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diff --git a/old/55112-0.txt b/old/55112-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 491a54e..0000000 --- a/old/55112-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9668 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. 04, December 1883, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The Chautauquan, Vol. 04, December 1883 - -Author: The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -Editor: Theodore L. Flood - -Release Date: July 14, 2017 [EBook #55112] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, VOL. 04 *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - - THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - _A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE. - ORGAN OF THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._ - - VOL. IV. DECEMBER, 1883. No. 3. - - -Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. - -_President_—Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. - -_Superintendent of Instruction_—Rev. J. H. Vincent, D.D., New Haven, Conn. - -_Counselors_—Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.; Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. -W. Warren, D.D.; Prof. W. C. Wilkinson, D.D. - -_Office Secretary_—Miss Kate F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. - -_General Secretary_—Albert M. Martin, Pittsburgh, Pa. - - - - -Contents - -Transcriber’s Note: This table of contents of this periodical was created -for the HTML version to aid the reader. - - - REQUIRED READING FOR DECEMBER - German History - III.—The Franks and Merovingians 129 - Extracts from German Literature - Walther von der Vogelweide 132 - Hans Sachs 133 - Martin Luther 134 - Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 134 - Readings in Physical Science - III.—Rivers and Glaciers 135 - Sunday Readings - [_December 2_] 137 - [_December 9_] 138 - [_December 16_] 138 - [_December 23_] 139 - [_December 30_] 139 - Political Economy - III.—Exchange 140 - Readings in Art - III.—Modern Sculpture 142 - Selections from American Literature - Dr. Horace Bushnell 145 - Dr. Noah Porter 146 - Washington Irving 146 - James Kirke Paulding 147 - Returning 148 - Education of the Negro Population 148 - Man of Learning, Tell Me Something 150 - Hibernation 150 - Zenobia 152 - Character Building 153 - The Recreations of the Paris Workman 153 - A Russian Novelist 154 - A Lay of a Cracked Fiddle 155 - Blue Laws 156 - A Remnant of Summer 156 - The Life of a Planet 157 - Disraeli’s London 157 - Temperature 158 - Skating and Skaters 159 - Book Knowledge and Manners 161 - Under the Autumn Skies 161 - Eight Centuries with Walter Scott 162 - Plant Nutrition 164 - C. L. S. C. Work 165 - Outline of C. L. S. C. Readings 166 - A Reunion at Milwaukee 166 - A C. L. S. C. Experience 167 - The C. L. S. C. in Toronto 167 - Sunbeams from the Circle 167 - Local Circles 169 - C. L. S. C. Round-Table 171 - Questions and Answers 172 - Popular Education 175 - Chautauqua Normal Course, Season of 1884 176 - Editor’s Outlook 178 - Editor’s Note-Book 180 - Astronomy of the Heavens for December 183 - C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings for December 183 - Books Received 187 - Intermediate Normal Class 188 - - - - -REQUIRED READING - -FOR THE - -_Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle for 1883-4_. - -DECEMBER. - - -GERMAN HISTORY. - -By REV. W. G. WILLIAMS, A. M. - - -III. - -THE FRANKS AND MEROVINGIANS. - -After the fall of the Western Empire the Franks step into the foreground -and show themselves of all the German tribes the most capable of founding -a stable government. From the first they were distinguished from the -others by their superior military discipline, and by their pride and -ambition. They had always been looked upon as formidable warriors. Few -of them wore helmets and mail; their breasts and backs were covered -only by the shield. From the hips downward they wrapped themselves in -close-fitting linen or leather, so as to display each man’s tall, upright -form. Their principal weapon was the two-edged battle-axe, which served -for throwing as well as striking. They also carried frightful javelins -with barbed points. Their own laws describe them as brave warriors, -profound in their plans, manly and healthy in body, handsome, bold, -impetuous, and hardy. But their enemies, perhaps with some justice, -denounced them as the most faithless and cruel of men. The distinguishing -ornament of the kings was their hair, which was left uncut, flowing -freely over the shoulder. The people were still heathen, untamed and -uncivilized, yet in constant intercourse with the Romans in Gaul.[A] - - -CLOVIS, THE FIRST FRANKISH KING. - -The name of Clovis is not alone to be remembered as that of the founder -of the kingdom of the Franks, but for the remarkable so-called conversion -which he experienced during a hard-fought battle with the Alemanni. While -the result was yet in doubt, Clovis, in the face of his army, called upon -the new God, Christ, and vowed to serve him, if he would help him now. -He was victorious; received instruction from St. Remigius, and was then -baptized, with three thousand of his noblest Franks, in the cathedral at -Rheims. “Bow thy head in silence, Sigambrian,” said the saint; “worship -what thou hast hitherto destroyed; war against what thou hast worshiped.” -This was by no means the only instance of wholesale conversions to -Christianity in consequence of a victory. The heathen, when defeated by -Christians, commonly ascribed the result to the superior strength of the -Christian God, and often resolved to seek his protection for themselves. -It was the Catholic, not the Arian faith, which Clovis adopted. He was -straightway recognized by the Pope as “the most Christian king,” the -appointed protector and propagator of the true faith against Arian -Germany. - -Clovis built up his kingdom with many a deed of blood, but with great -vigor. His empire comprised German as well as Roman territory; but struck -root firmly in the old native soil, from which it drew ever new strength: -and therefore it was that its duration was not merely momentary, like -that of the Gothic kingdoms, but it proved the beginning of the monarchy -of the Middle Ages, the beginning of a new national life, in which Roman -form was animated with fresh German strength. Clovis ruled his wide realm -from Paris, a city which had existed even before the days of Cæsar and -the Romans in Gaul. He died in Paris at the early age of forty-five.[B] - - * * * * * - -From Clovis to _Karl der Grosse_ (French, _Charlemagne_; Latin, _Carolus -Magnus_), a period of two hundred and fifty years, we witness not only -the vicissitudes incident to the establishment of a new social and -political order upon the ruins of the old, with all the ferocity of -manner and barbarity of action to be expected in such an age; but also -there is the gradual displacement of the old pagan religions by the newer -one called Christianity. It is a period of strifes, of jealousies, and -blood. It was toward the last of this period that occurred the memorable -battle of Poitiers, between the Franks under Karl, afterward surnamed -_Martel_, and the Saracens, who having crossed from Africa and possessed -themselves of entire Spain, next collected a large army, and under -command of Abderrahman, Viceroy of the Caliph of Damascus, set out for -the conquest of France and Germany, as yet an undivided nationality. Thus -the new Christian faith of Europe, still engaged in quelling the last -strength of the ancient paganism, was suddenly called upon to meet the -newer faith of Mohammed, which had determined to subdue the world. - -Not only France, but the Eastern Empire, Italy and England looked to -Karl, in this emergency. The Saracens crossed the Pyrenees with 350,000 -warriors, accompanied by their wives and children, as if they were sure -of victory and meant to possess the land. Karl called the military -strength of the whole broad kingdom into the field, collected an army -nearly equal in numbers, and finally, in October, 732, the two hosts -stood face to face, near the city of Poitiers. It was a struggle almost -as grand, and as fraught with important consequences to the world, as -that of Aëtius and Attila, nearly 300 years before. Six days were spent -in preparations, and on the seventh the battle began. The Saracens -attacked with that daring and impetuosity which had gained them so many -victories; but, as the old chronicle says, “the Franks, with their -strong hearts and powerful bodies, stood like a wall, and hewed down -the Arabs with iron hands.” When night fell, 200,000 dead and wounded -lay upon the field. Karl made preparations for resuming the battle on -the following morning, but he found no enemy. The Saracens had retired -during the night, leaving their camps and stores behind them, and their -leader, Abderrahman, among the slain. This was the first great check the -cause of Islam received, after a series of victories more wonderful than -those of Rome. From that day the people bestowed upon Karl the surname -of _Martel_, the Hammer, and as Charles Martel he is best known in -history.[C] - - -CHARACTER OF THE GERMAN CHRISTIANITY AT THIS TIME. - -The Christianity of the Germans, and even that of the Roman provinces, -for many generations after the date of their “conversion,” was a very -different kind of religion from that which is now held by enlightened -Christians. Constantine and several of his successors were actually -worshiped after death by multitudes of the Christians of those days. -The apostolic doctrines were not conceived as a system of belief by the -people, nor even by their teachers; the personal sovereignty of Christ -as a king and warrior, and the future heaven or hell to be awarded by -him, were apprehended as practical truths, but were overlaid with a dense -mass of superstitious notions and observances, many of them legacies from -heathenism. Above all, the Germans indulged without stint their passion -for the wonderful; and the power of Christianity over them depended -largely on the supply of miracles and of potent relics which it could -furnish them. The workers of miraculous cures were numerous; they were -esteemed as the favorites of heaven, and cities and princes contended -with one another for their bones. Some of the popes were wise enough to -discourage the zeal for miracles; and as late as A. D. 590, Pope Gregory -I. wrote to St. Augustine, of England, cautioning him against spiritual -pride as a worker of them. But it was not long before the papacy became -the great center from which relics of the saints were distributed -throughout the Church. The Roman catacombs were ransacked, and bones -of saints found in an abundance sufficient to supply Christendom for -ages. The Pope’s guaranty of genuineness was final; and this resource -contributed immeasurably to increase the wealth and power of the Holy -See. The legends of the saints, as circulated and preserved, mainly -by tradition, were for centuries the intellectual food of the Church -at large; and were filled with idle and monotonous tales of wonderful -cures in mind and body, wrought by the holy men and women in their -lives, or by their corpses or their tombs. No doubt was entertained, -even by the most intelligent, of the truth of these miracles. The modern -conception of nature, as the work of a divine will which is unchangeable, -and which therefore expresses itself in fixed, uniform laws, was then -unknown. The spiritual conception of Christianity, as life by a personal -trust in a pure, holy, and loving God, was set forth, indeed, by a few -writers and preachers, and was doubtless verified in the experience of -many a humble heart; but it was far above the thoughts of the people, -or even of the clergy at large. To them no religion was of any value -which was not magical in its methods and powers, and a charm to secure -good fortune or to avert danger. In short, the Church was one thing, -Christianity another; and the priestly ambition of the great organization -to rule over men’s lives and estates entirely eclipsed and obscured the -spiritual work of the kingdom which is not of this world. Nothing in the -early German character is more attractive than the habitual and general -chastity of the people, and their reverence for the marriage tie. But -the great migrations corrupted them; and the degradation of marriage in -the succeeding centuries was promoted and completed by the influence of -the Church. Hardly any agency can be traced in history which has wrought -greater social and moral evil than the contempt for human love and for -the marriage tie, which was sedulously cultivated by the Roman Church -from the beginning of the fourth century. Yet, there are indications -enough to satisfy us that the doctrines of the New Testament had not -lost their power; and that truth, purity, divine charity, and Christian -heroism were yet kept alive in many hearts. Thousands of men and women, -whose minds and lives were darkened by the teachings and practices of -asceticism, monasticism and gross superstitions, still cherished a -devout, self-sacrificing love for their unseen Master and Lord and stood -ready to die for him. Even the idea of Christian brotherhood was not -entirely lost; and the common worship of the same Redeemer by master and -slave did much to mitigate the horrors that grew out of their relation.[D] - - -CHARLES THE GREAT. - -The history of Germany may now for half a century be ranged about the -central figure, Charles the Great, more commonly called Charlemagne. -Indeed, so conspicuous a figure is he that it is impossible for all -subsequent history to lose sight of him. The decayed Merovingian scepter -when it fell into his hands was swayed with such unprecedented vigor -and ability that its old name soon disappeared, and henceforth it is -the Carlovingian, and Charles becomes the head and founder of a new -dynasty. The first years of his rule are marked by continuous wars of -conquest. The brave and savage Saxons resisted him and the Christianity -which he championed until compelled by his all-conquering arms to yield. -Saxony emerged from his hands subdued and Christian, divided into eight -bishopries, studded with new cities and abbeys which proved centers of -civilization; and that wild country, until then barbarous and pagan, -entered into communion with the rest of the empire. - -He next turned his attention to Italy, where his career of victory was -uninterrupted. He visited Rome, and, dismounting at a thousand paces from -the walls, walked in procession to the church of St. Peter on the Vatican -Hill, kissing the steps as he ascended in honor of the saints by whom -they had been trodden. In the vestibule of the church he was received -by the Pope, who embraced him with great affection, the choir chanting -the psalm, “Blessed is he who cometh in the name of the Lord.” Then they -descended into the vaults, and offered up their prayers together at the -shrine of St. Peter.