say that he was _excluded_. -In a secondary sense, however, such a word would be more properly -adopted. We should say correctly, ‘that such considerations were -_excluded_ from this view of the subject,’ where we could not very -well use ‘shut out.’ Again, we could not properly say that any -one was ‘included’ in a dungeon; meaning that he was ‘shut in.’ -Words drawn from these Latin roots have a very wide application in -English, but they are confined chiefly to a mental, and are seldom -used in a physical, sense. Saxon forms the basis of our language, -and is used in practical and domestic matters; while our spiritual -conceptions are expressed by French or Latin words. - -Another well-known Latin root is ‘cide’ (from cædĕre, to slay); -which corresponds in meaning with the more familiar Saxon word -‘kill.’ We have, not ‘cide,’ but ‘fratricide,’ ‘matricide,’ -‘regicide,’ ‘suicide,’ ‘parricide,’ ‘homicide,’ and ‘infanticide.’ -To these may be added, ‘concise,’ ‘precise,’ ‘decision,’ -‘incision,’ &c. All the latter are derived from the participle of -the same Latin verb--‘cæsus.’ - -Again: the root ‘sume’ (sumpt), from the Latin ‘sumĕre,’ to take, -gives us ‘assume,’ ‘consume,’ ‘presume,’ with their participial -derivatives, ‘assumption,’ ‘consumption,’ ‘presumption,’ -‘sumptuous,’ ‘presumptuous,’ &c. - -The Latin root ‘cede’ (cess) appears in English in two forms -of spelling; one, ‘cede,’ as ‘accede,’ ‘concede,’ ‘recede’; and -the other, ‘ceed,’ as in ‘exceed,’ ‘proceed,’ ‘succeed.’ These -also have their participial derivatives, as found in ‘excess,’ -‘success,’ ‘process,’ ‘accession,’ ‘succession,’ ‘procession.’ It -will be seen that in all these cases the rule holds good. _Cry_ -is a more household, domestic word, but ‘acclaim,’ ‘declaim,’ -‘proclaim’ are used on more important occasions. - -The principle of derivation by the change of an internal -vowel-sound prevailed in ancient Latin as well as in Saxon. -Thus, from the Latin verb ‘f_a_cĕre’ (to make or do) was formed -‘eff_i_cere’ (to effect or bring about), the _a_ in the root being -changed into an _i_ in the derivative; and we have English words -from both these sources:--fact, faculty, facility, &c., from -‘facĕre’; and defect, effect, deficient, efficient, &c., from the -other form. - -Some of these Latin roots are extremely prolific. For example, the -Latin verb ‘_ten_ere,’ to hold, produces a very large number of -English words. In certain verbs it appears in the form ‘_tain_,’ -as in to abs_tain_, apper_tain_, at_tain_, con_tain_, de_tain_, -main_tain_, ob_tain_, per_tain_, re_tain_, and sus_tain_. To -these may be added the derivatives, con_tin_ent, per_tin_ent, -and imper_tin_ent; besides which, we have from the same source, -‘_ten_ant,’ ‘_ten_able,’ ‘_ten_ure,’ ‘main_ten_ance,’ and -‘sus_ten_ance,’ &c. - -Again: the root ‘duce’ (from ‘ducĕre,’ to lead) gives rise to -many English derivatives. First we have (through French) the word -‘_Duke_,’ which originally meant the leader of an army. Then come -the verbs to ad_duce_, con_duce_, de_duce_, in_duce_, pro_duce_, -re_duce_, se_duce_, tra_duce_, in all which the idea of leading is -involved. To the same origin may be traced _duct_ile, aque_duct_, -via_duct_, con_duct_, and pro_duct_, besides de_duct_ion, -re_duct_ion, ab_duct_ion, pro_duct_ion, &c.--nineteen or twenty -words from one root! - -II. A rule has been laid down to enable us to determine whether an -English word is derived directly from Latin, or filtered from Latin -through French:--‘If the word comes directly from Latin, the only -change it will undergo will be in the ending. Thus “actio” in Latin -will be “actio_n_” in English; “innocentia” will make “innocence;” -“tormentum,” “torment,” &c. But if the word comes through French, -it will be more altered in its passage; it will be disturbed, not -only in its ending, but also internally. Thus “populus” in Latin is -“peuple” in French, and “people” in English. The Latin “thesaurus” -gives the French “trésor,” and the English “treasure.”’ This may be -accepted as a general rule, but it is often impossible to determine -by the outward form of a word whether we derive it directly from -its primitive Latin source, or take it at second hand from the -French. In most cases of doubt the probability is in favour of -the French, for there are still many English words which were at -first spelled, and probably pronounced, as in French, and whose -orthography, and perhaps pronunciation, was afterwards reformed and -brought back nearer to the Latin type. ‘Doubt’ and ‘debt’ are still -pronounced with the _b_ silent; but when first brought into English -they were both written and pronounced as in French--‘doute’ and -‘dette.’ Afterwards, when it became known that they were originally -derived from the Latin verbs ‘dubitare’ and ‘debere,’ the _b_ was -restored in the spelling, though the French pronunciation was -retained; and the same took place with many other Romance words. - -There are certain classes of English words from whose outward -form we may conclude that they are of Latin (or French) origin. -First, when an English noun ends in ‘_tion_’ preceded by a -vowel, we may be pretty sure that it is either directly from -Latin, or from Latin through French. Such words as ‘formation,’ -‘completion,’ ‘transition,’ ‘commotion,’ and ‘ablution,’ are -derived either directly or indirectly from Latin. We never meet -with this ending in words of purely Saxon origin. The termination -of these was in Latin ‘tio;’ in French they appear in ‘tion;’ -and in English the same ending (tion) is adopted. This Latin -ending, ‘tio,’ is, however, sometimes found in French in the form -_son_, which has thus been introduced into certain English words -of this class. The Latin ‘ratio’ gave the French ‘raison’ and the -English ‘reason.’ Again, ‘traditio’ in Latin became ‘trahison’ -in French and ‘treason’ in English. But in many cases the French -ending has not passed into English; for the words ‘declinaison,’ -‘conjugaison,’ ‘oraison,’ &c., appear in English as ‘declen_sion_,’ -‘conjuga_tion_,’ and ora_tion_, i.e. in their Latin rather than -their French forms. - -Another large class of originally Latin words appear in English -with the ending ‘_ty_.’ These are all abstract nouns, which in -Latin end in ‘_tas_.’ This final _tas_ is expressed in French by -_té_, and in English by _ty_. Thus the Latin ‘socie_tas_’ becomes -in French ‘socié_té_’ and in English ‘socie_ty_.’ In the same way, -from the Latin ‘bonitas’ come the French ‘bon_té_’ and the English -‘boun_ty_,’ &c. - -In many of these cases we find two forms of the same word, each -with its own meaning. One of these tends to the French, and the -other to the Latin, in spelling; and it may be observed that the -French has been more disturbed by contraction, abbreviation, or -inversion than the Latin. For example, the two words ‘secure’ and -‘sure’ are both originally from the Latin ‘securus;’ but the -former is directly from Latin, whereas the latter is from the -French contracted form--‘sûr.’ - -Another pair of these double forms may be found in ‘hospital’ -and ‘hôtel.’ The Latin ‘hospes’ signified either a ‘host’ or a -guest, i.e. the entertainer or the entertained. From ‘hospitalis’ -came the contracted French form ‘hôtel,’ in the sense of a house -where guests or travellers are entertained, as distinguished from -‘hôpital,’ where invalids are taken care of. From the French both -these words came into English, each retaining its original meaning. - -This principle of a divided meaning is also seen in ‘persecute’ -and ‘pursue,’ the latter of which was known in English before we -became acquainted with the former. ‘Pursue’ is from the French -‘poursuivre,’ and is used in the general sense of following after -eagerly. ‘Persecute,’ from the Latin ‘persecutus,’ the participle -of ‘persĕqui,’ is distinguished from ‘pursue’ by the meaning of ‘to -follow after with an intent to injure.’ - -Two other words of this class are ‘superficies’ and ‘surface.’ -The former is pure Latin; and is compounded of ‘super,’ ‘upon,’ -and ‘facies,’ a face. But this word is only used in a scientific -or mathematical sense; whereas ‘surface’ has a more general -signification, and means whatever we can see of the outside of any -material substance. - -We find a similar difference of meaning, as well as form, between -‘potion’ and ‘poison.’ Both these came originally from the Latin -‘potare,’ to drink. The former is the direct Latin, the latter -the French form, and both are now English. But the second denotes -a species of the first; for ‘poison,’ as is well known, is that -species of ‘potion’ which destroys life. - -This power of dividing a word into two meanings is not peculiar to -English; for many instances of it may be found in German, French, -and Italian. But it is of great advantage. It has the effect of -providing a large number of terms to express shades of thought by -slight differences of meaning, and it thus materially assists in -making language a more perfect exponent of human thought. - -The following list exhibits some of these double forms:-- - - outer utter - morrow morn - lance launch - wine vine - wind vent (peg) - wise guise - why how - wagon wain - deploy display - cattle chattels - cross cruise - milk milch - make match - metal mettle - nib neb - person parson - beacon beckon - to too - tone tune - discreet discrete - sauce souse - scatter shatter - stick stitch - cap cape - quell kill - glass glaze - grass graze - &c. &c. - -III. The third division of this class consists of Low Latin, or, as -they are sometimes called, ‘monkish Latin’ words. These have their -origin in classical Latin; but they are all corruptions of that -language, and were formed at a time when it had fallen into decay. -To this division belong such English words as ‘chance,’ ‘esquire,’ -‘ewer’, ‘forest,’ ‘justle,’ ‘manage,’ ‘noise,’ ‘noon,’ ‘pillage,’ -‘rear,’ &c. In all these we may recognise a Latin origin, though -the words themselves were unknown to the ancient Romans. - -From the Greek verb ‘βάλλειν,’ to cast, probably came the Italian -‘ballo,’ the French ‘bal,’ and the English ‘ball.’ Playing at -ball was, in the middle ages, often associated with _singing_ and -dancing. Hence the Romance word ‘ballare,’ and the Old Spanish -‘ballar,’ which both meant ‘to sing.’ The French ‘ballade’ and the -English ‘ballad’ may be thus accounted for. Apropos of ‘ball,’ it -may be here noted that the word ‘bull,’ as in the ‘Pope’s bull,’ is -derived from ‘bulla,’ the Latin for ‘ball.’ It was the custom, in -the middle ages, after writing any document or letter, to affix to -it a seal in the form of a ‘ball,’ so that the Pope’s ‘bull’ really -means the Pope’s ‘ball.’ - -Our word ‘chance’ was in old French ‘chéance,’ from ‘cheoir.’ These -are all from the Latin verb ‘cadĕre,’ to fall (out) or happen. The -French adjective ‘méchant’ is derived from the old participle -‘més-chéant,’ from ‘més-choir,’ to fall out badly or unluckily. We -have not adopted this adjective, but our noun ‘mischance’ may be -traced to this source. - -A curious case of a modern term derived from compound Latin roots -may be found in our word ‘squire.’ This is made up of the Latin -‘scutum,’ a shield, and ‘fero,’ I bear. Hence ‘scutifer,’ a -middle-age word, meant a shield-bearer, i.e. one who attended on -the knight, and carried his shield. In old French, ‘scutifer’ was -softened into ‘escuyer,’ or ‘écuyer;’ and it afterwards appeared in -English as ‘esquire,’ or ‘squire.’ - -The old French for ‘water’ was ‘aigue,’ from the Latin ‘aqua.’ From -this was formed the word ‘aiguière,’ a water-vessel; and this is -the origin of our English word ‘ewer,’as in ‘cream-ewer.’ - -Of the same class is the word ‘forest.’ This did not exist in -ancient Latin, but sprang up in later ages. The monks made the -word ‘foresta’ out of the Latin ‘foras,’ abroad, or out of doors; -the same root which produced the English words ‘foreign,’ and -‘foreigner,’ one who comes from abroad. The monkish Latin form was -‘foresta,’ the French ‘forêt,’ and the English ‘forest.’ - -Under this head may be also placed ‘comfort’ and ‘courage.’ -The former of these is well known to be peculiarly English, -and there is no word in any of the continental languages which -exactly translates it. True, the French are beginning to use -the word ‘comfortáble;’ but it may be fairly doubted whether it -realises with them the same idea as with us. It has evidently a -Latin element; and the second syllable is, no doubt, derived from -the Latin ‘fortis,’ strong. So that, what ‘comforts’ would, in -the first instance, probably mean, what strengthens, and would -especially apply to ‘creature-comforts’--food or drink, which -strengthens the body. Afterwards it would be used in a secondary -and more extended sense. - -The Italian word ‘coraggio’ is derived from ‘core,’ as the French -‘courage’ comes from ‘cœur;’ both these being originally from the -Latin ‘cor,’ the heart. From French the word ‘courage’ has passed -into English, where the spelling is the same, though it is somewhat -differently pronounced. But neither ‘comfort’ nor ‘courage’ is -found in classical Latin. - -The word ‘contrada’ in Italian and Provençal came into French in -the form ‘contrée,’ and into English as ‘country.’ It is derived -from the Latin preposition ‘contra,’ against; and means, properly, -the part of the land which lies over--_against_--us. But the -word is altogether of modern manufacture. (Compare the German -‘Gegenstand,’ where the meaning is precisely the same.) - -The Latin preposition ‘juxta’ has given rise to several words, -both French and English, which did not exist in ancient Latin. The -French ‘joust,’ a combat in which the antagonists rushed at, or -pushed _close to_, one another, is one of these. Also ‘ajouter,’ -to add or put one thing _close_ to another. From these we have, -in English, the adverb ‘just,’ as in the phrase ‘just now,’ i.e. -_close_ to the present time; and also the verb ‘to adjust,’ i.e. to -place things _close to_ each other. ‘To justle,’ or ‘jostle,’ is a -frequentative verb, formed from the above adverb ‘just.’ - -The word ‘danger’ is composed of two Latin roots: ‘damn-um,’ -loss, and ‘ger-o,’ I bear; these produced the Low Latin word -‘domigerium.’ This was afterwards corrupted and softened into the -French ‘danger,’ and in that form passed into English. - -Our word ‘manage’ is from the Latin ‘manus,’ a hand, through the -French ‘main.’ There was a Low Latin word, ‘managerium,’ which -meant occupation or actual possession, in the sense of holding -in the hand. Thence the word was transferred to the furniture -requisite for the occupation of a house, and, in the shape of the -French ‘ménage,’ to the household of the occupier. The identity of -this word with the English ‘manage’ may be seen in the expression -‘bon mesnagier,’ one who understands how to conduct a household--a -good manager. - -From the Latin ‘manēre,’ to remain, or dwell, are derived the -French ‘maison’ and the corresponding English ‘mansion;’ and from -the same source come the English words ‘manse,’ the clergyman’s -dwelling-house, and ‘manor,’ the lord’s dwelling-house. - -From ‘minutus,’ the Latin participle of the verb ‘minuo,’ come the -English adjective ‘minúte’ and the noun ‘mínute.’ Properly ‘minuto -primo’ was, in Italian, the first division of the hour; ‘minuto -secondo’ was the _second_, and ‘minuto terzo’ the _third_ division; -which is, in French, ‘_tierce_,’ i.e. the sixtieth part of a -second. The English word ‘mite’ is only a contraction of minute--it -is a minute insect; and a ‘minuet’ is a dance with _short_ steps. - -‘Noisome’ and ‘annoy’ are derived from the Latin ‘nocēre,’ to hurt -or injure; whence it may be conjectured also comes ‘noise,’ as -being something that annoys, as a stir, wrangle, or brawl. - -The word ‘peel’ means the rind of fruit or the bark of a stick. -This is from the Latin ‘pellis,’ skin, from which comes the French -‘peau.’ The radical sense of this word is, that which is stripped -off, or _pilled_. ‘Pillage’ is a derivative of ‘pill,’ or ‘peel.’ -It means a collection of things stripped off, or plundered. - -The English word ‘palm’ (of the hand) is from the Greek παλάμη, -through the Latin ‘palma.’ A certain tree is called a palm because -of its broad spreading leaves, which resemble the palm of the hand; -and a palmer was formerly a pilgrim carrying a palm-branch in his -hand, in sign of his expedition to the Holy Land. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -OLD AND NEW WORDS. - - -One very interesting point in the study of language is the cause -of the introduction of new, and the falling off of old, words. It -is to be observed that a new word is generally ushered in with a -sort of parade--a flourish of trumpets; many writers make a rush -at it, and drag it in, whether applicable or not. Its novelty is -attractive; and it is often used in a sense which really does -not belong to it. But it is not every word thus introduced that -maintains its place: it is often found, after all, that it has -more sound than sense, and is rather ornamental than useful; and -then it is sure to fall into neglect, dies away, and is heard of -no more. On the other hand, in the natural course of things, many -words which have done good service, and for a long period, are -at length discontinued, and give way to new, and sometimes more -useful, terms. These slip out of the language unperceived; they -are no longer wanted--no one enquires for them; some new and more -expressive terms push them out, and they are consigned to oblivion. - -It is quite ludicrous to observe how strangely uneducated or -illiterate people use words which, to them, are quite new. They -are so fascinated with their novelty, or, perhaps, with their -sound and length, that they apply them in all manner of odd -and eccentric meanings. Two of these words--‘promiscuous’ and -‘immaterial’--seem to be great favourites with a certain class: an -ignorant Englishman somehow imagines that the word ‘immaterial’ -conveys a sort of reproach, and he insults his fellow-workman by -calling him an ‘_immaterial_,’ meaning that he is a fellow of no -worth or respectability. The word ‘promiscuous’ is often used by -the lower orders in the same loose way. A witness in a trial, not -long ago, stated that ‘he met the prisoner “promiscuously” (or, -as he pronounced it, ‘permiskously’) in the streets;’ meaning, by -chance, or casually. - -If we trace the history of the English language through the -various phases of its career, from its earliest up to its present -condition, we shall find that it has been continually growing more -Romance and less Saxon. It is said that a process of decay had set -in even before the introduction of Anglo-Saxon into England--that -the language had already lost some of its inflections; and it is -well known that, in process of time, these endings, with some few -exceptions, wholly disappeared. Again, at a later period, many -Saxon nouns which had formed their plurals in _en_ rejected this -form, and adopted the Romance (or French) plural-ending, _s_. At -one time, the word ‘eye’ formed its plural ‘eyne,’ or ‘eyen;’ -‘tree’ made ‘treen;’ ‘shoe,’ ‘shoon;’ and even the Romance word -‘uncle,’ ‘unclen.’ These forms have now all departed, and in their -place we have ‘eye_s_,’ ‘tree_s_,’ ‘shoe_s_,’ &c. - -The mode of forming a plural by a change of the internal vowel, -which was common in Saxon nouns, has now almost vanished from the -language. We have some few left; but not more than five or six -examples, as ‘tooth,’ ‘goose,’ ‘foot,’ ‘man,’ ‘woman,’ and ‘mouse.’ -We may be quite confident that any new nouns brought into English -will form their plurals by the French, and not the German, system. - -Again, verbs of strong conjugation are much fewer than formerly. -Many verbs now form the past tense by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the -present which, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, changed -the internal vowel-sound for that purpose. To ‘climb’ formerly -made ‘clomb’ (a form used by Milton in the seventeenth century); -‘quake’ made ‘quoke;’ ‘laugh,’ ‘lofe;’ ‘reach,’ ‘raught;’ and many -others. All these now adopt the weak form of conjugation, and form -the past tense by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the root of the verb: -‘climb-_ed_,’ ‘laugh-_ed_,’ ‘reach-_ed_,’ ‘quak-_ed_,’ &c. And so -it will be with all verbs that may be hereafter brought into the -language; they will, one and all, form the past tense by adding -_ed_. - -But not only have we lost these Saxon characteristics: whole lists -of Saxon words have disappeared which once did good service in the -language. This may be easily shown by glancing over a few pages of -Chaucer or Mandeville, where we shall find a multitude of terms -which have been long disused. For example:-- - - clepen to call - thorpe village - grutchen to murmur - stound moment - sterve to die - swappen to strike - foryield to repay - reden to advise, &c. - -Even in Shakspere and Milton we may find many words which are now -obsolete. All these, again, are Saxon; so that it may be truly said -that our losses have been Saxon, whilst our additions have been all -Romance, i.e. Latin or French. - -In most cases substitutions have been made; but we shall always -find that the disused word was Saxon, while the one substituted -for it is French or Latin. Thus, for the Saxon compound -‘monath-seoc’ (month sick) we now have ‘lunatic;’ instead of -‘waeter-adl’ (water-illness), we have ‘dropsy.’ The old Anglo-Saxon -‘eorth-gemet’ (earth-measure) has given way to the Greek -‘geometry;’ and the Saxon ‘witena-gemot’ (meeting of wise men), has -been transformed into the French ‘parliament.’ - -In all probability it was the influence of the Norman conquest that -assisted this tendency to substitute single terms for compound -words. The French language not being favourable to such formations, -after a time pushed out many Saxon compounds; and yet, in point -of clearness, power, and feeling, the Saxon words were far more -effective. Their separate parts were significant, and familiar to -the commonest understanding; whereas the new word was, of course, -at first altogether foreign, and even after a time was far from -being so impressive as the other. For example, the meaning of the -Anglo-Saxon noun ‘_sige-beacan_’ must have been clear to the most -uneducated mind: ‘sige’ is ‘victory,’ and ‘beacan’ is ‘sign;’ -that is, ‘victory-sign.’ Now, for this was substituted ‘trophy,’ -which, being a more uncommon word, does not explain itself as the -other, and is, therefore, not so vivid or picturesque. Again, -‘_heah-setl_’ is translated into ‘throne.’ In the former word we -have two distinct ideas, ‘high’ and ‘seat,’ both familiar to the -most illiterate peasant; whereas the word ‘throne,’ though now -common enough, must at first have puzzled the people considerably. - -One very expressive Saxon word, ‘_wanhope_,’ has disappeared -from the language. This may be considered a real loss; ‘wanhope’ -expressed that condition of the mind in which we have not actually -lost all hope, but when it is beginning to _wane_, i.e. grow -gradually less, and we feel it slipping away from us. ‘Hope’ and -‘despair’ are the two opposite ends of the scale, and ‘wanhope’ -formerly expressed an intermediate state of mind. This was a -beautiful word, and we have now no equivalent for it. - -A host of Saxon derivatives have also vanished from the language -which were once in common use; and among them may be named those -having the prefix ‘_for_.’ We still retain the words ‘forbear,’ -‘forbid,’ ‘forget,’ ‘forgive,’ ‘forlorn,’ and ‘forswear;’ but in -the writings of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries we often meet -with ‘forfend,’ ‘fordrive,’ ‘forsay,’ ‘forspend,’ ‘forwither,’ -‘forwaste,’ &c., all of which are now dead and buried. One word of -this class survives, though in a different form, viz. the Saxon -verb ‘fordon.’ This verb, though given up, may be still seen in -the familiar expression ‘_to do for_.’ - -This tendency towards raising the French at the expense of -the Saxon portion of English may be accounted for by various -circumstances of our history. First, there can be no doubt that -the Norman conquest was mainly instrumental in producing this -effect. This event could not have failed to be unfavourable to -the prosperity of the Saxon. The relation in which the conquerors -stood to the conquered was of itself sufficient to account for it, -and though the enmity between the two races will explain how the -two languages were kept so long separated, when the fusion did -at length take place, the advantage was clearly in favour of the -governing classes. - -Another cause of this leaning to the French may have been the -number of French words introduced by Chaucer. The English language -(if, indeed, it then deserved that name) was in the latter part -of the reign of Edward III. only just beginning to be formed. The -Saxon element, which ever since the Conquest had been crushed, was -now lifting its head, whilst the French was somewhat discouraged. -But the language was not then fit for literary, especially for -poetical, purposes; and, therefore, at the very time when it first -appeared as English, a large influx of French words took place. - -But this result was assisted by other circumstances. The number of -Huguenot refugees who found shelter in England after the massacre -of St. Bartholomew added materially to the French population of -this country, and assisted in swelling the French vocabulary of the -English language. - -In the seventeenth century the marriage of Charles I. and Henrietta -Maria of France could not fail to produce some effect on the -language and literature of the age, and though this French taste -received a check during the rule of Cromwell, it returned with -double force at the Restoration. The foreign tastes acquired by -Charles II. in his wanderings on the continent mainly contributed -to this state of things, and on the return of the Stewarts, the -general tone of the court and nobility, as well as the literature -of the age, was French. - -But this was as nothing when compared with the consequences of -Louis XIV.’s revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in 1685. We are -told by Mr. Smiles that, in consequence of this cruel and impolitic -act, as many as 400,000 French emigrants found an asylum in this -country. It is impossible that this could have been without effect -on the English language, and although statistics on the subject -are wanting, we may confidently conclude that this immigration -considerably increased the French element of the English language. - -There can be little doubt that the style of Latinity which -Johnson adopted also led to the abandonment of many words of -Saxon origin. He was the most weighty authority in England in all -things regarding language, style, and literature, till the year -of his death, 1784; and his numerous imitators, maintaining his -peculiarities of style, still further contributed to the same state -of things. Add to all these influences the general leaning of most -writers of the present day, and we shall not be surprised at the -condition of the English language. - -When we consider the numerous and continual attacks which the -Saxon element of English has thus sustained, we may be inclined -to wonder that there should be any of it left--that it should not -have been utterly crushed and annihilated by these raids. But this -wonder will be increased when we find that it not only exists, but -constitutes to this day by far the larger portion of our language. -This is surely sufficient to prove the innate depth, force, and -vigour of that element; and we may fairly conclude that if it has -so far been able to make head against these innovations, it retains -an intrinsic power to resist future attacks of the same nature. - -In truth, Saxon is not so much an element as the very basis and -foundation of English. The great body of articles, pronouns, -numerals, conjunctions, prepositions, signs, auxiliaries, &c.--in -fine, all the framework and joints of the language--are drawn from -that source. - -There are, however, some French philologists who would have it -that the majority of words in English is much in favour of French. -M. Thommerel gives himself great pains to prove this conclusion, -but apparently on very insufficient grounds; and M. Génin, who -has written some valuable works on his own language, says, in his -‘Variations du langage Français,’ that the English are indebted -to the French for more than three quarters of their language! -‘Les Anglais,’ he writes, ‘ne sont riches que de nos dépouilles; -si l’on se mettait à cribler leur langue, et à reprendre ce qui -nous appartient, il ne leur resterait pas même de quoi se dire: -“Bonjour! comment vous portez-vous?” Leur fameuse formule, _How do -you do?_ est volée à la France.’ The tone of this remark is pretty -evident, and he surely here allows his patriotism to get the better -of his good sense; for he certainly ought to have known that, -though our language is enriched with many French words, the main -body of English, since the fourteenth century, has been, and is at -the present moment, drawn from a Saxon and not a French source. -In the case of ‘How do you do?’ however, he is probably right. He -quotes from several ballads of the twelfth century the expression -‘Comment le faites-vous?’ as then used in the English sense of ‘How -do you do?’ to prove that we have adopted--or rather, as he says, -stolen--this form from the French. It has been suggested that the -verb _do_, in this phrase, is derived from the Saxon ‘dugan,’ to -prosper or prevail, from which comes the more modern ‘doughty;’ as -in ‘_a doughty knight_.’ According to this explanation, ‘How do -you do?’ is equivalent to ‘How do you get on, or prosper?’ But Mr. -Wedgewood, in his ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ rejects this -view. He agrees here with M. Génin, that it is a close translation -of the old French ‘Comment le faites-vous?’ And so the matter now -stands. - -Various circumstances give rise to new words, which either remain -in or depart from the language as they may be found serviceable or -otherwise. One modern importation is ‘_Handbook_.’ This appears -an unnecessary innovation, more especially as we had already a -word which answered the same purpose, and quite as well, viz. -‘_Manual_,’ and which has the additional recommendation of being a -simple, not a compound, word. ‘Handbook’ is of German origin, and -probably owes its introduction to that German influence which came -in with the late Prince Consort. Mr. Murray has largely contributed -to its popularity by his numerous and well-known ‘handbooks,’ and -the word will now most probably retain its place in the language. - -D’Israeli the elder claims the honour of having introduced the word -‘_Fatherland_’ into English. This is certainly a useful addition -to our vocabulary. We had before no word to distinguish between -the two Latin meanings of ‘_rus_’ and ‘_patria_;’ ‘country’ being -equivocal in sense, since it may mean either the land of our birth, -or that part of it distinguished from the town. Here the French -have hitherto had the advantage of us: they have ‘patrie,’ for -‘Fatherland;’ ‘pays,’ for a territorial division; and ‘campagne,’ -in a rural sense. - -The exact date of the introduction of the term ‘_stand-point_’ is -not known, but it is among the new words of about thirty or forty -years’ standing; and we may conclude from its form that it is -German. This word is, no doubt, an improvement on ‘point of view,’ -as being a closer, and therefore more convenient, expression. It is -now in common use, especially with writers on mental philosophy. - -The noun ‘_antecedent_’ has been hitherto used exclusively as -a term of grammar, but of late years it has appeared in a new -sense. It is now often used, in the plural number, to signify the -actions and general conduct of some one whose reputation we wish -to ascertain. We must inquire, they say, into his ‘antecedents;’ -that is, try to find out what he has been doing, who were his -companions, how he has hitherto conducted himself, &c. This is -certainly a convenient term enough. It expresses concisely what -would otherwise require a rather ponderous circumlocution. Mr. -‘Punch,’ with his usual satirical spirit, said that it would -be more satisfactory to know something of a suspected man’s -_relatives_ than of his _antecedents_! - -We learn from Lord Macaulay that the word ‘gutted’ was first used -on the night in which James II. fled from London: ‘The king’s -printing-house ... was, to use a coarse metaphor, _which then for -the first time, came into fashion_, completely _gutted_.’ - -The first writer who used the word ‘anecdote’ was Procopius, the -Greek historian of the reign of Justinian. He wrote a work which he -called ‘Anecdotes,’ or a ‘Secret History.’ The Emperor Justinian -and his wife, Theodora, are here represented as two demons, who -had assumed a human form for the destruction of mankind. Procopius -tells us that he wrote this work as a supplement to his ‘History,’ -in which he could not, for fear of torture and death, speak of -some living persons as they deserved. The word ‘anecdote’ is -compounded from the Greek ἀν (an) not, ἐκ (ek) out, and δότα -(dota) given. It thus means a fact not given out or put forth--an -unpublished story. Though this was its original meaning, every -one, of course, knows that we have now whole volumes of published -anecdotes. - -The ending ‘ation’ is, in English, chiefly applied to Latin roots; -as in ‘consult_ation_,’ ‘cre_ation_,’ ‘don_ation_,’ &c. It is -said that Mr. Dundas, afterwards Lord Melville, was the first to -use the word ‘_starvation_,’ which he introduced in one of his -speeches in the House of Commons, on the American war, 1775. Here -we had, for the first time, a Saxon root--‘starve’--with a Latin -ending--‘ation;’ a hybrid formation. From this circumstance, -we are told that Mr. Dundas was ever afterwards called by his -acquaintances, ‘Starvation Dundas.’ But whatever objection may -have been made to it, the word has now taken a firm hold on the -language, and is used by the best writers as a perfectly legitimate -term. - -The mania of modern times for grand terms has produced some very -curious words. Tradesmen, in advertising some new invention or -article for sale, almost always endeavour to attract public -attention towards it by giving it an unusually grand name, -generally from a Greek source, but often a strange combination. To -take a few cases of these mysterious compounds:--‘_Rypophagon_’ -Soap. This, it may be presumed, means dirt-eating, or -dirt-consuming, soap. But, as all soap cleanses the skin, why -should this sort be designated as particularly cleansing? Simply -to sell the article. Indeed, we can hardly walk far in the streets -of London without seeing some fantastic term of this sort paraded -in the shop windows. The hair-dresser exhibits his ‘_Auricomous_’ -Fluid; and the son of Crispin his ‘_Antigropelos_’ Boots. These -meet us at every turn. One tradesman has lately advertised a -machine which he thinks proper to call a ‘_Dotosthene_;’ by which, -we may conjecture, he means, an instrument for strengthening the -back. - -Some years ago the writer, walking up Oxford Street, became aware -of a fellow carrying on his back before him a huge placard, on -which was inscribed the strange word ‘Therapolegeia.’ This was -a decided poser. On rubbing up his Greek, however, he at length -discovered that this curious word might possibly mean, ‘an office -for the registry of servants;’ and so it turned out. But which of -the two parties--the ladies who wished to hire the servants, or -the servants who wanted to be hired--best understood the word -‘Therapolegeia’ is a problem still to be solved. - -Tailors--I beg their pardon, _Merchant Clothiers_!--now persist -in calling coats and waistcoats ‘tunics’ and ‘vests;’ and -as for ‘trousers,’ the word is considered far too gross for -ears polite! And what has become of ladies’ bonnets? They are -gone--departed--vanished! but they have left their ghosts behind -them, in the shape of a wretched little bunch of silk and ribbons, -dignified by the name of ‘Head-dress!’ - -Some of these outlandish compounds are not very intelligible. One -of them--‘Orthopœdic’--is a term applied to an institution lately -established in Oxford Street, for operating on club-feet. The -name is probably intended to raise the establishment in public -estimation, but the form of the word has justly called forth the -censure of some critics. If this word, as seems probable, is meant -to convey the idea of ‘straight-footed,’ the third syllable should -be formed from the Greek ποῦς, ποδός, a foot, and the whole word -should stand ‘orth_o_podic,’ and not ‘orthop_œ_dic.’ - -‘Stereotype,’ a term now commonly known to printers, and, indeed, -to general readers, was invented and first used by Didot, the -well-known French printer. This word will certainly maintain its -place in English. - -The adjective ‘inimical’ is said to owe its origin to Mr. Windham, -who first introduced it in one of his speeches in the House of -Commons about eighty years ago. It is useful to mark a distinction -between private and public enmity; ‘inimical’ having the first, and -‘hostile’ the second, meaning. But the word is not very popular, in -spite of its four syllables, and does not appear to make its way. - -The great French Revolution of 1789, as might have been expected, -brought forth many new words, some of which have been adopted in -English. One, destined to become a very prominent feature of the -times, was ‘Guillotine.’ This well-known instrument was named after -its inventor, Dr. Guillotin. How or why they made it feminine, by -adding to it an _e_, is not clear; but the word now stands ‘_La_ -Guillotin_e_,’ and has secured for itself a permanent place in the -French language. - -Other words which were the offspring of those dreadful times have -disappeared from common use and parlance, and are only occasionally -referred to as memorials of the age which produced them. Such -are the new names then given to the months; as ‘Brumaire,’ -‘Vendémiaire,’ ‘Fructidor,’ ‘Thermidor,’ &c. When the fury of the -revolutionary spirit was at length exhausted, and things were -brought back to their former condition, these words naturally -fell into disuse, and at last disappeared. There were, however, -others belonging to this period which seem to have taken a stronger -hold on the people’s mind, and which form to this day part of the -legitimate vocabulary of the French language. In this class may be -named ‘fusillade’ and ‘noyade:’ those horrible wholesale shootings -and drownings of the Vendéans which formed such a frightful -picture of that awful period. ‘Terroriste’ first appeared under -Robespierre’s administration; and the assassins of the unfortunate -prisoners in September 1792 were termed ‘Septembriseurs.’ - -It is natural to suppose that political names would be born with -the parties which they designate. The terms ‘Whig’ and ‘Tory’ were -never heard of till the close of the seventeenth century; and it -is curious that there is much obscurity concerning the etymology -of both these words. All that is positively known on the subject -is, that the first is of Scotch, and the second of Irish, origin. -‘Whig’ was first applied to the Scotch covenanters, and ‘Tory’ to -the Popish outlaws who favoured the cause of King James II. in -Ireland. It may be remarked, by the way, that these two words, -though not wholly extinct, are now much less frequently heard -than formerly. Different circumstances of political warfare -have introduced new terms in both these cases. ‘Tories’ became -‘Protectionists’ during the great debates on the Corn-Laws; and now -they call themselves ‘Conservatives.’ The Whigs, again, appeared -on one occasion as ‘Reformers,’ and they are at present known as -‘Liberals.’ - -The name ‘Puritan,’ as applied to a religious sect, still -flourishes in English. It was first heard of in the reign of Queen -Elizabeth, and then given as a nickname to a party which would -have even reformed the Reformation. These ‘Puritans’ affected a -superhuman purity of morals, and hence their name. They were also -sometimes called ‘Precisians,’ from their excessive fastidiousness -about insignificant matters (this latter word has now fallen out of -use). - -The distinction between ‘Roundhead’ and ‘Cavalier’ first appeared -during the civil war between Charles I. and his Parliament. The -‘Roundhead,’ in his sour and sullen spirit, condemned all outward -ornament, and wore his hair cropped close; thus showing the _round_ -form of his _head_; in contradistinction to the chivalrous tone, -the romantic spirit, and the _flowing locks_ of the Cavalier. - -The opprobrious term ‘_Gueux_’ (Beggars) was adopted in 1566 -by the Dutch revolters against the rule of Philip II. Margaret -of Parma, then governor of the Netherlands, being somewhat -disconcerted at the numbers of that party, was reassured by her -minister, Barlaimont, who remarked to her, that there was nothing -to be feared from a crowd of ‘beggars.’ The party of confederates -accepted this name, and prided themselves on it; and in every -language in which the history of the revolt of the Netherlands has -been written, this French term, ‘gueux,’ is used to designate these -malcontents. - -Many popular authors, presuming on their own authority, have -endeavoured to introduce new and strange terms into the English -language. Coleridge, in his work ‘On Church and State,’ makes use -of the following extraordinary words:--‘Influencive,’ ‘extroitive, -‘retroitive,’ and ‘productivity.’ Bentley uses:--‘Commentitious,’ -‘aliene,’ ‘negoce,’ and ‘exscribe.’ But no other writers adopted -these words: a clear proof that they were not wanted. - -Charles Lamb used, in his writings, several words which have not -succeeded in maintaining a place in the language. Among them may be -named, ‘agnise,’ ‘burgeon,’ and ‘arride.’ - -Again, any subject of temporary excitement will generally give -birth to some new words. The Indian Mutiny gave us ‘to loot;’ and -during the American civil war, we made our first acquaintance -with ‘secesh,’ ‘skedaddle,’ and ‘stampede.’ Words born under such -circumstances may be long- or short-lived: some maintain a place in -the language, others have but a brief existence; they ‘fret their -hour upon the stage,’ and then are heard no more. - -We have also many examples of words which originated in some -question of passing interest, and which, though the causes of -their first appearance have long since passed away, still remain -in our language, and do us excellent service there. The general -belief in astrology in the Middle Ages left us several words of -this class. Though we no longer believe that the position of the -stars can affect our fortunes, we still use the word ‘disaster,’ in -the sense of a calamity or misfortune. From the same source come -the adjectives, ‘jovial,’ ‘mercurial,’ ‘martial,’ and ‘saturnine.’ -These express qualities supposed to belong to those heathen gods -whose names were given to the constellation under which any one was -born. In astrological phraseology a man’s fortune is still said to -be _in the ascendant_, or to _culminate_. Both these expressions -were first used by the astrologers, and referred to certain stars -which, when they had risen to their greatest height, were believed -to portend prosperity. The word ‘aspect,’ though now expressing the -general appearance of things, was first applied, astrologically, -to the physical appearance or outward view of the heavens; and -‘lunatic’ was first used in the sense of one supposed to be -mentally affected by a change of the moon. - -Other superstitions have produced words of a like nature. The -ancient Roman divination may be still traced in our English words -‘augur,’ ‘auspice,’ ‘omen,’ &c. The left hand was always regarded -by the ancients as portending ill-luck; and hence our modern word -‘sinister,’ which at first meant simply ‘left-handed,’ has now come -to signify ‘foreboding evil.’ - -‘Its,’ the possessive form of the neuter personal pronoun, is of -comparatively late introduction into our language. In Anglo-Saxon, -the same form served for both the masculine and neuter possessive; -thus:-- - - m. f. n. - Nom. He heo hit. - Gen. _His_ hire _his_. - -At first, the nominative neuter, ‘it,’ was used for the possessive -neuter, of which many instances occur in Shakspere. See ‘King -John,’ act. ii. sc. 1: ‘Go to _it_ grandame, child.’ The same may -be found in the authorised version of the Scriptures (of 1611); see -Leviticus xxv. 5: ‘That which groweth of “_it_” own accord.’ But -in this translation the word ‘its’ is not once found. Genesis i. -11: ‘The tree yielding fruit after _his_ kind.’ Mark. ix. 50: ‘If -the salt have lost _his_ saltness,’ &c. Milton avoids the use of -‘its.’ It seldom occurs in his prose works, and there are not more -than three or four instances of it in his poems. The precise date -and occasion of the first introduction of ‘_its_’ into the English -language have not been ascertained, but it was probably early in -the seventeenth century. It is said that the ‘Rowley’s Poems’ of -Chatterton was detected to be a forgery by the presence of the word -‘_its_’ several times in the MS. Rowley was represented as a monk -of the fifteenth century, when the word was certainly not in the -language. - - -_New French Words._ - -M. Génin, in his chapter on the age of certain French words and -phrases, mentions the following cases:[1]-- - -1. ‘Désagrément’ and ‘renaissance;’ mentioned by Père Bouhours as -new words in 1675, two years after the death of Molière. - -2. ‘Insidieux’ and ‘sécurité;’ established in the language by -Malherbe. - -3. ‘Sagacité;’ first found in the works of St.-Réal and Balzac. - -4. The sixteenth century was remarkable for an irruption of -diminutives, introduced chiefly by the influence of Ronsard and -his school. Most of these are now lost; but two of them, viz. -‘historiette’ and ‘amourette,’ are retained. - -5. It was Ménage who first used the word ‘prosateur.’ - -6. The negative words ‘intolérance,’ ‘inexpérimenter,’ ‘indévot,’ -‘irréligieux,’ and ‘impardonnable’ were subjects of much discussion -about the end of the seventeenth century, and did not take root in -the language till the eighteenth. - -7. The Abbé St.-Pierre first used the word ‘bienfaisance.’ - -8. St.-Évremond discusses the word ‘vaste,’ remarking that it was -then new, and not firmly established. - -9. Ronsard first used ‘avidité,’ and ‘ode;’ and Baïf introduced -‘épigramme,’ ‘aigredoux,’ and ‘élégie.’ - -10. In the seventeenth century, the literati of the Hôtel -Rambouillet produced several new words: Ségrais gave to the French -language ‘impardonnable;’ Desmarets, ‘plumeux;’ and Balzac, -‘féliciter.’ - -The members of the Port-Royal also furnished their contingent of -new words, which the Jesuits of course condemned as ridiculous and -detestable. Among these new terms were ‘hydrie’ and ‘amphore.’ The -first appears in a translation of Ecclesiastes xii. 6: ‘Antequam -conteratur _hydria_ ad fontem’--‘Before the _pitcher_ be broken -at the well.’ The second, ‘amphore,’ was used in a translation of -Horace’s ode, ‘Ad Amphoram.’ But ‘hydrie’ was not destined to live, -and has become obsolete; ‘amphore’ is still retained. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -DEGENERACY OF WORDS. - - -One point to be observed in the nature and history of words is -their tendency to contract in form and degenerate in meaning. -A word which, in the beginning of its career, has generally a -favourable, or at any rate a not disparaging, meaning, becomes, -as it grows older, weaker in effect and more contracted in form -and signification, and, in most cases, falls into an unfavourable -sense. It does not improve or extend, but contracts and -deteriorates in meaning. Archbishop Trench uses this fact as an -argument to prove the perversity and evil tendencies of mankind; -and it must be admitted to have considerable force. Take the two -verbs, to ‘resent’ and to ‘retaliate.’ The first of these means, -etymologically, ‘to feel back,’ or ‘feel in return.’ Of course, one -may feel kindly or unkindly, according to circumstances: but we -now never use this word in a favourable sense. We are never said -to ‘_resent_’ kindness or affection; but only injury, slander, ill -deeds, &c. Again, the derivation of ‘retaliate’ is from the Latin -‘re’ (back) and ‘talis’ (such); and it would naturally signify, -‘to give back such’ (as we have received). But we now retaliate -offences or indignities, and never favours or benefits. These words -were, however, once used in a much more extended sense. Dr. South, -a celebrated preacher of Charles II.’s time, in one of his sermons -has the expression, ‘resenting God’s favours,’ which, according to -the present restricted meaning of the word, would seem to a modern -reader positively blasphemous. But in the seventeenth century the -word ‘resent’ implied good as well as bad feeling; gratitude for -benefits received as well as anger for injury done. - -This tendency to degenerate will appear, perhaps, more evidently if -we inquire into the original source of certain English words which -are now used as the strongest terms of reproach in the language. -Among these may be named, ‘_thief_,’ ‘_villain_,’ and ‘_vagabond_.’ - -The first is of Saxon origin. ‘_Theow_’ was a term originally -applied to one of the servile classes of the Anglo-Saxon -population, and in its first sense implied no reproach. But, as -people in this position had many temptations to fraud and deceit, -the word at length came to have its modern signification; i.e. it -degenerated into the present meaning of ‘thief.’ - -‘_Villanus_’ was, in Latin, first used in the sense of a -farm-servant; but as those in this capacity acquired a bad -reputation by their immorality and brutal violence, the whole class -was stigmatised; and thus the word ‘villain’ now conveys, as every -one knows, a very different sense from that of farm-servant. - -There is no particular reproach conveyed in the etymology of -‘_vagabond_.’ It meant at first simply a wanderer. But as the -habits of a wanderer are likely to become unsteady, irregular, -and reckless, this term, in course of time, degenerated into its -present acceptation. It is now always associated with the ideas of -a loose morality and want of sobriety. - -‘_Prejudice_’ is another of those words which have gradually got -rid of their favourable meaning, and are, in most cases, used in -a bad sense. It is true, we sometimes say ‘prejudiced _in favour_ -of’ some person or thing; but, without this specification, there -is always a leaning towards the bad sense of the word. And yet the -derivation shows simply, ‘a _judgment_ formed _before_ sufficient -reflection,’ whether favourable or otherwise. - -In the same class may be placed ‘_animosity_.’ In Latin, -‘animosus’ meant courageous, full of soul, vigour, and ardour. -Now, it is wholly confined to the sense of a violent feeling of -anger, hatred, and resentment. In fine, it has lost all its beauty. -There is no longer the least trace of anything noble in the word -‘animosity.’ - -The words ‘_simple_’ and ‘_simplicity_’ still retain something -of their original charm, but it is much to be feared that they -are more frequently used in a contemptuous sense. We speak of a -‘simple’ fellow, as of one who is easily cheated or duped; one -wanting in shrewdness; anything but ‘_knowing_;’ which, by the -way, is another term which has degenerated into an unfavourable -acceptation. - -It may seem strange, but it is certainly true, that the word -‘_good_’ which is naturally associated with everything high, pure, -and noble, both in morals and intellect, has partaken of this -general tendency downwards, and is often used in the sense of -‘able to pay,’ or ‘having sufficient means to discharge’ debts. -This use of the word is found in the language as far back as -Shakspere’s time. In the ‘Merchant of Venice,’ Shylock says to -Bassanio:--‘Antonio is a _good_ man?’ and when Bassanio asks him -‘if he has heard any imputation to the contrary,’ he replies:--‘My -meaning in saying he is a _good_ man, is to have you understand me -that he is sufficient.’ This is still the common acceptation of -the word with city men; with them, a _good_ man is one who has a -large balance at his banker’s. - -If we look into the original meaning of the word ‘_cunning_,’ we -shall find that it was not at first used in its present bad sense. -This is one of a numerous Saxon family, based upon the type ‘_kn_’ -or ‘_cn_;’ as ‘ken,’ ‘know,’ ‘can,’ ‘king,’ ‘cunning,’ &c. We find -in Psalms cxxxvii. 5:--‘If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right -hand forget her “cunning,”’ where the word is used for skill or -art. This meaning is now seldom applied, while the word has kept -its sense of deceit or slyness. - -The same may be said of ‘_craft_.’ It had at first a good as well -as a bad sense. It meant ability or dexterity, as well as fraud -or artifice. Now its bad meaning is in the ascendant. If the -favourable sense is sometimes intended, this is the exception, not -the rule. - -Indeed, there are many English words which, though not taken in a -positively unfavourable sense, have yet a tendency that way--which -require qualifying, if we wish them to be understood favourably. -For instance, if we speak of any one’s ‘_curiosity_,’ meaning that -he has an inquiring spirit, it will be necessary to explain that -we mean a well-directed, and not a prying, impertinent curiosity; -for, without that explanation, it will be certainly understood in -the latter sense. In fine, when there are two meanings to a word, a -right and a wrong, the evil is sure to prevail. - -The words ‘_critic_’ and ‘_criticise_’ are in precisely the same -condition. These words do not of necessity imply fault-finding. -A critic is simply a judge; he may have to praise as well as -to blame; but every one knows full well that to ‘criticise’ is -generally looked upon as synonymous with ‘to censure,’ and, unless -qualified, is sure to be understood in the latter sense. - -In the very copious vocabulary of words which have ‘fallen from -their high estate,’ or undergone a pernicious transformation, -may be also ranged the word ‘_fellow_.’ In some cases it retains -a certain respectability, as when we speak of the ‘Fellow of a -college.’ Shakspere makes Hamlet say of Yorick, the jester:--‘He -was a “fellow” of infinite jest,’ where the sense is certainly -not intended to be disparaging. But now-a-days ‘fellow’ is, on -the whole, not looked upon very favourably. It is suggestive of -recklessness and disorderly conduct, and, unless qualified, is not -a very complimentary term. - -As to the word ‘_knave_,’ it is irrecoverably lost. It is the -lowest and most degrading term we can apply as a reproach and an -insult; and yet it meant originally nothing more than ‘boy,’ as -‘Knabe’ does to this day in German. By what process the ‘boy’ -became a ‘knave’ may be a speculation, but the word has obviously -lost its former good name. - -This perversity of human nature in turning words into an opposite -and unfavourable meaning may also be seen in many familiar and -every-day forms of speech. It is not uncommon to hear an abandoned -fellow spoken of as a ‘precious’ scoundrel, or some absurdity -referred to as ‘blessed’ nonsense. This perversion is not confined -to English. The French often use the word ‘sacré’ in a sense -diametrically opposed, to ‘holy,’ a meaning which existed in Latin, -from which French is derived. Virgil’s ‘auri “_sacra_” fames’ is -properly translated ‘_accursed_ lust for gold.’ The Latin ‘altus’ -also conveyed the distinct and opposite meanings of ‘high’ and -‘deep.’ - -Also the English word ‘silly’ has degenerated from ‘selig,’ which -in German preserves its meaning of ‘blessed;’ and ‘ninny’ took its -origin from the Spanish ‘niño,’ where it means simply ‘a child.’ - -Another example of a change for the worse may be seen in the word -‘prevent.’ The Church Service gives us this word in the literal -sense of ‘to go before, or guide:’ ‘_Prevent_ us, O Lord, in all -our doings,’ &c.; and in the Collect for the 17th Sunday after -Trinity:--‘We pray Thee that Thy grace may always “_prevent_” -and follow us.’ But this is not the present sense of the word; -it has now always the meaning of ‘to stop,’ rather than to guide -onwards--the very opposite of its former signification. This, like -other words, has degenerated. - - -_Contradictory Meanings._ - -Connected with this degeneracy of words is one very curious -phenomenon, viz. that in English we frequently meet with the same -word in two distinct meanings, directly opposed to each other. For -example, the verb ‘to let’ has generally the meaning of ‘to give -leave,’ or ‘allow.’ This is its ordinary acceptation, but in the -still common legal phrase, ‘without let or hindrance,’ it has the -very opposite meaning.[2] Again, Hamlet says:--‘I’ll make a ghost -of him that “lets” me,’ i.e. him that interferes with or hinders -me, where the sense is again the very reverse of the usual meaning. - -The verb ‘to cleave’ is another case of this contradiction of -meaning. ‘To cleave’ may mean either ‘to adhere to closely’ or ‘to -cut asunder.’[3] When we say the tongue ‘_cleaves_’ to the roof of -the mouth, it is used in the first sense; but the directly opposite -meaning is implied when people talk of ‘_cleaving_’ wood, i.e. -cutting it into parts. - -We may use the word ‘fast’ in two senses, opposed to each other. It -conveys the idea either of quiet rest or of rapid motion. ‘The door -was _fast_ locked,’ means that it was fixed and not to be moved; -whereas in the sentence, ‘He runs _fast_,’ it expresses quickness -of motion. - -To this class also belongs ‘nervous,’ which means either -_possessing_, or _wanting_ nerve. When ladies are said to be -‘nervous,’ we understand that they are weak, timid, easily -frightened; in fine, wanting nerve. On the other hand, a ‘nervous’ -style is one marked by vigour and energy. One use of the word -represents the absence, and the other the presence, of nerve. - -When Shakspere makes Hamlet say, ‘Would I had met my _dearest_ foe -in heaven,’ he means, ‘my most hated foe.’ As extremes are said to -meet, so does this word express the extremes of love and hatred. - -The adjective ‘fearful’ will also illustrate this principle. It -means either ‘affected by fear’ or ‘inspiring fear.’ The word -‘mortal’ is in the same condition. Its usual sense is ‘subject to -death,’ but it is also used subjectively, as ‘producing death.’ -Hence the difference between a ‘mortal wound’ and a ‘mortal being.’ - -‘To look’ may be understood in two opposed senses. When we say, ‘a -man _looks_ well into his affairs,’ the word is used in its active -meaning; but if we should say, ‘he _looks_ well,’ it would mean -that he appears to others to be in good health. - -The word ‘mistaken’ also is equivocal in meaning. ‘I am mistaken’ -may mean ‘I make a mistake,’ or ‘Others mistake me.’ This -perversity appears in various forms. When we say that a tradesman -‘_sells_ his goods,’ the word ‘sells’ is employed in a subjective -sense; but we not unfrequently hear that his goods _sell_ well, -where the same term is used objectively. In these cases, the -active form is used in a passive sense, and not _vice versâ_. ‘A -_walking_-stick’ does not mean a stick that walks, but a stick to -be walked with. Nor is a ‘_drinking_ cup’ one that drinks, but one -to be drunk out of. - -This difference of subjective and objective meaning may be -especially observed in that class of adjectives which ends in -‘able’ or ‘ible;’ such as, ‘port_able_,’ ‘pli_able_,’ ‘vis_ible_,’ -‘leg_ible_,’ &c. Most of these words have a passive or objective -sense. ‘Portable’ means ‘that which _can be carried_;’ ‘visible,’ -‘that which _can be seen_.’ But some of these convey an active or -subjective meaning. For example, ‘comfortable’ does not mean ‘_what -can be comforted_;’ but ‘_that which comforts_.’ A ‘comfortable’ -house or room is one which comforts the inmates. ‘Terrible,’ again, -does not mean ‘capable of receiving terror;’ but able to produce -that feeling in others. A ‘terrible’ accident is one which inspires -terror in the beholders. This active or subjective meaning is, -however, the exception. Most of this class of words are used in a -passive or recipient sense. - -Another case in which this contrariety of meaning may be -observed is in the use of the prefix ‘_in_.’ This prefix has, in -general, the force of a negative; as may be seen in the words -‘_in_complete,’ ‘_in_capable,’ ‘_in_delible,’ &c. But there are -certain adjectives in which it conveys a positive or intensive -meaning, i.e. the very opposite to the negative. When we say that -some one’s health was ‘_invigorated_,’ we do not mean that it was -weakened; but, on the contrary, that it was very much strengthened. -Instead of depriving the word of any of its meaning, the ‘_in_’ -here adds force to its positive signification. Some of this class -are, ‘_in_tense,’ ‘_in_fatuated,’ ‘_in_veterate,’ ‘_in_valuable;’ -but most of them are used in a negative sense. - -We occasionally meet with much confusion of sense in the -application of some English words. We commonly say that a man -_marries_ a woman, and also that a woman _marries_ a man; in -addition to which, the clergyman _marries_ them both. Perhaps, as -the word ‘marry’ is derived from the French ‘mari,’ and the Latin -‘maritus,’ a husband--which is from ‘mas, maris,’ a male, and marks -a difference of sex--it would be better to say, a man ‘marries’ a -woman, and a woman ‘is married to’ a man; and the priest joins them -in marriage. The use of the good old Saxon word ‘wed’ would obviate -all these difficulties; but, unfortunately, it is now much out of -fashion, and indeed rapidly disappearing from the language, though -the noun ‘wedding’ still holds its place. - -There is a tendency to contract or restrict in meaning certain -words of our language whose etymology would allow of their being -used much more extensively. This, in many instances, seems to be -caused by that deteriorating principle before mentioned; for, in -all these cases, the favourable meaning is ignored, and the bad one -retained. The word ‘condign’ is never used but with ‘punishment,’ -though its meaning might be reasonably applied to honours, -merits, or rewards. ‘Condign’ rewards would be rewards worthy -of the receiver’s actions. ‘Condign’ honours would mean honours -appropriate to certain merits, &c. - -The adjective ‘inveterate’ is in precisely the same predicament. -It is never applied to a good feeling, but always to some bad -passion. We commonly hear of inveterate resentment, malice, hatred, -animosity, &c.; but we never meet with inveterate love, kindness, -affection, or attachment. And yet why not? The true meaning of -‘inveterate’ is _what has gained strength by age_; and it is clear -that this quality would apply reasonably enough to such feelings as -love, kindness, or affection. An anecdote is told of Lord Byron, -that in a letter to one of his friends, he subscribed himself, -‘Yours inveterately, BYRON.’ This was, of course, done in a playful -spirit; but the word was perfectly well applied; and it is a pity -that this example had not been generally followed. - -In this class we may place the words ‘animadvert’ and ‘insinuate.’ -The first of these signifies literally to notice or observe (animum -vertere ad), to turn the mind to; but there is always coupled with -it the idea of censure or punishment. But surely we may observe in -order to praise as well as to blame! - -Again, ‘to insinuate’ is generally connected with a crooked -procedure of the mind. When people ‘insinuate,’ the result looked -for is rather evil than good. It is opposed to a straightforward -mode of action. - -On the other hand, certain French words have been admitted into -English in one sense, which many writers show a disposition to -extend. But this should be checked, and these words should be -confined to their legitimate meaning. For example: the French verb -‘demander’ is properly translated into English by ‘to ask.’ In -English, ‘_to demand_’ should be only used in the sense of to ask -as a right, in a case where justice must be satisfied, and should -not be applied to general cases. The French say, ‘demander pardon,’ -but we English ‘beg’--we do not ‘demand’--pardon. - -‘To _assist_,’ meaning to do a service, is good English; but in the -sense of ‘to be present,’ it is French, and not English. We may -‘assist’ a man in his work, or by giving him advice, &c., but we -cannot properly write that some one ‘assisted’ at a supper, if we -mean that he was one of the guests. - -To ‘_arrive_’ is another of the French words adopted in English -whose sense must not be stretched beyond its legitimate bounds. -When it signifies ‘to come to,’ it is properly applied; but in the -sense of ‘to happen,’ it is not English. We may say, ‘Our friends -are arrived;’ but we must not ask, ‘What has arrived?’ if we mean -‘What has happened?’ - -The verb ‘to _accord_’ is constantly used for ‘to give,’ or ‘to -grant,’ probably because it has two syllables instead of one. ‘To -accord with’ is properly used in the sense of ‘to agree,’ or ‘to -suit,’ as:--‘This arrangement “accords” with my views;’ but to say -that ‘he “accorded” his friends the use of his library,’ would be a -wrong application of the word. In the phrase, ‘according with,’ the -word is a participle; in ‘according to,’ it is a preposition. - -The mistake made in the word ‘_allude_’ is in using it for ‘to -mention’ or ‘to state.’ ‘To allude’ properly means merely to hint -at, or suggest; and it should never be used in the other sense. -This, again, seems to arise from the idea that it is not so common -a word as the others, and it is therefore adopted--as if the object -of writing should be to confuse and puzzle the reader! - -Now and then, however, we meet with words which retain their first -favourable acceptation, and have not been degraded to a lower -sense. Some few, indeed, have been ennobled, i.e. raised from a -comparatively humble meaning to a higher dignity. In the first -of these classes we may place the verb ‘_to reward_;’ and we are -labouring under a certain difficulty in consequence of its being -confined to the one meaning. We very much want a word which would -signify a just return for ill deeds; for, though we use the noun -‘retribution’ for this purpose, the verb ‘to retribute’ is not in -common use. The verb ‘to reward’ is always used in a favourable -sense. We can hardly say that ‘a felon was _rewarded_ for his -crimes.’ We speak of the ‘rewards’ of goodness or virtue, but not -of the ‘rewards’ of wickedness or immorality. - -Of those words which have been elevated in meaning, we may mention -‘angel,’ ‘martyr,’ and ‘Paradise;’ all three referring to religious -matters. These are all of Greek origin. ‘Angel,’ from ἄγγελος, -was at first merely ‘a messenger;’ but it is now used only in a -higher sense--‘a messenger of God.’ We certainly should not think -of calling an errand-boy ‘an angel.’ ‘Martyr,’ from μάρτυρος, a -witness, is now applied only to one who by his death bore witness -to the truth of Christianity. A witness who gives evidence in -a trial cannot now be called a martyr. Again, ‘Paradise,’ from -παράδεισος, has been raised from the ordinary sense of ‘garden’ to -that of Garden of Eden, or place of bliss. Cases of this sort are, -however, comparatively rare. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -PLAY UPON WORDS. - - -There are, in all languages, certain words which may be called -equivocal. Such are either those which are spelled exactly alike -and have different meanings, or are spelled differently and yet -have the same pronunciation. In most of these cases the two terms -have no necessary connection with each other, though it has -probably puzzled many a reader that the same word should have such -a variety of meanings so distinctly different from each other. -This phenomenon may be accounted for in English by the condition -of our language, especially its mixed nature. English draws words -from a multiplicity of sources. It frequently happens that several -distinctly different forms of foreign words fall into one and the -same form when incorporated into English, each of them retaining -its original signification. This may explain how the word ‘_light_’ -may mean something that burns bright, and may also have the -sense of ‘not heavy.’ In the first case, it is derived from the -Anglo-Saxon verb ‘leohtan;’ but, as an adjective, it comes from -the Saxon ‘liht,’ whence also is derived the verb ‘to light’ (or -‘to alight’), i.e. to come down gently. The verb ‘to lighten,’ in -an electrical sense, is connected with the first meaning; but ‘to -lighten,’ meaning to make less heavy, is from the second. - -But it sometimes happens that the same root will produce two -different meanings; and of this the word ‘_court_’ will furnish -an example. In the Middle Ages, the yard or court attached to -every castle (so called from the French ‘_cour_’) was used for two -purposes: 1st, as a place for games or amusements; and, 2nd, where -criminals were tried and sentenced. This is why a king’s palace is -still called ‘a Court.’ We say ‘the Court of St. James,’ or ‘the -Court of the Tuileries,’ &c.; and this is also why buildings where -law proceedings are carried on have the same name; as in ‘the Court -of Queen’s Bench,’ ‘the Court of Exchequer,’ &c. - -The adjective ‘fine,’ in the sense of handsome or beautiful, is -from the Saxon ‘fein,’ where it had the same meaning; but, in the -expression ‘in fine,’ it is from the French ‘enfin,’ and the Latin -‘finis,’ an end or boundary. Again, the noun ‘fine,’ meaning a sum -of money paid as a compensation for a misdemeanour, is from the -same source, ‘finis;’ for here it means the limit or _end_ to which -the law con_fin_es the magistrate in determining that sum--‘_Not -more_ than forty shillings,’ &c. - -Another of this class is the noun ‘_sack_.’ In its ordinary -acceptation it means a large bag, and is derived from the -Anglo-Saxon ‘sacc’ and the Latin ‘saccus.’ Hence comes the verb. To -‘sack’ a city is to carry off the plunder in a ‘bag.’ But another -meaning of this word is found in ‘sack,’ a sort of wine. Here it is -a corruption of the French ‘sec’ (originally the Latin ‘siccus’), -dry. ‘Un vin sec’ is what we should call ‘a _dry_ wine.’ - -These double meanings have probably in all nations given rise -to various perversions and corruptions of the language. One of -these--viz. punning--has been particularly prominent in modern -times, and has, in some degree, infected the great majority -of writers. Though the nations of antiquity seem to have been -comparatively free from this literary vice, there are not wanting -examples of it in the ancient classics. There is a collection -of so-called jokes, or silly sayings of pedants, attributed to -Hierocles, though it is now believed to have been the work of -another hand. Most of these would be now considered intolerably -stupid; and the only one among them that has the least approach to -wit is the story of the father who writes to his son urging him -to study hard, as he would have to _live_ by his books. To this -the son replies, that he had been already _living_ by his books -for some time, as he had been obliged to sell them. In Latin a -softened expression for ‘a thief’ was ‘homo trium literarum,’ a man -of three letters (f. u. r.); and Disraeli the elder mentions in his -‘Curiosities of Literature’ two puns attributed to Cicero. - -But the true source of modern punning must be looked for in Italy, -where it took rise after the revival of learning in the fifteenth -century, and whence this practice afterwards spread into all the -languages of Europe. In English, the vice of playing on words -infected all the writers of the Elizabethan period. Puns are sown -broadcast in Shakspere’s plays--even Milton is by no means free -from them; and it is hardly necessary to state that they form a -prominent feature in the drama and light literature of the present -day. - -Addison defines a pun, in the sixty-first number of the -‘Spectator,’ as ‘a conceit arising from the use of two words that -agree in the sound, but differ in the sense.’ Now the punster deals -in these equivocal words; and his whole art consists in using them -in one sense where we should naturally expect another. There are in -English several classes of equivocal words:-- - -I. Where the same form has several meanings, as 1. ‘Fair’ -(beautiful, or light-coloured). 2. ‘Fair’ (just, or equitable). 3. -‘Fair’ (a market-place). - -II. Where two words of different meaning are pronounced alike, -though spelled differently; as ‘son’ and ‘sun,’ ‘some’ and ‘sum,’ -‘sole’ and ‘soul,’ ‘peer’ and ‘pier,’ &c. - -III. A third class is of those which are spelled differently, and -pronounced nearly, though not quite, alike; such as ‘baron’ and -‘barren,’ ‘season’ and ‘seizing,’ &c.; though these more frequently -produce Malaprops than puns. - -IV. There are also many cases in which a phrase or idiom, -consisting of two or three words, may be used equivocally, and -these may be fairly considered as puns. - -Of the first class the following are specimens:-- - -1. ... beauty’s purchased by the _weight_, - Which therein works a miracle in nature, - Making them _lightest_ that wear most of it. - - _Merchant of Venice_, Act iii. sc. 2. - -2. At one light _bound_ high overleaped all _bound_. - - _Paradise Lost_, Book iv. - -3. Dean Ramsay tells a story of a Scotch minister who, having to -preach at some distance from home, was caught in a shower of rain. -On arriving at his kirk, he got a friend to rub down his clothes, -anxiously asking if he thought he was _dry_ enough. The latter -replied, ‘Never fear; you’ll be _dry_ enough when you get into the -pulpit!’ - -Under the second division may be placed such puns as the -following:-- - -1. Not on thy _sole_, but on thy _soul_, harsh Jew, - Thou makest thy knife keen. - - _Merchant of Venice_, Act iv. sc. 1. - -2. I should be still - _Peering_ in maps for ports, and _piers_, and roads. - - _Ib._, Act i. sc. 1. - -3. A story being told in the presence of Theodore Hook of an author -who invited his publisher to dinner, and treated him to a great -variety of wines--‘Then,’ said the wit, ‘I suppose he poured his -wine-_cellar_ into his book-_seller_.’ - -4. They went and _told_ the sexton, - And the sexton _tolled_ the bell.--_Hood._ - -5. I find - The shadow of myself formed in her eye, - Which, being but the shadow of your _son_, - Becomes a _sun_, and makes your _son_ a shadow. - - _King John_, Act i. sc. 2. - -To the third class belong such cases as:-- - -1. That of the lady who said that her doctor had put her on a new -_regiment_, and allowed her to drink nothing but water. ‘Ah!’ -replied some one present, ‘that must have been the _coldstream_.’ - -2. Under this head also come the sayings of Mrs. Malaprop in -the ‘Rivals,’ who talks of the ‘_contagious_’ (for contiguous) -countries; and who recommends a nice _derangement_ (arrangement) of -_epitaphs_ (epithets), &c. - -3. It is a positive vulgarism to confound ‘_genus_’ (a class, or -sort) with ‘_genius_’ (a high intellectual power). This is exactly -what Goldsmith meant, when he put into Tony Lumpkin’s mouth:-- - - Good liquor, I’ll stoutly maintain, - Gives _genus_ a better discerning. - -In the fourth class may be placed punning by the use of an -equivocal phrase. - -1. It was this form of the pun that Sydney Smith used when, hearing -of a boy who always read the word ‘patriarchs’ as ‘partridges,’ -declared it was too bad _to make game_ of them in that way. - -2. In this class we may also place Douglas Jerrold’s well-known -reply to a friend who told him he was afraid he was going to have a -_brain_ fever. ‘Never fear, my friend,’ said the wit, ‘_there is no -foundation for the fact_.’ - -3. The story related of Sydney Smith, who recommended the bishops -_laying their heads together_ to make a wooden pavement, may be -placed in the same category, and here the wit is quite as pungent -as in the other cases. - -4. For if the Jew do but cut deep enough, - I’ll pay it instantly _with all my heart_. - - _Merchant of Venice._ - -The instances of a play on words we meet with in Milton are not so -much puns, properly so called, as what the Italians called conceits -(concetti). This poet was deeply imbued with the spirit of Italian -literature; and this form of it often appears in his verses. The -following passages are examples:-- - -1. _Highly_ they raged against the _Highest_. - -2. _Surer_ to _prosper_ than _prosperity_ could have _assured_ us. - -3. The same form appears occasionally in other poets. Cowper in his -‘Conversation’ has - - His only _pleasure_ is to be _displeased_. - -One form of the pun which is just now not so frequently used is the -following:-- - -1. ‘There’s _something in that_,’ as the cat said when she peeped -into the milk-jug. - -2. ‘I’m _transported_ to see you,’ as the convict said to the -kangaroo. - -3. ‘_You are very pressing_,’ as the nut said to the nutcracker, &c. - -Punning has been generally considered a low form of wit; and some -have taken so unfavourable a view of it as even to declare that -‘he who will make a pun will pick a pocket.’ But all this is hardly -just; for it may be easily shown that the highest minds have not -hesitated to adopt it, and that in some writers it is a prominent -feature of their style. It is true that critics have frequently -condemned punning as a flaw in Shakspere’s style and manner; but -it should be remembered that it was one form of that Italian tone -which coloured all the English literature of the Elizabethan age, -and from which no writer of those times was wholly free. We surely -cannot utterly condemn any form of expression adopted by so great -a master; and though it may be admitted that an immoderate use of -puns should not usurp the place of the higher and more important -qualities of style, there seems no good reason why they should be -wholly excluded. - -The late poet Thomas Hood was so remarkable for the way in which -he used puns, that they formed an essential characteristic of his -style. Though looked upon by the purist as a contemptible figure -in literature, the pun proved in his hands a source of genuine -humour, and sometimes of deepest pathos. It is a received axiom, -that a keen perception of the ridiculous is a conclusive proof of -real genius; and this opinion certainly holds good in his case. -In him it was perfectly compatible with the deepest sympathy and -intensity of feeling. In every form of wit the effect consists -chiefly in the novelty of the application presented by the figure. -This always produces surprise--a naturally pleasing sensation, -especially when caused by a ludicrous or grotesque image. But, -in some instances, a pun suggests a far higher tone of thought -than the mere ludicrous: it may be connected with or produce very -sober reflections, or even occasionally lead the mind to a deeply -philosophical speculation:-- - - ... ridentem dicere verum - Quid vetat? - -In the popular conundrum which has been attributed to Burke, ‘What -is (m)ajest(y), when deprived of its externals, but a jest?’ this -effect may be observed, as well as in many of Hood’s puns. - -In the literary history of all nations, we find languages -affected by various peculiarities. Of these several, more or less -connected with punning, have, at different periods, prevailed in -English, viz. Alliteration, Rhyme, Euphuism, &c. Alliteration -was the principle on which the Anglo-Saxon poets founded their -versification. This has been called ‘head-rhyme,’ as distinguished -from end-rhyme, which is a more modern practice. The lines were -arranged in couplets grouped, not according to the sense, but to -the alliteration, which required that _two_ accented syllables -in the first, and _one_ in the second line, should begin with -the same letter when a consonant; and a different, if possible, -when a vowel. These three initial letters were called ‘rhyming -letters,’ the one in the second line being the _chief_ letter, -according to which the two in the first line of the couplet must be -regulated. These two, though they come first, are therefore called -‘_sub_-letters.’ In a couplet, there should not be more than three -accented syllables beginning with this letter; and the _chief_ -letter must begin the first accented syllable or word of the second -line. - -Finally: in very short verse, especially when the rhyming letters -are double, such as _sc_, _st_, _sw_, &c., there need be but -one _sub_-letter. This is the general doctrine of alliteration, -invariably adopted in Saxon poetry. - -The following specimen of alliteration, extracted from Rask’s -Anglo-Saxon Grammar, may serve to illustrate this explanation:-- - - In _Caines_ _c_ynne In Cain’s kin - Þone _c_wealm gewrǽc The murder avenged - _É_ce Drihten The Eternal Lord - Þaes þe he _A_bel slóg Because he slew Abel - Ne ge_f_eah he þære _f_aehde He got no joy from his hatred - Ac he hine _f_eor forwráec But he (the Creator) drove him - _M_etod for þý _m_áne For that misdeed - _M_ancynne fram Far from the human race - -But though no longer considered as an essential element in English -verse, alliteration was often employed by all our poets from -Chaucer to Spenser, though not according to the strict rules above -laid down. Spenser used it, in some cases, with much effect, as -shown in the following lines from the ‘Faëry Queen’:-- - - In _w_ilderness and _w_asteful deserts strayed. - Through _w_oods and _w_asteness _w_ild him daily sought. - _F_rom her _f_air head her _f_illet she undight. - And with the sight amazed, _f_orgot his _f_urious _f_orce. - -There is more alliteration in our modern poets than most readers -suspect; and though an immoderate use of this figure makes it -degenerate into a mere fantastic puerility, many examples may be -quoted where it adds a wonderful force to the expression. For -example, in the following lines from Macbeth:-- - - That shall, to all our days and nights to come, - Give _s_olely _s_overeign _s_way and masterdom. - -The grandeur of the effect is here powerfully assisted by the -repetition of the letter _s_. - -But the fondness of certain rhymesters for this figure was cleverly -caricatured by the brothers Horace and James Smith, in their -well-known ‘Rejected Addresses’:-- - - Lo! from _L_emnos _l_imping _l_ame_l_y, - _L_ags the _l_ow_l_y _L_ord of Fire! - -Rhyme may be almost considered a modern invention; it is seldom met -with in Greek or Latin, and was unknown to the Saxon poets. This -repetition of the same sound at the ends of verses was introduced -into England by the Anglo-Norman ballad-writers at, or soon after, -the Conquest. Since that time it has been regarded as one of the -greatest embellishments of poetical expression, and it is now -used in almost every form of poetry except blank verse. There is -no doubt that it deserves this reputation, though here, as in -other decorations, much of the effect depends on the judgment and -taste with which it is applied. Many a beautiful thought has been -probably sacrificed to the rigid requirements of rhyme; at the same -time many so-called rhymes are so unlike each other in sound as -scarcely to deserve the name. - -The effect of rhyme is materially heightened when there is a real -or fancied connection in meaning between the rhyming words; such -as ‘wine’ and ‘divine,’ ‘life’ and ‘strife,’ ‘fish’ and ‘dish,’ -‘lone’ and ‘moan,’ &c. It is also curious to observe how often -familiar proverbs are formed upon this principle. We have ‘Birds of -a _feather_ flock _together_;’ ‘’Twixt cup and _lip_ there’s many -a _slip_;’ ‘Fast _bind_, fast _find_;’ ‘No _pains_, no _gains_;’ -&c. And this is not confined to English proverbs. In the same way -the Italians have, ‘Chi va pi_ano_, va _sano_, e va lont_ano_;’ and -the Germans, ‘Morgenst_und_ hat Gold im _Mund_;’ ‘Ueber _Nacht_ ist -wohl ge_dacht_;’ ‘Wer _neidet_, der _leidet_,’ &c. The object in -these cases was, probably, to produce a pleasing effect, and, at -the same time, to assist the learner’s memory. - -Another proof of the popularity of rhyme may be found in many -double terms which are evidently formed on that principle. These, -though not often met with in the higher styles of composition, -are legitimate words in every-day and familiar conversation, and -have every right to be so considered. Such are ‘helter-skelter,’ -‘namby-pamby,’ ‘hoity-toity,’ ‘roly-poly,’ ‘harum-scarum,’ -‘willy-nilly,’ ‘nolens-volens,’ ‘hugger-mugger,’ and a host of -others. - -A particularly ludicrous effect is frequently presented by double -rhymes, which properly belong to the comic or burlesque in verse. -Here there is often as much wit and humour in the rhyme as in the -sentiment; and here, also, the rhyme frequently approaches to the -nature of a pun. - -Butler was distinguished for his double rhymes, and in his -‘Hudibras’ he displays a positive genius for comic rhyme, some -specimens of which follow:-- - - As if religion were in_tended_ - For nothing else than to be _mended_. - - Madam, I do, as is my _duty_, - Honour the shadow of your _shoe tie_. - - An ignis fatuus that be_witches_, - And leads men into pools and _ditches_. - - He was, in logic, a great _critic_, - Profoundly skilled in ana_lytic_. - - Besides, he was a shrewd phi_losopher_, - And had read every text and _gloss over_. - - Compound for sins they are in_clined to_, - By damning those they have no _mind to_. - -Another form of comic verse is where the rhyme is made by dividing -the word, being formed by a similar sound in the middle syllables; -as for example:-- - - Thou wast the daughter of my _Tu_- - tor, Law professor in the _U_- - niversity of Göttingen.--_Canning._ - - At first I caught hold of the _wing_, - And kept away; but Mr. _Thing_- - umbob, the prompter man, - Gave with his hand my chaise a shove, - And said, ‘Go on, my pretty love, - Speak to ’em, little Nan.’--_Smith._ - -John Lyly, a dramatist and poet of the Elizabethan period, is -said to have originated a singular affectation of language known -as ‘Euphuism.’ He was the author of a romance entitled ‘Euphues;’ -in which the ‘pure and reformed English,’ as he called it, first -appeared. It became the fashion with the beauties of the court -to ‘parley Euphuism,’ which was soon considered a necessary -accomplishment for every one who had any pretensions to fashion or -good taste. Euphuism was made up of almost every sort of folly of -language combined, a mincing prettiness, alliteration, punning, -pedantry, elaborate nonsense, and far-fetched expression; in fine, -of almost every conceivable form of puerility. This was a mere -passing absurdity, and the only remains of it still left in the -language are said to be certain new modes of pronunciation then -first introduced. - -Language has been, like most other things, subject to many and -various abuses. Anagrams, chronograms, acrostics, &c., have, -each and all, ‘fretted their hour upon the stage, and now are -heard no more.’ But the pun seems likely to maintain its place, -both in conversation and in written composition. Let us not be -misunderstood. It is not the practice, but the abuse of it, that -is to be condemned. We are strongly of opinion that there can be -no greater pest to society than the inveterate and professional -punster--a man who sets traps for you, who lies in wait for every -phrase you utter, to twist and turn it into a meaning of his own, -and who is continually stopping the natural flow of discourse, and -bringing it to some ‘lame and impotent conclusion.’ But, as we -have endeavoured to show, the pun, when ‘telling’ and well-applied, -is as legitimate a form of wit as any other, and quite as conducive -to good feeling and good fellowship. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT WORDS. - - -In the order of nature, names would be first given to concrete -objects and their qualities, and to visible acts, i.e. to those -things and acts which are made known to us through the senses. But -whatever may have been the principle which determined the original -form of these words, it is well known that, in all languages, -the same vocabulary was afterwards used in a mental or secondary -sense. No new words were invented for the expression of thought or -feeling, but all the acts of the mind and soul were represented -by terms originally applied in a concrete sense. In a word, the -abstract was derived from the concrete. The original concrete -sense of the verb ‘to see’ was, to take in knowledge through the -eye, but the same word was afterwards used abstractly. ‘I see’ may -signify ‘I have the proper use of my eyes;’ and may also mean, ‘I -understand or perceive with my mind.’ A blind man cannot see in -the first of these senses, though he may in the second. To hear, to -taste, to touch, &c., have all these double meanings. There may be -some words not found in a secondary sense; but, on the other hand, -a very large number have lost their original physical signification. - -In English, most of the words which express operations of the mind -are drawn from a Latin, French, or Greek source. These were all -originally used in a concrete sense, which in English is now lost. - -Horace, in his well-known ninth Satire, has:-- - - _Occurrit_ quidam notus mihi nomine tantum. - -‘Occurrit’ cannot be here translated by ‘occurred.’ The word, in -English, has lost its concrete, and retains only its abstract, -meaning. With us, ideas or thoughts may ‘occur’ to the mind, but we -cannot properly speak of a friend ‘occurring’ (i.e. meeting) us in -the street. - -One essential difference between ancient and modern languages -consists in the relation between abstract, or mental, and concrete -expression. The languages of antiquity possessed a much nearer -relation to the original, primary sense of words. In them, all the -abstract had a much closer affinity with the concrete terms from -which they were derived. The Latin word ‘spiritus’ had not only -its abstract meaning of ‘cheerfulness,’ or ‘courage,’ but also its -concrete sense of ‘breath;’ whereas, in modern languages the word -has only an abstract sense, and it is only by a knowledge of its -etymology that we can get at its material origin. The result of -this loss is most complete when a modern, formed upon an ancient -language, is no longer in direct communication with the roots of -the words used. In this respect ancient languages possessed a charm -for which nothing can compensate, and, when in the hands of a great -poet, they produced most wonderful effects. But the condition of -modern languages is, in this respect, very different. Here, most -of the abstract words, being deprived of their original concrete -meaning, are, to the general reader, mere conventional signs, -wholly unable to produce that vividly picturesque effect found -in the ancient tongues. And herein chiefly lies the value of a -knowledge of derivation. For, although a word may now have lost its -original meaning, it is of the greatest importance that its primary -signification should be known, in order to arrive at a clear -knowledge of its exact and accurate modern application. We commonly -speak of a man ‘_applying_’ himself to his work. To the general -reader this conveys the idea of giving his mind or attention to -what he is about; but to those who are ignorant of the etymology -of the word ‘applying,’ the picture of the man _bending_ his body -to his task is wholly lost. And not only as regards the true -meaning of the single word, but as concerns the difference in -signification between terms apparently synonymous, this knowledge -will be of the greatest importance. The difference in meaning -between ‘to instil’ and ‘to inculcate’ is to be understood only -by a knowledge of their etymology. To the ordinary reader both -these words have the general meaning of ‘to teach,’ or instruct; -but it is only he who knows the meaning of their roots who will -understand that nice difference in the mode of teaching which they -respectively describe. The process of ‘dropping in’ knowledge by -degrees, conveyed by the former word, paints a very different -picture from the ‘stamping in’ of the latter. - -Some of our poets occasionally use abstract, especially Latin -words, in a primary meaning, which they, properly, no longer -possess. We may look upon this practice as a licence which may -be conceded to poets; but we should never adopt it in common -conversation, or in ordinary writing. Milton is especially addicted -to this practice. When he speaks of ‘Heaven’s _afflicting_ -thunder,’ he uses the word ‘afflicting’ in its original primary -sense of striking down bodily. The reprobate angels are thus -represented as being hurled down from heaven. But this is not -the present use of the verb ‘to afflict.’ It means to prostrate -as to mind or feeling, and is never used in a concrete sense. If -one man should meet another in anger and _knock_ him _down_, we -should not call that _afflicting_ him; and yet this is the sense -in which the word is employed in the passage referred to. In the -same poet we meet with ‘horrent’ (for bristling) arms; ‘savage’ -(for woody) hill; and ‘amiable’ (for lovely) fruit, &c. Thomson, -in his poem of ‘Winter,’ has, in like manner, ‘With dangling ice -all _horrid_’--the last word, in the sense of rough or bristling. -Modern usage does not sanction this application of such words in -ordinary discourse or writing. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -GRAND WORDS. - - -The almost universal mania for violent excitement and craving -after novelty, which is so marked a feature of modern society, -is, perhaps, in no instance more offensively obtrusive than in -the style of most of our present periodical writers. It seems -impossible for them to call things by their proper names. They -reject all simple words, and are continually soaring above their -subject into the regions of the sublime and magnificent. As long as -a word is out-of-the-way, unusual, or far-fetched, it is apparently -of little or no consequence to them whether it be applicable to -the case or not. The commonest and most familiar objects are thus -raised to a dignity quite out of keeping with their real nature; -and here, if anywhere, is verified the saying that ‘from the -sublime to the ridiculous there is but one step.’ Everything is -sacrificed to a false glare and glitter of language, and sense is -always made subservient to sound. Those beautiful English words -‘boys’ and ‘girls’ are almost banished from our modern vocabulary. -‘Boys’ and ‘girls’ are transformed into ‘juveniles;’ ‘workmen’ have -become ‘operatives;’ and ‘people’ in general are now ‘individuals.’ -These ‘individuals,’ be it observed, are never ‘dressed,’ but -always ‘attired’ or ‘arrayed;’ they are never ‘angry,’ but often -‘irate;’ they never ‘go into a shop,’ though they sometimes -condescend to ‘enter an emporium,’ or perhaps a ‘depôt;’ and -when they return home, they never ‘take off their things,’ but -‘divest themselves of their habiliments.’ Another practice with -these writers is to substitute for single terms milk-and-water -definitions of them. With them, a ‘fire’ is always ‘the devouring -element;’ a ‘man’ is ‘an individual of the masculine gender;’ -a ‘footman’ is a ‘superb menial;’ and a ‘schoolmaster’ is the -‘principal of a collegiate institution.’ - -This style originated in the penny-a-line system. It abounds in -our second and third-rate magazines, and, with some few honourable -exceptions, has infected all the periodical and light literature -of the day. The word ‘individual’ has the merit of possessing five -syllables; whereas ‘man,’ or ‘person,’ has but one or two, and -for this reason alone is rejected for the other word. But if Dean -Swift’s definition of a good style--‘Proper words in their proper -places’--is to have any weight as an authority, it is certainly -here not carried into practice. These high-flown terms are very -well in their proper places, but they are not adapted to the cases -to which they are applied, and therefore they are neither proper -words nor in their proper places. The worst of this practice -is, that it deprives all the sound sterling part of the English -language of its peculiar force and significance. Words that are -seldom used will at length inevitably disappear, and thus, if -not checked in time, this extravagance of expression will do an -irreparable injury to the English language. - -Another habit of these periodical writers is to sacrifice the idiom -of the language to their love for some particular word. Two verbs, -of which they seem especially fond, are, ‘to commence’ and ‘to -essay.’ These are French words, and are always preferred before -their corresponding Saxon synonyms, ‘to begin’ and ‘to try.’ But -in their liking for them, these writers are often betrayed into an -incorrect phraseology. To ‘begin’ may be followed by an infinitive -or a gerund. We may say, ‘he began to read,’ or ‘he began reading.’ -Not so may the verbs ‘to commence’ and ‘to essay’ be used. These -do not, correctly, take an infinitive as an object. We cannot say, -properly, ‘_he commenced to read_,’ or ‘_he essayed to do well_.’ -In such cases we must use ‘begin’ and ‘try.’ But the latter are -not sufficiently elevated to suit the views of the penny-a-liners, -and are therefore rejected. - -Another of these grand words is ‘intoxicated.’ In the newspapers, -for once that we read of a man being drunk, we find at least -nine or ten times that he is intoxicated. The word ‘drunk’ is -unfortunately too often required in our police reports; but the -reporters are either too squeamish, or too much inclined to the -long word, to hesitate in their choice. ‘Intoxicated’ has five -syllables; ‘drunk’ has but one: so that the odds in favour of the -former are literally as five to one. But even then they are not -satisfied: they add to it ‘_with drink_,’ thus putting two more -syllables to the phrase. We generally read that ‘the prisoner was -intoxicated with drink.’ This form of expression must occupy at -least a line of the printed matter, and is therefore worth to the -writer--exactly one penny! - -The use of the verb ‘replace,’ as frequently seen in the writings -of the periodical press, is open to objection. When anyone (we will -suppose) quits his office, they write that he was ‘replaced’ by -another, meaning that some one else filled his place. But the verb -‘to replace’ has not, correctly, this meaning. It signifies ‘to put -back in its place.’ If I take a book from the library shelf, and, -after reading it, put it back again, I _replace_ it; but I cannot -properly say that one man ‘_re_placed’ another in his office, if -I mean that he took his place. There seems to be here a confusion -between the two French verbs, ‘remplacer’ and ‘replacer.’ The first -means ‘to put _in_ the place of another,’ _i.e._ to furnish a -substitute; and the second is, ‘to put back in its own place.’ - -Another common fault is the use of the word ‘abstractedly’ for -‘abstractly.’ A man speaks ‘abstractedly’ when his mind is drawn -away from the subject before him; here, his manner is abstracted. -But a man speaks ‘abstractly’ when he treats of the ideal and not -the real--the abstract, and not the concrete. Here his subject is -abstract. Again: ‘to choose,’ or ‘to decide,’ is much too common a -term to suit the taste of these modern article-writers. According -to them, people never ‘choose:’ they always _elect_. We continually -read, for example, that some one ‘elected’ to go abroad, rather -than that he decided or determined on taking that step. - -Three words of suspicious length and somewhat mysterious meaning -have been lately added to our vocabulary, viz. ‘rehabilitate,’ -‘solidarity,’ and ‘desirability.’ These seem to be great -favourites, especially with news-writers. They talk of the -‘_desirability_’ of ‘_rehabilitating_’ our relations with a -certain continental State, in order to effect a ‘_solidarity_’ -between the two nations! - -One phase of this leaning to the grandiose style is an affectation -of foreign words and phrases. The extent to which this practice is -carried by some writers is extraordinary. They can scarcely call -anything by its proper English name, but must apply to it some -Italian or French word. Such writers describe people as ‘_blasés_,’ -or perhaps as having ‘_un air distingué_;’ and these people are -said to do everything ‘_à merveille_.’ Some few Italian phrases are -also occasionally introduced, such as ‘_in petto_,’ the ‘_dolce far -niente_,’ &c.; and the style of many writers learned in the ancient -classics is in like manner infected with Greek and Latin words and -idioms. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE SPELLING OF WORDS. - - -Since, before the invention of printing, there was no standard of -English spelling, our orthography can have no history before that -epoch. The variety of forms in which words appeared was endless; -for not only did different writers spell them differently, but one -writer would often present his readers with several forms of the -same word even in the same page. During the whole of our early -history, then, the language can hardly be said to have had any -fixed laws of spelling. - -The orthography of Anglo-Saxon itself seems to have been very -unsettled. Few words appeared invariably in the same form, and -some had as many as three or four different modes of spelling. We -find ‘ác’ and ‘æc’ (oak); ‘lang’ and ‘long’ (long); ‘geaf’ and -‘gef’ (give); ‘seolf,’ ‘self,’ and ‘sylf’ (self); ‘sweaster’ and -‘swuster’ (sister); ‘heauwod’ and ‘heafod’ (head), &c. &c. - -The accent also made a difference in both the pronunciation and -meaning of some words. Thus, ‘ís’ meant ice, but ‘is’ (without the -accent) was the 3rd singular present of the verb ‘to be.’ ‘God,’ -in Anglo-Saxon, was, in spelling and meaning, our word ‘God;’ but -‘gód’ (pronounced ‘gōād’) was our adjective ‘good,’ &c. - -The marked difference in form between the Saxon and the early -English was the substitution of _e_ for the Saxon endings _a_, _e_, -and _u_. Thus, ‘nam_a_,’ ‘end_e_,’ and ‘wud_u_’ appeared in early -English as nam_e_, end_e_, and wood_e_ (probably pronounced as two -syllables). At a still later period there was a tendency to get -rid not only of this _e_, but of the whole system of Anglo-Saxon -inflections; and the nouns, adjectives, and verbs were stripped of -nearly all their endings. - -The only two inflections of the noun which survived this decay, -and which may be traced to the present time, were the _es_ of the -possessive (or genitive) singular, and the _as_ of the subjective -(or nominative) plural. The Saxon for ‘of a smith’ was ‘smid_es_,’ -and the nominative plural of the same word was ‘smid_as_.’ -Wiclif often uses ‘_is_’ as a plural ending, as in ‘hous_is_,’ -‘barel_is_,’ &c. Caxton writes ‘thyng_es_,’ and More, tyth_es_, -arrow_es_, &c. Now the usual ending is _s_; as in ‘book_s_,’ -tree_s_, &c. - -All the inflections of the adjectives also fell off; and instead -of ‘god_ne_’ (acc. sing.), ‘god_es_’ (gen. sing.), ‘god_um_,’ -‘god_re_’ (dat. pl.) these endings disappeared, and the word was -reduced in all its cases and genders, and in both numbers, to ‘gód’ -(good), as we now have it. - -The verb lost its gerund, or rather the latter was confounded with -the participle in _ing_; so that ‘writtane’ (for the purpose of -writing) was used indiscriminately with ‘writende’ (writing); and -many other terminations, though they did not wholly disappear, were -weakened by the substitution of _e_ for _a_, or _en_ for _an_, as -‘bærn_en_’ for ‘bærn_an_.’ Afterwards the participle ending was -changed from _ende_ to _and_, thence to _inge_, and at last to -_ing_, as we now have it. Thus:--‘writende,’ ‘writand,’ ‘writinge,’ -‘writing.’ - -Between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries there was a constant -and increasing tendency to throw off the final _e_. Chaucer, -Wiclif, and other writers of the fourteenth century, have numbers -of words written with that ending, where it is now omitted, as -‘child_e_,’ ‘hert_e_,’ ‘fynd_e_,’ &c. But, in taking away this -final, it became necessary, in some cases, to make another change -in the spelling, in order to prevent a mispronunciation. The -earlier form ‘mete,’ being deprived of its final _e_, would leave -‘_met_.’ Therefore, to preserve the long sound, the _e_ medial was -doubled, and the word stood ‘_meet_.’ The same principle operated -in transforming ‘cloke’ into ‘cloak,’ ‘yere’ into ‘year,’ ‘scole’ -into ‘school,’ ‘grete’ into ‘great,’ &c. The _e_ final being taken -away, it was necessary, in order to preserve the pronunciation, to -lengthen the internal vowel. - -The art of printing exercised a very powerful influence over -English orthography. The first printers assumed at once an absolute -power, not only in the matter of spelling and punctuation, but even -in cases of expression and grammatical forms. The result was far -from favourable to uniformity; for, as every printer had his own -views on the subject, each consequently differed from the others, -and this entailed endless confusion. The author’s punctuation and -spelling were then always sacrificed to the printer’s convenience. -If the writer used any words of doubtful or unsettled orthography, -of which there was then a very large number, the printer assumed -it as his right to add to, or take from them as many letters as he -thought proper, to suit the length of the line. Many blunders also -arose from the ignorance of the copyists. The various manuscripts -of one poem sometimes differ so widely from each other, that modern -scholars have supposed these varieties to have been the result -of the author’s own revision. But the more probable cause of -these differences is that the manuscript was copied by a number -of different hands, and that consequently each differed from the -other according to the views of such matters which each copyist had -adopted. - -We may safely conclude that in orthography, as in other matters, -changes will take place. The phonographers say that, as the whole -object of writing is to represent on paper the sounds of the human -voice, every word should be spelled exactly as it is pronounced. -But there are grave objections to this view. First, pronunciation -itself is in a state of transition--as the present differs from the -past, so will the future differ from the present--and therefore -the spelling would have to be changed as often as the words were -differently pronounced. Secondly, there are so many, and such -delicate shades of sound in the human voice, that, to carry out -this design properly, it would be necessary to invent innumerable -characters to represent them. The remedy, then, would be worse than -the disease, for the multitude of new and strange characters which -this system would require would be far more puzzling to a learner -than any of the existing difficulties. - -On the other hand, the conservative party maintain that the -proposed changes in spelling should not be admitted because they -would obscure, if not destroy, the derivation of words. This -argument has certainly considerable force. In the study of English, -a knowledge of derivation is quite as important as correctness of -spelling. Surely the one should not be wholly sacrificed to the -other. Are we to lose the essence of the word for the mere sake -of its outward appearance? It would certainly be a great gain to -simplify our forms of spelling; but if, in so doing, we destroyed -the etymology of the language, would our gain or our loss be the -greater? The present forms of spelling are, in many cases, a key -to the derivation of the word. How did the _b_ get into ‘dou_b_t’ -and ‘de_b_t,’ or the _g_ into ‘fei_g_n’ and ‘impu_g_n?’ These -letters are left in the words expressly to show us their origin. -When first introduced into English, ‘debt’ and ‘doubt’ were both -written and pronounced as in French (‘dette’ and ‘doute’). But when -it afterwards became known that they were originally derived from -the Latin verbs ‘de_b_ēre’ and ‘du_b_itare,’ the _b_ was restored -in the spelling. - -Some argue that the influence of derivation on spelling is only -partial, and that other and more powerful causes are operating -changes in the forms of words. It is readily admitted that the -language will, _in time_, yield to this pressure. But we must -not precipitate matters; and there is something to be said on -the other side of the question. The study of English has lately -received a great impulse, and increased attention has been paid -to its nature and origin. It is surely somewhat inconsistent to -recommend this increased energy of study, and, at the same time, -to throw obstacles in the student’s way! It is remarkable how long -it takes to work a change of this sort. The writer can remember -the controversy about the substitution of the final _or_ for _our_ -for more than forty years back; and yet in that time very little -progress has been made in the proposed reform. But there are -obviously certain tendencies in the English language towards a new -orthography, and we may point out with tolerable certainty what -changes will be eventually effected. - -The law of contraction is in constant operation in the spelling -of words. It is this principle that has caused us to reject the -final _k_ in words of two or more syllables. _K_ final is now -confined chiefly to monosyllables. We retain it in ‘back,’ ‘peck,’ -‘stick,’ ‘rock,’ ‘duck,’ &c. Formerly ‘music,’ ‘critic,’ ‘traffic,’ -&c. retained the k; now it has disappeared from these words. But -it is evidently very loth to go; for it still holds its place in -‘attac_k_,’ ‘ransac_k_,’ ‘bulloc_k_,’ ‘hilloc_k_,’ &c., as well as -in compound words, as ‘shipwrec_k_,’ ‘weathercoc_k_,’ ‘wedloc_k_,’ -&c. It is possible that, at some future time, we shall be writing -‘bac,’ ‘pec,’ ‘stic,’ ‘roc,’ and ‘luc;’ but for the present we -must, in these cases, add the _k_. - -The same contracting tendency affects the forms of certain past -tenses of verbs. We write ‘sent’ for ‘sended,’ ‘built’ for -‘builded,’ &c. Some would extend this contraction to all verbs -ending in close consonants, as _p_, _ck_, _f_, or _s_. They would -have us write ‘slapt,’ ‘drest,’ ‘hisst,’ ‘hopt,’ and ‘snufft.’ -There is, no doubt, a leaning this way in the language. The verbs -‘creep,’ ‘feel,’ ‘sleep,’ &c. make, in the past tense, ‘crept,’ -‘felt,’ ‘slept,’ &c. But it will be some time before such forms as -quafft, peept, pickt, hopt, and supt are generally adopted. - -This contracting principle also originated the tendency to omit -the _u_ in the termination _our_. Most of the words which have -this ending come to us from Latin through French, where the ending -is _eur_, as seen in ‘honn_eur_,’ ‘vigu_eur_,’ ‘val_eur_,’ &c. -American writers leave out the _u_ in all these cases. They write -‘endeav_or_,’ ‘neighb_or_,’ behavi_or_, &c. There is, no doubt, a -tendency to omit the _u_ in such words. It may be observed that -most of the words which have lost this _u_ are names of agents, -as ‘act_or_,’ ‘auth_or_,’ ‘creat_or_,’ ‘doct_or_,’ ‘govern_or_,’ -‘orat_or_,’ ‘sail_or_,’ ‘tail_or_,’ and ‘warri_or_;’ whereas -comparatively few abstract nouns have rejected it, though it no -longer appears in ‘err_or_,’ ‘horr_or_,’ ‘stup_or_,’ ‘terr_or_,’ -and ‘torp_or_.’ - -Another pair of endings--_ise_ and _ize_--has given rise to a -divided practice in spelling. The leaning here is decidedly towards -_ise_. The words tempor_ise_, advert_ise_, author_ise_, &c. were -all formerly written with a _z_. Strictly speaking, _ize_ should be -used in those verbs of this class which can be traced directly to a -Greek source, as ‘bapt_ize_,’ ‘idol_ize_,’ ‘agon_ize_;’ especially -those used in a scientific sense, as catech_ize_, symbol_ize_, -epitom_ize_, &c. But many such words come to us through a French -medium, as ‘critic_ise_,’ ‘real_ise_,’ ‘civil_ise_.’ These should -be spelled _ise_. In all probability, we shall some day reject -the _z_ altogether. The letter _s_ seems to be taking its place -in these and many other cases, as in ‘arti_s_an,’ ‘parti_s_an,’ -&c. The late Dr. Donaldson was of opinion that all the above verbs -should be spelled _ise_. - -By the same law of contraction it is proposed to give up the -diphthongs _ae_ and _oe_, found in many English words derived from -Greek and Latin, and to spell them all with a simple _e_. Many -of this class have already adopted the change, for we now write -‘_E_gypt,’ ‘_e_conomy,’ ‘f_e_deral,’ ‘_e_nigma,’ ‘ph_e_nomenon,’ -‘p_e_nal,’ &c. But it is reasonable to expect that many of -them will retain the diphthong for some time. Proper names and -scientific terms are likely to keep it longer, whilst in more -familiar words it will, probably, give place to the single vowel. -Accordingly we may predict that the diphthong will remain in -‘_Æ_sop,’ _Œ_dipus,’ ‘_Æ_tna,’ ‘_Œ_ta,’ and ‘C_æ_sar,’ as well as -in ‘arch_æ_ology,’ ‘anap_æ_st,’ ‘_æ_sthetic,’ cyclop_æ_dia,’ and -‘hom_œ_opathy;’ while from such words as ‘_e_conomy,’ ‘pr_e_tor,’ -‘prim_e_val,’ ‘_e_qual,’ ‘_e_dile,’ ‘_e_difice,’ &c., if not -already gone, it will soon disappear altogether. There is here an -_e_conomical tendency in favour of the single _e_, and the longer -these words remain in the language, the more likely are they to be -spelled with the single vowel. - -In many English words there has been a sort of rivalry between the -letters _y_ and _i_, and the general tendency now is in favour -of _i_. This does not seem to be a question of contraction. It -is supposed to have arisen from a dislike of the printers to -the ugly appearance of _y_ in the middle of a word. Mandeville -writes ‘l_y_til’ (little), ‘w_y_se’ (wise), ‘t_y_mes’ (times); and -Wiclif has ‘with_y_nne’ (within), ‘rece_y_ve’ (receive), ‘wr_y_te’ -(write), ‘fa_y_le’ (fail), ‘everlast_y_ne’ (everlasting), &c. In -certain Greek words, however, the _y_ still holds its place, as in -‘h_y_mn,’ ‘t_y_pe,’ ‘h_y_dra,’ ‘t_y_rant,’ ‘l_y_re,’ &c. These will -probably long remain in the spelling. - -One innovation proposed by the phonographers was to substitute -a _k_ for the ending _que_. All our words of this class are from -the French, where the ending is invariably _que_. Many of these -have already conformed to the English tendency, and are written -with a _k_ final, as ‘mas_k_,’ ‘cas_k_,’ ‘bris_k_,’ ‘ris_k_,’ &c. -These are monosyllables. But we hesitate to extend this practice to -words of two or three syllables. We are not prepared to adopt such -forms as ‘pictures_k_,’ ‘grotes_k_,’ ‘burles_k_,’ &c. Nor is it -likely that we shall be easily reconciled to ‘opa_ke_,’ ‘anti_ke_,’ -‘obli_ke_,’ &c. In some few cases, if only to mark a difference -of meaning, it is expedient to have two forms of spelling; for -instance, between _bark_ (of a tree) and _barque_ (a vessel), -_check_ (a restraint) and _cheque_ (on a banker), _pike_ (a weapon) -and _pique_ (a petty quarrel), _mark_ (a note or sign) and _marque_ -(a reprisal) as in ‘letters of marque.’ - -We ought not to conclude, because changes of spelling have been -adopted in certain words, that similar changes should be applied -to all the words of that class--because, for instance, the old -forms ‘advaunce,’ ‘commaund,’ ‘chaunt,’ and others now appear as -‘advance,’ ‘command,’ ‘chant,’ we should, for this reason, write -‘tant,’ ‘hant,’ ‘dant,’ and ‘lanch’ instead of ‘taunt,’ ‘haunt,’ -‘daunt,’ and ‘launch.’ But nature and habit are not to be trifled -with. Both experience and reason combat all sudden changes. If -they are to be, they will come in good time; meanwhile let us watch -and follow. - -Again, the reformers of our spelling would have us cut off -the ending _ue_ from such words as ‘catalogue,’ ‘demagogue,’ -‘synagogue,’ ‘colleague,’ ‘harangue,’ ‘tongue,’ &c., and spell them -‘catalog,’ ‘demagog,’ &c. It may be most confidently predicted -that, whatever may happen in the course of future ages, this change -will not take place either in this or the next generation. - -Another proposed change is to invert the ending _re_, and write -it _er_, as being more in accordance with English pronunciation. -That this is the tendency of the language is not to be denied, -for it is well known that many English words now ending in _er_ -were formerly written _re_. Such are the Norman names of the -months--‘Septemb_re_,’ ‘Octob_re_,’ ‘Novemb_re_,’ ‘Decemb_re_,’ -&c. Some of this class have not yet adopted the change, and -still appear in their French forms, as ‘accout_re_,’ ‘cent_re_,’ -‘fib_re_,’ ‘lust_re_,’ ‘nit_re_,’ ‘och_re_,’ &c. But it is to be -noticed that these are not common words--not words of the homestead -or market-place--and that therefore they are much more likely to -retain their old forms. In some of them, also, it is desirable to -have two modes of spelling. We have ‘met_er_’ in the sense of a -measurer, as in ‘baromet_er_,’ ‘thermomet_er_,’ &c., and ‘met_re_’ -in versification. ‘Cent_er_’ appears as a verb, and ‘cent_re_’ as -a noun. That most of this class will, in time, be spelled with the -ending _er_ is highly probable, but the above remark may account -for their not having yet adopted that termination. - -It has often been objected to our language that its study, as -regards pronunciation and spelling, is more difficult than that -of any of the continental languages. Foreigners endeavouring to -master these difficulties are often quite overwhelmed by them, and -not unfrequently give up the study in despair. But no language is -without difficulties of this sort. Indeed, the difference between -written and spoken French offers quite as formidable obstacles to -the speller in French as could happen in English. The French words -‘_ver_’ (from ‘vermis,’ a worm), ‘_vert_’ (from ‘viridis,’ green), -and ‘_verre_’ (from ‘vitrum,’ glass) are all pronounced exactly -alike, and it is only by a knowledge of their derivation that one -can account for the difference of their forms. Again, _mère_ (from -mater, a mother), _mer_ (from mare, the sea), and _maire_ (from -major, greater) differ in spelling, though not in sound, because of -their different derivations. If all these words had the same form -of spelling because they have the same pronunciation, no one could -trace them to their source or account for their meaning. We may, -then, conclude that the proper spelling of a word depends mainly on -its etymology, and that the reason why bad spelling is looked upon -with such disfavour is, that it argues ignorance of derivation. - -In all probability, if the project of instituting an English -Academy for the regulation of our language were carried out, there -would immediately arise innumerable protests against its decisions. -It is well known that the literary decrees of the French Academy -are not generally accepted or adopted, and that the opinions of -some of the most eminent literati in France are directly against -its conclusions. Besides, the spirit of the English people is -so strongly opposed to dictation, in this as in other matters, -that such an institution would stand no chance of success in this -country. - -It is too much the fashion now-a-days to find fault with English -orthography, and it is also too much the fashion to acquiesce in -its general condemnation. But, in truth, it is only those who have -paid no attention to our language, as a scientific study, who -can fail to recognise the causes of these objections. The three -principal elements of English--viz. Saxon, French, and Latin--have, -each, and all, had some influence on the formation of our words; -and this will account for the various forms of our spelling. A -word, when introduced into a language, is at first spelled in -accordance with the genius of the nation from which it comes. By -degrees, and generally by slow degrees, it is moulded into a new -form by the genius and instinct of the language in which it is at -length naturalised; still, however, retaining sufficient of its -original form to indicate its source and etymology. Various causes -contribute to effect this change; a difference in pronunciation; -the influence of some local dialect, political, religious, or -literary disputes, the example of popular writers, &c. &c. may all -assist in working a change in the outward forms of words. - -But a study of the subject will prove that this operation must be -the work of time, and that no assumed power can, of itself, work -a sudden change in spelling. This alone is sufficient to account -for the failure of the phonographic system. It may also be laid -down for certain, that any newly-proposed form of spelling which -obscures or destroys the derivation of a word stands but little -chance of success. The general body of writers knew full well -that if they had at once adopted phonetic spelling, it would have -inevitably involved the language in confusion and ruin by the -destruction of its etymology, and would have thus effaced every -vestige of its beauty and variety. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORDS. - - -The history of English shows that it has been changed from a -synthetical, to an analytical language, that in the course of time -it has lost nearly all its inflections; and that for these endings -have been substituted signs and prepositions. Whether this change -has been for the better, or for the worse, may be a matter for -speculation; but allowing that, in some respects, the language may -have sustained a loss by this process, it is not difficult to show -that for this we have some compensating advantages--and that the -change has been favourable in at least two points: 1st. as regards -variety of sound in the endings of words: and 2. flexibility in -their use and application. - -In Latin, the recurrence of the verb in the same person naturally -produced a repetition of the same termination, which must have -had a very disagreeable and monotonous effect. In Cicero’s second -oration ‘in Catilinam,’ he has ‘Abi_it_, excess_it_, erup_it_, -evas_it_.’ Four consecutive words ending in _it_! Another example -of monotonous repetition, quoted by Cicero in his ‘De Naturâ -Deorum’ is, ‘clam_o_, postul_o_, obsecr_o_, or_o_, plor_o_, atque -implor_o_ fidem.’ Cæsar’s often-quoted letter, ‘Ven_i_, vid_i_, -vic_i_’ is open to the same objection, as well as the ‘tædet -h_arum_ quotidian_arum_ form_arum_’ of Terence. In all these cases, -the repetition of the endings must have produced a most harsh and -disagreeable effect; and if these passages were translated into -English, we should probably find that every word had a different -termination. - -But the flexibility of our language, which arises partly from the -same cause, is another, and perhaps more important consideration. -We can easily understand that the system of inflection, however -useful in itself, prevents the possibility of one part of speech -being used for another. In English, ‘love’ may be a noun or a verb; -but in Latin or French, we must use ‘amare’ or ‘aimer’ for the -verb, and ‘amor’ or ‘amour’ for the noun. This power of using one -part of speech for another, exists to such an extent in English, -that it may be almost said, that every word in the language may be -applied in a variety of senses and grammatical constructions. That -this is of incalculable advantage, every thoughtful English scholar -will surely allow; and it may be observed that not one of the -modern languages of Europe possesses this elastic power in the same -degree as English. This may be seen in the following cases:-- - -1st. Almost all our verbs in common use may be used as nouns. We -have ‘to walk,’ or to take ‘a walk;’ ‘to ride,’ or to enjoy ‘a -ride;’ ‘to talk,’ or to have ‘a talk; ‘to offer,’ or to make ‘an -offer;’ ‘to visit,’ or, to pay ‘a visit,’ &c. - -2. Nouns may be used as verbs:--We may say ‘a telegraph;’ or ‘to -telegraph’ a message; ‘butter,’ or ‘to butter’ bread; ‘sugar,’ or -‘to sugar’ tea; ‘a quarter,’ or ‘to quarter’ a regiment, &c. - -3. Adjectives are used as nouns:--We may say ‘a round table,’ or, -‘a round’ of visits; a ‘green’ tree, or to play on ‘the green;’ a -‘beautiful’ prospect, or a love for ‘the beautiful.’ And not only -can we use the adjective as a noun; we may even give it a plural -form. We often speak of ‘eatables and drinkables.’ A man may have -a fit of the ‘dismals,’ or the ‘blues;’ or he may be anxious about -his ‘good_s_,’ ‘moveable_s_,’ or ‘valuable_s_,’ &c. - -4. Adjectives are frequently used as verbs:--as, a ‘clear’ way, or -to ‘clear’ the way; a ‘long’ distance, or to ‘long’ for something; -a ‘still’ evening, or to ‘still’ the waves, &c. - -5. Comparative adjectives are occasionally used as verbs; as ‘a -better’ condition, or, ‘to better’ our condition; a ‘lower’ state, -or to ‘lower’ a rope; ‘further’ remarks, or ‘to further’ a design; -‘utter’ nonsense, or ‘to utter’ opinions, &c. - -6. Personal pronouns may be used as nouns: as, ‘A -downright _she_‘--(Byron.) ‘Left to be finished by such a -_she_.’--(Shakspere.) - -7. Conjunctions are frequently used as nouns; as, ‘But me no -_buts_’ How many ‘_thats_’ are there in the sentence? ‘Let us have -no more _ifs_ and _ands_,’ &c. - -8. Prepositions may be used in like manner: as, The _ins_ and -_outs_ of life. The ‘_ups_ and _downs_’ of fortune, &c. - -9. Even adverbs are sometimes constructed as nouns; as:--Which are -in the majority; the ‘_ayes_,’ or the ‘_noes_?’ - -This extraordinary plasticity of English applies particularly to -nouns signifying parts of the body. There is scarcely one of these -which may not be turned into a verb. For example, we commonly hear -that a man ‘_faces_’ his difficulties with courage. Hamlet says -of Polonius, ‘You may _nose_ him in the lobby.’ In Shakspere’s -‘Tempest’ we may read, ‘Full many a lady I have _eyed_ with best -regard.’ - -To _jaw_ is sometimes used, though not very elegantly, in the sense -of to chatter or scold. We often hear of a man ‘_elbowing_’ his -way through a crowd, and Goldsmith’s ‘Deserted Village’ gives us -‘_Shouldered_ his arms, and showed how fields were won.’ - -To ‘_hand_’ a plate, and to ‘_finger_’ a passage on the piano, -are everyday expressions. We also frequently hear of a coachman -‘_backing_’ his horses, and Shakspere has ‘to _foot_ it featly.’ -Besides these, may be noticed ‘to _thumb_ the leaves of a book’; to -‘_breast_ the waves;’ ‘to _palm_ off (for to cheat or deceive);’ to -_side_ with a party; and to _head_ an expedition. To these may be -added ‘to _bone_’ a fowl; ‘to _skin_’ a rabbit, and many others. -It may be reasonably doubted whether this power exists to anything -like the same extent in the continental languages. - -But not only the names of parts of the body; also those of many -articles of domestic use are employed in a similar way. We have -to _chair_ a member; we hear that people are _boarded_, and that -the earth is _carpeted_ with green. ‘_Curtained_’ sleep, and -‘_imbedded_’ in the earth, belong to the same class. One man is -said to _floor_ another in argument. To ‘_picture_ to yourself;’ -to _table_ the contents of a book; to be _closeted_ with a friend, -to _book_ a debt; to _pen_ a letter; to _ink_ a dress; to _paper_ -a room, and to _shelve_ a subject are all common and daily -expressions. They are, in every sense of the term, _household_ -words. - -In English, names of domestic animals are all Saxon; whereas wild -beasts for the most part retain their Latin or French names. Thus -‘cat,’ ‘hound,’ ‘horse,’ ‘sheep,’ ‘cow,’ ‘swine,’ &c., are of -Germanic origin; whilst ‘lion,’ ‘tiger,’ ‘elephant,’ ‘leopard,’ -‘panther,’ &c., come to us from Greek through Latin. The power we -have to use these names of animals as verbs is another instance of -the elasticity of our language. This can be done with some of the -above Saxon names, though not with those of wild beasts. The noun -‘horse’ is often used as a verb: a stable-keeper is said to _horse_ -a coach; i.e. to supply it with horses. We have also _to dodge_; -i.e. to follow a scent in and out like a dog. A man is _hounded_ on -to do such and such work; while to _rat_ is to desert your party. -Every one knows that to _duck_ is to dive in the water like a duck. -People are also said to be _gulled_ when they are easily deceived; -and to _drone_ when they read or speak monotonously. - -It is remarkable how often, colloquially, we use the names of -animals as types of temper or character. True, this is not peculiar -to the English language: though the practice is perhaps here more -extended. People continually employ the word ‘ass’ or ‘donkey’ in -the sense of a stupid loutish fellow. They also often stigmatise -a cunning man as a ‘fox;’ or a scolding shrew as a ‘vixen.’ A -proud little strut is called ‘a cock of the walk;’ and a reckless -spendthrift is a ‘sad dog;’ or sometimes a ‘jolly dog.’ ‘Puppy’ -is suggestive of conceit and self-sufficiency; and a slothful, -indolent man is spoken of as a lazy ‘hound.’ A ‘hog’ is sometimes -used as a metaphor for a glutton; and a ‘pig’ for a dirty fellow. -‘Pig-headed’ is also applied to one of stubborn temper; a ‘mule’ -is a type of obstinacy; and a ‘horse,’ in the sense of a beast -of burden, is found in ‘towel-horse,’ or ‘clothes-horse.’ Men of -rude manners are spoken of as ‘bears,’ and the weak or timid in -disposition are called ‘chicken’-hearted. A fond mother speaks -of her child as her pet ‘lamb,’ or little ‘duck.’ Silliness is -typified by ‘goose,’ and mischief by ‘monkey,’ &c. Here it will be -found that these words are, with one or two exceptions, used in -a disparaging, and not in a favourable, sense. They are, most of -them, terms of reproach, not of praise. - -Words have not only degenerated in sense; their outward form has -also suffered. One principle--contraction--has affected both the -pronunciation and spelling of many words. It may be taken as a -general rule that words, as they grow older, become softer and -shorter. They seldom expand, but almost always contract. This -probably originated in a loose careless way of speaking, which -afterwards affected the written language. Contractions appear -in a great variety of forms. 1st. They are made by cutting off -an initial syllable, as ‘‘prentice,’ for ‘apprentice;’ ‘‘peach,’ -for ‘impeach;’ ‘‘gin,’ for ‘engine;’ ‘‘suage,’ for ‘assuage;’ -‘‘cyclopædia,’ for ‘encyclopædia;’ &c. Among the words which have -lost their initial letters, three are to be especially noticed: -viz. ‘luck,’ ‘irksome,’ and ‘orchard.’ The first of these was -originally ‘Glück,’ and is still so spelled in German, whence -it comes. ‘Irksome’ was in Anglo-Saxon written ‘(w)eorcsam,’ -i.e. full of work, and therefore troublesome; and ‘orchard’ is -a corruption of ‘(w)ort-yard,’ that is, a yard in which (worts) -plants or vegetables were grown. 2nd. By cutting off a final -syllable; as in ‘pro and con,’ for ‘contra;’ ‘cit,’ for ‘citizen;’ -‘without,’ formerly ‘withouten;’ ‘incog,’ for ‘incognito;’ ‘hyp,’ -for ‘hypochondria;’ ‘consols,’ for ‘consolidated annuities,’ &c. -3rd. By taking a letter, or letters, from the middle of a word; as -‘else,’ for ‘elles;’ ‘lark,’ for ‘laverock;’ ‘last,’ for ‘latest;’ -‘lord,’ for ‘hlaford;’ ‘since,’ for ‘sithence;’ ‘parrot,’ for -‘perroquet;’ and ‘fortnight,’ for ‘fourteen nights;’ ‘cheer up’ -is contracted into ‘chirrup,’ and then into ‘chirp;’ ‘speak’ -comes from ‘sp_r_ecan;’ and the Anglo-Saxon ‘wi_f_man’ appears as -‘woman.’ By the same law are formed many proper names. ‘Twell,’ -for ‘at the well;’ ‘Thill,’ for ‘at the hill;’ ‘Oxford,’ for -‘Ox_en_ford;’ ‘Cambridge,’ for ‘Cant_e_brigge,’ &c. - -Many other cases may be cited as examples of this law. The word -‘(E)piscop(us)’ has suffered a mutilation at both the beginning -and the end; and appears in English as ‘Bishop.’ The prefix ‘ge,’ -commonly used in Saxon, and still retained in German participles, -lingered for some time in English in the softened form of _y_; as -in ‘_y_clept,’ ‘_y_clothed,’ &c.; but it has now vanished from the -language. Another instance of the same tendency may be seen in the -present pronunciation of participles ending in ‘ed.’ Formerly, the -word ‘used’ was always pronounced as a dissyllable--‘usèd;’ now it -is universally pronounced as a monosyllable. Indeed, this final -‘ed,’ as a distinct syllable though still occasionally heard in the -pulpit, is fast disappearing from our language. - -Contraction was the main principle on which the ancient Latin was -transformed into French. It is curious to observe that though this -contracting power did operate in Italian, it was not there carried -out to the same degree as in French; that is, though Italian words -are, in most cases, shorter than their Latin equivalents, they are -not so contracted as the French words of the same meaning. This may -be easily shown by comparison:-- - - _Latin._ _Italian._ _French._ - - apotheca bottega boutique - male-aptus malatto malade - quisque unus ciascuno chacun - ad hanc horam ancora encore - ad illam horam allora alors - ad satis assai assez - in simul insieme ensemble - semetipsissimus medesimo même - de retro dietro derrière - de illo dello du - homo uomo on - gaudium giojo joie - -and many others. - - -_Expansion._ - -On the other hand, there are some few cases where words are -expanded or widened by the insertion of a letter. 1st. Of -a vowel. We have ‘alar_u_m,’ for ‘alarm;’ ‘law_y_er,’ for -‘lawer;’ ‘cloth_i_er,’ for ‘clother.’ The _i_ is also inserted -in ‘parl_i_ament,’ ‘Sav_i_our,’ ‘hand_i_craft,’ ‘hand_i_work,’ -‘per_i_winkle,’ and a few others. - -2nd. Sometimes, _l_ or _r_ is inserted; as in ‘princip_l_e,’ from -‘principe;’ ‘syllab_l_e,’ from ‘syllabe;’ ‘cart_r_idge,’ from -‘cartouche;’ ‘part_r_idge,’ from the Latin ‘perdix,’ through the -French ‘perd_r_ix;’ ‘g_r_oom,’ from the Anglo-Saxon ‘guma,’ a man; -‘vag_r_ant,’ from ‘vagans;’ and ‘co_r_poral,’ from ‘caporal.’ - -3rd. P and B are often inserted after _m_; as ’em_p_ty,’ -Anglo-Saxon ‘æmtig,’ ‘tem_p_t,’ from the French ‘tenter;’ -’em_b_ers,’ from the Anglo-Saxon ‘æmyrje;’ ‘nim_b_le,’ from the -Anglo-Saxon ‘nemol.’ Also in ‘lam_b_,’ ‘lim_b_,’ ‘crum_b_,’ -‘thum_b_,’ and ‘num_b_,’ the _b_ forms no part of the root. - -4th. D naturally attaches itself to _n_ final; as in ‘soun_d_,’ -‘riban_d_,’ ‘len_d_,’ &c. This may probably account for certain -provincial pronunciations, as ‘gown_d_,’ ‘drown_d_,’ &c. Also in -‘thun_d_er,’ ‘kin_d_red,’ and ‘yon_d_er,’ the _d_ is parasitical. - - -_Assimilation._ - -Assimilation, or the coming together of letters which have an -affinity for each other, is a principle which affects the spelling, -as well as the pronunciation, of many English words. This law -softens the pronunciation, and will account for the frequent -occurrence of a double consonant at the beginning of a large class -of words. The rule is here:--‘_When a prefix ending in a consonant -is applied to a root beginning with one, that consonant disappears, -and there is substituted for it the initial consonant of the -root_.’ This happens most frequently in English words compounded -with Latin prepositions. The _d_ in the preposition ‘_ad_’ is often -assimilated to the initial consonant of the root to which it is -applied. - -The word ‘a_cc_ede’ is made up of ‘ad’ (to) and ‘cede’ (come). -But the initial _c_ in ‘cede’ assimilated to itself the _d_ in -‘ad,’ i.e. changed it into a _c_. Thus ‘adcede’ became ‘a_cc_ede.’ -This law will account for the double consonant in such forms as -‘a_cc_ost,’ ‘a_gg_rieve,’ ‘a_ll_ude,’ ‘a_mm_unition,’ ‘a_nn_ex,’ -‘a_pp_ly,’ ‘a_ss_ist,’ ‘a_tt_ract,’ and many others. In all these -cases the first syllable was originally ‘_ad_.’ - -This law applies with equal force to other Latin prepositions -which enter into the formation of English words; as ‘con,’ ‘in,’ -‘per,’ ‘sub,’ &c. We spell the word ‘co_ll_ect’ for ‘conlect;’ -‘co_mm_une,’ for ‘conmune,’ &c. On the same principle we write -‘i_ll_egal,’ for ‘inlegal;’ ‘i_rr_egular,’ for ‘inregular;’ -‘pe_ll_ucid,’ for ‘perlucid;’ ‘su_cc_umb,’ for ‘subcumb;’ and many -others. But when the root begins with a labial (_b_, _p_, or _m_), -then the final consonant of the preposition is always changed into -_m_. This is why we write ‘i_m_bibe,’ and not ‘ibbibe;’ ‘i_m_bue,’ -not ‘ibbue;’ and ‘i_m_possible,’ not ‘ipposible,’ &c. - -This principle of assimilation has operated in the formation of the -words ‘ha_mm_ock’ and ‘sti_rr_up.’ The first is from ‘hang-mat,’ -where the _ng_ has been assimilated to _m_. The second is from the -Anglo-Saxon ‘stig-rope’ (literally, ‘mount-rope,’ or rope to mount -by), where _r_ is substituted for the _g_ in ‘stig.’ - - -_Attraction._ - -Attraction is another principle which affects the forms of certain -words. Sometimes a consonant is drawn away from the word to -which it properly belongs, and becomes a part of its neighbour. -The effect of this law is especially remarkable in the article -‘_an_.’ In certain cases the _n_ (of a_n_) does not really belong -to the article, but is the initial letter of the noun following. -This happens in the case of ‘an orange;’ the word ‘orange’ is, in -Spanish, whence it is derived, ‘naranja,’ and we should therefore -write ‘a norange’ rather than ‘an orange.’ But the article _a_ has -attracted to itself the initial _n_ of the noun, and the result -is--‘an orange.’ For the same reason ‘an adder’ should be written -‘a natter,’ or ‘a nadder.’ On the other hand, there are cases in -which the _n_ of the article is attracted into the following word. -If the word ‘apron’ is from the French ‘naperon’ (from nappe, -cloth), we should write ‘a napron,’ and not ‘an apron.’ Several of -these cases may be pointed out. We say and write, ‘a neap tide,’ -instead of ‘an ebb tide;’ ‘a newt,’ for ‘an ewt’ (or eft); and, -on the other hand, ‘an auger,’ for ‘a nauger;’ ‘an awl,’ for ‘a -nawl;’ and ‘an umpire’ for ‘a nompire.’ The same principle operates -in certain French expressions. The province of Southern Italy -formerly known as ‘Apulia,’ is in French written ‘La Pouille.’ Here -the _a_ initial of ‘Apulia’ is attracted into the article. The -expression should be ‘L’Apouille,’ and not ‘La Pouille.’ In the -same way, the French call ‘Anatolia’ (Asia Minor), ‘La Natolie;’ -whereas it should be written ‘L’Anatolie.’ It is from the Greek -ἀνατολή--the rising of the sun. - - -_Accent._ - -The accent of an English word depends chiefly on its derivation. -In words of Saxon origin, it is placed on the root. For example, -‘lóve’ is an accented monosyllable, and preserves its accent on -the root, in all its derivations; as in ‘lóving,’ ‘lóveliness,’ -‘lóveable,’ &c. But in Romance words, the tendency is to put -the accent on the branches, and not on the root. In French, -the vocabulary is drawn mainly from Latin words without their -inflections. The French words ‘natúre,’ ‘fatál,’ ‘aimáble,’ &c., -have the accent on the second syllable, because they are formed -from the Latin ‘natúra,’ ‘fatális,’ and ‘amábilis,’ without the -endings. But in English all these and similar words are accented -on the first syllable; and we pronounce them ‘náture,’ ‘fátal,’ -‘ámiable.’ In Chaucer’s poetry, many French words are accented on -the second or third syllable, in accordance with the classical -principle; thus, we there find ‘honóur,’ ‘natión,’ ‘companý,’ -&c. All these, after Chaucer’s time, shifted the accent back to -the first syllable, thus conforming themselves to the genius -of the English language. There is, to this day, in English a -conflict in the accent between the two principles, the Teutonic -and the Romance; the former leaning to the root, and the latter -to the branches of the word. But even in classical words, as -regards accent, the Saxon genius clearly prevails. We accent -the word ‘órdinary’ on the first syllable, which contains the -pith of its meaning; whereas the French place the accent on the -last--‘ordináire.’ It was probably the antagonism between these -two principles--the Germanic tendency toward the beginning, -and the Romance toward the end, of the word, which caused the -accent in English to be so long unsettled. But the genius of the -Saxon eventually triumphed over the French element, in accent as -well as in grammatical forms, and the general rule in English -pronunciation, is to put the accent on the root. - -The spelling of certain English derivatives depends on the place of -the accent in their roots. Now, when the last syllable of the root -is accented, the final consonant must be doubled in the derivative. -This accounts for the root ‘rób’ (with one b), making ‘ro_bb_ed,’ -and ‘ro_bb_er,’ (with two b’s) admí_t_ (one _t_), making admi_tt_ed -(two t’s), &c. - -But when the accent lies on any other syllable of the root, the -final consonant must remain single in the derivative, as ‘límit,’ -‘lími_t_ed;’ ‘díffer,’ ‘díffe_r_ing;’ ‘bénefit,’ ‘bénefi_t_ed;’ &c. -This rule applies only to root-endings consisting of a single vowel -followed by a single consonant; for if a diphthong precede, the -consonant must remain single in the derivative. We must therefore -write ‘joi_n_er,’ ‘stea_m_ing,’ ‘toi_l_ing,’ ‘rea_d_er,’ &c., with -single consonants. - -But there are exceptions to this general rule. One especially -regards roots ending in _l_. These always double the _l_ in the -derivative, whether the last syllable of the root be accented -or not. The verb ‘to expél,’ will, by the above rule, naturally -make its past tense, ‘expelled;’ but why should ‘trável’ give -‘traveller,’ or ‘équal,’ ‘equalled?’ These, though universally -adopted, are clearly against the principle. Two other words are -also exceptions, ‘worship,’ and ‘bias.’ These make ‘worshipped,’ -and ‘biassed,’ with double consonants. The Americans refuse to -admit these exceptions, and they write ‘trave_l_er,’ ‘equa_l_ed,’ -‘worshi_p_ed,’ and ‘bia_s_ed,’ with single consonants. It must be -admitted that they are right in principle, but the general practice -in English is in these cases decidedly in favour of the double -consonant. - - -_Inversion._ - -There appears in certain letters a peculiar tendency to get out of -order--to slip into a wrong place--a restless desire for change. No -letter of the alphabet is more subject to this affection than the -liquid, _r_. Many French words ending in _re_, are found in English -to end in _er_. The French ‘lett_re_’ is in English ‘lett_er_.’ -The final syllables of ‘Septembre,’ ‘Octobre,’ ‘Novembre’ and -‘Décembre,’ are inverted in English, and are written ‘Septemb_er_,’ -&c. The Greek root ἑρπ (creep) gave in Latin ‘_rep_ĕre;’ whence -we have ‘_rep_tile,’ &c. ‘B_ru_nt,’ is derived from ‘b_ur_n.’ The -‘brunt’ of a battle is where it ‘burns’ most fiercely. Again: a -‘p_ur_pose’ is what we ‘p_ro_pose’ to do; and ‘to t_ru_ndle’ a hoop -is to ‘t_ur_n’ it repeatedly. The Saxon verb ‘_ur_nan,’ is the -source of the English ‘_ru_n.’ ‘B_ri_mstone’ is an inversion of -‘b_ur_n-stone;’ and the verb to ‘ask,’ was in Anglo-Saxon, ‘axian.’ -Chaucer has ‘drit’ for ‘dirt;’ ‘briddes,’ for ‘birds,’ &c. - - -_Corruption._ - -When a word is warped or distorted from its original form, either -by a vicious pronunciation, or by a mistaken notion of its -derivation, it is said to be a corruption. Though we must accept -and adopt the usual spelling of such words, it may be useful and -interesting to know what brought them into their present forms. - -When a word is first pronounced in the hearing of those who do -not know its meaning, its spelling naturally becomes with them, -a mere imitation of the sound. It is remarkable how often these -corruptions appear in the names of taverns and ships. Such words -being most frequently in the mouths of the illiterate, will soon -acquire a false pronunciation, which, after a time, leads to a -false spelling, and hence many of their present forms. It was this -rude attempt to imitate a sound that led the sailors to call their -ship ‘Bellerophon’ the ‘Billy Ruffian.’ From the same cause, the -sign of the ‘Boulogne Mouth’ was corrupted into ‘Bull and Mouth;’ -and the ‘Bacchanals’ (a very appropriate name for an inn), was -transformed into the ‘Bag of Nails.’ It is said that our soldiers -in India could never be taught to pronounce properly ‘Surajah -Dowlah,’ the name of that Bengal prince who figured in the affair -of the Black Hole. They persisted in calling him ‘Sir Roger Dowlas!’ - -Some of these corrupt forms are so firmly rooted in the language, -that they must now be recognised as correct, and adopted -accordingly. We are told that the word ‘grocer’ was originally -‘grosser,’ and meant one who sold articles in the gross (_en -gros_). This is probably the true explanation; but we must not, on -that account, revert to the old spelling. It would be eccentric -and pedantic in the extreme to write ‘rightwise’ for ‘righteous;’ -‘frontispice’ for ‘frontispiece,’ or ‘shamefast’ for ‘shamefaced;’ -for though the first may have been the true and original form of -these words, custom must here take precedence of derivation, and we -must spell them according to the present usual practice. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA. - - -It is worthy of observation that all nations do not express -the same idea by the same form of word, i.e. that in different -languages the same idea is often represented by a word of a -distinctly different root. How comes it, we may ask, that the -Romance languages of Europe, viz. French, Italian, Spanish, &c. -all use forms of the originally same word to express their idea of -‘_king_,’ viz. roi, re, rey? These languages being off-shoots of -Latin, the above words are all derived from the Latin ‘rex,’ from -‘rego,’ ‘I rule,’ or exert physical power. Now in the Teutonic -languages of Europe--Dutch, German, English, etc.--we find this -idea in a very different phase: ‘Konig,’ ‘König,’ ‘King.’ The root -of these words may be found in ‘kennen,’ ‘to know.’ From this it -would appear that the idea of a ruler in one class of nations was -a physically strong man, who, by means of his bodily strength, -could force his subjects to do his will. The Saxon for ‘king’ was -‘cyning,’ from ‘cnawan’ to know, i.e. one who ‘knew’ better than -his subjects or followers--who was superior to them in knowledge. -We may, perhaps, conclude from this that the Romance nations -regarded strength or physical power as the distinguishing quality -of a ruler; whereas the Germanic tribes saw in their leader one who -was able to guide them aright by his superior thought and judgment. -The Romans looked to the hand, the Germans to the head, in this -matter. Is it not likely that attention to such differences may -throw some light on national characteristics? - -Another example of this difference of view of the same idea may -be seen in the English word ‘finger,’ as compared with the French -‘doigt.’ ‘Finger’ is connected with the German ‘fangen,’ to take -hold of, and is a relation of our word ‘fang,’ i.e. the tooth with -which certain animals _hold_ their prey. In the Germanic view of -the word it is the instrument with which we ‘take hold.’ On the -other hand, the Greek δάκτυλος, from δείκνυμι, I show or point out, -appeared in Latin as ‘digitus;’ passed into Italian as ‘dito,’ and -into French as ‘doigt.’ The Romance view of the word would then be -‘a pointer or indicator,’ and the Teutonic a holder or catcher. - -The French word ‘mouchoir’ will also illustrate this difference of -view. This is from ‘(se) moucher,’ to wipe (the nose). It would -be considered extremely vulgar to call this article in English -‘a wiper,’ and yet this is literally its French meaning. The -Germans have named it ‘Schnupftuch,’ or ‘snuff-cloth,’ another -view of the same thing. But the corresponding English word, -‘handkerchief,’ presents us with a most curious anomaly. The -first form of the word was ‘kerchief,’ which is the old French -‘couvre-chef,’ i.e. a covering for the head, just as ‘curfew’ was -from ‘couvre-feu’--‘cover-fire.’ Milton has the word ‘kerchiefed’ -in the sense of ‘with the head covered.’ He speaks of Morn-- - - _Kerchiefed_ in a comely cloud.--_Penseroso._ - -Now, if to ‘kerchief’ we prefix ‘hand,’ we have a word which seems -to mean a covering for the head, held in the hand--which is a -manifest absurdity! But the climax of confusion is reached when we -qualify this word by ‘pocket.’ How the covering for the _head_ is -to be held in the _hand_, and yet carried in the _pocket_ is enough -to puzzle anyone. - -Another instance of this description may be seen in the word -‘heaven.’ In the Teutonic languages it represents the idea of -something raised on high, or _heaved_ up--from ‘heafan’ and -‘heben,’ to lift up, or elevate. But the Romance view of this word -is connected with the idea of hollowness or concavity. The Greek -κοῖλον; the Latin ‘cœlum;’ the Italian ‘cielo;’ and the French -‘ciel’--all involve the meaning of a hollow, or arched covering. - -A great variety of expression may be also seen if we compare -together the idioms of several European languages. These -peculiarities may be looked upon as characterising the tone and -habits of thought of a nation, and they deserve especial study and -attention. If we take the usual form of greeting in English--‘How -do you do?’ here we may see that the verb _do_ is indicative of -the activity and practical nature of the English mind. It would -seem as if in this country our bodily health actually depends upon -our _doing_; i.e. our business habits; that to be occupied is -equivalent to being in good health. Now if we take the ordinary -corresponding French phrase--‘Comment vous _portez_-vous?’--we -may fairly infer that the well-being in this case depends on the -_carriage_, or outward bearing of the person. The Germans, under -the same circumstances, say: ‘Wie befinden Sie sich?’ (literally, -‘how do they _find_ themselves?’) May not this form of expression -throw some light on the German character? May it not point to that -tendency to deep reflection which is known to be so strikingly -distinctive of the German tone of mind? From this we may conclude -that the German is so habituated to deep thought that he cannot -even tell you the state of his health, without searching till -he _finds_ it out. The Italian corresponding form, ‘Come sta?’ -(literally, ‘How does he stand?’), is referred to the _standing_ of -the Lombard merchants in the market-place; and in this case, the -well-being or health seems to have depended on the prosperity of -the dealer. In these remarks on the different forms of greeting, -there may appear something fanciful, but one thing is clear, viz. -that they all differ from each other, and it is but natural to -conclude, that each has some connection with the turn of mind of -the people to which it belongs. Of course it would be wrong to -form positive opinions concerning national character, from the -examination of only one idiom; and it would be necessary to collect -and compare a large number of examples to arrive at satisfactory -conclusions on this head. But we should look into the philosophy of -idiom more keenly, for here we are most likely to find a key to the -character of every civilised nation. - -Another example of this variety may be seen in the form of address -adopted in the different countries of Europe. We English speak -to one another in the second person plural, even when we address -one person. We say ‘you are,’ to one single person, and if we -have to address a thousand, we must use the same form. This may, -probably, partly account for the grammatical fault so commonly made -by the uneducated--‘_you was_.’ Feeling that they are speaking -to only one person, and not knowing that the pronoun (you) is, -strictly speaking, plural, they very naturally--though, of course, -incorrectly--put the ‘you’ and the ‘was’ together. - -The French also adopt the second person plural in the same -case--‘vous êtes.’ But they use the second person singular much -more frequently than we do, especially between relations and -intimate friends. ‘Tu’ and ‘toi,’ however, have lost much of their -former charm since the great revolution, when the levelling spirit -of the Government merged all differences of rank into one common -form of address. In certain circumstances, the French use the third -person singular as a mark of respect. When a lady goes into a shop -in Paris, the first question asked her is, ‘Qu’est-ce que madame -désire?’ and, in the same way, her servant says to her, ‘Madame, -a-t-elle sonné?’ - -The Germans, in the same circumstances, use the third person -plural--‘Sie sind,’ literally ‘they are.’ This usage has prevailed -in Germany ever since the sixteenth century, and is supposed to -express respect. But in cases of intimacy, or relationship, the -Germans also use the pronoun of the second person singular. A -German husband always addresses his wife, or a brother his sister, -as _du_, but if scorn or contempt be intended, then the third -person singular is adopted. In Germany, the best way to get rid -of an importunate beggar is to exclaim, ‘Was will _er_?’ which is -about equivalent to our ‘What does the fellow want?’ - -Majesty still speaks, in this country, in the plural number. The -Queen issues a proclamation, beginning with:--‘Given at _our_ -court of St. James’, &c. The editorial ‘we’ is also well known as -expressing a certain importance and authority. In Italy, the form -used in addressing any one is the third person singular, ‘Come -sta,’ literally, ‘How does he stand?’ - -If we compare the words which express degrees of kindred or -relationship in one language with those of a corresponding class in -another, we shall find distinctly different pictures. The French -words ‘mari’ and ‘femme,’ merely show a difference of sex. ‘Mari’ -is from the Latin ‘maritus’ (mas, maris), ‘a male,’ and ‘femme,’ -is derived from ‘femina,’ ‘female.’ But if we put against these -the corresponding English terms ‘husband’ and ‘wife,’ a totally -new scene is opened to our view. ‘Husband’ is etymologically, the -‘man of the house,’ or the ‘house-protector;’ and the ‘wife’ is -the ‘weaving-one.’ Indeed, we shall find that most of the Saxon -words expressing degrees of kindred, have reference to occupations. -The _hus_band was the head or protector of the house. The wife -(as her name shows) _wove_ the cloth for the use of the family. -But before the cloth could be woven, it must be _spun_, and this -was done by the grown-up unmarried women, for that reason called -‘_spinsters_.’ The word ‘daughter’ is traced to a Sanscrit root, -‘dhu’--milk; whence we infer that the daughters milked the cows, a -very appropriate occupation in a primitive state of society. The -word ‘son’ is supposed to be derived from a Sanscrit root ‘_su_’ or -‘_pu_,’ originally signifying ‘clean,’ from which we may conclude -that their office was to _clean_ out the house. The ‘husband’ then -was the ‘protector;’ the ‘wife,’ the ‘weaver;’ the ‘unmarried -women,’ the ‘spinners’ (or ‘spinsters’); the ‘daughters,’ the -‘milkers;’ and the ‘sons,’ the ‘cleaners.’ With what hallowed -feelings are all these words associated, and what a vivid picture -do they present of the primitive simplicity of family society! No -such picture of domestic life is exhibited in the Latin or French -words which express these relations, and we may look in vain for -anything of this sort in the Romance languages. - -The Teutonic view of the place of punishment in a future life, -somewhat differs from the Romance. We English call it _hell_, the -French and Italians, _enfer_ and _inferno_. Our word is derived -from the old Saxon verb ‘_helan_,’ ‘to cover up’ or ‘hide;’ ‘enfer’ -and ‘inferno’ are from ‘inferus,’ ‘below,’ so that the Germanic -idea is here ‘a concealed or covered place;’ the classical view of -the same is ‘the place below, or underground.’ - -If we compare the English word ‘_shoe_,’ with the French -‘_soulier_’ we shall also find a difference in the original -meaning. They both represent the same article of dress, but our -word ‘_shoe_’ is from ‘shove,’ it is that into which we ‘shove’ the -foot; whereas the French ‘_soulier_’ rather suggests ‘sandal’ than -‘shoe,’ properly so called. It means literally, something ‘bound -under’ (sous-lié), i.e. under the foot. - -Our common word ‘_thimble_,’ is connected with ‘thumb,’ on which -it was originally worn. The Germans choose to call this article -‘_Fingerhut_,’ literally, a ‘finger-hat,’ i.e. a hat or covering -for the finger. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -COMPOUND WORDS. - - -One of the greatest advantages a language can possess, is the power -of forming compound words. This materially contributes to its -conciseness;--makes it comparatively easy to express much in few -words--and thus assists, by concentrating its force, in rendering -it vigorous and impressive. This power of compounding is found -chiefly in the Teutonic languages of Europe; and is comparatively -unknown in the Romance. In our own case, it was considerably -modified by the Norman Conquest, which introduced a French (or -Latin) element into English. We still, however, possess this power -to a considerable extent; and herein we enjoy certain advantages -unknown to French or Italian. German, the most cultivated of all -the Teutonic languages, has much more of this characteristic; and, -in point of closeness and compactness of expression, is superior -to English. But there are symptoms of its still further decrease -in our language, and it is worthy of observation that the general -tendency with us is to give up Saxon compounds, and to substitute -for them Latin or French terms. The old word ‘deathsman’ has its -present equivalent in ‘executioner;’ ‘mildheartedness’ has become -‘mercy;’ ‘long-suffering,’ ‘patience,’ &c. The verb ‘to gainsay’ -still lingers in the language, but its place is now generally taken -by ‘to contradict.’ ‘To gainstrive’ is supplanted by ‘to oppose.’ -‘To inspect’ is preferred before ‘to look into;’ and ‘to despise’ -is used rather than ‘to look down upon.’ - -The first English poet who gave prominence to this power of -combination was Chapman, who applied it with wonderfully happy -effect in his Homer’s Iliad, in translating the compound Greek -epithets which so frequently occur in that poem; such as -‘swift-footed;’ ‘ivory-wristed;’ ‘white-armed;’ ‘many-headed;’ -‘rosy-fingered,’ &c. Most of these were afterwards adopted by Pope. -There is a tendency in some modern English writers to carry this -compounding power to an unwarrantable extent, a practice which -should certainly be resisted, as being opposed to the genius of -our language, and also giving evidence of aping after Germanic -forms, and thus transgressing the proper limits of the language. -The late Madame d’Arblay, in her ‘Memoirs of Dr. Burney,’ -speaks of the ‘very-handsome,-though-no-longer-in-her-bloom-Mrs. -Stevens!’ and this authoress also has the ‘sudden-at-the-moment- -though-from-lingering-illness-often-previously-expected-death.’ -But this is really too bad. ‘It out-Herods Herod;’ and in these -cases is a mere piece of affectation. - -The mania at one time for these long-tailed adjectives, was -very cleverly ridiculed by the brothers James and Horace -Smith, in their ‘Rejected Addresses.’ Here in caricaturing -the style of the ‘Morning Post,’ they speak of the -‘not-a-bit-the-less-on-that-account-to-be-universally-execrated- -monster-Bonaparte.’ Another of these extraordinary epithets -is:--‘That-deeply-to-be-abhorred-and-highly-to-be-blamed-stratagem- -the-Gunpowder-Plot!’ But the climax of the caricature is reached in -the following. Speaking of Covent-garden market, the writer calls it -‘The-in-general-strewn-with-cabbage-stalks-but-on-Saturday-night- -lighted-up-with-lamps-market-of-Covent-garden!!’ But such legitimate -compound forms as ‘ill-assorted,’ ‘cloud-capped,’ ‘far-darting,’ -&c., are highly valuable, and of great service to the language. It -is to be observed that none of these are literally translatable into -French. For such an adjective as ‘broken-hearted,’ there is no -corresponding equivalent in that language. The only way to express, -in French, any approach to the meaning of our word, is to use a -ponderous circumlocution, which will require at least three or four -terms. The expression is thus enfeebled by being broken up into a -number of words, and it loses all the force and vigour of the -English. A ‘broken-hearted father’ would be probably expressed in -French by ‘un père qui a le cœur brisé’--exactly five words for our -one. And so of all other compound terms. In fact, French does not -lend itself to closeness and compactness of expression; and, in -this respect, is far inferior to any of the Teutonic languages. - -One peculiarity of the Saxon part of English is its monosyllabic -nature. This was chiefly caused by the falling-off of the endings. -All our prepositions and conjunctions, beside most of the nouns, -verbs, and adjectives in common use, are monosyllables. These form -the staple of the English language, and are the chief elements -of closeness and brevity of expression. Our legitimate compound -words seldom consist of more than two, or at most three, elements. -The greater number are made up of monosyllables; as ‘milk-maid,’ -‘oat-meal,’ ‘foot-boy,’ ‘hail-storm,’ &c. In a few cases, they are -compounded of three terms, as ‘out-of-doors,’ ‘matter-of-fact,’ -‘out-of-the-way,’ &c.; but these are comparatively rare. There are -few, if perhaps any, cases of English words which have more than -seven syllables. This seems to be the length of our tether in this -respect. Perhaps it is as well that it should be so; for whatever -may be said of the use of the compounding principle, as giving -closeness and energy of expression, there is no doubt that, when -carried to excess, it has a directly contrary effect. When a very -large number of elements are fused together into one word, there is -naturally a difficulty in getting at the original root and primary -meaning of the whole; and the expression becomes cumbrous and -unintelligible. - -This combining or compounding power is of different degrees in -different languages, but in the Mexican language it is carried to -an incredible extent. Here, combinations are admitted so easily, -that the simplest ideas are buried under a load of accessories. -For example, the word for a ‘priest,’ consists of eleven -syllables, and is there called ‘notlazomahuizleopixcatatzin,’ -which means literally, ‘venerable minister of God, whom -I love as my father.’ A still more comprehensive word is -‘amatlacuilolitquitcatlaxtlahuitli,’ which means ‘the reward -given to a messenger who brings a hieroglyphical map conveying -intelligence.’ - -This system displays a most curious mechanism, which, by bringing -the greatest number of ideas into the smallest possible compass, -condenses whole sentences into a single word. Many of our older -writers indulged in derivatives and compound words to an extent -which the language does not now admit, in consequence of its having -lost part of its Saxon character. We still have ‘to undo;’ but to -‘unput’ (for to take away) and to ‘undestroy’ (for to rebuild) were -formerly used, and Fuller even employs the verb ‘_to ungrayhair_,’ -in the sense of ‘to pull out gray hairs.’ He writes of a man being -‘ungrayhaired,’ when all his gray hairs were plucked out of his -head! - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS. - - -It is simply impossible to express sound by writing, and therefore -all instruction in pronunciation should be given vivâ voce. A -pronouncing Dictionary may sometimes afford assistance; but in many -cases it must fail, as it is an attempt to explain varieties or -shades of sound by varieties of shape, i.e. combinations of written -letters--in fine, objects of one sense by those of another. - -It is not easy to fix a standard of pronunciation. At one time -the stage, then the bar, and, later still, the pulpit, have been -considered as authorities in this matter. But all these are now -rejected, and the conversation of the highest classes in London -society is now looked upon as the standard of English pronunciation. - -Pronunciation, like everything else connected with language, -varies continually with the influence of time and fashion; and -it is well known that, even fifty years ago, many English words -were pronounced differently from the present practice. It was -formerly the fashion to pronounce ‘leisure’ (which now rhymes with -‘pleasure’) as if written ‘leezure’ (to rhyme with ‘seizure’). -This was never a vulgar pronunciation; it was done by the highest -classes. It was also the fashion to pronounce ‘oblige’ more like -the French verb ‘obliger’ as if written ‘obl_ee_ge,’ and this also -was the practice with the best educated. ‘Gold’ also was formerly -pronounced by good speakers as if rhyming with ‘ruled;’ now it -properly rhymes with ‘old’ or ‘cold.’ - -We may conclude, from some of Pope’s rhymes, that, in the early -part of the eighteenth century, our language was not pronounced -exactly as it is at present. He has ‘line’ and ‘join’ rhyming with -each other; also ‘vice’ and ‘destroys,’ ‘power’ and ‘secure,’ -‘safe’ and ‘laugh,’ ‘obey’ and ‘tea,’ &c. Some of these may have -been peculiar to the poet himself, and may be regarded as bad -rhymes; still, as Pope was an authority for the language of his own -time, most of them were, in all probability, recognised as correct. - -Stories are told of the peculiar pronunciation of some of the -leading literati of the last century which appear scarcely -credible. Dr. Johnson is said to have pronounced the word ‘fair’ -like ‘fear,’ and the adverb ‘once’ as if written ‘woonse.’ He also -called ‘punch’ ‘poonsh.’ Garrick was often remarked for saying -‘shupreme’ and ‘shuperior’ for ‘supreme’ and ‘superior.’ He also -pronounced ‘Israel’ as ‘Isrel,’ ‘villain’ as if ‘villin,’ and, -still more strangely, ‘appeal’ as ‘appal.’ - -John Kemble had several peculiarities of pronunciation. He -is known to have always said ‘bird’ for ‘beard,’ ‘ferse’ for -‘fierce,’ and my head ‘aitches’ (for ‘aches’). He persisted, -too, in pronouncing ‘Cato’ with the _a_ broad, as if written -‘Cāāto.’ Of this peculiarity an amusing anecdote is related. ‘One -evening, at the Dublin Theatre, after the performance of Addison’s -tragedy, the manager appeared on the stage, and made the following -statement:--“Ladies and gentlemen, to-morrow evening, with your -permission, the tragedy of Cato will be repeated, the part of -‘_Cāāto_’ by Mr. Kemble.”’ - -Another story is told of the same eminent actor, who, when George -III. said to him: ‘Mr. Kemble, will you “obleege” me with a pinch -of your snuff?’ replied: ‘With pleasure, your Majesty; but it would -become your royal lips much better to say “oblīge.”’ - -Some of the actor Quin’s pronunciations would be now considered -very singular. He always pronounced the word ‘face’ as if written -‘fāāce,’ and said ‘trōpically’ for ‘trŏpically.’ Also, in a -certain classical drama, addressing the Roman guard, he desired -them to lower their ‘faces’ (meaning their ‘fasces’). - -But, whatever may be the recognised standard of pronunciation, -there always will be a refined and a vulgar mode of speech--one -adopted by the cultivated and well-informed, and the other used by -the rude and illiterate. It must be understood that there are only -two ways in which our pronunciation may be at fault. 1. The accent -may be placed on the wrong syllable; or, 2. a wrong sound may be -given to the vowels. Under the first head may be placed such faults -as the following:--Some will say ‘fánatic’ instead of ‘fanátic,’ -and perhaps as often ‘lunátic’ for ‘lúnatic.’ Again, ‘mischíevous’ -is wrong, both in accent and tone; for the accent should here -be on the first syllable, and the sound of the second should be -close--míschĭevous. We also not unfrequently hear people call the -word ‘extánt,’ instead of ‘éxtant;’ but, as the accent is always -on the first in words of a like formation--such as ‘cónstant,’ -‘dístant,’ ‘ínstant,’ &c.--there is no good reason why ‘éxtant’ -should be made an exception. Another word in which the accent is -often misplaced is ‘réspĭted.’ Many will say ‘respíted,’ which is -decidedly against good usage. - -In some words the accent still seems to be unsettled. Perhaps we -hear the word ‘óbdurate’ as often with the accent on the second as -on the first syllable. Many scholars pronounce the word ‘obdūrate,’ -probably because the _u_ is long in the Latin ‘dūrus;’ but this -must also follow the accent of similar forms. We always say -‘áccŭrate,’ ‘índŭrate,’ ‘áugŭrate,’ ‘sátŭrate,’ &c.; and therefore, -by analogy, it should be óbdŭrate.’ - -By many the accent is placed on the second syllable of the word -‘applicable;’ but the general custom is to lay it on the first, and -the best practice is to say ‘ápplicable,’ and not ‘applícable.’ - -Another case of wrong tone may be heard in the pronunciation of the -word ‘_ínfĭnĭte_.’ We still not unfrequently hear in the pulpit, -‘infinīte goodness,’ &c. In dissyllables ‘īte’ final is sometimes -pronounced long; as in ‘polīte,’ ‘finīte,’ ‘recīte,’ &c.; but in -words of more than two syllables the final ‘ite’ is, with few -exceptions, pronounced short. We always (properly) say ‘definĭte,’ -‘exquisĭte,’ ‘opposĭte,’ ‘favourĭte,’ &c. - -Many have special difficulties in the pronunciation of certain -consonants. The correct sound of _r_ is a medium between the strong -rough _R_ of the Irish, and the feeble indistinct tone given it -by the London cockney. The Irishman will tell you that he is very -‘wa_r_(u)m’ after his ‘wo_r_(u)k.’ But in London, one often hears, -instead of ‘garden,’ ‘g_au_den,’ for ‘forth’ ‘f_au_th,’ and for -‘card’ ‘c_au_d,’ &c. - -Many Englishmen have a difficulty in pronouncing the rough _r_, -substituting for it the sound of _w_. These say ‘_w_oom’ for -‘_r_oom,’ ‘p_w_oduct’ for ‘p_r_oduct,’ ‘_w_agged’ for ‘_r_agged,’ -&c. This habit, unless checked early, is likely to become incurable. - -Others again contract a vicious habit of pronouncing the _r_ far -back in the throat, instead of forming it by vibrating the tip of -the tongue. This is what the French call ‘_parler gras_.’ - -There is one very improper use of _r_ which must be here mentioned; -viz. the addition of this letter to certain words ending in _a_. -Some pronounce ‘sofa’ as if written ‘sofa_r_.’ Also they speak of -their papa_r_ and mamma_r_, &c. It is scarcely necessary to say -that this is a positive vulgarism. - -Nowhere, perhaps, is the perversity of our nature more evident than -in the pronunciation of, (1), _h_ silent and _h_ aspirate; and, -(2), _v_ and _w_. These sounds are constantly confounded. Many -pronounce _h_ where it is not required, and leave it out where -it should be sounded. They will say ‘abit’ for ‘habit,’ ‘erd’ -for ‘herd,’ ‘ill’ for ‘hill,’ ‘old’ for ‘hold,’ &c.; and, on the -other hand, ‘_h_all’ for ‘all,’ ‘_h_odd’ for ‘odd,’ ‘_h_uncle’ for -‘uncle,’ &c. - -The same vice exists in the pronunciation of _v_ and _w_. It is -clear that the speaker _can_ pronounce both these letters, but he -inveterately persists in misplacing them. He will say ‘_w_eal’ and -‘_w_inegar,’ and at the same time, ‘_V_y do you _v_eep?’ These -faults are made almost exclusively by ignorant, uneducated people. - -Under this head may be also mentioned the incorrect pronunciation -of _wh_ initial. By many the _h_ is here left out altogether, -and these pronounce the pronoun _which_ exactly as if written -‘_witch_.’ In Anglo-Saxon, whence all this class of words -comes, they were spelled, and probably pronounced, with the _h_ -first--‘_hw_;’ and even now, if we listen attentively to those who -pronounce them correctly, we shall always hear the aspirate first. -We should surely make a difference between ‘_wh_o’ and ‘_w_oo,’ -‘_wh_en’ and ‘_w_en,’ ‘_wh_ere’ and ‘_w_ear,’ &c.; and, though it -would be incorrect to mark the aspirate too roughly, the _h_ in -such words should be always fairly brought out. - -We also perpetually hear (especially in London) words ending -in ‘_ing_’ pronounced as if written ‘_in_;’ as, for example, -‘stand_in_,’ ‘runn_in_,’ ‘go_in_,’ for ‘stand_ing_,’ ‘runn_ing_,’ -go_ing_,’ &c. In one case a _k_ is put for the g. ‘Nothin_k_’ is -said for ‘nothing.’ - -There is a disposition in many readers and speakers to give a -sort of veiled sound to unaccented monosyllables, so that the -true pure tone of the vowel is not heard. This is a very common -fault. By such readers ‘for’ is pronounced ‘_fur_,’ ‘of’ is called -‘_uv_,’ ‘not’ ‘_nut_,’ ‘from’ ‘_frum_,’ and ‘was’ ‘_wuz_,’ &c. &c. -It should be remembered that, whether such words be, or be not, -accented, the sound of the vowel should always be full and pure. - -A point of great importance is to always carefully give the true -sound to an unaccented vowel which begins a word. We should never -let _e_motion degenerate into ‘_imm_otion,’ ‘_e_mergency’ into -‘_imm_ergency,’ ‘_o_bedience’ into ‘_ub_bedience,’ &c. No accent, -however, should be placed on these syllables, but the initial vowel -should be always pronounced in its proper and pure sound. - -It is right to be just as careful with vowels which are medial -and unaccented. We should not allow ‘mon_u_ment’ to sound as -‘mon_i_ment,’ nor must ‘calc_u_late’ be pronounced with the u -close. This fault often happens with words ending in ‘_e_ty’ or -‘_i_ty.’ We hear over and over again, in the pulpit, the words -‘trin_i_ty,’ ‘dign_i_ty,’ ‘soci_e_ty,’ &c. pronounced as if written -‘trin_a_ty,’ ‘dign_a_ty,’ ‘soci_a_ty,’ &c. - -The pronunciation of the word ‘knowledge,’ with the o long, is -still occasionally heard; but it is now almost universally called -‘knŏwledge’ (to rhyme with ‘college’). - -Some pronounce ‘haunt,’ ‘jaunt,’ ‘taunt,’ ‘jaundice,’ &c. with the -diphthong broad, having the same sound as in ‘r_aw_’ or ‘s_aw_.’ -But all these should rhyme with ‘aunt,’ which is never pronounced -broad. - -The ending ‘_ile_’ of certain adjectives sometimes offers a -difficulty of pronunciation. Here, in the words ‘hostīle,’ -‘missīle,’ ‘servīle,’ ‘reptīle,’ ‘puerīle,’ and ‘volatīle’ the -_i_ has a long sound; but in ‘fertĭle,’ ‘fragĭle,’ ‘futĭle,’ and -‘imbecĭle’ the _i_ must be short. - -Some incorrectly give the long sound ‘īle’ to the broader diphthong -‘_oi_l.’ They call ‘_oi_l’ ‘īle,’ ‘boil’ and ‘broil’ ‘bīle’ and -‘brīle,’ &c. In the age of the poet Pope, these two sounds were -probably closer to each other than they are now; for he makes -‘_join_’ rhyme with ‘_line_:‘-- - - While expletives their feeble aid do _join_, - And ten low words oft creep in one dull _line_. - -A story is told of some one dining at a tavern who was asked by the -waiter whether he wished to have his sole ‘_brīled_?’ To which he -replied that he did not care whether it was ‘brīled’ or ‘bīled,’ as -long as it was not ‘spīled!!’ - -The words ‘fast,’ ‘past,’ ‘mast,’ and other similar combinations -are often pronounced either too broad or too close. In the -provinces we often hear ‘m_au_ster,’ ‘f_au_st,’ ‘p_au_st,’ and -‘c_au_nt,’ whilst the affected Londoner says ‘m_ĕ_ster,’ ‘f_ĕ_st,’ -‘p_ĕ_st,’ &c. - -Neither of the two is right, but the proper pronunciation lies -between them. Again, ‘pūt’ (which rhymes with ‘foot’) must -not be called ‘pŭt’ (to rhyme with ‘bŭt’), nor must pūlpit be -called pŭlpit. Some persist in pronouncing ‘covetous’ as if -written ‘covet_i_ous,’ and ‘tremendous’ as ‘tremend_i_ous;’ and -these are apparently equally attached to ‘pron_ou_nciation’ and -‘ar_e_thmetic.’ Lastly, the participle of the verb ‘to be’ must -always sound exactly like the vegetable ‘bēan,’ and not as a -wine-‘bin.’ - -The letter _u_, in many words, is really a diphthong, and has the -double sound of e + oo. This is heard in such words as ‘tüne,’ -‘stüpid,’ ‘tübe,’ ‘prodüce,’ ‘solitüde,’ ‘pictüre,’ &c., which -should be sounded as if written ‘te + une,’ ‘ste + upid,’ ‘te -+ ube,’ &c., the one part uttered rapidly after the other. But -many pronounce such words, incorrectly, as if written ‘toone,’ -‘stoopid,’ ‘pict_er_,’ &c. This is a vicious cockney pronunciation. - -There is no termination we should be more careful to pronounce -fairly out than ‘_ow_’ final, which, when unaccented, frequently -degenerates into ‘_er_.’ The words are properly pronounced -‘wid_ow_,’ ‘wind_ow_,’ and ‘fell_ow_,’ &c., and not ‘widd_er_,’ -‘wind_er_,’ and ‘fell_er_!!’ - -The word ‘tobacc_o_’ also is often wrongly pronounced ‘tobacc_er_.’ - -Some, who would be over-refined in their pronunciation, make two -syllables (instead of one) of the words ‘sky,’ ‘kind.’ They expand -them into ‘ske-y,’ ‘key-ind,’ &c. This is an absurd affectation. - -A clear distinct articulation is an essential principle of a -correct pronunciation; for, unless every syllable be uttered -clearly, the word cannot have its proper effect. How often do we -hear careless readers and speakers push one monosyllable into -another, so as to convey the impression that there is but one word, -where, in fact, there are two. How often do we hear: ‘_Frin_ this -case,’ instead of ‘_For_ in this case;’ ‘_Fra_ time,’ for ‘_For_ a -time;’ ‘_Nevery_ occasion,’ for ‘_On_ every occasion;’ ‘_Tinders_,’ -for ‘_It_ hinders!’ &c. - -Special care should be taken to utter _unaccented_ syllables -distinctly; as these are the most likely to be neglected. It is -this neglect which produces such bad pronunciations as ‘reg’lar,’ -‘sing’lar,’ ‘sim’lar,’ and which makes ‘extr_a_ordinary,’ -‘extr_or_dinary;’ ‘us_u_al,’ ‘uzhal;’ and ‘vi_o_lent,’ ‘vilent.’ -It is from the same cause that the _d_ in ‘and’ (a word which is -seldom accented) is so frequently unheard, especially when the -following word begins with a vowel, in such forms as ‘He _an I_,’ -for ‘He _and_ I;’ ‘My uncle _an_ aunt,’ for ‘my uncle _and_ aunt,’ -&c. - -The Irish have several peculiarities of pronunciation, which must -be here noticed. - -1. They sound ‘ea’ (the long ē) as ‘ay;’ ‘plēase’ they pronounce -exactly as ‘plays,’ and ‘tēa’ as ‘tay.’ - -2. ‘Door’ and ‘floor’ properly rhyme with ‘more’ and ‘sore,’ but -the Irish give to these words the sound of ‘oo’ in ‘poor.’ - -3. They also pronounce ‘catch’ (which exactly rhymes with ‘match’) -as ‘ketch’ (to rhyme with ‘fetch’). This is also a vulgar -pronunciation in England. - -4. They give the short instead of the more open sound of _u_ in -the words ‘pudding,’ ‘cushion,’ and ‘foot.’ They make ‘pudding’ -rhyme with ‘sŭdden;’ ‘cushion’ with ‘rush on;’ and ‘foot’ with -‘but.’ They also give the same sound to the vowels in ‘strōve’ and -‘drōve,’ making them rhyme with ‘lŏve’ and ‘dŏve,’ and pronouncing -them as if they were written ‘struv’ and ‘druv.’ - -5. Another of their peculiarities is to leave out the ‘_g_’ in -‘strength’ and ‘length,’ pronouncing these words as if they were -written ‘strenth’ and ‘lenth.’ They also omit the ‘_d_,’ in -pronouncing ‘breadth,’ and call it ‘breth.’ - -6. They give the long sound of ‘_e_’ to the close ‘_i_’ in such -words as ‘del_i_cious,’ ‘mal_i_cious,’ ‘v_i_cious,’ &c., and call -them ‘del_ee_cious,’ ‘mal_ee_cious,’ ‘v_ee_cious.’ - -7. They pronounce ‘_o_’ before ‘_ld_’ like the ‘_ow_’ in ‘how,’ -and they pronounce ‘cold’ and ‘bold’ as if these words rhymed with -‘howled’ or ‘growled.’ - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -SLANG WORDS AND AMERICANISMS. - - -No language is, or ever has been, in the strict sense of the -word, _pure_. All languages are continually borrowing and -lending--adopting words from foreign sources, and contributing from -their own store to that of others. It is now well known that the -ancient Greeks borrowed largely from the Oriental tongues, and lent -words and forms to Latin. Latin, again, borrowed from Greek, and -contributed to form the modern Italian, Spanish, and French. The -modern German language is just now strongly affected by a French -influence; and French itself, though for the most part Latin, -contains many Celtic and not a few Germanic words. Spanish, which -is in the main Latin, has a very considerable admixture of Arabic, -brought in by the Moors in the eighth century; and English is well -known to be made up of Anglo-Saxon, Norman, French, and Latin. - -But languages are not only subject to these attacks from without, -a process of internal corruption is also set up, and appears in -various forms. One of these may be recognised in the principle of -contraction. It may be laid down as a rule that words, as they grow -older, degenerate in meaning and contract in form. This contraction -probably originated in a loose, careless way of speaking, which -afterwards affected the written language. Sometimes a letter or -syllable is cut off from the beginning of a word; sometimes one -is taken from the middle, or from the end. ‘_Bus_’ is now all we -have left (at any rate, in ordinary conversation) of ‘_omnibus_.’ -‘_Fantasy_’ has lost its middle syllable, and appears as ‘_fancy_’ -and ‘_cab_’ does duty for ‘_cabriolet_.’ One conclusion this result -enables us to draw is that the contracted forms are always the more -modern. The form ‘courtesy’ existed before ‘curtsy;’ ‘procurator’ -preceded ‘proctor;’ and ‘minute’ was known before ‘mite.’ Whether -these contractions are to be regarded favourably or otherwise may -be a question, but there is no doubt that they are all produced by -the operation of a natural law of language which no human power -will ever be able to prevent. - -When a word is warped or distorted from its original form, either -by a vicious or slovenly pronunciation, or from a mistaken notion -of its derivation, it is said to be a corruption. One of these -corruptions appears in our word ‘surgeon.’ The French ‘chirurgien,’ -from which it immediately comes, shows more clearly its Greek -origin--χεὶρ (cheir), a hand; and ἔργω (ergo), I work--i.e. a -hand-worker, or manual operator. But a careless pronunciation, -probably aided by a natural tendency to contraction, has caused the -word with us to dwindle down to ‘surgeon.’ - -As an illustration of corruption arising from a false notion of -its derivation, we may take the word ‘i_s_land.’ How did the _s_ -get into it? This _s_ is not sounded, and yet it must be written. -In the one word ‘island,’ there is a mixture of Latin and German. -The first syllable is of Romance, and the second of Teutonic -origin. The Latin for ‘island’ is ‘insula,’ from ‘in’ and ‘salo,’ -the ‘salt,’ i.e. in the salt (sea, understood). The Anglo-Saxon -word for the same idea was ‘ea-land.’ Here ‘_ea_’ means ‘water.’ -This ‘_ea_,’ or ‘_ey_,’ is found in many names of islands, -as ‘Angles_ea_,’ ‘Jers_ey_,’ ‘Guerns_ey_,’ &c. ‘_Ea_-land,’ -then meant ‘water-land,’ or ‘land surrounded by water.’ In the -earlier editions of ‘Paradise Lost,’ the word always appears -written ‘iland’ (without the _s_), which points more clearly to -its Saxon derivation, and is nearer in spelling to the modern -German--‘Eiland.’ The ‘_s_’ was afterwards inserted, from a -mistaken notion that the word was of Latin, and not German, origin. - -A false analogy will sometimes give rise to a corrupted form of -spelling. The past tense of ‘can’ was originally ‘coude,’ not -‘cou_l_d;’ and the _l_ was afterwards introduced, from the apparent -analogy of the word to ‘wou_l_d,’ from ‘will,’ and ‘shou_l_d,’ -from ‘shall.’ This, then, is a corruption. But, though at first -incorrect, the _l_ must, of course, be now retained. - -Proper names, both of places and persons, have suffered a good -deal from this influence. Words of this class are most likely to -be corrupted, because they are most frequently in the mouths of -the common people. That ‘Birmingham’ should be called ‘Brummagem,’ -‘Cirencester,’ ‘Siseter,’ and ‘Wavertree,’ ‘Wartree,’ is not -surprising when we remember that these corruptions originated with -those who had often to pronounce, but seldom, if ever, to write -these names. But what is, perhaps, more strange, many of these -corruptions are now adopted by the upper classes. Thus, in all -ranks of society, the proper name ‘Beauchamp’ is now pronounced -‘Beecham;’ ‘St. John’ is called ‘Sinjon;’ ‘Cholmondeley’ is -pronounced ‘Chumley,’ and ‘Marjoribanks’ ‘Marchbanks.’ - - -_Slang Words._ - -Among the many signs of the corruption of the English language, -one, which is not the least remarkable, is the prevalent use of -slang words and phrases. That certain terms should be peculiar -to certain callings, trades, or professions, may be naturally -expected, but that these should be extended into general -conversation, is a corroborative proof of the strong liking -people now have for any thing unusual or out-of-the-way. One very -curious fact may be here observed. While the style of most of -our periodical writers soars upwards, and affects the lofty and -sublime, that of general conversation is the very reverse, and -sinks to the low and vulgar. - -A difference must be here made between ‘cant’ and ‘slang.’ The -first signifies the secret language of thieves, beggars, and -tramps, by which they endeavour to conceal their evil deeds from -the public. The knowledge and practice of this kind of language -is confined to the above-named fraternities. But slang consists -of those vulgar, unauthorised terms, which have come into fashion -during the last eighty or ninety years, and which are not confined -to one class, but may be now heard in almost every grade of society. - -In all trades and professions there are certain terms peculiar -to each, which are properly called ‘technical;’ these can hardly -be denominated slang. For example, in the language of actors, a -‘_length_’ signifies forty-two lines of the part each has to study -for the stage. They say, a part consists of so many ‘lengths.’ -This, and other such terms, are seldom, if ever, heard beyond -the circle to which they properly belong. But slang is found in -almost all classes of society. That of high life is drawn from -various sources. One of its phases may be seen in the French -words and forms which would-be fashionable people so delight in -using. To call a breakfast a _déjeuner_ is absurd, especially -as we have a very good word of our own to express that meal. -Leaders of fashion never speak of the fashionable world; but -always of the ‘beau monde.’ This ‘beau monde,’ they tell us, give -‘recherchés’ entertainments, attended by the ‘élite’ of society. -Lady _So_-and-_So_ gave a ‘thé dansant,’ which, of course, ‘went -off with éclat,’ &c. &c. Many so-called fashionable ladies and -gentlemen would, probably, be deeply offended to hear such language -termed slang; but any words or forms which are not recognised -English certainly deserve to be so stigmatised. - -This form of slang is confined chiefly to the would-be -fashionables, and to those writers of very questionable taste, who -use what they think funny and startling expressions in a novel and -flippant way. Cookery also has given us much slang of this sort. If -we were to ask, in an ordinary English hotel, for ‘côtelettes à la -jardinière,’ or a ‘vol-au-vent à la financière,’ the people of the -house would probably stare at us; but these and such expressions -form the staple of the style of many popular novelists. - -Of parliamentary slang, too, there is no lack of examples. Lord -Palmerston, and Mr. Disraeli are perhaps better known as _Pam_ -and _Dizzy_, than by their proper names. A single vote to one -candidate at an election is called a ‘plumper;’ and those who -have boiled a pot in a house, to qualify themselves to vote, -are termed ‘potwallopers.’ Among military men, anyone unusually -particular about his dress or personal appearance, is a ‘dandy’ or -a ‘swell.’ They also call a ‘title’ a ‘handle to your name,’ and a -kind-hearted, good-natured fellow is, with them, a ‘trump,’ or a -‘brick.’ - -The Universities also have their slang terms. The graduates use -‘crib’ for a house; ‘deadmen’ for empty wine-bottles; ‘governor,’ -or ‘relieving-officer,’ for a father; ‘plucked,’ for defeated or -rejected in an examination; and ‘row’ for a disturbance. - -The Eton and Harrow boys make use among themselves of many slang -terms, which are not often heard outside their bounds; but -when they return home for the holidays, they frequently infect -their sisters with some of their strange phraseology. A boy will -sometimes puzzle his sisters at home, by asking them if they do not -find his ‘toggery’ absolutely ‘stunning;’ or what they think of his -‘tile,’ or white ‘choker;’ adding that they are not yet paid for; -but that he supposes the ‘governor’ will have to ‘stump up,’ or -‘fork out the blunt,’ &c. - -Lawyers also have their slang; and this is not surprising, when we -remember the many opportunities they must have of hearing it, from -their connection with the police courts, and with life in its worst -phases. With them, taking the benefit of the Insolvent Debtors Act, -is to be ‘white-washed;’ and to draw up a fraudulent balance-sheet -is to ‘cook’ accounts, &c. - -But of all the forms of slang, the one most abundant in variety of -terms is the mercantile. It has been calculated that there are as -many as thirty-six vulgar synonyms for the one simple word _money_. -The following are a few of them: ‘_blunt_,’ ‘_tin_,’ ‘_coppers_,’ -‘_browns_,’ ‘_shiners_,’ ‘_yellow-boys_,’ ‘_flimsies_’ (bank -notes); ‘_fivers_’ (five pound notes), &c. &c. In city phraseology, -100,000_l._ is called a _plum_, and one million sterling is a -_marigold_. On the Stock Exchange buyers and sellers for the -account are called ‘bulls’ and ‘bears:’ a broker who is unable to -pay his debts, is there called ‘a lame duck;’ and, if expelled from -the house, he is said ‘to waddle.’ - -But though most of these terms will never form a legitimate part -of the English language, some of them are certainly not considered -so vulgar as others. It is said that the elegant Lord Chesterfield -was the author of the word ‘humbug,’ which, though it may have -been considered as slang in his day, can hardly be so called now. -Another word, ‘hoax,’ was condemned by Swift as low and vulgar, -this, too, has made its way; and is now not so revolting to good -taste as it probably was when first used. Both these words, -‘humbug’ and ‘hoax,’ are to be found in Dr. Latham’s edition of -_Johnson’s Dictionary_. - -Thackeray immortalised ‘snob’ in his celebrated ‘papers;’ and -though the word is not to be recommended, it must be allowed that -it is very expressive. Lord Cairns, in a speech in the House of -Commons, called ‘dodge’ ‘that homely but expressive term.’ Nor is -‘crusty,’ in the sense of ‘peevish,’ so low as it was once thought. -It has long been a question, whether the word ‘bamboozle’ should be -admitted. This also is to be found in Latham’s _Johnson_, though it -is there entered as ‘colloquial.’ - -But though it may be allowed to use some of these terms -occasionally in familiar discourse, no one of any sense or good -taste will ever think of indulging in slang language, either spoken -or written. It is, no doubt, a bad sign of the times, and much to -be deplored, that it is so common. Some writers have calculated -that there are, at least, three thousand slang terms in common use. -The above are but a few examples of this widespread corruption. We -may regard it, as concerns our language, in the light of a pest -to society. It takes a long time to clear the atmosphere from the -baneful influences of certain epidemics. Now, the language of -every-day conversation is suffering from this infectious disease, -and it becomes the duty of every Englishman who has a proper -feeling for his language, to refrain from this evil himself, and to -throw in its way every possible discouragement. - - -_Americanisms._ - -The recklessness with which the Americans use the English language -bids fair to flood it with many new and strange terms. It is very -possible that some of these words may some day take their places as -forming part of the legitimate materials of our language; and it -is also possible, as the Americans themselves sometimes declare, -that some of the words and phrases which are now called American, -are, in reality, genuine English words which have become obsolete -in the mother tongue. But, in the mean time, they certainly must be -regarded as interlopers--candidates for an office to which they are -not yet, if they ever will be, entitled. - -One rather curious explanation has been given of the word ‘guess.’ -It is well known that the Americans use it in the sense of _to know -for certain_. ‘I guess’ is equivalent, in American phraseology, to -‘I know it’--‘I am sure of it.’ Now, it has been argued that this -is the proper meaning of the word--that it is derived from the -German ‘gewiss,’ which comes originally from ‘wissen,’ to know. -When first imported into America, in the seventeenth century, they -say that it had this meaning in English--that we in England have -since then altered the meaning of the word, and that the Americans -have preserved its original signification. Even supposing that this -could be proved, it does not follow that the American practice is -the right one; nor, of course, that we should alter our present -meaning of the word, and conform to the American custom. The -fountain-head of the English language is in England, and in no -other country; and all departures from the English use of English -words must be looked upon as faults against purity of style. - -Americanisms may be considered under two heads--1st, legitimate -English words used in a wrong sense; and, 2nd, words of a new -invention, mutilated or distorted from some known or unknown root. -In the first class we may place the adjective ‘tall.’ This the -Americans use in a novel and unrecognised sense. In English it is -properly applied only to concrete nouns; as, ‘a tall man,’ or ‘a -tall tree,’ &c. But, in the United States, we continually hear of -‘tall talk,’ or even ‘a tall smell,’ &c. It is not the word that -is here objected to, but the sense in which it is applied. To -‘raise’ is another of this class, which is constantly used for ‘to -educate,’ or ‘bring up.’ ‘Where were you raised?’ is, in America, -a very common question. Again, the word ‘liquor’ is a perfectly -good English noun; but what a strange innovation is ‘to liquor!’ -A genuine Yankee says, ‘Stranger, will you “liquor?”’ ‘Handsome,’ -‘clever,’ and ‘fix’ are all three genuine English, but ‘to play -_handsome_ on the flute’ is undoubtedly bad English. We sometimes -qualify persons, but never things, as ‘clever.’ A ‘clever’ boy, or -a ‘clever’ man, &c., but never, as in America, a ‘clever’ house -or a ‘clever’ cargo. Again, in America a very common use of ‘to -fix’ is ‘to prepare,’ or ‘put in order.’ This is not sanctioned -by English usage. But ‘a fix,’ in the sense of a dilemma or -predicament, is condemned by literary men in the United States as -a vulgarism. - -The other class consists of words wholly unrecognised in English in -any sense--in fine, genuine Americanisms; such words as ‘secesh,’ -‘skedaddle,’ ‘recuperate,’ ‘rowdy,’ ‘rile,’ ‘stampede,’ &c., which -can in no sense be said to belong to our language. Nor is it likely -that English writers of any pretensions to good taste will ever -adopt them. The Americans call the English ‘Britishers;’ to tease -or vex anyone is, with them, ‘to rile’ him; to make a set speech is -to ‘orate;’ a sudden panic and flight of soldiers is a ‘stampede,’ -&c. There are other words of this class which it would puzzle most -English writers to explain; such as ‘slick,’ ‘spry,’ ‘kedge,’ -‘boss,’ ‘absquatulate,’ &c. These are not English words, and we may -pretty confidently predict that they will never become English. - -There can be little doubt, however, that certain expressions now -known as Americanisms were, at one time, very commonly used in -English. Madame D’Arblay, as well as other writers of her time, -has, over and over again, ‘mighty fine,’ ‘mighty pretty,’ &c. -‘Mighty pretty’ is exactly on a par with ‘_uncommon_ nice.’ The one -is just as incorrect as the other. This is a form of expression -continually used by American writers. Forty or fifty years ago the -adjective ‘rare’ was commonly used for ‘underdone’ (meat). Now, -though common enough in the United States, it is seldom, if ever, -applied by us in that sense. Some of these peculiarities appear -to be making way in English, in spite of our struggles against -them. Such are ‘to progress’ for ‘to advance,’ ‘to effectuate’ for -‘to accomplish,’ ‘right off,’ or ‘right away,’ for ‘at once’ or -‘immediately,’ ‘laid over’ for ‘put off,’ &c. - -The Americans use ‘tiresome’ for ‘tiring;’ they speak of a -‘tiresome’--for a fatiguing--journey. Also a ‘good’ time is used -for a ‘pleasant’ time, ‘fall’ for ‘autumn,’ and to ‘go-a-head’ for -‘to prosper.’ One American word which seems likely to establish -itself in the English language is, ‘a loafer.’ This would seem to -be derived from the German ‘laufen,’ to run, though it has not that -meaning in the United States, where it signifies one who lounges -about lazily. - -In America many new terms are the offspring of a political -excitement, which is sure to occur every four years, i.e. as often -as a new President is elected. On these occasions such words as -‘Copperheads,’ ‘Ring-tailed Roarers,’ ‘Know-nothings,’ ‘Fenians,’ -‘Wolverines,’ &c., &c., are sure to make their appearance. These -words may have a meaning for those who invent and use them, but to -the great majority of Englishmen they are altogether a mystery. - -Language, in the hands of a great poet, has been often called -‘a flame of fire.’ However this may be, in the hands of certain -American journalists it does seem, now and then, very likely to -burn their own fingers. In the New York papers we meet with the -verb ‘to concertize,’ which may possibly mean to give a succession -of concerts. We remember hearing that process once called ‘going -about matinéeing!’ And there is quite as good authority for the -one as for the other of these expressions. Another unintelligible -phrase, drawn from the same source, is ‘an _emergent_ meeting.’ -This word is never used, in modern English, in a concrete sense. -We may say an _emergent_ occasion or _emergent_ doubts, but not an -_emergent_ candidate or an _emergent_ character. It is possible -that the writer meant a meeting called together on an emergency. - -The rapid communication established of late years between England -and the United States has brought the two nations into a much -closer connection with each other. This, in a commercial or a -political view, may be of great advantage to both countries. -But every advantage has its drawback, and it is very doubtful -whether this condition of things is likely to benefit the English -language. The Americans are well known to set great store by -liberty, and of course we have no right whatever to interfere -with their opinions concerning principles or forms of political -government. But it becomes a serious matter for us when they -think proper to take liberties with our language. They set up for -themselves, probably by way of showing their independence, new -modes of spelling; and they are perpetually introducing all sorts -of meanings, words, and phrases, none of which have the remotest -title to be called English. In the writings of the late N. P. -Willis, we meet with such terms as the following:--‘An unletupable -nature,’ ‘wideawakeity,’ ‘plumptitude,’ ‘pocketually speaking,’ -‘betweenity,’ and ‘go-awayness!’ In the same gentleman’s writings, -we occasionally come across such elegant forms of expression as -‘whipping creation,’ ‘flogging Europe,’ ‘a heap of opinions,’ -‘tarnation quick,’ &c. These and all such must be looked upon as -abortions or deformities of our language; and no English writer -who has any respect for his own reputation should ever think of -countenancing, far less of adopting, such monstrosities. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. - - -In old English spelling, we frequently meet with _y_ initial, -where we now use _th_; as in ‘_ye_ manners and _ye_ customs,’ &c. -This error probably arose from the blundering of the copyists, who -mistook one letter for another. Down to the close of the reign of -Edward III., two characters of the Saxon alphabet were in common -use, which we have now rejected; tha (þ) (_th_ hard), and edh -(ð) (_th_ soft). The first of these, (þ), somewhat resembled a -_y_ in shape; and hence the mistake. This is, probably, the true -explanation of the case, as _y_ was, in all these instances, used -where we now have _th_. - -Y initial, as indicating a participle or an intensive meaning, has -now become obsolete in English. But it lingered in the language -till the seventeenth century, as may be seen in Milton. ‘In heaven -_y_clept Euphrosyne.’ This is the _ge_ initial of the modern -German, as in ‘_ge_kannt,’ ‘_ge_brochen,’ &c. Our word ‘guess,’ -is supposed to be connected with the German ‘gewiss;’ where the -initial _ge_ may be referred to the same source. In comparing -certain German with English words, we may see that this prefix (_g_ -or _y_) has, in most cases, fallen off, though in some few words -it still retains its place. The German ‘_G_lück,’ is in English -‘luck,’ and the German ‘_g_leich’ has become with us ‘like.’ -Again,’to _g_low’ was, in Saxon, ‘hlowian.’ We retain the _g_ in -‘gleam,’ and ‘glimpse,’ though we lose it in ‘light.’ The same -connection may be observed between the German ‘_g_ern,’ and the -English ‘_y_earn.’ - -Many are puzzled when to use _ei_ and when _ie_ in the spelling of -certain English words, when these combinations are pronounced as a -long _e_. The rule is, that when a sibilant (_c_ or _s_) precedes, -_ei_ is the right spelling; but that when any other consonant -comes before, _ie_ should be written. Thus, ‘_sei_ze, con_cei_ve, -_cei_ling, de_cei_t,’ &c., must have _ei_; whilst ‘be_lie_ve, -pr_ies_t, _chie_f, re_trie_ve,’ &c., must be spelled _ie_. The word -‘siege’ is an exception; we here adopt the French spelling. - -It is generally well known that the prefixes _ante_ and _anti_ -have, in English, each a distinct meaning. ‘Ant_e_’ is the Latin -preposition for ‘before.’ It is found in ‘ant_e_date’ (to date -before); ‘ant_e_chamber’ (a waiting-room _before_ another); -‘ant_e_cedent’ (going _before_), &c. ‘Anti’ is originally Greek, -and means ‘against.’ It is found in ‘ant_i_pathy’ (a feeling -_against_); ‘ant_i_dote’ (a medicine given _against_); i.e. as a -preventive. But there is one exception to this explanation; viz. -‘ant_i_cipate.’ ‘Anti,’ in this case, does not mean ‘against,’ but -beforehand. To ‘anticipate’ is to enjoy or suffer prospectively. -The Latin _i_ always becomes an _e_ in French; and vice versâ. -This is considered as an organic law of transformation. The -Latin mih_i_, tib_i_, sib_i_, _i_n, _i_nter, &c., are in -French m_e_, t_e_, s_e_, _e_n, _e_ntre. On the other hand, the -Latin ‘impl_ē_re,’ ‘fall_ĕ_re,’ ‘leg_ĕ_re,’ ‘quaer_ĕ_re,’ and -‘flor_ĕ_re,’ are in French, rempl_i_r, ‘faill_i_r,’ ‘l_i_re,’ -‘quér_i_r,’ and ‘fleur_i_r.’ This may be seen in ‘antichambre,’ -‘antidater,’ &c.; and the English has, in this one case, -‘anticipate,’ adopted the French form of spelling. - -The difference in pronunciation between such words as ‘hōme,’ and -‘sŏme;’ ‘bōne’ and ‘dŏne;’ ‘alōne’ and ‘gŏne,’ depends on their -derivation. In these cases, the long ō corresponds with the modern -German ‘_ei_.’ The German ‘Heim’ is the English ‘hōme.’ ‘Bein’ is -in English bōne; ‘allein,’ ‘alōne,’ &c., whereas the closer sound -of _ŏ_ approaches to a closer sound of _a_ or _o_ in German. Hence, -the root _sam_ (as in _sam_meln), gives the English ‘sŏme.’ ‘Dŏne’ -is from ‘gethăn,’ ‘cŏme,’ from ‘kŏmmen,’ &c. From the same cause, -the adverb ‘_so_’ in English has the same long sound as in German; -whereas ‘_tŏ_’ and ‘_dŏ_,’ being from ‘zu’ and ‘thun,’ have a -closer pronunciation. - -It is natural to expect that as the genius of a people powerfully -influences the spelling of their common terms, the same cause -should operate in that of their proper names, both of persons and -places. With respect to names of places, there is now and then some -difficulty. The inhabitants of a town or country do not always give -it the name by which it is known to foreigners. An English tourist -who is a novice in continental travel, arrives at a town he has -been accustomed to call ‘_Aix_,’ or ‘Aix-la-Chapelle;’ and he is -not a little puzzled to hear it named ‘_Aachen_.’ It is doubtful -whether many English would recognise the German word; and yet it is -certainly the one used by the Prussians from time immemorial. There -are many other continental towns with whose names we English are, -in general, not familiar; for example, Lüttich (Liège), Regensburg -(Ratisbon), Bruxelles (Brussels), Kiobenhavn (Copenhagen), -Vliessingen (Flushing), Genf (Geneva), &c., &c. - -That these differences should exist was but natural in bygone times -when there was so scanty a communication between one country and -another. But nowadays, when one touch of the telegraph ‘should make -the whole world akin,’ and when steamboats and railroads seem to be -literally annihilating both time and space, it is to be regretted -that some one standard form for the spelling of names of places -should not be agreed on, which all should adopt, and which would -be intelligible to the whole civilised world. There appears to be -some probability of the continental states adopting a standard -coin which shall have a universal currency. Why should they not -also determine on one standard form of spelling for the names of -all their towns and districts? The one change would not be more -difficult than the other. - -One very striking peculiarity of the English language is the -extraordinary variety of senses in which many of our words, -especially those of Saxon origin, may be used. A curious instance -of this variety may be seen in the case of the verb ‘to get.’ For -example: ‘After I _got_ (received) your letter; I immediately _got_ -(mounted) on horseback; and when I _got_ to (reached) Canterbury, -I _got_ (procured) a chaise, and proceeded to town. But, the rain -coming on, I _got_ (caught) such a severe cold, that I could -not _get_ rid of it for some days. When I _got_ home, I _got_ -up-stairs, and _got_ to bed immediately; but the next morning -I found I could neither _get_ down stairs, _get_ my breakfast, -nor _get_ out of doors. I was afraid I should never _get_ over -this attack.’ It may be reasonably doubted whether any English -word of Latin or French origin has half so many and such various -significations. - -‘_To put_’ is a verb of unsettled derivation; but it has an -endless variety of meanings: and is compounded with almost every -preposition in the language. Latham’s edition of _Johnson’s -Dictionary_ gives about seventy different senses of this one verb, -some of which are as follows: ‘A man _puts by_ money when he -saves it up; or he _puts away_ his wife when he divorces her. An -insurrection may be _put down_; or a man may _put down_ his name as -a subscriber. A tree _puts forth_ leaves, or a man _puts into_ a -lottery. He _puts off_ his clothes, or he _puts off_ a disagreeable -task; he _puts out_ his money at interest; or he _puts out_ the -light when he goes to bed; and he is terribly _put out_ when things -do not go well with him. He can _put together_ his thoughts; but he -cannot _put up_ with an insult. It is unpleasant to be _put upon_; -and sometimes very hard to _put_ things _to rights_.’ - -The French adverb très (very), is the Latin ‘trans’ (over, or -across.) The prefix ‘trans’ is of frequent use in English as in -‘transfer,’ ‘transfix,’ ‘transform,’ &c. We have adopted the -French ‘très’ in only one word; viz. ‘trespass.’ This signifies -either in a physical or moral sense, ‘to pass a boundary.’ It is -still used in English, chiefly as a term of law. - -Some writers on language have objected to the order of words -generally adopted in certain colloquial expressions. They say that -in such phrases as ‘bred and born,’ ‘shoes and stockings,’ ‘coat -and waistcoat,’ &c., we put the cart before the horse. They would -have us say ‘born and bred,’ ‘stockings and shoes,’ &c. Their -argument is, that we should put these words in their _natural_ -order, as to time--that as a man must be born before he is bred, -the proper order is ‘born and bred,’ and so on, in all other -cases of this sort. This, however, does not seem to be the right -view of the matter. In these expressions it should be remembered -that whatever comes first to our knowledge, or makes the deepest -impression on the mind, is naturally first uttered. True, a man -must be born before he is bred; but the idea conveyed in ‘bred’ is -first impressed on the mind, and therefore ‘bred and born’ is the -right order. Again, we see the shoes; we can but partially see the -stockings; and this is why the usual order is adopted. - -Again: we never say ‘the sciences and arts;’ but always ‘the -arts and sciences.’ There is here, also, a very good reason for -the general practice. It must be remembered that the arts were -practised long before the sciences on which they are built were -discovered. Practice always precedes theory. Language was spoken -before grammars were written; music was played and sung before -the laws of harmony were understood; and therefore, it is but -reasonable that we should put the ‘arts before the sciences.’ - -It may seem strange that in addressing an audience, the English -always say ‘Ladies and Gentlemen!’ whereas in France we hear, -‘Messieurs et Mesdames,’ and in Germany, ‘Meine Herren und Damen.’ -This order may have been adopted at a time when ladies had not -the influence in society which they now possess. We have not the -reputation for gallantry which our continental neighbours enjoy; -and yet, in this instance, we may perhaps set them a lesson of -politeness. - -Connected with this subject may be mentioned that doubling of terms -which occurs in our Liturgy so frequently, that it may be regarded -as a characteristic of its style. The compilers of our Church -Service, probably in their anxiety to make the text intelligible -even to the commonest understanding, continually put two nouns or -two verbs together, the second generally explaining the first. In -these cases we shall find one of the terms of French, or Latin, -and the other of Saxon derivation. This seems to have been done -purposely, in order that, if any of the congregation, especially -the less educated, should not understand the one term, he should -catch the meaning of the other. In the early prayers of the -‘Morning Service,’ we have: ‘We _pray_ and _beseech_ thee.’ We also -find ‘We _acknowledge_ and _confess_,’ ‘_sins_ and _wickedness_;’ -‘_goodness_ and _mercy_;’ ‘_dissemble_ nor _cloak_;’ ‘_assemble_ -and _meet together_;’ ‘_requisite_ and _necessary_;’ ‘_erred_ and -_strayed_;’ ‘_pardoneth_ and _absolveth_,’ and many others. - -Certain writers on the English language have strongly objected to -the lately-introduced practice of forming participial adjectives -from nouns; especially in the case of the two words ‘talented’ -and ‘gifted.’ As well, say they, might we call a man ‘wisdomed,’ -‘geniused,’ or ‘knowledged.’ Coleridge, arguing against the -admission of the word ‘talented’ into English, says: ‘only imagine -other participles so formed, and conceive a man being said to be -‘pennied,’ ‘shillinged,’ and ‘pounded!’ But though we do not yet -use these latter terms, Coleridge seems to have forgotten that we -very commonly speak of a ‘moneyed’ man; and there is very little -doubt that these adjectives have struck too deep root in the -language to be easily eradicated. - -The word ‘_reliable_,’ a comparatively late introduction, is -another of those against which the purists have raised a loud -outcry. They argue that as we do not rely a man, but rely _on_ a -man, therefore the word, if used at all, should be ‘reli_on_able,’ -and not ‘reliable.’ But here is one of the many cases in which -philosophy must give way to custom; and, in spite of the above -objection, this word is too firmly fixed in the language to -be easily driven out. The real difference between ‘reliable’ -and ‘trustworthy’ is, that the former applies more property to -things, such as news, information, &c., and the latter to persons. -A ‘trustworthy’ messenger would probably bring us ‘reliable’ -information. But, whatever concession we may make in the case of -‘reliable,’ we should resist, with all our might, the introduction -of ‘reliability.’ - -Certain laws of transformation are found to operate in the Romance -languages. One of these is, that Latin or Italian words beginning -with _f_ appear in Spanish with an _h_ initial. Thus ‘filius,’ -‘figlio’ (a son), is, in Spanish, ‘hijo.’ By the same law the -Latin ‘femina’ (a woman) becomes, in Spanish ‘hembra,’ ‘formosus’ -(beautiful) is ‘_h_ermoso,’ ‘Fabulari,’ Italian ‘favellare’ (to -talk) is, in Spanish, ‘hablar.’ ‘Faba’ (a bean) is, in Spanish, -‘haba.’ The Latin ‘Facere,’ Italian ‘fare’ (to do), becomes -‘_h_acer,’ filum (thread) is ‘hilo,’ and folium (a leaf) ‘hoja,’ -&c. - -The Spanish word ‘hidalgo’ (a nobleman) is a contraction of ‘hijo -d’algo’ (filius alicujus), literally ‘the son of somebody,’ i.e., -of importance. - -It may also be observed that the combination _ct_ in Latin is found -in Italian _tt_ (or _t_), and in Spanish _ch_. This may be seen in -the following cases:-- - - Lat. Ital. Span. - - Fa_ct_us fa_tt_o he_ch_o - San_ct_us san_t_o san_ch_o - Di_ct_us de_tt_o di_ch_o - Dire_ct_us diri_tt_o dere_ch_o - -Again, _pl_ in Latin becomes _pi_ in Italian and _ll_ in Spanish, -as in the following:-- - - Lat. Ital. Span. - - _Pl_anus _pi_ano _ll_ano - _Pl_enus _pi_eno _ll_eno - _Pl_uvia _pi_ova _ll_uvia - _Pl_anctus _pi_anto _ll_anto - -Affinities also exist between certain letters of the alphabet; and -this relationship may be often seen in words transferred from one -language to another. For example, the labials, or lip-letters, are -frequently interchanged. Many English words beginning with an F are -derived from Latin (or French) words having a _P_ initial. This is -exemplified in the following list:-- - - Latin. French. German. English. - - _P_ater _p_ère _V_ater _f_ather - _P_iscis _p_oisson _F_isch _f_ish - _P_es-pedis _p_ied _F_uss _f_oot - _P_aucus _p_eu -- _f_ew - _P_er _p_our _f_ür _f_or - _P_ellis _p_eau _F_ell _f_ell - _P_ullus _p_oule _V_ogel _f_owl - _P_ugnus _p_oignée _F_aust _f_ist, &c. - -Another affinity may be observed between _G_ and _W_. Many French -words beginning with a _G_ guttural represent that letter in -English by a _W_. This may be seen in the following cases:-- - - French. English. - - _g_ages _w_ages - _g_agner _w_in - _G_alles _W_ales - _g_arant _w_arrant - _g_are (be)_w_are - _g_arde _w_ard - _g_arenne _w_arren - _g_âter _w_aste - _G_aultier _W_alter - _g_aufre _w_afer - _g_uède _w_oad - _g_uèpe _w_asp - _g_uerdon (re)_w_ard - _g_uerre _w_ar - _g_uetter _w_ait - _g_ueule _w_ell - _g_uichet _w_icket - _G_uillaume _W_illiam - _g_uise (like)_w_ise - -This connection between the _G_ and _W_ may be also seen at the end -of many English compared with German words. - - German. English. - - Sor_g_e sorro_w_ - Fol_g_en follo_w_ - mor_g_en morro_w_ - bor_g_en borro_w_ - bie_g_en bo_w_ - heili_g_en hallo_w_ - tra_g_en dra_w_ - le_g_en la_w_, &c. - -A relationship is also to be seen between _C_ guttural and _H_ -aspirate. The _C_ hard initial in the Romance languages is -represented in the Teutonic by an _H_. For example:-- - - Latin. French. German. English. - - _c_anis _c_hien _H_und _h_ound - _c_ollis _c_olline _H_ügel _h_ill - _c_entum _c_ent _h_undert _h_undred - _c_or _c_œur _H_erz _h_eart - _c_asa _c_hez _H_aus _h_ouse - _c_ornu _c_or _H_orn _h_orn - _c_annabis _c_hanvre _H_anf _h_emp - _c_arpo -- _H_erbst _h_arvest - _c_alx -- _H_iel _h_eel - _c_utis -- _H_aut _h_ide, &c. - -This connection between _c_ (or _k_) and _h_ appears in other -cases. A primitive English word ending in a guttural (_g_ or _k_) -often produces derivatives in which the guttural is softened into -_tch_, as in:-- - - ma_k_e ma_tch_ - wa_k_e wa_tch_ - ba_k_e ba_tch_ - fla_k_e fli_tch_ - wrec_k_ wre_tch_ - di_g_ di_tch_ - stic_k_ sti_tch_ - croo_k_ cru_tch_, &c. - -Some of our English pronouns have this ending (_ch_), where it is a -contraction of the word ‘like.’ Thus:-- - - Scottish. Saxon. English. - - who-like whilk hwlyc whi_ch_ - all-like ilk ælc ea_ch_ - so-like solch (Germ.) swylc su_ch_, &c. - -Another phenomenon of a certain class of words is the use of -an initial _s_, to give them an intensive meaning. This may be -observed in the following cases:-- - - knap snap - lash slash - mash smash - plash splash - quash squash - deep steep - nip snip - rip strip - din stun - pike spike - lack slack - lain slain - lay slay - melt smelt - meet smite - reach stretch - well swell - wipe sweep - light slight - pout spout - hoot shout - rub scrub - tumble stumble - cut scud - -A large class of English words beginning with _s_ followed by a -consonant are derived from French, where they are spelled with an -_e_ or _es_ initial; as:-- - - French. English. - - écarlate scarlet - échafaud scaffold - échantillon scantling - écharfe scarf - espace space - étrange strange - escadron squadron - esclave slave - étage stage - état state - étendard standard - espèce species - espion spy - épinard spinach - épine spine - esprit spirit - écrivain scrivener - échorcher scorch - école school - éponge sponge - époux spouse - estomac stomach - étroit strait - -According to some French philologists, when the _s_ in any of these -French words is pronounced, it is a sign that the word is of later -introduction. - -It may be observed of the letter _h_ (initial) that it is never -mute in Germanic words, and that whenever it is mute in English, -the word is of French derivation. - -Thus we have:-- - - French (mute). - - Honneur _h_onour - Héritier _h_eir - Honnête _h_onest - Heure _h_our - Humeur _h_umour - - German (aspirate). - - hart _h_ard - Herz _h_eart - Heide _h_eath - Hitze _h_eat - Hoffnung _h_ope, &c. - -The _h_ initial was prefixed to many Saxon words where it has now -disappeared from the English. This was chiefly before the liquids -_l_, _n_, and _r_. - - Saxon. English. - - _H_laf loaf - _H_laford lord - _H_rafn raven - _H_lædl ladle - _H_leopan leap - _H_lædan lead - _H_necca neck - _H_nægan neigh - _H_nut nut - _H_lud loud - _H_ring ring - _H_losian lose, &c. - -The German _z_ initial often corresponds with the English _t_; as:-- - - German. English. - - zahlen _t_ell - zahm _t_ame - Zahn _t_ooth - zehn _t_en - zerren _t_ear - Zinn _t_in - Zimmer _t_imber - Zeit _t_ide - zu _t_o - Zoll _t_oll - Zunge _t_ongue - Zug _t_ug - Zweig _t_wig - Zwilling _t_win - zwischen (be)_t_ween - zwölf _t_welve, &c. - -The German _t_ initial corresponds with the English _d_; as:-- - - German. English. - - _T_ag _d_ay - _T_ändeln _d_andle - _T_anz _d_ance - _T_aub _d_eaf - _T_aube _d_ove - _T_auch _d_uck - _T_eich _d_ough - _T_eufel _d_evil - _T_hal _d_ale - _T_hat _d_eed - _T_hau _d_ew - _T_heil _d_eal - _T_hier _d_eer - _T_hun _d_o, &c. - -Some are puzzled when to spell the ending ‘ledge’ and when ‘lege.’ -The following rule may be easily remembered:--Monosyllables and the -word ‘acknowle_d_ge’ are spelled with a _d_; therefore ‘le_d_ge,’ -‘fle_d_ge,’ ‘ple_d_ge,’ ‘se_d_ge,’ ‘sle_d_ge,’ and ‘acknowle_d_ge’ -retain that letter; whereas ‘sacrilege,’ ‘privilege,’ ‘allege,’ and -‘college’ must reject it. - -Some years ago, there was a sharp controversy concerning the -spelling of the word--whether it should be ‘_rein_-deer’ or -‘_rain_-deer.’ The dictionaries differed, many even giving both -forms. It was found in Johnson ‘r_a_in-deer,’ which of course -settled the dispute. In spite of this decision, there is no doubt -that the word is generally spelled ‘rein-deer.’ The Saxon form was -‘hr_a_na-deor,’ i.e. ‘the running animal.’ - -Some lament that we have adopted the French form of the word -‘programme.’ They say that by analogy it ought to be written -‘program.’ We have ‘anagram,’ ‘diagram,’ ‘epigram,’ &c.; and why -not ‘program?’ But the former is now the established spelling; and, -till some daring innovator adopt the new form, and his example be -generally followed, we must be content to use the old one. - -A few years ago, a new word was wanted to express ‘a message sent -by the telegraph;’ various forms were suggested, but at last the -word ‘telegram’ was adopted. This was another argument in favour of -‘program.’ - -The verb ‘to repair,’ in the sense of ‘to make better’ or ‘to -improve,’ is from the Latin ‘reparare,’ through the French -‘réparer;’ but when it means ‘to go back home’ it is from the Latin -‘repatriare,’ to return to your country. - -The second syllable in ‘impair’ is in no way connected with the -above. ‘Impair’ is from the French ‘_empirer_,’ ‘to make worse.’ - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC.--_continued._ - - -In the periodical and light literature of the day, we frequently -meet with forms of language which have been expressively called -‘slipshod English.’ These are of various kinds--uncertain -reference, superfluous words, incompatible terms, ungrammatical -forms, &c. &c. - -Of the first class may be quoted the tailor’s advertisement, in -which it was stated that ‘Gentlemen’s materials are made up, -and waited on at their own houses,’ where there is a glorious -uncertainty as to who or what may be waited on. - -The following is of the same nature:--In an examination in the -House of Commons, in 1809, a member said that ‘the witness had -been ordered to withdraw from the bar, in consequence of being -intoxicated by the motion of an honourable member.’ The word -‘intoxicated’ was here, perhaps, the right word; but it was -certainly not in the right place. - -A word is often written which has no function to perform in the -sentence, and therefore no business on the paper. These are -superfluous words; they occupy space, but, instead of assisting, -they rather clog the sense of the passage. The often-used -expression, ‘final completion,’ is a case in point. Every -‘completion’ is ‘final;’ the idea of ‘final’ is involved in the -word ‘completion,’ and therefore this is a wrong expression. - -Another of these superabundant forms is where we find ‘universal’ -and ‘all’ brought into the same construction. A man is sometimes -said to be ‘universally’ beloved by ‘all’ his friends. Here either -‘universally’ or ‘all’ should be taken out. If the love for him is -‘universal,’ of course ‘all’ love him; and the converse is equally -true. - -Sometimes words are found together which contradict each other. Of -this class of faults we may quote the not unfrequent form ‘further -backwards.’ ‘Further’ means more in advance, and ‘backwards’ has a -directly contrary meaning. It is impossible to go ‘further’ and, -at the same time, ‘backwards,’ and therefore the two words should -never be used together. - -‘Either’ and ‘neither’ cannot be properly applied to more than -two persons or things. Speaking of three or four people, it is -incorrect to say that ‘neither’ of them is clever, though we may -say that ‘none,’ or ‘no one,’ of them is clever. Nor would it be -good grammar to say, ‘either of the six children may go;’ we must -here say ‘any one.’ - -‘_All of them._’ This is a form which some critics have attacked, -and not without reason. They say that ‘_of_’ here means ‘out of;’ -that it corresponds exactly with the Latin preposition _e_, or -_ex_, and that therefore the expression must be incorrect. We do -not take ‘all of them,’ but we take ‘them all.’ We may correctly -say one, two, three, &c., or most of them, but when there is -question of _all_, no preposition should be used. - -‘_Equanimity of mind._’ As equanimity means evenness of mind, why -should ‘of mind’ be repeated? ‘Anxiety of mind’ is, of course, open -to the same objection. - -‘_Incorrect orthography._’ The fault in this very common expression -arises from the idea that ‘orthography’ means merely spelling -(good or bad), whereas the true meaning of the word is ‘_correct_ -spelling.’ Now, spelling cannot be correct and at the same time -incorrect, and therefore the two terms are incompatible. We may say -‘incorrect spelling,’ but we must not say ‘incorrect orthography.’ - -‘_A confirmed invalid._’ What is this? one who is strengthened -in his weakness? There is certainly here a contradiction, for no -weakness can be strong. - -‘_Old news_’ is another contradictory form, where the terms are -incompatible with each other. It may be placed in the same class -with ‘enjoying bad health.’ - -It is inaccurate to say that a man’s ‘_defects are improved_.’ A -defect means the want of some good quality, and to ‘improve’ means -‘to make better.’ Wants may be ‘decreased’ or ‘supplied,’ but they -cannot be made better; and, therefore, the two terms should not be -used together. - -It is a common error to use ‘quantity’ for ‘number.’ The former can -only be said of a collection or mass. A ‘quantity’ of meat or a -‘quantity’ of milk is good English, but not a quantity of pens or -books, &c. To separate individual objects we must apply ‘number,’ -but to a collected mass ‘quantity.’ We may say a ‘quantity’ of -wood, but it must be a ‘number’ of faggots. - -In many cases the wrong preposition is used; and, indeed, there -are few writers or speakers who are invariably correct in this -respect. The very common fault, ‘different to,’ we need hardly stop -to inquire into, but we often find equally wrong forms which pass -unnoticed. Occasionally we meet with ‘to disagree _from_,’ though -in general the form used is ‘to disagree _with_.’ Here the ‘dis’ -in ‘disagree’ and the preposition ‘with’ seem to pull two ways. -Which, then, is right--to disagree _from_ or _with_? The proper -phrase is to ‘assent _to_’ and to ‘dissent _from_;’ and if the -latter is correct, why not also ‘to disagree _from_?’ - -As it is admitted that ‘different _to_’ is wrong, on the same -principle, ‘averse _to_’ must be wrong. No one can go two ways at -once. The _a_ in ‘averse’ certainly means ‘from;’ and therefore the -word should be followed by ‘_from_,’ and not ‘_to_.’ The first is -already adopted by many good writers. - -The conjunction ‘than’ should not be used except after a -comparative adjective. ‘Soon_er_ than;’ ‘better than;’ ‘rather -than,’ &c., are correct; but ‘scarcely had he uttered these words -_than_,’ is bad English. ‘Hardly had he attained his majority -_than_’ is equally wrong. For ‘_than_’ we should here use ‘_when_.’ -‘But’ should not be used for ‘than,’ as, ‘no sooner had he finished -his work _but_.’ - -Another common mistake is to use ‘except’ for ‘unless.’ The former -is a preposition, and must be followed not by a proposition, but by -a noun or pronoun. It is bad grammar to say ‘no one should aspire -to this situation, _except_ he is competent to fulfil its duties.’ -(Here, we should read ‘unless’ for ‘except.’) - -‘Like’ is also frequently confounded with ‘as.’ The former is a -preposition, and should not be used as a conjunction. ‘Do you write -_like_ I do?’ is wrong. It should be ‘_as_ (not _like_) I do.’ - -‘Notwithstanding he thought so,’ is bad English. We should here use -‘although.’ ‘Notwithstanding’ is a preposition, and is followed by -its object. We say correctly, ‘notwithstanding his objections,’ but -not properly, ‘notwithstanding he objected.’ - -‘But’ is often redundant after the word ‘doubt.’ We continually -meet with ‘I have no doubt _but_ that,’ &c. This is a wrong form: -the ‘but’ should be omitted. - -As an example of a loose sentence; i.e. where the connection of the -parts is not sufficiently clear, the following advertisement of a -hair-dresser may be quoted:-- - -‘Seven lessons in hair-dressing may be had for one guinea, which -(?) _being imparted on a system_ entirely new, will enable any one -_so instructed_ to give the most complete satisfaction!’ - -The Anglo-Saxon ‘tíd’ meant ‘time’ (compare the German ‘Zeit’); -whence to ‘betide’ means to happen in time. The ‘tide’ is the -_time_ at which the water rises and falls. ‘Tidy,’ also, in old -English, signified properly ‘timely.’ - -In old English, we meet with the form ‘ton,’ which is for ‘the -one;’ and this may probably account for ‘t’other,’ or ‘the -t’other,’ which is, in fact, a contraction of ‘that other.’ But -‘t’other’ is now accounted a vulgarism. - -There is some difference of practice in the use of the article (a, -an). The rule is, that ‘an’ must be used before a vowel, or _h_ -mute. This is, in general, a good rule; but there is one vowel, -which must be sometimes considered an exception, viz. ‘_u_.’ It is -right to say ‘an apple,’ ‘an evil,’ ‘an idler,’ and ‘an orange;’ -but before _u_ we must pause; for here there is a double practice. -Now, this vowel has two sounds; open, as in ‘_u_nion;’ and close, -as in ‘_u_gly.’ Before the long sound, we should use the article -‘a;’ as ‘a unit,’ ‘a union,’ ‘a uniform,’ &c. But before the short -sound of ‘u,’ the article ‘an’ should be used; as ‘an uncle,’ -‘an ugly object,’ &c. Many good writers, however, use ‘an’ even -before a long _u_. We often meet with ‘_an_ united family,’ ‘_an_ -universal practice,’ &c. The question is here one of harmony; -and the best practice seems to be, to adopt the softer sound. No -one ever thinks of saying or writing ‘_an_ youth,’ or ‘_an_ yew -tree;’ and yet the sound in ‘_an_ uniform,’ or ‘_an_ universe,’ is -precisely the same, and of course equally harsh. - -Another case belonging to this question is the use of the article -in the frequently-seen expression ‘_such an one_.’ This form is -disagreeably harsh and unmusical. We might as well say: ‘such _an_ -woman,’ or ‘such _an_ wonder.’ It is true there are authorities for -both these forms--‘such a one,’ and ‘such an one;’ but in a case of -this sort, we had better adopt the more harmonious form; good taste -and a delicate ear will direct us to ‘such a one,’ rather than -‘such _an_ one.’ - -It has been remarked that there is a strong tendency in English to -get rid of inflections. Many of these were found in old English -which have now fallen off. The old infinitive-ending _en_ is now -altogether gone, though some adjectives in _en_ still remain; viz. -those which denote material, such as ‘golden,’ ‘earthen,’ ‘oaten,’ -&c. We had at one time ‘rosen,’ ‘silvern,’ ‘tinnen,’ ‘boxen,’ and -many others. These are now gone; and there seems to be a prevalent -disposition to cut off the endings of those which remain. Instead -of ‘a golden watch,’ we now say ‘a gold watch,’ using the noun -for the adjective. In the same way, we have ‘earthworks’ for -‘earthen works;’ though we still keep ‘earthenware.’ Many of these -adjectives in _en_ still hold their ground, though most of those -which are retained have lost a part of their sense. ‘Brazen’ has -now only a secondary meaning; and stands for ‘bold’ or ‘impudent.’ -In a concrete sense, the noun is used instead of the adjective. We -say a ‘brazen face,’ for an ‘impudent face;’ but ‘a brass knob,’ -or ‘a brass candlestick.’ Again: we have ‘a golden rule,’ in a -secondary; but a ‘gold’ ring in a primary sense. - -The word ‘pigmy’--derived from the Greek πυγμὴ, the fist--was first -spelled ‘p_y_gmy.’ It meant one whose stature was no higher than -from the elbow to the fist. The change from _y_ to _i_ was probably -caused by the dislike of the printers to _y_ in the middle of a -word. But it has here as good a right to its place as the _y_ in -‘h_y_mn,’ or ‘t_y_pe.’ It is, however, gone; and we must submit. - -Hundreds of words might be cited which have been brought into their -present forms by the influence of corruption. The now generally -received explanation of ‘Rotten Row’ is, that it is a corruption of -‘Route du Roi,’ originally the private road used by King William -III. when going from Piccadilly to Kensington. The old form -‘diamant’ was preferable to the more modern ‘diamond,’ because it -told its story more clearly. It was an inversion of ‘adamant,’ the -untameable, or invincible, so called because it is the hardest of -stones, and cannot be cut except by one of its own species. - -The modern spelling of the word ‘height’ is a corruption. We have -‘wid_th_,’ from ‘wide;’ ‘leng_th_,’ from ‘long;’ and ‘bread_th_,’ -from ‘broad.’ Why, then, not ‘highth,’ from ‘high?’ In the writings -of the seventeenth century we meet with various spellings of this -word. It is found ‘highth’ in the first edition of ‘Paradise Lost;’ -and also ‘heigth’ and ‘heygth.’ Now the inversion of _ht_ for _th_ -has corrupted it into ‘heig_ht_;’ and so, for the present, it will -probably remain. The _d_ in ‘admiral’ appears to be a corruption. -All our dictionaries give the derivation of this word from the -Arabic ‘amir,’ or ‘emir,’ a lord, or commander. Neither the French -‘amiral,’ nor the Italian ‘ammiraglio,’ has the _d_. Milton writes -the word ‘ammiral:’ - - the tallest pine - Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast - Of some great _ammiral_,-- - -though in this passage, the word means a ship, and not its -commander. Mr. Wedgewood says that, in many cases in Arabic, the -article is placed after the noun; and that the _ad_ initial is a -mere corruption of the first syllable of ‘amir’ or ‘emir.’ - -It was a fanciful etymology which gave us the word ‘Tartar.’ The -incorrect spelling ‘Tartars’ for ‘Tatars’ occurs at the same time -with the appearance of the Mongols in Europe, in the thirteenth -century; and was probably introduced by the superstitious monks -and writers who, struck with the seeming analogy between ‘Tatar’ -and Tartarus (the hell of the ancients), believed that these -ferocious invaders had come from the infernal regions. - -We are told by some writers that there are between 2,000 and 3,000 -words in the English language, for which there is no recognised -standard of spelling. Though this number is probably exaggerated, -there are, no doubt, many in this condition; and it naturally -becomes a question which of two forms is to be preferred. Here, -we should be at least consistent; we should hold to the one, and -altogether reject the other. - -The two forms, ‘chemist’ and ‘chymist’ arose from the word having -a disputed derivation; but the first is now received as correct. -Of course, its derivatives will therefore be spelled ‘chemical,’ -‘chemistry,’ &c. - -There was, at one time, a confusion between ‘choir’ and ‘quire.’ -The second word has no connection, except in sound, with the first, -which is from the Latin ‘chorus,’ through the French ‘chœur.’ -As ‘quire,’ in the sense of a number singing together, is now -obsolete, so is ‘quirister,’ which must be spelled ‘chorister.’ - -There are two forms--‘coit,’ and ‘quoit.’ The derivation of -this word is somewhat obscure; but if, as some suggest, it is -connected with _cut_, the form ‘coit’ is preferable to the other. -Another argument in favour of this form is that the word is always -pronounced as if beginning with a _c_ hard, or _k_; and not as if -with _qu_. - -There has been a rather sharp controversy lately concerning the two -forms ‘diocess’ and ‘diocese.’ The ‘Times’ adopts ‘diocess.’ Dr. -Latham says under the word, ‘diocese, frequently but improperly, -diocess.’ Webster says, ‘the orthography of “diocess” is opposed to -the derivation, and is against the best English usage.’ There is -little doubt that ‘diocess’ is the older, and ‘diocese’ the newer -form of the word: and there is also little doubt, in spite of the -‘Times,’ that ‘diocese’ is the proper form. - -Between ‘intire’ and ‘entire’ there is still a divided practice. -The word is a contraction of the Latin ‘integer,’ which will -account for the initial _i_. But it comes to us directly from the -French ‘entier.’ So that ‘entire’ will probably supplant ‘intire,’ -though we still have ‘Barclay and Co.’s _intire_.’ - -There are two forms of the word--‘referrible,’ and ‘referable.’ -These are both in common use, and both are given in the -dictionaries; but the second, ‘referable,’ is the proper form. -There was no Latin adjective ‘referibilis.’ Our word is a later -formation, where _a_ in such cases is always used rather than _i_; -and, therefore, it is better spelled ‘referable.’ Besides, this -form is in analogy with ‘preferable,’ ‘inferable,’ &c. - -Some still write ‘sirname’ incorrectly for ‘surname,’ probably from -an idea that the word means sire-name, or a name received from a -sire (father). But its real meaning is an added name; one name -added _to_ another. It is from the French ‘surnom,’ and should be -always spelled ‘surname.’ - -Between a ‘serjeant’-at-law, and a military ‘sergeant’ there is -this difference: that the first must be written with a _j_, and the -second with a _g_. The word is derived from the Latin ‘serviens,’ -and means, in both cases, one who serves; but the words are spelled -somewhat differently, to make a distinction in their application. - -A difference should be made between ‘story’ and ‘storey.’ The first -means an account of facts, and is a contraction of ‘history.’ It -is a history on a small scale. But ‘storey’ is a contraction of -‘stagery,’ and means the landing in a house; as in ‘first storey,’ -‘second storey,’ &c. Of course, the plural form of the first word -should be ‘stories,’ and of the second, ‘storeys.’ - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS OF WORDS. - - -_Abominable._ This word is from the Latin verb ‘abominor,’ which -again is from _ab_ and _omen_. The word involves the idea of what -is in a religious sense profane and detestable; in fine, of evil -omen. Milton always uses it in reference to devilish, profane or -idolatrous objects. It was once thought that the true etymology of -‘abominable’ was from _ab_ (from), and _homo_ (a man); and that its -proper meaning was _repugnant to human nature_. This, though not -the right derivation, may account for the word being still often -used in that sense. - -_Absurd_, which has the sense of ‘foolish,’ ‘inconsistent,’ &c., is -from the Latin ‘absurdus,’ compounded of ‘ab’ (from), and ‘surdus’ -(deaf). An ‘absurd’ answer is one you would probably get ‘from a -deaf’ man; i.e. one wholly irrelevant to the question. - -_Academy._ This word owes its origin to the name of a grove near -Athens, ἀκαδημία, where Plato and other philosophers used to give -lectures to their followers. Hence this name has been frequently -given to institutions for instruction. - -_Ajar._ The Anglo-Saxon ‘cerre’ is a turn; from ‘cerran,’ to turn; -hence a door is said to be ‘ajar,’ when it is on the turn. From the -same root we have to _churn_ milk; i.e. to _turn_ it about. Also -a _char_-woman--one who does a ‘turn’ of work. Compare the German -‘kehren.’ - -_Archipelago._ This name was given by the modern Greeks to the -Ægean Sea. It is a corruption of ἁγιὸς πέλαγος (Hagios pelagos), -‘Holy Sea.’ - -_Ban_, to proclaim or denounce. The original meaning is connected -with ‘_ban_ner,’ a flag, or standard; in feudal times, the rallying -point to which retainers flocked to do battle for their seigneur. -The word is supposed to be connected with ‘bend,’ in the sense of -to make a sign. ‘Bandit,’ a proclaimed outlaw, is from the same -source, as also ‘Banns,’ i.e. a proclamation of marriage. - -_Bankrupt._ The following circumstances gave rise to this word. -It was the custom in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries for -the Lombard merchants to expose their wares for sale in the -market-place, on _benches_. Whenever any one of their number -failed in his business, or could not pay his debts, all the other -merchants set upon him, drove him from the market, and _broke_ his -_bench_ to pieces. ‘Banco rotto’ is the Italian for bench-broken. -Hence came the word, which passed into French in the form -‘_banqueroute_;’ and into English as ‘_bankrupt_.’ - -_Barley-sugar._ Has nothing whatever to do with the grain -‘_barley_.’ The first part of the word is here an inversion--and at -the same time a corruption of the French brûlé (burnt). The whole -word was originally ‘sucre brûlé’ (burnt sugar), and it is still -sometimes called ‘sugar-barley.’ - -_Birmingham._ The name of an Anglo-Saxon family was often formed -by adding _ing_ to that of its founder; _ing_ meaning ‘son of,’ or -‘descended from.’ The estate or residence was called the ‘_ham_,’ -or home; and the name was formed by adding this syllable _ham_, to -the family name. Thus, the family of a Saxon leader named ‘Beorm’ -possessed a residence in Mercia, to which they gave the name of -‘Beorm-ing-ham,’ or the home of the sons of Beorm; now corrupted -into ‘Birmingham.’ Many places in England still retain the names -originally given them by Anglo-Saxon families; as ‘Nottingham,’ -‘Walsingham,’ &c. - -_Blackguard_ was a name first given to the lowest menials engaged -in the dirty work of a kitchen or household, as scullion, link-boy, -coal-carrier, &c. It was afterwards applied to any loose, idle -vagabonds. - -_Book._ In the same way as the Latin _liber_ (the bark of a tree), -was afterwards used in the sense of a book, because it was a -material used for writing on; so our word _book_ comes from the -Saxon ‘boc’ (a beech tree). In a rude, uncivilised age, it was the -custom to form alphabetical letters with the pliable twigs of the -beech. To this day, the German for ‘to spell’ is ‘buchstabiren’ -(from ‘Buch’ (beech), and ‘stab’ (a staff or twig)); i.e. to put -the beech-staves properly together. - -_Booty._ The Anglo-Saxon ‘bet’ meant ‘better’; and ‘betan’ was to -amend or make better. Thus a ‘booty’ would be that which betters -us; ‘bootless’ is ‘without effect or improvement,’ and ‘so much to -boot,’ is so much to our advantage. - -_Burglar._ This is from the Low Latin ‘burgilatro,’ a house-robber; -one who breaks into a house with a felonious intent. The old French -‘lerre’ is a contraction of the Latin ‘latro,’ a robber. - -_Cabal._ The usually received etymology of this word is that it -is formed of the initials of the names of the five ministers of -Charles II. who succeeded to the government of this country -after the banishment of Lord Clarendon--_C_lifford, _A_shley, -_B_uckingham, _A_rlington, and _L_auderdale. But Mr. Wedgewood -suggests that it comes from ‘Cabala,’ or the mysterious tradition -delivered to Moses with the Law, on Mount Sinai, and handed down -by the Jews from father to son. ‘Hence,’ he says, ‘Cabal came to -signify a secret machination or plotting.’ Lord Macaulay favours -the first explanation. - -_Caitiff._ This English word presents us with a curious lesson. It -is, in fact, only another form of ‘captive,’ though it has come to -signify a wretch capable of perpetrating the darkest crimes. The -Latin ‘captivus,’ a prisoner, is the source of the modern Italian -‘cattivo,’ which has the general sense of ‘bad;’ and the French -‘chétif,’ which signifies ‘mean,’ ‘pitiful,’ or ‘insignificant,’ -is another form of the same word. All these varieties point to the -same conclusion, viz. the moral degradation naturally produced in -the human mind by captivity. - -_Candidate._ In ancient Rome it was the custom for those who sued -for offices of state, to be dressed in white robes. Hence came -the word ‘candidate,’ which is derived from the Latin ‘candidus’ -(white); and which signifies literally--‘dressed in white.’ - -_Carat_ is from the Arabic ‘kaura,’ a bean, which varies very -little in weight. It was introduced into India as a standard weight -for diamonds. The Arabic words are _goort_, _girat_, and _gurat_; -corrupted into ‘_carat_.’ - -_Cardinal._ Certain dignitaries of the Church of Rome are called -‘cardinals.’ This word is derived from the Latin ‘cardo,’ a hinge. -One of the favourite comparisons by which the Church of Rome sought -to set herself up above all the other churches of Christendom, was -that it was the _hinge_ upon which all the rest of the church, as -the door, turned, or depended. Hence the higher clergy were called -cardinals, as being closely connected with the Pope, who was the -‘_cardo_,’ or hinge of them all. Certain virtues are also called -‘cardinal,’ as being those upon which all other virtues turn. - -_Caricature._ This is literally an overloaded or over-charged -representation. It is derived from the Italian ‘_caricare_,’ to -load. In a caricature, a resemblance is retained; but the details -are exaggerated. - -_Carnival_ is from the Latin ‘caro’ (flesh), and ‘vale’ (farewell). -It signifies literally ‘farewell to flesh;’ and is applied to the -holiday held in Roman Catholic countries the week before Lent. It -may be considered as a feast before a fast. - -_Caudle._ The derivation of this word is yet undecided. Latham -gives it as a corruption of ‘cordial;’ while Wedgewood derives it -from the French ‘chaudeau’ (from _chaud_, hot), a warm comforting -drink for the sick. - -_Chancel._ This means the part of a church enclosed or railed off -from the body of the building by lattice-work (Latin, _cancelli_). -Chancellors were originally law officers who stood at the railings -(ad cancellos) in a court of justice, and received the petitions -of the suitors. The verb ‘to cancel’ is from the same source. To -‘cancel’ a name is to efface it by drawing a pen across it in -diagonal lines, so as to make lattice-work over it. - -_Cheat._ From the Latin verb ‘cadĕre,’ to fall, came the old French -‘eschoir,’ and hence ‘escheats.’ This is a law-term signifying -lands which _fall_ to the lord by forfeiture, or by the death of -a tenant. The king’s ‘escheators’ were officers appointed to look -after the king’s ‘escheats;’ and as they had many opportunities of -practising fraud, and were much complained of on that score, the -term escheator (or cheater) came to signify any fraudulent person. -This is the origin of the present meaning of the verb ‘to cheat.’ - -_Church._ This word, though consisting of only one syllable, has in -it the elements of two roots. It is of Greek origin, and signifies -literally ‘the Lord’s House.’ Κύριος (Kyrios) is the Greek for -‘Lord;’ and οἶκος (oikos) means, in that language, ‘house,’ or -‘dwelling.’ Putting these two roots together we get ‘_Kyri-oik_.’ -This, by a natural law would contract into ‘kyrik.’ In Scotch we -find ‘kirk,’ and in German ‘Kirche.’ In English the guttural is -softened, and the word appears as ‘_church_.’ - -_Comedy._ This is derived, according to Aristotle, from κώμη -(komē), a village; and ᾠδὴ (odē), a song. It was at first a song -of joy of the villagers at the gathering in of the harvest--a -sort of harvest-home. This was a lighter and gayer song, and did -not partake of the more solemn, and at first, religious tone of -the tragedy. Others derive comedy from κῶμος, and ᾠδή, ‘a song of -revellers.’ - -_Companion._ Two derivations are given of this word. 1. From the -French ‘campagne,’ which is from the Latin ‘cum,’ and ‘pagus,’ a -village, or district. By this explanation it would mean one of -those who belonged to the same district. 2. From the Low Latin -‘companium,’ an association; formed from ‘cum’ (with), and ‘panis’ -(bread). This conveys the meaning of bread-sharer. Mr. Wedgewood -favours the second explanation. - -_Comrade._ There is no doubt that this word, which is in French -‘camarade,’ is derived from the Italian ‘camera,’ afterwards in -French ‘chambre,’ and that it was first applied to those who lived -together in the same room (chambre). - -_Cordwainer._ During the Moorish government of southern Spain, the -city of Cordŏva became celebrated for the manufacture of leather. -Hence, the French ‘cordovan’ meant originally the leather of -Cordova. Hence, also, the English ‘cordwainer,’ and the French -‘cordovanier’ (now contracted into ‘cordonnier,’) a worker in -leather. - -_Counterpane._ The middle-age Latin ‘culcita’ meant a mattrass. -This in French was ‘coulte,’ and in English became ‘quilt.’ -‘Culcita puncta’ meant a quilt punctured with stitches, so as to -form a pattern. This, in French, became ‘coulte-pointe;’ afterwards -converted into ‘conte-pointe,’ and ‘contre-pointe.’ Hence at length -came the English ‘counter-pane.’ - -_Country Dance._ Some think that this really means a dance of -country people. But the probable derivation is the French _contre_, -‘over against,’ or ‘opposite to,’ which has been corrupted into -‘country;’ and the whole word means a dance in which the partners -stand opposite to (contre) each other. - -_Curmudgeon._ It was suggested by Menage that this word is from -the French ‘cœur,’ and ‘méchant,’ wicked heart. But the more -probable derivation is from ‘corn-mudgin.’ Corn-mudgins were -dealers in corn, who were unpopular, as it was thought that -they hoarded, and kept up the price of corn, to serve their own -interests. Hence the word came to signify an avaricious monopolist. - -_Delirious_ comes from the Latin compound ‘de’ (from), and ‘lira’ -(a furrow, or ridge). The word is a metaphor, taken from those who -deviate from the straight line, or furrow, in ploughing. It is now -applied to those who rove in mind, or are disordered in intellect. - -_Ecstasy._ This word has the meaning of violent excitement. It is -now generally used in the sense of some pleasurable feeling, though -it was formerly much more extended in signification. It is derived -from the Greek ἐκ (out), and στάσις (a standing); i.e. literally -‘a standing out.’ It is curious that in the Saxon part of our -language, there is a corresponding phrase which exactly explains -this word; viz. ‘_to be beside oneself_.’ We commonly say, ‘He was -beside himself with joy.’ In a state of ‘ecstasy,’ the soul may be -said to leap out, as it were, and stand forth from the body. - -_Fanatic_ is from the Latin ‘fanum,’ a temple. This adjective -was at first applied to people affected by a strong religious -feeling--possessed by an incontrollable enthusiasm. - -_Favour._ Ladies in their most brilliant attire were generally -spectators of the tournaments of the Middle Ages. They were, -severally, interested in the knights, and encouraged them, by -looks, tokens, or gestures, to do their duty manfully. They -frequently threw them a portion of their dress, such as a sleeve, -mantle, or bow of ribbons, called a _favour_, which the knight wore -on his armour, and forfeited if he was vanquished. From this custom -has descended, to our days, the fashion of distributing bows of -ribbon, still called _favours_, to the guests and attendants at a -wedding. - -_Faubourg._ This is considered by French philologists, to be a -corruption of ‘_forsbourg_.’ The old French ‘fors’ (now _hors_), -is from the Latin ‘foras,’ ‘outside,’ or ‘abroad.’ Faubourg (the -present orthography) would naturally lead to the idea that it meant -‘false town,’ or ‘unreal town:’ whereas it means and literally -corresponds with the English ‘suburb,’ i.e. a district or place -situated ‘foras burgi,’ outside the town. - -_Feud._ According to M. Guizot, the word ‘feodum’ appears for the -first time in a charter of Charles Le Gros, 884. The etymology is -uncertain; but two suggestions have been made, either of which is -probable. Some think the word is connected with the Latin ‘fides,’ -faith, and means ‘land given,’ for which the holder was bound in -_fidelity_ to his suzerain lord. According to others, ‘feod’ is of -Germanic origin; and is derived from ‘fe’ (or fee)--still used in -English in the sense of a recompense--and ‘od’ an old Germanic root -now obsolete, meaning ‘goods,’ or ‘property.’ Thus, ‘feod’ would -mean reward-land. M. Guizot favours the second explanation. - -_Foolscap._ By a statute of Queen Anne certain duties were imposed -on all paper imported from abroad. Among the various sorts of paper -herein mentioned is the Genoa ‘foolscap.’ This word is a corruption -of the Italian ‘foglio capo,’ a chief, or full-sized, sheet of -paper. Foglio (leaf), is from the Latin ‘folium,’ which appears in -French as ‘feuille.’ - -_Garment_ is a contraction of the French ‘garnement,’ from the -verb ‘garnir,’ to decorate or garnish. It is now restricted to the -meaning of ‘garnishing’ or decorating the body by dress. - -_Gew-gaw._ The derivation of this word still remains doubtful, -though many suggestions have been made of its origin. May it not be -from the French ‘jou-jou,’ a plaything? - -_Gooseberry._ Dr. Johnson, whose etymologies are not always to be -depended on, especially those of Saxon words, explains the word -‘gooseberry’--‘a fruit eaten as a sauce for goose.’ But it is, in -truth, a corruption of the German ‘krausbeere,’ or ‘krautelbeere,’ -from ‘kraus’ or ‘gorse,’ ‘crisp;’ and the fruit is so called from -the upright hairs with which it is covered. So that ‘gooseberry,’ -is really, a corruption of ‘gorseberry.’ But what is gooseberry -_fool_? ‘Fool’ is here also a corruption--it is from the French -‘foulé,’ ‘mashed’ or ‘crushed,’ and the whole word means ‘crushed -gooseberries.’ - -_Gossip._ ‘Sib’ was an Anglo-Saxon word, meaning ‘relation,’ -and the term ‘gossip’ was first applied to the relation between -godfathers and godmothers in baptism, so that a gossip (or -God-sib), meant a relation in God (i.e. in a religious sense). It -has now passed into the sense of a great chatterer or talker; but -the above explanation accounts for its origin. - -_Hammercloth._ In the olden time, before there was any hotel -accommodation in England for travellers, it was the custom with -those going on a journey to fill a ‘hanaper’ (or hamper) with -provisions, and throw a cloth over it, to conceal its somewhat -homely appearance. This was placed in front of the carriage, and -served as a seat for the driver. Thus, from ‘hanaper-cloth,’ came -‘hammer-cloth.’ - -_Harbour._ The two roots of this compound word are the Anglo-Saxon -‘here,’ an army; and ‘beorgan,’ to protect. A harbour is then, -literally, a place to protect an army. - -_Heir-loom._ From the Saxon ‘geloma,’ tools, utensils, or pieces -of furniture. These in law are called personal chattels, and when -they descended in inheritance from father to son, they were called -‘heir-looms.’ - -_Homage_ is derived from the French ‘homme,’ a man. The ceremony -of ‘homage’ was, in the Middle Ages, a solemn declaration of the -vassal that he would be the man (homme) of his future lord. He -knelt down; placed both his hands between those of his lord; with -his head bare, and without his arms; and then swore that he would -use his hands and his weapons, when they should be restored to him, -in his future lord’s service. - -_Hurry._ ‘Here’ was the Anglo-Saxon for an army (compare the German -‘Heer’); and ‘herian’ was to act as an army, viz. to ravage, -despoil, and plunder a country. Hence come the English words -‘hurry,’ ‘harry,’ and ‘harrow.’ - -_Hustings_ is from the Saxon ‘Hus’ (a house) and ‘Ting’ (a -council). This was the name given to the municipal court of the -City of London, where probably the elections were originally -conducted. Now, the word signifies the booths where speeches are -made at an election. - -_Jeopardy._ This is from the Middle-Age Latin; ‘jocus partitus’ -(French, ‘jeu-parti’), i.e. a divided game, where the chances are -even--a choice of alternatives. - -_Kickshaws_ is a corruption of the French ‘quelque chose;’ -_something_ so disguised by cooking as scarcely to be recognised. - -_Late_ is from the Anglo-Saxon ‘lætan;’ to let, or allow. ‘Lazy’ is -from the same root, as is also ‘loiter.’ He who ‘loiters’ must be -‘late.’ - -_Lout._ This comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb ‘lutian,’ to bow. It -was originally applied to a cringing menial, who was continually -_bowing_ before his master; and as in this case, the act was -probably performed in a clownish, ungraceful way, the word thus -came to signify an awkward, clumsy fellow. - -_Menial._ This adjective is derived from the old French noun -‘mesnie’ (or meny), which, in the Middle Ages, meant the servants -or household of some noble or chieftain taken collectively. A -_menial_ occupation was, originally, one performed by some member -of the ‘mesnie.’ It is from this last that the English expression -‘a many’ is derived. It was at first ‘a mesnie,’ or a collective -number of servants. - -_Meringue._ Shakspere says that ‘great events from trivial causes -spring.’ But we may sometimes reverse this saying, and say with -equal truth, that trivial effects spring from great causes. It may -appear strange that the French could not hit upon a more dignified -way of commemorating a victory than by giving its name to a then -newly invented cake, but such is the fact. The battle of Marengo -produced the ‘Meringue’!! - -_Miscreant_, which is from the French mécreant (or mécroyant), was -first used in the times of the Crusades, and then signified simply -an unbeliever. But disbelief in Christianity being at that time -regarded as the worst of crimes, the word soon passed into the more -general sense of a wicked wretch. - -_Mouchard._--In the latter part of the sixteenth century, when -the French Government was on the look-out for heretics, a certain -Antoine _Mouchy_, a doctor of the Sorbonne and canon of Noyon, made -himself notorious by his zeal against the Reformers. The secret -spies he employed in detecting the heretics were called, from -his name, _Mouchards_, a word which now signifies the basest and -meanest of betrayers. - -_Mountebank._--This means a quack medicine vendor, so called from -the Italian ‘montare’ (to mount) and ‘banco’ (a bench). Literally, -one who mounts a bench, to boast of his infallible skill in curing -diseases. - -_Naught._ ‘Aught’ is a contraction of the Saxon ‘a wiht’ (or, a -whit), any creature or thing. ‘Naught’ is the negative of ‘aught,’ -and means ‘not a whit.’ The adjective ‘naughty’ is now confined in -its application to the behaviour of children; but it was once much -more extensively used. - -_Palace._ This term, which is now used in a general sense for -a king’s residence, was first applied to a dwelling of the -Roman Emperor Nero. One of the seven hills of Rome was called -‘Palatinus,’ from Pales, a pastoral deity whose festival was there -celebrated on April 21 as the birthday of Rome. Under Nero, all -the private houses on the ‘collis Palatinus’ were pulled down to -make room for the Emperor’s new residence. This house was called -‘Palatium,’ and it afterwards became the type of all the palaces of -the kings and emperors of Europe. - -_Palfrey._--This is a contraction of the French ‘par le frein’ -(by the bridle). It is a horse used on state occasions, and -distinguished from the war horse--a horse led by the bridle, ‘_mené -par le frein_.’ - -_Pamphlet._--It is supposed that this word is a contraction of the -French ‘par un filet.’ It means a small book, not bound, but held -together by a thread--‘_tenu par un filet_.’ - -_Pavilion_ is derived directly from the French ‘pavillon,’ where it -is used in the sense of a tent or flag. But the origin of the word -is the Latin ‘papilio,’ a butterfly. Tents or flags would be so -called, because of their flapping about as a butterfly. - -_Person._ This word was originally a theatrical term, and properly -meant an actor. The theatres of the ancient Romans were built so -large as to contain between 30,000 and 40,000 people. Now it was -impossible for the actors to make themselves heard through so large -a space; and they therefore wore masks, inside of which, close to -the aperture for the mouth, was a certain mechanical contrivance, -which made the voice more sonorous, so that the actors’ words could -be heard in all parts of the theatre. The Latin for a mask is -‘persona,’ so called because the voice _sounded through it_. _Per_ -is in Latin, ‘through;’ and _son_ is the root of the verb ‘sonare’ -to sound. By a common figure of speech, the word meaning ‘mask’ -(persona) was afterwards applied to its wearer; and thus ‘persona’ -came to signify ‘actor.’ This was its original, theatrical meaning. -But, as all human beings are, in one sense, actors--as they all -have a part to play on the stage of life, the word ‘person’ was -afterwards used in a general sense to signify any one man or woman. -In one special case, it appears in the form ‘parson,’ to designate -the ‘chief person,’ or priest, of a parish. In this sense, however, -the word is now falling into disuse. - -_Pet._ The French adjective ‘petit’ (small) is derived from the -Latin participle, ‘petitus,’ sought after. From this root came the -English word ‘pet.’ ‘My pet’ means literally, ‘my sought after or -desired one.’ ‘Petty’ is also from the French ‘petit;’ but it has -degenerated: and is now always used in a bad sense, as in a ‘petty -action.’ - -_Pert_ is nothing else than the old French ‘aperte,’ (from the -Latin apertus) open, public, without concealment. The sense has now -degenerated into ‘saucy’ or ‘impudent.’ ‘Malapert’ had that meaning -from the beginning; but this word is now seldom used. ‘Pert’ seems -to have taken its place. - -_Poltroon._ The derivation of this word is still undecided; but -the following account of it has been offered. In the later ages -of the Roman empire, the ancient valour of the citizens had so -degenerated that, rather than fight, many actually cut off their -right thumbs, in order to disable themselves from using the pike. -The Latin for ‘thumb’ is ‘pollex’; and ‘truncus’ means, in that -language, ‘maimed’ or ‘mutilated.’ These two roots put together -give us ‘pol-troon’ from ‘_pol_lice _trun_cus,’ i.e. with the thumb -cut off. As this was done with a cowardly motive, the word very -naturally came to signify a coward, a meaning which it retains to -this day. - -_Pontiff_ (Lat. pontifex). There are various etymologies of this -word. Varro derives it from ‘pons,’ a bridge, and ‘facĕre,’ to make -or build. He says that the pontiffs had built the ‘pons sublicius’ -(over the Tiber); and afterwards restored it, that sacrifices might -be performed on each side of the river. It is now used only as a -title of the Pope of Rome. - -_Porpoise._ This word is from the French porc (hog) and poisson -(fish); so called from its resemblance to a hog. Spenser spells the -word ‘porcpisces.’ It is singular that, in this case, the French -should have adopted the Teutonic word ‘marsouin’ (mereswine); while -in English it is known by its French name--‘porc-poisson.’ - -_Post._ The apparently contradictory meanings of this word may -give it a peculiar interest. In its original sense, it means -something _placed_; from the Latin participle ‘positum’; as, for -example, a pillar fixed in the street. But we also hear of _post_ -haste, _post_ horses, &c., and, in these cases, the meaning -seems directly opposed to the etymology. When letters, parcels, -&c. were first transmitted from place to place, stations (or -posts) were placed at intervals from each other, and letters were -rapidly passed on by messengers from one station to the next, and -so on, across the whole country. This was called _post_ haste; -i.e. in such haste as was used when letters were sent in the -above-described way. - -_Punch._ The well-known beverage called punch is said to be -derived from the Hindostani panch--five. It means a mixture of -five ingredients: 1. spirit, 2. water, 3. sugar, 4. acid, and 5. -essential oil of lemon. - -_Puny._ This is an English form of the French puis-né, -or (de)puis-né (Latin, post natus), born since. It is in -contradistinction to the French aîné (ante-natus) elder or born -before; and now signifies weak, ill-conditioned in growth. A junior -judge is still, in legal phrase, a puisne judge. - -_Quack._ The whole word is in German ‘qualksalber,’ of which -‘quack’ is a contraction. ‘To quack’ is to talk boastfully--to make -a great fuss; and ‘salber’ is from _salve_, something to _heal_; -so that quacksalber may be explained, one who talks noisily and -fussily about his healing medicines. - -_Quandary._ This is a corruption of the French ‘qu’en dirai-(je)?’ -‘what shall I say of it?’ It expresses that condition of doubt or -uncertainty in which such a question would be naturally asked. - -_Ragoût._ This French noun, which may be now considered as -naturalised in English, is a contraction of the Italian ‘miro -gusto,’ ‘wonderful taste.’ - -_Raiment_ is derived from ‘to array,’ and is a contraction for -‘arrayment.’ - -_Ransack._ This word is founded in Swedish, ‘ransacka,’ where it -means to search a house for stolen goods. It is compounded of the -O.N. ‘rann,’ a house, and Sw. ‘soka,’ to seek. - -_Religion_ is from the Latin ‘_re_’ (back), and ‘_ligare_,’ ‘to -bind;’ literally, that which binds back, or restrains us from the -commission of sin. - -_Right_ and _Wrong_. The first of these words, in a secondary -sense, has a meaning analogous to proceeding in a straight line, -the Latin ‘rectus,’ from which it is derived, having that meaning. -The French ‘droit’ is from ‘directus.’ Our word ‘wrong’ is only -another form of ‘wrung,’ i. e. ‘_twisted_’ (out of the right line). -It may be observed, by the way, that the French ‘tort’ (wrong) -is from the Latin ‘tortus,’ twisted; so that the same principle -operates in both cases. - -_Romance._ A name given to certain European languages (especially -the Provençal), which grew out of the old Roman or Latin, The -Troubadours, or poets, who wrote in the Provençal language being -notorious for their exaggerated sentiment, the word has come to -mean a wildly imaginative fiction; and it is even sometimes used as -a softened expression for a falsehood. - -_Salary._ This is from the Latin ‘salarium.’ According to Pliny, it -is derived from ‘sal’ (salt), that being the most necessary article -for the maintenance of life. In the reign of the Emperor Augustus -it comprised the provisions as well as the pay of the Roman -military officers. From ‘salary’ probably came the expression, ‘he -is not worth his _salt_,’ i.e. his pay, or wages. - -_Sarcasm._--The root of this word is the Greek σάρξ (sarx) flesh, -from which comes σαρκάζω (sarcazo) ‘I tear flesh.’ The derivation -throws a strong light on its true meaning--a tearing of the flesh. -But it is now used only in a secondary sense. - -_Saunter._ It is said that, in the time of the Crusades, many -foreign mendicants overran England. They professed to be on their -return from a pilgrimage to the ‘Sainte Terre:’ and the popular -voice gave these vagabonds the name of ‘saunterers.’ - -_Sedition_ is from the Latin ‘se’ (apart), and ‘itio,’ a going -(from ‘eo’ I go). Sedition, then, means ‘a going apart,’ i.e. a -departure from submission to the laws. It now implies a violent -opposition to government, and involves the idea of commotion and -disturbance of the peace. - -_Seneschal._ This is a compound of the Latin ‘senex’ (old) and the -Gothic ‘scalco’ (a servant). The seneschal of a castle was, in the -Middle Ages, an _aged servant_, whose duty it was to keep the keys, -take care of the house, and superintend the feasts and domestic -ceremonies. ‘Seneschal’ means ‘aged servant,’ as ‘marshal’ (‘mara -scalco’) means, literally, ‘horse servant.’ - -_Sincere._ One suggestion concerning the etymology of this word -is, that it was compounded from the Latin ‘sine’ (without), and -‘cerâ’ (wax)--‘without wax.’ In this view, the term is referred to -a practice of the ancient sculptors, who, when they found a flaw in -the marble of which they were forming a statue, filled up the place -with wax, in order to conceal the defect. Those pieces of statuary -that had no flaws were, consequently, ‘sine cerâ’ (without wax); -and the word ‘sincere’ thus acquired its present meaning; viz. -perfect, whole, without flaw. Many etymologists, however, reject -this derivation, and the origin of the word is still considered as -doubtful. - -_Simple._ Whether ‘sincere’ be or be not from ‘sine cerâ,’ it -is generally allowed that ‘simple’ is from the Latin ‘sine,’ -and ‘plico,’ I fold; i.e. literally, ‘without fold.’ The Latin -‘simplex,’ ‘duplex,’ ‘triplex,’ &c. are in English, ‘sim_ple_,’ -‘dou_ble_,’ ‘tri_ple_,’ &c. - -_Soldier._ This English word comes directly from the French -‘soldat,’ which, again, is from the Latin ‘solidus,’ Italian -‘soldo,’ and French ‘solde,’ ‘sou’ (pay)--the name of a coin which -a man received as his pay for fighting. The word originally meant -one who performed military service, not in fulfilment of the feudal -obligation, but upon contract, and for stipulated pay. - -_Somerset._ The corruption of a word often obscures its -derivation; as is the case here. This is originally from the -Italian ‘soprasalto,’ an over-leap. The French corrupted the word -into ‘sobresault,’ and the English to ‘somersault,’ and then to -‘somerset.’ But it should be always spelled ‘somersault.’ It -properly means a _leap_ in which the heels are thrown _over_ the -head. - -_Spouse._ The origin of this word may be traced to the Greek verb -σβέννυμι (sbennumi), ‘I pour out;’ which passed into Latin as -‘spondeo’ (sponsus). The Latin verb came to signify ‘to make a -contract’ or promise. In making contracts, it was a custom with -the Romans _to pour out_ libations to the gods. Hence, any one -who contracted an engagement (especially in the case of marriage) -was called ‘sponsus,’ i.e. ‘engaged,’ or ‘betrothed.’ The modern -Italians softened the word into ‘sposo,’ and the French transformed -it into ‘époux.’ Then it passed into English in the form of -‘spouse.’ Godfathers and godmothers are called ‘sponsors,’ for the -same reason; because they engage, or bind themselves, in certain -contingencies, to instruct a child in his religious duties. - -_Stalwart_ is often written, in early English, ‘stal-ward.’ It is -from the Anglo-Saxon ‘stal-weorth,’ i.e. worth stealing, or taking. -The word is now used in the sense of strong-limbed, noble, manly in -appearance. - -_Stationer._ The word ‘statio’ meant, in the Middle Ages, ‘a -stall,’ or ‘shop,’ and was at last used for a shop where books -and paper were sold. Hence came ‘_stationarius_,’ one who held a -station, or who dealt in books, paper, &c. - -_Tawdry._ According to the legend, St. Etheldreda (Saint Audrey) -is said to have died of a quinsy, which she considered sent her as -a judgment for her vanity concerning necklaces in her youth. Hence -‘tawdry’ has been explained as the necklace of St. Audrey. The word -now qualifies any silly, frivolous ornamentation; fine and showy, -but without taste or elegance. - -_Thing._ There is a close connection between the noun ‘thing’ and -the verb ‘to think.’ In fact, the one is derived from the other. -For what is a _thing_? It is whatever causes us to _think_. There -is the same connection between the Latin noun ‘res’ and the verb -‘reor.’ We may also observe that the Italian ‘cosa’ and the French -‘chose’ are formed by the same analogy. They both mean ‘cause,’ i. -e. cause of ideas or thoughts. - -_Tragedy._ It was a custom with the Greek peasants, when they -gathered in the vintage, to recite or sing an ode in honour of -Bacchus, their tutelary god of wine; and on this solemn occasion, -by way of propitiating that divinity, they sacrificed to him a -he-goat. The Greek for a ‘he-goat’ is τράγος; and a song (or ode) -is, in that language, ᾠδὴ (odē). Putting together τράγος and ᾠδὴ -we get ‘tragœdia’ (tragedy); literally, ‘the song of the goat,’ -or, the song sung when the goat was sacrificed to Bacchus. Various -additions were afterwards made, such as dialogue, chorus, &c., till -at length the drama appeared in its present form. - -_Wiseacre._ This word has, really, no connection whatever with -‘acre.’ The two roots, ‘wise’ and ‘acre,’ are clearly incompatible. -How then, did they come together? The word is, both in spelling -and pronunciation, a corruption of the German ‘weissager,’ a -‘wise-_sayer_,’ or sayer of wise maxims, or precepts. - -_Wont._ The Anglo-Saxon ‘wunian’ meant to dwell, which naturally -involved the idea of being accustomed to; for we must become -accustomed to the dwelling in which we live. ‘He was _wont_ to -say,’ means he was in the habit of saying. Compare the German -‘wohnen’ and ‘Wohnung.’ - -_Zero._ The name given to the arithmetical ‘0’ is said to be -a contraction of the Italian ‘zephiro,’ a zephyr; i.e. a mere -nothing; having no more substance than a breeze, or breath of air. -It is also sometimes called a ‘cipher,’ from the Arabic ‘cifr,’ -empty. - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY - SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE - AND PARLIAMENT STREET - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] See Génin, Variations du Langage français, p. 312. - -[2] In some cases, this difference of meaning may be accounted -for by a difference of etymology. ‘To let,’ in the sense of ‘to -hinder,’ is from the Saxon verb ‘letjan;’ but when it means ‘to -allow,’ it is from the Saxon ‘lætan.’ See Mätzner, _Englische -Grammatik_, vol. i. p. 189. - -[3] ‘To cleave,’ meaning ‘to adhere to,’ is from the Anglo-Saxon -‘cleofan,’ ‘clufan;’ but in the sense of ‘to split,’ it is from -‘clifan,’ ‘clifian.’ See Mätzner, vol. i. p. 202. - - - - - * * * * * - - -_Works by the same Author._ - - - ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRACTICE; or, Exercises on the Etymology, Syntax, - and Prosody of the English Language. Adapted to every form of - Tuition. Revised Edition, in fcp. 8vo. price 4_s._ 6_d._ - -‘A volume of exercises which seem to have been selected with a ripe -judgment.’ - - SPECTATOR. - -‘This treatise contains not merely the ordinary grammatical -rudiments, but exercises in punctuation, prosody, and -versification. It will be found very useful, especially to learners -who are somewhat advanced.’ - - WEEKLY DISPATCH. - -‘So far as we have examined this work, its nomenclature seems much -more simple than that of the majority of English grammars published -of late years. The chief feature, however, of Mr. GRAHAM’S book is -the abundance of its exercises; and these can be worked out after -each rule, so that the young learner can really confirm his own -progress step by step. There are also appended copious exercises in -prosody and versification--a branch of English grammar not usually -studied in schools as thoroughly as its importance deserves.’ - - CRITIC. - -‘Not only are the rules here expressed in very simple and -intelligible language, but each is immediately followed by an -exercise, in which the principle on which the rule rests is -illustrated and enforced by repeated examples. This is, we think, -the only method of making a clear impression upon a mind of average -capacity; and even where unusually good abilities make its adoption -not absolutely necessary, it may be employed with considerable -advantage in stimulating the pupil’s zeal by enabling him to -feel at every successful application of the principle involved a -very encouraging sense of progress.... 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To which -are added Commission Tables at One-Eighth and One-Fourth per Cent. -8vo. price 15_s._ - -=MAUNDER’S TREASURY of KNOWLEDGE and LIBRARY of Reference=: -comprising an English Dictionary and Grammar, Universal Gazetteer, -Classical Dictionary, Chronology, Law Dictionary, a Synopsis of the -Peerage, useful Tables, &c. Revised Edition. Fcp. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - - - -INDEX. - - - ACTON’S Modern Cookery, 27 - - ALCOCK’S Residence in Japan, 22 - - ALLIES on Formation of Christendom, 20 - - Alpine Guide (The), 23 - - ALVENSLEBEN’S Maximilian in Mexico, 5 - - APJOHN’S Manual of the Metalloids, 12 - - ARNOLD’S Manual of English Literature, 7 - - ARNOTT’S Elements of Physics, 11 - - Arundines Cami, 25 - - Autumn holidays of a Country Parson, 8 - - AYRE’S Treasury of Bible Knowledge, 19 - - - BACON’S Essays, by WHATELY, 5 - - ---- Life and Letters, by SPEDDING, 5 - - ---- Works, 6 - - BAIN on the Emotions and Will, 9 - - ---- on the Senses and Intellect, 9 - - ---- on the Study of Character, 9 - - BALL’S Alpine Guide, 22 - - BARNARD’S Drawing from Nature, 16 - - BAYLDON’S Rents and Tillages, 18 - - Beaten Tracks, 22 - - BECKER’S Charicles _and_ Gallus, 23 - - BEETHOVEN’S Letters, 4 - - BENFEY’S Sanskrit Dictionary, 8 - - BERRY’S Journals and Correspondence, 4 - - Billiard Book (The), 26 - - BLACK’S Treatise on Brewing, 28 - - BLACKLEY and FRIEDLANDER’S German and English Dictionary, 8 - - BLAINE’S Rural Sports, 25 - - ---- Veterinary Art, 26 - - BLIGHT’S Week at the Land’s End, 23 - - BOOTH’S Epigrams, 9 - - BOURNE on Screw Propeller, 17 - - BOURNE’S Catechism of the Steam Engine, 17 - - ---- Handbook of Steam Engine, 17 - - ---- Treatise on the Steam Engine, 17 - - ---- Examples of Steam, Air, and Gas Engines, 17 - - BOWDLER’S Family SHAKSPEARE, 25 - - BOYD’S Manual for Naval Cadets, 27 - - BRAMLEY-MOORE’S Six Sisters of the Valleys, 23 - - BRANDE’S Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art, 13 - - BRAY’S (C.) Education of the Feelings, 10 - - ---- Philosophy of Necessity, 10 - - ---- on Force, 10 - - BRINTON on Food and Digestion, 27 - - BRISTOW’S Glossary of Mineralogy, 11 - - BRODIE’S (Sir C. B.) Works, 15 - - ---- Constitutional History, 2 - - BROWNE’S Exposition 39 Articles, 18 - - BUCKLE’S History of Civilization, 2 - - BULL’S Hints to Mothers, 28 - - ---- Maternal Management of Children, 28 - - BUNSEN’S (Baron) Ancient Egypt, 3 - - ---- God in History, 3 - - ---- Memoirs, 4 - - BUNSEN (E. DE) on Apocrypha, 20 - - ----‘s Keys of St. Peter, 20 - - BURKE’S Vicissitudes of Families, 5 - - BURTON’S Christian Church, 3 - - - Cabinet Lawyer, 28 - - CALVERT’S Wife’s Manual, 21 - - CATES’S Biographical Dictionary, 4 - - CATS’ and FARLIE’S Moral Emblems, 16 - - CHESNEY’S Indian Polity, 23 - - Chorale Book for England, 16 - - Christian Schools and Scholars, 10 - - CLOUGH’S Lives from Plutarch, 2 - - COLENSO (Bishop) on Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, 19 - - COLLINS’S Horse-Trainer’s Guide, 26 - - Common-place Philosopher in Town and Country, 8 - - CONINGTON’S Chemical Analysis, 14 - - ---- Translation of VIRGIL’S _Æneid_, 25 - - CONTANSEAU’S Pocket French and English Dictionary, 8 - - ---- Practical ditto, 8 - - CONYBEARE and HOWSON’S Life and Epistles of St. Paul, 18 - - COOK on the Acts, 18 - - COPLAND’S Dictionary of Practical Medicine, 15 - - COULTHART’S Decimal Interest Tables, 28 - - Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit, 8 - - COX’S Manual of Mythology, 24 - - ---- Tales of the Great Persian War, 2 - - ---- Tales from Greek Mythology, 24 - - ---- Tales of the Gods and Heroes, 24 - - ---- Tales of Thebes and Argos, 24 - - ---- Tales from Ancient Greece, 24 - - CRESY’S Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering, 17 - - Critical Essays of a Country Parson, 8 - - CROWE’S History of France, 2 - - CRUMP on Banking, Currency, & Exchanges, 27 - - - DART’S Iliad of Homer, 25 - - D’AUBIGNE’S History of the Reformation in the time of CALVIN, 2 - - DAVIDSON’S Introduction to New Testament, 19 - - DAYMAN’S Dante’s Divina Commedia, 25 - - Dead Shot (The), by MARKSMAN, 26 - - DE BURGH’S Maritime International Law, 27 - - DE LA RIVE’S Treatise on Electricity, 11 - - DE MORGAN on Matter and Spirit, 9 - - DE TOCQUEVILLE’S Democracy in America, 2 - - DISRAELI’S Speeches on Parliamentary Reform, 6 - - DOBSON on the Ox, 27 - - DOVE on Storms, 10 - - DYER’S City of Rome, 2 - - - EASTLAKE’S Hints on Household Taste, 17 - - EDWARDS’ Shipmaster’s Guide, 27 - - Elements of Botany, 13 - - ELLICOTT’S Commentary on Ephesians, 19 - - ---- Lectures on Life of Christ, 19 - - ---- Commentary on Galatians, 19 - - ---- ---- Pastoral Epist., 19 - - ---- ---- Philippians, &c., 19 - - ---- ---- Thessalonians, 19 - - ENGEL’S Introduction to National Music, 15 - - Essays and Reviews, 20 - - ---- on Religion and Literature, edited by MANNING, FIRST _and_ - SECOND SERIES, 20 - - EWALD’S History of Israel, 19 - - - FAIRBAIRN on Iron Shipbuilding, 17 - - FAIRBAIRN’S Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building, 17 - - ---- Information for Engineers, 17 - - ---- Treatise on Mills & Millwork, 17 - - FARRAR’S Chapters on Language, 7 - - FELKIN on Hosiery and Lace Manufactures, 18 - - FFOULKES’S Christendom’s Divisions, 20 - - FLIEDNER’S (Pastor) Life, 5 - - FRANCIS’S Fishing Book, 26 - - ---- (Sir P.) Memoir and Journal, 4 - - Friends in Council, 9 - - FROUDE’S History of England, 1 - - ---- Short Studies on Great Subjects, 8 - - - GANOT’S Elementary Physics, 11 - - GILBERT and CHURCHILL’S Dolomite Mountains, 22 - - GILL’S Papal Drama, 3 - - GILLY’S Shipwrecks of the Navy, 22 - - GOODEVE’S Elements of Mechanism, 17 - - GORLE’S Questions on BROWNE’S Exposition of the 39 Articles, 18 - - GOULD’S Silver Store, 10 - - GRANT’S Ethics of Aristotle, 5 - - Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson, 8 - - GRAY’S Anatomy, 14 - - GREENE’S Corals and Sea Jellies, 12 - - ---- Sponges and Animalculæ, 12 - - GROVE on Correlation of Physical Forces, 11 - - GWILT’S Encyclopædia of Architecture, 16 - - - Handbook of Angling, by EPHEMERA, 26 - - HARE on Election of Representatives, 6 - - HARLEY and BROWN’S Histological Demonstrations, 15 - - HARTWIG’S Harmonies of Nature, 12 - - ---- Polar World, 12 - - ---- Sea and its Living Wonders, 12 - - ---- Tropical World, 12 - - HAUGHTON’S Manual of Geology, 11 - - HAWKER’S Instructions to Young Sportsmen, 26 - - HEARN’S Plutology, 1 - - ---- on English Government, 1 - - HELPS’S Spanish Conquest in America, 2 - - HENDERSON’S Folk-Lore of the Northern Counties, 10 - - HERSCHEL’S Outlines of Astronomy, 10 - - HEWITT on Diseases of Women, 14 - - HODGSON’S Time and Space, 9 - - HOLMES’S System of Surgery, 14 - - ---- Surgical Diseases of Infancy, 14 - - HOOKER and WALKER-ARNOTT’S British Flora, 13 - - HOPKINS’S Hawaii, 11 - - HORNE’S Introduction to the Scriptures, 19 - - ---- Compendium of ditto, 19 - - HORSLEY’S Manual of Poisons, 15 - - HOSKYNS’S Occasional Essays, 9 - - How we Spent the Summer, 22 - - HOWARD’S Gymnastic Exercises, 15 - - HOWITT’S Australian Discovery, 22 - - ---- Rural Life of England, 23 - - ---- Visits to Remarkable Places, 23 - - HUDSON’S Executor’s Guide, 28 - - HUGHES’S (W.) Manual of Geography, 10 - - HULLAH’S Collection of Sacred Music, 16 - - ---- Lectures on Modern Music, 15 - - ---- Transition Musical Lectures, 15 - - HUMPHREYS’ Sentiments of Shakspeare, 16 - - HUTTON’S Studies in Parliament, 8 - - - INGELOW’S Poems, 25 - - ---- Story of Doom, 25 - - - JAMESON’S Legends of the Saints and Martyrs, 16 - - ---- Legends of the Madonna, 16 - - ---- Legends of the Monastic Orders, 16 - - JAMESON and EASTLAKE’S History of Our Lord, 16 - - JENNER’S Holy Child, 25 - - JOHNSTON’S Gazetteer, or Geographical Dictionary, 10 - - JORDAN’S Vis Inertiæ in the Ocean, 10 - - - KALISCH’S Commentary on the Bible, 7 - - ---- Hebrew Grammar, 7 - - KEITH on Fulfilment of Prophecy, 18 - - ---- Destiny of the World, 18 - - KELLER’S Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, 12 - - KESTEVEN’S Domestic Medicine, 15 - - KIRBY and SPENCE’S Entomology, 13 - - KNIGHT’S Arch of Titus, 22 - - - Lady’s Tour Round Monte Rosa, 22 - - LANDON’S (L. E. L.) Poetical Works, 25 - - LATHAM’S English Dictionary, 7 - - ---- River Plate, 10 - - LAWRENCE on Rocks, 11 - - LECKY’S History of Rationalism, 3 - - LEIGH’S Homeward Ride, 25 - - Leisure Hours in Town, 8 - - Lessons of Middle Age, 8 - - LEWES’ History of Philosophy, 3 - - Letters of Distinguished Musicians, 4 - - LIDDELL and SCOTT’S Greek-English Lexicon, 7 - - ---- ---- Abridged ditto, 7 - - Life of Man Symbolised, 16 - - LINDLEY and MOORE’S Treasury of Botany, 13 - - LONGMAN’S Lectures on the History of England, 2 - - LOUDON’S Agriculture, 18 - - ---- Cottage, Farm, Villa Architecture, 18 - - ---- Gardening, 18 - - ---- Plants, 13 - - ---- Trees and Shrubs, 13 - - LOWNDES’S Engineer’s Handbook, 17 - - Lyra Domestica, 21 - - ---- Eucharistica, 21 - - ---- Germanica, 16, 21 - - ---- Messianica, 21 - - ---- Mystica, 21 - - ---- Sacra, 21 - - - MACAULAY’S (Lord) Essays, 3 - - ---- History of England, 1 - - ---- Lays of Ancient Rome, 24 - - ---- Miscellaneous Writings, 8 - - ---- Speeches, 6 - - ---- Works, 1 - - MACFARREN’S Lectures on Harmony, 15 - - MACLEOD’S Elements of Political Economy, 6 - - ---- Dictionary of Political Economy, 6 - - ---- Elements of Banking, 27 - - ---- Theory and Practice of Banking, 27 - - MCCULLOCH’S Dictionary of Commerce, 27 - - ---- Geographical Dictionary, 10 - - MAGUIRE’S Irish in America, 23 - - ---- Life of Father Mathew, 4 - - ---- Rome and its Rulers, 4 - - MALLESON’S French in India, 3 - - MANNING on Holy Ghost, 20 - - ----‘s England and Christendom, 20 - - MARSHALL’S Physiology, 14 - - MARSHMAN’S Life of Havelock 5 - - ---- History of India, 3 - - MARTINEAU’S Endeavours after the Christian Life, 21 - - MASSEY’S History of England, 2 - - ---- (G.) on Shakspeare’s Sonnets, 25 - - MASSINGBERD’S History of the Reformation, 4 - - MAUNDER’S Biographical Treasury, 5 - - ---- Geographical Treasury, 11 - - ---- Historical Treasury, 3 - - ---- Scientific and Literary Treasury, 13 - - ---- Treasury of Knowledge, 28 - - ---- Treasury of Natural History, 13 - - MAURY’S Physical Geography, 10 - - MAY’S Constitutional History of England, 2 - - MELVILLE’S Digby Grand, 24 - - ---- General Bounce, 24 - - ---- Gladiators, 24 - - ---- Good for Nothing, 24 - - ---- Holmby House, 24 - - ---- Interpreter, 24 - - ---- Kate Coventry, 24 - - ---- Queen’s Maries, 24 - - MENDELSSOHN’S Letters, 4 - - MERIVALE’S (H.) Historical Studies, 2 - - ---- (C.) Fall of the Roman Republic, 3 - - ---- Romans under the Empire, 3 - - MILES on Horse’s Foot and Horse-shoeing, 26 - - ---- on Horses’ Teeth and Stables, 26 - - MILL on Liberty, 6 - - ---- on Representative Government, 6 - - ---- on Utilitarianism, 6 - - MILL’S Dissertations and Discussions, 6 - - ---- Political Economy, 6 - - ---- System of Logic, 6 - - ---- Hamilton’s Philosophy, 6 - - ---- St. Andrews’ Inaugural Address, 6 - - MILLER’S Elements of Chemistry, 14 - - MITCHELL’S Manual of Assaying, 18 - - MONSELL’S Beatitudes, 21 - - ---- His Presence--not his Memory, 21 - - ---- ‘Spiritual Songs’, 21 - - MONTGOMERY on Pregnancy, 14 - - MOORE’S Irish Melodies, 24 - - ---- Lalla Rookh, 24 - - ---- Poetical Works, 24 - - ---- (Dr. G.) First Man, 12 - - MORELL’S Elements of Psychology, 9 - - ---- Mental Philosophy, 9 - - MOSHEIM’S Ecclesiastical History, 21 - - MOZART’S Letters, 4 - - MÜLLER’S (MAX) Chips from a German Workshop, 9 - - ---- ---- Lectures on the Science of Language, 7 - - ---- (K. O.) Literature of Ancient Greece, 2 - - MURCHISON on Continued Fevers, 14 - - MURE’S Language and Literature of Greece, 2 - - - New Testament, illustrated with Wood Engravings from the Old - Masters, 16 - - NEWMAN’S History of his Religious Opinions, 4 - - NICHOLAS’S Pedigree of the English People, 9 - - NICHOLS’ Handbook to the British Museum, 28 - - NIGHTINGALE’S Notes on Hospitals, 28 - - NILSSON’S Scandinavia, 12 - - - ODLING’S Animal Chemistry, 14 - - ---- Course of Practical Chemistry, 14 - - ---- Manual of Chemistry, 14 - - Original Designs for Wood Carving, 17 - - OWEN’S Lectures on the Invertebrate Animals, 12 - - ---- Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrate Animals, 12 - - OXENHAM on Atonement, 20 - - - PACKE’S Guide to the Pyrenees, 22 - - PAGET’S Lectures on Surgical Pathology, 14 - - PEREIRA’S Manual of Materia Medica, 22 - - PERKINS’S Tuscan Sculptors, 17 - - PHILLIPS’S Guide to Geology, 11 - - Pictures in Tyrol, 22 - - PIESSE’S Art of Perfumery, 18 - - ---- Chemical, Natural, and Physical Magic, 18 - - PIKE’S English and their Origin, 9 - - PITT on Brewing, 28 - - Playtime with the Poets, 25 - - PLOWDEN’S Travels in Abyssinia, 22 - - PRATT’S Law of Building Societies, 28 - - PRESCOTT’S Scripture Difficulties, 19 - - PROCTOR’S Saturn, 10 - - ---- Handbook of the Stars, 10 - - PYCROFT’S Course of English Reading, 7 - - ---- Cricket Field, 26 - - - RAIKES’S Englishman in India, 23 - - READE’S Poetical Works, 25 - - Recreations of a Country Parson, 8 - - REILY’S Map of Mont Blanc, 22 - - REIMANN on Aniline, 15 - - REYNOLDS’S Alice Rushton, 25 - - RIVERS’S Rose Amateur’s Guide, 13 - - ROGERS’S Correspondence of Greyson, 9 - - ---- Eclipse of Faith, 9 - - ---- Defence of ditto, 9 - - ---- Essays from the _Edinburgh Review_, 9 - - ---- Reason and Faith, 9 - - ROGET’S Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, 7 - - RONALDS’S Fly-Fisher’s Entomology, 26 - - ROWTON’S Debater, 7 - - RUDD’S Aristophanes, 25 - - RUSSELL on Government and Constitution, 1 - - - SANDARS’S Justinian’s Institutes, 5 - - SCHUBERT’S Life, translated by COLERIDGE, 5 - - SCOTT’S Lectures on the Fine Arts, 15 - - SEEBOHM’S Oxford Reformers of 1498, 2 - - SEWELL’S After Life, 23 - - ---- Amy Herbert, 23 - - ---- Cleve Hall, 23 - - ---- Earl’s Daughter, 23 - - ---- Examination for Confirmation, 20 - - ---- Experience of Life, 23 - - ---- Gertrude, 23 - - ---- Glimpse of the World, 23 - - ---- History of the Early Church, 3 - - ---- Ivors, 23 - - ---- Journal of a Home Life, 23 - - ---- Katharine Ashton, 23 - - ---- Laneton Parsonage, 23 - - ---- Margaret Percival, 23 - - ---- Passing Thoughts on Religion, 20 - - ---- Preparation for Communion, 20 - - ---- Principles of Education, 20 - - ---- Readings for Confirmation, 20 - - ---- Readings for Lent, 20 - - ---- Tales and Stories, 23 - - ---- Ursula, 23 - - SHAW’S Work on Wine, 28 - - SHEPHERD’S Iceland, 21 - - SHIPLEY’S Church and the World, 19 - - ---- Tracts for the Day, 20 - - Short Whist, 28 - - SHORT’S Church History, 3 - - SMITH’S (SOUTHWOOD) Philosophy of Health, 28 - - ---- (J.) Paul’s Voyage and Shipwreck, 18 - - ---- (G.) King David, 19 - - ---- Wesleyan Methodism, 4 - - ---- (SYDNEY) Miscellaneous Works, 8 - - ---- Moral Philosophy, 8 - - ---- Wit and Wisdom, 9 - - SMITH on Cavalry Drill and Manœuvres, 26 - - SOUTHEY’S (Doctor), 7 - - ---- Poetical Works, 24 - - Springdale Abbey, 23 - - STANLEY’S History of British Birds, 12 - - STEBBING’S Analysis of MILL’S Logic, 6 - - STEPHEN’S Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography, 5 - - ---- Lectures on History of France, 2 - - STIRLING’S Secret of Hegel, 9 - - STONEHENGE on the Dog, 26 - - ---- on the Greyhound, 27 - - Story of Mairwara, 23 - - Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church of a Scottish University City - (Aberdeen), 8 - - - TAYLOR’S (Jeremy) Works, edited by EDEN, 21 - - ---- (E.) Selections from some Contemporary Poets, 25 - - TENNENT’S Ceylon, 13 - - ---- Wild Elephant, 13 - - THIRLWALL’S History of Greece, 2 - - THOMSON’S (Archbishop) Laws of Thought, 6 - - ---- (A. T.) Conspectus, 15 - - TIMBS’S Curiosities of London, 23 - - TODD (A.) on Parliamentary Government, 1 - - TODD and BOWMAN’S Anatomy and Physiology of Man, 15 - - TROLLOPE’S Barchester Towers, 23 - - ---- Warden, 23 - - TWISS’S Law of Nations, 27 - - TYNDALL’S Lectures on Heat, - - ---- Sound, - - ---- Memoir of FARADAY, - - - URE’S Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines, - - - VAN DER HOEVEN’S Handbook of Zoology, - - VAUGHAN’S (R.) Revolutions in English History, - - ---- Way to Rest, - - - WALKER on the Rifle, - - WARD’S Workmen and Wages, - - WATSON’S Principles and Practice of Physics, - - WATTS’S Dictionary of Chemistry, - - WEBB’S Objects for Common Telescopes, - - WEBSTER & WILKINSON’S Greek Testament, - - WELD’S Florence, - - WELLINGTON’S Life, by the Rev. G. R. GLEIG, - - WELLS on Dew, - - WENDT’S Papers on Maritime Law, - - WEST on Children’s Diseases, - - WHATELY’S English Synonymes, - - ---- Logic, - - ---- Rhetoric, - - ---- Life and Correspondence, - - WHATELY on the Truth of Christianity, - - ---- Religious Worship, - - Whist, what to lead, by CAM, - - WHITE and RIDDLE’S Latin-English Dictionaries, - - WINSLOW on Light, - - WOOD’S Bible Animals, - - ---- Homes without Hands, - - WRIGHT’S Homer’s Iliad, - - - YONGE’S English-Greek Lexicon, - - ---- Abridged ditto, - - ---- Horace, - - YOUNG’S Nautical Dictionary, - - YOUATT on the Dog, - - ---- on the Horse, - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY - SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE - AND PARLIAMENT STREET - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - - Many printing errors in punctuation, missing or misplaced italic, - or a missing quote mark, have been corrected for consistency when - the context is a single paragraph. - - At the back of the book is a large Publisher’s Catalog and an Index - to that Catalog. 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- margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} -.poetry .verse16 {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 16em; - margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} - -@media handheld { - .poetry {display: block; margin-left: 4.5em;} -} - - -/* Transcriber’s notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:90%; - padding:0.5em; - margin-top:5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; -} - -.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} - -.customcover {visibility: hidden; display: none;} -@media handheld { - .customcover {visibility: visible; display: block;} -} - - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Book About Words, by George Frederick Graham - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Book About Words - -Author: George Frederick Graham - -Release Date: July 25, 2017 [EBook #55200] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BOOK ABOUT WORDS *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Hulse, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - -<div class="transnote"> - -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p class="customcover">The cover image was created by the transcriber -and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -<p>Some minor changes are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book</a>.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> - -<h1> -<span class="fs90 lsp2">A BOOK</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs40">ABOUT</span><br /> -<br /><br /> -<span class="fs150 lsp3">WORD</span><span class="fs150">S.</span></h1> - -<p class="p4" /> -<p class="pfs80">BY</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs135">G. F. GRAHAM,</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs60 lht2">AUTHOR OF ‘ENGLISH, OR THE ART OF COMPOSITION,’<br /> -‘ENGLISH SYNONYMES,’ ‘ENGLISH STYLE,’<br /> -‘ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRACTICE,’<br /> -ETC.</p> - -<p class="p6" /> -<p class="pfs120">LONDON:</p> -<p class="pfs135 lsp">LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.</p> -<p class="pfs120">1869.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2>PREFACE.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep-60.jpg" alt="separator icon" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">The increased attention lately paid to our -Language as a subject of Education, has induced -the Author to state in the following pages his -views on English (and other) Words. These -views are the result of a long professional -career in tuition, together with the study which -such a calling naturally involves.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the rapid strides made of -late years in the science of Words, much still -remains unknown to the general reader; but -if the following remarks be accepted as a small -contribution to a more extended knowledge of -this interesting subject, the Author will be -amply compensated for any trouble it may -have cost him to collect them.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kensington</span>:<br /> -<span class="pad2"><em>May, 1869</em>.</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep-60.jpg" alt="separator icon" /> -</div> - -<div class="center smcap"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr fs80">PAGE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Introduction</td><td class="tdr fvnormal"><a href="#Page_ix">ix</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER I.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Origin of Words (Saxon)—Families of Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER II.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Latin and French Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER III.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Old and New Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER IV.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Degeneracy of Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER V.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Play upon Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER VI.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Concrete and Abstract Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER VII.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Grand Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"><span class="pagenum fvnormal"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> - CHAPTER VIII.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The Spelling of Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER IX.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Flexibility, Variety, Contraction, etc. of Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER X.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Different Views of the same Idea</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER XI.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Compound Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER XII.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">The Pronunciation of Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER XIII.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Slang Words and Americanisms</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER XIV.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">General Remarks on Words, etc.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER XV.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">General Remarks on Words, etc., <span class="fvnormal"><em>continued</em></span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">CHAPTER XVI.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Miscellaneous Derivations of Words</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">INTRODUCTION.</a></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep-60.jpg" alt="separator icon" /> -</div> - - -<p class="noindent">What is meant by a Language? It is a collection -of all the words, phrases, grammatical forms, -idioms, &c., which are used by one people. It is -the outward expression of the tendencies, turn of -mind, and habits of thought of some one nation, -and the best criterion of their intellect and feelings. -If this explanation be admitted, it will -naturally follow that the connection between a -people and their language is so close, that the -one may be judged of by the other; and that the -language is a lasting monument of the nature and -character of the people.</p> - -<p>Every language, then, has its genius; forms of -words, idioms, and turns of expression peculiar -to itself; by which, independently of other differences, -one nation may be distinguished from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> -another. This condition may be produced by various -causes; such as soil, climate, conquest, immigration, -&c. Out of the old Roman, or Latin, -there arose several modern languages of Europe; -all known by the generic name—Romance; viz. -Italian, French, Provençal, Spanish, and Portuguese. -These may be called daughters of ancient -Latin; and the natives of all these countries -down to the seventh century, both spoke and -wrote that language. But when the Scandinavian -and Germanic tribes invaded the West of -Europe, the Latin was broken up, and was succeeded -by Italian, French, Spanish, &c. The -Latin now became gradually more and more corrupt, -and was, at length, in each of these countries, -wholly remodelled.</p> - -<p>History has been called ‘the study of the law -of change;’ i.e. the process by which human -affairs are transferred from one condition to another. -The history of a language has naturally -a close analogy with political history; the chief -difference being that the materials of the latter -are facts, events, and institutions; whilst the -former treats of words, forms, and constructions. -Now, in the same way as a nation never stands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span> -still, but is continually undergoing a silent—perhaps -imperceptible—transformation, so it is with -its language. This is proved both by experience -and reason. We need hardly say that the English -of the present time differ widely from the -English of the fourteenth century; and we may -be quite sure that the language of this country, -two or three centuries hence, will be very different -from what it is at present. It would be -impossible for a nation either to improve or decay, -and for its language at the same time to remain -stationary. The one being a reflex of the other, -they must stand or fall together.</p> - -<p>What, then, is this law of change? On what -principles is it based? How are we to study or -follow out its operations? These questions are -exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to answer -definitively. But there are circumstances connected -with the formation of certain languages -which may throw some light on them. It may be -received as a principle that, when one nation is -overrun or conquered by another, the effect on -the language of the conquered depends mainly on -the condition of that which is brought in by the -conquerors. If the victors be as superior to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span> -vanquished in civilisation and improvement as -they have proved themselves in physical power, -they will impose their language on the conquered -people. If, on the other hand, that of the vanquished -be the more cultivated, the reverse will -take place; the dialect of the conquerors will be -absorbed into that of the conquered.</p> - -<p>When the Visigoths settled in Spain in the -fifth century, their dialect made but little impression -on the language afterwards known as -Spanish. The Latin element in the Peninsula, -though at that time falling into decay, was far -more refined and polished than the barbarous -dialect then introduced; and it consequently remained, -with some slight modifications, the language -of the country. The same happened when -the Northmen settled in France in the tenth -century. It is astonishing how rapidly the language -of Rollo and his followers was absorbed -into French! This may have been assisted by -the intermarriage of the conquerors with the -women of the country; but it was produced -chiefly by the different conditions of the two -languages.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, when the Normans, under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span> -William the Conqueror, invaded England in the -eleventh century, a different effect was produced. -The Norman French after a time, though not -immediately, enriched the English language with -many words, but it did not, in the slightest degree, -either then or afterwards, affect its grammatical -forms or idioms. The cause of this was -that the Saxon language was, at that epoch, -already fixed, and fit for literary purposes. It -was, indeed, much further advanced as a literary -language than the invading Norman-French. It -therefore resisted this external pressure; and -though it afterwards admitted numerous French -terms, the English language remains to this day -Saxon, and not French, in its tone, character, and -grammar.</p> - -<p>The climate of a country, or the temperament -of a people, may also strongly influence the -character of the language. Given an indolent -and luxurious race, and we must expect that -softness and effeminacy will appear in their -spoken and written expression. No acute observer -can fail to perceive a close connection -between the national character of the Italians -and the softness and beauty of their harmonious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span> -tongue. Again: the simplicity and somewhat -homely and rough vigour of the Teutonic race, -are clearly shadowed forth in the sounds and -forms of the German language.</p> - -<p>The climate, too, in both cases, may have contributed -towards these results. A hot, enervating -atmosphere produces languor of mind as well as -body; whilst a bracing cold air, though it may -assist in producing a phlegmatic temperament, at -the same time infuses vigour, energy, and power -into those who are subjected to its influence.</p> - -<p>There are also, no doubt, many hidden causes -of gradual changes in language. These are difficult -to ascertain; and some of them escape the -sagacity of even the most acute observers. Political -struggles, foreign wars, domestic habits, -literary studies, &c., may all contribute to alter -the character of a people, and so far to affect -their language.</p> - -<p>But whatever may be these mysterious laws of -change, they must be left to Nature herself, and -no one must attempt to interfere with them. -There are no more miserable failures recorded -in history than the attempt by rulers to interfere -with the laws of Nature. We are told (though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span> -not on very good authority) that William the -Conqueror <em>ordered the Saxons to speak Norman-French</em>. -He might as well have ordered his new -subjects to walk on their heads—the one was -quite as easy as the other. But no writer tells us -with what success this decree was executed. Ordericus -Vitalis, indeed, states that William endeavoured -to learn Saxon, though he does not say -how far he succeeded. Now it is not very likely -that he should have studied a language which he -was, at the same time, bent on exterminating. -Indeed, there is an air of extreme improbability -about the whole story.</p> - -<p>In more recent times, it is well known that -Joseph II., of Germany, issued an edict that all -his subjects, Slavonic, Magyar, or German, should -adopt one uniform language—German. But it -was soon found impossible to execute this decree, -for the people would as soon have parted with -their lives as with their language; the whole -empire was, therefore, immediately thrown into -confusion. Many of the provinces broke out into -open rebellion, and it at length became necessary -to abandon the project.</p> - -<p>It is then clear that no one has the power, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span> -his own will or caprice, to add a single word to a -language, or to cast one out of it. These changes -must be left to Nature, and all we can do is to -watch her operations, to observe and record facts. -But we may speculate on the origin of words, and -may sometimes discover the causes of their birth. -We may also inquire into the circumstances of -their career, and the laws which regulate their -forms, changes, meanings, &c. These inquiries -are particularly comprehensive and interesting, -because they naturally lead us to some knowledge -of what words represent, and also because they -are closely connected with the study of the human -mind both as regards intellect and passion.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> - -<p class="pfs150 lsp2">A BOOK</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs70">ABOUT</p> - -<p class="pfs240"> -<span class="lsp3">WORD</span>S.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep-60.jpg" alt="separator icon" /> -</div> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER I.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">ORIGIN OF WORDS—FAMILIES OF WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">Most Philologists have hitherto held the opinion -that, in general, no satisfactory account can be -given of the origin of language. They can trace a -word from one language to another, and can account -for its various forms and changes by laws -now generally understood; but they confess their -inability to explain what determined the original -form of its root. They take that original form -for granted, as a sort of intuitive truth which -must be admitted as a necessity. They can explain -the circumstances of its career; but of its -first cause or nature they profess to understand -little or nothing.</p> - -<p>But though this is the general opinion, all linguists -admit that in every language certain words,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> -more especially those that convey ideas of sound, -are formed on the principle of <em>onomatopœia</em>; i.e. -an attempt to make the pronunciation conform to -the sound. Such English words as ‘hiss,’ ‘roar,’ -‘bang,’ ‘buzz,’ ‘crash,’ &c., are of this class. -One can hardly pronounce these words without, -in some sense, performing the acts which they -represent.</p> - -<p>One school of linguists have lately expressed a -belief that all words were formed on this principle. -A very curious illustration of this view is -given in Mr. Wedgwood’s ‘Origin of Language.’ -Explaining the interjection <em>Hem</em>, he says, it was -originally an attempt to stop some one. We -are supposed to be walking behind some person; -we wish to stop him, and we exclaim, ‘<em>Hem!</em>’ -This is given as the primary meaning of the word. -‘The sound is here an echo to the sense.’ But -<em>hem</em> is used in other ways; either as a noun, or a -verb; always, however, retaining its original idea -of restricting, or keeping back. The <em>hem</em> of a -garment is what <em>prevents</em> the thread from ravelling. -Again, soldiers are sometimes <em>hemmed</em> in -by the enemy; that is, <em>prevented</em> from using their -free will to go where they choose. This illustration -is intended to prove that the principle of -onomatopœia applies not only to words that represent -sound, but, by analogy, to other meanings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -derived from that principle. There <em>is</em> sound implied -in the interjection <em>hem</em>; though in the noun -and the verb, both derived from that interjection, -no idea of sound is conveyed.</p> - -<p>This connection between sound and sense is -certainly a natural principle; and however scornfully -it may have been ridiculed by some philosophers, -it has undoubtedly produced many very fine -passages in the poetry of both ancient and modern -times.</p> - -<p>1. The chorus of frogs in Aristophanes, where -their croaking is represented by words invented -for the occasion:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">Βρεκεκεξ, κοαξ, κοαξ.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">This is, to say the least of it, very ingenious, and, -in its way, beautiful, because true.</p> - -<p>2. The same principle seems to apply in the -πολυφλοίσβοιο θαλάσσης (poluphloisboio thalassēs) -of Homer, where the first word was probably -intended to represent the roaring of the wave -mounting on the sea-shore; and the second, the -hissing sound which accompanies a receding -billow.</p> - -<p>3. Another example of onomatopœia, in Virgil’s -Æneid, viii. 452, has been often quoted:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> -<p class="verse">‘Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum;’</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">where the succession of dactyls is admirably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -adapted to represent the sound of the hoofs of a -galloping horse.</p> - -<p>4. Several examples of the same figure may be -found in Milton. Describing the thronging of the -fallen angels in Pandemonium:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">Thick swarmed, both on the ground and in the air,</p> -<p class="verse">Bru<em>sh</em>ed with the hi<em>ss</em> of ru<em>st</em>ling win<em>gs</em>.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>5. Also, speaking of the gates of hell:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse12">... open fly</p> -<p class="verse">Th’ infe<em>r</em>nal doo<em>r</em>s; and on their hinges g<em>r</em>ates</p> -<p class="verse">Ha<em>r</em>sh thunde<em>r</em> ...</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">Here the recurrence of the letter <em>r</em> is well calculated -to convey the idea of a harsh, creaking, -grating sound.</p> - -<p>6. A similar effect is produced in Tasso’s ‘Gerusalemme -Liberata.’</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="it" xml:lang="it"> -<p class="verse">Il <em>r</em>auco son della Ta<em>r</em>tarea tromba.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">This connection between sound and sense may -very probably exist in many words where we now -fail to perceive it; but in the present state of our -knowledge of the subject, we can hardly pronounce -positively in favour of this view as applied -to the whole body of a language. The question -remains, for the present, in abeyance.</p> - - -<h3><em>Families of Words (Saxon).</em></h3> - -<p>But setting aside the origin of words, it is not -difficult to show the affinity which many springing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -from the same root have for each other. There -are in English, as in other languages, hundreds of -words which may be said to have a family connection, -and which are traceable to one common -origin, or root. This connection may be -found in the Saxon as well as the Romance part of -our language. <em>Th</em> (soft) may be considered as -the type of the idea of demonstration. All the -English pronouns and adverbs beginning with -these letters have that general meaning, which -may be seen in ‘<em>th</em>at,’ ‘<em>th</em>e,’ ‘<em>th</em>ere,’ ‘<em>th</em>ence,’ -‘<em>th</em>is,’ ‘<em>th</em>ither,’ ‘<em>th</em>ose,’ ‘<em>th</em>us,’ and others. Again, -the initial <em>wh</em> may be considered as the type of an -interrogative, or relative meaning. This also may -be seen in many English pronouns and adverbs; -as in ‘<em>wh</em>at,’ ‘<em>wh</em>en,’ ‘<em>wh</em>ence,’ ‘<em>wh</em>ere,’ ‘<em>wh</em>ither,’ -‘<em>wh</em>o,’ ‘<em>wh</em>om,’ ‘<em>wh</em>ose,’ &c. The principle of -inversion has affected the whole of this class of -words. They are all of Saxon origin, and were -spelled in that language <em>hw</em>, and not <em>wh</em>; as in -‘hwæt’ (what), ‘hwaer’ (where), ‘hwanne’ -(when), &c.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Tw.</em></p> - -<p>The Saxon initial <em>tw</em> corresponds with the Romance -<em>du</em>. There are many English words having -this initial, which convey the idea of ‘two.’ 1. -The numeral itself, ‘<em>tw</em>o’ 2. ‘<em>Tw</em>ain,’ a now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -obsolete form of ‘two.’ 3. ‘<em>Tw</em>in,’ one of <em>tw</em>o -children born at a birth. 4. ‘Be<em>tw</em>een,’ which -is only another form of ‘by twain.’ 5. ‘<em>Tw</em>ilight,’ -i.e. between <em>tw</em>o lights—daylight and lamplight. -6. ‘<em>Tw</em>ice’ is equivalent to ‘<em>tw</em>o’ times. 7. To -‘<em>tw</em>ist’ is to bend <em>tw</em>o or more threads together. -8. To ‘<em>tw</em>ine’ is to interlace, so as to form one -body out of <em>tw</em>o. And 9. A ‘<em>tw</em>ig’ is so called -from its being easily twisted.</p> - -<p>It is said that the word ‘nose’ originally signified -a promontory—something prominent—and -that it is so called from being the prominent -feature of the face. This view is supported by -its analogy with <em>naze</em>, a headland, and the Scotch -<em>ness</em> (as in Inver<em>ness</em>), a part of the coast which -juts forward. It may be observed that the word -meaning ‘nose’ has in most European languages -the form <span class="fs80">N-S-</span>. This may be seen in the Greek -νῆσος, an island or promontory; the Latin <em>nasus</em>, -the Italian <em>naso</em>, the German <em>Nase</em>, the French <em>nez</em>, -and the English <em>nose</em>. Whether this be or be not -an onomatopœia one thing is certain, viz. that -in English the initial sn (ns inverted) in so many -cases expresses nasal action, that it may be taken -as a general type of that meaning. This may be -found in a multitude of words having that initial, -all expressing various actions of the nose. It may -be seen in ‘<em>sn</em>arl,’ ‘<em>sn</em>eer,’ ‘<em>sn</em>eeze,’ ‘<em>sn</em>iff,’ ‘<em>sn</em>ore,’ -‘<em>sn</em>ort,’ ‘<em>sn</em>ooze,’ ‘<em>sn</em>out,’ ‘<em>sn</em>ub,’ ‘<em>sn</em>uff,’ &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Ber-an—to bear.</em></p> - -<p>This is the source of our English verb ‘to bear.’ -It produces the following:—1. ‘Barrow,’ an implement -used for carrying or <em>bearing</em>. 2. ‘Berth,’ -a place in which one is <em>borne</em>. 3. ‘Bier,’ a coffin -in which a corpse is <em>borne</em> to the grave. 4. -‘Birth,’ the <em>bearing</em> of a child. 5. ‘Berry,’ the -fruit which a tree <em>bears</em>.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Bles-an—to blow.</em></p> - -<p>From this verb we have, 1. ‘Blaze,’ a strong -flame <em>blown</em> forth. 2. ‘Blast,’ a violent <em>blowing</em>, -or gust of wind. 3. ‘Blain,’ a boil, or <em>blowing</em> up -of the flesh. 4. ‘Blight,’ injury done to corn, -&c., from being <em>blasted</em>. 5. ‘Blister,’ a <em>blowing</em>, -or rising, up of the skin. 6. ‘Blossom’ (or -‘bloom’), the <em>blowing</em> forth of the flower. 7. -‘Blush,’ a <em>blowing</em> forth of the blood. 8. ‘Bluster,’ -as the wind when <em>blowing</em> hard.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Brecc-an—to break.</em></p> - -<p>1. The English verb ‘to break’ is directly from -the above. 2. ‘Bridge,’ a building which <em>breaks</em> -a passage across a river, &c. 3. ‘Breach,’ that -part of a wall or fortification <em>broken</em> into by artillery. -4. To ‘broach’ a cask of ale is to <em>break</em> -into it. 5. A ‘brook’ is a stream of water which -<em>breaks</em> its way across the country.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Bug-an—to bend.</em></p> - -<p>1. A ‘bay’ is a <em>bending</em> in of the line of coast. -2. In sailors’ language, a ‘bight’ is the hollow -part of a bay, or a coil of rope <em>bent</em> round. 3. -A ‘bow’ is so called from its being <em>bent</em>. 4. To -make a ‘bow’ is to <em>bend</em> the body. 5. ‘Beam’ -(compare the German ‘Baum’) is so named from -its property of <em>bending</em>. 6. A ‘bough’ is the -part of the tree that easily <em>bends</em>. 7. A ‘bower’ -is made of branches bowed or <em>bent</em> down. 8. The -adjective ‘buxom’ (compare the German ‘biegsam’) -is properly <em>bending</em> or pliable. 9. ‘El<em>bow</em>’ is the -bow of the ell, or that part where the arm <em>bends</em>. -‘Big’ and ‘bag’ are probably from the same -source; they both convey the idea of something -<em>bent</em> round.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Ceap-ān—to exchange.</em></p> - -<p>The essence of buying and selling lies in the -exchange of goods for money, or money for goods. -Hence come 1. the English word ‘chapman’ -(sometimes contracted into <em>chap</em>), which properly -means a buyer and seller. 2. To ‘chaffer’ is to -bargain about a purchase. 3. ‘Cheap,’ bearing -a low price, refers to a similar transaction. 4. -We have also ‘<em>Cheap</em>side’ and ‘East<em>cheap</em>,’ originally -markets, or places for buying and selling. -5. Chepstow, Chipping Norton, and other names<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -of market-towns in England, are from the same -root. 6. The wind is said to <em>chop</em> when it changes -from one point of the compass to another.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Ceaw-an—to chew.</em></p> - -<p>1. The older form of ‘chew’ was ‘chaw,’ which -we still occasionally hear in ‘chaw-bacon.’ 2. -The cud is the grass <em>chewed</em> by ruminating animals. -3. A quid of tobacco is a piece kept in -the mouth to be <em>chewed</em>.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Dael-an—to divide.</em></p> - -<p>1. To ‘deal’ is from the above verb. It is -used in English in a variety of senses, all containing -the idea of dividing into parts. 2. A -certain sort of wood is called ‘deal’ from being -easily <em>divided</em>, or cut into planks. 3. To ‘deal’ -cards is to <em>divide</em> them into packets or parcels. -4. Tradesmen ‘deal’ in certain articles when they -sell them in small, <em>divided</em> quantities. 5. We -also say ‘a great deal,’ speaking of a large part -<em>divided</em> from the mass. [‘<em>Some-deal</em>’ was formerly -said, but it is now obsolete.] 6. A ‘dole’ -is a small part or share <em>dealt</em> out. (Compare -the German ‘theilen.’)</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Dic-ian—to dig.</em></p> - -<p>From this Saxon verb we have, 1. To ‘dig.’ 2.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -‘Dike,’ a mound of earth ‘<em>dug</em>’ out. 3. ‘Ditch,’ -a line ‘<em>dug</em>.’ 4. ‘Dagger,’ an instrument used -for ‘<em>digging</em>;’ and 5. ‘Dock,’ a place ‘<em>dug</em>’ out -on the side of a harbour or bank of a river, -where ships are repaired.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Drag-an—to draw.</em></p> - -<p>This Saxon verb gives the English ‘to draw.’ -From this we have, 1. ‘Dray,’ a heavy cart -<em>drawn</em> along. 2. A ‘drain,’ a tube to <em>draw</em> off -water. 3. A ‘draft,’ an order to <em>draw</em> out money -from a bank. 4. A ‘draught’ is a quantity of -liquid <em>drawn</em> into the mouth. 5. To ‘drawl’ is -to drag on the voice heavily. 6. ‘Drudge,’ and -7. ‘Dredge’ (for oysters, &c.); both which express -a dragging or <em>drawing</em>. (Compare the -German ‘tragen’ and the Latin ‘trahere.’)</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Dropi-an—to drop.</em></p> - -<p>From this root comes 1. The verb ‘to drop.’ -2. To ‘droop,’ i.e. to lean downwards. 3. To -‘drip,’ or fall continually. 4. To ‘dribble,’ or -to fall in small ‘<em>drops</em>.’ 5. A ‘driblet,’ or a very -small <em>drop</em>.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Eri-an—to till.</em></p> - -<p>1. To ‘ear,’ in the sense of ‘to plough,’ is now -obsolete in English, though we have an ‘ear,’ or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -spike, of corn—the result of <em>tilling</em>; and 3. -‘Earth,’ that which is <em>tilled</em> or cultivated.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Far-an—to journey.</em></p> - -<p>1. From this verb (German ‘fahren’) comes -our verb to ‘fare;’ literally, to go on, or make a -journey. 2. The adverbs ‘fore,’ ‘forth,’ and ‘far’ -convey a similar idea; viz. that of onward movement. -3. The ‘ford’ of a river is that point -at which it can be ‘fared,’ or crossed; and 4. -To ‘ferry’ is the act of faring, or passing across -a river or lake. 5. ‘Frith’ and ‘firth’ are formed -on the same principle; they are those parts of the -sea where one can be ferried across. 6. The first -syllable (<em>fur</em>) in the word ‘furlough’ belongs -to this family. It is leave (lough) granted to -a soldier to ‘fare,’ or journey, home for a time. -All these forms are devices to explain a variety -of modes of <em>faring</em>, or moving onwards.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Fed-an—to feed.</em></p> - -<p>This gives us, 1. To ‘feed.’ 2. ‘Fat,’ the result -of being well ‘<em>fed</em>.’ 3. ‘Fodder,’ provision for -cattle; and, 4. ‘Food,’ that which ‘<em>feeds</em>,’ or supplies -nourishment.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Fi-an—to hate.</em></p> - -<p>From this verb we have in English—1. A ‘fiend,’ -one who <em>hates</em>. 2. Hence also comes ‘foe,’ an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -enemy, or one <em>hated</em>. 3. To the same root may -be traced ‘fie!’ an interjection expressing dislike -or <em>hatred</em>; 4. and also ‘foh!’ or ‘faugh!’ an exclamation -of disgust.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Fleaw-an—to flow.</em></p> - -<p>Hence come, 1. ‘To flow.’ 2. ‘Fleet;’ a number -of ships that ‘<em>flow</em>,’ or swim, on the water. -3. The adjective ‘fleet,’ qualifying what <em>flows</em> by. -4. To ‘float,’ or swim, on the water; and, 5. -‘Flood,’ a large <em>flow</em> of water.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Fuli-an—to make dirty.</em></p> - -<p>From this root come, 1. ‘Foul’ (putrid, offensive). -2. To ‘defile;’ to make ‘foul.’ 3. The -noun ‘filth,’ dirt. 4. The adjective ‘filthy;’ and -5. ‘Fulsome;’ full of filth, nauseous, disgusting.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>G-an—to go.</em></p> - -<p>1. ‘Gan’ is the Saxon verb whence the -English ‘to go’ is derived. 2. This gives us ‘gait,’ -i.e. a manner of ‘<em>going</em>;’ and, 3. ‘Gate,’ a door -through which one ‘<em>goes</em>.’ To these may be added -4. ‘Gang,’ a number of people ‘<em>going</em>’ together; -and, 5. the nautical term ‘gang-way,’ i.e. a -passage ‘to go’ through. 6. The verb ‘to gad,’ -i.e. to be continually ‘<em>going</em>’ from one place to -another, also probably belongs to this family.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Glowi-an—to burn.</em></p> - -<p>The verb ‘to low,’ in the sense of ‘to burn,’ -does not now exist in the language; but the above -verb gives us, 1. To ‘glow,’ i.e. to burn intensely; -whence come the forms, 2. ‘Gleam;’ 3. ‘Glimmer;’ -and, 4. ‘Glimpse;’ 5. ‘Gloom,’ or a state -into which light ‘gleams;’ and, 6. the word -‘light,’ which is a participial form of the old verb to -‘low.’ In one English word the root ‘low’ is still -retained, viz. ‘whit<em>low</em>,’ a painful <em>white burning</em> on -the finger or thumb.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Graf-an—to dig.</em></p> - -<p>From this verb we have in English, 1. ‘Grave,’ -a pit <em>dug</em>. 2. To ‘engrave,’ i.e. to scratch or <em>dig</em> -in. 3. ‘Groove,’ a line <em>dug</em> in. 4. ‘Gravel,’ earth -<em>dug</em> up. 5. To ‘grovel,’ literally, to <em>dig</em> up earth; -and, 6. To ‘grub,’ or scratch into the earth.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Gyrd-an—to enclose.</em></p> - -<p>The English words derived from ‘<em>gyrdan</em>,’ and -having a cognate meaning are, 1. To ‘gird,’ to -<em>enclose</em> by tying round. 2. ‘Girdle,’ a small band -or cincture. 3. ‘Girth,’ the band which ‘girds’ -the saddle on a horse. 4. ‘Garter,’ a band tied -round the leg; and, 5. ‘Garden,’ a space <em>enclosed</em> -for the cultivation of fruit, vegetables, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Lang—long.</em></p> - -<p>From the Anglo-Saxon and German ‘lang’ is derived, -1. our adjective ‘long;’ from which again -comes, 2. the abstract noun ‘length.’ 3. The adjective, -‘lean;’ and 4. ‘lanky’ are also members of -this family. 5. To ‘linger,’ i.e. to remain a <em>long</em> -time in a place. 6. To ‘lunge;’ to make a <em>long</em> -stroke with a rapier; and, 7. A ‘<em>link</em>,’ that which -makes a chain ‘<em>longer</em>.’</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Lecj-an—to lay.</em></p> - -<p>1. Both the English verbs ‘lay’ and ‘lie’ -(which is to lay oneself down) come from this -verb, 2. ‘Ledge,’ a place on which to <em>lay</em> anything; -3. ‘Ledger,’ a book which <em>lies</em> on a merchant’s -desk; and, 4. ‘Law,’ a rule <em>laid</em> down.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Læd-an—to lead.</em></p> - -<p>1. Besides the verb ‘to lead,’ we have from this -source: 2. ‘Ladder,’ an instrument which <em>leads</em> to -a higher place. 3. Load-star, and loadstone, i.e. -a <em>leading</em> star or stone.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>(H)lifi-an—to lift.</em></p> - -<p>This is the source of, 1. our verb to ‘lift.’ -Also, 2. ‘Loft,’ i.e. a room ‘lifted’ high. 3. -The adverb ‘aloft’—‘lifted up.’ 4. ‘Aloof;’ and -5. The adjective ‘lofty.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Maw-an—to cut down.</em></p> - -<p>From the Saxon root ‘maw’ comes immediately -1. Our verb to ‘mow,’—as well as a ‘mow’ (a -barley-<em>mow</em> or a hay-<em>mow</em>); i.e. a quantity of -barley or hay mown and heaped together. From -this is derived, 2. ‘Mead,’ i.e. a <em>mowed</em> field; -and, 3. Meadow, a large mead. 4. Farmers still -use the word after<em>math</em>, which, with them, is a -second mowing. 5, The now obsolete ‘mo’ or -‘moe,’ as used in the sense of a collected quantity -or heap by Chaucer and other writers down to Lord -Surrey, is said to give us the words ‘more’ and -‘most’ as the comparative and superlative forms -of ‘mo;’ but this is doubted by many etymologists.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Pocca—a bag.</em></p> - -<p>There are several English derivatives from this -root. 1. We find it in the word ‘smallpox’ (or -pocks), where it means little bags or holes left in -the skin by the action of this disease. 2. We -once had the word ‘poke’ in the sense of ‘a bag,’ -as in the phrase ‘to buy a pig in a <em>poke</em>.’ 3. -‘Pocket’ is a diminutive of poke, i.e. a little bag. -4. To ‘poach;’ and 5. ‘Pouch’ are variations of -the same root; for to ‘poach’ is to steal game and -conceal it in a ‘pouch.’ 5. A ‘peck,’ and 6. a -‘pack’ are both generic terms of a similar meaning;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -and, 7. ‘Puckered’ cheeks are bagged or -puffed out with the cold.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Scuf-ian—to push.</em></p> - -<p>This root is a fertile source of English words; -we find it, 1. in our now not very elegant word -‘shove,’ that is, to push rudely or roughly. 2. A -‘sheaf’ of corn takes its name from the stalks of -which it is composed being ‘shoved,’ or <em>pushed</em> up -together; and, 3. the ‘shaft’ of a javelin is the -wooden part which is ‘<em>shoved</em>’ into the iron. -4. A ‘shovel’ is a small instrument used to -‘<em>shove</em>,’ or push into, coals, etc.; and, 5. our -‘shoes’ are so called because we ‘<em>shove</em>’ our feet -into them. 6. ‘Scuffle’ and ‘shuffle’ are only -modified forms of the verb ‘to shove,’ and express -a repetition of that act. According to some etymologists -the word ‘sheep’ belongs to this family, -as being an animal ‘<em>shoved</em>’ or pushed along in -flocks from place to place. Hence, perhaps, the -name; but this must be considered a doubtful -derivation.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Scyr-an—to cut.</em></p> - -<p>From this Saxon verb come, 1. To ‘shear’ and -the noun ‘shears.’ 2. A ‘share’ of anything -means, properly, a part ‘<em>cut</em>’ off, or divided from -the whole substance; and a ‘ploughshare’ is that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -part of the implement which ‘<em>cuts</em>’ through the -earth. 3. Common experience tells us that the -adjective ‘sharp’ qualifies what easily <em>cuts</em> or -divides. 4. A ‘shire’ signifies a district <em>cut</em> off or -divided from the rest of the country; and ‘sheriff’ -is a contraction of ‘shire-reeve,’ i.e. the officer of -the ‘shire.’ 5. ‘Shirt’ and, 6. ‘Short’ both belong -to the same class; the first is a garment ‘<em>cut</em>’ -off, and the second is a participle from the verb ‘to -shore’ or <em>divide</em>, the noun ‘shore’ meaning the -line which ‘<em>divides</em>’ the sea from the land. From -the same root comes, 7. ‘Sheer.’ Sheer impudence -and sheer nonsense mean impudence and -nonsense unqualified, i.e. ‘divided’ or <em>cut</em> off -from any modesty and sense. Besides the above, -we have the same general idea in the expression, -8. ‘Shreds’ and patches, little snippings or ‘<em>cuttings</em>.’ -9. Shakspere’s ‘shard-borne’ beetle -means the beetle borne on his ‘shards,’ or scaly -wings <em>divided</em> in the middle. 10. To these we -may add ‘potsherd,’ a piece broken off or <em>divided</em> -from a pot. The words ‘scar,’ ‘score,’ ‘scream,’ -‘screech,’ ‘shrill,’ ‘shriek,’ &c., belong to the -same class, the leading idea in them all being that -of <em>cutting</em> or dividing; and they are all based -upon the type ‘scr’ or ‘shr.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Sitt-an—to sit.</em></p> - -<p>1. This is the origin of our word to ‘sit;’ whence -comes, 2. To ‘set.’ The latter is the transitive -from the intransitive, formed by a change of the -vowel. 3. ‘Settle’ is a frequentative of ‘<em>sit</em>,’ and -expresses a permanent sitting. 4. A ‘seat’ is -from the same root; it is that on which any one -‘<em>sits</em>;’ and, 5. A ‘saddle’ is a seat on horseback.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Sleaw—slow.</em></p> - -<p>1. From the Anglo-Saxon ‘Sleaw’ comes our -adjective ‘slow.’ Hence we have, 2. ‘Sloth,’ or -the quality of being <em>slow</em>; 3. ‘Sloven’ (m.) and -‘slut’ (f.), which both convey the idea of being -<em>slow</em> and negligent; 4. ‘Slug,’ a <em>slow</em> animal, -from which comes the verb ‘to slug,’ to indulge -in sloth; and, 7. ‘Sluggard,’ a lazy indolent man.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Stig-an—to mount.</em></p> - -<p>This root gives us, 1. ‘Stair,’ a step to <em>mount</em> -by; 2. ‘Stile’ (A.-S. Stigel), a gate to be <em>mounted</em> -or got over; 3. ‘Stirrup’ (or stig-rope), a rope -by which to <em>mount</em>; and, 4. ‘Stye,’ i.e. a <em>rising</em> -pustule on the eyelid.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Straeg-an—to spread.</em></p> - -<p>From the A.-S. root ‘straeg’ we have the -English words ‘straw’ and ‘strew.’ 1. ‘Straw’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -is the dry stalks of certain plants ‘strewn’ or -scattered about. 2. To ‘stray’ means to go -dispersedly or separately. 3. ‘Straggle’ is a frequentative -of the last word. 4. The word ‘street’ -is by some supposed to be connected with this -root. A ‘street’ is a way ‘strewn’ or paved with -stones.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Taepp-an—to draw drink.</em></p> - -<p>Hence we have in English, 1. ‘To tap,’ and, 2. -A ‘tap,’ the instrument by which wine or beer is -drawn from the cask; 3. ‘Tapster,’ one who -draws liquor. 4. To ‘tope’ is to ‘tip’ off beer or -spirits. 5. A ‘toper’ is one who topes, and to -‘tipple’ is to be continually toping. 6. One who -‘tipples’ is likely to be often ‘tipsy.’</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Tell-an—to count.</em></p> - -<p>The ordinary meaning of our English verb ‘to -tell’ is to recount the particulars of some event or -occurrence. Hence comes a ‘tale,’ which signifies -the recounting of such particulars. The passage -in Milton’s ‘L’Allegro’—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">Every shepherd <em>tells his tale</em></p> -<p class="verse">Under the hawthorn in the dale—</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">has been explained as ‘every shepherd <em>counts over -his sheep</em>.’ Shakspere has, ‘as thick as <em>tale</em> came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -post with post,’ that is, as rapidly as could be -counted. From the same root comes ‘till,’ a box -into which money is <em>counted</em>. Again, when we speak -of ‘tolling’ a bell, a similar meaning is implied, -viz. the numbering or <em>counting</em> out the strokes; -and a ‘toll’ is money <em>told</em> or <em>counted</em> into the -hands of the receiver. Again, accounts are said -to ‘<em>tally</em>’ when, after being reckoned or <em>counted</em> -up, they amount to the same sum.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Teog-an—to pull.</em></p> - -<p>From this verb come, 1. To ‘tow,’ to <em>pull</em> a -boat or vessel along; 2. To ‘tug,’ to <em>pull</em> with -force. 3. The noun ‘tow’ means flax which -must be ‘tugged,’ or <em>pulled</em>, asunder. 4. The -adjective ‘tough,’ which qualifies what must be -<em>pulled</em> hard. 5. ‘Team,’ a number of horses -<em>pulling</em> together; and, 6. ‘Tight,’ what is ‘towed’ -or <em>pulled</em> together with force. 7. The sailor’s -phrase ‘to haul taut,’ is ‘to <em>pull</em> tight.’</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Wan-ian—to decrease.</em></p> - -<p>1. We still say, ‘the moon waxes and “wanes,”’ -i.e. apparently increases and <em>decreases</em> in size. -2. ‘Wan,’ an adjective which expresses thinness -or <em>decrease</em> of health. 3. ‘Want’ signifies a condition -in which our means are <em>decreased</em>; and, -4. To ‘wean’ is to gradually accustom any one to -a ‘want.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Weg-an—to move.</em></p> - -<p>1. From this come the English ‘way,’ which -means the space through which one can ‘<em>move</em>.’ -2. To ‘wag’ (the tongue or the head), i.e. to ‘<em>move</em>’ -it rapidly. 3. A waggon (sometimes contracted -into ‘wain’) is a vehicle which ‘<em>moves</em>’ goods, -&c., from one place to another. 4. To ‘sway’ is -the intensive of wag—it is to <em>move</em> strongly; and, -5. ‘Swagger’ is the frequentative of ‘sway.’</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Weri-an—to wear.</em></p> - -<p>1. This is the origin of our word ‘to wear,’ -in its ordinary sense. 2. From this we have -‘weary,’ the state of being ‘<em>worn</em>’ with fatigue. -3. From the same root come ‘worse’ and ‘worst,’ -which are really the comparative and superlative -degrees of ‘<em>wear</em>,’ i.e. ‘more worn’ and ‘most -worn.’ 4. To ‘worry,’ i.e. to ‘<em>wear</em> out’ by importunity.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Wit-an—to know.</em></p> - -<p>From the root ‘wit’ in this Saxon verb came, -in English, 1. The old forms ‘wist’ and ‘wot,’ together -with, 2. The modern word ‘wit,’ and the -expression, ‘to wit’—all these imply <em>knowledge</em>. -3. We have ‘wise’ (which at first signified <em>knowing</em> -much), with its derivative, ‘wisdom.’ 5. -‘Wizard’ and ‘witch’ are both from the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -source, and were terms originally applied to those -who were supposed to come by their ‘<em>knowledge</em>’ -by a compact with the powers of darkness. 6. -The word ‘wittingly,’ i.e. of one’s own <em>knowledge</em>; -and, 7. A ‘witness,’ or one who tells us what he -‘<em>knows</em>’ about some fact.</p> - - -<p class="pfs120"><em>Wrid-an—to twist.</em></p> - -<p>This is the source of many English words: 1. -To ‘writhe,’ or <em>twist</em> the body in pain. 2. -‘Wrath.’ When in ‘wrath,’ one is ‘writhed’ or -tortured by angry passion. 3. ‘Wry’ and ‘awry,’ -i.e. ‘<em>twisted</em>’ on one side. 4. To ‘wring’ the -hands is to ‘<em>twist</em>’ them convulsively. 5. ‘Wrong’ -properly means ‘wrung,’ or <em>twisted</em> out of the -right path. 6. ‘Wrangle’ denotes a continual -distortion or perversity; and, 7. To ‘wriggle’ is -the frequentative of ‘to wring;’ it means to <em>twist</em> -about repeatedly. Beside these, we have, 8. The -wrist, i.e. the joint which ‘<em>twists</em>’ or turns easily; -and, 9. To ‘wrest’ and ‘wrestle.’ 10. To ‘wrench.’ -These are all modes of <em>twisting</em>. 11. To ‘wreathe’ -is to <em>twist</em> or twine together, and, 13. A ‘wrinkle’ -denotes a distortion of a smooth surface.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER II.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<h3><em>Latin Roots.</em></h3> - -<p class="noindent">English words which indicate mental actions, feelings, -or general abstractions, come to us from a -Latin or a French source. These, though not the -most numerous, comprise a very considerable portion -of the English language. It must be understood -that French is, in the main, composed of -Latin words; and we may conveniently divide this -portion of the English language into three classes:—1. -Words derived directly from Latin; 2. Words -derived indirectly from Latin, through a French -medium; and, 3. Middle-age Latin words, i.e. -those formed from a corrupt Latin by the monks -of the middle ages. These last appear in French -in a modified form, and come into English still -further altered in their spelling and pronunciation.</p> - -<p>I. In most cases English words of the first class -are compounds or derivatives. We have not -adopted the roots themselves, but use them only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -in composition, with some particle or preposition. -For example: the Latin root ‘clude’ is never -found in English as an independent word, though -we have ‘exclude,’ ‘include,’ ‘preclude,’ &c. It -is also to be observed that a Latin verbal root, in -many cases, produces two forms in English; one -containing the root of the verb itself, and the other -its participial form. Thus, the above example -will give us ‘exclude,’ from the Latin verb ‘excludĕre,’ -and also ‘exclu<em>s</em>ion,’ ‘exclu<em>s</em>ive,’ from its -participle ‘exclusus.’ If we take any one of these -roots, say ‘clud’ and ‘clus’ (shut), we may find -it in modern English in a great variety of forms. -From the participial root (clus) come ‘clause’ -(a part of a sentence <em>shut</em> in); ‘cloister’ (a -place <em>shut</em> in); ‘close’ (to <em>shut</em> to); ‘closet’ -(a small place <em>shut</em> up); ‘recluse,’ one <em>shut</em> -out from the world, &c., as well as the verbs -exclude, include, preclude, with their derivatives -exclusion, inclusion, preclusion; the adjectives -‘exclusive,’ ‘inclusive,’ ‘preclusive,’ and the adverbs -‘exclusively,’ ‘inclusively,’ &c. These words -are not often found in the vocabulary of the uneducated -classes; they belong rather to the language -of books, or to the set forms of eloquence, -than to that of daily intercourse. We should say, -in common parlance, that a boy was <em>shut out</em> of -the room by his companions; but we should hardly -say that he was <em>excluded</em>. In a secondary sense,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -however, such a word would be more properly -adopted. We should say correctly, ‘that such -considerations were <em>excluded</em> from this view of the -subject,’ where we could not very well use ‘shut -out.’ Again, we could not properly say that any -one was ‘included’ in a dungeon; meaning that -he was ‘shut in.’ Words drawn from these Latin -roots have a very wide application in English, -but they are confined chiefly to a mental, and are -seldom used in a physical, sense. Saxon forms -the basis of our language, and is used in practical -and domestic matters; while our spiritual -conceptions are expressed by French or Latin -words.</p> - -<p>Another well-known Latin root is ‘cide’ (from -cædĕre, to slay); which corresponds in meaning -with the more familiar Saxon word ‘kill.’ We -have, not ‘cide,’ but ‘fratricide,’ ‘matricide,’ ‘regicide,’ -‘suicide,’ ‘parricide,’ ‘homicide,’ and ‘infanticide.’ -To these may be added, ‘concise,’ -‘precise,’ ‘decision,’ ‘incision,’ &c. All the latter -are derived from the participle of the same Latin -verb—‘cæsus.’</p> - -<p>Again: the root ‘sume’ (sumpt), from the Latin -‘sumĕre,’ to take, gives us ‘assume,’ ‘consume,’ -‘presume,’ with their participial derivatives, ‘assumption,’ -‘consumption,’ ‘presumption,’ ‘sumptuous,’ -‘presumptuous,’ &c.</p> - -<p>The Latin root ‘cede’ (cess) appears in English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -in two forms of spelling; one, ‘cede,’ as ‘accede,’ -‘concede,’ ‘recede’; and the other, ‘ceed,’ as in -‘exceed,’ ‘proceed,’ ‘succeed.’ These also have -their participial derivatives, as found in ‘excess,’ -‘success,’ ‘process,’ ‘accession,’ ‘succession,’ ‘procession.’ -It will be seen that in all these cases -the rule holds good. <em>Cry</em> is a more household, -domestic word, but ‘acclaim,’ ‘declaim,’ ‘proclaim’ -are used on more important occasions.</p> - -<p>The principle of derivation by the change of an -internal vowel-sound prevailed in ancient Latin as -well as in Saxon. Thus, from the Latin verb -‘f<em>a</em>cĕre’ (to make or do) was formed ‘eff<em>i</em>cere’ -(to effect or bring about), the <em>a</em> in the root being -changed into an <em>i</em> in the derivative; and we have -English words from both these sources:—fact, -faculty, facility, &c., from ‘facĕre’; and defect, -effect, deficient, efficient, &c., from the other form.</p> - -<p>Some of these Latin roots are extremely prolific. -For example, the Latin verb ‘<em>ten</em>ere,’ to hold, produces -a very large number of English words. In -certain verbs it appears in the form ‘<em>tain</em>,’ as in to -abs<em>tain</em>, apper<em>tain</em>, at<em>tain</em>, con<em>tain</em>, de<em>tain</em>, main<em>tain</em>, -ob<em>tain</em>, per<em>tain</em>, re<em>tain</em>, and sus<em>tain</em>. To these -may be added the derivatives, con<em>tin</em>ent, per<em>tin</em>ent, -and imper<em>tin</em>ent; besides which, we have from the -same source, ‘<em>ten</em>ant,’ ‘<em>ten</em>able,’ ‘<em>ten</em>ure,’ ‘main<em>ten</em>ance,’ -and ‘sus<em>ten</em>ance,’ &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> - -<p>Again: the root ‘duce’ (from ‘ducĕre,’ to lead) -gives rise to many English derivatives. First we -have (through French) the word ‘<em>Duke</em>,’ which -originally meant the leader of an army. Then -come the verbs to ad<em>duce</em>, con<em>duce</em>, de<em>duce</em>, in<em>duce</em>, -pro<em>duce</em>, re<em>duce</em>, se<em>duce</em>, tra<em>duce</em>, in all which the -idea of leading is involved. To the same origin -may be traced <em>duct</em>ile, aque<em>duct</em>, via<em>duct</em>, con<em>duct</em>, -and pro<em>duct</em>, besides de<em>duct</em>ion, re<em>duct</em>ion, ab<em>duct</em>ion, -pro<em>duct</em>ion, &c.—nineteen or twenty words -from one root!</p> - -<p>II. A rule has been laid down to enable us to determine -whether an English word is derived directly -from Latin, or filtered from Latin through French:—‘If -the word comes directly from Latin, the only -change it will undergo will be in the ending. Thus -“actio” in Latin will be “actio<em>n</em>” in English; “innocentia” -will make “innocence;” “tormentum,” -“torment,” &c. But if the word comes through -French, it will be more altered in its passage; it -will be disturbed, not only in its ending, but also -internally. Thus “populus” in Latin is “peuple” -in French, and “people” in English. The Latin -“thesaurus” gives the French “trésor,” and the -English “treasure.”’ This may be accepted as a -general rule, but it is often impossible to determine -by the outward form of a word whether we -derive it directly from its primitive Latin source,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -or take it at second hand from the French. In -most cases of doubt the probability is in favour of -the French, for there are still many English words -which were at first spelled, and probably pronounced, -as in French, and whose orthography, and -perhaps pronunciation, was afterwards reformed -and brought back nearer to the Latin type. ‘Doubt’ -and ‘debt’ are still pronounced with the <em>b</em> silent; -but when first brought into English they were -both written and pronounced as in French—‘doute’ -and ‘dette.’ Afterwards, when it became -known that they were originally derived from the -Latin verbs ‘dubitare’ and ‘debere,’ the <em>b</em> was -restored in the spelling, though the French pronunciation -was retained; and the same took place -with many other Romance words.</p> - -<p>There are certain classes of English words from -whose outward form we may conclude that they -are of Latin (or French) origin. First, when an -English noun ends in ‘<em>tion</em>’ preceded by a vowel, -we may be pretty sure that it is either directly -from Latin, or from Latin through French. Such -words as ‘formation,’ ‘completion,’ ‘transition,’ -‘commotion,’ and ‘ablution,’ are derived either -directly or indirectly from Latin. We never meet -with this ending in words of purely Saxon origin. -The termination of these was in Latin ‘tio;’ in -French they appear in ‘tion;’ and in English the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -same ending (tion) is adopted. This Latin ending, -‘tio,’ is, however, sometimes found in French in -the form <em>son</em>, which has thus been introduced into -certain English words of this class. The Latin -‘ratio’ gave the French ‘raison’ and the English -‘reason.’ Again, ‘traditio’ in Latin became ‘trahison’ -in French and ‘treason’ in English. But in -many cases the French ending has not passed into -English; for the words ‘declinaison,’ ‘conjugaison,’ -‘oraison,’ &c., appear in English as ‘declen<em>sion</em>,’ -‘conjuga<em>tion</em>,’ and ora<em>tion</em>, i.e. in their Latin -rather than their French forms.</p> - -<p>Another large class of originally Latin words -appear in English with the ending ‘<em>ty</em>.’ These -are all abstract nouns, which in Latin end in ‘<em>tas</em>.’ -This final <em>tas</em> is expressed in French by <em>té</em>, and in -English by <em>ty</em>. Thus the Latin ‘socie<em>tas</em>’ becomes -in French ‘socié<em>té</em>’ and in English ‘socie<em>ty</em>.’ -In the same way, from the Latin ‘bonitas’ come -the French ‘bon<em>té</em>’ and the English ‘boun<em>ty</em>,’ &c.</p> - -<p>In many of these cases we find two forms of the -same word, each with its own meaning. One of -these tends to the French, and the other to the -Latin, in spelling; and it may be observed that the -French has been more disturbed by contraction, -abbreviation, or inversion than the Latin. For -example, the two words ‘secure’ and ‘sure’ are -both originally from the Latin ‘securus;’ but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -former is directly from Latin, whereas the latter is -from the French contracted form—‘sûr.’</p> - -<p>Another pair of these double forms may be -found in ‘hospital’ and ‘hôtel.’ The Latin -‘hospes’ signified either a ‘host’ or a guest, i.e. -the entertainer or the entertained. From ‘hospitalis’ -came the contracted French form ‘hôtel,’ in -the sense of a house where guests or travellers are -entertained, as distinguished from ‘hôpital,’ where -invalids are taken care of. From the French both -these words came into English, each retaining its -original meaning.</p> - -<p>This principle of a divided meaning is also seen -in ‘persecute’ and ‘pursue,’ the latter of which -was known in English before we became acquainted -with the former. ‘Pursue’ is from the French -‘poursuivre,’ and is used in the general sense of -following after eagerly. ‘Persecute,’ from the -Latin ‘persecutus,’ the participle of ‘persĕqui,’ is -distinguished from ‘pursue’ by the meaning of -‘to follow after with an intent to injure.’</p> - -<p>Two other words of this class are ‘superficies’ -and ‘surface.’ The former is pure Latin; and is -compounded of ‘super,’ ‘upon,’ and ‘facies,’ a face. -But this word is only used in a scientific or mathematical -sense; whereas ‘surface’ has a more -general signification, and means whatever we can -see of the outside of any material substance.</p> - -<p>We find a similar difference of meaning, as well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -as form, between ‘potion’ and ‘poison.’ Both -these came originally from the Latin ‘potare,’ to -drink. The former is the direct Latin, the latter -the French form, and both are now English. -But the second denotes a species of the first; for -‘poison,’ as is well known, is that species of -‘potion’ which destroys life.</p> - -<p>This power of dividing a word into two meanings -is not peculiar to English; for many instances -of it may be found in German, French, and Italian. -But it is of great advantage. It has the effect of -providing a large number of terms to express -shades of thought by slight differences of meaning, -and it thus materially assists in making language -a more perfect exponent of human thought.</p> - -<p>The following list exhibits some of these double -forms:—</p> - -<div class="center80 fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">outer</td><td class="tdl">utter</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">nib</td><td class="tdl">neb</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">morrow</td><td class="tdl">morn</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">person</td><td class="tdl">parson</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">lance</td><td class="tdl">launch</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">beacon</td><td class="tdl">beckon</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">wine</td><td class="tdl">vine</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">to</td><td class="tdl">too</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">wind</td><td class="tdl">vent (peg)</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">tone</td><td class="tdl">tune</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">wise</td><td class="tdl">guise</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">discreet</td><td class="tdl">discrete</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">why</td><td class="tdl">how</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">sauce</td><td class="tdl">souse</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">wagon</td><td class="tdl">wain</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">scatter</td><td class="tdl">shatter</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">deploy</td><td class="tdl">display</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">stick</td><td class="tdl">stitch</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">cattle</td><td class="tdl">chattels</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">cap</td><td class="tdl">cape</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">cross</td><td class="tdl">cruise</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">quell</td><td class="tdl">kill</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">milk</td><td class="tdl">milch</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">glass</td><td class="tdl">glaze</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">make</td><td class="tdl">match</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">grass</td><td class="tdl">graze</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">metal</td><td class="tdl">mettle</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">&c.</td><td class="tdl">&c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> - -<p>III. The third division of this class consists of -Low Latin, or, as they are sometimes called, -‘monkish Latin’ words. These have their origin in -classical Latin; but they are all corruptions of that -language, and were formed at a time when it had -fallen into decay. To this division belong such -English words as ‘chance,’ ‘esquire,’ ‘ewer’, -‘forest,’ ‘justle,’ ‘manage,’ ‘noise,’ ‘noon,’ ‘pillage,’ -‘rear,’ &c. In all these we may recognise a -Latin origin, though the words themselves were -unknown to the ancient Romans.</p> - -<p>From the Greek verb ‘βάλλειν,’ to cast, probably -came the Italian ‘ballo,’ the French ‘bal,’ -and the English ‘ball.’ Playing at ball was, in -the middle ages, often associated with <em>singing</em> and -dancing. Hence the Romance word ‘ballare,’ and -the Old Spanish ‘ballar,’ which both meant ‘to -sing.’ The French ‘ballade’ and the English -‘ballad’ may be thus accounted for. Apropos of -‘ball,’ it may be here noted that the word ‘bull,’ -as in the ‘Pope’s bull,’ is derived from ‘bulla,’ the -Latin for ‘ball.’ It was the custom, in the middle -ages, after writing any document or letter, to -affix to it a seal in the form of a ‘ball,’ so that the -Pope’s ‘bull’ really means the Pope’s ‘ball.’</p> - -<p>Our word ‘chance’ was in old French ‘chéance,’ -from ‘cheoir.’ These are all from the Latin verb -‘cadĕre,’ to fall (out) or happen. The French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -adjective ‘méchant’ is derived from the old participle -‘més-chéant,’ from ‘més-choir,’ to fall out -badly or unluckily. We have not adopted this -adjective, but our noun ‘mischance’ may be -traced to this source.</p> - -<p>A curious case of a modern term derived from -compound Latin roots may be found in our word -‘squire.’ This is made up of the Latin ‘scutum,’ -a shield, and ‘fero,’ I bear. Hence ‘scutifer,’ a -middle-age word, meant a shield-bearer, i.e. one -who attended on the knight, and carried his -shield. In old French, ‘scutifer’ was softened -into ‘escuyer,’ or ‘écuyer;’ and it afterwards -appeared in English as ‘esquire,’ or ‘squire.’</p> - -<p>The old French for ‘water’ was ‘aigue,’ from -the Latin ‘aqua.’ From this was formed the -word ‘aiguière,’ a water-vessel; and this is the -origin of our English word ‘ewer,’as in ‘cream-ewer.’</p> - -<p>Of the same class is the word ‘forest.’ This -did not exist in ancient Latin, but sprang up in -later ages. The monks made the word ‘foresta’ -out of the Latin ‘foras,’ abroad, or out of doors; -the same root which produced the English words -‘foreign,’ and ‘foreigner,’ one who comes from -abroad. The monkish Latin form was ‘foresta,’ -the French ‘forêt,’ and the English ‘forest.’</p> - -<p>Under this head may be also placed ‘comfort’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -and ‘courage.’ The former of these is well known -to be peculiarly English, and there is no word in -any of the continental languages which exactly -translates it. True, the French are beginning to -use the word ‘comfortáble;’ but it may be fairly -doubted whether it realises with them the same -idea as with us. It has evidently a Latin element; -and the second syllable is, no doubt, derived from -the Latin ‘fortis,’ strong. So that, what ‘comforts’ -would, in the first instance, probably mean, -what strengthens, and would especially apply -to ‘creature-comforts’—food or drink, which -strengthens the body. Afterwards it would be -used in a secondary and more extended sense.</p> - -<p>The Italian word ‘coraggio’ is derived from -‘core,’ as the French ‘courage’ comes from -‘cœur;’ both these being originally from the -Latin ‘cor,’ the heart. From French the word -‘courage’ has passed into English, where the -spelling is the same, though it is somewhat differently -pronounced. But neither ‘comfort’ nor -‘courage’ is found in classical Latin.</p> - -<p>The word ‘contrada’ in Italian and Provençal -came into French in the form ‘contrée,’ and -into English as ‘country.’ It is derived from the -Latin preposition ‘contra,’ against; and means, -properly, the part of the land which lies <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'over-against us'">over—<em>against</em>—us</ins>. -But the word is altogether of modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -manufacture. (Compare the German ‘Gegenstand,’ -where the meaning is precisely the same.)</p> - -<p>The Latin preposition ‘juxta’ has given rise to -several words, both French and English, which -did not exist in ancient Latin. The French ‘joust,’ -a combat in which the antagonists rushed at, or -pushed <em>close to</em>, one another, is one of these. Also -‘ajouter,’ to add or put one thing <em>close</em> to another. -From these we have, in English, the adverb ‘just,’ -as in the phrase ‘just now,’ i.e. <em>close</em> to the present -time; and also the verb ‘to adjust,’ i.e. to place -things <em>close to</em> each other. ‘To justle,’ or ‘jostle,’ -is a frequentative verb, formed from the above -adverb ‘just.’</p> - -<p>The word ‘danger’ is composed of two Latin -roots: ‘damn-um,’ loss, and ‘ger-o,’ I bear; -these produced the Low Latin word ‘domigerium.’ -This was afterwards corrupted and softened -into the French ‘danger,’ and in that form -passed into English.</p> - -<p>Our word ‘manage’ is from the Latin ‘manus,’ -a hand, through the French ‘main.’ There was -a Low Latin word, ‘managerium,’ which meant -occupation or actual possession, in the sense of -holding in the hand. Thence the word was transferred -to the furniture requisite for the occupation -of a house, and, in the shape of the French ‘ménage,’ -to the household of the occupier. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -identity of this word with the English ‘manage’ -may be seen in the expression ‘bon mesnagier,’ -one who understands how to conduct a household—a -good manager.</p> - -<p>From the Latin ‘manēre,’ to remain, or dwell, -are derived the French ‘maison’ and the corresponding -English ‘mansion;’ and from the same -source come the English words ‘manse,’ the clergyman’s -dwelling-house, and ‘manor,’ the lord’s -dwelling-house.</p> - -<p>From ‘minutus,’ the Latin participle of the -verb ‘minuo,’ come the English adjective ‘minúte’ -and the noun ‘mínute.’ Properly ‘minuto primo’ -was, in Italian, the first division of the hour; -‘minuto secondo’ was the <em>second</em>, and ‘minuto -terzo’ the <em>third</em> division; which is, in French, -‘<em>tierce</em>,’ i.e. the sixtieth part of a second. The -English word ‘mite’ is only a contraction of -minute—it is a minute insect; and a ‘minuet’ is -a dance with <em>short</em> steps.</p> - -<p>‘Noisome’ and ‘annoy’ are derived from the -Latin ‘nocēre,’ to hurt or injure; whence it may -be conjectured also comes ‘noise,’ as being something -that annoys, as a stir, wrangle, or brawl.</p> - -<p>The word ‘peel’ means the rind of fruit or the -bark of a stick. This is from the Latin ‘pellis,’ -skin, from which comes the French ‘peau.’ The -radical sense of this word is, that which is stripped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -off, or <em>pilled</em>. ‘Pillage’ is a derivative of ‘pill,’ -or ‘peel.’ It means a collection of things stripped -off, or plundered.</p> - -<p>The English word ‘palm’ (of the hand) is from -the Greek παλάμη, through the Latin ‘palma.’ -A certain tree is called a palm because of its broad -spreading leaves, which resemble the palm of the -hand; and a palmer was formerly a pilgrim carrying -a palm-branch in his hand, in sign of his -expedition to the Holy Land.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER III.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">OLD AND NEW WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">One very interesting point in the study of language -is the cause of the introduction of new, -and the falling off of old, words. It is to be -observed that a new word is generally ushered in -with a sort of parade—a flourish of trumpets; -many writers make a rush at it, and drag it in, -whether applicable or not. Its novelty is attractive; -and it is often used in a sense which really -does not belong to it. But it is not every word -thus introduced that maintains its place: it is -often found, after all, that it has more sound than -sense, and is rather ornamental than useful; and -then it is sure to fall into neglect, dies away, and -is heard of no more. On the other hand, in the -natural course of things, many words which have -done good service, and for a long period, are at -length discontinued, and give way to new, and -sometimes more useful, terms. These slip out of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -the language unperceived; they are no longer -wanted—no one enquires for them; some new and -more expressive terms push them out, and they -are consigned to oblivion.