[E] - - -EXTENT OF HIS EMPIRE—HIS CORONATION. - -In the course of a reign of forty-five years, Charlemagne extended the -limits of his empire beyond the Danube; subdued Dacia, Dalmatia, and -Istria, conquered and subjected all the barbarous tribes to the banks of -the Vistula, and successfully encountered the arms of the Saracens, the -Huns, the Bulgarians, and the Saxons. His war with the Saxons was of more -than thirty years duration, and their final conquest was not achieved -without an inhuman waste of blood, through what has been considered a -mistaken zeal for the propagation of Christianity, by measures which that -religion can not be said to sanction or approve. All these wars were very -nearly finished in the year 800. Charlemagne then found himself master -of France, of Germany, of three-quarters of Italy, and a part of Spain. -He had increased by more than a third the extent of territory which his -father had left him. These vast possessions were no longer a kingdom, but -an empire. He thought he had done enough to be authorized to seat himself -on the throne of the West; and, as his father had required at the hands -of the Pope his regal crown, so it was from the Pope that he demanded his -imperial diadem. He was, therefore, with great ceremony, created Emperor -of the West in St. Peter’s, at Rome, by Pope Leo III., on Christmas day -800. It was a great event, for that imperial title which had remained -buried under the ruins wrought by the barbarians, was drawn thence by the -Roman pontiff, and shown to scattered nations and enemies as a rallying -sign. - -The crown which he received was destined to be for one thousand and six -years the symbol of German unity, whilst the assembled people shouted, -“Long life and victory to Carolus Augustus, the great and peace-bringing -Roman Emperor, whom God hath crowned!” Thus, 324 years after the -imperial dignity had disappeared, it was renewed by Charles. In this -coronation act Pope Leo III. had fulfilled a function like St. Remy did -in consecrating Clovis. His successors constituted it a privilege, and -the pontiffs considered themselves the dispensers of crowns. During the -whole of the middle ages the imperial consecration could only be given at -Rome, and from the hands of the Holy Father. More than one war arose out -of this prerogative.[F] - - -THE CHARACTER AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF CHARLEMAGNE—HIS PLACE IN HISTORY. - -Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, is the name which history has -agreed to give to the founder of the German empire—incorporating the -epithet with the name itself. We have recited in outline the facts of -his wonderful career, as they are recorded in the meagre records of -contemporary historians, and must rely upon the same authentic testimony -in attempting to estimate his mind, character, and work. But the Charles -of history is one; the Charles of heroic legend and popular fame is -another. The former is a powerful conqueror and politic statesman, -whom some eminent writers regard as the greatest of all monarchs; the -latter is a Christian saint, superhuman in strength, beauty, and wisdom, -incapable of defeat in war, of error in judgment, or of infirmity or -corruption in his own will. Thus the song of Roland says: “His eyes -shone like the morning star; his glance was dazzling as the noonday sun. -Terrible to his foes, kind to the poor, victorious in war, merciful to -offenders, devoted to God, he was an upright judge, who knew all the -laws, and taught them to his people as he learned them from the angels. -In short, he bore the sword as God’s own servant.” As Theodoric had been -the center of the ancient popular minstrelsy, so Charles the Great became -the central figure in that more cultivated heroic poetry, chiefly the -work of the clergy, in which were celebrated the deeds of the twelve -paladins, with Roland and the fight of Roncesvalles: - - “When Charlemain with all his peerage fell - By Fontarabia.” - -When we consider the profound impression made on the popular mind by -this person, as represented in legend and song, we are almost ready to -inquire whether its influence upon later German history was not greater -than that of his authentic achievements. But it is true that the entire -German race owes to him its first political organization. It was the -purpose of his life, which never wavered, to unite all the German tribes -under the control of one imperial government and of one Christian Church. -In the greater part of this work he succeeded, and thus left the stamp -of his mind upon the following centuries, through all the Middle Ages. -The national consciousness of the collective German tribes dates from his -reign, and it is at the beginning of the ninth century that “the Germans” -are first spoken of in contrast with the Roman peoples of the empire, -although the national name did not come into general use until four -generations later, in the reign of Otto the Great. When Charles mounted -the throne, he was twenty-four years of age, in the strength and prime -of his youth. His person was huge and strong, combining the presence and -muscular power of the heroes of song; so that he found it sport to fight -with the gigantic wild bulls in the forest of Ardennes. His passion for -labor, war, and danger was that of the adventurous warriors of the great -migration. In the momentous affairs of state, he exhibited the want of -feeling and the unscrupulousness which have been common to nearly all -great warriors; but in daily intercourse with those around him, he had -the mildness, cheerfulness, and freshness of spirit which add so much -grace to true greatness. These characteristics were those of his people; -but that which specially distinguished him was the far-seeing mind, -which had caught from ancient Rome the conception of a universal state, -and was wise enough, without slavish copying, to adapt this conception -to the peculiar requirements of the widely different race he ruled. This -lofty intellect appears the more wonderful, that no one can tell how he -obtained his mental growth, or who were his instructors; he seems to -shine out of the darkness of his age like a sun. - -Charlemagne’s active mind gave attention to all matters, great and small. -His untiring diligence, and his surprising swiftness in apprehension and -decision, enabled him to dispatch an amount of business perhaps never -undertaken by another monarch, unless by Frederick II., of Prussia, or -by Napoleon Bonaparte. He was simple in his own attire, usually wearing -a linen coat, woven at home by the women of his own family, and over -it the large, warm Frisian mantle; and he demanded simplicity in his -followers, and scoffed at his courtiers when their gorgeous silks and -tinsel, brought from the East, were torn to rags in the rough work of -the chase. Hunting in his favorite forest of Ardennes was the chief -delight and recreation of his court. Next to this, he enjoyed swimming -in the warm baths at Aix, which became his favorite residence. At his -meals he listened to reading; and even condescended to join the monks, -detailed for the purpose, in reading exercises. He founded schools in -all the convents, and visited them in person, encouraging the diligent -pupils, and reproving the negligent. He also introduced Roman teachers -of music, to improve the church-singing of the Franks; while he required -that sermons should be preached in the language of the people. Thus he -diligently promoted popular education, while he strove to make up by -study what he had lost by the neglect of his own culture in youth. He -gathered men of learning—poets, historians, and copyists—around him, the -most prominent of them being Anglo-Saxons, of whom the wise and pious -Alcuin was chief. Even when an old man, he found time, though often only -at night, to practice in writing his hand so accustomed to the sword; -and having long been familiar with the Latin language, which he tried to -diffuse among the people, undertook to learn the Greek also. He highly -esteemed his native language, too. He gave German names to the months -and the winds; caused a German grammar to be compiled; and took pains to -collect the ancient heroic songs of the German minstrels, though his son, -in his monkish zeal, destroyed them. He reverenced the clergy highly: -granted them tithes throughout the empire, and everywhere watched over -the increasing endowments and estates of the Church, in whose possessions -at that time both agriculture and morality were better cared for than -elsewhere. Most of the bishops and abbots were selected by the king -himself. - -Charlemagne’s personal character must not be judged by the standards of -a time so remote from him as ours. He has been called dissolute; and it -is true that he utterly disregarded the marriage tie, when it would limit -either his pleasures or his ambition. He married five wives, only to -dishonor them. He even encouraged, as it seems, his own daughters to live -loose lives at home; refusing to give them in marriage to princes, lest -their husbands might become competitors for a share of the kingdom. But -he was never controlled by his favorite women, nor did he neglect state -business for indulgence. Charlemagne has been censured as cruel; and, -indeed, there are few acts recorded in history of more wanton cruelty -than his slaughter in cold blood of thousands of Saxons at Verden. Yet -this was not done in the exercise of passion or hatred, but as a measure -of policy, a means deliberately devised to secure a definite end, in -which it was successful. Charlemagne was never cruel upon impulse; -but his inclinations were to gentleness and kindness. The key to his -character is his unbounded ambition. In the pursuit of power he knew no -scruple; the most direct and efficient means were always the right means -to him. There is no doubt of his earnest attachment to the Christian -Church and to the orthodox doctrines, as he understood them. But this -was not associated with an appreciation of Christian morality, or a -sense of human brotherhood. His passion for conquest was in large part -a fanatical zeal for the propagation of a religion which he regarded as -inseparable from his empire. - -Charlemagne was held in high honor by foreign nations. The Caliph of -Bagdad, Haroun-al-Raschid, wielded in the East a power comparable with -his own. To Charlemagne he sent a friendly embassy, with precious gifts, -and it was reciprocated in the same spirit. The kings of the Normans -expressed their respect for him in a similar way. But his own taste -esteemed the ring of a good sword more than gold. His person and his -private life have been vividly depicted to us by Einhard (Eginhard), a -youth educated at his court, to whom, according to legend, the emperor -gave one of his daughters for a wife. Charlemagne was tall and strongly -formed, measuring from crown to sole seven times the length of his own -foot. He had an open brow, very large, quick eyes, an abundance of fine -hair, which was white in his last years, and a cheerful countenance.[G] - - -RESULTS OF HIS WARS AND RULE. - -Some writers have sought to represent Charlemagne as a royal sage, a -pacific prince, who only took up arms in self-defense. Truth compels a -more faithful though less flattering portraiture. He had no invasion to -dread. The Saracens were scattered, the Avars (Bavarians) weakened, and -the Saxons impotent to carry on any serious war beyond their forests and -marshes. If he led the Franks beyond their own frontiers, it was that -he had, like so many other monarchs, the ambition of reigning over more -nations, and of leaving a high-sounding name to posterity. All that he -attempted beyond the Pyrenees proved abortive. It would have been of -greater value had he subdued the Bretons, so far as to have made them -sooner enter French nationality, instead of contenting himself with a -precarious submission. The conquest of the Lombard kingdom profited -neither France nor Italy, but only the Pope, whose political position it -raised, and whose independence it secured for the future. The country -for which those long wars had the happiest result, was that one which -had suffered most from them, Germany. Before Charlemagne, Almayne was -still Germany—that is to say, a shapeless chaos of pagan or Christian -tribes, but all barbarian, enemies of one another, united by no single -tie. There were Franks, Saxons, Thuringians, and Bavarians. After him -there was a German people, and there will be a kingdom of Germany. It was -great glory for him to have created a people—a glory which few conquerors -have acquired; for they destroy much more than they found. His reign -lasted forty-four years, and may be summed up as an immense and glorious -effort to bring under subjection the barbarian world and all that which -survived the Roman civilization; to put an end to the chaos born of -invasion, and to found a settled state of society in which the authority -of the emperor, closely united to that of the Pope, should maintain order -alike in Church and State—a very difficult problem, which it was given -Charlemagne to solve, but of which all the difficulties did not become -apparent until after his death. The work of Charlemagne, in fact, did -not last. The name of this powerful though rude genius is not the less -surrounded with a lasting glory; and it has remained in the memory of -nations with that of three or four other great men who have done, if not -always the greatest amount of good, at least have made the most noise -in the world. As to Charlemagne, the amount of good accomplished very -far surpasses that which was only vain renown and sterile ambition. He -created modern Germany; and if that chain of nations, the links of which -he had sought to rivet, broke, his great image loomed over the feudal -times as the genius of order, continually inviting the dispersed races to -emerge from chaos, and seek union and peace under the sway of a strong -and renowned chief. - -Charlemagne died, January 28, 814, in his seventy-second year, and was -buried at Aix-la-Chapelle, in a church which he had built there after -his Italian conquests, in the Lombard style. Eginhard, his secretary and -friend, who wrote his life, tells us that he was considerably above six -feet in height, and well proportioned in all respects, excepting that -his neck was somewhat too short and thick. His imperial crown, which is -still preserved at Vienna, would fit only the head of a giant. His air -was dignified, but at the same time his manners were social. Charlemagne -had no fewer than five wives; of his four sons, only one survived him, -Louis, the youngest and most incapable, who succeeded him on the imperial -throne.[H] - - [To be continued.] - -[A] Lewis. - -[B] Lewis. - -[C] Taylor. - -[D] Lewis. - -[E] Menzies. - -[F] Menzies. - -[G] Lewis. - -[H] Menzies. - - - - -EXTRACTS FROM GERMAN LITERATURE. - - -WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE. - -As an introduction to a brief extract upon Walther von der Vogelweide, we -give Longfellow’s beautiful little poem: - -WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE. - - Vogelweide the Minnesinger, - When he left this world of ours, - Laid his body in the cloister, - Under Würtzburg’s minster towers. - - And he gave the monks his treasures, - Gave them all with this behest: - They should feed the birds at noontide - Daily on his place of rest; - - Saying, “From these wandering minstrels - I have learned the art of song; - Let me now repay the lessons - They have taught so well and long.” - - Thus the bard of love departed; - And, fulfilling his desire, - On his tomb the birds were feasted - By the children of the choir. - - Day by day, o’er tower and turret, - In foul weather and in fair, - Day by day, in vaster numbers, - Flocked the poets of the air. - - On the tree whose heavy branches - Overshadowed all the place, - On the pavement, on the tombstone, - On the poet’s sculptured face, - - On the cross-bars of each window, - On the lintel of each door, - They renewed the War of Wartburg, - Which the bard had fought before. - - There they sang their merry carols, - Sang their lauds on every side; - And the name their voices uttered - Was the name of Vogelweide. - - Till at length the portly abbot - Murmured, “Why this waste of food? - Be it changed to loaves henceforward - For our fasting brotherhood.” - - Then in vain o’er tower and turret, - From the walls and woodland nests, - When the minster bells rang noontide, - Gathered the unwelcome guests. - - Then in vain, with cries discordant, - Clamorous round the Gothic spire, - Screamed the feathered Minnesingers - For the children of the choir. - - Time has long effaced the inscriptions - On the cloister’s funeral stones, - And tradition only tells us - Where repose the poet’s bones. - - But around the vast cathedral, - By sweet echoes multiplied, - Still the birds repeat the legend, - And the name of Vogelweide. - -Walther’s lyrical poems are distinguished from those of most of his -contemporaries by a strong impress of sincerity and a wide range of -thought. - -When he hails the coming of the spring after a long winter, he imitates -in the gladness of his heart the carols of the birds, and goes on in -melodious verses to speak of the beauty of the lady to whom he dedicates -his song, but whom he never names. In the next song the reader, to his -surprise, will find the minstrel changed into a satirist, who denounces -the political and religious corruptions of his time, rebukes the Pope for -his worldly ambition and predicts a speedy ruin of the world. These are -not all the notes of the scale on which his songs are constructed. As a -specimen of his lighter and more popular style, the following strophe in -praise of German women may serve: - - In many foreign lands I’ve been - And knights and ladies there have seen; - But here alone I find my rest— - Old Germany is still the best; - Some other lands have pleased me well; - But here—’tis here I choose to dwell. - German men have virtues rare, - And German maids are angels fair. - -He rises to a higher strain than this in other lyrics, where he places -domestic virtue above external beauty, and speaks of _minne_ in the -higher interpretation of the word. “Even where it can not be returned,” -he says, “if devoted to one worthy of it, it ennobles a man’s life. His -affection for one teaches him to be kind and generous to all.” Walther -pleasantly describes himself as by no means good-looking, and censures -all praise bestowed on men for their merely exterior advantages. And -he is no fanatical worshiper of feminine beauty, affirming that it may -sometimes be a thin mask worn over bad passions. - -With regard to their moral and social purport the verses of Walther have -a considerable historical interest. They show us how insecurely the -Church held the faith and loyalty of German men in the thirteenth century. - -Walther is bold and violent in his defiance and contempt of the Pope’s -usurpation of temporal authority. Referring in one place to a fable -commonly believed in his times, he says: “When Constantine gave the spear -of temporal power, as well as the spear and the crown to the See of Rome, -the angels in heaven lamented, and well they might; for that power is -now abused to annoy the emperor and to stir up the princes, his vassals -against him.” The poet was as earnest in dissuading the people from -contributing money to support the Crusades. “Very little of it,” he says, -“will ever find its way into the Holy Land. The Pope is now filling his -Italian coffers with our German silver.” This saying seems to have been -very popular for a tame moralist who lived in Walther’s time complains -that, by making such statements, the poet was perverting the faith of -many people. “All his fine verses,” the moralist adds, “will not atone -for that bad libel on Rome.” Yet the author of it was quite orthodox -in doctrine, and was enthusiastic in his zeal for rescuing the Holy -Sepulcher from the Saracens. - -Many of his verses express earnestly his love for his native land, and -his grief for social and political disorders of his times. He believes -that the world is falling a prey to anarchy. “I hear the rushing of -the water,” he says, “and I watch the movements of the fish that swim -in its depth. I explore the habits of the creatures of this world in -the forest and in the field, from the beast of the field down to the -insect, and I find that there is nowhere any life that is not vexed by -anarchy and strife. Warfare is found everywhere, and yet some order -is preserved even among animals; but in my own native land, where the -petty princes are lifting themselves up against the emperor, we are -hastening on to anarchy.” The course of events proved that he was too -true in this prediction. Resignation and despair, rather than any hope -of a reconciliation of religion with practical life, characterize other -meditative poems. The following is one of the best of this class: - - I sat one day upon a stone, - And meditated long, alone, - While resting on my hand my head, - In silence to myself I said: - “How, in these days of care and strife, - Shall I employ my fleeting life? - Three precious jewels I require - To satisfy my heart’s desire: - The first is honor, bright and clear, - The next is wealth, and far more dear, - The third is heaven’s approving smile;” - Then, after I had mused a while - I saw that it was vain to pine - For these three pearls in one small shrine; - To find within one heart a place - For honor, wealth, and heavenly grace; - For how can one in days like these - Heaven and the world together please? - - —_From “Outlines of German Literature”—Gostwick and Harrison._ - - -HANS SACHS. - -Riches of Poverty. - - Why art thou cast down, my heart? - Why trouble, why dost mourn apart, - O’er naught but earthly wealth? - Trust in thy God, be not afraid, - He is thy friend, who all things made! - - Dost think thy prayers he doth not heed? - He knows full well what thou dost need; - And heaven and earth are his! - My Father and my God, who still - Is with my soul in every ill. - - The rich man in his wealth confides; - But in my God my trust abides. - Laugh as ye will, I hold - This one thing fast, that He hath taught: - Who trusts in God shall want for naught. - - Yes, Lord: thou art as rich to-day - As thou hast been, and shall be aye: - I rest on thee alone; - Thy riches to my soul be given, - And ’tis enough for earth and heaven. - -The legends of Hans Sachs are all pointed with satire. Readers now-a-days -find in them a coarseness which jars their ideas of reverence and -refinement, but which in the sixteenth century was in perfect keeping -with the popular taste. One of the best of his legends is that of “St. -Peter and the Goat.” “We are told that once upon a time St. Peter was -perplexed by an apparent prevalence of injustice in the world; and -ventured to think that he could arrange matters better if he held the -reins of government. He frankly confesses these thoughts to his Master. -Meanwhile a peasant girl comes to him and complains that she has to do -a hard day’s work, and at the same time to keep in order a frolicsome -young goat. ‘Now,’ says the Lord to Peter, ‘you must have pity on -this girl, and must take charge of the goat. That will serve as an -introduction to your managing the affairs of the universe.’” - -The legend goes on: - - “The young goat had a playful mind - And never liked to be confined; - The Apostle at a killing pace, - Followed the goat, in a desperate chase; - Over the hills and among the briers - The goat runs on and never tires, - While Peter, behind, on the grassy plain, - Runs on, panting and sighing in vain. - All day, beneath a scorching sun, - The good Apostle had to run - Till evening came; the goat was caught - And safely to the Master brought, - Then, with a smile, to Peter said - The Lord: ‘Well, friend, how have you sped? - If such a task your powers has tried - How could you keep the world so wide?’ - Then Peter, with his toil distressed, - His folly, with a sigh, confessed; - ‘No, Master, ’tis for me no play - To rule one goat for one short day; - It must be infinitely worse - To regulate the universe.’” - - -MARTIN LUTHER. - -The Book of Psalms. - -The heart of man is like a ship out on a wild sea, and driven by -storm-winds blowing from all the four quarters of the world; now impelled -by fear and care for coming evil, now disturbed by vexation and grief -for present misfortune, now urged along by hope and a confidence of -future good, now wafted by joy and contentment. These storm-winds of the -soul teach us how to speak in good earnest, to open our hearts and to -utter their contents. The man actually in want and fear does not express -himself quietly, like a man who only talks about fear and want; a heart -filled with joy utters itself and sings in a way not to be imitated by -one who is all the time in fear; “It does not come from the heart,” men -say, when a sorrowful man tries to laugh, or a merry man would weep.… -Now of what does this book of Psalms mostly consist but of earnest -expressions of the heart’s emotions—the storm-winds, as I have called -them? Where are finer expressions of joy than the Psalms of praise and -thanksgiving? There you look into the hearts of the saints, as if you -looked into a fair and delightful garden, aye, or into heaven itself—and -you see how lovely and pleasant flowers are springing up there out of -manifold happy and beautiful thoughts of God and all His mercies.… But -again, where will you find deeper, more mournful and pitiful words of -sorrow than in the Psalms devoted to lamentation? I conclude then that -the Psalter is a hand-book for religious men, wherein every one, whatever -may be his condition, may find words that will rhyme with it; and Psalms -as exactly fitted to suit his wants as if they had been written solely -for his benefit.—_From the Preface to Luther’s Book of Psalms._ - -Light in Despondency. - - When the sky is black and lowering, when thy path in life is drear, - Upward lift thy steadfast glances, ’mid the maze of sorrow here. - From the beaming Fount of Gladness shall descend a radiance bright, - And the grave shall be a garden, and the house of darkness light, - For the Lord will hear and answer when in faith his people pray; - Whatsoe’er he hath appointed shall but work thee good alway. - E’en thy very hairs are numbered, God commands when one shall fall; - And the Lord is with his people, helping each and blessing all. - -Our Defense. - - A strong tower is the Lord our God, - To shelter and defend us; - Our shield his arm, our sword his rod - Against our foes befriend us. - That ancient enemy— - His gathering powers we see, - His terror and his toils; - Yet victory with its spoils - Not earth but heaven shall send us! - - Though wrestling with the wrath of hell, - No might of man avail us, - Our captain is Immanuel, - And angel comrades hail us! - Still challenge ye his name? - “Christ in the flesh who came”— - The Lord, the Lord of Hosts! - Our cause his succor boasts; - And God shall ne’er fail us! - - While mighty truth with us remain, - Hell’s arts shall move us never; - Nor parting friendship, honors, gains, - Our love from Jesus sever: - They leave us when they part - With him a peaceful heart; - And when from dust we rise, - Death yields us as he dies, - The crown of life forever! - - -GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM LESSING. - -The Parable of “The Three Kings,” from “Nathan the Wise.” - - In the oldest times, and in an eastern land, - There lived a man who had a precious ring. - This gem—an opal of a hundred tints— - Had such a virtue as would make the wearer - Who trusted it, beloved by God and man. - What wonder, if the man who had this ring - Preserved it well, and, by his will, declared - It should forever in his house remain? - At last when death came near, he called the son - Whom he loved best, and gave to him the ring, - With one strict charge:—“My son, when you must die, - Let this be given to your own darling child— - The son whom you love best, without regard - To any rights of birth.”—’Twas thus the ring - Was always passed on to the best-beloved. - Sultaùn! you understand me? - - _Saladin._ Yea. Go on!— - - _Nathan._ A father, who, at last possessed this ring - Had three dear sons—all dutiful and true— - All three alike beloved.—But, at one time, - This son, and then another, seemed most dear— - Most worthy of the ring; and it was given, - By promise, first to this son, then to that, - Until it might be claimed by all the three. - At last, when death drew nigh, the father felt - His heart distracted by the doubt to whom - The ring was due. He could not favor one - And leave two sons in grief! How did he act? - He called a goldsmith in, gave him the gem, - And bade him make exactly of that form, - Two other rings, and spare nor cost nor pains - To make all three alike. And this was done - So well, the owner of the first, true ring, - Could find no shade of difference in the three. - And now he called his sons—one at a time— - He gave to each a blessing and a ring— - One of the three—and died— - - _Saladin._ Well, well. Go on. - - _Nathan._ My tale is ended. You may guess the sequel:— - The father dies; immediately each son - Comes forward with his ring, and asks to be - Proclaimed as head and ruler of the house; - All three assert one claim, and show their rings— - All made alike. To find the first—the true— - It was as great a puzzle as for us— - To find the one true faith. - - _Saladin._ Is that, then, all the answer I must have? - - _Nathan._ ’Tis my apology, if I decline - To act as judge, or to select the ring— - The one, true gem, of three all made alike; - All given by one— - - _Saladin._ There! talk no more of “rings.” - The three religions, that, at first, were named, - Are all distinct—aye, down to dress—food—drink— - - _Nathan._ Just so! and yet their claims are all alike, - As founded upon history, on facts - Believed, and handed down from sire to son, - Uniting them in faith. Can we—the Jews— - Distrust the testimony of our race? - Distrust the men who gave us birth, whose love - Did ne’er deceive us; but when we were babes, - Taught us, by means of fables, for our good? - Must _you_ distrust your own true ancestors, - To flatter mine?—or must a Christian doubt - His father’s words, and so agree with ours?— - - _Saladin._ Allah!—the Israelite is speaking truth, - And I am silenced— - - _Nathan._ Let me name the rings - Once more!—The sons at last, in bitter strife, - Appeared before a judge, and each declared - He had the one true gem, given by his father; - All said the same, and all three spoke the truth; - Each, rather than suspect his father’s word, - Accused his brethren of a fraud—. - - _Saladin._ What then? - What sentence could the judge pronounce? Go on. - - _Nathan._ Thus said the judge:—“Go, bring your father here; - Let him come forth! or I dismiss the case. - Must I sit guessing riddles? Must I wait - Till the true ring shall speak out for itself?— - But stay!—’twas said that the authentic gem - Had virtue that could make its wearer loved - By God and man. That shall decide the case. - Tell me who of the three is best beloved - By his two brethren. Silent?—Then the ring - Hath lost its charm!—Each claimant loves himself, - But wins no love. The rings are forgeries; - ’Tis plain, the first, authentic gem was lost; - To keep his word with you, and hide his loss, - Your father had these three rings made—these three, - Instead of one—” - - _Saladin._ Well spoken, judge, at last! - - _Nathan._ “But stay,” the judge continued; “hear one word— - The best advice I have to give; then go.— - Let each still trust the ring given by his father!