</p> - -<p>It is quite ludicrous to observe how strangely -uneducated or illiterate people use words which, -to them, are quite new. They are so fascinated -with their novelty, or, perhaps, with their sound -and length, that they apply them in all manner of -odd and eccentric meanings. Two of these words—‘promiscuous’ -and ‘immaterial’—seem to be great -favourites with a certain class: an ignorant -Englishman somehow imagines that the word -‘immaterial’ conveys a sort of reproach, and he -insults his fellow-workman by calling him an -‘<em>immaterial</em>,’ meaning that he is a fellow of no -worth or respectability. The word ‘promiscuous’ -is often used by the lower orders in the same loose -way. A witness in a trial, not long ago, stated -that ‘he met the prisoner “promiscuously” (or, -as he pronounced it, ‘permiskously’) in the -streets;’ meaning, by chance, or casually.</p> - -<p>If we trace the history of the English language -through the various phases of its career, from its -earliest up to its present condition, we shall -find that it has been continually growing more -Romance and less Saxon. It is said that a process -of decay had set in even before the introduction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -of Anglo-Saxon into England—that the language -had already lost some of its inflections; and it is -well known that, in process of time, these endings, -with some few exceptions, wholly disappeared. -Again, at a later period, many Saxon nouns which -had formed their plurals in <em>en</em> rejected this form, -and adopted the Romance (or French) plural-ending, -<em>s</em>. At one time, the word ‘eye’ formed -its plural ‘eyne,’ or ‘eyen;’ ‘tree’ made ‘treen;’ -‘shoe,’ ‘shoon;’ and even the Romance word -‘uncle,’ ‘unclen.’ These forms have now all -departed, and in their place we have ‘eye<em>s</em>,’ -‘tree<em>s</em>,’ ‘shoe<em>s</em>,’ &c.</p> - -<p>The mode of forming a plural by a change of -the internal vowel, which was common in Saxon -nouns, has now almost vanished from the language. -We have some few left; but not more -than five or six examples, as ‘tooth,’ ‘goose,’ -‘foot,’ ‘man,’ ‘woman,’ and ‘mouse.’ We may -be quite confident that any new nouns brought -into English will form their plurals by the French, -and not the German, system.</p> - -<p>Again, verbs of strong conjugation are much -fewer than formerly. Many verbs now form the -past tense by adding <em>d</em> or <em>ed</em> to the present which, -in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, changed the -internal vowel-sound for that purpose. To ‘climb’ -formerly made ‘clomb’ (a form used by Milton<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -in the seventeenth century); ‘quake’ made -‘quoke;’ ‘laugh,’ ‘lofe;’ ‘reach,’ ‘raught;’ and -many others. All these now adopt the weak form -of conjugation, and form the past tense by adding -<em>d</em> or <em>ed</em> to the root of the verb: ‘climb-<em>ed</em>,’ -‘laugh-<em>ed</em>,’ ‘reach-<em>ed</em>,’ ‘quak-<em>ed</em>,’ &c. And so it -will be with all verbs that may be hereafter -brought into the language; they will, one and all, -form the past tense by adding <em>ed</em>.</p> - -<p>But not only have we lost these Saxon characteristics: -whole lists of Saxon words have disappeared -which once did good service in the -language. This may be easily shown by glancing -over a few pages of Chaucer or Mandeville, where -we shall find a multitude of terms which have -been long disused. For example:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">clepen</td><td class="tdl">to call</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">sterve</td><td class="tdl">to die</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">thorpe</td><td class="tdl">village</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">swappen</td><td class="tdl">to strike</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">grutchen</td><td class="tdl">to murmur</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">foryield</td><td class="tdl">to repay</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">stound</td><td class="tdl">moment</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">reden</td><td class="tdl">to advise, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="noindent">Even in Shakspere and Milton we may find -many words which are now obsolete. All these, -again, are Saxon; so that it may be truly said -that our losses have been Saxon, whilst our -additions have been all Romance, i.e. Latin or -French.</p> - -<p>In most cases substitutions have been made; -but we shall always find that the disused word<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -was Saxon, while the one substituted for it is -French or Latin. Thus, for the Saxon compound -‘monath-seoc’ (month sick) we now have ‘lunatic;’ -instead of ‘waeter-adl’ (water-illness), we -have ‘dropsy.’ The old Anglo-Saxon ‘eorth-gemet’ -(earth-measure) has given way to the -Greek ‘geometry;’ and the Saxon ‘witena-gemot’ -(meeting of wise men), has been transformed -into the French ‘parliament.’</p> - -<p>In all probability it was the influence of the -Norman conquest that assisted this tendency to -substitute single terms for compound words. -The French language not being favourable to -such formations, after a time pushed out many -Saxon compounds; and yet, in point of clearness, -power, and feeling, the Saxon words were far -more effective. Their separate parts were significant, -and familiar to the commonest understanding; -whereas the new word was, of course, at -first altogether foreign, and even after a time -was far from being so impressive as the other. -For example, the meaning of the Anglo-Saxon -noun ‘<em>sige-beacan</em>’ must have been clear to the -most uneducated mind: ‘sige’ is ‘victory,’ and -‘beacan’ is ‘sign;’ that is, ‘victory-sign.’ Now, -for this was substituted ‘trophy,’ which, being a -more uncommon word, does not explain itself as -the other, and is, therefore, not so vivid or picturesque.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -Again, ‘<em>heah-setl</em>’ is translated into -‘throne.’ In the former word we have two -distinct ideas, ‘high’ and ‘seat,’ both familiar to -the most illiterate peasant; whereas the word -‘throne,’ though now common enough, must at -first have puzzled the people considerably.</p> - -<p>One very expressive Saxon word, ‘<em>wanhope</em>,’ -has disappeared from the language. This may be -considered a real loss; ‘wanhope’ expressed that -condition of the mind in which we have not -actually lost all hope, but when it is beginning to -<em>wane</em>, i.e. grow gradually less, and we feel it -slipping away from us. ‘Hope’ and ‘despair’ -are the two opposite ends of the scale, and ‘wanhope’ -formerly expressed an intermediate state of -mind. This was a beautiful word, and we have -now no equivalent for it.</p> - -<p>A host of Saxon derivatives have also vanished -from the language which were once in common -use; and among them may be named those having -the prefix ‘<em>for</em>.’ We still retain the words ‘forbear,’ -‘forbid,’ ‘forget,’ ‘forgive,’ ‘forlorn,’ and ‘forswear;’ -but in the writings of the fifteenth and -sixteenth centuries we often meet with ‘forfend,’ -‘fordrive,’ ‘forsay,’ ‘forspend,’ ‘forwither,’ ‘forwaste,’ -&c., all of which are now dead and buried. -One word of this class survives, though in a different -form, viz. the Saxon verb ‘fordon.’ This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -verb, though given up, may be still seen in the -familiar expression ‘<em>to do for</em>.’</p> - -<p>This tendency towards raising the French at -the expense of the Saxon portion of English -may be accounted for by various circumstances of -our history. First, there can be no doubt that the -Norman conquest was mainly instrumental in producing -this effect. This event could not have -failed to be unfavourable to the prosperity of the -Saxon. The relation in which the conquerors -stood to the conquered was of itself sufficient to -account for it, and though the enmity between the -two races will explain how the two languages were -kept so long separated, when the fusion did at -length take place, the advantage was clearly in -favour of the governing classes.</p> - -<p>Another cause of this leaning to the French may -have been the number of French words introduced -by Chaucer. The English language (if, indeed, it -then deserved that name) was in the latter part -of the reign of Edward III. only just beginning to -be formed. The Saxon element, which ever since -the Conquest had been crushed, was now lifting -its head, whilst the French was somewhat discouraged. -But the language was not then fit for -literary, especially for poetical, purposes; and, -therefore, at the very time when it first appeared -as English, a large influx of French words took -place.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> - -<p>But this result was assisted by other circumstances. -The number of Huguenot refugees who -found shelter in England after the massacre -of St. Bartholomew added materially to the -French population of this country, and assisted -in swelling the French vocabulary of the English -language.</p> - -<p>In the seventeenth century the marriage of -Charles I. and Henrietta Maria of France could -not fail to produce some effect on the language -and literature of the age, and though this French -taste received a check during the rule of Cromwell, -it returned with double force at the Restoration. -The foreign tastes acquired by Charles II. -in his wanderings on the continent mainly contributed -to this state of things, and on the return -of the Stewarts, the general tone of the court and -nobility, as well as the literature of the age, was -French.</p> - -<p>But this was as nothing when compared with -the consequences of Louis XIV.’s revocation of the -Edict of Nantes, in 1685. We are told by Mr. -Smiles that, in consequence of this cruel and impolitic -act, as many as 400,000 French emigrants -found an asylum in this country. It is impossible -that this could have been without effect on the -English language, and although statistics on the -subject are wanting, we may confidently conclude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -that this immigration considerably increased the -French element of the English language.</p> - -<p>There can be little doubt that the style of -Latinity which Johnson adopted also led to the -abandonment of many words of Saxon origin. He -was the most weighty authority in England in all -things regarding language, style, and literature, -till the year of his death, 1784; and his numerous -imitators, maintaining his peculiarities of style, -still further contributed to the same state of -things. Add to all these influences the general -leaning of most writers of the present day, and -we shall not be surprised at the condition of the -English language.</p> - -<p>When we consider the numerous and continual -attacks which the Saxon element of English has -thus sustained, we may be inclined to wonder that -there should be any of it left—that it should not -have been utterly crushed and annihilated by -these raids. But this wonder will be increased -when we find that it not only exists, but constitutes -to this day by far the larger portion of our -language. This is surely sufficient to prove the -innate depth, force, and vigour of that element; -and we may fairly conclude that if it has so far -been able to make head against these innovations, -it retains an intrinsic power to resist future attacks -of the same nature.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> - -<p>In truth, Saxon is not so much an element as -the very basis and foundation of English. The -great body of articles, pronouns, numerals, conjunctions, -prepositions, signs, auxiliaries, &c.—in -fine, all the framework and joints of the language—are -drawn from that source.</p> - -<p>There are, however, some French philologists -who would have it that the majority of words in -English is much in favour of French. M. Thommerel -gives himself great pains to prove this -conclusion, but apparently on very insufficient -grounds; and M. Génin, who has written some -valuable works on his own language, says, in his -‘Variations du langage Français,’ that the English -are indebted to the French for more than three -quarters of their language! ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Anglais,</span>’ he -writes, ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ne sont riches que de nos dépouilles; si -l’on se mettait à cribler leur langue, et à reprendre -ce qui nous appartient, il ne leur resterait pas -même de quoi se dire: “Bonjour! comment vous -portez-vous?” Leur fameuse formule,</span> <em>How do you -do?</em> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">est volée à la France.</span>’ The tone of this -remark is pretty evident, and he surely here allows -his patriotism to get the better of his good sense; -for he certainly ought to have known that, though -our language is enriched with many French words, -the main body of English, since the fourteenth -century, has been, and is at the present moment,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -drawn from a Saxon and not a French source. -In the case of ‘How do you do?’ however, he is -probably right. He quotes from several ballads of -the twelfth century the expression ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comment le -faites-vous?</span>’ as then used in the English sense of -‘How do you do?’ to prove that we have adopted—or -rather, as he says, stolen—this form from the -French. It has been suggested that the verb <em>do</em>, -in this phrase, is derived from the Saxon ‘dugan,’ -to prosper or prevail, from which comes the more -modern ‘doughty;’ as in ‘<em>a doughty knight</em>.’ According -to this explanation, ‘How do you do?’ -is equivalent to ‘How do you get on, or prosper?’ -But Mr. Wedgewood, in his ‘Dictionary of English -Etymology,’ rejects this view. He agrees here -with M. Génin, that it is a close translation of the -old French ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comment le faites-vous?</span>’ And so -the matter now stands.</p> - -<p>Various circumstances give rise to new words, -which either remain in or depart from the language -as they may be found serviceable or otherwise. -One modern importation is ‘<em>Handbook</em>.’ -This appears an unnecessary innovation, more -especially as we had already a word which -answered the same purpose, and quite as well, viz. -‘<em>Manual</em>,’ and which has the additional recommendation -of being a simple, not a compound, -word. ‘Handbook’ is of German origin, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -probably owes its introduction to that German -influence which came in with the late Prince -Consort. Mr. Murray has largely contributed to -its popularity by his numerous and well-known -‘handbooks,’ and the word will now most probably -retain its place in the language.</p> - -<p>D’Israeli the elder claims the honour of having -introduced the word ‘<em>Fatherland</em>’ into English. -This is certainly a useful addition to our vocabulary. -We had before no word to distinguish -between the two Latin meanings of ‘<em>rus</em>’ and -‘<em>patria</em>;’ ‘country’ being equivocal in sense, since -it may mean either the land of our birth, or that -part of it distinguished from the town. Here the -French have hitherto had the advantage of us: -they have ‘patrie,’ for ‘Fatherland;’ ‘pays,’ for a -territorial division; and ‘campagne,’ in a rural -sense.</p> - -<p>The exact date of the introduction of the term -‘<em>stand-point</em>’ is not known, but it is among the -new words of about thirty or forty years’ standing; -and we may conclude from its form that it is German. -This word is, no doubt, an improvement on -‘point of view,’ as being a closer, and therefore -more convenient, expression. It is now in common -use, especially with writers on mental philosophy.</p> - -<p>The noun ‘<em>antecedent</em>’ has been hitherto used -exclusively as a term of grammar, but of late years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -it has appeared in a new sense. It is now often -used, in the plural number, to signify the actions -and general conduct of some one whose reputation -we wish to ascertain. We must inquire, they say, -into his ‘antecedents;’ that is, try to find out what -he has been doing, who were his companions, how -he has hitherto conducted himself, &c. This is -certainly a convenient term enough. It expresses -concisely what would otherwise require a rather -ponderous circumlocution. Mr. ‘Punch,’ with his -usual satirical spirit, said that it would be more -satisfactory to know something of a suspected -man’s <em>relatives</em> than of his <em>antecedents</em>!</p> - -<p>We learn from Lord Macaulay that the word -‘gutted’ was first used on the night in which -James II. fled from London: ‘The king’s printing-house -... was, to use a coarse metaphor, -<em>which then for the first time, came into fashion</em>, -completely <em>gutted</em>.’</p> - -<p>The first writer who used the word ‘anecdote’ was -Procopius, the Greek historian of the reign of Justinian. -He wrote a work which he called ‘Anecdotes,’ -or a ‘Secret History.’ The Emperor Justinian -and his wife, Theodora, are here represented as two -demons, who had assumed a human form for the -destruction of mankind. Procopius tells us that -he wrote this work as a supplement to his ‘History,’ -in which he could not, for fear of torture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -and death, speak of some living persons as they -deserved. The word ‘anecdote’ is compounded -from the Greek ἀν (an) not, ἐκ (ek) out, and δότα -(dota) given. It thus means a fact not given out -or put forth—an unpublished story. Though this -was its original meaning, every one, of course, -knows that we have now whole volumes of published -anecdotes.</p> - -<p>The ending ‘ation’ is, in English, chiefly applied -to Latin roots; as in ‘consult<em>ation</em>,’ ‘cre<em>ation</em>,’ ‘don<em>ation</em>,’ -&c. It is said that Mr. Dundas, afterwards -Lord Melville, was the first to use the word ‘<em>starvation</em>,’ -which he introduced in one of his speeches in -the House of Commons, on the American war, 1775. -Here we had, for the first time, a Saxon root—‘starve’—with -a Latin ending—‘ation;’ a hybrid -formation. From this circumstance, we are told -that Mr. Dundas was ever afterwards called by -his acquaintances, ‘Starvation Dundas.’ But -whatever objection may have been made to it, the -word has now taken a firm hold on the language, -and is used by the best writers as a perfectly legitimate -term.</p> - -<p>The mania of modern times for grand terms -has produced some very curious words. Tradesmen, -in advertising some new invention or -article for sale, almost always endeavour to -attract public attention towards it by giving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -it an unusually grand name, generally from a -Greek source, but often a strange combination. -To take a few cases of these mysterious compounds:—‘<em>Rypophagon</em>’ -Soap. This, it may be -presumed, means dirt-eating, or dirt-consuming, -soap. But, as all soap cleanses the skin, why -should this sort be designated as particularly -cleansing? Simply to sell the article. Indeed, -we can hardly walk far in the streets of London -without seeing some fantastic term of this sort -paraded in the shop windows. The hair-dresser -exhibits his ‘<em>Auricomous</em>’ Fluid; and the son of -Crispin his ‘<em>Antigropelos</em>’ Boots. These meet us -at every turn. One tradesman has lately advertised -a machine which he thinks proper to call a -‘<em>Dotosthene</em>;’ by which, we may conjecture, he -means, an instrument for strengthening the -back.</p> - -<p>Some years ago the writer, walking up Oxford -Street, became aware of a fellow carrying on his -back before him a huge placard, on which was inscribed -the strange word ‘Therapolegeia.’ This -was a decided poser. On rubbing up his Greek, -however, he at length discovered that this -curious word might possibly mean, ‘an office for -the registry of servants;’ and so it turned out. -But which of the two parties—the ladies who -wished to hire the servants, or the servants who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -wanted to be hired—best understood the word -‘Therapolegeia’ is a problem still to be solved.</p> - -<p>Tailors—I beg their pardon, <em>Merchant Clothiers</em>!—now -persist in calling coats and waistcoats -‘tunics’ and ‘vests;’ and as for ‘trousers,’ -the word is considered far too gross for ears -polite! And what has become of ladies’ bonnets? -They are gone—departed—vanished! but they -have left their ghosts behind them, in the shape -of a wretched little bunch of silk and ribbons, -dignified by the name of ‘Head-dress!’</p> - -<p>Some of these outlandish compounds are not -very intelligible. One of them—‘Orthopœdic’—is -a term applied to an institution lately established -in Oxford Street, for operating on club-feet. -The name is probably intended to raise the -establishment in public estimation, but the form -of the word has justly called forth the censure -of some critics. If this word, as seems probable, -is meant to convey the idea of ‘straight-footed,’ -the third syllable should be formed from -the Greek ποῦς, ποδός, a foot, and the whole word -should stand ‘orth<em>o</em>podic,’ and not ‘orthop<em>œ</em>dic.’</p> - -<p>‘Stereotype,’ a term now commonly known to -printers, and, indeed, to general readers, was invented -and first used by Didot, the well-known -French printer. This word will certainly maintain -its place in English.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> - -<p>The adjective ‘inimical’ is said to owe its origin -to Mr. Windham, who first introduced it in one of -his speeches in the House of Commons about -eighty years ago. It is useful to mark a distinction -between private and public enmity; ‘inimical’ -having the first, and ‘hostile’ the second, meaning. -But the word is not very popular, in spite of -its four syllables, and does not appear to make its -way.</p> - -<p>The great French Revolution of 1789, as might -have been expected, brought forth many new -words, some of which have been adopted in -English. One, destined to become a very prominent -feature of the times, was ‘Guillotine.’ This -well-known instrument was named after its inventor, -Dr. Guillotin. How or why they made it -feminine, by adding to it an <em>e</em>, is not clear; but the -word now stands ‘<em>La</em> Guillotin<em>e</em>,’ and has secured -for itself a permanent place in the French language.</p> - -<p>Other words which were the offspring of those -dreadful times have disappeared from common use -and parlance, and are only occasionally referred to -as memorials of the age which produced them. -Such are the new names then given to the months; -as ‘Brumaire,’ ‘Vendémiaire,’ ‘Fructidor,’ ‘Thermidor,’ -&c. When the fury of the revolutionary -spirit was at length exhausted, and things were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -brought back to their former condition, these -words naturally fell into disuse, and at last disappeared. -There were, however, others belonging to -this period which seem to have taken a stronger -hold on the people’s mind, and which form to -this day part of the legitimate vocabulary of the -French language. In this class may be named -‘fusillade’ and ‘noyade:’ those horrible wholesale -shootings and drownings of the Vendéans -which formed such a frightful picture of that -awful period. ‘Terroriste’ first appeared under -Robespierre’s administration; and the assassins of -the unfortunate prisoners in September 1792 were -termed ‘Septembriseurs.’</p> - -<p>It is natural to suppose that political names -would be born with the parties which they designate. -The terms ‘Whig’ and ‘Tory’ were never -heard of till the close of the seventeenth century; -and it is curious that there is much obscurity concerning -the etymology of both these words. All -that is positively known on the subject is, that the -first is of Scotch, and the second of Irish, origin. -‘Whig’ was first applied to the Scotch covenanters, -and ‘Tory’ to the Popish outlaws who -favoured the cause of King James II. in Ireland. -It may be remarked, by the way, that these two -words, though not wholly extinct, are now much less -frequently heard than formerly. Different circumstances<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -of political warfare have introduced new -terms in both these cases. ‘Tories’ became ‘Protectionists’ -during the great debates on the Corn-Laws; -and now they call themselves ‘Conservatives.’ -The Whigs, again, appeared on one occasion -as ‘Reformers,’ and they are at present known -as ‘Liberals.’</p> - -<p>The name ‘Puritan,’ as applied to a religious -sect, still flourishes in English. It was first heard -of in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and then given -as a nickname to a party which would have even -reformed the Reformation. These ‘Puritans’ -affected a superhuman purity of morals, and hence -their name. They were also sometimes called -‘Precisians,’ from their excessive fastidiousness -about insignificant matters (this latter word has -now fallen out of use).</p> - -<p>The distinction between ‘Roundhead’ and ‘Cavalier’ -first appeared during the civil war between -Charles I. and his Parliament. The ‘Roundhead,’ -in his sour and sullen spirit, condemned all outward -ornament, and wore his hair cropped close; -thus showing the <em>round</em> form of his <em>head</em>; in contradistinction -to the chivalrous tone, the romantic -spirit, and the <em>flowing locks</em> of the Cavalier.</p> - -<p>The opprobrious term ‘<em>Gueux</em>’ (Beggars) was -adopted in 1566 by the Dutch revolters against -the rule of Philip II. Margaret of Parma, then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -governor of the Netherlands, being somewhat disconcerted -at the numbers of that party, was reassured -by her minister, Barlaimont, who remarked -to her, that there was nothing to be feared from a -crowd of ‘beggars.’ The party of confederates -accepted this name, and prided themselves on it; -and in every language in which the history of the -revolt of the Netherlands has been written, this -French term, ‘gueux,’ is used to designate these -malcontents.</p> - -<p>Many popular authors, presuming on their own -authority, have endeavoured to introduce new and -strange terms into the English language. Coleridge, -in his work ‘On Church and State,’ makes -use of the following extraordinary words:—‘Influencive,’ -‘extroitive, ‘retroitive,’ and ‘productivity.’ -Bentley uses:—‘Commentitious,’ ‘aliene,’ -‘negoce,’ and ‘exscribe.’ But no other writers -adopted these words: a clear proof that they were -not wanted.</p> - -<p>Charles Lamb used, in his writings, several -words which have not succeeded in maintaining -a place in the language. Among them may be -named, ‘agnise,’ ‘burgeon,’ and ‘arride.’</p> - -<p>Again, any subject of temporary excitement -will generally give birth to some new words. The -Indian Mutiny gave us ‘to loot;’ and during the -American civil war, we made our first acquaintance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -with ‘secesh,’ ‘skedaddle,’ and ‘stampede.’ Words -born under such circumstances may be long- or -short-lived: some maintain a place in the language, -others have but a brief existence; they ‘fret their -hour upon the stage,’ and then are heard no more.</p> - -<p>We have also many examples of words which -originated in some question of passing interest, -and which, though the causes of their first appearance -have long since passed away, still remain -in our language, and do us excellent service there. -The general belief in astrology in the Middle Ages -left us several words of this class. Though we no -longer believe that the position of the stars can -affect our fortunes, we still use the word ‘disaster,’ -in the sense of a calamity or misfortune. -From the same source come the adjectives, -‘jovial,’ ‘mercurial,’ ‘martial,’ and ‘saturnine.’ -These express qualities supposed to belong to -those heathen gods whose names were given to -the constellation under which any one was born. -In astrological phraseology a man’s fortune is -still said to be <em>in the ascendant</em>, or to <em>culminate</em>. -Both these expressions were first used by the -astrologers, and referred to certain stars which, -when they had risen to their greatest height, were -believed to portend prosperity. The word ‘aspect,’ -though now expressing the general appearance -of things, was first applied, astrologically, to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -physical appearance or outward view of the -heavens; and ‘lunatic’ was first used in the sense -of one supposed to be mentally affected by a -change of the moon.</p> - -<p>Other superstitions have produced words of a -like nature. The ancient Roman divination may -be still traced in our English words ‘augur,’ -‘auspice,’ ‘omen,’ &c. The left hand was always -regarded by the ancients as portending ill-luck; -and hence our modern word ‘sinister,’ which at -first meant simply ‘left-handed,’ has now come to -signify ‘foreboding evil.’</p> - -<p>‘Its,’ the possessive form of the neuter personal -pronoun, is of comparatively late introduction -into our language. In Anglo-Saxon, the same -form served for both the masculine and neuter -possessive; thus:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl wd20"></td><td class="tdl"> m.</td><td class="tdl"> f.</td><td class="tdl"> n.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nom.</td><td class="tdl">He</td><td class="tdl">heo</td><td class="tdl">hit.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Gen.</td><td class="tdl"><em>His</em></td><td class="tdl">hire</td><td class="tdl"><em>his</em>.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="noindent">At first, the nominative neuter, ‘it,’ was used for -the possessive neuter, of which many instances -occur in Shakspere. See ‘King John,’ act. ii. -sc. 1: ‘Go to <em>it</em> grandame, child.’ The same -may be found in the authorised version of -the Scriptures (of 1611); see Leviticus xxv. 5: -‘That which groweth of “<em>it</em>” own accord.’ But in -this translation the word ‘its’ is not once found.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -Genesis i. 11: ‘The tree yielding fruit after <em>his</em> -kind.’ Mark. ix. 50: ‘If the salt have lost <em>his</em> -saltness,’ &c. Milton avoids the use of ‘its.’ It -seldom occurs in his prose works, and there are -not more than three or four instances of it in his -poems. The precise date and occasion of the -first introduction of ‘<em>its</em>’ into the English language -have not been ascertained, but it was probably -early in the seventeenth century. It is said that -the ‘Rowley’s Poems’ of Chatterton was detected -to be a forgery by the presence of the word ‘<em>its</em>’ -several times in the MS. Rowley was represented -as a monk of the fifteenth century, when the word -was certainly not in the language.</p> - - -<h3><em>New French Words.</em></h3> - -<p>M. Génin, in his chapter on the age of certain -French words and phrases, mentions the following -cases:<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>—</p> - -<p>1. ‘Désagrément’ and ‘renaissance;’ mentioned -by Père Bouhours as new words in 1675, -two years after the death of Molière.</p> - -<p>2. ‘Insidieux’ and ‘sécurité;’ established in the -language by Malherbe.</p> - -<p>3. ‘Sagacité;’ first found in the works of St.-Réal -and Balzac.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> -<p>4. The sixteenth century was remarkable for -an irruption of diminutives, introduced chiefly by -the influence of Ronsard and his school. Most -of these are now lost; but two of them, viz. -‘historiette’ and ‘amourette,’ are retained.</p> - -<p>5. It was Ménage who first used the word -‘prosateur.’</p> - -<p>6. The negative words ‘intolérance,’ ‘inexpérimenter,’ -‘indévot,’ ‘irréligieux,’ and ‘impardonnable’ -were subjects of much discussion about the -end of the seventeenth century, and did not take -root in the language till the eighteenth.</p> - -<p>7. The Abbé St.-Pierre first used the word ‘bienfaisance.’</p> - -<p>8. St.-Évremond discusses the word ‘vaste,’ remarking -that it was then new, and not firmly -established.</p> - -<p>9. Ronsard first used ‘avidité,’ and ‘ode;’ and -Baïf introduced ‘épigramme,’ ‘aigredoux,’ and -‘élégie.’</p> - -<p>10. In the seventeenth century, the literati of -the Hôtel Rambouillet produced several new -words: Ségrais gave to the French language -‘impardonnable;’ Desmarets, ‘plumeux;’ and -Balzac, ‘féliciter.’</p> - -<p>The members of the Port-Royal also furnished -their contingent of new words, which the Jesuits -of course condemned as ridiculous and detestable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -Among these new terms were ‘hydrie’ and ‘amphore.’ -The first appears in a translation of Ecclesiastes -xii. 6: ‘Antequam conteratur <em>hydria</em> ad -fontem’—‘Before the <em>pitcher</em> be broken at the -well.’ The second, ‘amphore,’ was used in a -translation of Horace’s ode, ‘Ad Amphoram.’ -But ‘hydrie’ was not destined to live, and has -become obsolete; ‘amphore’ is still retained.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IV.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">DEGENERACY OF WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">One point to be observed in the nature and history -of words is their tendency to contract in form -and degenerate in meaning. A word which, in -the beginning of its career, has generally a favourable, -or at any rate a not disparaging, meaning, -becomes, as it grows older, weaker in effect and -more contracted in form and signification, and, -in most cases, falls into an unfavourable sense. -It does not improve or extend, but contracts and -deteriorates in meaning. Archbishop Trench -uses this fact as an argument to prove the perversity -and evil tendencies of mankind; and it -must be admitted to have considerable force. -Take the two verbs, to ‘resent’ and to ‘retaliate.’ -The first of these means, etymologically, ‘to feel -back,’ or ‘feel in return.’ Of course, one may -feel kindly or unkindly, according to circumstances: -but we now never use this word in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -favourable sense. We are never said to ‘<em>resent</em>’ -kindness or affection; but only injury, slander, -ill deeds, &c. Again, the derivation of ‘retaliate’ -is from the Latin ‘re’ (back) and ‘talis’ (such); -and it would naturally signify, ‘to give back such’ -(as we have received). But we now retaliate -offences or indignities, and never favours or -benefits. These words were, however, once used -in a much more extended sense. Dr. South, a -celebrated preacher of Charles II.’s time, in one -of his sermons has the expression, ‘resenting God’s -favours,’ which, according to the present restricted -meaning of the word, would seem to a modern -reader positively blasphemous. But in the seventeenth -century the word ‘resent’ implied good -as well as bad feeling; gratitude for benefits received -as well as anger for injury done.</p> - -<p>This tendency to degenerate will appear, perhaps, -more evidently if we inquire into the original -source of certain English words which are now -used as the strongest terms of reproach in the -language. Among these may be named, ‘<em>thief</em>,’ -‘<em>villain</em>,’ and ‘<em>vagabond</em>.’</p> - -<p>The first is of Saxon origin. ‘<em>Theow</em>’ was a -term originally applied to one of the servile -classes of the Anglo-Saxon population, and in its -first sense implied no reproach. But, as people in -this position had many temptations to fraud and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> -deceit, the word at length came to have its modern -signification; i.e. it degenerated into the present -meaning of ‘thief.’</p> - -<p>‘<em>Villanus</em>’ was, in Latin, first used in the sense -of a farm-servant; but as those in this capacity -acquired a bad reputation by their immorality and -brutal violence, the whole class was stigmatised; -and thus the word ‘villain’ now conveys, as every -one knows, a very different sense from that of -farm-servant.</p> - -<p>There is no particular reproach conveyed in the -etymology of ‘<em>vagabond</em>.’ It meant at first simply -a wanderer. But as the habits of a wanderer -are likely to become unsteady, irregular, and reckless, -this term, in course of time, degenerated -into its present acceptation. It is now always associated -with the ideas of a loose morality and -want of sobriety.</p> - -<p>‘<em>Prejudice</em>’ is another of those words which -have gradually got rid of their favourable meaning, -and are, in most cases, used in a bad sense. -It is true, we sometimes say ‘prejudiced <em>in favour</em> -of’ some person or thing; but, without this specification, -there is always a leaning towards the bad -sense of the word. And yet the derivation shows -simply, ‘a <em>judgment</em> formed <em>before</em> sufficient reflection,’ -whether favourable or otherwise.</p> - -<p>In the same class may be placed ‘<em>animosity</em>.’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -In Latin, ‘animosus’ meant courageous, full of -soul, vigour, and ardour. Now, it is wholly confined -to the sense of a violent feeling of anger, -hatred, and resentment. In fine, it has lost all its -beauty. There is no longer the least trace of anything -noble in the word ‘animosity.’</p> - -<p>The words ‘<em>simple</em>’ and ‘<em>simplicity</em>’ still retain -something of their original charm, but it is much -to be feared that they are more frequently used -in a contemptuous sense. We speak of a ‘simple’ -fellow, as of one who is easily cheated or duped; -one wanting in shrewdness; anything but ‘<em>knowing</em>;’ -which, by the way, is another term which has -degenerated into an unfavourable acceptation.</p> - -<p>It may seem strange, but it is certainly true, -that the word ‘<em>good</em>’ which is naturally associated -with everything high, pure, and noble, both in -morals and intellect, has partaken of this general -tendency downwards, and is often used in the -sense of ‘able to pay,’ or ‘having sufficient -means to discharge’ debts. This use of the word -is found in the language as far back as Shakspere’s -time. In the ‘Merchant of Venice,’ -Shylock says to Bassanio:—‘Antonio is a <em>good</em> -man?’ and when Bassanio asks him ‘if he has -heard any imputation to the contrary,’ he replies:—‘My -meaning in saying he is a <em>good</em> man, is -to have you understand me that he is sufficient.’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -This is still the common acceptation of the word -with city men; with them, a <em>good</em> man is one who -has a large balance at his banker’s.</p> - -<p>If we look into the original meaning of the -word ‘<em>cunning</em>,’ we shall find that it was not at -first used in its present bad sense. This is one of -a numerous Saxon family, based upon the type -‘<em>kn</em>’ or ‘<em>cn</em>;’ as ‘ken,’ ‘know,’ ‘can,’ ‘king,’ -‘cunning,’ &c. We find in Psalms cxxxvii. 5:—‘If -I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand -forget her “cunning,”’ where the word is used for -skill or art. This meaning is now seldom applied, -while the word has kept its sense of deceit or -slyness.</p> - -<p>The same may be said of ‘<em>craft</em>.’ It had at first -a good as well as a bad sense. It meant ability or -dexterity, as well as fraud or artifice. Now its -bad meaning is in the ascendant. If the favourable -sense is sometimes intended, this is the exception, -not the rule.</p> - -<p>Indeed, there are many English words which, -though not taken in a positively unfavourable -sense, have yet a tendency that way—which -require qualifying, if we wish them to be understood -favourably. For instance, if we speak of -any one’s ‘<em>curiosity</em>,’ meaning that he has an inquiring -spirit, it will be necessary to explain that we -mean a well-directed, and not a prying, impertinent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -curiosity; for, without that explanation, it -will be certainly understood in the latter sense. -In fine, when there are two meanings to a word, -a right and a wrong, the evil is sure to prevail.</p> - -<p>The words ‘<em>critic</em>’ and ‘<em>criticise</em>’ are in precisely -the same condition. These words do not of -necessity imply fault-finding. A critic is simply -a judge; he may have to praise as well as to -blame; but every one knows full well that to -‘criticise’ is generally looked upon as synonymous -with ‘to censure,’ and, unless qualified, is sure to -be understood in the latter sense.</p> - -<p>In the very copious vocabulary of words which -have ‘fallen from their high estate,’ or undergone -a pernicious transformation, may be also ranged -the word ‘<em>fellow</em>.’ In some cases it retains a -certain respectability, as when we speak of the -‘Fellow of a college.’ Shakspere makes Hamlet -say of Yorick, the jester:—‘He was a “fellow” -of infinite jest,’ where the sense is certainly not -intended to be disparaging. But now-a-days ‘fellow’ -is, on the whole, not looked upon very -favourably. It is suggestive of recklessness and -disorderly conduct, and, unless qualified, is not a -very complimentary term.</p> - -<p>As to the word ‘<em>knave</em>,’ it is irrecoverably lost. -It is the lowest and most degrading term we can -apply as a reproach and an insult; and yet it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -meant originally nothing more than ‘boy,’ as -‘Knabe’ does to this day in German. By what process -the ‘boy’ became a ‘knave’ may be a speculation, -but the word has obviously lost its former -good name.</p> - -<p>This perversity of human nature in turning -words into an opposite and unfavourable meaning -may also be seen in many familiar and every-day -forms of speech. It is not uncommon to hear an -abandoned fellow spoken of as a ‘precious’ scoundrel, -or some absurdity referred to as ‘blessed’ -nonsense. This perversion is not confined to English. -The French often use the word ‘sacré’ in -a sense diametrically opposed, to ‘holy,’ a meaning -which existed in Latin, from which French is -derived. Virgil’s ‘auri “<em>sacra</em>” fames’ is properly -translated ‘<em>accursed</em> lust for gold.’ The -Latin ‘altus’ also conveyed the distinct and -opposite meanings of ‘high’ and ‘deep.’</p> - -<p>Also the English word ‘silly’ has degenerated -from ‘selig,’ which in German preserves its meaning -of ‘blessed;’ and ‘ninny’ took its origin from -the Spanish ‘niño,’ where it means simply ‘a child.’</p> - -<p>Another example of a change for the worse may -be seen in the word ‘prevent.’ The Church Service -gives us this word in the literal sense of ‘to go -before, or guide:’ ‘<em>Prevent</em> us, O Lord, in all our -doings,’ &c.; and in the Collect for the 17th Sunday<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -after Trinity:—‘We pray Thee that Thy grace -may always “<em>prevent</em>” and follow us.’ But this -is not the present sense of the word; it has now -always the meaning of ‘to stop,’ rather than to -guide onwards—the very opposite of its former -signification. This, like other words, has degenerated.</p> - - -<h3><em>Contradictory Meanings.</em></h3> - -<p>Connected with this degeneracy of words is one -very curious phenomenon, viz. that in English we -frequently meet with the same word in two distinct -meanings, directly opposed to each other. -For example, the verb ‘to let’ has generally the -meaning of ‘to give leave,’ or ‘allow.’ This is its -ordinary acceptation, but in the still common legal -phrase, ‘without let or hindrance,’ it has the very -opposite meaning.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Again, Hamlet says:—‘I’ll -make a ghost of him that “lets” me,’ i.e. him that -interferes with or hinders me, where the sense is -again the very reverse of the usual meaning.</p> - -<p>The verb ‘to cleave’ is another case of this -contradiction of meaning. ‘To cleave’ may mean<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -either ‘to adhere to closely’ or ‘to cut asunder.’<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -When we say the tongue ‘<em>cleaves</em>’ to the roof of the -mouth, it is used in the first sense; but the -directly opposite meaning is implied when people -talk of ‘<em>cleaving</em>’ wood, i.e. cutting it into parts.</p> - -<p>We may use the word ‘fast’ in two senses, -opposed to each other. It conveys the idea either -of quiet rest or of rapid motion. ‘The door was -<em>fast</em> locked,’ means that it was fixed and not to be -moved; whereas in the sentence, ‘He runs <em>fast</em>,’ it -expresses quickness of motion.</p> - -<p>To this class also belongs ‘nervous,’ which -means either <em>possessing</em>, or <em>wanting</em> nerve. When -ladies are said to be ‘nervous,’ we understand -that they are weak, timid, easily frightened; in -fine, wanting nerve. On the other hand, a ‘nervous’ -style is one marked by vigour and energy. -One use of the word represents the absence, and -the other the presence, of nerve.</p> - -<p>When Shakspere makes Hamlet say, ‘Would I -had met my <em>dearest</em> foe in heaven,’ he means, ‘my -most hated foe.’ As extremes are said to meet, so -does this word express the extremes of love and -hatred.</p> - -<p>The adjective ‘fearful’ will also illustrate this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -principle. It means either ‘affected by fear’ or -‘inspiring fear.’ The word ‘mortal’ is in the -same condition. Its usual sense is ‘subject to -death,’ but it is also used subjectively, as ‘producing -death.’ Hence the difference between a -‘mortal wound’ and a ‘mortal being.’</p> - -<p>‘To look’ may be understood in two opposed -senses. When we say, ‘a man <em>looks</em> well into his -affairs,’ the word is used in its active meaning; but -if we should say, ‘he <em>looks</em> well,’ it would mean -that he appears to others to be in good health.</p> - -<p>The word ‘mistaken’ also is equivocal in meaning. -‘I am mistaken’ may mean ‘I make a -mistake,’ or ‘Others mistake me.’ This perversity -appears in various forms. When we say -that a tradesman ‘<em>sells</em> his goods,’ the word -‘sells’ is employed in a subjective sense; but we -not unfrequently hear that his goods <em>sell</em> well, -where the same term is used objectively. In these -cases, the active form is used in a passive sense, -and not <em>vice versâ</em>. ‘A <em>walking</em>-stick’ does not -mean a stick that walks, but a stick to be walked -with. Nor is a ‘<em>drinking</em> cup’ one that drinks, -but one to be drunk out of.</p> - -<p>This difference of subjective and objective -meaning may be especially observed in that class -of adjectives which ends in ‘able’ or ‘ible;’ such -as, ‘port<em>able</em>,’ ‘pli<em>able</em>,’ ‘vis<em>ible</em>,’ ‘leg<em>ible</em>,’ &c.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -Most of these words have a passive or objective -sense. ‘Portable’ means ‘that which <em>can be carried</em>;’ -‘visible,’ ‘that which <em>can be seen</em>.’ But -some of these convey an active or subjective -meaning. For example, ‘comfortable’ does not -mean ‘<em>what can be comforted</em>;’ but ‘<em>that which -comforts</em>.’ A ‘comfortable’ house or room is one -which comforts the inmates. ‘Terrible,’ again, -does not mean ‘capable of receiving terror;’ but -able to produce that feeling in others. A ‘terrible’ -accident is one which inspires terror in the -beholders. This active or subjective meaning is, -however, the exception. Most of this class of -words are used in a passive or recipient sense.</p> - -<p>Another case in which this contrariety of meaning -may be observed is in the use of the prefix ‘<em>in</em>.’ -This prefix has, in general, the force of a negative; -as may be seen in the words ‘<em>in</em>complete,’ -‘<em>in</em>capable,’ ‘<em>in</em>delible,’ &c. But there are certain -adjectives in which it conveys a positive or -intensive meaning, i.e. the very opposite to the -negative. When we say that some one’s health -was ‘<em>invigorated</em>,’ we do not mean that it was -weakened; but, on the contrary, that it was very -much strengthened. Instead of depriving the word -of any of its meaning, the ‘<em>in</em>’ here adds force -to its positive signification. Some of this class -are, ‘<em>in</em>tense,’ ‘<em>in</em>fatuated,’ ‘<em>in</em>veterate,’ ‘<em>in</em>valuable;’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> -but most of them are used in a negative -sense.</p> - -<p>We occasionally meet with much confusion of -sense in the application of some English words. -We commonly say that a man <em>marries</em> a woman, -and also that a woman <em>marries</em> a man; in addition -to which, the clergyman <em>marries</em> them both. Perhaps, -as the word ‘marry’ is derived from the -French ‘mari,’ and the Latin ‘maritus,’ a husband—which -is from ‘mas, maris,’ a male, and -marks a difference of sex—it would be better to say, -a man ‘marries’ a woman, and a woman ‘is married -to’ a man; and the priest joins them in marriage. -The use of the good old Saxon word ‘wed’ -would obviate all these difficulties; but, unfortunately, -it is now much out of fashion, and indeed -rapidly disappearing from the language, -though the noun ‘wedding’ still holds its place.</p> - -<p>There is a tendency to contract or restrict in -meaning certain words of our language whose -etymology would allow of their being used much -more extensively. This, in many instances, seems -to be caused by that deteriorating principle before -mentioned; for, in all these cases, the favourable -meaning is ignored, and the bad one retained. -The word ‘condign’ is never used but with -‘punishment,’ though its meaning might be reasonably -applied to honours, merits, or rewards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -‘Condign’ rewards would be rewards worthy of -the receiver’s actions. ‘Condign’ honours would -mean honours appropriate to certain merits, &c.</p> - -<p>The adjective ‘inveterate’ is in precisely the -same predicament. It is never applied to a good -feeling, but always to some bad passion. We -commonly hear of inveterate resentment, malice, -hatred, animosity, &c.; but we never meet with -inveterate love, kindness, affection, or attachment. -And yet why not? The true meaning of -‘inveterate’ is <em>what has gained strength by age</em>; -and it is clear that this quality would apply reasonably -enough to such feelings as love, kindness, -or affection. An anecdote is told of Lord Byron, -that in a letter to one of his friends, he subscribed -himself, ‘Yours inveterately, <span class="smcap">Byron</span>.’ This was, of -course, done in a playful spirit; but the word was -perfectly well applied; and it is a pity that this -example had not been generally followed.</p> - -<p>In this class we may place the words ‘animadvert’ -and ‘insinuate.’ The first of these signifies -literally to notice or observe (animum vertere ad), -to turn the mind to; but there is always coupled -with it the idea of censure or punishment. But -surely we may observe in order to praise as well -as to blame!</p> - -<p>Again, ‘to insinuate’ is generally connected with -a crooked procedure of the mind. When people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -‘insinuate,’ the result looked for is rather evil -than good. It is opposed to a straightforward -mode of action.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, certain French words have -been admitted into English in one sense, which -many writers show a disposition to extend. But -this should be checked, and these words should be -confined to their legitimate meaning. For example: -the French verb ‘demander’ is properly -translated into English by ‘to ask.’ In English, -‘<em>to demand</em>’ should be only used in the sense of -to ask as a right, in a case where justice must be -satisfied, and should not be applied to general -cases. The French say, ‘demander pardon,’ but -we English ‘beg’—we do not ‘demand’—pardon.</p> - -<p>‘To <em>assist</em>,’ meaning to do a service, is good -English; but in the sense of ‘to be present,’ it is -French, and not English. We may ‘assist’ a -man in his work, or by giving him advice, &c., -but we cannot properly write that some one -‘assisted’ at a supper, if we mean that he was one -of the guests.</p> - -<p>To ‘<em>arrive</em>’ is another of the French words -adopted in English whose sense must not be -stretched beyond its legitimate bounds. When -it signifies ‘to come to,’ it is properly applied; -but in the sense of ‘to happen,’ it is not English. -We may say, ‘Our friends are arrived;’ but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -we must not ask, ‘What has arrived?’ if we -mean ‘What has happened?’</p> - -<p>The verb ‘to <em>accord</em>’ is constantly used for ‘to -give,’ or ‘to grant,’ probably because it has two -syllables instead of one. ‘To accord with’ is properly -used in the sense of ‘to agree,’ or ‘to suit,’ -as:—‘This arrangement “accords” with my -views;’ but to say that ‘he “accorded” his friends -the use of his library,’ would be a wrong application -of the word. In the phrase, ‘according with,’ -the word is a participle; in ‘according to,’ it is a -preposition.</p> - -<p>The mistake made in the word ‘<em>allude</em>’ is in -using it for ‘to mention’ or ‘to state.’ ‘To allude’ -properly means merely to hint at, or suggest; and -it should never be used in the other sense. This, -again, seems to arise from the idea that it is not so -common a word as the others, and it is therefore -adopted—as if the object of writing should be to -confuse and puzzle the reader!</p> - -<p>Now and then, however, we meet with words -which retain their first favourable acceptation, and -have not been degraded to a lower sense. Some -few, indeed, have been ennobled, i.e. raised from -a comparatively humble meaning to a higher dignity. -In the first of these classes we may place -the verb ‘<em>to reward</em>;’ and we are labouring under -a certain difficulty in consequence of its being confined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -to the one meaning. We very much want a -word which would signify a just return for ill -deeds; for, though we use the noun ‘retribution’ -for this purpose, the verb ‘to retribute’ is not in -common use. The verb ‘to reward’ is always -used in a favourable sense. We can hardly say -that ‘a felon was <em>rewarded</em> for his crimes.’ We -speak of the ‘rewards’ of goodness or virtue, but -not of the ‘rewards’ of wickedness or immorality.</p> - -<p>Of those words which have been elevated in -meaning, we may mention ‘angel,’ ‘martyr,’ and -‘Paradise;’ all three referring to religious matters. -These are all of Greek origin. ‘Angel,’ from -ἄγγελος, was at first merely ‘a messenger;’ but it -is now used only in a higher sense—‘a messenger -of God.’ We certainly should not think of calling -an errand-boy ‘an angel.’ ‘Martyr,’ from μάρτυρος, -a witness, is now applied only to one who by his -death bore witness to the truth of Christianity. -A witness who gives evidence in a trial cannot -now be called a martyr. Again, ‘Paradise,’ from -παράδεισος, has been raised from the ordinary sense -of ‘garden’ to that of Garden of Eden, or place -of bliss. Cases of this sort are, however, comparatively -rare.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER V.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">PLAY UPON WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">There are, in all languages, certain words which -may be called equivocal. Such are either those -which are spelled exactly alike and have different -meanings, or are spelled differently and yet have -the same pronunciation. In most of these cases -the two terms have no necessary connection with -each other, though it has probably puzzled many -a reader that the same word should have such -a variety of meanings so distinctly different -from each other. This phenomenon may be accounted -for in English by the condition of our -language, especially its mixed nature. English -draws words from a multiplicity of sources. It -frequently happens that several distinctly different -forms of foreign words fall into one and the same -form when incorporated into English, each of them -retaining its original signification. This may explain -how the word ‘<em>light</em>’ may mean something<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -that burns bright, and may also have the sense of -‘not heavy.’ In the first case, it is derived from -the Anglo-Saxon verb ‘leohtan;’ but, as an adjective, -it comes from the Saxon ‘liht,’ whence also -is derived the verb ‘to light’ (or ‘to alight’), i.e. -to come down gently. The verb ‘to lighten,’ in -an electrical sense, is connected with the first -meaning; but ‘to lighten,’ meaning to make less -heavy, is from the second.</p> - -<p>But it sometimes happens that the same root -will produce two different meanings; and of this -the word ‘<em>court</em>’ will furnish an example. In the -Middle Ages, the yard or court attached to every -castle (so called from the French ‘<em>cour</em>’) was used -for two purposes: 1st, as a place for games or -amusements; and, 2nd, where criminals were tried -and sentenced. This is why a king’s palace is still -called ‘a Court.’ We say ‘the Court of St. James,’ -or ‘the Court of the Tuileries,’ &c.; and this is -also why buildings where law proceedings are -carried on have the same name; as in ‘the Court -of Queen’s Bench,’ ‘the Court of Exchequer,’ &c.</p> - -<p>The adjective ‘fine,’ in the sense of handsome or -beautiful, is from the Saxon ‘fein,’ where it had -the same meaning; but, in the expression ‘in fine,’ -it is from the French ‘enfin,’ and the Latin ‘finis,’ -an end or boundary. Again, the noun ‘fine,’ -meaning a sum of money paid as a compensation for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -a misdemeanour, is from the same source, ‘finis;’ -for here it means the limit or <em>end</em> to which the law -con<em>fin</em>es the magistrate in determining that sum—‘<em>Not -more</em> than forty shillings,’ &c.</p> - -<p>Another of this class is the noun ‘<em>sack</em>.’ In its -ordinary acceptation it means a large bag, and is -derived from the Anglo-Saxon ‘sacc’ and the Latin -‘saccus.’ Hence comes the verb. To ‘sack’ a city -is to carry off the plunder in a ‘bag.’ But another -meaning of this word is found in ‘sack,’ a sort of -wine. Here it is a corruption of the French ‘sec’ -(originally the Latin ‘siccus’), dry. ‘Un vin -sec’ is what we should call ‘a <em>dry</em> wine.’</p> - -<p>These double meanings have probably in all -nations given rise to various perversions and corruptions -of the language. One of these—viz. punning—has -been particularly prominent in modern -times, and has, in some degree, infected the great -majority of writers. Though the nations of antiquity -seem to have been comparatively free from -this literary vice, there are not wanting examples -of it in the ancient classics. There is a collection -of so-called jokes, or silly sayings of pedants, attributed -to Hierocles, though it is now believed to -have been the work of another hand. Most of -these would be now considered intolerably stupid; -and the only one among them that has the least -approach to wit is the story of the father who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -writes to his son urging him to study hard, as he -would have to <em>live</em> by his books. To this the son -replies, that he had been already <em>living</em> by his -books for some time, as he had been obliged to -sell them. In Latin a softened expression for ‘a -thief’ was ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">homo trium literarum,</span>’ a man of three -letters (f. u. r.); and Disraeli the elder mentions -in his ‘Curiosities of Literature’ two puns attributed -to Cicero.</p> - -<p>But the true source of modern punning must be -looked for in Italy, where it took rise after the -revival of learning in the fifteenth century, and -whence this practice afterwards spread into all -the languages of Europe. In English, the vice of -playing on words infected all the writers of the -Elizabethan period. Puns are sown broadcast in -Shakspere’s plays—even Milton is by no means -free from them; and it is hardly necessary to -state that they form a prominent feature in the -drama and light literature of the present day.</p> - -<p>Addison defines a pun, in the sixty-first number -of the ‘Spectator,’ as ‘a conceit arising from the use -of two words that agree in the sound, but differ in -the sense.’ Now the punster deals in these equivocal -words; and his whole art consists in using -them in one sense where we should naturally -expect another. There are in English several -classes of equivocal words:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> - -<p>I. Where the same form has several meanings, -as 1. ‘Fair’ (beautiful, or light-coloured). 2. -‘Fair’ (just, or equitable). 3. ‘Fair’ (a market-place).</p> - -<p>II. Where two words of different meaning are -pronounced alike, though spelled differently; as -‘son’ and ‘sun,’ ‘some’ and ‘sum,’ ‘sole’ and -‘soul,’ ‘peer’ and ‘pier,’ &c.</p> - -<p>III. A third class is of those which are spelled -differently, and pronounced nearly, though not -quite, alike; such as ‘baron’ and ‘barren,’ -‘season’ and ‘seizing,’ &c.; though these more -frequently produce Malaprops than puns.</p> - -<p>IV. There are also many cases in which a phrase -or idiom, consisting of two or three words, may be -used equivocally, and these may be fairly considered -as puns.</p> - -<p>Of the first class the following are specimens:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-containerx"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse"><span class="fs120">1.</span> <span class="pad4">... beauty’s purchased by the <em>weight</em>,</span></p> -<p class="verse6">Which therein works a miracle in nature,</p> -<p class="verse6">Making them <em>lightest</em> that wear most of it.</p> -<p class="verse12"><cite>Merchant of Venice</cite>, Act iii. sc. 2.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="p1" /> -<div class="poetry-containerx"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse"><span class="fs120">2.</span> <span class="pad2">At one light <em>bound</em> high overleaped all <em>bound</em>.</span></p> -<p class="verse16"><cite>Paradise Lost</cite>, Book iv.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>3. Dean Ramsay tells a story of a Scotch -minister who, having to preach at some distance -from home, was caught in a shower of rain. On -arriving at his kirk, he got a friend to rub down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -his clothes, anxiously asking if he thought he was -<em>dry</em> enough. The latter replied, ‘Never fear; -you’ll be <em>dry</em> enough when you get into the -pulpit!’</p> - -<p>Under the second division may be placed such -puns as the following:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-containerx"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse"><span class="fs120">1.</span> <span class="pad2">Not on thy <em>sole</em>, but on thy <em>soul</em>, harsh Jew,</span></p> -<p class="verse6">Thou makest thy knife keen.</p> -<p class="verse12"><cite>Merchant of Venice</cite>, Act iv. sc. 1.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="p1" /> -<div class="poetry-containerx"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse"><span class="fs120">2.</span> <span class="pad10">I should be still</span></p> -<p class="verse6"><em>Peering</em> in maps for ports, and <em>piers</em>, and roads.</p> -<p class="verse16"><cite>Ib.</cite>, Act i. sc. 1.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>3. A story being told in the presence of Theodore -Hook of an author who invited his publisher -to dinner, and treated him to a great variety of -wines—‘Then,’ said the wit, ‘I suppose he poured -his wine-<em>cellar</em> into his book-<em>seller</em>.’</p> - -<div class="poetry-containerx"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse"><span class="fs120">4.</span> <span class="pad6">They went and <em>told</em> the sexton,</span></p> -<p class="verse10">And the sexton <em>tolled</em> the bell.—<cite>Hood.</cite></p> -</div></div> - -<p class="p1" /> -<div class="poetry-containerx"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse"><span class="fs120">5.</span> <span class="pad14">I find</span></p> -<p class="verse6">The shadow of myself formed in her eye,</p> -<p class="verse6">Which, being but the shadow of your <em>son</em>,</p> -<p class="verse6">Becomes a <em>sun</em>, and makes your <em>son</em> a shadow.</p> -<p class="verse16"><cite>King John</cite>, Act i. sc. 2.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>To the third class belong such cases as:—</p> - -<p>1. That of the lady who said that her doctor -had put her on a new <em>regiment</em>, and allowed her -to drink nothing but water. ‘Ah!’ replied some -one present, ‘that must have been the <em>coldstream</em>.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> - -<p>2. Under this head also come the sayings of -Mrs. Malaprop in the ‘Rivals,’ who talks of the -‘<em>contagious</em>’ (for contiguous) countries; and who -recommends a nice <em>derangement</em> (arrangement) of -<em>epitaphs</em> (epithets), &c.</p> - -<p>3. It is a positive vulgarism to confound ‘<em>genus</em>’ -(a class, or sort) with ‘<em>genius</em>’ (a high intellectual -power). This is exactly what Goldsmith -meant, when he put into Tony Lumpkin’s -mouth:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">Good liquor, I’ll stoutly maintain,</p> -<p class="verse">Gives <em>genus</em> a better discerning.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In the fourth class may be placed punning by -the use of an equivocal phrase.</p> - -<p>1. It was this form of the pun that Sydney -Smith used when, hearing of a boy who always -read the word ‘patriarchs’ as ‘partridges,’ declared -it was too bad <em>to make game</em> of them in -that way.</p> - -<p>2. In this class we may also place Douglas -Jerrold’s well-known reply to a friend who told -him he was afraid he was going to have a <em>brain</em> -fever. ‘Never fear, my friend,’ said the wit, -‘<em>there is no foundation for the fact</em>.’</p> - -<p>3. The story related of Sydney Smith, who recommended -the bishops <em>laying their heads together</em> -to make a wooden pavement, may be placed in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -same category, and here the wit is quite as pungent -as in the other cases.</p> - -<div class="poetry-containerx"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse"><span class="fs120">4.</span> <span class="pad2">For if the Jew do but cut deep enough,</span></p> -<p class="verse6">I’ll pay it instantly <em>with all my heart</em>.</p> -<p class="verse16"><cite>Merchant of Venice.</cite></p> -</div></div> - -<p>The instances of a play on words we meet with -in Milton are not so much puns, properly so called, -as what the Italians called conceits (concetti). -This poet was deeply imbued with the spirit of -Italian literature; and this form of it often appears -in his verses. The following passages are -examples:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-containerx"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse"><span class="fs120">1.</span> <span class="pad4"><em>Highly</em> they raged against the <em>Highest</em>.</span></p> -<p class="lhtm0"> </p> -<p class="verse"><span class="fs120">2.</span> <span class="pad2"><em>Surer</em> to <em>prosper</em> than <em>prosperity</em> could have <em>assured</em> us.</span></p> -</div></div> - -<p>3. The same form appears occasionally in other -poets. Cowper in his ‘Conversation’ has</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">His only <em>pleasure</em> is to be <em>displeased</em>.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>One form of the pun which is just now not -so frequently used is the following:—</p> - -<p>1. ‘There’s <em>something in that</em>,’ as the cat said -when she peeped into the milk-jug.</p> - -<p>2. ‘I’m <em>transported</em> to see you,’ as the convict -said to the kangaroo.</p> - -<p>3. ‘<em>You are very pressing</em>,’ as the nut said to the -nutcracker, &c.</p> - -<p>Punning has been generally considered a low -form of wit; and some have taken so unfavourable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -a view of it as even to declare that ‘he who will -make a pun will pick a pocket.’ But all this is -hardly just; for it may be easily shown that the -highest minds have not hesitated to adopt it, and -that in some writers it is a prominent feature of -their style. It is true that critics have frequently -condemned punning as a flaw in Shakspere’s -style and manner; but it should be remembered -that it was one form of that Italian tone which -coloured all the English literature of the Elizabethan -age, and from which no writer of those -times was wholly free. We surely cannot utterly -condemn any form of expression adopted by so -great a master; and though it may be admitted -that an immoderate use of puns should not usurp -the place of the higher and more important qualities -of style, there seems no good reason why they -should be wholly excluded.</p> - -<p>The late poet Thomas Hood was so remarkable -for the way in which he used puns, that they -formed an essential characteristic of his style. -Though looked upon by the purist as a contemptible -figure in literature, the pun proved in his -hands a source of genuine humour, and sometimes -of deepest pathos. It is a received axiom, -that a keen perception of the ridiculous is a conclusive -proof of real genius; and this opinion -certainly holds good in his case. In him it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -perfectly compatible with the deepest sympathy -and intensity of feeling. In every form of wit -the effect consists chiefly in the novelty of the -application presented by the figure. This always -produces surprise—a naturally pleasing sensation, -especially when caused by a ludicrous or grotesque -image. But, in some instances, a pun suggests a -far higher tone of thought than the mere ludicrous: -it may be connected with or produce very -sober reflections, or even occasionally lead the -mind to a deeply philosophical speculation:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> -<p class="verse4">... ridentem dicere verum</p> -<p class="verse">Quid vetat?</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In the popular conundrum which has been attributed -to Burke, ‘What is (m)ajest(y), when deprived -of its externals, but a jest?’ this effect may -be observed, as well as in many of Hood’s puns.</p> - -<p>In the literary history of all nations, we find -languages affected by various peculiarities. Of -these several, more or less connected with punning, -have, at different periods, prevailed in English, -viz. Alliteration, Rhyme, Euphuism, &c. Alliteration -was the principle on which the Anglo-Saxon -poets founded their versification. This has been -called ‘head-rhyme,’ as distinguished from end-rhyme, -which is a more modern practice. The lines -were arranged in couplets grouped, not according -to the sense, but to the alliteration, which required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -that <em>two</em> accented syllables in the first, and <em>one</em> in -the second line, should begin with the same letter -when a consonant; and a different, if possible, -when a vowel. These three initial letters were -called ‘rhyming letters,’ the one in the second -line being the <em>chief</em> letter, according to which the -two in the first line of the couplet must be regulated. -These two, though they come first, are -therefore called ‘<em>sub</em>-letters.’ In a couplet, there -should not be more than three accented syllables -beginning with this letter; and the <em>chief</em> letter -must begin the first accented syllable or word of -the second line.</p> - -<p>Finally: in very short verse, especially when -the rhyming letters are double, such as <em>sc</em>, <em>st</em>, <em>sw</em>, -&c., there need be but one <em>sub</em>-letter. This is the -general doctrine of alliteration, invariably adopted -in Saxon poetry.</p> - -<p>The following specimen of alliteration, extracted -from Rask’s Anglo-Saxon Grammar, may serve to -illustrate this explanation:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">In <em>Caines</em> <em>c</em>ynne</td><td class="tdl">In Cain’s kin</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Þone <em>c</em>wealm gewrǽc</td><td class="tdl">The murder avenged</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>É</em>ce Drihten</td><td class="tdl">The Eternal Lord</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Þaes þe he <em>A</em>bel slóg</td><td class="tdl">Because he slew Abel</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Ne ge<em>f</em>eah he þære <em>f</em>aehde</td><td class="tdl">He got no joy from his hatred</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Ac he hine <em>f</em>eor forwráec</td><td class="tdl">But he (the Creator) drove him</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>M</em>etod for þý <em>m</em>áne</td><td class="tdl">For that misdeed</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>M</em>ancynne fram</td><td class="tdl">Far from the human race</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> - -<p>But though no longer considered as an essential -element in English verse, alliteration was often -employed by all our poets from Chaucer to -Spenser, though not according to the strict rules -above laid down. Spenser used it, in some cases, -with much effect, as shown in the following lines -from the ‘Faëry Queen’:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">In <em>w</em>ilderness and <em>w</em>asteful deserts strayed.</p> -<p class="verse">Through <em>w</em>oods and <em>w</em>asteness <em>w</em>ild him daily sought.</p> -<p class="verse"><em>F</em>rom her <em>f</em>air head her <em>f</em>illet she undight.</p> -<p class="verse">And with the sight amazed, <em>f</em>orgot his <em>f</em>urious <em>f</em>orce.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>There is more alliteration in our modern poets -than most readers suspect; and though an immoderate -use of this figure makes it degenerate -into a mere fantastic puerility, many examples -may be quoted where it adds a wonderful force to -the expression. For example, in the following -lines from Macbeth:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">That shall, to all our days and nights to come,</p> -<p class="verse">Give <em>s</em>olely <em>s</em>overeign <em>s</em>way and masterdom.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The grandeur of the effect is here powerfully -assisted by the repetition of the letter <em>s</em>.</p> - -<p>But the fondness of certain rhymesters for this -figure was cleverly caricatured by the brothers -Horace and James Smith, in their well-known -‘Rejected Addresses’:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">Lo! from <em>L</em>emnos <em>l</em>imping <em>l</em>ame<em>l</em>y,</p> -<p class="verse"><em>L</em>ags the <em>l</em>ow<em>l</em>y <em>L</em>ord of Fire!</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> - -<p>Rhyme may be almost considered a modern invention; -it is seldom met with in Greek or Latin, -and was unknown to the Saxon poets. This repetition -of the same sound at the ends of verses was -introduced into England by the Anglo-Norman -ballad-writers at, or soon after, the Conquest. -Since that time it has been regarded as one of the -greatest embellishments of poetical expression, -and it is now used in almost every form of poetry -except blank verse. There is no doubt that it -deserves this reputation, though here, as in other -decorations, much of the effect depends on the -judgment and taste with which it is applied. -Many a beautiful thought has been probably sacrificed -to the rigid requirements of rhyme; at the -same time many so-called rhymes are so unlike -each other in sound as scarcely to deserve the -name.</p> - -<p>The effect of rhyme is materially heightened -when there is a real or fancied connection in -meaning between the rhyming words; such as -‘wine’ and ‘divine,’ ‘life’ and ‘strife,’ ‘fish’ and -‘dish,’ ‘lone’ and ‘moan,’ &c. It is also curious -to observe how often familiar proverbs are formed -upon this principle. We have ‘Birds of a <em>feather</em> -flock <em>together</em>;’ ‘’Twixt cup and <em>lip</em> there’s many -a <em>slip</em>;’ ‘Fast <em>bind</em>, fast <em>find</em>;’ ‘No <em>pains</em>, no <em>gains</em>;’ -&c. And this is not confined to English proverbs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -In the same way the Italians have, ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Chi va pi<em>ano</em>, -va <em>sano</em>, e va lont<em>ano</em>;</span>’ and the Germans, ‘<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Morgenst<em>und</em> -hat Gold im <em>Mund</em>;</span>’ ‘<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ueber <em>Nacht</em> ist -wohl ge<em>dacht</em>;</span>’ ‘<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wer <em>neidet</em>, der <em>leidet</em>,</span>’ &c. The -object in these cases was, probably, to produce a -pleasing effect, and, at the same time, to assist the -learner’s memory.</p> - -<p>Another proof of the popularity of rhyme may -be found in many double terms which are evidently -formed on that principle. These, though -not often met with in the higher styles of composition, -are legitimate words in every-day and -familiar conversation, and have every right to be -so considered. Such are ‘helter-skelter,’ ‘namby-pamby,’ -‘hoity-toity,’ ‘roly-poly,’ ‘harum-scarum,’ -‘willy-nilly,’ ‘nolens-volens,’ ‘hugger-mugger,’ -and a host of others.</p> - -<p>A particularly ludicrous effect is frequently -presented by double rhymes, which properly -belong to the comic or burlesque in verse. Here -there is often as much wit and humour in the -rhyme as in the sentiment; and here, also, the -rhyme frequently approaches to the nature of -a pun.</p> - -<p>Butler was distinguished for his double rhymes, -and in his ‘Hudibras’ he displays a positive -genius for comic rhyme, some specimens of which -follow:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">As if religion were in<em>tended</em></p> -<p class="verse">For nothing else than to be <em>mended</em>.</p> -<div class="stanza"> -<p class="verse">Madam, I do, as is my <em>duty</em>,</p> -<p class="verse">Honour the shadow of your <em>shoe tie</em>.</p> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<p class="verse">An ignis fatuus that be<em>witches</em>,</p> -<p class="verse">And leads men into pools and <em>ditches</em>.</p> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<p class="verse">He was, in logic, a great <em>critic</em>,</p> -<p class="verse">Profoundly skilled in ana<em>lytic</em>.</p> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<p class="verse">Besides, he was a shrewd phi<em>losopher</em>,</p> -<p class="verse">And had read every text and <em>gloss over</em>.</p> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<p class="verse">Compound for sins they are in<em>clined to</em>,</p> -<p class="verse">By damning those they have no <em>mind to</em>.</p> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Another form of comic verse is where the -rhyme is made by dividing the word, being formed -by a similar sound in the middle syllables; as for -example:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">Thou wast the daughter of my <em>Tu</em>-</p> -<p class="verse">tor, Law professor in the <em>U</em>-</p> -<p class="verse">niversity of Göttingen.—<cite>Canning.</cite></p> -<p class="lhtm0"> </p> -<p class="verse">At first I caught hold of the <em>wing</em>,</p> -<p class="verse">And kept away; but Mr. <em>Thing</em>-</p> -<p class="verse">umbob, the prompter man,</p> -<p class="verse">Gave with his hand my chaise a shove,</p> -<p class="verse">And said, ‘Go on, my pretty love,</p> -<p class="verse">Speak to ’em, little Nan.’—<cite>Smith.</cite></p> -</div></div> - -<p>John Lyly, a dramatist and poet of the Elizabethan -period, is said to have originated a singular -affectation of language known as ‘Euphuism.’ -He was the author of a romance entitled -‘Euphues;’ in which the ‘pure and reformed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -English,’ as he called it, first appeared. It -became the fashion with the beauties of the court -to ‘parley Euphuism,’ which was soon considered -a necessary accomplishment for every one who -had any pretensions to fashion or good taste. -Euphuism was made up of almost every sort of -folly of language combined, a mincing prettiness, -alliteration, punning, pedantry, elaborate nonsense, -and far-fetched expression; in fine, of almost -every conceivable form of puerility. This was a -mere passing absurdity, and the only remains of it -still left in the language are said to be certain new -modes of pronunciation then first introduced.</p> - -<p>Language has been, like most other things, subject -to many and various abuses. Anagrams, -chronograms, acrostics, &c., have, each and all, -‘fretted their hour upon the stage, and now are -heard no more.’ But the pun seems likely to -maintain its place, both in conversation and in -written composition. Let us not be misunderstood. -It is not the practice, but the abuse of it, that is to -be condemned. We are strongly of opinion that -there can be no greater pest to society than the -inveterate and professional punster—a man who -sets traps for you, who lies in wait for every -phrase you utter, to twist and turn it into a meaning -of his own, and who is continually stopping -the natural flow of discourse, and bringing it to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -some ‘lame and impotent conclusion.’ But, as we -have endeavoured to show, the pun, when ‘telling’ -and well-applied, is as legitimate a form of wit as -any other, and quite as conducive to good feeling -and good fellowship.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VI.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">In the order of nature, names would be first given -to concrete objects and their qualities, and to -visible acts, i.e. to those things and acts which are -made known to us through the senses. But whatever -may have been the principle which determined -the original form of these words, it is well -known that, in all languages, the same vocabulary -was afterwards used in a mental or secondary -sense. No new words were invented for the expression -of thought or feeling, but all the acts of -the mind and soul were represented by terms originally -applied in a concrete sense. In a word, the -abstract was derived from the concrete. The original -concrete sense of the verb ‘to see’ was, to take -in knowledge through the eye, but the same word -was afterwards used abstractly. ‘I see’ may signify -‘I have the proper use of my eyes;’ and may -also mean, ‘I understand or perceive with my<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -mind.’ A blind man cannot see in the first of -these senses, though he may in the second. To -hear, to taste, to touch, &c., have all these double -meanings. There may be some words not found -in a secondary sense; but, on the other hand, a -very large number have lost their original physical -signification.</p> - -<p>In English, most of the words which express -operations of the mind are drawn from a Latin, -French, or Greek source. These were all originally -used in a concrete sense, which in English is -now lost.</p> - -<p>Horace, in his well-known ninth Satire, has:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> -<p class="verse"><em>Occurrit</em> quidam notus mihi nomine tantum.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">‘Occurrit’ cannot be here translated by ‘occurred.’ -The word, in English, has lost its concrete, and -retains only its abstract, meaning. With us, ideas -or thoughts may ‘occur’ to the mind, but we -cannot properly speak of a friend ‘occurring’ (i.e. -meeting) us in the street.</p> - -<p>One essential difference between ancient and -modern languages consists in the relation between -abstract, or mental, and concrete expression. The -languages of antiquity possessed a much nearer -relation to the original, primary sense of words. -In them, all the abstract had a much closer affinity -with the concrete terms from which they were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -derived. The Latin word ‘spiritus’ had not only its -abstract meaning of ‘cheerfulness,’ or ‘courage,’ -but also its concrete sense of ‘breath;’ whereas, -in modern languages the word has only an abstract -sense, and it is only by a knowledge of its etymology -that we can get at its material origin. The -result of this loss is most complete when a modern, -formed upon an ancient language, is no longer -in direct communication with the roots of the -words used. In this respect ancient languages -possessed a charm for which nothing can compensate, -and, when in the hands of a great poet, they -produced most wonderful effects. But the condition -of modern languages is, in this respect, very -different. Here, most of the abstract words, -being deprived of their original concrete meaning, -are, to the general reader, mere conventional -signs, wholly unable to produce that vividly picturesque -effect found in the ancient tongues. And -herein chiefly lies the value of a knowledge of derivation. -For, although a word may now have -lost its original meaning, it is of the greatest importance -that its primary signification should be -known, in order to arrive at a clear knowledge of -its exact and accurate modern application. We -commonly speak of a man ‘<em>applying</em>’ himself to -his work. To the general reader this conveys the -idea of giving his mind or attention to what he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -is about; but to those who are ignorant of the -etymology of the word ‘applying,’ the picture of -the man <em>bending</em> his body to his task is wholly lost. -And not only as regards the true meaning of the -single word, but as concerns the difference in signification -between terms apparently synonymous, -this knowledge will be of the greatest importance. -The difference in meaning between ‘to instil’ and -‘to inculcate’ is to be understood only by a knowledge -of their etymology. To the ordinary reader -both these words have the general meaning of ‘to -teach,’ or instruct; but it is only he who knows -the meaning of their roots who will understand -that nice difference in the mode of teaching which -they respectively describe. The process of ‘dropping -in’ knowledge by degrees, conveyed by the -former word, paints a very different picture from -the ‘stamping in’ of the latter.</p> - -<p>Some of our poets occasionally use abstract, -especially Latin words, in a primary meaning, -which they, properly, no longer possess. We may -look upon this practice as a licence which may be -conceded to poets; but we should never adopt it -in common conversation, or in ordinary writing. -Milton is especially addicted to this practice. -When he speaks of ‘Heaven’s <em>afflicting</em> thunder,’ -he uses the word ‘afflicting’ in its original primary -sense of striking down bodily. The reprobate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -angels are thus represented as being hurled -down from heaven. But this is not the present -use of the verb ‘to afflict.’ It means to prostrate -as to mind or feeling, and is never used in a -concrete sense. If one man should meet another -in anger and <em>knock</em> him <em>down</em>, we should not call -that <em>afflicting</em> him; and yet this is the sense in -which the word is employed in the passage referred -to. In the same poet we meet with ‘horrent’ -(for bristling) arms; ‘savage’ (for woody) hill; -and ‘amiable’ (for lovely) fruit, &c. Thomson, -in his poem of ‘Winter,’ has, in like manner, -‘With dangling ice all <em>horrid</em>’—the last word, in -the sense of rough or bristling. Modern usage -does not sanction this application of such words in -ordinary discourse or writing.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VII.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">GRAND WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">The almost universal mania for violent excitement -and craving after novelty, which is so marked a -feature of modern society, is, perhaps, in no instance -more offensively obtrusive than in the style -of most of our present periodical writers. It seems -impossible for them to call things by their proper -names. They reject all simple words, and are continually -soaring above their subject into the regions -of the sublime and magnificent. As long as a word -is out-of-the-way, unusual, or far-fetched, it is -apparently of little or no consequence to them -whether it be applicable to the case or not. The -commonest and most familiar objects are thus raised -to a dignity quite out of keeping with their real -nature; and here, if anywhere, is verified the saying -that ‘from the sublime to the ridiculous there is but -one step.’ Everything is sacrificed to a false glare -and glitter of language, and sense is always made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -subservient to sound. Those beautiful English -words ‘boys’ and ‘girls’ are almost banished from -our modern vocabulary. ‘Boys’ and ‘girls’ are -transformed into ‘juveniles;’ ‘workmen’ have become -‘operatives;’ and ‘people’ in general are now -‘individuals.’ These ‘individuals,’ be it observed, -are never ‘dressed,’ but always ‘attired’ or -‘arrayed;’ they are never ‘angry,’ but often -‘irate;’ they never ‘go into a shop,’ though they -sometimes condescend to ‘enter an emporium,’ or -perhaps a ‘depôt;’ and when they return home, they -never ‘take off their things,’ but ‘divest themselves -of their habiliments.’ Another practice with these -writers is to substitute for single terms milk-and-water -definitions of them. With them, a ‘fire’ -is always ‘the devouring element;’ a ‘man’ is -‘an individual of the masculine gender;’ a ‘footman’ -is a ‘superb menial;’ and a ‘schoolmaster’ -is the ‘principal of a collegiate institution.’</p> - -<p>This style originated in the penny-a-line system. -It abounds in our second and third-rate -magazines, and, with some few honourable exceptions, -has infected all the periodical and light literature -of the day. The word ‘individual’ has the -merit of possessing five syllables; whereas ‘man,’ -or ‘person,’ has but one or two, and for this reason -alone is rejected for the other word. But if Dean -Swift’s definition of a good style—‘Proper words<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -in their proper places’—is to have any weight as -an authority, it is certainly here not carried into -practice. These high-flown terms are very well in -their proper places, but they are not adapted to -the cases to which they are applied, and therefore -they are neither proper words nor in their proper -places. The worst of this practice is, that it deprives -all the sound sterling part of the English -language of its peculiar force and significance. -Words that are seldom used will at length inevitably -disappear, and thus, if not checked in time, -this extravagance of expression will do an irreparable -injury to the English language.</p> - -<p>Another habit of these periodical writers is to -sacrifice the idiom of the language to their love -for some particular word. Two verbs, of which -they seem especially fond, are, ‘to commence’ and -‘to essay.’ These are French words, and are -always preferred before their corresponding Saxon -synonyms, ‘to begin’ and ‘to try.’ But in their -liking for them, these writers are often betrayed -into an incorrect phraseology. To ‘begin’ may be -followed by an infinitive or a gerund. We may -say, ‘he began to read,’ or ‘he began reading.’ -Not so may the verbs ‘to commence’ and ‘to essay’ -be used. These do not, correctly, take an infinitive -as an object. We cannot say, properly, ‘<em>he commenced -to read</em>,’ or ‘<em>he essayed to do well</em>.’ In such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -cases we must use ‘begin’ and ‘try.’ But the -latter are not sufficiently elevated to suit the views -of the penny-a-liners, and are therefore rejected.</p> - -<p>Another of these grand words is ‘intoxicated.’ -In the newspapers, for once that we read of a man -being drunk, we find at least nine or ten times -that he is intoxicated. The word ‘drunk’ is unfortunately -too often required in our police reports; -but the reporters are either too squeamish, or too -much inclined to the long word, to hesitate in their -choice. ‘Intoxicated’ has five syllables; ‘drunk’ -has but one: so that the odds in favour of the -former are literally as five to one. But even then -they are not satisfied: they add to it ‘<em>with drink</em>,’ -thus putting two more syllables to the phrase. -We generally read that ‘the prisoner was intoxicated -with drink.’ This form of expression -must occupy at least a line of the printed matter, -and is therefore worth to the writer—exactly one -penny!</p> - -<p>The use of the verb ‘replace,’ as frequently -seen in the writings of the periodical press, is open -to objection. When anyone (we will suppose) -quits his office, they write that he was ‘replaced’ -by another, meaning that some one else filled his -place. But the verb ‘to replace’ has not, correctly, -this meaning. It signifies ‘to put back in its place.’ -If I take a book from the library shelf, and, after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -reading it, put it back again, I <em>replace</em> it; but I -cannot properly say that one man ‘<em>re</em>placed’ another -in his office, if I mean that he took his place. -There seems to be here a confusion between the -two French verbs, ‘remplacer’ and ‘replacer.’ -The first means ‘to put <em>in</em> the place of another,’ -<em>i.e.</em> to furnish a substitute; and the second is, ‘to -put back in its own place.’</p> - -<p>Another common fault is the use of the word -‘abstractedly’ for ‘abstractly.’ A man speaks -‘abstractedly’ when his mind is drawn away from -the subject before him; here, his manner is abstracted. -But a man speaks ‘abstractly’ when he -treats of the ideal and not the real—the abstract, -and not the concrete. Here his subject is abstract. -Again: ‘to choose,’ or ‘to decide,’ is much too -common a term to suit the taste of these modern -article-writers. According to them, people never -‘choose:’ they always <em>elect</em>. We continually read, -for example, that some one ‘elected’ to go abroad, -rather than that he decided or determined on -taking that step.</p> - -<p>Three words of suspicious length and somewhat -mysterious meaning have been lately added to our -vocabulary, viz. ‘rehabilitate,’ ‘solidarity,’ and -‘desirability.’ These seem to be great favourites, -especially with news-writers. They talk of the -‘<em>desirability</em>’ of ‘<em>rehabilitating</em>’ our relations with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -certain continental State, in order to effect a -‘<em>solidarity</em>’ between the two nations!</p> - -<p>One phase of this leaning to the grandiose style -is an affectation of foreign words and phrases. -The extent to which this practice is carried by -some writers is extraordinary. They can scarcely -call anything by its proper English name, but -must apply to it some Italian or French word. -Such writers describe people as ‘<em>blasés</em>,’ or perhaps -as having ‘<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">un air distingué</i>;’ and these people -are said to do everything ‘<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">à merveille</i>.’ Some few -Italian phrases are also occasionally introduced, -such as ‘<i lang="it" xml:lang="it">in petto</i>,’ the ‘<i lang="it" xml:lang="it">dolce far niente</i>,’ &c.; and -the style of many writers learned in the ancient -classics is in like manner infected with Greek and -Latin words and idioms.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VIII.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">THE SPELLING OF WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">Since, before the invention of printing, there -was no standard of English spelling, our orthography -can have no history before that epoch. -The variety of forms in which words appeared was -endless; for not only did different writers spell -them differently, but one writer would often present -his readers with several forms of the same -word even in the same page. During the whole -of our early history, then, the language can hardly -be said to have had any fixed laws of spelling.</p> - -<p>The orthography of Anglo-Saxon itself seems to -have been very unsettled. Few words appeared -invariably in the same form, and some had as -many as three or four different modes of spelling. -We find ‘ác’ and ‘æc’ (oak); ‘lang’ and ‘long’ -(long); ‘geaf’ and ‘gef’ (give); ‘seolf,’ ‘self,’ -and ‘sylf’ (self); ‘sweaster’ and ‘swuster’ (sister); -‘heauwod’ and ‘heafod’ (head), &c. &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> - -<p>The accent also made a difference in both the -pronunciation and meaning of some words. Thus, -‘ís’ meant ice, but ‘is’ (without the accent) was -the 3rd singular present of the verb ‘to be.’ ‘God,’ -in Anglo-Saxon, was, in spelling and meaning, our -word ‘God;’ but ‘gód’ (pronounced ‘gōād’) was -our adjective ‘good,’ &c.</p> - -<p>The marked difference in form between the -Saxon and the early English was the substitution -of <em>e</em> for the Saxon endings <em>a</em>, <em>e</em>, and <em>u</em>. Thus, -‘nam<em>a</em>,’ ‘end<em>e</em>,’ and ‘wud<em>u</em>’ appeared in early -English as nam<em>e</em>, end<em>e</em>, and wood<em>e</em> (probably pronounced -as two syllables). At a still later period -there was a tendency to get rid not only of this <em>e</em>, -but of the whole system of Anglo-Saxon inflections; -and the nouns, adjectives, and verbs were -stripped of nearly all their endings.</p> - -<p>The only two inflections of the noun which -survived this decay, and which may be traced to -the present time, were the <em>es</em> of the possessive (or -genitive) singular, and the <em>as</em> of the subjective (or -nominative) plural. The Saxon for ‘of a smith’ -was ‘smid<em>es</em>,’ and the nominative plural of the -same word was ‘smid<em>as</em>.’ Wiclif often uses ‘<em>is</em>’ -as a plural ending, as in ‘hous<em>is</em>,’ ‘barel<em>is</em>,’ &c. -Caxton writes ‘thyng<em>es</em>,’ and More, tyth<em>es</em>, arrow<em>es</em>, -&c. Now the usual ending is <em>s</em>; as in -‘book<em>s</em>,’ tree<em>s</em>, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> - -<p>All the inflections of the adjectives also fell off; -and instead of ‘god<em>ne</em>’ (acc. sing.), ‘god<em>es</em>’ (gen. -sing.), ‘god<em>um</em>,’ ‘god<em>re</em>’ (dat. pl.) these endings -disappeared, and the word was reduced in all -its cases and genders, and in both numbers, to -‘gód’ (good), as we now have it.</p> - -<p>The verb lost its gerund, or rather the latter -was confounded with the participle in <em>ing</em>; so that -‘writtane’ (for the purpose of writing) was used -indiscriminately with ‘writende’ (writing); and -many other terminations, though they did not -wholly disappear, were weakened by the substitution -of <em>e</em> for <em>a</em>, or <em>en</em> for <em>an</em>, as ‘bærn<em>en</em>’ for -‘bærn<em>an</em>.’ Afterwards the participle ending was -changed from <em>ende</em> to <em>and</em>, thence to <em>inge</em>, <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'and at at last'">and at -last</ins> to <em>ing</em>, as we now have it. Thus:—‘writende,’ -‘writand,’ ‘writinge,’ ‘writing.’</p> - -<p>Between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries -there was a constant and increasing tendency to -throw off the final <em>e</em>. Chaucer, Wiclif, and other -writers of the fourteenth century, have numbers of -words written with that ending, where it is now -omitted, as ‘child<em>e</em>,’ ‘hert<em>e</em>,’ ‘fynd<em>e</em>,’ &c. But, in -taking away this final, it became necessary, in some -cases, to make another change in the spelling, in -order to prevent a mispronunciation. The earlier -form ‘mete,’ being deprived of its final <em>e</em>, would -leave ‘<em>met</em>.’ Therefore, to preserve the long sound,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -the <em>e</em> medial was doubled, and the word stood -‘<em>meet</em>.’ The same principle operated in transforming -‘cloke’ into ‘cloak,’ ‘yere’ into ‘year,’ ‘scole’ -into ‘school,’ ‘grete’ into ‘great,’ &c. The <em>e</em> -final being taken away, it was necessary, in order -to preserve the pronunciation, to lengthen the -internal vowel.</p> - -<p>The art of printing exercised a very powerful -influence over English orthography. The first -printers assumed at once an absolute power, not -only in the matter of spelling and punctuation, -but even in cases of expression and grammatical -forms. The result was far from favourable to -uniformity; for, as every printer had his own -views on the subject, each consequently differed -from the others, and this entailed endless confusion. -The author’s punctuation and spelling were -then always sacrificed to the printer’s convenience. -If the writer used any words of doubtful or unsettled -orthography, of which there was then a very -large number, the printer assumed it as his right -to add to, or take from them as many letters as -he thought proper, to suit the length of the line. -Many blunders also arose from the ignorance of -the copyists. The various manuscripts of one -poem sometimes differ so widely from each other, -that modern scholars have supposed these varieties -to have been the result of the author’s own revision.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -But the more probable cause of these -differences is that the manuscript was copied by -a number of different hands, and that consequently -each differed from the other according to the views -of such matters which each copyist had adopted.</p> - -<p>We may safely conclude that in orthography, as -in other matters, changes will take place. The -phonographers say that, as the whole object of -writing is to represent on paper the sounds of the -human voice, every word should be spelled exactly -as it is pronounced. But there are grave objections -to this view. First, pronunciation itself is -in a state of transition—as the present differs from -the past, so will the future differ from the present—and -therefore the spelling would have to be -changed as often as the words were differently -pronounced. Secondly, there are so many, and -such delicate shades of sound in the human voice, -that, to carry out this design properly, it would be -necessary to invent innumerable characters to -represent them. The remedy, then, would be -worse than the disease, for the multitude of new -and strange characters which this system would -require would be far more puzzling to a learner -than any of the existing difficulties.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the conservative party maintain -that the proposed changes in spelling should -not be admitted because they would obscure, if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -not destroy, the derivation of words. This argument -has certainly considerable force. In the -study of English, a knowledge of derivation is -quite as important as correctness of spelling. -Surely the one should not be wholly sacrificed to -the other. Are we to lose the essence of the word -for the mere sake of its outward appearance? It -would certainly be a great gain to simplify our -forms of spelling; but if, in so doing, we destroyed -the etymology of the language, would our gain or -our loss be the greater? The present forms of -spelling are, in many cases, a key to the derivation -of the word. How did the <em>b</em> get into ‘dou<em>b</em>t’ and -‘de<em>b</em>t,’ or the <em>g</em> into ‘fei<em>g</em>n’ and ‘impu<em>g</em>n?’ -These letters are left in the words expressly to -show us their origin. When first introduced into -English, ‘debt’ and ‘doubt’ were both written -and pronounced as in French (‘dette’ and ‘doute’). -But when it afterwards became known that they -were originally derived from the Latin verbs ‘de<em>b</em>ēre’ -and ‘du<em>b</em>itare,’ the <em>b</em> was restored in the spelling.</p> - -<p>Some argue that the influence of derivation on -spelling is only partial, and that other and more -powerful causes are operating changes in the -forms of words. It is readily admitted that the -language will, <em>in time</em>, yield to this pressure. But -we must not precipitate matters; and there is -something to be said on the other side of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -question. The study of English has lately received -a great impulse, and increased attention has been -paid to its nature and origin. It is surely somewhat -inconsistent to recommend this increased -energy of study, and, at the same time, to throw -obstacles in the student’s way! It is remarkable -how long it takes to work a change of this sort. -The writer can remember the controversy about -the substitution of the final <em>or</em> for <em>our</em> for more -than forty years back; and yet in that time very -little progress has been made in the proposed -reform. But there are obviously certain tendencies -in the English language towards a new orthography, -and we may point out with tolerable -certainty what changes will be eventually effected.</p> - -<p>The law of contraction is in constant operation -in the spelling of words. It is this principle that -has caused us to reject the final <em>k</em> in words of two -or more syllables. <em>K</em> final is now confined chiefly -to monosyllables. We retain it in ‘back,’ ‘peck,’ -‘stick,’ ‘rock,’ ‘duck,’ &c. Formerly ‘music,’ -‘critic,’ ‘traffic,’ &c. retained the k; now it has -disappeared from these words. But it is evidently -very loth to go; for it still holds its -place in ‘attac<em>k</em>,’ ‘ransac<em>k</em>,’ ‘bulloc<em>k</em>,’ ‘hilloc<em>k</em>,’ -&c., as well as in compound words, as ‘shipwrec<em>k</em>,’ -‘weathercoc<em>k</em>,’ ‘wedloc<em>k</em>,’ &c. It is possible that, -at some future time, we shall be writing ‘bac,’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -‘pec,’ ‘stic,’ ‘roc,’ and ‘luc;’ but for the present -we must, in these cases, add the <em>k</em>.</p> - -<p>The same contracting tendency affects the forms -of certain past tenses of verbs. We write ‘sent’ -for ‘sended,’ ‘built’ for ‘builded,’ &c. Some -would extend this contraction to all verbs ending -in close consonants, as <em>p</em>, <em>ck</em>, <em>f</em>, or <em>s</em>. They would -have us write ‘slapt,’ ‘drest,’ ‘hisst,’ ‘hopt,’ and -‘snufft.’ There is, no doubt, a leaning this way -in the language. The verbs ‘creep,’ ‘feel,’ ‘sleep,’ -&c. make, in the past tense, ‘crept,’ ‘felt,’ ‘slept,’ -&c. But it will be some time before such forms -as quafft, peept, pickt, hopt, and supt are generally -adopted.</p> - -<p>This contracting principle also originated the -tendency to omit the <em>u</em> in the termination <em>our</em>. -Most of the words which have this ending come to -us from Latin through French, where the ending -is <em>eur</em>, as seen in ‘honn<em>eur</em>,’ ‘vigu<em>eur</em>,’ ‘val<em>eur</em>,’ -&c. American writers leave out the <em>u</em> in all these -cases. They write ‘endeav<em>or</em>,’ ‘neighb<em>or</em>,’ behavi<em>or</em>, -&c. There is, no doubt, a tendency to omit -the <em>u</em> in such words. It may be observed that -most of the words which have lost this <em>u</em> are -names of agents, as ‘act<em>or</em>,’ ‘auth<em>or</em>,’ ‘creat<em>or</em>,’ -‘doct<em>or</em>,’ ‘govern<em>or</em>,’ ‘orat<em>or</em>,’ ‘sail<em>or</em>,’ ‘tail<em>or</em>,’ and -‘warri<em>or</em>;’ whereas comparatively few abstract -nouns have rejected it, though it no longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -appears in ‘err<em>or</em>,’ ‘horr<em>or</em>,’ ‘stup<em>or</em>,’ ‘terr<em>or</em>,’ and -‘torp<em>or</em>.’</p> - -<p>Another pair of endings—<em>ise</em> and <em>ize</em>—has given -rise to a divided practice in spelling. The leaning -here is decidedly towards <em>ise</em>. The words tempor<em>ise</em>, -advert<em>ise</em>, author<em>ise</em>, &c. were all formerly -written with a <em>z</em>. Strictly speaking, <em>ize</em> should be -used in those verbs of this class which can be traced -directly to a Greek source, as ‘bapt<em>ize</em>,’ ‘idol<em>ize</em>,’ -‘agon<em>ize</em>;’ especially those used in a scientific sense, -as catech<em>ize</em>, symbol<em>ize</em>, epitom<em>ize</em>, &c. But many -such words come to us through a French medium, -as ‘critic<em>ise</em>,’ ‘real<em>ise</em>,’ ‘civil<em>ise</em>.’ These should be -spelled <em>ise</em>. In all probability, we shall some day -reject the <em>z</em> altogether. The letter <em>s</em> seems to be -taking its place in these and many other cases, as -in ‘arti<em>s</em>an,’ ‘parti<em>s</em>an,’ &c. The late Dr. Donaldson -was of opinion that all the above verbs should -be spelled <em>ise</em>.</p> - -<p>By the same law of contraction it is proposed to -give up the diphthongs <em>ae</em> and <em>oe</em>, found in many -English words derived from Greek and Latin, and -to spell them all with a simple <em>e</em>. Many of this -class have already adopted the change, for we now -write ‘<em>E</em>gypt,’ ‘<em>e</em>conomy,’ ‘f<em>e</em>deral,’ ‘<em>e</em>nigma,’ -‘ph<em>e</em>nomenon,’ ‘p<em>e</em>nal,’ &c. But it is reasonable -to expect that many of them will retain the diphthong -for some time. Proper names and scientific<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -terms are likely to keep it longer, whilst in more -familiar words it will, probably, give place to the -single vowel. Accordingly we may predict that -the diphthong will remain in ‘<em>Æ</em>sop,’ <em>Œ</em>dipus,’ -‘<em>Æ</em>tna,’ ‘<em>Œ</em>ta,’ and ‘C<em>æ</em>sar,’ as well as in ‘arch<em>æ</em>ology,’ -‘anap<em>æ</em>st,’ ‘<em>æ</em>sthetic,’ cyclop<em>æ</em>dia,’ and -‘hom<em>œ</em>opathy;’ while from such words as ‘<em>e</em>conomy,’ -‘pr<em>e</em>tor,’ ‘prim<em>e</em>val,’ ‘<em>e</em>qual,’ ‘<em>e</em>dile,’ ‘<em>e</em>difice,’ -&c., if not already gone, it will soon disappear -altogether. There is here an <em>e</em>conomical tendency -in favour of the single <em>e</em>, and the longer these -words remain in the language, the more likely -are they to be spelled with the single vowel.</p> - -<p>In many English words there has been a sort -of rivalry between the letters <em>y</em> and <em>i</em>, and the -general tendency now is in favour of <em>i</em>. This does -not seem to be a question of contraction. It is -supposed to have arisen from a dislike of the -printers to the ugly appearance of <em>y</em> in the middle -of a word. Mandeville writes ‘l<em>y</em>til’ (little), -‘w<em>y</em>se’ (wise), ‘t<em>y</em>mes’ (times); and Wiclif has -‘with<em>y</em>nne’ (within), ‘rece<em>y</em>ve’ (receive), ‘wr<em>y</em>te’ -(write), ‘fa<em>y</em>le’ (fail), ‘everlast<em>y</em>ne’ (everlasting), -&c. In certain Greek words, however, the <em>y</em> still -holds its place, as in ‘h<em>y</em>mn,’ ‘t<em>y</em>pe,’ ‘h<em>y</em>dra,’ -‘t<em>y</em>rant,’ ‘l<em>y</em>re,’ &c. These will probably long -remain in the spelling.</p> - -<p>One innovation proposed by the phonographers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -was to substitute a <em>k</em> for the ending <em>que</em>. All -our words of this class are from the French, -where the ending is invariably <em>que</em>. Many of -these have already conformed to the English -tendency, and are written with a <em>k</em> final, as ‘mas<em>k</em>,’ -‘cas<em>k</em>,’ ‘bris<em>k</em>,’ ‘ris<em>k</em>,’ &c. These are monosyllables. -But we hesitate to extend this practice to words of -two or three syllables. We are not prepared to -adopt such forms as ‘pictures<em>k</em>,’ ‘grotes<em>k</em>,’ ‘burles<em>k</em>,’ -&c. Nor is it likely that we shall be easily -reconciled to ‘opa<em>ke</em>,’ ‘anti<em>ke</em>,’ ‘obli<em>ke</em>,’ &c. In -some few cases, if only to mark a difference of -meaning, it is expedient to have two forms of -spelling; for instance, between <em>bark</em> (of a tree) -and <em>barque</em> (a vessel), <em>check</em> (a restraint) and -<em>cheque</em> (on a banker), <em>pike</em> (a weapon) and <em>pique</em> -(a petty quarrel), <em>mark</em> (a note or sign) and -<em>marque</em> (a reprisal) as in ‘letters of marque.’</p> - -<p>We ought not to conclude, because changes of -spelling have been adopted in certain words, that -similar changes should be applied to all the words -of that class—because, for instance, the old forms -‘advaunce,’ ‘commaund,’ ‘chaunt,’ and others -now appear as ‘advance,’ ‘command,’ ‘chant,’ -we should, for this reason, write ‘tant,’ ‘hant,’ -‘dant,’ and ‘lanch’ instead of ‘taunt,’ ‘haunt,’ -‘daunt,’ and ‘launch.’ But nature and habit are -not to be trifled with. Both experience and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -reason combat all sudden changes. If they are -to be, they will come in good time; meanwhile let -us watch and follow.</p> - -<p>Again, the reformers of our spelling would have -us cut off the ending <em>ue</em> from such words as ‘catalogue,’ -‘demagogue,’ ‘synagogue,’ ‘colleague,’ -‘harangue,’ ‘tongue,’ &c., and spell them ‘catalog,’ -‘demagog,’ &c. It may be most confidently predicted -that, whatever may happen in the course of -future ages, this change will not take place either -in this or the next generation.</p> - -<p>Another proposed change is to invert the ending -<em>re</em>, and write it <em>er</em>, as being more in accordance with -English pronunciation. That this is the tendency -of the language is not to be denied, for it is well -known that many English words now ending in <em>er</em> -were formerly written <em>re</em>. Such are the Norman -names of the months—‘Septemb<em>re</em>,’ ‘Octob<em>re</em>,’ -‘Novemb<em>re</em>,’ ‘Decemb<em>re</em>,’ &c. Some of this class -have not yet adopted the change, and still appear -in their French forms, as ‘accout<em>re</em>,’ ‘cent<em>re</em>,’ -‘fib<em>re</em>,’ ‘lust<em>re</em>,’ ‘nit<em>re</em>,’ ‘och<em>re</em>,’ &c. But it is to -be noticed that these are not common words—not -words of the homestead or market-place—and that -therefore they are much more likely to retain their -old forms. In some of them, also, it is desirable -to have two modes of spelling. We have ‘met<em>er</em>’ -in the sense of a measurer, as in ‘baromet<em>er</em>,’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -‘thermomet<em>er</em>,’ &c., and ‘met<em>re</em>’ in versification. -‘Cent<em>er</em>’ appears as a verb, and ‘cent<em>re</em>’ as a -noun. That most of this class will, in time, be -spelled with the ending <em>er</em> is highly probable, but -the above remark may account for their not having -yet adopted that termination.</p> - -<p>It has often been objected to our language that -its study, as regards pronunciation and spelling, is -more difficult than that of any of the continental -languages. Foreigners endeavouring to master -these difficulties are often quite overwhelmed by -them, and not unfrequently give up the study in -despair. But no language is without difficulties -of this sort. Indeed, the difference between written -and spoken French offers quite as formidable -obstacles to the speller in French as could happen -in English. The French words ‘<em>ver</em>’ (from ‘vermis,’ -a worm), ‘<em>vert</em>’ (from ‘viridis,’ green), and -‘<em>verre</em>’ (from ‘vitrum,’ glass) are all pronounced -exactly alike, and it is only by a knowledge of -their derivation that one can account for the -difference of their forms. Again, <em>mère</em> (from -mater, a mother), <em>mer</em> (from mare, the sea), and -<em>maire</em> (from major, greater) differ in spelling, -though not in sound, because of their different -derivations. If all these words had the same form -of spelling because they have the same pronunciation, -no one could trace them to their source or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -account for their meaning. We may, then, conclude -that the proper spelling of a word depends -mainly on its etymology, and that the reason why -bad spelling is looked upon with such disfavour is, -that it argues ignorance of derivation.</p> - -<p>In all probability, if the project of instituting -an English Academy for the regulation of our -language were carried out, there would immediately -arise innumerable protests against its decisions. -It is well known that the literary decrees -of the French Academy are not generally accepted -or adopted, and that the opinions of some of the -most eminent literati in France are directly -against its conclusions. Besides, the spirit of the -English people is so strongly opposed to dictation, -in this as in other matters, that such an institution -would stand no chance of success in this country.</p> - -<p>It is too much the fashion now-a-days to find -fault with English orthography, and it is also too -much the fashion to acquiesce in its general -condemnation. But, in truth, it is only those -who have paid no attention to our language, as a -scientific study, who can fail to recognise the -causes of these objections. The three principal -elements of English—viz. Saxon, French, and -Latin—have, each, and all, had some influence on -the formation of our words; and this will account -for the various forms of our spelling. A word,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -when introduced into a language, is at first spelled -in accordance with the genius of the nation from -which it comes. By degrees, and generally by -slow degrees, it is moulded into a new form by -the genius and instinct of the language in which -it is at length naturalised; still, however, retaining -sufficient of its original form to indicate its source -and etymology. Various causes contribute to -effect this change; a difference in pronunciation; -the influence of some local dialect, political, religious, -or literary disputes, the example of popular -writers, &c. &c. may all assist in working a change -in the outward forms of words.</p> - -<p>But a study of the subject will prove that this -operation must be the work of time, and that no -assumed power can, of itself, work a sudden change -in spelling. This alone is sufficient to account for -the failure of the phonographic system. It may -also be laid down for certain, that any newly-proposed -form of spelling which obscures or -destroys the derivation of a word stands but little -chance of success. The general body of writers -knew full well that if they had at once adopted -phonetic spelling, it would have inevitably involved -the language in confusion and ruin by the destruction -of its etymology, and would have thus effaced -every vestige of its beauty and variety.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IX.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, ETC. OF WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">The history of English shows that it has been -changed from a synthetical, to an analytical language, -that in the course of time it has lost nearly -all its inflections; and that for these endings have -been substituted signs and prepositions. Whether -this change has been for the better, or for the worse, -may be a matter for speculation; but allowing that, -in some respects, the language may have sustained -a loss by this process, it is not difficult to show -that for this we have some compensating advantages—and -that the change has been favourable -in at least two points: 1st. as regards variety of -sound in the endings of words: and 2. flexibility -in their use and application.</p> - -<p>In Latin, the recurrence of the verb in the same -person naturally produced a repetition of the same -termination, which must have had a very disagreeable -and monotonous effect. In Cicero’s second -oration ‘in Catilinam,’ he has ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Abi<em>it</em>, excess<em>it</em>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -erup<em>it</em>, evas<em>it</em>.</span>’ Four consecutive words ending in -<em>it</em>! Another example of monotonous repetition, -quoted by Cicero in his ‘De Naturâ Deorum’ is, -‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">clam<em>o</em>, postul<em>o</em>, obsecr<em>o</em>, or<em>o</em>, plor<em>o</em>, atque implor<em>o</em> -fidem.</span>’ Cæsar’s often-quoted letter, ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ven<em>i</em>, vid<em>i</em>, -vic<em>i</em></span>’ is open to the same objection, as well as the -‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">tædet h<em>arum</em> quotidian<em>arum</em> form<em>arum</em></span>’ of Terence. -In all these cases, the repetition of the -endings must have produced a most harsh and -disagreeable effect; and if these passages were -translated into English, we should probably find -that every word had a different termination.</p> - -<p>But the flexibility of our language, which arises -partly from the same cause, is another, and perhaps -more important consideration. We can easily understand -that the system of inflection, however -useful in itself, prevents the possibility of one part -of speech being used for another. In English, -‘love’ may be a noun or a verb; but in Latin or -French, we must use ‘amare’ or ‘aimer’ for the -verb, and ‘amor’ or ‘amour’ for the noun. This -power of using one part of speech for another, -exists to such an extent in English, that it may be -almost said, that every word in the language may -be applied in a variety of senses and grammatical -constructions. That this is of incalculable advantage, -every thoughtful English scholar will surely -allow; and it may be observed that not one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -modern languages of Europe possesses this elastic -power in the same degree as English. This may -be seen in the following cases:—</p> - -<p>1st. Almost all our verbs in common use may -be used as nouns. We have ‘to walk,’ or to take -‘a walk;’ ‘to ride,’ or to enjoy ‘a ride;’ ‘to -talk,’ or to have ‘a talk; ‘to offer,’ or to make ‘an -offer;’ ‘to visit,’ or, to pay ‘a visit,’ &c.</p> - -<p>2. Nouns may be used as verbs:—We may say ‘a -telegraph;’ or ‘to telegraph’ a message; ‘butter,’ -or ‘to butter’ bread; ‘sugar,’ or ‘to sugar’ tea; -‘a quarter,’ or ‘to quarter’ a regiment, &c.</p> - -<p>3. Adjectives are used as nouns:—We may say -‘a round table,’ or, ‘a round’ of visits; a ‘green’ -tree, or to play on ‘the green;’ a ‘beautiful’ -prospect, or a love for ‘the beautiful.’ And not -only can we use the adjective as a noun; we may -even give it a plural form. We often speak of ‘eatables -and drinkables.’ A man may have a fit of -the ‘dismals,’ or the ‘blues;’ or he may be anxious -about his ‘good<em>s</em>,’ ‘moveable<em>s</em>,’ or ‘valuable<em>s</em>,’ &c.</p> - -<p>4. Adjectives are frequently used as verbs:—as, -a ‘clear’ way, or to ‘clear’ the way; a ‘long’ -distance, or to ‘long’ for something; a ‘still’ -evening, or to ‘still’ the waves, &c.</p> - -<p>5. Comparative adjectives are occasionally used -as verbs; as ‘a better’ condition, or, ‘to better’ -our condition; a ‘lower’ state, or to ‘lower’ a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> -rope; ‘further’ remarks, or ‘to further’ a design; -‘utter’ nonsense, or ‘to utter’ opinions, &c.</p> - -<p>6. Personal pronouns may be used as nouns: as, -‘A downright <em>she</em>‘—(Byron.) ‘Left to be finished -by such a <em>she</em>.’—(Shakspere.)</p> - -<p>7. Conjunctions are frequently used as nouns; -as, ‘But me no <em>buts</em>’ How many ‘<em>thats</em>’ are -there in the sentence? ‘Let us have no more <em>ifs</em> -and <em>ands</em>,’ &c.</p> - -<p>8. Prepositions may be used in like manner: as, -The <em>ins</em> and <em>outs</em> of life. The ‘<em>ups</em> and <em>downs</em>’ of -fortune, &c.</p> - -<p>9. Even adverbs are sometimes constructed as -nouns; as:—Which are in the majority; the -‘<em>ayes</em>,’ or the ‘<em>noes</em>?’</p> - -<p>This extraordinary plasticity of English applies -particularly to nouns signifying parts of the body. -There is scarcely one of these which may not be -turned into a verb. For example, we commonly -hear that a man ‘<em>faces</em>’ his difficulties with courage. -Hamlet says of Polonius, ‘You may <em>nose</em> him -in the lobby.’ In Shakspere’s ‘Tempest’ we -may read, ‘Full many a lady I have <em>eyed</em> with best -regard.’</p> - -<p>To <em>jaw</em> is sometimes used, though not very -elegantly, in the sense of to chatter or scold. We -often hear of a man ‘<em>elbowing</em>’ his way through a -crowd, and Goldsmith’s ‘Deserted Village’ gives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -us ‘<em>Shouldered</em> his arms, and showed how fields -were won.’</p> - -<p>To ‘<em>hand</em>’ a plate, and to ‘<em>finger</em>’ a passage on -the piano, are everyday expressions. We also -frequently hear of a coachman ‘<em>backing</em>’ his -horses, and Shakspere has ‘to <em>foot</em> it featly.’ -Besides these, may be noticed ‘to <em>thumb</em> the leaves -of a book’; to ‘<em>breast</em> the waves;’ ‘to <em>palm</em> off (for -to cheat or deceive);’ to <em>side</em> with a party; and -to <em>head</em> an expedition. To these may be added ‘to -<em>bone</em>’ a fowl; ‘to <em>skin</em>’ a rabbit, and many others. -It may be reasonably doubted whether this power -exists to anything like the same extent in the -continental languages.</p> - -<p>But not only the names of parts of the body; -also those of many articles of domestic use are -employed in a similar way. We have to <em>chair</em> a -member; we hear that people are <em>boarded</em>, and -that the earth is <em>carpeted</em> with green. ‘<em>Curtained</em>’ -sleep, and ‘<em>imbedded</em>’ in the earth, belong to the -same class. One man is said to <em>floor</em> another in -argument. To ‘<em>picture</em> to yourself;’ to <em>table</em> the -contents of a book; to be <em>closeted</em> with a friend, -to <em>book</em> a debt; to <em>pen</em> a letter; to <em>ink</em> a dress; to -<em>paper</em> a room, and to <em>shelve</em> a subject are all common -and daily expressions. They are, in every -sense of the term, <em>household</em> words.</p> - -<p>In English, names of domestic animals are all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -Saxon; whereas wild beasts for the most part retain -their Latin or French names. Thus ‘cat,’ ‘hound,’ -‘horse,’ ‘sheep,’ ‘cow,’ ‘swine,’ &c., are of Germanic -origin; whilst ‘lion,’ ‘tiger,’ ‘elephant,’ -‘leopard,’ ‘panther,’ &c., come to us from Greek -through Latin. The power we have to use these -names of animals as verbs is another instance of the -elasticity of our language. This can be done with -some of the above Saxon names, though not with -those of wild beasts. The noun ‘horse’ is often -used as a verb: a stable-keeper is said to <em>horse</em> a -coach; i.e. to supply it with horses. We have also -<em>to dodge</em>; i.e. to follow a scent in and out like a dog. -A man is <em>hounded</em> on to do such and such work; -while to <em>rat</em> is to desert your party. Every one -knows that to <em>duck</em> is to dive in the water like a -duck. People are also said to be <em>gulled</em> when they -are easily deceived; and to <em>drone</em> when they read -or speak monotonously.</p> - -<p>It is remarkable how often, colloquially, we -use the names of animals as types of temper or -character. True, this is not peculiar to the English -language: though the practice is perhaps here more -extended. People continually employ the word ‘ass’ -or ‘donkey’ in the sense of a stupid loutish fellow. -They also often stigmatise a cunning man as a -‘fox;’ or a scolding shrew as a ‘vixen.’ A proud -little strut is called ‘a cock of the walk;’ and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'reckless spendrift'">reckless spendthrift</ins> is a ‘sad dog;’ or sometimes a -‘jolly dog.’ ‘Puppy’ is suggestive of conceit and -self-sufficiency; and a slothful, indolent man is -spoken of as a lazy ‘hound.’ A ‘hog’ is sometimes -used as a metaphor for a glutton; and a ‘pig’ -for a dirty fellow. ‘Pig-headed’ is also applied -to one of stubborn temper; a ‘mule’ is a type of -obstinacy; and a ‘horse,’ in the sense of a beast -of burden, is found in ‘towel-horse,’ or ‘clothes-horse.’ -Men of rude manners are spoken of as -‘bears,’ and the weak or timid in disposition are -called ‘chicken’-hearted. A fond mother speaks -of her child as her pet ‘lamb,’ or little ‘duck.’ -Silliness is typified by ‘goose,’ and mischief by -‘monkey,’ &c. Here it will be found that these -words are, with one or two exceptions, used in a -disparaging, and not in a favourable, sense. They -are, most of them, terms of reproach, not of -praise.</p> - -<p>Words have not only degenerated in sense; -their outward form has also suffered. One principle—contraction—has -affected both the pronunciation -and spelling of many words. It may be -taken as a general rule that words, as they grow -older, become softer and shorter. They seldom -expand, but almost always contract. This probably -originated in a loose careless way of speaking, -which afterwards affected the written language.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -Contractions appear in a great variety of forms. -1st. They are made by cutting off an initial syllable, -as ‘‘prentice,’ for ‘apprentice;’ ‘‘peach,’ for -‘impeach;’ ‘‘gin,’ for ‘engine;’ ‘‘suage,’ for ‘assuage;’ -‘‘cyclopædia,’ for ‘encyclopædia;’ &c. -Among the words which have lost their initial -letters, three are to be especially noticed: viz. -‘luck,’ ‘irksome,’ and ‘orchard.’ The first of -these was originally ‘Glück,’ and is still so spelled -in German, whence it comes. ‘Irksome’ was in -Anglo-Saxon written ‘(w)eorcsam,’ i.e. full of -work, and therefore troublesome; and ‘orchard’ -is a corruption of ‘(w)ort-yard,’ that is, a yard in -which (worts) plants or vegetables were grown. -2nd. By cutting off a final syllable; as in ‘pro -and con,’ for ‘contra;’ ‘cit,’ for ‘citizen;’ ‘without,’ -formerly ‘withouten;’ ‘incog,’ for ‘incognito;’ -‘hyp,’ for ‘hypochondria;’ ‘consols,’ for -‘consolidated annuities,’ &c. 3rd. By taking a -letter, or letters, from the middle of a word; as -‘else,’ for ‘elles;’ ‘lark,’ for ‘laverock;’ ‘last,’ -for ‘latest;’ ‘lord,’ for ‘hlaford;’ ‘since,’ for -‘sithence;’ ‘parrot,’ for ‘perroquet;’ and ‘fortnight,’ -for ‘fourteen nights;’ ‘cheer up’ is contracted -into ‘chirrup,’ and then into ‘chirp;’ -‘speak’ comes from ‘sp<em>r</em>ecan;’ and the Anglo-Saxon -‘wi<em>f</em>man’ appears as ‘woman.’ By the -same law are formed many proper names. ‘Twell,’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -for ‘at the well;’ ‘Thill,’ for ‘at the hill;’ ‘Oxford,’ -for ‘Ox<em>en</em>ford;’ ‘Cambridge,’ for ‘Cant<em>e</em>brigge,’ -&c.</p> - -<p>Many other cases may be cited as examples of -this law. The word ‘(E)piscop(us)’ has suffered -a mutilation at both the beginning and the end; -and appears in English as ‘Bishop.’ The prefix -‘ge,’ commonly used in Saxon, and still retained -in German participles, lingered for some time in -English in the softened form of <em>y</em>; as in ‘<em>y</em>clept,’ -‘<em>y</em>clothed,’ &c.; but it has now vanished from the -language. Another instance of the same tendency -may be seen in the present pronunciation of participles -ending in ‘ed.’ Formerly, the word ‘used’ -was always pronounced as a dissyllable—‘usèd;’ -now it is universally pronounced as a monosyllable. -Indeed, this final ‘ed,’ as a distinct syllable -though still occasionally heard in the pulpit, is -fast disappearing from our language.</p> - -<p>Contraction was the main principle on which -the ancient Latin was transformed into French. -It is curious to observe that though this contracting -power did operate in Italian, it was not there -carried out to the same degree as in French; that -is, though Italian words are, in most cases, -shorter than their Latin equivalents, they are not -so contracted as the French words of the same -meaning. This may be easily shown by comparison:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl wd40"><em>Latin.</em></td><td class="tdl"><em>Italian.</em></td><td class="tdl"><em>French.</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">apotheca</td><td class="tdl">bottega</td><td class="tdl">boutique</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">male-aptus</td><td class="tdl">malatto</td><td class="tdl">malade</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">quisque unus</td><td class="tdl">ciascuno</td><td class="tdl">chacun</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">ad hanc horam</td><td class="tdl">ancora</td><td class="tdl">encore</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">ad illam horam</td><td class="tdl">allora</td><td class="tdl">alors</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">ad satis</td><td class="tdl">assai</td><td class="tdl">assez</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">in simul</td><td class="tdl">insieme</td><td class="tdl">ensemble</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">semetipsissimus</td><td class="tdl">medesimo</td><td class="tdl">même</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">de retro</td><td class="tdl">dietro</td><td class="tdl">derrière</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">de illo</td><td class="tdl">dello</td><td class="tdl">du</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">homo</td><td class="tdl">uomo</td><td class="tdl">on</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">gaudium</td><td class="tdl">giojo</td><td class="tdl">joie</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="noindent">and many others.</p> - - -<h3><em>Expansion.</em></h3> - -<p>On the other hand, there are some few cases -where words are expanded or widened by the insertion -of a letter. 1st. Of a vowel. We have -‘alar<em>u</em>m,’ for ‘alarm;’ ‘law<em>y</em>er,’ for ‘lawer;’ -‘cloth<em>i</em>er,’ for ‘clother.’ The <em>i</em> is also inserted in -‘parl<em>i</em>ament,’ ‘Sav<em>i</em>our,’ ‘hand<em>i</em>craft,’ ‘hand<em>i</em>work,’ -‘per<em>i</em>winkle,’ and a few others.</p> - -<p>2nd. Sometimes, <em>l</em> or <em>r</em> is inserted; as in ‘princip<em>l</em>e,’ -from ‘principe;’ ‘syllab<em>l</em>e,’ from ‘syllabe;’ -‘cart<em>r</em>idge,’ from ‘cartouche;’ ‘part<em>r</em>idge,’ from -the Latin ‘perdix,’ through the French ‘perd<em>r</em>ix;’ -‘g<em>r</em>oom,’ from the Anglo-Saxon ‘guma,’ a man; -‘vag<em>r</em>ant,’ from ‘vagans;’ and ‘co<em>r</em>poral,’ from -‘caporal.’</p> - -<p>3rd. P and B are often inserted after <em>m</em>; as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -’em<em>p</em>ty,’ Anglo-Saxon ‘æmtig,’ ‘tem<em>p</em>t,’ from -the French ‘tenter;’ ’em<em>b</em>ers,’ from the Anglo-Saxon -‘æmyrje;’ ‘nim<em>b</em>le,’ from the Anglo-Saxon -‘nemol.’ Also in ‘lam<em>b</em>,’ ‘lim<em>b</em>,’ ‘crum<em>b</em>,’ ‘thum<em>b</em>,’ -and ‘num<em>b</em>,’ the <em>b</em> forms no part of the root.</p> - -<p>4th. D naturally attaches itself to <em>n</em> final; as in -‘soun<em>d</em>,’ ‘riban<em>d</em>,’ ‘len<em>d</em>,’ &c. This may probably -account for certain provincial pronunciations, as -‘gown<em>d</em>,’ ‘drown<em>d</em>,’ &c. Also in ‘thun<em>d</em>er,’ ‘kin<em>d</em>red,’ -and ‘yon<em>d</em>er,’ the <em>d</em> is parasitical.</p> - - -<h3><em>Assimilation.</em></h3> - -<p>Assimilation, or the coming together of letters -which have an affinity for each other, is a principle -which affects the spelling, as well as the -pronunciation, of many English words. This law -softens the pronunciation, and will account for the -frequent occurrence of a double consonant at the -beginning of a large class of words. The rule is -here:—‘<em>When a prefix ending in a consonant is -applied to a root beginning with one, that consonant -disappears, and there is substituted for it the initial -consonant of the root</em>.’ This happens most frequently -in English words compounded with Latin -prepositions. The <em>d</em> in the preposition ‘<em>ad</em>’ is -often assimilated to the initial consonant of the -root to which it is applied.</p> - -<p>The word ‘a<em>cc</em>ede’ is made up of ‘ad’ (to) and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -‘cede’ (come). But the initial <em>c</em> in ‘cede’ assimilated -to itself the <em>d</em> in ‘ad,’ i.e. changed it -into a <em>c</em>. Thus ‘adcede’ became ‘a<em>cc</em>ede.’ This -law will account for the double consonant in such -forms as ‘a<em>cc</em>ost,’ ‘a<em>gg</em>rieve,’ ‘a<em>ll</em>ude,’ ‘a<em>mm</em>unition,’ -‘a<em>nn</em>ex,’ ‘a<em>pp</em>ly,’ ‘a<em>ss</em>ist,’ ‘a<em>tt</em>ract,’ and many -others. In all these cases the first syllable was -originally ‘<em>ad</em>.’</p> - -<p>This law applies with equal force to other Latin -prepositions which enter into the formation of -English words; as ‘con,’ ‘in,’ ‘per,’ ‘sub,’ &c. -We spell the word ‘co<em>ll</em>ect’ for ‘conlect;’ ‘co<em>mm</em>une,’ -for ‘conmune,’ &c. On the same principle -we write ‘i<em>ll</em>egal,’ for ‘inlegal;’ ‘i<em>rr</em>egular,’ for -‘inregular;’ ‘pe<em>ll</em>ucid,’ for ‘perlucid;’ ‘su<em>cc</em>umb,’ -for ‘subcumb;’ and many others. But when the -root begins with a labial (<em>b</em>, <em>p</em>, or <em>m</em>), then the -final consonant of the preposition is always -changed into <em>m</em>. This is why we write ‘i<em>m</em>bibe,’ -and not ‘ibbibe;’ ‘i<em>m</em>bue,’ not ‘ibbue;’ and ‘i<em>m</em>possible,’ -not ‘ipposible,’ &c.</p> - -<p>This principle of assimilation has operated in -the formation of the words ‘ha<em>mm</em>ock’ and ‘sti<em>rr</em>up.’ -The first is from ‘hang-mat,’ where the <em>ng</em> -has been assimilated to <em>m</em>. The second is from -the Anglo-Saxon ‘stig-rope’ (literally, ‘mount-rope,’ -or rope to mount by), where <em>r</em> is substituted -for the <em>g</em> in ‘stig.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><em>Attraction.</em></h3> - -<p>Attraction is another principle which affects the -forms of certain words. Sometimes a consonant -is drawn away from the word to which it properly -belongs, and becomes a part of its neighbour. The -effect of this law is especially remarkable in the -article ‘<em>an</em>.’ In certain cases the <em>n</em> (of a<em>n</em>) does -not really belong to the article, but is the initial -letter of the noun following. This happens in the -case of ‘an orange;’ the word ‘orange’ is, in -Spanish, whence it is derived, ‘naranja,’ and we -should therefore write ‘a norange’ rather than -‘an orange.’ But the article <em>a</em> has attracted to -itself the initial <em>n</em> of the noun, and the result is—‘an -orange.’ For the same reason ‘an adder’ -should be written ‘a natter,’ or ‘a nadder.’ On -the other hand, there are cases in which the <em>n</em> of -the article is attracted into the following word. -If the word ‘apron’ is from the French ‘naperon’ -(from nappe, cloth), we should write ‘a napron,’ -and not ‘an apron.’ Several of these cases may be -pointed out. We say and write, ‘a neap tide,’ -instead of ‘an ebb tide;’ ‘a newt,’ for ‘an ewt’ -(or eft); and, on the other hand, ‘an auger,’ for -‘a nauger;’ ‘an awl,’ for ‘a nawl;’ and ‘an umpire’ -for ‘a nompire.’ The same principle operates -in certain French expressions. The province of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -Southern Italy formerly known as ‘Apulia,’ is -in French written ‘La Pouille.’ Here the <em>a</em> initial -of ‘Apulia’ is attracted into the article. The -expression should be ‘L’Apouille,’ and not ‘La -Pouille.’ In the same way, the French call ‘Anatolia’ -(Asia Minor), ‘La Natolie;’ whereas it -should be written ‘L’Anatolie.’ It is from the -Greek ἀνατολή—the rising of the sun.</p> - - -<h3><em>Accent.</em></h3> - -<p>The accent of an English word depends chiefly -on its derivation. In words of Saxon origin, it -is placed on the root. For example, ‘lóve’ is an -accented monosyllable, and preserves its accent on -the root, in all its derivations; as in ‘lóving,’ -‘lóveliness,’ ‘lóveable,’ &c. But in Romance -words, the tendency is to put the accent on the -branches, and not on the root. In French, the -vocabulary is drawn mainly from Latin words -without their inflections. The French words -‘natúre,’ ‘fatál,’ ‘aimáble,’ &c., have the accent -on the second syllable, because they are formed -from the Latin ‘natúra,’ ‘fatális,’ and ‘amábilis,’ -without the endings. But in English all these and -similar words are accented on the first syllable; -and we pronounce them ‘náture,’ ‘fátal,’ ‘ámiable.’ -In Chaucer’s poetry, many French words are -accented on the second or third syllable, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -accordance with the classical principle; thus, we -there find ‘honóur,’ ‘natión,’ ‘companý,’ &c. All -these, after Chaucer’s time, shifted the accent back -to the first syllable, thus conforming themselves -to the genius of the English language. There is, -to this day, in English a conflict in the accent -between the two principles, the Teutonic and the -Romance; the former leaning to the root, and the -latter to the branches of the word. But even in -classical words, as regards accent, the Saxon -genius clearly prevails. We accent the word -‘órdinary’ on the first syllable, which contains -the pith of its meaning; whereas the French place -the accent on the last—‘ordináire.’ It was probably -the antagonism between these two principles—the -Germanic tendency toward the beginning, -and the Romance toward the end, of the word, -which caused the accent in English to be so long -unsettled. But the genius of the Saxon eventually -triumphed over the French element, in -accent as well as in grammatical forms, and the -general rule in English pronunciation, is to put -the accent on the root.</p> - -<p>The spelling of certain English derivatives depends -on the place of the accent in their roots. -Now, when the last syllable of the root is accented, -the final consonant must be doubled in the derivative. -This accounts for the root ‘rób’ (with one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -b), making ‘ro<em>bb</em>ed,’ and ‘ro<em>bb</em>er,’ (with two b’s) -admí<em>t</em> (one <em>t</em>), making admi<em>tt</em>ed (two t’s), &c.</p> - -<p>But when the accent lies on any other syllable -of the root, the final consonant must remain single -in the derivative, as ‘límit,’ ‘lími<em>t</em>ed;’ ‘díffer,’ ‘díffe<em>r</em>ing;’ -‘bénefit,’ ‘bénefi<em>t</em>ed;’ &c. This rule applies -only to root-endings consisting of a single vowel followed -by a single consonant; for if a diphthong -precede, the consonant must remain single in the -derivative. We must therefore write ‘joi<em>n</em>er,’ ‘stea<em>m</em>ing,’ -‘toi<em>l</em>ing,’ ‘rea<em>d</em>er,’ &c., with single consonants.</p> - -<p>But there are exceptions to this general rule. -One especially regards roots ending in <em>l</em>. These -always double the <em>l</em> in the derivative, whether the -last syllable of the root be accented or not. The -verb ‘to expél,’ will, by the above rule, naturally -make its past tense, ‘expelled;’ but why should -‘trável’ give ‘traveller,’ or ‘équal,’ ‘equalled?’ -These, though universally adopted, are clearly -against the principle. Two other words are also -exceptions, ‘worship,’ and ‘bias.’ These make -‘worshipped,’ and ‘biassed,’ with double consonants. -The Americans refuse to admit these exceptions, -and they write ‘trave<em>l</em>er,’ ‘equa<em>l</em>ed,’ ‘worshi<em>p</em>ed,’ -and ‘bia<em>s</em>ed,’ with single consonants. It -must be admitted that they are right in principle, -but the general practice in English is in these cases -decidedly in favour of the double consonant.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><em>Inversion.</em></h3> - -<p>There appears in certain letters a peculiar tendency -to get out of order—to slip into a wrong -place—a restless desire for change. No letter of -the alphabet is more subject to this affection than -the liquid, <em>r</em>. Many French words ending in <em>re</em>, -are found in English to end in <em>er</em>. The French -‘lett<em>re</em>’ is in English ‘lett<em>er</em>.’ The final syllables -of ‘Septembre,’ ‘Octobre,’ ‘Novembre’ and ‘Décembre,’ -are inverted in English, and are written -‘Septemb<em>er</em>,’ &c. The Greek root ἑρπ (creep) -gave in Latin ‘<em>rep</em>ĕre;’ whence we have ‘<em>rep</em>tile,’ -&c. ‘B<em>ru</em>nt,’ is derived from ‘b<em>ur</em>n.’ The ‘brunt’ -of a battle is where it ‘burns’ most fiercely. -Again: a ‘p<em>ur</em>pose’ is what we ‘p<em>ro</em>pose’ to do; -and ‘to t<em>ru</em>ndle’ a hoop is to ‘t<em>ur</em>n’ it repeatedly. -The Saxon verb ‘<em>ur</em>nan,’ is the source of the -English ‘<em>ru</em>n.’ ‘B<em>ri</em>mstone’ is an inversion of -‘b<em>ur</em>n-stone;’ and the verb to ‘ask,’ was in Anglo-Saxon, -‘axian.’ Chaucer has ‘drit’ for ‘dirt;’ -‘briddes,’ for ‘birds,’ &c.</p> - - -<h3><em>Corruption.</em></h3> - -<p>When a word is warped or distorted from its -original form, either by a vicious pronunciation, -or by a mistaken notion of its derivation, it is -said to be a corruption. Though we must accept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -and adopt the usual spelling of such words, it may -be useful and interesting to know what brought -them into their present forms.</p> - -<p>When a word is first pronounced in the hearing -of those who do not know its meaning, its -spelling naturally becomes with them, a mere -imitation of the sound. It is remarkable how -often these corruptions appear in the names of -taverns and ships. Such words being most frequently -in the mouths of the illiterate, will soon -acquire a false pronunciation, which, after a time, -leads to a false spelling, and hence many of their -present forms. It was this rude attempt to -imitate a sound that led the sailors to call their -ship ‘Bellerophon’ the ‘Billy Ruffian.’ From the -same cause, the sign of the ‘Boulogne Mouth’ was -corrupted into ‘Bull and Mouth;’ and the ‘Bacchanals’ -(a very appropriate name for an inn), -was transformed into the ‘Bag of Nails.’ It is -said that our soldiers in India could never be -taught to pronounce properly ‘Surajah Dowlah,’ -the name of that Bengal prince who figured in -the affair of the Black Hole. They persisted in -calling him ‘Sir Roger Dowlas!’</p> - -<p>Some of these corrupt forms are so firmly rooted -in the language, that they must now be recognised -as correct, and adopted accordingly. We are told -that the word ‘grocer’ was originally ‘grosser,’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -and meant one who sold articles in the gross (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en -gros</i>). This is probably the true explanation; but -we must not, on that account, revert to the old -spelling. It would be eccentric and pedantic in -the extreme to write ‘rightwise’ for ‘righteous;’ -‘frontispice’ for ‘frontispiece,’ or ‘shamefast’ -for ‘shamefaced;’ for though the first may have -been the true and original form of these words, -custom must here take precedence of derivation, -and we must spell them according to the present -usual practice.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER X.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">It is worthy of observation that all nations do not -express the same idea by the same form of word, -i.e. that in different languages the same idea is -often represented by a word of a distinctly different -root. How comes it, we may ask, that the -Romance languages of Europe, viz. French, -Italian, Spanish, &c. all use forms of the originally -same word to express their idea of ‘<em>king</em>,’ viz. -roi, re, rey? These languages being off-shoots of -Latin, the above words are all derived from the -Latin ‘rex,’ from ‘rego,’ ‘I rule,’ or exert physical -power. Now in the Teutonic languages of Europe—Dutch, -German, English, etc.—we find this -idea in a very different phase: ‘Konig,’ ‘König,’ -‘King.’ The root of these words may be found in -‘kennen,’ ‘to know.’ From this it would appear -that the idea of a ruler in one class of nations was -a physically strong man, who, by means of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -bodily strength, could force his subjects to do his -will. The Saxon for ‘king’ was ‘cyning,’ from -‘cnawan’ to know, i.e. one who ‘knew’ better -than his subjects or followers—who was superior -to them in knowledge. We may, perhaps, conclude -from this that the Romance nations regarded -strength or physical power as the distinguishing -quality of a ruler; whereas the Germanic tribes -saw in their leader one who was able to guide -them aright by his superior thought and judgment. -The Romans looked to the hand, the Germans -to the head, in this matter. Is it not likely -that attention to such differences may throw some -light on national characteristics?</p> - -<p>Another example of this difference of view of -the same idea may be seen in the English word -‘finger,’ as compared with the French ‘doigt.’ -‘Finger’ is connected with the German ‘fangen,’ -to take hold of, and is a relation of our word -‘fang,’ i.e. the tooth with which certain animals -<em>hold</em> their prey. In the Germanic view of the -word it is the instrument with which we ‘take -hold.’ On the other hand, the Greek δάκτυλος, from δείκνυμι, -I show or point out, appeared in Latin -as ‘digitus;’ passed into Italian as ‘dito,’ and into -French as ‘doigt.’ The Romance view of the word -would then be ‘a pointer or indicator,’ and the -Teutonic a holder or catcher.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p> - -<p>The French word ‘mouchoir’ will also illustrate -this difference of view. This is from ‘(se) moucher,’ -to wipe (the nose). It would be considered extremely -vulgar to call this article in English ‘a -wiper,’ and yet this is literally its French meaning. -The Germans have named it ‘Schnupftuch,’ or -‘snuff-cloth,’ another view of the same thing. But -the corresponding English word, ‘handkerchief,’ -presents us with a most curious anomaly. The first -form of the word was ‘kerchief,’ which is the old -French ‘couvre-chef,’ i.e. a covering for the head, -just as ‘curfew’ was from ‘couvre-feu’—‘cover-fire.’ -Milton has the word ‘kerchiefed’ in the -sense of ‘with the head covered.’ He speaks of -Morn—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse"><em>Kerchiefed</em> in a comely cloud.—<em>Penseroso.</em></p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">Now, if to ‘kerchief’ we prefix ‘hand,’ we have a -word which seems to mean a covering for the head, -held in the hand—which is a manifest absurdity! -But the climax of confusion is reached when we -qualify this word by ‘pocket.’ How the covering -for the <em>head</em> is to be held in the <em>hand</em>, and yet -carried in the <em>pocket</em> is enough to puzzle anyone.</p> - -<p>Another instance of this description may be -seen in the word ‘heaven.’ In the Teutonic -languages it represents the idea of something -raised on high, or <em>heaved</em> up—from ‘heafan’ and -‘heben,’ to lift up, or elevate. But the Romance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -view of this word is connected with the idea of -hollowness or concavity. The Greek κοῖλον; the -Latin ‘cœlum;’ the Italian ‘cielo;’ and the French -‘ciel’—all involve the meaning of a hollow, or -arched covering.</p> - -<p>A great variety of expression may be also -seen if we compare together the idioms of several -European languages. These peculiarities may be -looked upon as characterising the tone and habits -of thought of a nation, and they deserve especial -study and attention. If we take the usual form -of greeting in English—‘How do you do?’ here -we may see that the verb <em>do</em> is indicative of the -activity and practical nature of the English mind. -It would seem as if in this country our bodily -health actually depends upon our <em>doing</em>; i.e. our -business habits; that to be occupied is equivalent -to being in good health. Now if we take the -ordinary corresponding French phrase—‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comment -vous <em>portez</em>-vous?</span>’—we may fairly infer that the -well-being in this case depends on the <em>carriage</em>, -or outward bearing of the person. The Germans, -under the same circumstances, say: ‘<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wie befinden -Sie sich?</span>’ (literally, ‘how do they <em>find</em> themselves?’) -May not this form of expression throw -some light on the German character? May it -not point to that tendency to deep reflection which -is known to be so strikingly distinctive of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -German tone of mind? From this we may conclude -that the German is so habituated to deep -thought that he cannot even tell you the state of -his health, without searching till he <em>finds</em> it out. -The Italian corresponding form, ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Come sta?</span>’ (literally, -‘How does he stand?’), is referred to the <em>standing</em> -of the Lombard merchants in the market-place; -and in this case, the well-being or health seems to -have depended on the prosperity of the dealer. -In these remarks on the different forms of greeting, -there may appear something fanciful, but one -thing is clear, viz. that they all differ from each -other, and it is but natural to conclude, that each -has some connection with the turn of mind of the -people to which it belongs. Of course it would -be wrong to form positive opinions concerning -national character, from the examination of only -one idiom; and it would be necessary to collect -and compare a large number of examples to arrive -at satisfactory conclusions on this head. But we -should look into the philosophy of idiom more -keenly, for here we are most likely to find a key -to the character of every civilised nation.</p> - -<p>Another example of this variety may be seen -in the form of address adopted in the different -countries of Europe. We English speak to one -another in the second person plural, even when -we address one person. We say ‘you are,’ to one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -single person, and if we have to address a thousand, -we must use the same form. This may, -probably, partly account for the grammatical fault -so commonly made by the uneducated—‘<em>you was</em>.’ -Feeling that they are speaking to only one person, -and not knowing that the pronoun (you) is, strictly -speaking, plural, they very naturally—though, of -course, incorrectly—put the ‘you’ and the ‘was’ -together.</p> - -<p>The French also adopt the second person plural -in the same case—‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vous êtes.</span>’ But they use the -second person singular much more frequently than -we do, especially between relations and intimate -friends. ‘Tu’ and ‘toi,’ however, have lost much -of their former charm since the great revolution, -when the levelling spirit of the Government merged -all differences of rank into one common form of -address. In certain circumstances, the French -use the third person singular as a mark of respect. -When a lady goes into a shop in Paris, the first -question asked her is, ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Qu’est-ce que madame -désire?</span>’ and, in the same way, her servant says to -her, ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Madame, a-t-elle sonné?</span>’</p> - -<p>The Germans, in the same circumstances, use -the third person plural—‘<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sie sind,</span>’ literally ‘they -are.’ This usage has prevailed in Germany ever -since the sixteenth century, and is supposed to -express respect. But in cases of intimacy, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -relationship, the Germans also use the pronoun of -the second person singular. A German husband -always addresses his wife, or a brother his sister, -as <em>du</em>, but if scorn or contempt be intended, then -the third person singular is adopted. In Germany, -the best way to get rid of an importunate beggar -is to exclaim, ‘<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Was will <em>er</em>?</span>’ which is about equivalent -to our ‘What does the fellow want?’</p> - -<p>Majesty still speaks, in this country, in the -plural number. The Queen issues a proclamation, -beginning with:—‘Given at <em>our</em> court of St. -James’, &c. The editorial ‘we’ is also well known -as expressing a certain importance and authority. -In Italy, the form used in addressing any one is -the third person singular, ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Come sta,</span>’ literally, -‘How does he stand?’</p> - -<p>If we compare the words which express degrees -of kindred or relationship in one language with -those of a corresponding class in another, we shall -find distinctly different pictures. The French words -‘mari’ and ‘femme,’ merely show a difference of sex. -‘Mari’ is from the Latin ‘maritus’ (mas, maris), ‘a -male,’ and ‘femme,’ is derived from ‘femina,’ ‘female.’ -But if we put against these the corresponding -English terms ‘husband’ and ‘wife,’ a totally -new scene is opened to our view. ‘Husband’ is -etymologically, the ‘man of the house,’ or the ‘house-protector;’ -and the ‘wife’ is the ‘weaving-one.’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -Indeed, we shall find that most of the Saxon words -expressing degrees of kindred, have reference to -occupations. The <em>hus</em>band was the head or protector -of the house. The wife (as her name -shows) <em>wove</em> the cloth for the use of the family. -But before the cloth could be woven, it must be -<em>spun</em>, and this was done by the grown-up unmarried -women, for that reason called ‘<em>spinsters</em>.’ -The word ‘daughter’ is traced to a Sanscrit root, -‘dhu’—milk; whence we infer that the daughters -milked the cows, a very appropriate occupation in -a primitive state of society. The word ‘son’ is -supposed to be derived from a Sanscrit root ‘<em>su</em>’ -or ‘<em>pu</em>,’ originally signifying ‘clean,’ from which -we may conclude that their office was to <em>clean</em> out -the house. The ‘husband’ then was the ‘protector;’ -the ‘wife,’ the ‘weaver;’ the ‘unmarried -women,’ the ‘spinners’ (or ‘spinsters’); the -‘daughters,’ the ‘milkers;’ and the ‘sons,’ the -‘cleaners.’ With what hallowed feelings are all -these words associated, and what a vivid picture -do they present of the primitive simplicity of -family society! No such picture of domestic life -is exhibited in the Latin or French words which -express these relations, and we may look in vain -for anything of this sort in the Romance languages.</p> - -<p>The Teutonic view of the place of punishment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -in a future life, somewhat differs from the Romance. -We English call it <em>hell</em>, the French and Italians, -<em>enfer</em> and <em>inferno</em>. Our word is derived from the -old Saxon verb ‘<em>helan</em>,’ ‘to cover up’ or ‘hide;’ -‘enfer’ and ‘inferno’ are from ‘inferus,’ ‘below,’ -so that the Germanic idea is here ‘a concealed or -covered place;’ the classical view of the same is -‘the place below, or underground.’</p> - -<p>If we compare the English word ‘<em>shoe</em>,’ with -the French ‘<em>soulier</em>’ we shall also find a difference -in the original meaning. They both represent the -same article of dress, but our word ‘<em>shoe</em>’ is from -‘shove,’ it is that into which we ‘shove’ the foot; -whereas the French ‘<em>soulier</em>’ rather suggests ‘sandal’ -than ‘shoe,’ properly so called. It means -literally, something ‘bound under’ (sous-lié), i.e. -under the foot.</p> - -<p>Our common word ‘<em>thimble</em>,’ is connected with -‘thumb,’ on which it was originally worn. The -Germans choose to call this article ‘<em>Fingerhut</em>,’ -literally, a ‘finger-hat,’ i.e. a hat or covering for -the finger.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XI.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">COMPOUND WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">One of the greatest advantages a language can -possess, is the power of forming compound words. -This materially contributes to its conciseness;—makes -it comparatively easy to express much in -few words—and thus assists, by concentrating its -force, in rendering it vigorous and impressive. -This power of compounding is found chiefly in the -Teutonic languages of Europe; and is comparatively -unknown in the Romance. In our own -case, it was considerably modified by the Norman -Conquest, which introduced a French (or Latin) -element into English. We still, however, possess -this power to a considerable extent; and herein -we enjoy certain advantages unknown to French -or Italian. German, the most cultivated of all -the Teutonic languages, has much more of this -characteristic; and, in point of closeness and compactness -of expression, is superior to English. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -there are symptoms of its still further decrease in -our language, and it is worthy of observation that -the general tendency with us is to give up Saxon -compounds, and to substitute for them Latin or -French terms. The old word ‘deathsman’ has its -present equivalent in ‘executioner;’ ‘mildheartedness’ -has become ‘mercy;’ ‘long-suffering,’ ‘patience,’ -&c. The verb ‘to gainsay’ still lingers in -the language, but its place is now generally taken -by ‘to contradict.’ ‘To gainstrive’ is supplanted -by ‘to oppose.’ ‘To inspect’ is preferred before -‘to look into;’ and ‘to despise’ is used rather than -‘to look down upon.’</p> - -<p>The first English poet who gave prominence to -this power of combination was Chapman, who -applied it with wonderfully happy effect in his -Homer’s Iliad, in translating the compound Greek -epithets which so frequently occur in that poem; -such as ‘swift-footed;’ ‘ivory-wristed;’ ‘white-armed;’ -‘many-headed;’ ‘rosy-fingered,’ &c. -Most of these were afterwards adopted by Pope. -There is a tendency in some modern English -writers to carry this compounding power to an -unwarrantable extent, a practice which should -certainly be resisted, as being opposed to the -genius of our language, and also giving evidence -of aping after Germanic forms, and thus transgressing -the proper limits of the language. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -late Madame d’Arblay, in her ‘Memoirs of Dr. -Burney,’ speaks of the ‘very-handsome,-though-no-longer-in-her-bloom-Mrs. -Stevens!’ and this -authoress also has the ‘sudden-at-the-moment-though-from-lingering-illness-often-previously-expected-death.’ -But this is really too bad. ‘It -out-Herods Herod;’ and in these cases is a mere -piece of affectation.</p> - -<p>The mania at one time for these long-tailed adjectives, -was very cleverly ridiculed by the brothers -James and Horace Smith, in their ‘Rejected -Addresses.’ Here in caricaturing the style of the -‘Morning Post,’ they speak of the ‘not-a-bit-the-less-on-that-account-to-be-universally-execrated-monster-Bonaparte.’ -Another of these extraordinary -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'epithetsis'">epithets is</ins>:—‘That-deeply-to-be-abhorred-and-highly-to-be-blamed-stratagem-the-Gunpowder-Plot!’ -But the climax of the caricature is reached -in the following. Speaking of Covent-garden market, -the writer calls it ‘The-in-general-strewn-with-cabbage-stalks-but-on-Saturday-night-lighted-up-with-lamps-market-of-Covent-garden!!’ -But such legitimate compound forms as ‘ill-assorted,’ -‘cloud-capped,’ ‘far-darting,’ &c., are highly valuable, -and of great service to the language. It is -to be observed that none of these are literally -translatable into French. For such an adjective -as ‘broken-hearted,’ there is no corresponding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -equivalent in that language. The only way to -express, in French, any approach to the meaning -of our word, is to use a ponderous circumlocution, -which will require at least three or four terms. -The expression is thus enfeebled by being broken -up into a number of words, and it loses all the -force and vigour of the English. A ‘broken-hearted -father’ would be probably expressed in -French by ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">un père qui a le cœur brisé</span>’—exactly -five words for our one. And so of all other compound -terms. In fact, French does not lend itself -to closeness and compactness of expression; and, -in this respect, is far inferior to any of the Teutonic -languages.</p> - -<p>One peculiarity of the Saxon part of English is -its monosyllabic nature. This was chiefly caused -by the falling-off of the endings. All our prepositions -and conjunctions, beside most of the nouns, -verbs, and adjectives in common use, are monosyllables. -These form the staple of the English -language, and are the chief elements of closeness -and brevity of expression. Our legitimate compound -words seldom consist of more than two, or -at most three, elements. The greater number are -made up of monosyllables; as ‘milk-maid,’ ‘oat-meal,’ -‘foot-boy,’ ‘hail-storm,’ &c. In a few -cases, they are compounded of three terms, as -‘out-of-doors,’ ‘matter-of-fact,’ ‘out-of-the-way,’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -&c.; but these are comparatively rare. There are -few, if perhaps any, cases of English words which -have more than seven syllables. This seems to -be the length of our tether in this respect. -Perhaps it is as well that it should be so; for -whatever may be said of the use of the compounding -principle, as giving closeness and energy of -expression, there is no doubt that, when carried -to excess, it has a directly contrary effect. When -a very large number of elements are fused together -into one word, there is naturally a difficulty in -getting at the original root and primary meaning -of the whole; and the expression becomes cumbrous -and unintelligible.</p> - -<p>This combining or compounding power is of -different degrees in different languages, but in the -Mexican language it is carried to an incredible -extent. Here, combinations are admitted so easily, -that the simplest ideas are buried under a load of -accessories. For example, the word for a ‘priest,’ -consists of eleven syllables, and is there called -‘notlazomahuizleopixcatatzin,’ which means literally, -‘venerable minister of God, whom I love as -my father.’ A still more comprehensive word is -‘amatlacuilolitquitcatlaxtlahuitli,’ which means -‘the reward given to a messenger who brings a -hieroglyphical map conveying intelligence.’</p> - -<p>This system displays a most curious mechanism,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -which, by bringing the greatest number of ideas -into the smallest possible compass, condenses -whole sentences into a single word. Many of our -older writers indulged in derivatives and compound -words to an extent which the language does not -now admit, in consequence of its having lost part -of its Saxon character. We still have ‘to undo;’ -but to ‘unput’ (for to take away) and to ‘undestroy’ -(for to rebuild) were formerly used, and -Fuller even employs the verb ‘<em>to ungrayhair</em>,’ in -the sense of ‘to pull out gray hairs.’ He writes -of a man being ‘ungrayhaired,’ when all his gray -hairs were plucked out of his head!</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XII.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">It is simply impossible to express sound by writing, -and therefore all instruction in pronunciation -should be given vivâ voce. A pronouncing Dictionary -may sometimes afford assistance; but -in many cases it must fail, as it is an attempt to -explain varieties or shades of sound by varieties of -shape, i.e. combinations of written letters—in fine, -objects of one sense by those of another.</p> - -<p>It is not easy to fix a standard of pronunciation. -At one time the stage, then the bar, and, later -still, the pulpit, have been considered as authorities -in this matter. But all these are now rejected, -and the conversation of the highest classes in -London society is now looked upon as the standard -of English pronunciation.</p> - -<p>Pronunciation, like everything else connected -with language, varies continually with the influence -of time and fashion; and it is well known that,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -even fifty years ago, many English words were pronounced -differently from the present practice. It -was formerly the fashion to pronounce ‘leisure’ -(which now rhymes with ‘pleasure’) as if written -‘leezure’ (to rhyme with ‘seizure’). This was -never a vulgar pronunciation; it was done by -the highest classes. It was also the fashion to -pronounce ‘oblige’ more like the French verb -‘obliger’ as if written ‘obl<em>ee</em>ge,’ and this also -was the practice with the best educated. ‘Gold’ -also was formerly pronounced by good speakers -as if rhyming with ‘ruled;’ now it properly -rhymes with ‘old’ or ‘cold.’</p> - -<p>We may conclude, from some of Pope’s rhymes, -that, in the early part of the eighteenth century, -our language was not pronounced exactly as it is -at present. He has ‘line’ and ‘join’ rhyming -with each other; also ‘vice’ and ‘destroys,’ -‘power’ and ‘secure,’ ‘safe’ and ‘laugh,’ ‘obey’ -and ‘tea,’ &c. Some of these may have been -peculiar to the poet himself, and may be regarded -as bad rhymes; still, as Pope was an authority for -the language of his own time, most of them were, -in all probability, recognised as correct.</p> - -<p>Stories are told of the peculiar pronunciation of -some of the leading literati of the last century -which appear scarcely credible. Dr. Johnson is -said to have pronounced the word ‘fair’ like ‘fear,’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -and the adverb ‘once’ as if written ‘woonse.’ -He also called ‘punch’ ‘poonsh.’ Garrick was -often remarked for saying ‘shupreme’ and ‘shuperior’ -for ‘supreme’ and ‘superior.’ He also pronounced -‘Israel’ as ‘Isrel,’ ‘villain’ as if ‘villin,’ -and, still more strangely, ‘appeal’ as ‘appal.’</p> - -<p>John Kemble had several peculiarities of pronunciation. -He is known to have always said -‘bird’ for ‘beard,’ ‘ferse’ for ‘fierce,’ and my -head ‘aitches’ (for ‘aches’). He persisted, too, -in pronouncing ‘Cato’ with the <em>a</em> broad, as if -written ‘Cāāto.’ Of this peculiarity an amusing -anecdote is related. ‘One evening, at the Dublin -Theatre, after the performance of Addison’s tragedy, -the manager appeared on the stage, and -made the following statement:—“Ladies and -gentlemen, to-morrow evening, with your permission, -the tragedy of Cato will be repeated, the -part of ‘<em>Cāāto</em>’ by Mr. Kemble.”’</p> - -<p>Another story is told of the same eminent actor, -who, when George III. said to him: ‘Mr. Kemble, -will you “obleege” me with a pinch of your -snuff?’ replied: ‘With pleasure, your Majesty; -but it would become your royal lips much better -to say “oblīge.”’</p> - -<p>Some of the actor Quin’s pronunciations would -be now considered very singular. He always pronounced -the word ‘face’ as if written ‘fāāce,’ and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -said ‘trōpically’ for ‘trŏpically.’ Also, in a certain -classical drama, addressing the Roman guard, he -desired them to lower their ‘faces’ (meaning their -‘fasces’).</p> - -<p>But, whatever may be the recognised standard -of pronunciation, there always will be a refined -and a vulgar mode of speech—one adopted by the -cultivated and well-informed, and the other used -by the rude and illiterate. It must be understood -that there are only two ways in which our pronunciation -may be at fault. 1. The accent may -be placed on the wrong syllable; or, 2. a wrong -sound may be given to the vowels. Under the -first head may be placed such faults as the following:—Some -will say ‘fánatic’ instead of ‘fanátic,’ -and perhaps as often ‘lunátic’ for ‘lúnatic.’ Again, -‘mischíevous’ is wrong, both in accent and tone; for -the accent should here be on the first syllable, and -the sound of the second should be close—míschĭevous. -We also not unfrequently hear people call the -word ‘extánt,’ instead of ‘éxtant;’ but, as the accent -is always on the first in words of a like formation—such -as ‘cónstant,’ ‘dístant,’ ‘ínstant,’ &c.—there -is no good reason why ‘éxtant’ should be -made an exception. Another word in which the accent -is often misplaced is ‘réspĭted.’ Many will say -‘respíted,’ which is decidedly against good usage.</p> - -<p>In some words the accent still seems to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -unsettled. Perhaps we hear the word ‘óbdurate’ -as often with the accent on the second as on the -first syllable. Many scholars pronounce the word -‘obdūrate,’ probably because the <em>u</em> is long in the -Latin ‘dūrus;’ but this must also follow the accent -of similar forms. We always say ‘áccŭrate,’ -‘índŭrate,’ ‘áugŭrate,’ ‘sátŭrate,’ &c.; and therefore, -by analogy, it should be óbdŭrate.’</p> - -<p>By many the accent is placed on the second -syllable of the word ‘applicable;’ but the general -custom is to lay it on the first, and the best practice -is to say ‘ápplicable,’ and not ‘applícable.’</p> - -<p>Another case of wrong tone may be heard in -the pronunciation of the word ‘<em>ínfĭnĭte</em>.’ We -still not unfrequently hear in the pulpit, ‘infinīte -goodness,’ &c. In dissyllables ‘īte’ final is sometimes -pronounced long; as in ‘polīte,’ ‘finīte,’ -‘recīte,’ &c.; but in words of more than two syllables -the final ‘ite’ is, with few exceptions, -pronounced short. We always (properly) say -‘definĭte,’ ‘exquisĭte,’ ‘opposĭte,’ ‘favourĭte,’ &c.</p> - -<p>Many have special difficulties in the pronunciation -of certain consonants. The correct sound of -<em>r</em> is a medium between the strong rough <em>R</em> of -the Irish, and the feeble indistinct tone given it -by the London cockney. The Irishman will tell -you that he is very ‘wa<em>r</em>(u)m’ after his ‘wo<em>r</em>(u)k.’ -But in London, one often hears, instead of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -‘garden,’ ‘g<em>au</em>den,’ for ‘forth’ ‘f<em>au</em>th,’ and for -‘card’ ‘c<em>au</em>d,’ &c.</p> - -<p>Many Englishmen have a difficulty in pronouncing -the rough <em>r</em>, substituting for it the sound of <em>w</em>. -These say ‘<em>w</em>oom’ for ‘<em>r</em>oom,’ ‘p<em>w</em>oduct’ for ‘p<em>r</em>oduct,’ -‘<em>w</em>agged’ for ‘<em>r</em>agged,’ &c. This habit, -unless checked early, is likely to become incurable.</p> - -<p>Others again contract a vicious habit of pronouncing -the <em>r</em> far back in the throat, instead of -forming it by vibrating the tip of the tongue. -This is what the French call ‘<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">parler gras</i>.’</p> - -<p>There is one very improper use of <em>r</em> which must -be here mentioned; viz. the addition of this letter -to certain words ending in <em>a</em>. Some pronounce -‘sofa’ as if written ‘sofa<em>r</em>.’ Also they speak of -their papa<em>r</em> and mamma<em>r</em>, &c. It is scarcely necessary -to say that this is a positive vulgarism.</p> - -<p>Nowhere, perhaps, is the perversity of our nature -more evident than in the pronunciation of, -(1), <em>h</em> silent and <em>h</em> aspirate; and, (2), <em>v</em> and <em>w</em>. -These sounds are constantly confounded. Many -pronounce <em>h</em> where it is not required, and leave it -out where it should be sounded. They will say -‘abit’ for ‘habit,’ ‘erd’ for ‘herd,’ ‘ill’ for ‘hill,’ -‘old’ for ‘hold,’ &c.; and, on the other hand, -‘<em>h</em>all’ for ‘all,’ ‘<em>h</em>odd’ for ‘odd,’ ‘<em>h</em>uncle’ for -‘uncle,’ &c.</p> - -<p>The same vice exists in the pronunciation of <em>v</em><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -and <em>w</em>. It is clear that the speaker <em>can</em> pronounce -both these letters, but he inveterately persists in -misplacing them. He will say ‘<em>w</em>eal’ and ‘<em>w</em>inegar,’ -and at the same time, ‘<em>V</em>y do you <em>v</em>eep?’ -These faults are made almost exclusively by ignorant, -uneducated people.</p> - -<p>Under this head may be also mentioned the -incorrect pronunciation of <em>wh</em> initial. By many -the <em>h</em> is here left out altogether, and these pronounce -the pronoun <em>which</em> exactly as if written -‘<em>witch</em>.’ In Anglo-Saxon, whence all this class of -words comes, they were spelled, and probably -pronounced, with the <em>h</em> first—‘<em>hw</em>;’ and even now, -if we listen attentively to those who pronounce -them correctly, we shall always hear the aspirate -first. We should surely make a difference between -‘<em>wh</em>o’ and ‘<em>w</em>oo,’ ‘<em>wh</em>en’ and ‘<em>w</em>en,’ ‘<em>wh</em>ere’ and -‘<em>w</em>ear,’ &c.; and, though it would be incorrect to -mark the aspirate too roughly, the <em>h</em> in such words -should be always fairly brought out.</p> - -<p>We also perpetually hear (especially in London) -words ending in ‘<em>ing</em>’ pronounced as if written -‘<em>in</em>;’ as, for example, ‘stand<em>in</em>,’ ‘runn<em>in</em>,’ ‘go<em>in</em>,’ -for ‘stand<em>ing</em>,’ ‘runn<em>ing</em>,’ go<em>ing</em>,’ &c. In one case a -<em>k</em> is put for the g. ‘Nothin<em>k</em>’ is said for ‘nothing.’</p> - -<p>There is a disposition in many readers and -speakers to give a sort of veiled sound to unaccented -monosyllables, so that the true pure tone<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -of the vowel is not heard. This is a very common -fault. By such readers ‘for’ is pronounced ‘<em>fur</em>,’ -‘of’ is called ‘<em>uv</em>,’ ‘not’ ‘<em>nut</em>,’ ‘from’ ‘<em>frum</em>,’ -and ‘was’ ‘<em>wuz</em>,’ &c. &c. It should be remembered -that, whether such words be, or be not, -accented, the sound of the vowel should always be -full and pure.</p> - -<p>A point of great importance is to always carefully -give the true sound to an unaccented vowel -which begins a word. We should never let <em>e</em>motion -degenerate into ‘<em>imm</em>otion,’ ‘<em>e</em>mergency’ into -‘<em>imm</em>ergency,’ ‘<em>o</em>bedience’ into ‘<em>ub</em>bedience,’ &c. -No accent, however, should be placed on these -syllables, but the initial vowel should be always -pronounced in its proper and pure sound.</p> - -<p>It is right to be just as careful with vowels -which are medial and unaccented. We should not -allow ‘mon<em>u</em>ment’ to sound as ‘mon<em>i</em>ment,’ nor -must ‘calc<em>u</em>late’ be pronounced with the u close. -This fault often happens with words ending in ‘<em>e</em>ty’ -or ‘<em>i</em>ty.’ We hear over and over again, in the pulpit, -the words ‘trin<em>i</em>ty,’ ‘dign<em>i</em>ty,’ ‘soci<em>e</em>ty,’ &c. pronounced -as if written ‘trin<em>a</em>ty,’ ‘dign<em>a</em>ty,’ ‘soci<em>a</em>ty,’ -&c.</p> - -<p>The pronunciation of the word ‘knowledge,’ -with the o long, is still occasionally heard; but it -is now almost universally called ‘knŏwledge’ (to -rhyme with ‘college’).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> - -<p>Some pronounce ‘haunt,’ ‘jaunt,’ ‘taunt,’ ‘jaundice,’ -&c. with the diphthong broad, having the -same sound as in ‘r<em>aw</em>’ or ‘s<em>aw</em>.’ But all these -should rhyme with ‘aunt,’ which is never pronounced -broad.</p> - -<p>The ending ‘<em>ile</em>’ of certain adjectives sometimes -offers a difficulty of pronunciation. Here, in the -words ‘hostīle,’ ‘missīle,’ ‘servīle,’ ‘reptīle,’ ‘puerīle,’ -and ‘volatīle’ the <em>i</em> has a long sound; but -in ‘fertĭle,’ ‘fragĭle,’ ‘futĭle,’ and ‘imbecĭle’ the <em>i</em> -must be short.</p> - -<p>Some incorrectly give the long sound ‘īle’ to -the broader diphthong ‘<em>oi</em>l.’ They call ‘<em>oi</em>l’ ‘īle,’ -‘boil’ and ‘broil’ ‘bīle’ and ‘brīle,’ &c. In the -age of the poet Pope, these two sounds were probably -closer to each other than they are now; for -he makes ‘<em>join</em>’ rhyme with ‘<em>line</em>:‘—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse">While expletives their feeble aid do <em>join</em>,</p> -<p class="verse">And ten low words oft creep in one dull <em>line</em>.