— - It might be, he would show no partial love; - He loved all three, and, therefore, would not give - The ring to one and grieve the other two. - Go, emulate your father’s equal love. - Let each first test his ring and show its power; - But aid it, while you test; be merciful, - Forbearing, kind to all men, and submit - Your will to God. Such virtues shall increase - Whatever powers the rings themselves may have; - When these, among your late posterity, - Have shown their virtue—in some future time, - A thousand thousand years away from now— - Then hither come again!—A wiser man - Than one now sitting here will hear you then, - And will pronounce the sentence.” - - _Saladin._ Allah! Allah! - - _Nathan._ Now, Saladin, art thou that “wiser man?” - Art thou the judge who will, at last, pronounce - The sentence? - - [_Saladin grasps Nathan’s hand, and holds - to the end of the conversation._ - - _Saladin._ I the judge?—I’m dust! I’m nothing! - ’Tis Allah!—Nathan, now I understand; - The thousand thousand years have not yet passed; - The judge is not yet come; I must not place - Myself upon his throne! I understand— - Farewell, dear Nathan! Go.—Be still my friend. - - - - -READINGS IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE. - - Abridged from Science Primer on Physical Science, by Prof. Geikie. - - -III.—RIVERS AND GLACIERS. - -We have found that the water of the river is largely derived from -springs, and that all spring-water contains more or less mineral -materials dissolved out of the brooks. Every river, therefore, is -carrying not merely water, but large quantities of mineral matters into -the sea. It has been calculated, for instance, that the Rhine in one -year carries into the North Sea lime enough to make three hundred and -thirty-two thousand millions of oyster shells. This chemically-dissolved -material is not visible to the eye, and in no way affects the color of -the water. At all times of the year, as long as the water flows, this -invisible transport of some of the materials of rocks must be going on. - -But let us now again watch the same river in flood. The water is no -longer clear, but dull and dirty. You ascertained that this discoloration -arises from mud and sand suspended in the water. You see that over and -above the mineral matter in chemical solution, the river is hurrying -seaward with vast quantities of other and visible materials. And thus it -is clear that at least one great part of the work of rivers must be to -transport the mouldered parts of the land which are carried into them by -springs or by rain. - -But the rivers, too, help in the general destruction of the surface of -the land. Of this you may readily be assured, by looking at the sides or -bed of a stream when the water is low. Where the stream flows over hard -rock, you find the rock all smoothed and ground away; and the stones -lying in the water-course are all more or less rounded and smoothed. -When these stones were originally broken by frosts or otherwise, from -crags and cliffs, they were sharp-edged, as you can prove by looking at -the heaps of blocks lying at the foot of any precipice, or steep bank of -rock. But when they fell, or were washed into the river, they began to -get rolled and rubbed, until their sharp edges were ground away, and they -came to wear the smooth rounded forms which we see in the ordinary gravel. - -While the stones are ground down, they, at the same time, grind down the -rocks which form the sides and bottom of the river-channel over which -they are driven. You can even see in some of the eddies of the stream how -the stones are kept moving round until they actually excavate deep round -cavities, called pot-holes, in the solid rock. - -Now, it is clear that two results must follow from this ceaseless wear -and tear of rocks and stones in the channel of a stream. In the first -place, a great deal of mud and sand must be produced; and, in the second -place, the bed of the river must be ground down so as to become deeper -and wider. The sand and mud are added to the other similar material -washed into the streams by rain from the mouldering surface of the land. -By the deepening and widening of the water-courses, such picturesque -features as gorges and ravines are excavated out of the solid rock. - -Look, again, at the channel of a river in summer. You see it covered with -sheets of gravel in one place, beds of sand in another, while here and -there a piece of hard rock sticks up through these different kinds of -river-stuff. Note some portion of the loose materials, and you find it -to be continually shifting. A patch of gravel or sand may remain for a -time, but the little stones and grains of which it is made up are always -changing as the water covers and moves them. In fact, the loose materials -over which the river flows are somewhat like the river itself. You come -back to its banks after many years, and you find the river there still, -with the same ripples, and eddies, and gentle murmuring sound. But though -the river has been there constantly all the time, its water has been -changing every minute, as you can watch it changing still. So, although -the channel is always more or less covered with loose materials, these -are not always the same. They are perpetually being pushed onward, and -others, from higher up the stream, come behind to take their place. - -It is not in the bottoms of the rivers, then, that the material worn -away from the surface of the land can find any lasting rest. And yet the -rivers do get rid of a good deal of this material as they roll along. -You have, perhaps, noticed that a river is often bordered with a strip -of flat plain, the surface of which is only a few feet above the level -of the water. Most of our rivers have such margins, and, indeed, seem -each to wind to and fro through a long, level, meadow-like plain. Now -this plain is really made up from the finer particles of decomposed rocks -which the river has carried along. During floods, the river, swollen and -muddy, rises above its banks, and spreads over the low ground on either -side. Whenever this takes place, the overflowing water moves more slowly -over the flats; and, as its current is thus checked, it can not hold so -much mud and sand, but allows some of these materials to settle down to -the bottom. In this way the overflowed tracts get a coating of soil laid -over them by the river, and when the waters retire this coating adds a -little to the height of the plain. The same thing takes place year after -year, until by degrees the plain gets so far raised that the river, which -all this while is also busy deepening its channel, can not overflow it -even at the highest floods. In course of time the river, as it winds from -side to side, cuts away slices of the plain and forms a newer one at a -lower level. And thus a series of terraces is gradually made, rising step -by step above the river. - -Still the laying down of its sand and mud by a river to form one or more -such river-terraces is, after all, only a temporary disposal of these -materials. They are still liable to be carried away, and in truth they -are carried off continually as the river eats away its banks. - -When the current of a river is checked as it enters the sea or a lake, -the feebler flow of the water allows the sand and mud to sink to the -bottom. By degrees some portions of the bottom come in this way to be -filled up to the surface of the river, and wide flat marshy spaces are -formed on either side of the main stream. During floods these spaces are -overflowed with muddy water, in the same way as in the case of the valley -plains just described, and a coating of mud or sand is laid down on them -until they slowly rise above the ordinary level of the river, which winds -about among them in endless branching streams. Vegetation springs up on -these flat swampy lands; animals, too, find food and shelter there; and -thus a new territory is made by the work of the river. - -These flat river-formed tracts are called deltas, because the one which -was best known to the ancients, that of the Nile, had the shape of the -Greek letter Δ (_delta_). This is the general form which is taken by -accumulations at the mouths of rivers; the flat delta gets narrow toward -the inland, and broader toward the sea. Some of them are of enormous -size; the delta of the Mississippi, for example. - -Each delta, then, is made of materials worn from the surface of the land, -and brought down by the river. And yet vast though some of these deltas -are, they do not show all the materials which have been so worn away. A -great deal is carried far out and deposited on the sea-bottom; for the -sea is the great basin into which the spoils of the land are continually -borne. - -Having now followed the course taken by the water which falls on the land -as rain, we come to that taken by snow. - -On the tops of some of the highest mountains in Britain snow lies for -great part of the year. On some of them, indeed, there are shady clefts -wherein you may meet with deep snow-wreaths even in the heat of summer. - -But in other parts of Europe, where the mountains are more lofty, the -peaks and higher shoulders of the hills gleam white all the year with -unmelted snow. - -Let us see why it is that perpetual snow should occur in such regions, -and what part this snow plays in the general machinery of the world. - -You have learned that the higher parts of the atmosphere are extremely -cold. You know also that in the far north and the far south, around those -two opposite parts of the earth’s surface called the Poles, the climate -is extremely cold—so cold as to give rise to dreary expanses of ice and -snow, where sea and land are frozen, and where the heat of summer is not -enough to thaw all the ice and drive away all the snow. Between these two -polar tracts of cold, wherever mountains are lofty enough to get into the -high parts of the atmosphere where the temperature is usually below the -freezing-point, the vapor condensed from the air falls upon them, not as -rain, but as snow. Their heads and upper heights are thus covered with -perpetual snow. In such high mountainous regions the heat of the summer -always melts the snow from the lower hills, though it leaves the higher -parts still covered. From year to year it is noticed that there is a line -or limit below which the ground gets freed of its snow, and above which -the snow remains. This limit is called the snow-line, or the limit of -perpetual snow. Its height varies in different parts of the world. It is -highest in the warmer regions on either side of the equator, where it -reaches to 15,000 feet above the sea. In the cold polar tracts, on the -other hand, it approaches the sea-level. In other words, while in the -polar tracts the climate is so cold that perpetual snow is found even -close to the sea-level, the equatorial regions are so warm that you must -climb many thousand feet before you can reach the cold layers of the air -where snow can remain all the year. - -There is, you see, one striking difference between rain and snow. If rain -had been falling for the same length of time, the roads and fields would -still have been visible, for each drop of rain, instead of remaining -where it fell, would either have sunk into the soil, or have flowed off -into the nearest brook. But each snowflake, on the contrary, lies where -it falls, unless it happens to be caught up and driven on by the wind -to some other spot where it can finally rest. Rain disappears from the -ground as soon as it can; snow stays still as long as it can. - -You will see at once that this marked difference of behavior must give -rise to some equally strong differences in the further procedure of these -two kinds of moisture. You have followed the progress of the rain; now -let us try to find out what becomes of the snow. - -In such a country as ours, where there is no perpetual snow, you can -without much difficulty answer this question. Each fall of snow in -winter-time remains on the ground as long as the air is not warm enough -to melt it. Evaporation, indeed, goes on from the surface of snow and -ice, as well as from water: so that a layer of snow would in the end -disappear, by being absorbed into the air as vapor, even though none of -it had previously been melted into running water. But it is by what we -call a thaw that our snow is chiefly dissipated; that is, a rise in the -temperature, and a consequent melting of the snow. When the snow melts, -it sinks into the soil and flows off into brooks in the same way as rain. - -In the regions of perpetual snow the heat of summer can not melt all the -snow which falls there in the year. What other way of escape, then, can -the frozen moisture find? - -You will remember that the surplus rainfall flows off by means of rivers. -Now the surplus snow-fall above the snow-line has a similar kind of -drainage. It flows off by means of what are called glaciers. - -When a considerable depth of snow has accumulated, the pressure upon the -lower layers from what lies above them squeezes them into a firm mass. -The surface of the ground is usually sloped in some direction, seldom -quite flat. And among the high mountains the slopes are often, as you -know, very steep. When snow gathers deeply on sloping ground, there comes -a time when the force of gravity overcomes the tendency of the pressed -snow to remain where it is, and then the snow begins to slide slowly -down the slope. From one slope it passes on downward to the next, joined -continually by other sliding masses from neighboring slopes until they -all unite into one long tongue which creeps slowly down some valley to a -point where it melts. This tongue from the snow-fields is the glacier. -It really drains these snow-fields of their excess of snow as much as a -river drains a district of its excess of water. - -But the glacier which comes out of the snow-fields is itself made not of -snow, but of ice. The snow, as it slides downward, is pressed together -into ice. You have learned that each snowflake is made of little crystals -of ice. A mass of snow is thus only a mass of minute crystals of ice -with air between. Hence when the snow gets pressed together, the air is -squeezed out, and the separated crystals of ice freeze together into a -solid mass. You know that you can make a snowball very hard by squeezing -it firmly between the hands. The more tightly you press it the harder -it gets. You are doing to it just what happens when a glacier is formed -out of the eternal snows. You are pressing out the air, and allowing the -little particles of ice to freeze to each other and form a compact piece -of ice. But you can not squeeze nearly all the air out, consequently the -ball, even after all your efforts, is still white from the imprisoned -air. Among the snowfields, however, the pressure is immensely greater -than yours; the air is more and more pressed out, and at last the snow -becomes clear transparent ice. - -A glacier, then, is a river, not of water, but of ice, coming down from -the snow-fields. It descends sometimes a long way below the snow-line, -creeping down very slowly along the valley which it covers from side to -side. Its surface all the time is melting during the day in summer, and -streams of clear water are gushing along the ice, though, when night -comes, these streams freeze. At last it reaches some point in the valley -beyond which it can not go, for the warmth of the air there is melting -the ice as fast as it advances. So the glacier ends, and from its melting -extremity streams of muddy water unite into a foaming river, which bears -down the drainage of the snow-fields above. - -A river wears down the sides and bottom of its channel, and thus digs -out a bed for itself in even the hardest rock, as well as in the softest -soil. It sweeps down, too, a vast quantity of mud, sand, and stones from -the land to the sea. A glacier performs the same kind of work, but in a -very different way. - -When stones fall into a river they sink to the bottom, and are pushed -along there by the current. When mud enters a river it remains suspended -in the water, and is thus carried along. But the ice of a glacier is a -solid substance. Stones and mud which fall upon its surface remain there, -and are borne onward with the whole mass of the moving glacier. They -form long lines of rubbish upon the glacier, and are called moraines. -Still the ice often gets broken up into deep cracks, opening into yawning -clefts or crevasses, which sometimes receive a good deal of the earth -and stones let loose by frost or otherwise from the sides of the valley. -In this way loose materials fall to the bottom of the ice, and reach the -solid floor of the valley down which the ice is moving; while at the same -time similar rubbish tumbles between the edge of the glacier and the -side of the valley. - -The stones and grains of sand which get jammed between the ice and the -rock over which it is moving are made to score and scratch this rock. -They form a kind of rough polishing powder, whereby the glacier is -continually grinding down the bottom and sides of its channel. If you -creep in below the ice, or catch a sight of some part of the side from -which the ice has retired a little, you will find the surface of the rock -all rubbed away and covered with long scratches made by the sharp points -of the stones and sand. - -You will now see the reason why the river, which escapes from the end of -a glacier, is always muddy. The bottom of the glacier is stuck all over -with stones, which are scraping and wearing down the rock underneath. A -great deal of fine mud is thus produced, which, carried along by streams -of water flowing in channels under the glacier, emerges at the far end in -the discolored torrents which there sweep from under the ice. - -A glacier is not only busy grinding out a bed for itself through the -mountains; it bears on its back down the valley enormous quantities of -fallen rock, earth and stones, which have tumbled from the cliffs on -either side. In this way blocks of rock as big as a house may be carried -for many miles, and dropped where the ice melts. Thousands of tons of -loose stones and mud are every year moved on the ice from the far snowy -mountains away down into the valleys to which the glaciers reach. - -The largest glaciers in the world are those of the polar regions. -North Greenland, in truth, lies buried under one great glacier, which -pushes long tongues of ice down the valleys and away out to sea. When a -glacier advances into the sea, portions of it break off and float away -as icebergs. So enormous are the glaciers in these cold tracts that the -icebergs derived from them often rise several hundred feet above the -waves which beat against their sides. And yet, in all such cases, about -seven times more of the ice is immersed under water than the portion, -large as it is, which appears above. You can realize how this happens -if you take a piece of ice, put it in a tumbler of water, and watch how -much of it rises out of the water. Sunk deep in the sea, therefore, the -icebergs float to and fro until they melt, sometimes many hundreds of -miles away from the glaciers which supplied them. - -You will come to learn afterward that, once upon a time, there were -glaciers in Britain. You will be able with your own eyes to see rocks -which have been ground down and scratched by the ice, and big blocks of -rock and piles of loose stones which the ice carried upon its surface. So -that, in learning about glaciers, you are not merely learning what takes -place in other and distant lands, you are gaining knowledge which you -will be able by and by to make good use of, even in your own country. - - - - -SUNDAY READINGS. - -SELECTED BY THE REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D. - - -[_December 2._] - -FROM THE “CHRISTIAN’S PATTERN.” - -By THOMAS À KEMPIS. - -“He that followeth me walketh not in darkness, saith the Lord.” These are -the words of Christ, by which we are admonished that we ought to imitate -his life and manners, if we would be truly enlightened and delivered from -all blindness of heart. - -Let therefore our chief endeavor be to meditate upon the life of Jesus -Christ. - -What will it avail thee to dispute sublimely of the Trinity, if thou be -void of humility, and art thereby displeasing to the Trinity? - -Truly, sublime words do not make a man holy and just; but a virtuous life -maketh him dear to God. - -I had rather feel compunction, than know the definition thereof. - -If thou didst know the whole Bible, and the sayings of all the -philosophers, by heart, what would all that profit thee without the love -of God? - -Vanity of vanities! all is vanity, but to love God and serve him only. - -It is therefore vanity to seek after perishing riches. - -It is also vanity to seek honors. - -It is vanity to follow the desires of the flesh, and to labor for that -for which thou must afterward suffer grievous punishment. - -It is vanity to wish to live long, and to be careless to live well. - -It is vanity to mind this present life, and not those things which are to -come. - -It is vanity to set thy love on that which speedily passeth away, and not -to hasten thither, where everlasting joys remain. - -All men naturally desire to know; but what availeth knowledge without the -fear of God? - -Surely an humble husbandman that serveth God is better than a proud -philosopher, that, neglecting himself, studies the course of the heavens. - -He that knoweth himself is vile in his own eyes, and is not pleased with -the praises of men. - -If I understood all things in the world, and had not charity, what would -that help me in the sight of God, who will judge me according to my deeds. - -There are many things, to know which doth little profit the soul. - -And he is very unwise, that minds any other things than those that tend -to the welfare of his soul. - -Many words do not satisfy the soul; but a pure conscience giveth -confidence toward God. - -The more thou knowest, and the better thou understandest, the more -grievously shalt thou be judged, unless thy life be the more holy. - -Be not therefore lifted up; but rather let the knowledge given thee make -thee afraid. - -If thou thinkest that thou knowest much: yet there are many more things -which thou knowest not. - -Be not over wise, but rather acknowledge thine own ignorance. - -The highest and most profitable lesson is, the true knowledge of -ourselves. - -It is great wisdom to esteem ourselves nothing, and to think always well -and highly of others. - -We are all frail, but remember, none more frail than thyself. - - -[_December 9._] - -It is good that we be sometimes contradicted; and that men think ill of -us, and this, although we do not intend well. - -For then we more diligently seek God for our inward witness, when -outwardly we are contemned by men. - -Wherefore a man should settle himself so fully in God, that he need not -seek comforts of men. - -When a man is afflicted, tempted, or troubled with evil thoughts; then he -understandeth better the great need he hath of God. - -So long as we live in this world, we can not be without temptation. - -Hence it is written in Job, “The life of man is a warfare upon earth.” - -Temptations are often very profitable to men, though they be troublesome -and grievous; for in them a man is humbled, purified, and instructed. - -All the saints have passed through, and profited by, many tribulations, -and temptations: - -And they that could not bear temptations, became reprobates and fell away. - -There is no place so secret, where there are no temptations. - -There is no man that is altogether secure from temptations while he -liveth. - -When one temptation goeth away, another cometh; and we shall ever have -something to suffer. - -Many seek to fly temptations, and fall more grievously into them. - -By flight alone we can not overcome, but by patience and humility we -conquer all our enemies. - -He that only avoideth them outwardly, and doth not pluck them up by the -roots, shall profit little: yea, temptations will soon return unto him, -and he shall feel them worse than before. - -By patience (through God’s help) thou shalt more easily overcome, than by -harsh and disquieting efforts in thy own strength. - -Often take counsel in temptations; and deal not roughly with him that is -tempted. - -The beginning of temptation is inconstancy of mind, and little confidence -in God. - -For as a ship without a rudder is tossed to and fro with the waves, so -the man that is negligent is many ways tempted. - -Fire trieth iron, and temptation a just man. - -We know not often what we are able to do: but temptations show us what we -are. - -We must be watchful, especially in the beginning of the temptation; for -the enemy is then more easily overcome, if he be not suffered to enter -the door of your hearts, but be resisted without the gate at his first -knock. - -Wherefore one said, “Withstand the beginning: for an after remedy comes -too late.” - -First, there occurreth to the mind a simple evil thought; then a strong -imagination; afterward delight; and lastly consent. - -And so by little and little our malicious enemy getteth entrance, while -he is not resisted in the beginning. - -And the longer one is slack in resisting, the weaker he becomes daily, -and the enemy stronger against him. - -Some suffer the greatest temptation in the beginning of their conversion; -others in the latter end. - -Others again are much troubled almost throughout their life. - -Some are but slightly tempted, according to the wisdom which weigheth the -states of men, and ordereth all things for the good of his elect. - -We ought therefore, when we are tempted, so much the more fervently to -pray unto God; who surely will give with the temptation, a way to escape, -that we may be able to bear it. - -Let us therefore humble ourselves under the hand of God, in all -temptations and tribulations; for he will exalt the humble in spirit. - -In temptations and afflictions a man is proved how much he hath profited. - -Neither is it any such great thing if a man be devout and fervent, when -he feeleth no affliction; but if in time of adversity he bear himself -patiently, there is hope then of great proficiency. - -Some are kept from great temptations, and are overcome in small ones; -that being humbled, they may never trust themselves in great matters, who -are baffled in so small things. - - -[_December 16._] - -Turn thine eyes unto thyself, and beware thou judge not the deeds of -other men. - -In judging others a man laboreth in vain, often erreth, and easily -sinneth; but in judging and examining himself, he always laboreth -fruitfully. - -We often judge of things according as we fancy them: for affection -bereaves us easily of a right judgment. - -If God were always our desire, we should not be so much troubled when our -inclinations were opposed. - -But oftentimes something lurks within, which draweth us after it. - -Many secretly seek themselves in their actions, but know it not. - -They live in peace of mind when things are done according to their will: -but if things succeed otherwise than they desire, they are straightway -troubled. - -Diversity of inclinations and opinions often causes dissensions between -religious persons, between friends and countrymen. - -An old custom is hardly broken, and no man is willing to be led farther -than himself can see. - -If thou dost more rely upon thine own reason, than upon Jesus Christ, -late, if ever, shalt thou become illuminated. - -The outward work without charity, profiteth nothing; but whatsoever is -done out of charity, be it ever so little and contemptible in the sight -of the world, is wholly fruitful. - -For God weigheth more with how much love one worketh, than how much he -doeth. - -He doth much that loveth much. - -He doth much that doth a thing well. - -He doth well that serveth his neighbor, and not his own will. - -Often it seemeth to be charity, and it is rather carnality; because -natural inclinations, self-will, hope of reward, and desire of our own -interest, are motives that men are rarely free from. - -He that hath true and perfect charity seeketh himself in nothing; but -only desireth in all things that God should be exalted. - -He envieth none, because he seeketh not his own satisfaction; neither -rejoiceth in himself, but chooses God only for his portion. - -He attributes nothing that is good to any man, but wholly referreth it -unto God, from whom, as from the fountain, all things proceed: in whom -finally all the saints rest. - -O that he had but one spark of true charity, he would certainly discern -that all earthly things are full of vanity! - - -[_December 23._] - -When one that was in great anxiety of mind, often wavering between fear -and hope, did once humbly prostrate himself in prayer, and said, O, if -I knew that I should persevere! he presently heard within him an answer -from God which said, If thou didst know it, what wouldst thou do? Do what -thou wouldst do then, and thou shalt be safe. - -And being herewith comforted and strengthened, he committed himself -wholly to the will of God, and his anxiety ceased: - -Neither had he any mind to search curiously farther what should befall -him; but rather labored to understand what was the perfect and acceptable -will of God, for the beginning and accomplishing every good work. - -Hope in the Lord, and do good, saith the prophet, and inhabit the land, -and thou shalt be fed. - -One thing there is that draweth many back from a spiritual progress, and -diligent amendment; the horror of the difficulty, or the labor of the -combat. - -But they improve most in virtue, that endeavor most to overcome those -things which are grievous and contrary to them. - -For there a man improveth more, and obtaineth greater grace, where he -more overcometh himself and mortifieth himself in spirit. - -Gather some profit to thy soul wheresoever thou art; so if thou seest or -hearest of any good examples, stir up thyself to the imitation thereof. - -But if thou seest anything worthy of reproof, beware thou doest not the -same.