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>A story is told of some one dining at a tavern -who was asked by the waiter whether he wished -to have his sole ‘<em>brīled</em>?’ To which he replied -that he did not care whether it was ‘brīled’ or -‘bīled,’ as long as it was not ‘spīled!!’</p> - -<p>The words ‘fast,’ ‘past,’ ‘mast,’ and other similar -combinations are often pronounced either too -broad or too close. In the provinces we often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -hear ‘m<em>au</em>ster,’ ‘f<em>au</em>st,’ ‘p<em>au</em>st,’ and ‘c<em>au</em>nt,’ whilst -the affected Londoner says ‘m<em>ĕ</em>ster,’ ‘f<em>ĕ</em>st,’ ‘p<em>ĕ</em>st,’ &c.</p> - -<p>Neither of the two is right, but the proper pronunciation -lies between them. Again, ‘pūt’ -(which rhymes with ‘foot’) must not be called -‘pŭt’ (to rhyme with ‘bŭt’), nor must pūlpit be -called pŭlpit. Some persist in pronouncing ‘covetous’ -as if written ‘covet<em>i</em>ous,’ and ‘tremendous’ -as ‘tremend<em>i</em>ous;’ and these are apparently -equally attached to ‘pron<em>ou</em>nciation’ and ‘ar<em>e</em>thmetic.’ -Lastly, the participle of the verb ‘to be’ -must always sound exactly like the vegetable -‘bēan,’ and not as a wine-‘bin.’</p> - -<p>The letter <em>u</em>, in many words, is really a diphthong, -and has the double sound of e + oo. This -is heard in such words as ‘tüne,’ ‘stüpid,’ ‘tübe,’ -‘prodüce,’ ‘solitüde,’ ‘pictüre,’ &c., which should -be sounded as if written ‘te + une,’ ‘ste + upid,’ -‘te + ube,’ &c., the one part uttered rapidly after -the other. But many pronounce such words, incorrectly, -as if written ‘toone,’ ‘stoopid,’ ‘pict<em>er</em>,’ -&c. This is a vicious cockney pronunciation.</p> - -<p>There is no termination we should be more -careful to pronounce fairly out than ‘<em>ow</em>’ final, -which, when unaccented, frequently degenerates -into ‘<em>er</em>.’ The words are properly pronounced -‘wid<em>ow</em>,’ ‘wind<em>ow</em>,’ and ‘fell<em>ow</em>,’ &c., and not ‘widd<em>er</em>,’ -‘wind<em>er</em>,’ and ‘fell<em>er</em>!!’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p> - -<p>The word ‘tobacc<em>o</em>’ also is often wrongly pronounced -‘tobacc<em>er</em>.’</p> - -<p>Some, who would be over-refined in their pronunciation, -make two syllables (instead of one) of -the words ‘sky,’ ‘kind.’ They expand them into -‘ske-y,’ ‘key-ind,’ &c. This is an absurd affectation.</p> - -<p>A clear distinct articulation is an essential -principle of a correct pronunciation; for, unless -every syllable be uttered clearly, the word cannot -have its proper effect. How often do we hear -careless readers and speakers push one monosyllable -into another, so as to convey the impression -that there is but one word, where, in fact, -there are two. How often do we hear: ‘<em>Frin</em> this -case,’ instead of ‘<em>For</em> in this case;’ ‘<em>Fra</em> time,’ for -‘<em>For</em> a time;’ ‘<em>Nevery</em> occasion,’ for ‘<em>On</em> every -occasion;’ ‘<em>Tinders</em>,’ for ‘<em>It</em> hinders!’ &c.</p> - -<p>Special care should be taken to utter <em>unaccented</em> -syllables distinctly; as these are the most -likely to be neglected. It is this neglect which -produces such bad pronunciations as ‘reg’lar,’ -‘sing’lar,’ ‘sim’lar,’ and which makes ‘extr<em>a</em>ordinary,’ -‘extr<em>or</em>dinary;’ ‘us<em>u</em>al,’ ‘uzhal;’ and -‘vi<em>o</em>lent,’ ‘vilent.’ It is from the same cause -that the <em>d</em> in ‘and’ (a word which is seldom accented) -is so frequently unheard, especially when -the following word begins with a vowel, in such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -forms as ‘He <em>an I</em>,’ for ‘He <em>and</em> I;’ ‘My uncle <em>an</em> -aunt,’ for ‘my uncle <em>and</em> aunt,’ &c.</p> - -<p>The Irish have several peculiarities of pronunciation, -which must be here noticed.</p> - -<p>1. They sound ‘ea’ (the long ē) as ‘ay;’ -‘plēase’ they pronounce exactly as ‘plays,’ and -‘tēa’ as ‘tay.’</p> - -<p>2. ‘Door’ and ‘floor’ properly rhyme with -‘more’ and ‘sore,’ but the Irish give to these -words the sound of ‘oo’ in ‘poor.’</p> - -<p>3. They also pronounce ‘catch’ (which exactly -rhymes with ‘match’) as ‘ketch’ (to rhyme with -‘fetch’). This is also a vulgar pronunciation in -England.</p> - -<p>4. They give the short instead of the more open -sound of <em>u</em> in the words ‘pudding,’ ‘cushion,’ -and ‘foot.’ They make ‘pudding’ rhyme with -‘sŭdden;’ ‘cushion’ with ‘rush on;’ and ‘foot’ -with ‘but.’ They also give the same sound to -the vowels in ‘strōve’ and ‘drōve,’ making them -rhyme with ‘lŏve’ and ‘dŏve,’ and pronouncing -them as if they were written ‘struv’ and ‘druv.’</p> - -<p>5. Another of their peculiarities is to leave out -the ‘<em>g</em>’ in ‘strength’ and ‘length,’ pronouncing -these words as if they were written ‘strenth’ and -‘lenth.’ They also omit the ‘<em>d</em>,’ in pronouncing -‘breadth,’ and call it ‘breth.’</p> - -<p>6. They give the long sound of ‘<em>e</em>’ to the close<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -‘<em>i</em>’ in such words as ‘del<em>i</em>cious,’ ‘mal<em>i</em>cious,’ -‘v<em>i</em>cious,’ &c., and call them ‘del<em>ee</em>cious,’ ‘mal<em>ee</em>cious,’ -‘v<em>ee</em>cious.’</p> - -<p>7. They pronounce ‘<em>o</em>’ before ‘<em>ld</em>’ like the ‘<em>ow</em>’ -in ‘how,’ and they pronounce ‘cold’ and ‘bold’ -as if these words rhymed with ‘howled’ or -‘growled.’</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIII.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">SLANG WORDS AND AMERICANISMS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">No language is, or ever has been, in the strict -sense of the word, <em>pure</em>. All languages are continually -borrowing and lending—adopting words -from foreign sources, and contributing from their -own store to that of others. It is now well known -that the ancient Greeks borrowed largely from the -Oriental tongues, and lent words and forms to -Latin. Latin, again, borrowed from Greek, and -contributed to form the modern Italian, Spanish, -and French. The modern German language is -just now strongly affected by a French influence; -and French itself, though for the most part Latin, -contains many Celtic and not a few Germanic -words. Spanish, which is in the main Latin, has -a very considerable admixture of Arabic, brought -in by the Moors in the eighth century; and -English is well known to be made up of Anglo-Saxon, -Norman, French, and Latin.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p> - -<p>But languages are not only subject to these attacks -from without, a process of internal corruption -is also set up, and appears in various forms. -One of these may be recognised in the principle of -contraction. It may be laid down as a rule that -words, as they grow older, degenerate in meaning -and contract in form. This contraction probably -originated in a loose, careless way of speaking, -which afterwards affected the written language. -Sometimes a letter or syllable is cut off from the -beginning of a word; sometimes one is taken from -the middle, or from the end. ‘<em>Bus</em>’ is now all we -have left (at any rate, in ordinary conversation) -of ‘<em>omnibus</em>.’ ‘<em>Fantasy</em>’ has lost its middle syllable, -and appears as ‘<em>fancy</em>’ and ‘<em>cab</em>’ does duty -for ‘<em>cabriolet</em>.’ One conclusion this result enables -us to draw is that the contracted forms are always -the more modern. The form ‘courtesy’ existed -before ‘curtsy;’ ‘procurator’ preceded ‘proctor;’ -and ‘minute’ was known before ‘mite.’ Whether -these contractions are to be regarded favourably -or otherwise may be a question, but there is no -doubt that they are all produced by the operation -of a natural law of language which no human -power will ever be able to prevent.</p> - -<p>When a word is warped or distorted from its -original form, either by a vicious or slovenly pronunciation, -or from a mistaken notion of its derivation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -it is said to be a corruption. One of these -corruptions appears in our word ‘surgeon.’ The -French ‘chirurgien,’ from which it immediately -comes, shows more clearly its Greek origin—χεὶρ -(cheir), a hand; and ἔργω (ergo), I work—i.e. a -hand-worker, or manual operator. But a careless -pronunciation, probably aided by a natural tendency -to contraction, has caused the word with us -to dwindle down to ‘surgeon.’</p> - -<p>As an illustration of corruption arising from a -false notion of its derivation, we may take the -word ‘i<em>s</em>land.’ How did the <em>s</em> get into it? This <em>s</em> -is not sounded, and yet it must be written. In the -one word ‘island,’ there is a mixture of Latin and -German. The first syllable is of Romance, and -the second of Teutonic origin. The Latin for -‘island’ is ‘insula,’ from ‘in’ and ‘salo,’ the ‘salt,’ -i.e. in the salt (sea, understood). The Anglo-Saxon -word for the same idea was ‘ea-land.’ Here -‘<em>ea</em>’ means ‘water.’ This ‘<em>ea</em>,’ or ‘<em>ey</em>,’ is found -in many names of islands, as ‘Angles<em>ea</em>,’ ‘Jers<em>ey</em>,’ -‘Guerns<em>ey</em>,’ &c. ‘<em>Ea</em>-land,’ then meant ‘water-land,’ -or ‘land surrounded by water.’ In the -earlier editions of ‘Paradise Lost,’ the word always -appears written ‘iland’ (without the <em>s</em>), which -points more clearly to its Saxon derivation, and is -nearer in spelling to the modern German—‘Eiland.’ -The ‘<em>s</em>’ was afterwards inserted, from a mistaken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -notion that the word was of Latin, and not German, -origin.</p> - -<p>A false analogy will sometimes give rise to a -corrupted form of spelling. The past tense of -‘can’ was originally ‘coude,’ not ‘cou<em>l</em>d;’ and -the <em>l</em> was afterwards introduced, from the apparent -analogy of the word to ‘wou<em>l</em>d,’ from ‘will,’ -and ‘shou<em>l</em>d,’ from ‘shall.’ This, then, is a corruption. -But, though at first incorrect, the <em>l</em> -must, of course, be now retained.</p> - -<p>Proper names, both of places and persons, have -suffered a good deal from this influence. Words -of this class are most likely to be corrupted, -because they are most frequently in the mouths of -the common people. That ‘Birmingham’ should -be called ‘Brummagem,’ ‘Cirencester,’ ‘Siseter,’ -and ‘Wavertree,’ ‘Wartree,’ is not surprising -when we remember that these corruptions originated -with those who had often to pronounce, but -seldom, if ever, to write these names. But what -is, perhaps, more strange, many of these corruptions -are now adopted by the upper classes. Thus, -in all ranks of society, the proper name ‘Beauchamp’ -is now pronounced ‘Beecham;’ ‘St. -John’ is called ‘Sinjon;’ ‘Cholmondeley’ is pronounced -‘Chumley,’ and ‘Marjoribanks’ ‘Marchbanks.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><em>Slang Words.</em></h3> - -<p>Among the many signs of the corruption of the -English language, one, which is not the least remarkable, -is the prevalent use of slang words and -phrases. That certain terms should be peculiar -to certain callings, trades, or professions, may be -naturally expected, but that these should be extended -into general conversation, is a corroborative -proof of the strong liking people now have for any -thing unusual or out-of-the-way. One very curious -fact may be here observed. While the style of -most of our periodical writers soars upwards, and -affects the lofty and sublime, that of general conversation -is the very reverse, and sinks to the low -and vulgar.</p> - -<p>A difference must be here made between ‘cant’ -and ‘slang.’ The first signifies the secret language -of thieves, beggars, and tramps, by which -they endeavour to conceal their evil deeds from -the public. The knowledge and practice of this -kind of language is confined to the above-named -fraternities. But slang consists of those vulgar, -unauthorised terms, which have come into fashion -during the last eighty or ninety years, and which -are not confined to one class, but may be now -heard in almost every grade of society.</p> - -<p>In all trades and professions there are certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -terms peculiar to each, which are properly called -‘technical;’ these can hardly be denominated -slang. For example, in the language of actors, a -‘<em>length</em>’ signifies forty-two lines of the part each -has to study for the stage. They say, a part consists -of so many ‘lengths.’ This, and other such -terms, are seldom, if ever, heard beyond the circle -to which they properly belong. But slang is -found in almost all classes of society. That of -high life is drawn from various sources. One of -its phases may be seen in the French words and -forms which would-be fashionable people so delight -in using. To call a breakfast a <em>déjeuner</em> is -absurd, especially as we have a very good word of -our own to express that meal. Leaders of fashion -never speak of the fashionable world; but always -of the ‘beau monde.’ This ‘beau monde,’ they -tell us, give ‘recherchés’ entertainments, attended -by the ‘élite’ of society. Lady <em>So</em>-and-<em>So</em> gave a -‘thé dansant,’ which, of course, ‘went off with -éclat,’ &c. &c. Many so-called fashionable ladies -and gentlemen would, probably, be deeply offended -to hear such language termed slang; but any -words or forms which are not recognised English -certainly deserve to be so stigmatised.</p> - -<p>This form of slang is confined chiefly to the -would-be fashionables, and to those writers of -very questionable taste, who use what they think<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -funny and startling expressions in a novel and -flippant way. Cookery also has given us much -slang of this sort. If we were to ask, in an -ordinary English hotel, for ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">côtelettes à la jardinière,</span>’ -or a ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">vol-au-vent à la financière,</span>’ the -people of the house would probably stare at us; -but these and such expressions form the staple of -the style of many popular novelists.</p> - -<p>Of parliamentary slang, too, there is no lack of -examples. Lord Palmerston, and Mr. Disraeli are -perhaps better known as <em>Pam</em> and <em>Dizzy</em>, than by -their proper names. A single vote to one candidate -at an election is called a ‘plumper;’ and -those who have boiled a pot in a house, to qualify -themselves to vote, are termed ‘potwallopers.’ -Among military men, anyone unusually particular -about his dress or personal appearance, is a -‘dandy’ or a ‘swell.’ They also call a ‘title’ a -‘handle to your name,’ and a kind-hearted, good-natured -fellow is, with them, a ‘trump,’ or a ‘brick.’</p> - -<p>The Universities also have their slang terms. -The graduates use ‘crib’ for a house; ‘deadmen’ -for empty wine-bottles; ‘governor,’ or ‘relieving-officer,’ -for a father; ‘plucked,’ for defeated or -rejected in an examination; and ‘row’ for a -disturbance.</p> - -<p>The Eton and Harrow boys make use among -themselves of many slang terms, which are not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -often heard outside their bounds; but when they -return home for the holidays, they frequently -infect their sisters with some of their strange -phraseology. A boy will sometimes puzzle his -sisters at home, by asking them if they do not -find his ‘toggery’ absolutely ‘stunning;’ or -what they think of his ‘tile,’ or white ‘choker;’ -adding that they are not yet paid for; but that -he supposes the ‘governor’ will have to ‘stump -up,’ or ‘fork out the blunt,’ &c.</p> - -<p>Lawyers also have their slang; and this is not -surprising, when we remember the many opportunities -they must have of hearing it, from their -connection with the police courts, and with life in -its worst phases. With them, taking the benefit -of the Insolvent Debtors Act, is to be ‘white-washed;’ -and to draw up a fraudulent balance-sheet -is to ‘cook’ accounts, &c.</p> - -<p>But of all the forms of slang, the one most -abundant in variety of terms is the mercantile. -It has been calculated that there are as many as -thirty-six vulgar synonyms for the one simple -word <em>money</em>. The following are a few of them: -‘<em>blunt</em>,’ ‘<em>tin</em>,’ ‘<em>coppers</em>,’ ‘<em>browns</em>,’ ‘<em>shiners</em>,’ ‘<em>yellow-boys</em>,’ -‘<em>flimsies</em>’ (bank notes); ‘<em>fivers</em>’ (five pound -notes), &c. &c. In city phraseology, 100,000<em>l.</em> -is called a <em>plum</em>, and one million sterling is a -<em>marigold</em>. On the Stock Exchange buyers and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -sellers for the account are called ‘bulls’ and ‘bears:’ -a broker who is unable to pay his debts, is there -called ‘a lame duck;’ and, if expelled from the -house, he is said ‘to waddle.’</p> - -<p>But though most of these terms will never form -a legitimate part of the English language, some -of them are certainly not considered so vulgar as -others. It is said that the elegant Lord Chesterfield -was the author of the word ‘humbug,’ which, -though it may have been considered as slang in -his day, can hardly be so called now. Another -word, ‘hoax,’ was condemned by Swift as low -and vulgar, this, too, has made its way; and is -now not so revolting to good taste as it probably -was when first used. Both these words, ‘humbug’ -and ‘hoax,’ are to be found in Dr. Latham’s -edition of <cite>Johnson’s Dictionary</cite>.</p> - -<p>Thackeray immortalised ‘snob’ in his celebrated -‘papers;’ and though the word is not to -be recommended, it must be allowed that it is -very expressive. Lord Cairns, in a speech in -the House of Commons, called ‘dodge’ ‘that -homely but expressive term.’ Nor is ‘crusty,’ in -the sense of ‘peevish,’ so low as it was once -thought. It has long been a question, whether -the word ‘bamboozle’ should be admitted. This -also is to be found in Latham’s <cite>Johnson</cite>, though -it is there entered as ‘colloquial.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p> - -<p>But though it may be allowed to use some of -these terms occasionally in familiar discourse, no -one of any sense or good taste will ever think of -indulging in slang language, either spoken or -written. It is, no doubt, a bad sign of the times, -and much to be deplored, that it is so common. -Some writers have calculated that there are, at -least, three thousand slang terms in common use. -The above are but a few examples of this widespread -corruption. We may regard it, as concerns -our language, in the light of a pest to -society. It takes a long time to clear the atmosphere -from the baneful influences of certain -epidemics. Now, the language of every-day conversation -is suffering from this infectious disease, -and it becomes the duty of every Englishman -who has a proper feeling for his language, to refrain -from this evil himself, and to throw in its -way every possible discouragement.</p> - - -<h3><em>Americanisms.</em></h3> - -<p>The recklessness with which the Americans use -the English language bids fair to flood it with many -new and strange terms. It is very possible that -some of these words may some day take their places -as forming part of the legitimate materials of our -language; and it is also possible, as the Americans -themselves sometimes declare, that some of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -words and phrases which are now called American, -are, in reality, genuine English words which have -become obsolete in the mother tongue. But, in -the mean time, they certainly must be regarded -as interlopers—candidates for an office to which -they are not yet, if they ever will be, entitled.</p> - -<p>One rather curious explanation has been given -of the word ‘guess.’ It is well known that the -Americans use it in the sense of <em>to know for certain</em>. -‘I guess’ is equivalent, in American phraseology, -to ‘I know it’—‘I am sure of it.’ Now, it has -been argued that this is the proper meaning of the -word—that it is derived from the German ‘gewiss,’ -which comes originally from ‘wissen,’ to know. -When first imported into America, in the seventeenth -century, they say that it had this meaning -in English—that we in England have since then -altered the meaning of the word, and that the -Americans have preserved its original signification. -Even supposing that this could be proved, -it does not follow that the American practice is -the right one; nor, of course, that we should alter -our present meaning of the word, and conform to -the American custom. The fountain-head of the -English language is in England, and in no other -country; and all departures from the English use -of English words must be looked upon as faults -against purity of style.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p> - -<p>Americanisms may be considered under two -heads—1st, legitimate English words used in a -wrong sense; and, 2nd, words of a new invention, -mutilated or distorted from some known -or unknown root. In the first class we may place -the adjective ‘tall.’ This the Americans use in a -novel and unrecognised sense. In English it is -properly applied only to concrete nouns; as, ‘a -tall man,’ or ‘a tall tree,’ &c. But, in the United -States, we continually hear of ‘tall talk,’ or even -‘a tall smell,’ &c. It is not the word that is here -objected to, but the sense in which it is applied. -To ‘raise’ is another of this class, which is constantly -used for ‘to educate,’ or ‘bring up.’ ‘Where -were you raised?’ is, in America, a very common -question. Again, the word ‘liquor’ is a perfectly -good English noun; but what a strange innovation -is ‘to liquor!’ A genuine Yankee says, ‘Stranger, -will you “liquor?”’ ‘Handsome,’ ‘clever,’ and -‘fix’ are all three genuine English, but ‘to play -<em>handsome</em> on the flute’ is undoubtedly bad English. -We sometimes qualify persons, but never things, -as ‘clever.’ A ‘clever’ boy, or a ‘clever’ man, -&c., but never, as in America, a ‘clever’ house or -a ‘clever’ cargo. Again, in America a very -common use of ‘to fix’ is ‘to prepare,’ or ‘put in -order.’ This is not sanctioned by English usage. -But ‘a fix,’ in the sense of a dilemma or predicament,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -is condemned by literary men in the United -States as a vulgarism.</p> - -<p>The other class consists of words wholly unrecognised -in English in any sense—in fine, genuine -Americanisms; such words as ‘secesh,’ ‘skedaddle,’ -‘recuperate,’ ‘rowdy,’ ‘rile,’ ‘stampede,’ -&c., which can in no sense be said to belong to our -language. Nor is it likely that English writers of -any pretensions to good taste will ever adopt them. -The Americans call the English ‘Britishers;’ to -tease or vex anyone is, with them, ‘to rile’ him; -to make a set speech is to ‘orate;’ a sudden panic -and flight of soldiers is a ‘stampede,’ &c. There -are other words of this class which it would puzzle -most English writers to explain; such as ‘slick,’ -‘spry,’ ‘kedge,’ ‘boss,’ ‘absquatulate,’ &c. These -are not English words, and we may pretty confidently -predict that they will never become English.</p> - -<p>There can be little doubt, however, that certain -expressions now known as Americanisms were, at -one time, very commonly used in English. Madame -D’Arblay, as well as other writers of her time, -has, over and over again, ‘mighty fine,’ ‘mighty -pretty,’ &c. ‘Mighty pretty’ is exactly on a par -with ‘<em>uncommon</em> nice.’ The one is just as incorrect -as the other. This is a form of expression continually -used by American writers. Forty or fifty -years ago the adjective ‘rare’ was commonly used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -for ‘underdone’ (meat). Now, though common -enough in the United States, it is seldom, if ever, -applied by us in that sense. Some of these peculiarities -appear to be making way in English, in -spite of our struggles against them. Such are ‘to -progress’ for ‘to advance,’ ‘to effectuate’ for ‘to -accomplish,’ ‘right off,’ or ‘right away,’ for ‘at -once’ or ‘immediately,’ ‘laid over’ for ‘put off,’ &c.</p> - -<p>The Americans use ‘tiresome’ for ‘tiring;’ they -speak of a ‘tiresome’—for a fatiguing—journey. -Also a ‘good’ time is used for a ‘pleasant’ time, -‘fall’ for ‘autumn,’ and to ‘go-a-head’ for ‘to -prosper.’ One American word which seems likely -to establish itself in the English language is, ‘a -loafer.’ This would seem to be derived from the -German ‘laufen,’ to run, though it has not that -meaning in the United States, where it signifies -one who lounges about lazily.</p> - -<p>In America many new terms are the offspring -of a political excitement, which is sure to occur -every four years, i.e. as often as a new President -is elected. On these occasions such words as -‘Copperheads,’ ‘Ring-tailed Roarers,’ ‘Know-nothings,’ -‘Fenians,’ ‘Wolverines,’ &c., &c., are -sure to make their appearance. These words may -have a meaning for those who invent and use -them, but to the great majority of Englishmen -they are altogether a mystery.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> - -<p>Language, in the hands of a great poet, has -been often called ‘a flame of fire.’ However this -may be, in the hands of certain American journalists -it does seem, now and then, very likely to -burn their own fingers. In the New York papers -we meet with the verb ‘to concertize,’ which may -possibly mean to give a succession of concerts. -We remember hearing that process once called -‘going about matinéeing!’ And there is quite as -good authority for the one as for the other of these -expressions. Another unintelligible phrase, drawn -from the same source, is ‘an <em>emergent</em> meeting.’ -This word is never used, in modern English, in a -concrete sense. We may say an <em>emergent</em> occasion -or <em>emergent</em> doubts, but not an <em>emergent</em> candidate -or an <em>emergent</em> character. It is possible that the -writer meant a meeting called together on an -emergency.</p> - -<p>The rapid communication established of late -years between England and the United States has -brought the two nations into a much closer connection -with each other. This, in a commercial -or a political view, may be of great advantage to -both countries. But every advantage has its -drawback, and it is very doubtful whether this -condition of things is likely to benefit the English -language. The Americans are well known to set -great store by liberty, and of course we have no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -right whatever to interfere with their opinions -concerning principles or forms of political government. -But it becomes a serious matter for us -when they think proper to take liberties with our -language. They set up for themselves, probably -by way of showing their independence, new modes -of spelling; and they are perpetually introducing -all sorts of meanings, words, and phrases, none of -which have the remotest title to be called English. -In the writings of the late N. P. Willis, we meet with -such terms as the following:—‘An unletupable -nature,’ ‘wideawakeity,’ ‘plumptitude,’ ‘pocketually -speaking,’ ‘betweenity,’ and ‘go-awayness!’ -In the same gentleman’s writings, we occasionally -come across such elegant forms of expression as -‘whipping creation,’ ‘flogging Europe,’ ‘a heap -of opinions,’ ‘tarnation quick,’ &c. These and all -such must be looked upon as abortions or deformities -of our language; and no English writer -who has any respect for his own reputation should -ever think of countenancing, far less of adopting, -such monstrosities.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIV.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">In old English spelling, we frequently meet with -<em>y</em> initial, where we now use <em>th</em>; as in ‘<em>ye</em> manners -and <em>ye</em> customs,’ &c. This error probably arose -from the blundering of the copyists, who mistook -one letter for another. Down to the close of the -reign of Edward III., two characters of the Saxon -alphabet were in common use, which we have -now rejected; tha (þ) (<em>th</em> hard), and edh (ð) -(<em>th</em> soft). The first of these, (þ), somewhat resembled -a <em>y</em> in shape; and hence the mistake. This is, -probably, the true explanation of the case, as <em>y</em> -was, in all these instances, used where we now -have <em>th</em>.</p> - -<p>Y initial, as indicating a participle or an intensive -meaning, has now become obsolete in English. -But it lingered in the language till the seventeenth -century, as may be seen in Milton. ‘In heaven -<em>y</em>clept Euphrosyne.’ This is the <em>ge</em> initial of the -modern German, as in ‘<em>ge</em>kannt,’ ‘<em>ge</em>brochen,’ &c.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -Our word ‘guess,’ is supposed to be connected -with the German ‘gewiss;’ where the initial <em>ge</em> -may be referred to the same source. In comparing -certain German with English words, we -may see that this prefix (<em>g</em> or <em>y</em>) has, in most -cases, fallen off, though in some few words it still -retains its place. The German ‘<em>G</em>lück,’ is in -English ‘luck,’ and the German ‘<em>g</em>leich’ has -become with us ‘like.’ Again,’to <em>g</em>low’ was, in -Saxon, ‘hlowian.’ We retain the <em>g</em> in ‘gleam,’ -and ‘glimpse,’ though we lose it in ‘light.’ The -same connection may be observed between the -German ‘<em>g</em>ern,’ and the English ‘<em>y</em>earn.’</p> - -<p>Many are puzzled when to use <em>ei</em> and when <em>ie</em> in -the spelling of certain English words, when these -combinations are pronounced as a long <em>e</em>. The -rule is, that when a sibilant (<em>c</em> or <em>s</em>) precedes, <em>ei</em> -is the right spelling; but that when any other -consonant comes before, <em>ie</em> should be written. -Thus, ‘<em>sei</em>ze, con<em>cei</em>ve, <em>cei</em>ling, de<em>cei</em>t,’ &c., must -have <em>ei</em>; whilst ‘be<em>lie</em>ve, pr<em>ies</em>t, <em>chie</em>f, re<em>trie</em>ve,’ &c., -must be spelled <em>ie</em>. The word ‘siege’ is an exception; -we here adopt the French spelling.</p> - -<p>It is generally well known that the prefixes <em>ante</em> -and <em>anti</em> have, in English, each a distinct meaning. -‘Ant<em>e</em>’ is the Latin preposition for ‘before.’ -It is found in ‘ant<em>e</em>date’ (to date before); -‘ant<em>e</em>chamber’ (a waiting-room <em>before</em> another);<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -‘ant<em>e</em>cedent’ (going <em>before</em>), &c. ‘Anti’ is -originally Greek, and means ‘against.’ It is -found in ‘ant<em>i</em>pathy’ (a feeling <em>against</em>); ‘ant<em>i</em>dote’ -(a medicine given <em>against</em>); i.e. as a preventive. -But there is one exception to this explanation; -viz. ‘ant<em>i</em>cipate.’ ‘Anti,’ in this case, -does not mean ‘against,’ but beforehand. To -‘anticipate’ is to enjoy or suffer prospectively. -The Latin <em>i</em> always becomes an <em>e</em> in French; and -vice versâ. This is considered as an organic law -of transformation. The Latin mih<em>i</em>, tib<em>i</em>, sib<em>i</em>, -<em>i</em>n, <em>i</em>nter, &c., are in French m<em>e</em>, t<em>e</em>, s<em>e</em>, <em>e</em>n, <em>e</em>ntre. -On the other hand, the Latin ‘impl<em>ē</em>re,’ ‘fall<em>ĕ</em>re,’ -‘leg<em>ĕ</em>re,’ ‘quaer<em>ĕ</em>re,’ and ‘flor<em>ĕ</em>re,’ are in French, -rempl<em>i</em>r, ‘faill<em>i</em>r,’ ‘l<em>i</em>re,’ ‘quér<em>i</em>r,’ and ‘fleur<em>i</em>r.’ -This may be seen in ‘antichambre,’ ‘antidater,’ &c.; -and the English has, in this one case, ‘anticipate,’ -adopted the French form of spelling.</p> - -<p>The difference in pronunciation between such -words as ‘hōme,’ and ‘sŏme;’ ‘bōne’ and ‘dŏne;’ -‘alōne’ and ‘gŏne,’ depends on their derivation. -In these cases, the long ō corresponds with the -modern German ‘<em>ei</em>.’ The German ‘Heim’ is the -English ‘hōme.’ ‘Bein’ is in English bōne; -‘allein,’ ‘alōne,’ &c., whereas the closer sound -of <em>ŏ</em> approaches to a closer sound of <em>a</em> or -<em>o</em> in German. Hence, the root <em>sam</em> (as in -<em>sam</em>meln), gives the English ‘sŏme.’ ‘Dŏne’ is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -from ‘gethăn,’ ‘cŏme,’ from ‘kŏmmen,’ &c. From -the same cause, the adverb ‘<em>so</em>’ in English has -the same long sound as in German; whereas ‘<em>tŏ</em>’ -and ‘<em>dŏ</em>,’ being from ‘zu’ and ‘thun,’ have a closer -pronunciation.</p> - -<p>It is natural to expect that as the genius of a -people powerfully influences the spelling of their -common terms, the same cause should operate in -that of their proper names, both of persons and -places. With respect to names of places, there is -now and then some difficulty. The inhabitants of -a town or country do not always give it the name -by which it is known to foreigners. An English -tourist who is a novice in continental travel, -arrives at a town he has been accustomed to call -‘<em>Aix</em>,’ or ‘Aix-la-Chapelle;’ and he is not a little -puzzled to hear it named ‘<em>Aachen</em>.’ It is doubtful -whether many English would recognise the -German word; and yet it is certainly the one -used by the Prussians from time immemorial. -There are many other continental towns with -whose names we English are, in general, not -familiar; for example, Lüttich (Liège), Regensburg -(Ratisbon), Bruxelles (Brussels), Kiobenhavn -(Copenhagen), Vliessingen (Flushing), Genf -(Geneva), &c., &c.</p> - -<p>That these differences should exist was but -natural in bygone times when there was so scanty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> -a communication between one country and another. -But nowadays, when one touch of the telegraph -‘should make the whole world akin,’ and when -steamboats and railroads seem to be literally annihilating -both time and space, it is to be regretted -that some one standard form for the spelling of -names of places should not be agreed on, which all -should adopt, and which would be intelligible to -the whole civilised world. There appears to be -some probability of the continental states adopting -a standard coin which shall have a universal -currency. Why should they not also determine -on one standard form of spelling for the names of -all their towns and districts? The one change -would not be more difficult than the other.</p> - -<p>One very striking peculiarity of the English -language is the extraordinary variety of senses in -which many of our words, especially those of -Saxon origin, may be used. A curious instance -of this variety may be seen in the case of the verb -‘to get.’ For example: ‘After I <em>got</em> (received) -your letter; I immediately <em>got</em> (mounted) on -horseback; and when I <em>got</em> to (reached) Canterbury, -I <em>got</em> (procured) a chaise, and proceeded -to town. But, the rain coming on, I <em>got</em> -(caught) such a severe cold, that I could not <em>get</em> -rid of it for some days. When I <em>got</em> home, I -<em>got</em> up-stairs, and <em>got</em> to bed immediately; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -the next morning I found I could neither <em>get</em> -down stairs, <em>get</em> my breakfast, nor <em>get</em> out of doors. -I was afraid I should never <em>get</em> over this attack.’ -It may be reasonably doubted whether any -English word of Latin or French origin has half -so many and such various significations.</p> - -<p>‘<em>To put</em>’ is a verb of unsettled derivation; but -it has an endless variety of meanings: and is -compounded with almost every preposition in the -language. Latham’s edition of <cite>Johnson’s Dictionary</cite> -gives about seventy different senses of this -one verb, some of which are as follows: ‘A man -<em>puts by</em> money when he saves it up; or he <em>puts -away</em> his wife when he divorces her. An insurrection -may be <em>put down</em>; or a man may <em>put down</em> -his name as a subscriber. A tree <em>puts forth</em> leaves, -or a man <em>puts into</em> a lottery. He <em>puts off</em> his -clothes, or he <em>puts off</em> a disagreeable task; he <em>puts -out</em> his money at interest; or he <em>puts out</em> the light -when he goes to bed; and he is terribly <em>put out</em> -when things do not go well with him. He can -<em>put together</em> his thoughts; but he cannot <em>put up</em> -with an insult. It is unpleasant to be <em>put upon</em>; -and sometimes very hard to <em>put</em> things <em>to rights</em>.’</p> - -<p>The French adverb très (very), is the Latin -‘trans’ (over, or across.) The prefix ‘trans’ is -of frequent use in English as in ‘transfer,’ ‘transfix,’ -‘transform,’ &c. We have adopted the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -French ‘très’ in only one word; viz. ‘trespass.’ -This signifies either in a physical or moral sense, -‘to pass a boundary.’ It is still used in English, -chiefly as a term of law.</p> - -<p>Some writers on language have objected to the -order of words generally adopted in certain colloquial -expressions. They say that in such phrases -as ‘bred and born,’ ‘shoes and stockings,’ ‘coat -and waistcoat,’ &c., we put the cart before the -horse. They would have us say ‘born and bred,’ -‘stockings and shoes,’ &c. Their argument is, -that we should put these words in their <em>natural</em> -order, as to time—that as a man must be born -before he is bred, the proper order is ‘born and -bred,’ and so on, in all other cases of this sort. -This, however, does not seem to be the right view -of the matter. In these expressions it should be -remembered that whatever comes first to our -knowledge, or makes the deepest impression on -the mind, is naturally first uttered. True, a man -must be born before he is bred; but the idea -conveyed in ‘bred’ is first impressed on the -mind, and therefore ‘bred and born’ is the right -order. Again, we see the shoes; we can but -partially see the stockings; and this is why the -usual order is adopted.</p> - -<p>Again: we never say ‘the sciences and arts;’ -but always ‘the arts and sciences.’ There is here,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -also, a very good reason for the general practice. -It must be remembered that the arts were practised -long before the sciences on which they are -built were discovered. Practice always precedes -theory. Language was spoken before grammars -were written; music was played and sung before -the laws of harmony were understood; and therefore, -it is but reasonable that we should put the -‘arts before the sciences.’</p> - -<p>It may seem strange that in addressing an -audience, the English always say ‘Ladies and -Gentlemen!’ whereas in France we hear, ‘Messieurs -et Mesdames,’ and in Germany, ‘Meine -Herren und Damen.’ This order may have been -adopted at a time when ladies had not the influence -in society which they now possess. We have not -the reputation for gallantry which our continental -neighbours enjoy; and yet, in this instance, we -may perhaps set them a lesson of politeness.</p> - -<p>Connected with this subject may be mentioned -that doubling of terms which occurs in our Liturgy -so frequently, that it may be regarded as a characteristic -of its style. The compilers of our -Church Service, probably in their anxiety to make -the text intelligible even to the commonest understanding, -continually put two nouns or two verbs -together, the second generally explaining the first. -In these cases we shall find one of the terms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -French, or Latin, and the other of Saxon derivation. -This seems to have been done purposely, in -order that, if any of the congregation, especially -the less educated, should not understand the one -term, he should catch the meaning of the other. -In the early prayers of the ‘Morning Service,’ we -have: ‘We <em>pray</em> and <em>beseech</em> thee.’ We also find -‘We <em>acknowledge</em> and <em>confess</em>,’ ‘<em>sins</em> and <em>wickedness</em>;’ -‘<em>goodness</em> and <em>mercy</em>;’ ‘<em>dissemble</em> nor <em>cloak</em>;’ -‘<em>assemble</em> and <em>meet together</em>;’ ‘<em>requisite</em> and <em>necessary</em>;’ -‘<em>erred</em> and <em>strayed</em>;’ ‘<em>pardoneth</em> and <em>absolveth</em>,’ -and many others.</p> - -<p>Certain writers on the English language have -strongly objected to the lately-introduced practice -of forming participial adjectives from nouns; -especially in the case of the two words ‘talented’ -and ‘gifted.’ As well, say they, might we call a -man ‘wisdomed,’ ‘geniused,’ or ‘knowledged.’ -Coleridge, arguing against the admission of the -word ‘talented’ into English, says: ‘only imagine -other participles so formed, and conceive a man -being said to be ‘pennied,’ ‘shillinged,’ and -‘pounded!’ But though we do not yet use these -latter terms, Coleridge seems to have forgotten -that we very commonly speak of a ‘moneyed’ -man; and there is very little doubt that these -adjectives have struck too deep root in the language -to be easily eradicated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> - -<p>The word ‘<em>reliable</em>,’ a comparatively late introduction, -is another of those against which the -purists have raised a loud outcry. They argue -that as we do not rely a man, but rely <em>on</em> a man, -therefore the word, if used at all, should be ‘reli<em>on</em>able,’ -and not ‘reliable.’ But here is one of the -many cases in which philosophy must give way to -custom; and, in spite of the above objection, this -word is too firmly fixed in the language to be -easily driven out. The real difference between -‘reliable’ and ‘trustworthy’ is, that the former -applies more property to things, such as news, information, -&c., and the latter to persons. A ‘trustworthy’ -messenger would probably bring us ‘reliable’ -information. But, whatever concession we -may make in the case of ‘reliable,’ we should resist, -with all our might, the introduction of ‘reliability.’</p> - -<p>Certain laws of transformation are found to -operate in the Romance languages. One of these -is, that Latin or Italian words beginning with <em>f</em> -appear in Spanish with an <em>h</em> initial. Thus ‘filius,’ -‘figlio’ (a son), is, in Spanish, ‘hijo.’ By the -same law the Latin ‘femina’ (a woman) becomes, -in Spanish ‘hembra,’ ‘formosus’ (beautiful) is -‘<em>h</em>ermoso,’ ‘Fabulari,’ Italian ‘favellare’ (to talk) -is, in Spanish, ‘hablar.’ ‘Faba’ (a bean) is, in -Spanish, ‘haba.’ The Latin ‘Facere,’ Italian -‘fare’ (to do), becomes ‘<em>h</em>acer,’ filum (thread) is -‘hilo,’ and folium (a leaf) ‘hoja,’ &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Spanish word ‘hidalgo’ (a nobleman) is a -contraction of ‘<span lang="es" xml:lang="es">hijo d’algo</span>’ (<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">filius alicujus</span>), literally -‘the son of somebody,’ i.e., of importance.</p> - -<p>It may also be observed that the combination <em>ct</em> -in Latin is found in Italian <em>tt</em> (or <em>t</em>), and in Spanish -<em>ch</em>. This may be seen in the following cases:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl wd30"> Lat.</td><td class="tdl wd30">Ital.</td><td class="tdl">Span.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fa<em>ct</em>us</td><td class="tdl">fa<em>tt</em>o</td><td class="tdl">he<em>ch</em>o</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">San<em>ct</em>us</td><td class="tdl">san<em>t</em>o</td><td class="tdl">san<em>ch</em>o</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Di<em>ct</em>us</td><td class="tdl">de<em>tt</em>o</td><td class="tdl">di<em>ch</em>o</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Dire<em>ct</em>us</td><td class="tdl">diri<em>tt</em>o</td><td class="tdl">dere<em>ch</em>o</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Again, <em>pl</em> in Latin becomes <em>pi</em> in Italian and <em>ll</em> in -Spanish, as in the following:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl wd30"> Lat.</td><td class="tdl wd30">Ital.</td><td class="tdl">Span.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Pl</em>anus</td><td class="tdl"><em>pi</em>ano</td><td class="tdl"><em>ll</em>ano</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Pl</em>enus</td><td class="tdl"><em>pi</em>eno</td><td class="tdl"><em>ll</em>eno</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Pl</em>uvia</td><td class="tdl"><em>pi</em>ova</td><td class="tdl"><em>ll</em>uvia</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>Pl</em>anctus</td><td class="tdl"><em>pi</em>anto</td><td class="tdl"><em>ll</em>anto</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Affinities also exist between certain letters of the -alphabet; and this relationship may be often seen -in words transferred from one language to another. -For example, the labials, or lip-letters, are frequently -interchanged. Many English words beginning -with an F are derived from Latin (or -French) words having a <em>P</em> initial. This is exemplified -in the following list:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl wd25"> Latin.</td><td class="tdl wd25">French.</td><td class="tdl wd25">German.</td><td class="tdl">English.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>P</em>ater</td><td class="tdl"><em>p</em>ère</td><td class="tdl"><em>V</em>ater</td><td class="tdl"><em>f</em>ather</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>P</em>iscis</td><td class="tdl"><em>p</em>oisson</td><td class="tdl"><em>F</em>isch</td><td class="tdl"><em>f</em>ish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>P</em>es-pedis</td><td class="tdl"><em>p</em>ied</td><td class="tdl"><em>F</em>uss</td><td class="tdl"><em>f</em>oot</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>P</em>aucus</td><td class="tdl"><em>p</em>eu</td><td class="tdl">—</td><td class="tdl"><em>f</em>ew</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>P</em>er</td><td class="tdl"><em>p</em>our</td><td class="tdl"><em>f</em>ür</td><td class="tdl"><em>f</em>or</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>P</em>ellis</td><td class="tdl"><em>p</em>eau</td><td class="tdl"><em>F</em>ell</td><td class="tdl"><em>f</em>ell</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>P</em>ullus</td><td class="tdl"><em>p</em>oule</td><td class="tdl"><em>V</em>ogel</td><td class="tdl"><em>f</em>owl</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>P</em>ugnus</td><td class="tdl"><em>p</em>oignée</td><td class="tdl"><em>F</em>aust</td><td class="tdl"><em>f</em>ist, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> - -<p>Another affinity may be observed between <em>G</em> and -<em>W</em>. Many French words beginning with a <em>G</em> -guttural represent that letter in English by a <em>W</em>. -This may be seen in the following cases:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"> French.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"> French.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>ages</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>ages</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>uède</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>oad</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>agner</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>in</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>uèpe</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>asp</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>G</em>alles</td><td class="tdl"><em>W</em>ales</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>uerdon</td><td class="tdl">(re)<em>w</em>ard</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>arant</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>arrant</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>uerre</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>ar</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>are</td><td class="tdl"><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: '(be)ware'">be(<em>w</em>are)</ins></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>uetter</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>ait</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>arde</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>ard</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>ueule</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>ell</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>arenne</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>arren</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>uichet</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>icket</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>âter</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>aste</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>G</em>uillaume</td><td class="tdl"><em>W</em>illiam</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>G</em>aultier</td><td class="tdl"><em>W</em>alter</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>uise</td><td class="tdl">(like)<em>w</em>ise</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>g</em>aufre</td><td class="tdl"><em>w</em>afer</td><td class="bl"></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>This connection between the <em>G</em> and <em>W</em> may be -also seen at the end of many English compared -with German words.</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"> German.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"> German.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sor<em>g</em>e</td><td class="tdl">sorro<em>w</em></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">bie<em>g</em>en</td><td class="tdl">bo<em>w</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fol<em>g</em>en</td><td class="tdl">follo<em>w</em></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">heili<em>g</em>en</td><td class="tdl">hallo<em>w</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">mor<em>g</em>en</td><td class="tdl">morro<em>w</em></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">tra<em>g</em>en</td><td class="tdl">dra<em>w</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">bor<em>g</em>en</td><td class="tdl">borro<em>w</em></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">le<em>g</em>en</td><td class="tdl">la<em>w</em>, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>A relationship is also to be seen between <em>C</em> guttural -and <em>H</em> aspirate. The <em>C</em> hard initial in the -Romance languages is represented in the Teutonic -by an <em>H</em>. For example:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Latin.</td><td class="tdl">French.</td><td class="tdl">German.</td><td class="tdl">English.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>anis</td><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>hien</td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>und</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>ound</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>ollis</td><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>olline</td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>ügel</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>ill</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>entum</td><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>ent</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>undert</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>undred</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>or</td><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>œur</td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>erz</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>eart</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> - <em>c</em>asa</td><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>hez</td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>aus</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>ouse</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>ornu</td><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>or</td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>orn</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>orn</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>annabis</td><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>hanvre</td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>anf</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>emp</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>arpo</td><td class="tdl pad2">—</td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>erbst</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>arvest</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>alx</td><td class="tdl pad2">—</td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>iel</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>eel</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>c</em>utis</td><td class="tdl pad2">—</td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>aut</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>ide, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>This connection between <em>c</em> (or <em>k</em>) and <em>h</em> appears -in other cases. A primitive English word ending -in a guttural (<em>g</em> or <em>k</em>) often produces derivatives -in which the guttural is softened into <em>tch</em>, as in:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">ma<em>k</em>e</td><td class="tdl">ma<em>tch</em></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">wrec<em>k</em></td><td class="tdl">wre<em>tch</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">wa<em>k</em>e</td><td class="tdl">wa<em>tch</em></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">di<em>g</em></td><td class="tdl">di<em>tch</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">ba<em>k</em>e</td><td class="tdl">ba<em>tch</em></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">stic<em>k</em></td><td class="tdl">sti<em>tch</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">fla<em>k</em>e</td><td class="tdl">fli<em>tch</em></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">croo<em>k</em></td><td class="tdl">cru<em>tch</em>, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Some of our English pronouns have this ending -(<em>ch</em>), where it is a contraction of the word ‘like.’ -Thus:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Scottish.</td><td class="tdl">Saxon.</td><td class="tdl">English.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">who-like</td><td class="tdl">whilk</td><td class="tdl">hwlyc</td><td class="tdl">whi<em>ch</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">all-like</td><td class="tdl">ilk</td><td class="tdl">ælc</td><td class="tdl">ea<em>ch</em></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">so-like</td><td class="tdl">solch (Germ.)</td><td class="tdl">swylc</td><td class="tdl">su<em>ch</em>, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Another phenomenon of a certain class of words -is the use of an initial <em>s</em>, to give them an intensive -meaning. This may be observed in the following -cases:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">knap</td><td class="tdl">snap</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">deep</td><td class="tdl">steep</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">lash</td><td class="tdl">slash</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">nip</td><td class="tdl">snip</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">mash</td><td class="tdl">smash</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">rip</td><td class="tdl">strip</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">plash</td><td class="tdl">splash</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">din</td><td class="tdl">stun</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">quash</td><td class="tdl">squash</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">pike</td><td class="tdl">spike</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> - lack</td><td class="tdl">slack</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">wipe</td><td class="tdl">sweep</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">lain</td><td class="tdl">slain</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">light</td><td class="tdl">slight</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">lay</td><td class="tdl">slay</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">pout</td><td class="tdl">spout</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">melt</td><td class="tdl">smelt</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">hoot</td><td class="tdl">shout</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">meet</td><td class="tdl">smite</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">rub</td><td class="tdl">scrub</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">reach</td><td class="tdl">stretch</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">tumble</td><td class="tdl">stumble</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">well</td><td class="tdl">swell</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">cut</td><td class="tdl">scud</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>A large class of English words beginning with -<em>s</em> followed by a consonant are derived from French, -where they are spelled with an <em>e</em> or <em>es</em> initial; -as:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"> French.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"> French.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">écarlate</td><td class="tdl">scarlet</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">espion</td><td class="tdl">spy</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">échafaud</td><td class="tdl">scaffold</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">épinard</td><td class="tdl">spinach</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">échantillon</td><td class="tdl">scantling</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">épine</td><td class="tdl">spine</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">écharfe</td><td class="tdl">scarf</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">esprit</td><td class="tdl">spirit</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">espace</td><td class="tdl">space</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">écrivain</td><td class="tdl">scrivener</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">étrange</td><td class="tdl">strange</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">échorcher</td><td class="tdl">scorch</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">escadron</td><td class="tdl">squadron</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">école</td><td class="tdl">school</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">esclave</td><td class="tdl">slave</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">éponge</td><td class="tdl">sponge</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">étage</td><td class="tdl">stage</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">époux</td><td class="tdl">spouse</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">état</td><td class="tdl">state</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">estomac</td><td class="tdl">stomach</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">étendard</td><td class="tdl">standard</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">étroit</td><td class="tdl">strait</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">espèce</td><td class="tdl">species</td><td class="bl"></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>According to some French philologists, when -the <em>s</em> in any of these French words is pronounced, -it is a sign that the word is of later introduction.</p> - -<p>It may be observed of the letter <em>h</em> (initial) that -it is never mute in Germanic words, and that -whenever it is mute in English, the word is of -French derivation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus we have:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl pad4" colspan="2">French (mute).</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl pad4" colspan="2">German (aspirate).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Honneur</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>onour</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">hart</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>ard</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Héritier</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>eir</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">Herz</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>eart</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Honnête</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>onest</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">Heide</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>eath</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Heure</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>our</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">Hitze</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>eat</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Humeur</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>umour</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">Hoffnung</td><td class="tdl"><em>h</em>ope, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The <em>h</em> initial was prefixed to many Saxon words -where it has now disappeared from the English. -This was chiefly before the liquids <em>l</em>, <em>n</em>, and <em>r</em>.</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"> Saxon.</td><td class="tdl">English.</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"> Saxon.</td><td class="tdl">English.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>laf</td><td class="tdl">loaf</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>necca</td><td class="tdl">neck</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>laford</td><td class="tdl">lord</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>nægan</td><td class="tdl">neigh</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>rafn</td><td class="tdl">raven</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>nut</td><td class="tdl">nut</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>lædl</td><td class="tdl">ladle</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>lud</td><td class="tdl">loud</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>leopan</td><td class="tdl">leap</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>ring</td><td class="tdl">ring</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>lædan</td><td class="tdl">lead</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>H</em>losian</td><td class="tdl">lose, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The German <em>z</em> initial often corresponds with the -English <em>t</em>; as:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"> German.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"> German.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">zahlen</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>ell</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">zu</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>o</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">zahm</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>ame</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">Zoll</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>oll</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Zahn</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>ooth</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">Zunge</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>ongue</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">zehn</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>en</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">Zug</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>ug</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">zerren</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>ear</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">Zweig</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>wig</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Zinn</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>in</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">Zwilling</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>win</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Zimmer</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>imber</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">zwischen</td><td class="tdl">(be)<em>t</em>ween</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Zeit</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>ide</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl">zwölf</td><td class="tdl"><em>t</em>welve, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The German <em>t</em> initial corresponds with the -English <em>d</em>; as:—</p> - -<div class="center fs80"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"> German.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"> German.</td><td class="tdl"> English.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>ag</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>ay</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>eufel</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>evil</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>ändeln</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>andle</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>hal</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>ale</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> - <em>T</em>anz</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>ance</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>hat</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>eed</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>aub</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>eaf</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>hau</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>ew</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>aube</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>ove</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>heil</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>eal</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>auch</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>uck</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>hier</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>eer</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>eich</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>ough</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="tdl"><em>T</em>hun</td><td class="tdl"><em>d</em>o, &c.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Some are puzzled when to spell the ending -‘ledge’ and when ‘lege.’ The following rule may -be easily remembered:—Monosyllables and the -word ‘acknowle<em>d</em>ge’ are spelled with a <em>d</em>; therefore -‘le<em>d</em>ge,’ ‘fle<em>d</em>ge,’ ‘ple<em>d</em>ge,’ ‘se<em>d</em>ge,’ ‘sle<em>d</em>ge,’ and -‘acknowle<em>d</em>ge’ retain that letter; whereas ‘sacrilege,’ -‘privilege,’ ‘allege,’ and ‘college’ must -reject it.</p> - -<p>Some years ago, there was a sharp controversy -concerning the spelling of the word—whether it -should be ‘<em>rein</em>-deer’ or ‘<em>rain</em>-deer.’ The dictionaries -differed, many even giving both forms. -It was found in Johnson ‘r<em>a</em>in-deer,’ which of -course settled the dispute. In spite of this decision, -there is no doubt that the word is generally spelled -‘rein-deer.’ The Saxon form was ‘hr<em>a</em>na-deor,’ -i.e. ‘the running animal.’</p> - -<p>Some lament that we have adopted the French -form of the word ‘programme.’ They say that by -analogy it ought to be written ‘program.’ We -have ‘anagram,’ ‘diagram,’ ‘epigram,’ &c.; and -why not ‘program?’ But the former is now the -established spelling; and, till some daring innovator<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -adopt the new form, and his example be generally -followed, we must be content to use the old -one.</p> - -<p>A few years ago, a new word was wanted to -express ‘a message sent by the telegraph;’ various -forms were suggested, but at last the word ‘telegram’ -was adopted. This was another argument -in favour of ‘program.’</p> - -<p>The verb ‘to repair,’ in the sense of ‘to make -better’ or ‘to improve,’ is from the Latin ‘reparare,’ -through the French ‘réparer;’ but when -it means ‘to go back home’ it is from the Latin -‘repatriare,’ to return to your country.</p> - -<p>The second syllable in ‘impair’ is in no way -connected with the above. ‘Impair’ is from the -French ‘<em>empirer</em>,’ ‘to make worse.’</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XV.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40"><span class="smcap">GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC.</span>—<em>continued.</em></span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent">In the periodical and light literature of the day, -we frequently meet with forms of language which -have been expressively called ‘slipshod English.’ -These are of various kinds—uncertain reference, -superfluous words, incompatible terms, ungrammatical -forms, &c. &c.</p> - -<p>Of the first class may be quoted the tailor’s -advertisement, in which it was stated that -‘Gentlemen’s materials are made up, and waited -on at their own houses,’ where there is a glorious -uncertainty as to who or what may be -waited on.</p> - -<p>The following is of the same nature:—In an -examination in the House of Commons, in 1809, a -member said that ‘the witness had been ordered -to withdraw from the bar, in consequence of -being intoxicated by the motion of an honourable -member.’ The word ‘intoxicated’ was here, perhaps,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -the right word; but it was certainly not in -the right place.</p> - -<p>A word is often written which has no function -to perform in the sentence, and therefore no business -on the paper. These are superfluous words; -they occupy space, but, instead of assisting, they -rather clog the sense of the passage. The often-used -expression, ‘final completion,’ is a case in -point. Every ‘completion’ is ‘final;’ the idea -of ‘final’ is involved in the word ‘completion,’ -and therefore this is a wrong expression.</p> - -<p>Another of these superabundant forms is where -we find ‘universal’ and ‘all’ brought into the -same construction. A man is sometimes said to -be ‘universally’ beloved by ‘all’ his friends. -Here either ‘universally’ or ‘all’ should be taken -out. If the love for him is ‘universal,’ of course -‘all’ love him; and the converse is equally true.</p> - -<p>Sometimes words are found together which contradict -each other. Of this class of faults we may -quote the not unfrequent form ‘further backwards.’ -‘Further’ means more in advance, and ‘backwards’ -has a directly contrary meaning. It is -impossible to go ‘further’ and, at the same time, -‘backwards,’ and therefore the two words should -never be used together.</p> - -<p>‘Either’ and ‘neither’ cannot be properly applied -to more than two persons or things. Speaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -of three or four people, it is incorrect to say that -‘neither’ of them is clever, though we may say -that ‘none,’ or ‘no one,’ of them is clever. Nor -would it be good grammar to say, ‘either of the -six children may go;’ we must here say ‘any one.’</p> - -<p>‘<em>All of them.</em>’ This is a form which some critics -have attacked, and not without reason. They say -that ‘<em>of</em>’ here means ‘out of;’ that it corresponds -exactly with the Latin preposition <em>e</em>, or <em>ex</em>, and -that therefore the expression must be incorrect. -We do not take ‘all of them,’ but we take ‘them -all.’ We may correctly say one, two, three, &c., -or most of them, but when there is question of -<em>all</em>, no preposition should be used.</p> - -<p>‘<em>Equanimity of mind.</em>’ As equanimity means -evenness of mind, why should ‘of mind’ be repeated? -‘Anxiety of mind’ is, of course, open to -the same objection.</p> - -<p>‘<em>Incorrect orthography.</em>’ The fault in this very -common expression arises from the idea that ‘orthography’ -means merely spelling (good or bad), -whereas the true meaning of the word is ‘<em>correct</em> -spelling.’ Now, spelling cannot be correct and at -the same time incorrect, and therefore the two -terms are incompatible. We may say ‘incorrect -spelling,’ but we must not say ‘incorrect orthography.’</p> - -<p>‘<em>A confirmed invalid.</em>’ What is this? one who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -is strengthened in his weakness? There is certainly -here a contradiction, for no weakness can -be strong.</p> - -<p>‘<em>Old news</em>’ is another contradictory form, where -the terms are incompatible with each other. It -may be placed in the same class with ‘enjoying -bad health.’</p> - -<p>It is inaccurate to say that a man’s ‘<em>defects are -improved</em>.’ A defect means the want of some good -quality, and to ‘improve’ means ‘to make better.’ -Wants may be ‘decreased’ or ‘supplied,’ but they -cannot be made better; and, therefore, the two -terms should not be used together.</p> - -<p>It is a common error to use ‘quantity’ for -‘number.’ The former can only be said of a collection -or mass. A ‘quantity’ of meat or a -‘quantity’ of milk is good English, but not a quantity -of pens or books, &c. To separate individual -objects we must apply ‘number,’ but to a collected -mass ‘quantity.’ We may say a ‘quantity’ of -wood, but it must be a ‘number’ of faggots.</p> - -<p>In many cases the wrong preposition is used; -and, indeed, there are few writers or speakers who -are invariably correct in this respect. The very -common fault, ‘different to,’ we need hardly stop -to inquire into, but we often find equally wrong -forms which pass unnoticed. Occasionally we -meet with ‘to disagree <em>from</em>,’ though in general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -the form used is ‘to disagree <em>with</em>.’ Here the -‘dis’ in ‘disagree’ and the preposition ‘with’ -seem to pull two ways. Which, then, is right—to -disagree <em>from</em> or <em>with</em>? The proper phrase is to -‘assent <em>to</em>’ and to ‘dissent <em>from</em>;’ and if the latter -is correct, why not also ‘to disagree <em>from</em>?’</p> - -<p>As it is admitted that ‘different <em>to</em>’ is wrong, -on the same principle, ‘averse <em>to</em>’ must be wrong. -No one can go two ways at once. The <em>a</em> in -‘averse’ certainly means ‘from;’ and therefore -the word should be followed by ‘<em>from</em>,’ and not ‘<em>to</em>.’ -The first is already adopted by many good writers.</p> - -<p>The conjunction ‘than’ should not be used -except after a comparative adjective. ‘Soon<em>er</em> -than;’ ‘better than;’ ‘rather than,’ &c., are -correct; but ‘scarcely had he uttered these words -<em>than</em>,’ is bad English. ‘Hardly had he attained -his majority <em>than</em>’ is equally wrong. For ‘<em>than</em>’ -we should here use ‘<em>when</em>.’ ‘But’ should not be -used for ‘than,’ as, ‘no sooner had he finished his -work <em>but</em>.’</p> - -<p>Another common mistake is to use ‘except’ for -‘unless.’ The former is a preposition, and must be -followed not by a proposition, but by a noun or -pronoun. It is bad grammar to say ‘no one -should aspire to this situation, <em>except</em> he is competent -to fulfil its duties.’ (Here, we should read -‘unless’ for ‘except.’)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> - -<p>‘Like’ is also frequently confounded with ‘as.’ -The former is a preposition, and should not be -used as a conjunction. ‘Do you write <em>like</em> I do?’ -is wrong. It should be ‘<em>as</em> (not <em>like</em>) I do.’</p> - -<p>‘Notwithstanding he thought so,’ is bad English. -We should here use ‘although.’ ‘Notwithstanding’ -is a preposition, and is followed by its object. -We say correctly, ‘notwithstanding his objections,’ -but not properly, ‘notwithstanding he objected.’</p> - -<p>‘But’ is often redundant after the word ‘doubt.’ -We continually meet with ‘I have no doubt <em>but</em> -that,’ &c. This is a wrong form: the ‘but’ should -be omitted.</p> - -<p>As an example of a loose sentence; i.e. where -the connection of the parts is not sufficiently -clear, the following advertisement of a hair-dresser -may be quoted:—</p> - -<p>‘Seven lessons in hair-dressing may be had for -one guinea, which (?) <em>being imparted on a system</em> -entirely new, will enable any one <em>so instructed</em> to -give the most complete satisfaction!’</p> - -<p>The Anglo-Saxon ‘tíd’ meant ‘time’ (compare -the German ‘Zeit’); whence to ‘betide’ means to -happen in time. The ‘tide’ is the <em>time</em> at which -the water rises and falls. ‘Tidy,’ also, in old -English, signified properly ‘timely.’</p> - -<p>In old English, we meet with the form ‘ton,’ -which is for ‘the one;’ and this may probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -account for ‘t’other,’ or ‘the t’other,’ which is, -in fact, a contraction of ‘that other.’ But ‘t’other’ -is now accounted a vulgarism.</p> - -<p>There is some difference of practice in the -use of the article (a, an). The rule is, that -‘an’ must be used before a vowel, or <em>h</em> mute. -This is, in general, a good rule; but there -is one vowel, which must be sometimes considered -an exception, viz. ‘<em>u</em>.’ It is right to -say ‘an apple,’ ‘an evil,’ ‘an idler,’ and ‘an -orange;’ but before <em>u</em> we must pause; for here -there is a double practice. Now, this vowel has -two sounds; open, as in ‘<em>u</em>nion;’ and close, -as in ‘<em>u</em>gly.’ Before the long sound, we should -use the article ‘a;’ as ‘a unit,’ ‘a union,’ ‘a -uniform,’ &c. But before the short sound of ‘u,’ -the article ‘an’ should be used; as ‘an uncle,’ -‘an ugly object,’ &c. Many good writers, however, -use ‘an’ even before a long <em>u</em>. We often -meet with ‘<em>an</em> united family,’ ‘<em>an</em> universal practice,’ -&c. The question is here one of harmony; -and the best practice seems to be, to adopt the -softer sound. No one ever thinks of saying or -writing ‘<em>an</em> youth,’ or ‘<em>an</em> yew tree;’ and yet -the sound in ‘<em>an</em> uniform,’ or ‘<em>an</em> universe,’ is -precisely the same, and of course equally harsh.</p> - -<p>Another case belonging to this question is the -use of the article in the frequently-seen expression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -‘<em>such an one</em>.’ This form is disagreeably harsh -and unmusical. We might as well say: ‘such <em>an</em> -woman,’ or ‘such <em>an</em> wonder.’ It is true there -are authorities for both these forms—‘such a one,’ -and ‘such an one;’ but in a case of this sort, we -had better adopt the more harmonious form; good -taste and a delicate ear will direct us to ‘such a -one,’ rather than ‘such <em>an</em> one.’</p> - -<p>It has been remarked that there is a strong tendency -in English to get rid of inflections. Many -of these were found in old English which have -now fallen off. The old infinitive-ending <em>en</em> is -now altogether gone, though some adjectives in -<em>en</em> still remain; viz. those which denote material, -such as ‘golden,’ ‘earthen,’ ‘oaten,’ &c. We had -at one time ‘rosen,’ ‘silvern,’ ‘tinnen,’ ‘boxen,’ -and many others. These are now gone; and there -seems to be a prevalent disposition to cut off the -endings of those which remain. Instead of ‘a -golden watch,’ we now say ‘a gold watch,’ using -the noun for the adjective. In the same way, we -have ‘earthworks’ for ‘earthen works;’ though -we still keep ‘earthenware.’ Many of these adjectives -in <em>en</em> still hold their ground, though most -of those which are retained have lost a part of -their sense. ‘Brazen’ has now only a secondary -meaning; and stands for ‘bold’ or ‘impudent.’ -In a concrete sense, the noun is used instead of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> -the adjective. We say a ‘brazen face,’ for an -‘impudent face;’ but ‘a brass knob,’ or ‘a brass -candlestick.’ Again: we have ‘a golden rule,’ in -a secondary; but a ‘gold’ ring in a primary -sense.</p> - -<p>The word ‘pigmy’—derived from the Greek -πυγμὴ, the fist—was first spelled ‘p<em>y</em>gmy.’ It -meant one whose stature was no higher than from -the elbow to the fist. The change from <em>y</em> to <em>i</em> -was probably caused by the dislike of the printers -to <em>y</em> in the middle of a word. But it has here as -good a right to its place as the <em>y</em> in ‘h<em>y</em>mn,’ -or ‘t<em>y</em>pe.’ It is, however, gone; and we must -submit.</p> - -<p>Hundreds of words might be cited which have -been brought into their present forms by the influence -of corruption. The now generally received -explanation of ‘Rotten Row’ is, that it is a corruption -of ‘Route du Roi,’ originally the private road -used by King William III. when going from Piccadilly -to Kensington. The old form ‘diamant’ was -preferable to the more modern ‘diamond,’ because it -told its story more clearly. It was an inversion -of ‘adamant,’ the untameable, or invincible, so -called because it is the hardest of stones, and -cannot be cut except by one of its own species.</p> - -<p>The modern spelling of the word ‘height’ is -a corruption. We have ‘wid<em>th</em>,’ from ‘wide;’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> -‘leng<em>th</em>,’ from ‘long;’ and ‘bread<em>th</em>,’ from ‘broad.’ -Why, then, not ‘highth,’ from ‘high?’ In the -writings of the seventeenth century we meet with -various spellings of this word. It is found ‘highth’ -in the first edition of ‘Paradise Lost;’ and also -‘heigth’ and ‘heygth.’ Now the inversion of <em>ht</em> -for <em>th</em> has corrupted it into ‘heig<em>ht</em>;’ and so, for -the present, it will probably remain. The <em>d</em> in -‘admiral’ appears to be a corruption. All our -dictionaries give the derivation of this word from -the Arabic ‘amir,’ or ‘emir,’ a lord, or commander. -Neither the French ‘amiral,’ nor the -Italian ‘ammiraglio,’ has the <em>d</em>. Milton writes -the word ‘ammiral:’</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"> -<p class="verse10">the tallest pine</p> -<p class="verse">Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast</p> -<p class="verse">Of some great <em>ammiral</em>,—</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="noindent">though in this passage, the word means a ship, -and not its commander. Mr. Wedgewood says -that, in many cases in Arabic, the article is placed -after the noun; and that the <em>ad</em> initial is a -mere corruption of the first syllable of ‘amir’ or -‘emir.’</p> - -<p>It was a fanciful etymology which gave us the -word ‘Tartar.’ The incorrect spelling ‘Tartars’ -for ‘Tatars’ occurs at the same time with the -appearance of the Mongols in Europe, in the -thirteenth century; and was probably introduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> -by the superstitious monks and writers who, -struck with the seeming analogy between ‘Tatar’ -and Tartarus (the hell of the ancients), believed -that these ferocious invaders had come from the -infernal regions.</p> - -<p>We are told by some writers that there are -between 2,000 and 3,000 words in the English -language, for which there is no recognised standard -of spelling. Though this number is probably -exaggerated, there are, no doubt, many in this -condition; and it naturally becomes a question -which of two forms is to be preferred. Here, we -should be at least consistent; we should hold to -the one, and altogether reject the other.</p> - -<p>The two forms, ‘chemist’ and ‘chymist’ arose -from the word having a disputed derivation; but -the first is now received as correct. Of course, its -derivatives will therefore be spelled ‘chemical,’ -‘chemistry,’ &c.</p> - -<p>There was, at one time, a confusion between -‘choir’ and ‘quire.’ The second word has no -connection, except in sound, with the first, which -is from the Latin ‘chorus,’ through the French -‘chœur.’ As ‘quire,’ in the sense of a number -singing together, is now obsolete, so is ‘quirister,’ -which must be spelled ‘chorister.’</p> - -<p>There are two forms—‘coit,’ and ‘quoit.’ The -derivation of this word is somewhat obscure; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -if, as some suggest, it is connected with <em>cut</em>, the -form ‘coit’ is preferable to the other. Another -argument in favour of this form is that the word -is always pronounced as if beginning with a <em>c</em> -hard, or <em>k</em>; and not as if with <em>qu</em>.</p> - -<p>There has been a rather sharp controversy -lately concerning the two forms ‘diocess’ and -‘diocese.’ The ‘Times’ adopts ‘diocess.’ Dr. -Latham says under the word, ‘diocese, frequently -but improperly, diocess.’ Webster says, ‘the -orthography of “diocess” is opposed to the derivation, -and is against the best English usage.’ -There is little doubt that ‘diocess’ is the older, -and ‘diocese’ the newer form of the word: and -there is also little doubt, in spite of the ‘Times,’ -that ‘diocese’ is the proper form.</p> - -<p>Between ‘intire’ and ‘entire’ there is still a -divided practice. The word is a contraction of -the Latin ‘integer,’ which will account for the -initial <em>i</em>. But it comes to us directly from the -French ‘entier.’ So that ‘entire’ will probably -supplant ‘intire,’ though we still have ‘Barclay -and Co.’s <em>intire</em>.’</p> - -<p>There are two forms of the word—‘referrible,’ -and ‘referable.’ These are both in common use, -and both are given in the dictionaries; but the -second, ‘referable,’ is the proper form. There -was no Latin adjective ‘referibilis.’ Our word is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -a later formation, where <em>a</em> in such cases is always -used rather than <em>i</em>; and, therefore, it is better -spelled ‘referable.’ Besides, this form is in analogy -with ‘preferable,’ ‘inferable,’ &c.</p> - -<p>Some still write ‘sirname’ incorrectly for ‘surname,’ -probably from an idea that the word means -sire-name, or a name received from a sire (father). -But its real meaning is an added name; one name -added <em>to</em> another. It is from the French ‘surnom,’ -and should be always spelled ‘surname.’</p> - -<p>Between a ‘serjeant’-at-law, and a military -‘sergeant’ there is this difference: that the first -must be written with a <em>j</em>, and the second with a <em>g</em>. -The word is derived from the Latin ‘serviens,’ and -means, in both cases, one who serves; but the -words are spelled somewhat differently, to make a -distinction in their application.</p> - -<p>A difference should be made between ‘story’ -and ‘storey.’ The first means an account of facts, -and is a contraction of ‘history.’ It is a history -on a small scale. But ‘storey’ is a contraction of -‘stagery,’ and means the landing in a house; as -in ‘first storey,’ ‘second storey,’ &c. Of course, -the plural form of the first word should be ‘stories,’ -and of the second, ‘storeys.’</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p6" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs75"><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVI.</a></span><br /><br /> - -<span class="fs40">MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS OF WORDS.</span></h2> - - -<p class="noindent"><em>Abominable.</em> This word is from the Latin -verb ‘abominor,’ which again is from <em>ab</em> and -<em>omen</em>. The word involves the idea of what is -in a religious sense profane and detestable; in -fine, of evil omen. Milton always uses it in reference -to devilish, profane or idolatrous objects. It -was once thought that the true etymology of -‘abominable’ was from <em>ab</em> (from), and <em>homo</em> (a -man); and that its proper meaning was <em>repugnant -to human nature</em>. This, though not the right -derivation, may account for the word being still -often used in that sense.</p> - -<p><em>Absurd</em>, which has the sense of ‘foolish,’ ‘inconsistent,’ -&c., is from the Latin ‘absurdus,’ -compounded of ‘ab’ (from), and ‘surdus’ (deaf). -An ‘absurd’ answer is one you would probably -get ‘from a deaf’ man; i.e. one wholly irrelevant -to the question.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Academy.</em> This word owes its origin to the name -of a grove near Athens, ἀκαδημία, where Plato and -other philosophers used to give lectures to their -followers. Hence this name has been frequently -given to institutions for instruction.</p> - -<p><em>Ajar.</em> The Anglo-Saxon ‘cerre’ is a turn; from -‘cerran,’ to turn; hence a door is said to be ‘ajar,’ -when it is on the turn. From the same root we -have to <em>churn</em> milk; i.e. to <em>turn</em> it about. Also a -<em>char</em>-woman—one who does a ‘turn’ of work. -Compare the German ‘kehren.’</p> - -<p><em>Archipelago.</em> This name was given by the -modern Greeks to the Ægean Sea. It is a corruption -of ἁγιὸς πέλαγος (Hagios pelagos), ‘Holy -Sea.’</p> - -<p><em>Ban</em>, to proclaim or denounce. The original -meaning is connected with ‘<em>ban</em>ner,’ a flag, -or standard; in feudal times, the rallying point -to which retainers flocked to do battle for their -seigneur. The word is supposed to be connected -with ‘bend,’ in the sense of to make a sign. -‘Bandit,’ a proclaimed outlaw, is from the same -source, as also ‘Banns,’ i.e. a proclamation of -marriage.</p> - -<p><em>Bankrupt.</em> The following circumstances gave -rise to this word. It was the custom in the twelfth -and thirteenth centuries for the Lombard merchants -to expose their wares for sale in the market-place,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -on <em>benches</em>. Whenever any one of their number -failed in his business, or could not pay his debts, -all the other merchants set upon him, drove him -from the market, and <em>broke</em> his <em>bench</em> to pieces. -‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Banco rotto</span>’ is the Italian for bench-broken. -Hence came the word, which passed into French -in the form ‘<em>banqueroute</em>;’ and into English as -‘<em>bankrupt</em>.’</p> - -<p><em>Barley-sugar.</em> Has nothing whatever to do -with the grain ‘<em>barley</em>.’ The first part of the -word is here an inversion—and at the same time -a corruption of the French brûlé (burnt). The -whole word was originally ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sucre brûlé</span>’ (burnt -sugar), and it is still sometimes called ‘sugar-barley.’</p> - -<p><em>Birmingham.</em> The name of an Anglo-Saxon -family was often formed by adding <em>ing</em> to that of -its founder; <em>ing</em> meaning ‘son of,’ or ‘descended -from.’ The estate or residence was called the -‘<em>ham</em>,’ or home; and the name was formed by -adding this syllable <em>ham</em>, to the family name. -Thus, the family of a Saxon leader named ‘Beorm’ -possessed a residence in Mercia, to which they -gave the name of ‘Beorm-ing-ham,’ or the home -of the sons of Beorm; now corrupted into ‘Birmingham.’ -Many places in England still retain -the names originally given them by Anglo-Saxon -families; as ‘Nottingham,’ ‘Walsingham,’ &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Blackguard</em> was a name first given to the -lowest menials engaged in the dirty work of a -kitchen or household, as scullion, link-boy, coal-carrier, -&c. It was afterwards applied to any -loose, idle vagabonds.</p> - -<p><em>Book.</em> In the same way as the Latin <em>liber</em> -(the bark of a tree), was afterwards used in the -sense of a book, because it was a material used -for writing on; so our word <em>book</em> comes from the -Saxon ‘boc’ (a beech tree). In a rude, uncivilised -age, it was the custom to form alphabetical letters -with the pliable twigs of the beech. To this day, -the German for ‘to spell’ is ‘buchstabiren’ (from -‘Buch’ (beech), and ‘stab’ (a staff or twig)); i.e. -to put the beech-staves properly together.</p> - -<p><em>Booty.</em> The Anglo-Saxon ‘bet’ meant ‘better’; -and ‘betan’ was to amend or make better. Thus -a ‘booty’ would be that which betters us; ‘bootless’ -is ‘without effect or improvement,’ and ‘so -much to boot,’ is so much to our advantage.</p> - -<p><em>Burglar.</em> This is from the Low Latin ‘burgilatro,’ -a house-robber; one who breaks into a -house with a felonious intent. The old French -‘lerre’ is a contraction of the Latin ‘latro,’ a -robber.</p> - -<p><em>Cabal.</em> The usually received etymology of this -word is that it is formed of the initials of the -names of the five ministers of Charles II. who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -succeeded to the government of this country after -the banishment of Lord Clarendon—<em>C</em>lifford, <em>A</em>shley, -<em>B</em>uckingham, <em>A</em>rlington, and <em>L</em>auderdale. -But Mr. Wedgewood suggests that it comes from -‘Cabala,’ or the mysterious tradition delivered to -Moses with the Law, on Mount Sinai, and handed -down by the Jews from father to son. ‘Hence,’ -he says, ‘Cabal came to signify a secret machination -or plotting.’ Lord Macaulay favours the -first explanation.</p> - -<p><em>Caitiff.</em> This English word presents us with -a curious lesson. It is, in fact, only another form -of ‘captive,’ though it has come to signify a wretch -capable of perpetrating the darkest crimes. The -Latin ‘captivus,’ a prisoner, is the source of the -modern Italian ‘cattivo,’ which has the general -sense of ‘bad;’ and the French ‘chétif,’ which -signifies ‘mean,’ ‘pitiful,’ or ‘insignificant,’ is -another form of the same word. All these varieties -point to the same conclusion, viz. the moral -degradation naturally produced in the human -mind by captivity.</p> - -<p><em>Candidate.</em> In ancient Rome it was the custom -for those who sued for offices of state, to be -dressed in white robes. Hence came the word -‘candidate,’ which is derived from the Latin ‘candidus’ -(white); and which signifies literally—‘dressed -in white.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Carat</em> is from the Arabic ‘kaura,’ a bean, -which varies very little in weight. It was introduced -into India as a standard weight for diamonds. -The Arabic words are <em>goort</em>, <em>girat</em>, and <em>gurat</em>; corrupted -into ‘<em>carat</em>.’</p> - -<p><em>Cardinal.</em> Certain dignitaries of the Church -of Rome are called ‘cardinals.’ This word is -derived from the Latin ‘cardo,’ a hinge. One of -the favourite comparisons by which the Church of -Rome sought to set herself up above all the other -churches of Christendom, was that it was the -<em>hinge</em> upon which all the rest of the church, as -the door, turned, or depended. Hence the higher -clergy were called cardinals, as being closely connected -with the Pope, who was the ‘<em>cardo</em>,’ or -hinge of them all. Certain virtues are also called -‘cardinal,’ as being those upon which all other -virtues turn.</p> - -<p><em>Caricature.</em> This is literally an overloaded -or over-charged representation. It is derived -from the Italian ‘<em>caricare</em>,’ to load. In a caricature, -a resemblance is retained; but the details -are exaggerated.</p> - -<p><em>Carnival</em> is from the Latin ‘caro’ (flesh), -and ‘vale’ (farewell). It signifies literally ‘farewell -to flesh;’ and is applied to the holiday held -in Roman Catholic countries the week before Lent. -It may be considered as a feast before a fast.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Caudle.</em> The derivation of this word is yet -undecided. Latham gives it as a corruption of -‘cordial;’ while Wedgewood derives it from the -French ‘chaudeau’ (from <em>chaud</em>, hot), a warm -comforting drink for the sick.</p> - -<p><em>Chancel.</em> This means the part of a church -enclosed or railed off from the body of the building -by lattice-work (Latin, <em>cancelli</em>). Chancellors -were originally law officers who stood at the railings -(ad cancellos) in a court of justice, and received -the petitions of the suitors. The verb ‘to -cancel’ is from the same source. To ‘cancel’ a -name is to efface it by drawing a pen across it in -diagonal lines, so as to make lattice-work over it.</p> - -<p><em>Cheat.</em> From the Latin verb ‘cadĕre,’ to fall, -came the old French ‘eschoir,’ and hence ‘escheats.’ -This is a law-term signifying lands -which <em>fall</em> to the lord by forfeiture, or by the -death of a tenant. The king’s ‘escheators’ were -officers appointed to look after the king’s ‘escheats;’ -and as they had many opportunities of -practising fraud, and were much complained of on -that score, the term escheator (or cheater) came -to signify any fraudulent person. This is the -origin of the present meaning of the verb ‘to -cheat.’</p> - -<p><em>Church.</em> This word, though consisting of only -one syllable, has in it the elements of two roots.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -It is of Greek origin, and signifies literally ‘the -Lord’s House.’ Κύριος (Kyrios) is the Greek -for ‘Lord;’ and οἶκος (oikos) means, in that language, -‘house,’ or ‘dwelling.’ Putting these two -roots together we get ‘<em>Kyri-oik</em>.’ This, by a -natural law would contract into ‘kyrik.’ In -Scotch we find ‘kirk,’ and in German ‘Kirche.’ -In English the guttural is softened, and the word -appears as ‘<em>church</em>.’</p> - -<p><em>Comedy.</em> This is derived, according to Aristotle, -from κώμη (komē), a village; and ᾠδὴ (odē), -a song. It was at first a song of joy of the villagers -at the gathering in of the harvest—a sort -of harvest-home. This was a lighter and gayer -song, and did not partake of the more solemn, and -at first, religious tone of the tragedy. Others -derive comedy from κῶμος, and ᾠδή, ‘a song of -revellers.’</p> - -<p><em>Companion.</em> Two derivations are given of -this word. 1. From the French ‘campagne,’ -which is from the Latin ‘cum,’ and ‘pagus,’ a -village, or district. By this explanation it would -mean one of those who belonged to the same district. -2. From the Low Latin ‘companium,’ an -association; formed from ‘cum’ (with), and -‘panis’ (bread). This conveys the meaning of -bread-sharer. Mr. Wedgewood favours the second -explanation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Comrade.</em> There is no doubt that this word, -which is in French ‘camarade,’ is derived from -the Italian ‘camera,’ afterwards in French ‘chambre,’ -and that it was first applied to those who -lived together in the same room (chambre).</p> - -<p><em>Cordwainer.</em> During the Moorish government -of southern Spain, the city of Cordŏva became -celebrated for the manufacture of leather. -Hence, the French ‘cordovan’ meant originally -the leather of Cordova. Hence, also, the English -‘cordwainer,’ and the French ‘cordovanier’ (now -contracted into ‘cordonnier,’) a worker in leather.</p> - -<p><em>Counterpane.</em> The middle-age Latin ‘culcita’ -meant a mattrass. This in French was ‘coulte,’ -and in English became ‘quilt.’ ‘Culcita puncta’ -meant a quilt punctured with stitches, so as to -form a pattern. This, in French, became ‘coulte-pointe;’ -afterwards converted into ‘conte-pointe,’ -and ‘contre-pointe.’ Hence at length came the -English ‘counter-pane.’</p> - -<p><em>Country Dance.</em> Some think that this really -means a dance of country people. But the probable -derivation is the French <em>contre</em>, ‘over against,’ -or ‘opposite to,’ which has been corrupted into -‘country;’ and the whole word means a dance in -which the partners stand opposite to (contre) each -other.</p> - -<p><em>Curmudgeon.</em> It was suggested by Menage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -that this word is from the French ‘cœur,’ and -‘méchant,’ wicked heart. But the more probable -derivation is from ‘corn-mudgin.’ Corn-mudgins -were dealers in corn, who were unpopular, as -it was thought that they hoarded, and kept up -the price of corn, to serve their own interests. -Hence the word came to signify an avaricious -monopolist.</p> - -<p><em>Delirious</em> comes from the Latin compound ‘de’ -(from), and ‘lira’ (a furrow, or ridge). The -word is a metaphor, taken from those who deviate -from the straight line, or furrow, in ploughing. -It is now applied to those who rove in mind, or -are disordered in intellect.</p> - -<p><em>Ecstasy.</em> This word has the meaning of violent -excitement. It is now generally used in -the sense of some pleasurable feeling, though it -was formerly much more extended in signification. -It is derived from the Greek ἐκ (out), and στάσις -(a standing); i.e. literally ‘a standing out.’ It is -curious that in the Saxon part of our language, -there is a corresponding phrase which exactly explains -this word; viz. ‘<em>to be beside oneself</em>.’ We -commonly say, ‘He was beside himself with joy.’ -In a state of ‘ecstasy,’ the soul may be said to leap -out, as it were, and stand forth from the body.</p> - -<p><em>Fanatic</em> is from the Latin ‘fanum,’ a temple. -This adjective was at first applied to people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> -affected by a strong religious feeling—possessed -by an incontrollable enthusiasm.</p> - -<p><em>Favour.</em> Ladies in their most brilliant attire -were generally spectators of the tournaments of -the Middle Ages. They were, severally, interested -in the knights, and encouraged them, by -looks, tokens, or gestures, to do their duty manfully. -They frequently threw them a portion of -their dress, such as a sleeve, mantle, or bow -of ribbons, called a <em>favour</em>, which the knight -wore on his armour, and forfeited if he was vanquished. -From this custom has descended, to our -days, the fashion of distributing bows of ribbon, -still called <em>favours</em>, to the guests and attendants at -a wedding.</p> - -<p><em>Faubourg.</em> This is considered by French philologists, -to be a corruption of ‘<em>forsbourg</em>.’ The -old French ‘fors’ (now <em>hors</em>), is from the Latin -‘foras,’ ‘outside,’ or ‘abroad.’ Faubourg (the -present orthography) would naturally lead to -the idea that it meant ‘false town,’ or ‘unreal -town:’ whereas it means and literally corresponds -with the English ‘suburb,’ i.e. a district or place -situated ‘foras burgi,’ outside the town.</p> - -<p><em>Feud.</em> According to M. Guizot, the word ‘feodum’ -appears for the first time in a charter of -Charles Le Gros, 884. The etymology is uncertain; -but two suggestions have been made, either of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -which is probable. Some think the word is connected -with the Latin ‘fides,’ faith, and means -‘land given,’ for which the holder was bound in -<em>fidelity</em> to his suzerain lord. According to others, -‘feod’ is of Germanic origin; and is derived from -‘fe’ (or fee)—still used in English in the sense -of a recompense—and ‘od’ an old Germanic root -now obsolete, meaning ‘goods,’ or ‘property.’ -Thus, ‘feod’ would mean reward-land. M. Guizot -favours the second explanation.</p> - -<p><em>Foolscap.</em> By a statute of Queen Anne certain -duties were imposed on all paper imported -from abroad. Among the various sorts of paper -herein mentioned is the Genoa ‘foolscap.’ This -word is a corruption of the Italian ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">foglio capo,</span>’ a -chief, or full-sized, sheet of paper. Foglio (leaf), -is from the Latin ‘folium,’ which appears in French -as ‘feuille.’</p> - -<p><em>Garment</em> is a contraction of the French ‘garnement,’ -from the verb ‘garnir,’ to decorate or -garnish. It is now restricted to the meaning of -‘garnishing’ or decorating the body by dress.</p> - -<p><em>Gew-gaw.</em> The derivation of this word still remains -doubtful, though many suggestions have -been made of its origin. May it not be from the -French ‘jou-jou,’ a plaything?</p> - -<p><em>Gooseberry.</em> Dr. Johnson, whose etymologies -are not always to be depended on, especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> -those of Saxon words, explains the word ‘gooseberry’—‘a -fruit eaten as a sauce for goose.’ But -it is, in truth, a corruption of the German ‘krausbeere,’ -or ‘krautelbeere,’ from ‘kraus’ or ‘gorse,’ -‘crisp;’ and the fruit is so called from the upright -hairs with which it is covered. So that ‘gooseberry,’ -is really, a corruption of ‘gorseberry.’ But -what is gooseberry <em>fool</em>? ‘Fool’ is here also a -corruption—it is from the French ‘foulé,’ ‘mashed’ -or ‘crushed,’ and the whole word means ‘crushed -gooseberries.’</p> - -<p><em>Gossip.</em> ‘Sib’ was an Anglo-Saxon word, -meaning ‘relation,’ and the term ‘gossip’ was -first applied to the relation between godfathers -and godmothers in baptism, so that a gossip (or -God-sib), meant a relation in God (i.e. in a religious -sense). It has now passed into the sense -of a great chatterer or talker; but the above explanation -accounts for its origin.</p> - -<p><em>Hammercloth.</em> In the olden time, before there -was any hotel accommodation in England for -travellers, it was the custom with those going on -a journey to fill a ‘hanaper’ (or hamper) with -provisions, and throw a cloth over it, to conceal -its somewhat homely appearance. This was -placed in front of the carriage, and served as a -seat for the driver. Thus, from ‘hanaper-cloth,’ -came ‘hammer-cloth.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Harbour.</em> The two roots of this compound word -are the Anglo-Saxon ‘here,’ an army; and ‘beorgan,’ -to protect. A harbour is then, literally, a -place to protect an army.</p> - -<p><em>Heir-loom.</em> From the Saxon ‘geloma,’ tools, -utensils, or pieces of furniture. These in law are -called personal chattels, and when they descended -in inheritance from father to son, they were called -‘heir-looms.’</p> - -<p><em>Homage</em> is derived from the French ‘homme,’ -a man. The ceremony of ‘homage’ was, in the -Middle Ages, a solemn declaration of the vassal -that he would be the man (homme) of his future -lord. He knelt down; placed both his hands -between those of his lord; with his head bare, -and without his arms; and then swore that he -would use his hands and his weapons, when they -should be restored to him, in his future lord’s -service.</p> - -<p><em>Hurry.</em> ‘Here’ was the Anglo-Saxon for an -army (compare the German ‘Heer’); and ‘herian’ -was to act as an army, viz. to ravage, despoil, -and plunder a country. Hence come the English -words ‘hurry,’ ‘harry,’ and ‘harrow.’</p> - -<p><em>Hustings</em> is from the Saxon ‘Hus’ (a house) -and ‘Ting’ (a council). This was the name given -to the municipal court of the City of London, -where probably the elections were originally conducted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -Now, the word signifies the booths where -speeches are made at an election.</p> - -<p><em>Jeopardy.</em> This is from the Middle-Age Latin; -‘jocus partitus’ (French, ‘jeu-parti’), i.e. a divided -game, where the chances are even—a choice of -alternatives.</p> - -<p><em>Kickshaws</em> is a corruption of the French ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">quelque -chose;</span>’ <em>something</em> so disguised by cooking as -scarcely to be recognised.</p> - -<p><em>Late</em> is from the Anglo-Saxon ‘lætan;’ to let, -or allow. ‘Lazy’ is from the same root, as is also -‘loiter.’ He who ‘loiters’ must be ‘late.’</p> - -<p><em>Lout.</em> This comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb -‘lutian,’ to bow. It was originally applied to a -cringing menial, who was continually <em>bowing</em> before -his master; and as in this case, the act was probably -performed in a clownish, ungraceful way, -the word thus came to signify an awkward, clumsy -fellow.</p> - -<p><em>Menial.</em> This adjective is derived from the -old French noun ‘mesnie’ (or meny), which, in -the Middle Ages, meant the servants or household -of some noble or chieftain taken collectively. A -<em>menial</em> occupation was, originally, one performed -by some member of the ‘mesnie.’ It is from this -last that the English expression ‘a many’ is derived. -It was at first ‘a mesnie,’ or a collective -number of servants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Meringue.</em> Shakspere says that ‘great events -from trivial causes spring.’ But we may sometimes -reverse this saying, and say with equal -truth, that trivial effects spring from great causes. -It may appear strange that the French could not -hit upon a more dignified way of commemorating -a victory than by giving its name to a then newly -invented cake, but such is the fact. The battle of -Marengo produced the ‘Meringue’!!</p> - -<p><em>Miscreant</em>, which is from the French mécreant -(or mécroyant), was first used in the times of -the Crusades, and then signified simply an unbeliever. -But disbelief in Christianity being at -that time regarded as the worst of crimes, the -word soon passed into the more general sense of a -wicked wretch.</p> - -<p><em>Mouchard.</em>—In the latter part of the sixteenth -century, when the French Government was on -the look-out for heretics, a certain Antoine <em>Mouchy</em>, -a doctor of the Sorbonne and canon of Noyon, -made himself notorious by his zeal against the -Reformers. The secret spies he employed in -detecting the heretics were called, from his name, -<em>Mouchards</em>, a word which now signifies the basest -and meanest of betrayers.</p> - -<p><em>Mountebank.</em>—This means a quack medicine -vendor, so called from the Italian ‘montare’ (to -mount) and ‘banco’ (a bench). Literally, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -who mounts a bench, to boast of his infallible skill -in curing diseases.</p> - -<p><em>Naught.</em> ‘Aught’ is a contraction of the Saxon -‘a wiht’ (or, a whit), any creature or thing. -‘Naught’ is the negative of ‘aught,’ and means -‘not a whit.’ The adjective ‘naughty’ is now -confined in its application to the behaviour of -children; but it was once much more extensively -used.</p> - -<p><em>Palace.</em> This term, which is now used in a -general sense for a king’s residence, was first -applied to a dwelling of the Roman Emperor -Nero. One of the seven hills of Rome was called -‘Palatinus,’ from Pales, a pastoral deity whose -festival was there celebrated on April 21 as the -birthday of Rome. Under Nero, all the private -houses on the ‘collis Palatinus’ were pulled down -to make room for the Emperor’s new residence. -This house was called ‘Palatium,’ and it afterwards -became the type of all the palaces of the -kings and emperors of Europe.</p> - -<p><em>Palfrey.</em>—This is a contraction of the French -‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">par le frein</span>’ (by the bridle). It is a horse used -on state occasions, and distinguished from the -war horse—a horse led by the bridle, ‘<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mené par -le frein</i>.’</p> - -<p><em>Pamphlet.</em>—It is supposed that this word is -a contraction of the French ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">par un filet.</span>’ It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -means a small book, not bound, but held together -by a thread—‘<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">tenu par un filet</i>.’</p> - -<p><em>Pavilion</em> is derived directly from the French -‘pavillon,’ where it is used in the sense of a tent -or flag. But the origin of the word is the Latin -‘papilio,’ a butterfly. Tents or flags would be -so called, because of their flapping about as a -butterfly.</p> - -<p><em>Person.</em> This word was originally a theatrical -term, and properly meant an actor. The -theatres of the ancient Romans were built so large -as to contain between 30,000 and 40,000 people. -Now it was impossible for the actors to make -themselves heard through so large a space; and -they therefore wore masks, inside of which, close -to the aperture for the mouth, was a certain mechanical -contrivance, which made the voice more -sonorous, so that the actors’ words could be heard -in all parts of the theatre. The Latin for a mask -is ‘persona,’ so called because the voice <em>sounded -through it</em>. <em>Per</em> is in Latin, ‘through;’ and <em>son</em> is -the root of the verb ‘sonare’ to sound. By a -common figure of speech, the word meaning -‘mask’ (persona) was afterwards applied to its -wearer; and thus ‘persona’ came to signify -‘actor.’ This was its original, theatrical meaning. -But, as all human beings are, in one sense, actors—as -they all have a part to play on the stage of life,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -the word ‘person’ was afterwards used in a general -sense to signify any one man or woman. In one -special case, it appears in the form ‘parson,’ to -designate the ‘chief person,’ or priest, of a parish. -In this sense, however, the word is now falling -into disuse.</p> - -<p><em>Pet.</em> The French adjective ‘petit’ (small) is -derived from the Latin participle, ‘petitus,’ sought -after. From this root came the English word -‘pet.’ ‘My pet’ means literally, ‘my sought -after or desired one.’ ‘Petty’ is also from the -French ‘petit;’ but it has degenerated: and is -now always used in a bad sense, as in a ‘petty -action.’</p> - -<p><em>Pert</em> is nothing else than the old French ‘aperte,’ -(from the Latin apertus) open, public, without -concealment. The sense has now degenerated -into ‘saucy’ or ‘impudent.’ ‘Malapert’ had that -meaning from the beginning; but this word is -now seldom used. ‘Pert’ seems to have taken -its place.</p> - -<p><em>Poltroon.</em> The derivation of this word is still -undecided; but the following account of it has -been offered. In the later ages of the Roman -empire, the ancient valour of the citizens had so -degenerated that, rather than fight, many actually -cut off their right thumbs, in order to disable -themselves from using the pike. The Latin for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -‘thumb’ is ‘pollex’; and ‘truncus’ means, in that -language, ‘maimed’ or ‘mutilated.’ These two -roots put together give us ‘pol-troon’ from ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><em>pol</em>lice -<em>trun</em>cus,</span>’ i.e. with the thumb cut off. As this -was done with a cowardly motive, the word very -naturally came to signify a coward, a meaning -which it retains to this day.</p> - -<p><em>Pontiff</em> (Lat. pontifex). There are various -etymologies of this word. Varro derives it from -‘pons,’ a bridge, and ‘facĕre,’ to make or build. -He says that the pontiffs had built the ‘pons -sublicius’ (over the Tiber); and afterwards restored -it, that sacrifices might be performed on -each side of the river. It is now used only as a -title of the Pope of Rome.</p> - -<p><em>Porpoise.</em> This word is from the French porc -(hog) and poisson (fish); so called from its resemblance -to a hog. Spenser spells the word -‘porcpisces.’ It is singular that, in this case, the -French should have adopted the Teutonic word -‘marsouin’ (mereswine); while in English it is -known by its French name—‘porc-poisson.’</p> - -<p><em>Post.</em> The apparently contradictory meanings -of this word may give it a peculiar interest. -In its original sense, it means something <em>placed</em>; -from the Latin participle ‘positum’; as, for example, -a pillar fixed in the street. But we also -hear of <em>post</em> haste, <em>post</em> horses, &c., and, in these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -cases, the meaning seems directly opposed to the -etymology. When letters, parcels, &c. were first -transmitted from place to place, stations (or posts) -were placed at intervals from each other, and -letters were rapidly passed on by messengers from -one station to the next, and so on, across the -whole country. This was called <em>post</em> haste; i.e. -in such haste as was used when letters were sent -in the above-described way.</p> - -<p><em>Punch.</em> The well-known beverage called punch -is said to be derived from the Hindostani panch—five. -It means a mixture of five ingredients: -1. spirit, 2. water, 3. sugar, 4. acid, and 5. essential -oil of lemon.</p> - -<p><em>Puny.</em> This is an English form of the French -puis-né, or (de)puis-né (Latin, post natus), born -since. It is in contradistinction to the French -aîné (ante-natus) elder or born before; and now -signifies weak, ill-conditioned in growth. A -junior judge is still, in legal phrase, a puisne judge.</p> - -<p><em>Quack.</em> The whole word is in German ‘qualksalber,’ -of which ‘quack’ is a contraction. ‘To -quack’ is to talk boastfully—to make a great -fuss; and ‘salber’ is from <em>salve</em>, something to -<em>heal</em>; so that quacksalber may be explained, one -who talks noisily and fussily about his healing -medicines.</p> - -<p><em>Quandary.</em> This is a corruption of the French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">qu’en dirai-(je)?</span>’ ‘what shall I say of it?’ -It expresses that condition of doubt or uncertainty -in which such a question would be naturally -asked.</p> - -<p><em>Ragoût.</em> This French noun, which may be -now considered as naturalised in English, is a -contraction of the Italian ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">miro gusto,</span>’ ‘wonderful -taste.’</p> - -<p><em>Raiment</em> is derived from ‘to array,’ and is a -contraction for ‘arrayment.’</p> - -<p><em>Ransack.</em> This word is founded in Swedish, -‘ransacka,’ where it means to search a house for -stolen goods. It is compounded of the O.N. -‘rann,’ a house, and Sw. ‘soka,’ to seek.</p> - -<p><em>Religion</em> is from the Latin ‘<em>re</em>’ (back), and -‘<em>ligare</em>,’ ‘to bind;’ literally, that which binds -back, or restrains us from the commission of sin.</p> - -<p><em>Right</em> and <em>Wrong</em>. The first of these words, -in a secondary sense, has a meaning analogous to -proceeding in a straight line, the Latin ‘rectus,’ -from which it is derived, having that meaning. -The French ‘droit’ is from ‘directus.’ Our word -‘wrong’ is only another form of ‘wrung,’ i. e. -‘<em>twisted</em>’ (out of the right line). It may be observed, -by the way, that the French ‘tort’ -(wrong) is from the Latin ‘tortus,’ twisted; so -that the same principle operates in both cases.</p> - -<p><em>Romance.</em> A name given to certain European<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -languages (especially the Provençal), which grew -out of the old Roman or Latin, The Troubadours, -or poets, who wrote in the Provençal -language being notorious for their exaggerated -sentiment, the word has come to mean a wildly -imaginative fiction; and it is even sometimes -used as a softened expression for a falsehood.</p> - -<p><em>Salary.</em> This is from the Latin ‘salarium.’ -According to Pliny, it is derived from ‘sal’ (salt), -that being the most necessary article for the -maintenance of life. In the reign of the Emperor -Augustus it comprised the provisions as well as -the pay of the Roman military officers. From -‘salary’ probably came the expression, ‘he is not -worth his <em>salt</em>,’ i.e. his pay, or wages.</p> - -<p><em>Sarcasm.</em>—The root of this word is the Greek -σάρξ (sarx) flesh, from which comes σαρκάζω -(sarcazo) ‘I tear flesh.’ The derivation throws -a strong light on its true meaning—a tearing -of the flesh. But it is now used only in a secondary -sense.</p> - -<p><em>Saunter.</em> It is said that, in the time of the -Crusades, many foreign mendicants overran England. -They professed to be on their return from -a pilgrimage to the ‘Sainte Terre:’ and the -popular voice gave these vagabonds the name of -‘saunterers.’</p> - -<p><em>Sedition</em> is from the Latin ‘se’ (apart), and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -‘itio,’ a going (from ‘eo’ I go). Sedition, then, -means ‘a going apart,’ i.e. a departure from submission -to the laws. It now implies a violent -opposition to government, and involves the idea -of commotion and disturbance of the peace.</p> - -<p><em>Seneschal.</em> This is a compound of the Latin -‘senex’ (old) and the Gothic ‘scalco’ (a servant). -The seneschal of a castle was, in the Middle Ages, -an <em>aged servant</em>, whose duty it was to keep the -keys, take care of the house, and superintend the -feasts and domestic ceremonies. ‘Seneschal’ -means ‘aged servant,’ as ‘marshal’ (‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">mara scalco</span>’) -means, literally, ‘horse servant.’</p> - -<p><em>Sincere.</em> One suggestion concerning the etymology -of this word is, that it was compounded -from the Latin ‘sine’ (without), and ‘cerâ’ (wax)—‘without -wax.’ In this view, the term is referred -to a practice of the ancient sculptors, who, -when they found a flaw in the marble of which -they were forming a statue, filled up the place -with wax, in order to conceal the defect. Those -pieces of statuary that had no flaws were, consequently, -‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine cerâ</span>’ (without wax); and the word -‘sincere’ thus acquired its present meaning; viz. -perfect, whole, without flaw. Many etymologists, -however, reject this derivation, and the origin of -the word is still considered as doubtful.</p> - -<p><em>Simple.</em> Whether ‘sincere’ be or be not from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine cerâ,</span>’ it is generally allowed that ‘simple’ -is from the Latin ‘sine,’ and ‘plico,’ I fold; i.e. -literally, ‘without fold.’ The Latin ‘simplex,’ -‘duplex,’ ‘triplex,’ &c. are in English, ‘sim<em>ple</em>,’ -‘dou<em>ble</em>,’ ‘tri<em>ple</em>,’ &c.</p> - -<p><em>Soldier.</em> This English word comes directly -from the French ‘soldat,’ which, again, is from the -Latin ‘solidus,’ Italian ‘soldo,’ and French ‘solde,’ -‘sou’ (pay)—the name of a coin which a man received -as his pay for fighting. The word originally -meant one who performed military service, -not in fulfilment of the feudal obligation, but upon -contract, and for stipulated pay.</p> - -<p><em>Somerset.</em> The corruption of a word often -obscures its derivation; as is the case here. This -is originally from the Italian ‘soprasalto,’ an over-leap. -The French corrupted the word into ‘sobresault,’ -and the English to ‘somersault,’ and then -to ‘somerset.’ But it should be always spelled -‘somersault.’ It properly means a <em>leap</em> in which -the heels are thrown <em>over</em> the head.</p> - -<p><em>Spouse.</em> The origin of this word may be traced -to the Greek verb σβέννυμι (sbennumi), ‘I pour -out;’ which passed into Latin as ‘spondeo’ -(sponsus). The Latin verb came to signify ‘to -make a contract’ or promise. In making contracts, -it was a custom with the Romans <em>to pour -out</em> libations to the gods. Hence, any one who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -contracted an engagement (especially in the case -of marriage) was called ‘sponsus,’ i.e. ‘engaged,’ -or ‘betrothed.’ The modern Italians softened the -word into ‘sposo,’ and the French transformed it -into ‘époux.’ Then it passed into English in the -form of ‘spouse.’ Godfathers and godmothers are -called ‘sponsors,’ for the same reason; because -they engage, or bind themselves, in certain contingencies, -to instruct a child in his religious -duties.</p> - -<p><em>Stalwart</em> is often written, in early English, -‘stal-ward.’ It is from the Anglo-Saxon ‘stal-weorth,’ -i.e. worth stealing, or taking. The word -is now used in the sense of strong-limbed, noble, -manly in appearance.</p> - -<p><em>Stationer.</em> The word ‘statio’ meant, in the -Middle Ages, ‘a stall,’ or ‘shop,’ and was at last -used for a shop where books and paper were sold. -Hence came ‘<em>stationarius</em>,’ one who held a station, -or who dealt in books, paper, &c.</p> - -<p><em>Tawdry.</em> According to the legend, St. Etheldreda -(Saint Audrey) is said to have died of -a quinsy, which she considered sent her as a -judgment for her vanity concerning necklaces in -her youth. Hence ‘tawdry’ has been explained -as the necklace of St. Audrey. The word now -qualifies any silly, frivolous ornamentation; fine -and showy, but without taste or elegance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span></p> - -<p><em>Thing.</em> There is a close connection between -the noun ‘thing’ and the verb ‘to think.’ In -fact, the one is derived from the other. For what -is a <em>thing</em>? It is whatever causes us to <em>think</em>. -There is the same connection between the Latin -noun ‘res’ and the verb ‘reor.’ We may also observe -that the Italian ‘cosa’ and the French -‘chose’ are formed by the same analogy. They -both mean ‘cause,’ i. e. cause of ideas or thoughts.</p> - -<p><em>Tragedy.</em> It was a custom with the Greek -peasants, when they gathered in the vintage, to -recite or sing an ode in honour of Bacchus, their -tutelary god of wine; and on this solemn occasion, -by way of propitiating that divinity, they -sacrificed to him a he-goat. The Greek for a ‘he-goat’ -is τράγος; and a song (or ode) is, in that -language, ᾠδὴ (odē). Putting together τράγος and ᾠδὴ -we get ‘tragœdia’ (tragedy); literally, ‘the -song of the goat,’ or, the song sung when the goat -was sacrificed to Bacchus. Various additions -were afterwards made, such as dialogue, chorus, -&c., till at length the drama appeared in its -present form.</p> - -<p><em>Wiseacre.</em> This word has, really, no connection -whatever with ‘acre.’ The two roots, ‘wise’ -and ‘acre,’ are clearly incompatible. How then, -did they come together? The word is, both in -spelling and pronunciation, a corruption of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> -German ‘weissager,’ a ‘wise-<em>sayer</em>,’ or sayer of -wise maxims, or precepts.</p> - -<p><em>Wont.</em> The Anglo-Saxon ‘wunian’ meant to -dwell, which naturally involved the idea of being -accustomed to; for we must become accustomed -to the dwelling in which we live. ‘He was -<em>wont</em> to say,’ means he was in the habit of saying. -Compare the German ‘wohnen’ and ‘Wohnung.’</p> - -<p><em>Zero.</em> The name given to the arithmetical -‘0’ is said to be a contraction of the Italian -‘zephiro,’ a zephyr; i.e. a mere nothing; having -no more substance than a breeze, or breath of air. -It is also sometimes called a ‘cipher,’ from the -Arabic ‘cifr,’ empty.</p> - - -<p class="p6" /> -<p class="pfs60"> -LONDON: PRINTED BY<br /> -SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE<br /> -AND PARLIAMENT STREET</p> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See Génin, Variations du Langage français, p. 312.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> In some cases, this difference of meaning may be accounted -for by a difference of etymology. ‘To let,’ in the -sense of ‘to hinder,’ is from the Saxon verb ‘letjan;’ but -when it means ‘to allow,’ it is from the Saxon ‘lætan.’ See -Mätzner, <cite>Englische Grammatik</cite>, vol. i. p. 189.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> ‘To cleave,’ meaning ‘to adhere to,’ is from the Anglo-Saxon -‘cleofan,’ ‘clufan;’ but in the sense of ‘to split,’ it is -from ‘clifan,’ ‘clifian.’ See Mätzner, vol. i. p. 202.</p></div></div> - - -<p class="p6" /> -<hr class="fulla" /> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><span class="fs80"><em>Works by the same Author.</em></span></h2> -<hr class="r20a" /> - - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><span class="fs120">ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRACTICE;</span> or, Exercises on the -Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody of the English Language. Adapted to every -form of Tuition. Revised Edition, in fcp. 8vo. price 4<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - -<div class="textcol fs70"> - -<p>‘A volume of exercises which seem -to have been selected with a ripe judgment.’</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Spectator.</span></p> - -<p>‘This treatise contains not merely -the ordinary grammatical rudiments, -but exercises in punctuation, prosody, -and versification. It will be found very -useful, especially to learners who are -somewhat advanced.’</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Weekly Dispatch.</span></p> - -<p>‘So far as we have examined this -work, its nomenclature seems much -more simple than that of the majority -of English grammars published of late -years. The chief feature, however, of -Mr. <span class="smcap">Graham’s</span> book is the abundance of -its exercises; and these can be worked -out after each rule, so that the young -learner can really confirm his own -progress step by step. There are also -appended copious exercises in prosody -and versification—a branch of English -grammar not usually studied in schools -as thoroughly as its importance deserves.’</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Critic.</span></p> - -<p>‘Not only are the rules here expressed -in very simple and intelligible -language, but each is immediately followed -by an exercise, in which the principle -on which the rule rests is illustrated -and enforced by repeated examples. This -is, we think, the only method of making -a clear impression upon a mind of average -capacity; and even where unusually good -abilities make its adoption not absolutely -necessary, it may be employed with considerable -advantage in stimulating the -pupil’s zeal by enabling him to feel at -every successful application of the principle -involved a very encouraging sense -of progress.... The most novel feature -in Mr. <span class="smcap">Graham’s</span> book is a treatise on -prosody, which, though a very necessary -part of English grammar, we do not -remember to have seen in any previous -work of this kind.’</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Parthenon.</span></p> - -</div> -<div class="textcol fs70"> - -<p>‘Mr. <span class="smcap">Graham’s</span> volume of grammar-practice -aims at being more practical -than grammars usually are. The rules -are concise; the exercises full and numerous; -there are sections on correct -spelling, and others on the logical -analysis of sentences. This book should -be specially acceptable to the masters -of private academies, where, too often, -the grammar lessons are as useless as -they are antiquated.’</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Papers</span> <em>for the</em> <span class="smcap">Schoolmaster</span>.</p> - -<p>‘Mr. <span class="smcap">Graham’s</span> purpose in this -practical little volume is to impress upon -the young learner’s mind the definitions -and rules of grammar, by setting him a -series of progressive exercises, arranged -under and exemplifying each rule successively. -As such practice may be begun -with the accidence of English Grammar, -the study, although commonly regarded -as dry and repulsive, may obviously on -this plan be made both amusing and useful -to the beginner from his first steps.’</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Educational Times.</span></p> - -<p>‘The principle adopted in this little -work is a sound one. Most English -grammars consist exclusively of abstract -rules intended to be committed to -memory. But it may be reasonably -doubted whether rules are of much value -to a young student, as in many cases -they are not clearly understood. To be of -real utility, a grammatical rule should be -immediately followed by an exercise, in -which the principle is practically applied -and illustrated. On this plan Mr. <span class="smcap">Graham</span> -has aimed at exciting an interest in the -youthful mind by the simplicity and clearness -of his rules, and by the exercises -which serve alike to illustrate them and -to test the extent of the scholar’s comprehension -of them. We warmly commend -his thoroughly practical work to the attention -of teachers and of parents generally.’</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Midland Counties Herald.</span></p> -</div> - - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><span class="fs120">STUDIES from the ENGLISH POETS:</span> a Reading-Book -intended principally for the Higher Classes in Schools, but adapted also for -Home Teaching. Revised Edition, fcp. 8vo. 5<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="fs70 lht">This work differs from most of the kind in the method of selection, the pieces being -taken from only a few of the best of the English classics, namely, <span class="smcap">Cowper</span>, <span class="smcap">Collins</span>, -<span class="smcap">Goldsmith</span>, <span class="smcap">Gray</span>, <span class="smcap">Milton</span>, <span class="smcap">Pope</span>, and <span class="smcap">Shakspeare</span>. The strikingly beautiful passages -are <em>printed in italics</em>; explanatory notes and illustrations are given; and -Questions are appended for examination and exercise in English composition.</p> - - -<p class="p2 negin2 fs80"><span class="fs120">ENGLISH;</span> or, the Art of Composition Explained in a Series -of Instructions and Examples. Revised Edition, fcp. 8vo. 5<em>s.</em></p> - - -<p class="p2 negin2 fs80"><span class="fs120">HELPS to ENGLISH GRAMMAR;</span> or, Easy Exercises for -Young Children; an improved <em>Spelling</em> and <em>Reading made Easy</em>, combined. -Revised Edition, fcp. 8vo. 2<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - -<div class="textcol fs70"> -<p>The object of this little work, which is -an improved <em>Spelling</em> and <em>Reading made -Easy</em> combined, is to give the child who has -mastered the alphabet distinct ideas on the -nature of words and the grammatical structure -of sentences; and it is intended to be -put into the pupil’s hands before he begins -the regular study of grammar. The principle -of the work is illustration by example -and by frequent repetition, with a view to -bring into action a child’s powers of discrimination -from his earliest conception of a -combination of spoken or written words to -convey an idea. In order to accomplish -this end, neither a rule nor an explanation -is given which is not immediately exemplified -in an exercise.</p> -</div> -<div class="textcol fs70"> -<p class="noindent">The book having no -higher aim than to prepare the pupil’s -mind for grammatical studies, syntax and -prosody are entirely omitted; and the abstruse -nomenclature of the rudiments is -freed from technicality. The simpler definitions -are addressed to the eye, wherever -practicable, in woodcuts; and the arrow is -adopted to show the connection by action -or motion between persons and things. -Great care has been taken to make the rules -and explanations as clear as possible, in the -hope of lightening the labour of the teacher, -and of exciting the learner’s interest in -what he too commonly finds a dry and repulsive -task.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><span class="fs120">ENGLISH SPELLING,</span> with Rules and Exercises; Intended -as a Class-Book for Schools, or for Home Teaching. 1<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - - -<p class="p2 negin2 fs80"><span class="fs120">ENGLISH STYLE;</span> or, a Course of Instruction for the -Attainment of a good Style of Writing: with an Historical Sketch of the -English Language, and brief Remarks on its Nature and Genius. Second Edition, -revised, fcp. 8vo. price 6<em>s.</em></p> - -<p class="fs70 lht">This work, which is specially adapted for self-instruction, is a complete treatise on -the study of English style, closing with an historical sketch of our language, in which -specimens of its condition are given from the earliest to the present time.</p> - - -<p class="p2 negin2 fs80"><span class="fs120">ENGLISH SYNONYMES</span> Classified and Explained: with -Practical Exercises, designed for Schools and Private Tuition. Fourth Edition, -revised, fcp. 8vo. 6<em>s.</em></p> - -<div class="textcol fs70"> -<p>This work was written with a view to -supply what the Author believed to be a -desideratum in elementary education. ‘The -great source of a loose style,’ says Dr. -Blair, in his ‘Lectures upon the English -Language,’ ‘is the injudicious use of synonymous -terms.’ For one fault in construction -or idiom, at least twenty incorrect -applications of words will be found in the -periodical and light literature of the day. -The want of a critical knowledge of verbal</p> -</div> -<div class="textcol fs70"> -<p class="noindent">distinctions is obviously the cause of these -errors. The Author is far from considering -this work as complete, but he hopes it will -be found to contain principles sufficiently -suggestive to enable those who use it to -continue the study to any extent for themselves. -In this edition, the work has undergone -a thorough revision, the number of -Synonymes in Section IV. has been considerably -increased, and a General Index -has been added.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="negin2 fs80"><span class="fs120">FIRST STEPS to LATIN WRITING;</span> intended as a Practical -Illustration of the Latin Accidence. To which are added, Examples on the -Principal Rules of Syntax. Second Edition, much enlarged and improved, -12mo. 4<em>s.</em></p> - - -<p class="p1" /> -<hr class="r30a" /> -<p class="pfs90">London: LONGMANS and CO. 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Second -Edition, revised and enlarged, with 32 Illustrations. 8vo. 16<em>s.</em></p> - -<p><b>HOW TO BREW GOOD BEER</b>: a complete Guide to the Art of -Brewing Ale, Bitter Ale, Table Ale, Brown Stout, Porter, and Table Beer. -By <span class="smcap">John Pitt</span>. Revised Edition. Fcp. 4<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - -<p><b>A PRACTICAL TREATISE on BREWING</b>; with Formulæ for Public -Brewers, and Instructions for Private Families. By <span class="smcap">W. Black</span>. 8vo. 10<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - -<p><b>SHORT WHIST.</b> By <span class="smcap">Major A.</span> Sixteenth Edition, revised, with an -Essay on the Theory of the Modern Scientific Game by <span class="smcap">Prof. P.</span> Fcp. 3<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - -<p><b>WHIST, WHAT TO LEAD.</b> By <span class="smcap">Cam</span>. Fourth Edition. 32mo. 1<em>s.</em></p> - -<p><b>A HANDBOOK for READERS at the BRITISH MUSEUM.</b> By -<span class="smcap">Thomas Nichols</span>. 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Bull</span>, -M.D. Fcp. 5<em>s.</em></p> - -<p><b>The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease.</b> By -the same Author. Fcp. 5<em>s.</em></p> - -<p><b>The LAW RELATING to BENEFIT BUILDING SOCIETIES</b>; with -Practical Observations on the Act and all the Cases decided thereon; also a -Form of Rules and Forms of Mortgages. By <span class="smcap">W. Tidd Pratt</span>, Barrister. -Second Edition. Fcp. 3<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - -<p><b>NOTES on HOSPITALS.</b> By <span class="smcap">Florence Nightingale</span>. Third Edition, -enlarged; with 13 Plans. Post 4to. 18<em>s.</em></p> - -<p><b>COULTHART’S DECIMAL INTEREST TABLES</b> at 24 Different Rates -not exceeding 5 per Cent. Calculated for the use of Bankers. To which are -added Commission Tables at One-Eighth and One-Fourth per Cent. 8vo. -price 15<em>s.</em></p> - -<p><b>MAUNDER’S TREASURY of KNOWLEDGE and LIBRARY of -Reference</b>: comprising an English Dictionary and Grammar, Universal -Gazetteer, Classical Dictionary, Chronology, Law Dictionary, a Synopsis -of the Peerage, useful Tables, &c. Revised Edition. Fcp. 10<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em></p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29c" id="Page_29c">[29c]</a></span></p> - - <div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX.</a></h2> - - -<p class="fs80"><br /> -<span class="smcap">Acton’s</span> Modern Cookery, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Alcock’s</span> Residence in Japan, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Allies</span> on Formation of Christendom, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -Alpine Guide (The), <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Alvensleben’s</span> Maximilian in Mexico, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Apjohn’s</span> Manual of the Metalloids, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Arnold’s</span> Manual of English Literature, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Arnott’s</span> Elements of Physics, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -Arundines Cami, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -Autumn holidays of a Country Parson, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Ayre’s</span> Treasury of Bible Knowledge, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Bacon’s</span> Essays, by <span class="smcap">Whately</span>, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -———– Life and Letters, by <span class="smcap">Spedding</span>, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -———– Works, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bain</span> on the Emotions and Will, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -—— on the Senses and Intellect, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -—— on the Study of Character, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Ball’s</span> Alpine Guide, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Barnard’s</span> Drawing from Nature, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bayldon’s</span> Rents and Tillages, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -Beaten Tracks, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Becker’s</span> Charicles <em>and</em> Gallus, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Beethoven’s</span> Letters, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Benfey’s</span> Sanskrit Dictionary, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Berry’s</span> Journals and Correspondence, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -Billiard Book (The), <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Black’s</span> Treatise on Brewing, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Blackley</span> and <span class="smcap">Friedlander’s</span> German and English Dictionary, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Blaine’s</span> Rural Sports, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -———– Veterinary Art, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Blight’s</span> Week at the Land’s End, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Booth’s</span> Epigrams, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bourne</span> on Screw Propeller, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bourne’s</span> Catechism of the Steam Engine, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -———— Handbook of Steam Engine, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -———— Treatise on the Steam Engine, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -———— Examples of Steam, Air, and Gas Engines, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bowdler’s</span> Family <span class="smcap">Shakspeare</span>, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Boyd’s</span> Manual for Naval Cadets, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bramley-Moore’s</span> Six Sisters of the Valleys, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Brande’s</span> Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bray’s</span> (C.) Education of the Feelings, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -————– Philosophy of Necessity, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -————– on Force, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Brinton</span> on Food and Digestion, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bristow’s</span> Glossary of Mineralogy, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Brodie’s</span> (Sir C. B.) Works, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -———— Constitutional History, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Browne’s</span> Exposition 39 Articles, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Buckle’s</span> History of Civilization, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bull’s</span> Hints to Mothers, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -——— Maternal Management of Children, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bunsen’s</span> (Baron) Ancient Egypt, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -———————– God in History, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -———————– Memoirs, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Bunsen</span> (<span class="smcap">E. De</span>) on Apocrypha, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -——————‘s Keys of St. Peter, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Burke’s</span> Vicissitudes of Families, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Burton’s</span> Christian Church, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -<br /> -Cabinet Lawyer, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Calvert’s</span> Wife’s Manual, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Cates’s</span> Biographical Dictionary, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Cats’</span> and <span class="smcap">Farlie’s</span> Moral Emblems, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Chesney’s</span> Indian Polity, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -Chorale Book for England, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -Christian Schools and Scholars, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Clough’s</span> Lives from Plutarch, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Colenso</span> (Bishop) on Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Collins’s</span> Horse-Trainer’s Guide, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -Common-place Philosopher in Town and Country, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Conington’s</span> Chemical Analysis, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -—————– Translation of <span class="smcap">Virgil’s</span> <em>Æneid</em>, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Contanseau’s</span> Pocket French and English Dictionary, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -—————— Practical ditto, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Conybeare</span> and <span class="smcap">Howson’s</span> Life and Epistles of St. Paul, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Cook</span> on the Acts, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Copland’s</span> Dictionary of Practical Medicine, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Coulthart’s</span> Decimal Interest Tables, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Cox’s</span> Manual of Mythology, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -——– Tales of the Great Persian War, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -——– Tales from Greek Mythology, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -——– Tales of the Gods and Heroes, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -——– Tales of Thebes and Argos, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -——– Tales from Ancient Greece, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Cresy’s</span> Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -Critical Essays of a Country Parson, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Crowe’s</span> History of France, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Crump</span> on Banking, Currency, & Exchanges, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Dart’s</span> Iliad of Homer, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">D’Aubigne’s</span> History of the Reformation in the time of <span class="smcap">Calvin</span>, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Davidson’s</span> Introduction to New Testament, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Dayman’s</span> Dante’s Divina Commedia, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -Dead Shot (The), by <span class="smcap">Marksman</span>, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">De Burgh’s</span> Maritime International Law, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">De la Rive’s</span> Treatise on Electricity, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">De Morgan</span> on Matter and Spirit, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">De Tocqueville’s</span> Democracy in America, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Disraeli’s</span> Speeches on Parliamentary Reform, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Dobson</span> on the Ox, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Dove</span> on Storms, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30c" id="Page_30c">[30c]</a></span> -<span class="smcap">Dyer’s</span> City of Rome, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Eastlake’s</span> Hints on Household Taste, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Edwards’</span> Shipmaster’s Guide, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -Elements of Botany, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Ellicott’s</span> Commentary on Ephesians, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -————– Lectures on Life of Christ, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -————– Commentary on Galatians, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -————– ————–— Pastoral Epist., <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -————– ————–— Philippians, &c., <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -————– ————–— Thessalonians, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Engel’s</span> Introduction to National Music, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -Essays and Reviews, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -——— on Religion and Literature, edited by <span class="smcap">Manning</span>, <span class="smcap">First</span> <em>and</em> <span class="smcap">Second Series</span>, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Ewald’s</span> History of Israel, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Fairbairn</span> on Iron Shipbuilding, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Fairbairn’s</span> Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -————— Information for Engineers, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -————— Treatise on Mills & Millwork, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Farrar’s</span> Chapters on Language, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Felkin</span> on Hosiery and Lace Manufactures, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Ffoulkes’s</span> Christendom’s Divisions, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Fliedner’s</span> (Pastor) Life, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Francis’s</span> Fishing Book, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -———— (Sir P.) Memoir and Journal, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -Friends in Council, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Froude’s</span> History of England, <a href="#Page_1c">1</a><br /> - -———— Short Studies on Great Subjects, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Ganot’s</span> Elementary Physics, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Gilbert</span> and <span class="smcap">Churchill’s</span> Dolomite Mountains, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Gill’s</span> Papal Drama, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Gilly’s</span> Shipwrecks of the Navy, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Goodeve’s</span> Elements of Mechanism, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Gorle’s</span> Questions on <span class="smcap">Browne’s</span> Exposition of the 39 Articles, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Gould’s</span> Silver Store, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Grant’s</span> Ethics of Aristotle, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Gray’s</span> Anatomy, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Greene’s</span> Corals and Sea Jellies, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -———— Sponges and Animalculæ, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Grove</span> on Correlation of Physical Forces, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Gwilt’s</span> Encyclopædia of Architecture, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -<br /> -Handbook of Angling, by <span class="smcap">Ephemera</span>, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hare</span> on Election of Representatives, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Harley</span> and <span class="smcap">Brown’s</span> Histological Demonstrations, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hartwig’s</span> Harmonies of Nature, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -————– Polar World, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -————– Sea and its Living Wonders, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -————– Tropical World, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Haughton’s</span> Manual of Geology, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hawker’s</span> Instructions to Young Sportsmen, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hearn’s</span> Plutology, <a href="#Page_1c">1</a><br /> - -——— on English Government, <a href="#Page_1c">1</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Helps’s</span> Spanish Conquest in America, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Henderson’s</span> Folk-Lore of the Northern Counties, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Herschel’s</span> Outlines of Astronomy, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hewitt</span> on Diseases of Women, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hodgson’s</span> Time and Space, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Holmes’s</span> System of Surgery, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -———— Surgical Diseases of Infancy, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hooker</span> and <span class="smcap">Walker-Arnott’s</span> British Flora, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hopkins’s</span> Hawaii, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Horne’s</span> Introduction to the Scriptures, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -———– Compendium of ditto, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Horsley’s</span> Manual of Poisons, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hoskyns’s</span> Occasional Essays, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -How we Spent the Summer, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Howard’s</span> Gymnastic Exercises, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Howitt’s</span> Australian Discovery, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -———— Rural Life of England, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Visits to Remarkable Places, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hudson’s</span> Executor’s Guide, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hughes’s</span> (W.) Manual of Geography, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hullah’s</span> Collection of Sacred Music, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -———— Lectures on Modern Music, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -———— Transition Musical Lectures, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Humphreys’</span> Sentiments of Shakspeare, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Hutton’s</span> Studies in Parliament, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Ingelow’s</span> Poems, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -————– Story of Doom, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Jameson’s</span> Legends of the Saints and Martyrs, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -———— Legends of the Madonna, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -———— Legends of the Monastic Orders, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Jameson</span> and <span class="smcap">Eastlake’s</span> History of Our Lord, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Jenner’s</span> Holy Child, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Johnston’s</span> Gazetteer, or Geographical Dictionary, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Jordan’s</span> Vis Inertiæ in the Ocean, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Kalisch’s</span> Commentary on the Bible, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -———— Hebrew Grammar, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Keith</span> on Fulfilment of Prophecy, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -———– Destiny of the World, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Keller’s</span> Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Kesteven’s</span> Domestic Medicine, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Kirby</span> and <span class="smcap">Spence’s</span> Entomology, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Knight’s</span> Arch of Titus, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<br /> -Lady’s Tour Round Monte Rosa, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Landon’s</span> (L. E. L.) Poetical Works, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Latham’s</span> English Dictionary, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -———— River Plate, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Lawrence</span> on Rocks, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Lecky’s</span> History of Rationalism, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Leigh’s</span> Homeward Ride, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -Leisure Hours in Town, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -Lessons of Middle Age, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Lewes’</span> History of Philosophy, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -Letters of Distinguished Musicians, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Liddell</span> and <span class="smcap">Scott’s</span> Greek-English Lexicon, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -——— —— ——— Abridged ditto, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -Life of Man Symbolised, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Lindley</span> and <span class="smcap">Moore’s</span> Treasury of Botany, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Longman’s</span> Lectures on the History of England, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Loudon’s</span> Agriculture, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -———— Cottage, Farm, Villa Architecture, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -———— Gardening, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -———— Plants, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -———— Trees and Shrubs, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Lowndes’s</span> Engineer’s Handbook, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -Lyra Domestica, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -—— Eucharistica, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -—— Germanica, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -—— Messianica, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -—— Mystica, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -—— Sacra, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Macaulay’s</span> (Lord) Essays, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -———————— History of England, <a href="#Page_1c">1</a><br /> - -———————— Lays of Ancient Rome, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -———————— Miscellaneous Writings, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31c" id="Page_31c">[31c]</a></span> -———————— Speeches, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -———————— Works, <a href="#Page_1c">1</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Macfarren’s</span> Lectures on Harmony, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Macleod’s</span> Elements of Political Economy, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -————– Dictionary of Political Economy, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -————– Elements of Banking, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -————– Theory and Practice of Banking, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">McCulloch’s</span> Dictionary of Commerce, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -—————— Geographical Dictionary, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Maguire’s</span> Irish in America, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -————– Life of Father Mathew, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -————– Rome and its Rulers, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Malleson’s</span> French in India, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Manning</span> on Holy Ghost, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -————‘s England and Christendom, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Marshall’s</span> Physiology, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Marshman’s</span> Life of Havelock 5<br /> - -—————– History of India, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Martineau’s</span> Endeavours after the Christian Life, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Massey’s</span> History of England, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -——— (G.) on Shakspeare’s Sonnets, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Massingberd’s</span> History of the Reformation, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Maunder’s</span> Biographical Treasury, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -————— Geographical Treasury, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -————— Historical Treasury, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -————— Scientific and Literary Treasury, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -————— Treasury of Knowledge, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -————— Treasury of Natural History, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Maury’s</span> Physical Geography, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">May’s</span> Constitutional History of England, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Melville’s</span> Digby Grand, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -————– General Bounce, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -————– Gladiators, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -————– Good for Nothing, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -————– Holmby House, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -————– Interpreter, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -————– Kate Coventry, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -————– Queen’s Maries, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Mendelssohn’s</span> Letters, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Merivale’s</span> (H.) Historical Studies, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -————– (C.) Fall of the Roman Republic, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -——————– Romans under the Empire, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Miles</span> on Horse’s Foot and Horse-shoeing, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -——– on Horses’ Teeth and Stables, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Mill</span> on Liberty, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -—— on Representative Government, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -—— on Utilitarianism, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Mill’s</span> Dissertations and Discussions, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -——— Political Economy, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -——— System of Logic, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -——— Hamilton’s Philosophy, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -——— St. Andrews’ Inaugural Address, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Miller’s</span> Elements of Chemistry, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Mitchell’s</span> Manual of Assaying, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Monsell’s</span> Beatitudes, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -————– His Presence—not his Memory, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -————– ‘Spiritual Songs’, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Montgomery</span> on Pregnancy, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Moore’s</span> Irish Melodies, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -———– Lalla Rookh, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -———– Poetical Works, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -———– (Dr. G.) First Man, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Morell’s</span> Elements of Psychology, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -———— Mental Philosophy, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Mosheim’s</span> Ecclesiastical History, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Mozart’s</span> Letters, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Müller’s</span> (<span class="smcap">Max</span>) Chips from a German Workshop, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -——————— Lectures on the Science of Language, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -———— (K. O.) Literature of Ancient Greece, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Murchison</span> on Continued Fevers, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Mure’s</span> Language and Literature of Greece, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<br /> -New Testament, illustrated with Wood Engravings from the Old Masters, <a href="#Page_16c">16</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Newman’s</span> History of his Religious Opinions, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Nicholas’s</span> Pedigree of the English People, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Nichols’</span> Handbook to the British Museum, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Nightingale’s</span> Notes on Hospitals, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Nilsson’s</span> Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Odling’s</span> Animal Chemistry, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -———— Course of Practical Chemistry, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -———— Manual of Chemistry, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -Original Designs for Wood Carving, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Owen’s</span> Lectures on the Invertebrate Animals, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -——— Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrate Animals, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Oxenham</span> on Atonement, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Packe’s</span> Guide to the Pyrenees, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Paget’s</span> Lectures on Surgical Pathology, <a href="#Page_14c">14</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Pereira’s</span> Manual of Materia Medica, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Perkins’s</span> Tuscan Sculptors, <a href="#Page_17c">17</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Phillips’s</span> Guide to Geology, <a href="#Page_11c">11</a><br /> - -Pictures in Tyrol, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Piesse’s</span> Art of Perfumery, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -——— Chemical, Natural, and Physical Magic, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Pike’s</span> English and their Origin, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Pitt</span> on Brewing, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -Playtime with the Poets, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Plowden’s</span> Travels in Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Pratt’s</span> Law of Building Societies, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Prescott’s</span> Scripture Difficulties, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Proctor’s</span> Saturn, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -————– Handbook of the Stars, <a href="#Page_10c">10</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Pycroft’s</span> Course of English Reading, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -————– Cricket Field, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Raikes’s</span> Englishman in India, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Reade’s</span> Poetical Works, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -Recreations of a Country Parson, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Reily’s</span> Map of Mont Blanc, <a href="#Page_22c">22</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Reimann</span> on Aniline, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Reynolds’s</span> Alice Rushton, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Rivers’s</span> Rose Amateur’s Guide, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Rogers’s</span> Correspondence of Greyson, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -———— Eclipse of Faith, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -———— Defence of ditto, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -———— Essays from the <em>Edinburgh Review</em>, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -———— Reason and Faith, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Roget’s</span> Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Ronalds’s</span> Fly-Fisher’s Entomology, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Rowton’s</span> Debater, <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Rudd’s</span> Aristophanes, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Russell</span> on Government and Constitution, <a href="#Page_1c">1</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Sandars’s</span> Justinian’s Institutes, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Schubert’s</span> Life, translated by <span class="smcap">Coleridge</span>, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Scott’s</span> Lectures on the Fine Arts, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Seebohm’s</span> Oxford Reformers of 1498, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Sewell’s</span> After Life, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Amy Herbert, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Cleve Hall, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Earl’s Daughter, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Examination for Confirmation, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -———— Experience of Life, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Gertrude, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Glimpse of the World, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— History of the Early Church, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -———— Ivors, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Journal of a Home Life, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Katharine Ashton, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Laneton Parsonage, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Margaret Percival, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Passing Thoughts on Religion, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32c" id="Page_32c">[32c]</a></span> -———— Preparation for Communion, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -———— Principles of Education, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -———— Readings for Confirmation, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -———— Readings for Lent, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -———— Tales and Stories, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -———— Ursula, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Shaw’s</span> Work on Wine, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Shepherd’s</span> Iceland, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Shipley’s</span> Church and the World, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -———— Tracts for the Day, <a href="#Page_20c">20</a><br /> - -Short Whist, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Short’s</span> Church History, <a href="#Page_3c">3</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Smith’s</span> (<span class="smcap">Southwood</span>) Philosophy of Health, <a href="#Page_28c">28</a><br /> - -——— (J.) Paul’s Voyage and Shipwreck, <a href="#Page_18c">18</a><br /> - -——— (G.) King David, <a href="#Page_19c">19</a><br /> - -————— Wesleyan Methodism, <a href="#Page_4c">4</a><br /> - -——— (<span class="smcap">Sydney</span>) Miscellaneous Works, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -——————— Moral Philosophy, <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -——————— Wit and Wisdom, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Smith</span> on Cavalry Drill and Manœuvres, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Southey’s</span> (Doctor), <a href="#Page_7c">7</a><br /> - -————– Poetical Works, <a href="#Page_24c">24</a><br /> - -Springdale Abbey, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Stanley’s</span> History of British Birds, <a href="#Page_12c">12</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Stebbing’s</span> Analysis of <span class="smcap">Mill’s</span> Logic, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Stephen’s</span> Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography, <a href="#Page_5c">5</a><br /> - -———— Lectures on History of France, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Stirling’s</span> Secret of Hegel, <a href="#Page_9c">9</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Stonehenge</span> on the Dog, <a href="#Page_26c">26</a><br /> - -—————– on the Greyhound, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -Story of Mairwara, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church of a Scottish University City (Aberdeen), <a href="#Page_8c">8</a><br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Taylor’s</span> (Jeremy) Works, edited by <span class="smcap">Eden</span>, <a href="#Page_21c">21</a><br /> - -———— (E.) Selections from some Contemporary Poets, <a href="#Page_25c">25</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Tennent’s</span> Ceylon, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -————– Wild Elephant, <a href="#Page_13c">13</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Thirlwall’s</span> History of Greece, <a href="#Page_2c">2</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Thomson’s</span> (Archbishop) Laws of Thought, <a href="#Page_6c">6</a><br /> - -————– (A. T.) Conspectus, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Timbs’s</span> Curiosities of London, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Todd</span> (A.) on Parliamentary Government, <a href="#Page_1c">1</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Todd</span> and <span class="smcap">Bowman’s</span> Anatomy and Physiology of Man, <a href="#Page_15c">15</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Trollope’s</span> Barchester Towers, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -————— Warden, <a href="#Page_23c">23</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Twiss’s</span> Law of Nations, <a href="#Page_27c">27</a><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Tyndall’s</span> Lectures on Heat,<br /> - -————– Sound,<br /> - -————– Memoir of <span class="smcap">Faraday</span>,<br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Ure’s</span> Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines,<br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Van Der Hoeven’s</span> Handbook of Zoology,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Vaughan’s</span> (R.) Revolutions in English History,<br /> - -———–— Way to Rest,<br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Walker</span> on the Rifle,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Ward’s</span> Workmen and Wages,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Watson’s</span> Principles and Practice of Physics,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Watts’s</span> Dictionary of Chemistry,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Webb’s</span> Objects for Common Telescopes,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Webster</span> & <span class="smcap">Wilkinson’s</span> Greek Testament,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Weld’s</span> Florence,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Wellington’s</span> Life, by the Rev. <span class="smcap">G. R. Gleig</span>,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Wells</span> on Dew,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Wendt’s</span> Papers on Maritime Law,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">West</span> on Children’s Diseases,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Whately’s</span> English Synonymes,<br /> - -————– Logic,<br /> - -————– Rhetoric,<br /> - -————– Life and Correspondence,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Whately</span> on the Truth of Christianity,<br /> - -————— Religious Worship,<br /> - -Whist, what to lead, by <span class="smcap">Cam</span>,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">White</span> and <span class="smcap">Riddle’s</span> Latin-English Dictionaries,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Winslow</span> on Light,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Wood’s</span> Bible Animals,<br /> - -———– Homes without Hands,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Wright’s</span> Homer’s Iliad,<br /> - -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Yonge’s</span> English-Greek Lexicon,<br /> - -———– Abridged ditto,<br /> - -———– Horace,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Young’s</span> Nautical Dictionary,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">Youatt</span> on the Dog,<br /> - -———– on the Horse,<br /> -</p> - - -<p class="p4" /> - -<p class="pfs60">LONDON: PRINTED BY<br /> -SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE<br /> -AND PARLIAMENT STREET</p> - - - -<div class="transnote pg-brk"> -<a name="TN" id="TN"></a> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Many printing errors in punctuation, missing or misplaced -italic, or a missing quote mark, have been corrected for consistency -when the context is a single paragraph.</p> - -<p class="screenonly">Non-English phrases (but not single words) have -been tagged with the HTML ‘lang=’ markup. Words and phrases in Saxon have -no markup.</p> - -<p>At the back of the book is a large Publisher’s Catalog and an Index -to that Catalog. The book titles, or partial titles, are <b>bolded</b>. The -original text sometimes ended the <b>bold title</b> font at the end of the -first printed line mid-title or even mid-word. In the etext the <b>bold</b> -ending has been moved in these cases to the end of the title phrase.</p> - -<p class="screenonly">The page numbers of the Catalog and the Index, 1–32 in -the original book, have been modified to 1c–32c to avoid duplication.</p> - -<p>The last column of the final page of the Catalog Index is missing -the page numbers. This affects the entries from ‘<span class="smcap">Tyndall</span>’ -to ‘<span class="smcap">Youatt</span>’.</p> - -<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, -and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example, -Shakspere, Shakspeare; every-day, everyday; now-a-days, nowadays; -imbedded; intire; especial; contrariety.</p> - -<p> -<a href="#Page_34">Pg 34</a>, ‘over-<em>against</em> us’ replaced by ‘over—<em>against</em>—us’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_109">Pg 109</a>, ‘and at at last’ replaced by ‘and at last’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_128">Pg 128</a>, ‘reckless spendrift’ replaced by ‘reckless spendthrift’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_152">Pg 152</a>, ‘epithetsis’ replaced by ‘epithets is’.<br /> -<a href="#Page_196">Pg 196</a>, ‘be(<em>w</em>are)’ replaced by ‘(be)<em>w</em>are’.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's A Book About Words, by George Frederick Graham - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BOOK ABOUT WORDS *** - -***** This file should be named 55200-h.htm or 55200-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/2/0/55200/ - -Produced by Richard Hulse, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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