—And if at any time thou hast done it, labor quickly to amend it. - -Be mindful of the profession thou hast made, and have always before thine -eyes the remembrance of thy Savior crucified. - -Thou hast good cause to be ashamed, looking upon the life of Jesus -Christ, seeing thou hast as yet no more endeavored to conform thyself -unto him, though thou hast walked a long time in the way of God. - -A religious person that exerciseth himself seriously and devoutly in -the most holy life and passion of our Lord shall there abundantly find -whatsoever is necessary and profitable for him; neither shall he need -seek any better thing out of Jesus. - - -A CHRISTMAS PRAYER. - -Come thou O Lord, and dwell within me, giving me light, and love, and -liberty. May the spirit of the sweet Christmas Child possess me! May the -Star of Bethlehem abide above my dwelling place! May the angels who seek -thee be drawn toward me, and surround my path! May their song fill my -life. Glory to God in the highest. On earth peace, good will to men. - - -[_December 30._] - -This life will soon be at an end; consider therefore how thy affairs -stand as to the next. - -Man is here to-day; to-morrow he is gone. - -When he is out of sight, he is soon forgotten. - -Thou shouldst so order thyself in all thy thoughts and all thy actions, -as if thou wert to die to-day. - -Hadst thou a clear conscience, thou wouldst not fear death. - -It were better to avoid sin than to fly death. - -If thou art not prepared to-day, how wilt thou be to-morrow? - -To-morrow is uncertain, and how knowest thou that thou shalt live till -to-morrow? - -What availeth to live long, when we are so little the better? - -Alas! long life doth not always mend us; but often increased guilt. - -O, that we had spent but one day well in this world! - -When it is morning, think thou mayst die before night. - -When evening comes, dare not to promise thyself the next morning. - -Be therefore always in readiness; and so live that death may never take -thee unprepared. - -Many die suddenly, and when they look not for it; for “in such an hour as -you think not, the Son of man cometh.” Matt. xxiv: 44. - -When that last hour shall come, thou wilt have a far different opinion of -thy whole life. - -How wise and happy is he, that laboreth to be such in his life as he -would wish to be found at the hour of his death. - -Whilst thou art in health, thou mayst do much good, but when thou art -sick, I know not what thou wilt be able to do. - -Few by sickness grow better; and they who travel much are seldom -sanctified. - -Trust not in friends and kindred, neither put off the care of thy soul -till hereafter, for man will sooner forget thee than thou art aware of. - -If thou art not careful for thyself now, who will be careful for thee -hereafter? - -The time present is very precious; now are the days of salvation, now is -the acceptable time. - -But alas! that thou shouldst spend thy time no better here, where thou -mightest purchase life eternal. The time will come when thou shalt desire -one day or hour to amend in, and I can not say it will be granted thee. - -Ah fool! why dost thou think to live long, when thou canst not promise -thyself one day! - -How many have been deceived, and suddenly snatched away! - -How often dost thou hear, such a man is slain, another is drowned, a -third has broken his neck with a fall; this man died eating, and that -playing? - -One perished by fire, another by sword, another of the plague, another -was slain by thieves! Thus death is the end of all, and man’s life -suddenly passeth away like a shadow. - -Who shall remember thee when thou art dead? Do, do now, my beloved, -whatsoever thou art able to do: for thou knowest not when thou shalt die, -nor yet what shall be after thy death. - -Now, while thou hast time, lay up for thyself everlasting riches. - -Keep thy heart free, and lifted up to God, because thou hast here no -abiding city. - -Send thither thy daily prayers, and sighs, and tears, that after death -thy spirit may happily pass to the Lord. _Amen._ - - - - -POLITICAL ECONOMY. - -By G. M. STEELE, D.D. - - -III. - -EXCHANGE. - -1. Exchange is the mutual and voluntary transfer of the right of property -held by different persons. This implies, (_a_) the existence of the -_right of property_; (_b_) that the transfer must be _mutual_, otherwise -there is no exchange; (_c_) that it be _voluntary_, otherwise it would be -robbery. - -2. The principles that form the basis of exchange are the same as -those implied in the great law of association and individuality; -namely, those which give rise to the combination and division of labor. -There is usually some one kind of labor, or at most a few kinds, for -which each individual is competent. But the variety of occupations so -nearly corresponds with the variety of aptitudes in every well-ordered -community, that each may, with little effort, find the calling to which -he is suited. - -But while each individual is thus limited in his productive capabilities, -his claims and wants are nearly limitless. He is in need of a thousand -commodities, only a very few of which he can produce. He depends for -the remainder of these upon his fellow-men. On the other hand, he can -produce a thousand times as much of the few kinds of commodities to -which he devotes himself, as he himself needs. These he transfers to his -fellow-men, taking in return the surplus of their several products. This -is exchange, or commerce. It is implied in the very constitution of man. -Association is an imperative condition of humanity. - -3. A distinction is sometimes made between _commerce_ and _trade_—a wise -distinction, as it seems to me, though observed by but few writers. The -former is the _object_ to be accomplished; the latter is the _agency_ -through which it is accomplished. Thus, a farmer has wheat, butter, -eggs, poultry, wool, etc., which he wishes to exchange for cloth, sugar, -agricultural implements, boots and shoes, and a hundred other articles. -He can not go to the several producers of these, carrying his own -products to exchange for them, except at immense disadvantage. Hence -arises the necessity for the trader, or merchant. Trade and commerce -have sometimes been represented as mutually antagonistic. This is true -only to a certain extent. The great economical point to be guarded is -to have no more traders than are necessary to make the exchanges. When -the industrial and commercial conditions of a country are such that the -producers and consumers, who are the real exchangers, are placed and kept -at a great distance from each other, so that they can not combine with -each other except through the agency of a great number of middle-men, the -conditions are highly detrimental to the interests of the parties chiefly -concerned. Beyond a certain point, the greater the power of trade, the -worse it is for commerce. It is nevertheless true that there are certain -natural obstacles to direct commerce which can be surmounted only by some -kind of intermediate agency; and this makes the trader necessary. In this -respect, and to this extent, trade is an aid to commerce. Yet commerce -should be as direct as possible. To this end it is desirable that the -greatest number of commodities for which productive facilities exist, -should be produced in the same community. - -4. The general law of exchange is _value for value_. This will be obvious -if we recur to one of our statements concerning the nature of value, -namely, that is the quantity of one commodity that may be equitably -exchanged for a given quantity of another. It will be still more obvious -if we recall the complete definition: value is our estimate of the -sacrifice requisite to secure possession of a desired object. Thus, if it -require the labor of one day to produce a pair of shoes, and the labor -also of a day to produce three bushels of oats, then the rule of exchange -would be three bushels of oats for a pair of shoes, because the required -labor in the one case is precisely equal to that in the other. - -This is the fundamental law, but it is modified in its operation by -certain other facts and principles. Chief among these is the law of -_supply and demand_. By supply is meant the quantity of any commodity -which is in the market. Demand signifies the quantity which is desired at -a given price. The definitions are sometimes erroneously given of supply -as the quantity which exists, and demand as the quantity desired. But a -man may offer for sale a load of wheat, provided the price is a dollar a -bushel, but withdraw it from the market if the price is but ninety cents. -A thousand people in a certain town may desire diamond necklaces, but not -half a dozen may be able to purchase them. Hence supply is all that is -offered in the market; and demand is desire with ability to purchase. - -Demand and supply affect prices in this way. Suppose a community has been -exclusively using wood for fuel, and their wood can be had at a certain -price. After a time a coal mine is discovered in the vicinity, and coal -can be furnished much cheaper than wood. This would lessen the demand for -wood. As there would be the same amount for sale as before, the seller -would be in competition, and the price would fall. So if for any reason -before the discovery of the coal the supply of wood had been diminished -one half, the demand being the same, the price would rise. Thus we have -the general principle that other things being equal, the greater the -supply, the less the price; the smaller the supply, the greater the -price; the greater the demand, the greater the price; and the smaller the -demand, the less the price. In other words, the price varies directly as -the demand, and inversely as the supply. In general price varies as the -cost of production plus or minus the effect of supply and demand. These -principles are affected again in many ways which we can not here explain. -Yet the variations are always temporary, and the price or market value -always tends to seek the level of cost of production. - -5. Trade has been spoken of as an agent of exchange. An _instrument_ also -is needed. The primitive method of exchange was by barter. That is, by -giving the commodity one produces for that which one desires to possess. -But this was early found inconvenient. The man who made shoes and wished -to exchange some of them for a coat, would not readily find a coat-maker -in want of shoes; or if he should, the latter very likely would not want -just so many pairs of shoes as would be equal in value to the coat. All -other exchanges might be at a similar disadvantage. What is needed is a -commodity which will be a _medium_ of exchange—which every one will be -willing to receive for any commodity which he has for sale, and which -will command anything which he wishes to buy. Such a commodity is usually -the main element in the machinery of exchange, and is what constitutes -_money_. - -This instrument in order to meet the want, it is generally believed, -must have the following characteristics: 1. Value in the material of -which it is made. 2. Uniformity of value throughout the world. 3. Much -value in small bulk. 4. Approximate constancy of value. 5. Not readily -destructible. 6. Divisibility into small portions which are capable of -being reunited. 7. Of universal use. 8. Capable of receiving stamps and -marks. Most of these properties are found in gold and silver, if not to -such an extent as has been claimed for them, at least so far that they -have been the basis of the money of the civilized world. - -6. But supplementing in a certain way, and representing these, the -instrument of exchange comprises also the large element of _credit_. -This consists chiefly of book accounts, promissory notes, bank notes, -government notes, bank deposits, checks, drafts, bills of exchange, -stocks and bonds. One of the great agencies in modern commerce by which -credit is made effectual as a part of the mechanism of exchange is -that of _banks_. Banks are institutions which serve to abbreviate and -facilitate the business of exchange and to extend and render available -the credit of the community. - -There are four kinds of banks, namely: savings banks, banks of deposit, -banks of circulation and issue, and banks of discount. In our modern -banking system the last three are generally found in combination, that -is, each bank exercises all the functions implied. - -A savings bank is an institution in which small sums of money are -deposited from time to time as they accumulate in the hands of persons -of moderate incomes. The depositors are credited with these amounts, -and receive a certain, usually not very large, rate of interest in any -case, and an additional amount contingently. The bank loans the money -thus deposited in large sums to trustworthy persons who can furnish good -security, the rate of interest being somewhat higher than that paid to -the depositor. - -The benefit of such an institution is two fold. In the first place there -are many persons who have small sums of money which they desire to be -earning something in some safe place. The amount is too small to be -loaned to advantage. Such persons are not likely to know how, even if -the sums at their disposal were sufficient, to find the best investment, -or to determine concerning the security offered. But put into the hands -of men who make this their business, under rules devised by the best -financial talent of the community, and who can combine these small -sums and invest them to the best advantage, it is made both safe and -profitable for the small capitalists. - -In the second place there are many persons who wish to unite their labor -and skill with capital in some productive enterprise, and having no -capital of their own, desire to borrow. They do not know the persons who -have money to loan. The savings bank affords them an opportunity and -gives them an advantage which they would not otherwise have. It is a -benefit first to those who have some surplus, but are unable to loan it -to advantage; secondly to those who are in want of capital, but do not -know where to find it. - -A _bank of deposit_ grows out of the necessities of commerce in a -community where much business is transacted. All persons engaged in trade -will find from time to time large or smaller accumulations of money in -their hands which it is not safe without considerable expense, to keep by -them. Hence the custom of depositing these for safe keeping in the bank. -Usually no interest is paid as the money may be withdrawn any time at the -will of the depositor. It was early found that only a small proportion -of these deposits were likely to be withdrawn at any one time; hence a -considerable proportion of them could be loaned on short time, and thus -the bank would in this way receive compensation for its care, without -expense to the depositors. In this way, too, the capital of the community -could be kept more fully employed. - -But the credit factor in the deposit system soon came to have a much -wider scope than is here indicated. Instead of each depositor going to -the bank and drawing his money as he needs it, he now gives an order or -_check_ on the bank to any man to whom he may have occasion to make a -payment. In many cases the receiver of such a check also has deposits at -the same bank. In such a case he sends in the check to be deposited with -his cash for the day. The amount is debited to the drawer of the check, -and credited to the depositor of it, and thus by a simple _transfer_ of -_credit_ much business is done without the intervention of any money. -This expands into a great and complicated system of exchange between -individuals doing business at different banks, by banks in different -cities, and by traders in remote nations. Goods are sold in one locality -and paid for in the goods of another locality by means of drafts, bills -of exchange, etc., meeting and canceling one another, so that very little -money is transferred from point to point. - -The function of _discount and loan_, as has been intimated, is in -modern banking usually combined with that of _deposit_, as also that of -_circulation or issue_. When the capital of a bank is paid in by the -stockholders, and the officers elected, it is then ready for business -under regulations imposed by its charter. There are two ways in which -the public is accommodated. First, when a wholesale city merchant sells -a bill of goods to a country retail merchant, it is frequently the case -that the former makes out his bill, which the latter accepts, promising -to pay in thirty, sixty or ninety days. This accepted bill the wholesale -merchant carries to his bank, where it is received with his endorsement, -and the cash, less the interest for the given time, is paid him or placed -to his credit. This is _discounting_ a bill. A loan is sometimes made by -a borrower’s giving his own note endorsed by some reliable person, and -payable in some brief time as above. Sometimes the note is discounted; at -other times the interest is paid when the note is taken up. - -The function of _circulation_ is exercised by the issuing of bank-notes -to be circulated as money. When a bank is instituted the stockholders are -required to pay in their respective shares in metallic or lawful money. -But as the borrower would find coin most inconvenient to carry about, the -device arose of substituting notes of the bank, payable on demand, thus -leaving the specie in the bank. It was further soon observed that only -a very small proportion of these notes were likely to be called for at -any one time. Hence a large part of the specie could be used for other -purposes instead of being kept idle in the vaults. Under the national -bank system now in operation the capital of the bank may be largely -invested in United States bonds which are retained in the government -treasury, but on which the bank draws the usual interest. The bills of -the bank are then guaranteed by the government, so that there is never -any loss to the holder of the bills, even if the bank fails. - - -PROTECTION AND FREE TRADE. - -7. We have space but for a very brief outline of this important question. -It is one which has for a long time agitated the public mind, and one -on which honest and highly intelligent men widely differ. A _protective -tariff_ so called, is a system of duties levied by the government of a -country on certain commodities produced in other countries to prevent -their coming into unequal competition with similar commodities of -domestic production in such a way as to cripple or destroy the industries -implied in the latter. - -_Free trade_ is opposed to all those duties, the design of which is to -afford any advantage to domestic industry. It implies the same freedom -between producers in different nations as between those in the same -community. - -The main arguments in favor of protection are as follows: - -(1) It is the only sure defense of new and feeble industries against -the unequal competition of those long established in other or older -communities. Freedom of competition is admitted as desirable, but it is -denied that this exists under the conditions referred to. A community -which has long experience, skilled labor, and accumulated capital, -possesses great advantages in the contest with a nation destitute of them. - -(2) It is urged that a restrictive system gives a steady and uniform -market at an expense less than the benefit accruing. - -(3) It is also supposed to be essential to societary completeness; that -is, to such a diversification of industry as will most profitably meet -the diversity of ability and aptitude in the community. - -(4) It is thought to be necessary to the highest prosperity of the -unprotected interests. Among these agriculture is the most prominent. -It is for its advantage that the tax of transportation be saved by -having manufacturing communities in the midst of agricultural areas. -Also, a community compelled to confine itself to agriculture mainly, -must virtually transport its soil, the land constantly diminishing in -fertility. - -The advocates of free trade, on the other hand, present the following -arguments in its favor, and objections against protection: - -(1) Free trade is said to be the method of nature. - -(2) It is objected that protection violates the right of every man to do -what he will with his own. - -(3) It is said to be of the nature of a tax on all the other industries -for the support of those protected. - -(4) It is objected that the restrictive system causes a diminution of -exports from the protected country, on the principle that if the latter -does not buy of the former, then the former can not pay for the goods of -the latter. - -(5) Another argument is that “infant industries” under protection never -come to maturity. - -(6) Finally, the case of the United States is cited as an instance of -free trade on a large scale between widely remote sections, with the most -satisfactory results. - - - - -READINGS IN ART. - - -III.—MODERN SCULPTURE. - -The ten centuries following the second have no sculptural remains of -value. The dark ages threw their shadow over art, as over literature and -society. No doubt the feeling prevalent in the early Church that the -“graven image” might become an idol, hindered the progress of the plastic -art quite as much as the general decay that pervaded every form of human -undertaking. - -In the first half of the thirteenth century lived Nicola Pisano, the -founder, one might say, of modern sculpture. Nicola is supposed to have -been influenced by his study of the remains of Greek sculpture to be -seen at Pisa, his home. Applying the principles of the Greek work to -the modern subjects, his sculpture inaugurated the Italian renaissance. -Church decoration was the field of labor to which all artists of -those centuries betook themselves, and Pisano executed his best work, -bas-reliefs, on the façades and pulpits of the churches of Pisa, Siena, -and other Italian cities. A marble urn of St. Dominic, now at Bologna, is -among his celebrated works. Pisano had many followers, among whom were -his son (more famous, however, as an architect), and Andrea Orcagna. The -latter belonged to Florence, to whose churches he devoted his genius. -His masterpiece in sculpture is the tabernacle of the Virgin in the -church of San Michele, at Florence. It is a pyramid-shaped altar in white -marble; the profusion of reliefs which cover it represent the life of -the Virgin. A little before the time of Orcagna lived Giotto, at one -time a leader of artistic activity in Florence. He is known well by his -beautiful campanile, or bell-tower, and the bas-reliefs with which it is -decorated are his best-known sculptures. The basement story is decorated, -and, says a writer, speaking of these ornamentations, “This rich cycle -of works represents with perfect clearness, and in simple and truly -artistic treatment, the whole progress, from the creation of the first -man, through the successful conflict with the forces of nature, up to the -climax of a life illumined by learning and art, and secured under the -maternal shelter of the Church.” - -It was in the fifteenth century that sculpture attained its highest -standpoint. Foremost among the artists of this “golden age,” as it has -been called, is Lorenzo Ghiberti, the Florentine. The latter was first -brought into prominence in 1401, when leading men of Florence offered -a prize for the best design for a bronze folding door to be used in -the baptistery of San Giovanni. Each artist was allowed a year to -complete the test panel, the subject of the design of which was to be -the “Sacrifice of Isaac,” and the work was to be a bas-relief. Ghiberti -was declared the victor, even by his most famous rivals, Donatello -and Brunelleschi. For twenty-one years he labored at his doors, and at -the end of that time was entrusted with another. The latter occupied -him nearly as long as the first, and was even superior, Michael Angelo -declaring it worthy to be the gate of paradise. While busy at the gate -of the baptistery, Ghiberti executed three bronze statues of St. John -the Baptist, St. Matthew, and St. Stephen, and a bronze sarcophagus of -St. Zenobius. Donatello has been mentioned as a rival of Ghiberti in the -contest for the door: he deserves mention as one of the most faithful -followers of nature during this period. He even carried his naturalism to -excess, copying the deformed, the horrible, and the grotesque. There are, -however, several fine statues by him in San Michele. Among these are the -statues of St. Peter and St. Mark, in niches on the outside, and a fine -statue of St. George. The first equestrian statue of modern art was by -Donatello, and is at Padua. - -Lucca del Robbia lived at the same time, and his name is associated with -the beautiful terra-cottas found in such quantities in the churches of -Florence. These works are in white, on a pale-blue ground, and were -glazed by a process now unknown. The subjects used on them were almost -invariably the Madonna and Child. But Robbia did much in marble and -bronze. In the Uffizi is to be seen a frieze for the front of an organ, -by him. “It represents boys and girls of different ages, dancing, -singing, and playing on various musical instruments, and is full of -charming simplicity and childlike grace, and rich and varied in action. -Some of the figures are almost wholly detached from the background, -particularly in the representation of the dance.” There are many more -names which might be added to this Tuscan or Florentine school of -sculpture. Andrea Verocchio is the only one we will mention, and his -strongest influence was exerted as the teacher of that master-artist of -the sixteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci. - -The works of the fifteenth century are very numerous; they crowd the -churches of Rome, Florence, and the neighboring cities. Not only in -Tuscany, but in Upper and Lower Italy these artists were employed, and -many native artists, imitators of the school, have left sculptures on -the tombs and in the churches of Venice, Naples, and Como. The subjects -of artistic effort, it will be noticed, are nearly always religious. -Lübke says of this period: “It was chiefly devoted to the ornamentation -of tomb-monuments and altars, which, with few exceptions, were built up -against the wall in the shape of a triumphal arch, and required much -plastic decoration in the way of reliefs and detached figures. Pulpits, -founts, holy-water basins, singing-galleries, and choir-screens were also -adorned with rich carvings. This abundant supply of work necessarily -called forth a corresponding amount of skill, and the nature of the -subject helped the artistic and realistic taste of the time to express -itself. There was a decided effort to attain a correct likeness in -portrait-statues of the dead, and in the numerous reliefs there was a -tendency to portray the varied scenes of life.” - -But a new form of plastic art was to appear in the coming century. To -quote from the same author: “Italian plastic art had during the fifteenth -century gained a new form from the study of the antique, and had made -considerable advances in the unceasing effort after truth and life.… But -hitherto, the expression of an often severe and tasteless realism was -predominant, and now, under the influence of a profound and repeated -study of the antique, an inspiration toward the ideal, the beautiful, -and the sublime, was to assert itself; and this gave rise to a higher -and freer style.… Plastic art gained a freer and nobler comprehension, a -broad, bold treatment of forms, and a style simplified so as to bring out -what was fundamental and essential, which might, for a moment, compete -with the antique.” Leonardo da Vinci was one of the first in the list -of masters of the fifteenth century, but, unfortunately, we have lost -his best work. Andrea Contucci, better known as Sansovino, executed many -sculptures which are unparalleled in beauty of treatment and form. In -the baptistery at Florence is one of the noblest of these—the baptism -of Christ. The figures of John the Baptist and Christ are life-like, -free, and perfectly developed. There is nothing more interesting among -what Sansovino has left than the decorations of the Holy House of Loreto. -“Taken as a whole, this work is probably the most important collective -creation in the sculpture of this golden age.” There are a great number -of reliefs employed in the ornamentation, and the niches are filled by -single statues; of the former the Annunciation and the Nativity are the -most important. - -But by far the ablest of the sculptors was Michael Angelo Buonarroti, of -Florence. It was as a sculptor that he chose to regard himself, although, -as in the case of so many of the Italian artists, he was both a painter -and architect beside. Numerous works attributed to him are in existence. -Mythological subjects, as well as religious, are to be seen among them. -Thus there are bas-reliefs at Florence representing Hercules in his -contest with the centaurs, and a statue of Bacchus in the Uffizi. The -colossal marble statue of David in the academy at Florence, is said to -have been carved out of a rejected block. The most ambitious undertaking -of Michael Angelo was the mausoleum of Pope Julius II. The designs were -drawn on a grand scale, and the master had gone to Carrara to get out -the marble, when a misunderstanding between him and the Pope stopped -the work. It was afterward re-attempted, but never finished. Some of -the detached figures intended for the tomb are still seen. Among them -the famous Moses, in the church of San Pietro, at Vincolo. Two groups -at Florence were executed for the sarcophagi of Giuliano and Lorenzo de -Medici. The statues of the princes are seated in niches in the wall: at -their feet, on the lids of the coffins, are the groups: on that of the -former the design is Day and Night; on the latter Dawn and Evening. We -can mention no more of his designs, but will add the fine criticism of a -German critic: “If we compare Michael Angelo with those who went before, -we see at once that art reached one of those turning-points at which it -enters on a new period with an undreamed-of future opening before. His -deeply emotional soul was content neither with the contemplative realism -of the fifteenth century, which was based on its truth to nature, nor -with the quiet, harmonious beauty of contemporaneous masters. Each of -his works exists for its own sake only, and here we see a kinship with -the antique. But again: each of them is also the product of the stormy -inward struggles of a man who is ever aiming at the highest ideal, and -untiringly striving after a new expression of his thoughts—a man to whom -achievement gave but little satisfaction, so that often he left his works -unfinished. Here we see the strongest contrast to antique art. Nearly all -his sculptured works are in one sense or another incomplete, and many he -had to drop, because under the mighty stress of his ideas, and in his -eagerness to liberate from the marble the slumbering soul within, he had -made a false stroke and spoiled the block.” - -The influence of Michael Angelo was predominant. The productions of -almost every sculptor of the times were marked by both his strong and -weak points. The Michelangelesque manner, as it has been called, was -evident in the sculptures of the following century. - -Outside of this Tuscan school there were during the sixteenth century -several prominent artists; at Modena, Antonio Begarelli, who worked -mainly in terra-cotta, and who left many works in the churches of his -native city. - -At Padua lived Riccio, who executed a bronze candelabrum which has become -famous for both its size and its excessive ornamentation. It was eleven -feet in height and laden with innumerable fantastic reliefs and figures -mostly taken from mythology. A pupil of Sansovino, Jacopo Tatti, was the -leader in Upper Italy. He worked mainly at Venice. The bronze of the -sacristy of St. Mark in that city, the choir-screen in the same church, -and several figures of evangelists in bronze are among his religious -works. In the Doge’s palace are two large statues of Mars and Neptune -which are particularly fine. He also did portrait-sculptures of much -merit. But during this century art was by no means confined to Italy, -though Italy then, as always, took the lead. In the North there was a -steady work in the plastic art. The influence of the antique was wanting, -and the materials in which the works were executed were different. Wood -carving was very popular; invariably much gilding and brilliant coloring -was used. The work was mainly on the altars of the churches, on shrines, -figures for niches in the church walls and choir stalls. Michael Pacher, -of Austria, was eminent in this art; Veit Stoss, of Cracow, and Jörg -Syrlin, of Ulm. In nearly all of the old churches of Germany are these -highly colored carvings in wood. - -But stone was used as extensively, and in a somewhat wider variety of -works. Many monuments, the buttresses of churches, lecterns, doors, and -choir-piers, were made in stone and decorated in the usual manner by -reliefs and figures. Nearly all the German cities boast more or less of -stone work in their churches. - -The leading artist of the time was Adam Krafft, who worked mainly in -Nuremberg. A very fine and powerful work by him is the Seven Stations, as -it is called. It represents the repeated fainting of Christ beneath the -burden of the cross. The work is done in relief. The face and expression -of the Savior is noble and expressive in every case. This work was -followed by Christ on the Cross. In 1492 he executed the history of the -Passion for a monument on the exterior of St. Sebald’s church. - -The monuments of the time are mainly very superior. Among them may be -mentioned that of Emperor Henry II. and his consort by Riemenschneider, -the marble monument of Bishop Rudolph von Schrenburg in the Würtzburg -cathedral, and the marble memorial to the Emperor Frederic III. in -Vienna. The celebrated school of metal works of Nuremberg flourished -during this period. The best known representatives belonged to the -family of Vischer, and in Peter Vischer the most complete artistic -development was reached. The earliest work, by Hermann Vischer in 1457, -was the bronze baptismal font in Wittenberg. Peter, his son, began his -work on the tomb of Archbishop Ernst in Magdeburg cathedral, but his -_chef d’œuvre_ was the tomb of St. Sebald in the church of that saint -at Nuremberg. Vischer and his five sons were engaged on this for eleven -years. The sarcophagus rests on a base elaborately wrought in relief, and -the whole is enclosed; the cover is composed of three arched canopies -supported on eight slender columns. The base, pillars and canopies are -wrought exquisitely; although the ornaments are profuse, yet a perfect -simplicity and purity of style is preserved. There are very many other -productions attributed to Vischer—a fine relief in the cathedral at -Regensborg, several tombs, and, as examples of his treatment of antique -designs, an Apollo at Nuremberg, and a relievo of Orpheus and Eurydice in -the Berlin Museum. - -One of the most magnificent tombs of this period was that of the Emperor -Maximilian at Innsbrück; several of its figures were from Peter Vischer’s -hands. Twenty-eight colossal bronze statues of the ancestors of the -imperial house and of heroes surrounded the monument. Besides these there -were a large number of gracefully poised female figures, and twenty-three -figures of the patron saint of the House of Austria. The whole was -surmounted by a marble cenotaph on which a figure of the Emperor knelt. -Several artists were engaged on this monument. The sculptures of this -period in other countries are not very prominent. In France there was -considerable attention given to plastic art. Many fine choir-screens have -been preserved, and some exceedingly rich tombs. Among the latter are -the monuments of Louis XII. and his wife (1530), of Francis I. (1552), -and of Henry II. (1583), all in the church of St. Denis in Paris. A -set of artists who were engaged on the decorations of the palace of -Fontainebleau was known as “the Fontainebleau school.” The leader of this -group was Jean Goujon. The sculpture of Spain during this period followed -largely the Italian schools. The most lavish treatment is visible in the -decorations of the churches, particularly in the altars. The high altar -of the cathedral at Toledo is one of the most costly and ornate of its -time (about 1500). - -“The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were marked by a decadence of -sculpture. Plastic art sought to become striking, rejected everything -that could limit her art and gave herself up freely to her longing -after what was striking. Henceforth it was decreed that every plastic -work must be spirited. The most striking effects must be aimed at in -the expression of inward emotion through mien, attitude and position.… -Besides the drapery must be arranged in all sorts of ways conducive to -effect.… Thus all dignity, simplicity and distinctness in sculpture, all -plastic style was lost, and was succeeded by a senseless striving after -outward effect and mere decoration.” The best Italian artists of these -years were Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), who showed well the perversion -of the principles of art, and Alessandro Algardi. The French claimed as -their most celebrated masters in the seventeenth century, Pierre Puget, -who worked chiefly at Genoa, and François Girardon, both of whom are -noted for their exaggerations; in the eighteenth century were Houdon and -Pigalle. - -Franz Duquesnoy, the Fleming, worked at Rome in the seventeenth century -and gained a fine reputation by his life-like figures of children. In -Berlin, Andrew Schlüter executed superior works. Among these are the -masks of dying warriors carved above the windows of the court of the -Arsenal. An equestrian statue of the Great Elector is his best work. - -In the latter half of the eighteenth century a revival of sculpture took -place; this has been attributed to the efforts of Popes Clement XIV. -and Pius VI., to the publications of Winckelmann, and to the unearthing -of the treasures of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The first sculptor to -initiate works of purer taste was Canova (1757-1822); he came of a race -of stone cutters, and while at work at his trade executed the figures -which attracted the attention of a Venetian, who educated him for an -artist. Canova’s early works were mythological in subject. He had -studied sculptures unearthed at Pompeii and Herculaneum, and under their -influence executed his “Apollo crowning himself with laurel” and “Theseus -vanquishing the Minotaur.” In 1802 Canova was invited by Napoleon to -Paris where he executed a colossal statue of the emperor. His figures of -women were his most pleasing works. Of the many monuments he executed, -the best is that of Christina in the church of the Augustines at Vienna. -But few artists escaped the influence of Canova. Among his best known -followers were Dannecker, of Stuttgart; Chaudet, a French artist, and -Flaxman, an English sculptor. - -For a brief outline of the sculptor of the nineteenth century we can do -nothing better than quote from Lübke: - -The Danish artist, Bertel Thorwaldsen (1770-1844), penetrated farther -than all these masters into the spirit and the beauty of classical art; -and created, with inexhaustible fertility of imagination, and with the -noblest feeling for form, an array of works which are conceived with -a pure, chaste, and noble appreciation of the Greek spirit. In his -celebrated frieze of the triumph of Alexander in the Villa Carlotta, on -the lake of Como, the genuine Grecian relief style is revived in all -its perfect purity and severity. He also treats with the versatility of -genius and with charming simplicity the subjects of ancient mythology, in -numerous statues, groups, and smaller reliefs; and even introduces into -the domain of Christian representation a novel, beautiful, and dignified -treatment, in the sculptures executed by him for the Church of Our Lady -in Copenhagen. Among his monumental works we may mention the statues of -Gutenberg at Mayence, and of Schiller at Stuttgart, the Dying Lion at -Lucerne, the equestrian statue of the Elector Maximilian at Munich, and -the tombs of the Duke of Leuchtenberg in St. Michael’s Church at Munich, -and of Pope Pius VII. in St. Peter’s Church at Rome. - -While the wide domain of idealistic sculpture was thus again cultivated -with such versatility of inspiration, the Berlin artist, Johann Gottfried -Schadow (1764-1850), adopted a more realistic style, especially directed -toward lifelike composition and distinct characterization of individual -peculiarities. His monument of the Count von der Mark in the Church of -Ste. Dorothy in Berlin, the statue of Frederic the Great at Stettin, and, -in a less degree, the Blücher monument at Rostock, and that of Luther at -Wittenberg, as well as many others, are vigorous protests against the -mannerism of the hitherto prevailing tendency, and re-open to sculpture a -field which had now been almost lost to her for two hundred years. - -Thus a new path was opened to modern sculpture, in pursuing which it -has of late years accomplished great results, and which assures to it -still greater beauty, and diversity of attainment, if only it hold fast -to the principles already secured, and go on with true dignity toward -its goal. Even if the world of ideal forms should never again acquire -that importance for us which it possessed for the Greeks, nevertheless -the daily life of humanity still contains a wealth of exquisite motives, -full of beauty and _naïveté_, which give to the sculptor’s fancy ample -incitement to ideal creations. There is, moreover, in the chaste grace -and pure dignity of the antique conceptions, an imperishable charm, -which appeals to every human sentiment, and secures for all productions -conceived in a similar spirit the warm interest of those who delight to -refresh themselves with the simple beauty that belongs to every true -manifestation of nature. Hence the idealistic style of this art of -Greece, as it has been recognized by the present and endowed with new -activity, becomes forever the most priceless and precious possession of -modern sculpture. - -The new-born historic feeling of the several nations demands to-day that -their heroes, the defenders of their liberties, the representatives of -their intellect, their warriors in the battles both of the sword and of -thought, shall be preserved to fame in the true likeness of their actual -forms. As a consequence, sculpture is compelled to probe the depths of -the individual consciousness; to investigate the characteristics of each -individual intellect as expressed in the figure, the physiognomy, and -even in the externals of attitude and garb; and even to give utterance -to the mysterious life of the soul, as far as it lies within her power. -Without losing sight of the great importance which the study of the -sculptures of the fifteenth century has upon this tendency, the influence -of the antique should not be undervalued; since, without the sense of -beauty so secured, a realistic degeneracy and exaggeration would be very -sure to follow. - -Among the German schools of sculpture of to-day, that of Berlin takes -the lead. Frederick Tieck of this school adopted the antique style in -a series of admirable productions, and especially in the decorative -sculpture designed by him for the theater; while the path which Schadow -had taken was followed up nobly and rationally during the long and -influential labors of Christian Rauch (1777-1857). This artist’s -important position is due less to his wealth of creative ideas than to -his delicate feeling for nature, his fine appreciation of the genuine -plastic style, and his incomparable care in execution. His importance, -however, does not consist merely in his numerous works, but also in -the influence he exercised on his large circle of talented scholars. -While he shows a true classical beauty in his ideal works, like his -victories and his many admirable reliefs, his statues of Prince Blücher, -of Generals Bülow and Scharnhorst, his colossal equestrian statue of -Frederic the Great at Berlin, his superb statues of Queen Louise, and -of Frederic William III. in the mausoleum at Charlottenburg, his bronze -statues of Dürer at Nuremberg, of Kant at Königsberg, of King Max I. -at Munich, and many others, prove him a sculptor of the first rank for -delicate characterization, and life-like suggestiveness of composition. -Many excellent scholars have gone from his studio into careers of -independent importance and masterly ability; and these form, with their -vigorous activity, which is never at a loss for employment in important -undertakings, the nucleus of the present school of Berlin. - -Among the most conspicuous of the Berlin artists should be reckoned -Friedrich Drake, whose reliefs on the statue of Frederic William III. -in the Thiergarten at Berlin are full of simple grace. Another of this -school is Schievelbein (died in 1867), who showed a great deal of -imagination, especially in the composition of reliefs; as in the great -frieze representing the destruction of Pompeii, in the new museum, and -also in the relief on the bridge at Dirschau. - -Ernst Rietschel (1804-61) claims indisputably one of the first places -among the sculptors of his century, as regards versatility of endowment, -delicate feeling for form, and depth of sentiment. He derived from -Rauch his faithful and characteristic representation of life, and his -painstaking execution. His double monument of Schiller and Goethe at -Weimar, his monument of Lessing in Brunswick (in a still purer and -happier style), and the statue of Luther executed for a monument at -Worms, are good examples of these traits. In the group of the Virgin -with the body of Christ, which he executed for the Friedenskirche -near Potsdam, he produced a work full of striking expression, and of -the deepest religious feeling; while the subjects of his numerous -representations in relief for the pediment of the opera house at Berlin, -and the theater and museum at Dresden, represent him with equal dignity -and merit in the department of the ideal antique subjects. Ernst Hähnel -is a Dresden artist, whose powerful compositions for the Dresden theater -and museum are antique in treatment, but who also produced monumental -statues, works of the most delicate characterization, such as the -Beethoven at Bonn, the Emperor Charles IV. at Prague, and the statues -designed for the Dresden Museum, especially the noble Raphael. Recently, -also, Schilling has distinguished himself by his ideal groups of the -divisions of the day,—Morning, Noon, Evening, Night,—designed for the -Brühl Terrace. - -In Munich, the talented Ludwig Schwanthaler (1802-48) was the chief -representative of a more romantic style, which opened a new field of -fresh ideas to modern sculpture. This master, who was endowed with an -almost inexhaustible imagination, carried out a great number of extensive -works during his short life, in supplying the plastic decorations -for most of the buildings erected by King Louis. While these are -distinguished by fertility of invention, and an excellent decorative -taste, the artist, spurred on to ceaseless labor, and hindered by bodily -infirmities, did not succeed in giving his monumental creations that -thorough development of form which is an essential of sculpture. It can -not be denied, however, that a grand monumental conception is visible -in these productions, as is especially proved in the colossal statue of -Bavaria in Munich. A numerous school had its origin in this artist’s -studio. - -In France, sculpture early endeavored to free herself from the rigid rule -of the antique, and carried the prevailing effort after dramatic effect, -expression and passion, even to an extreme point of realism. Individual -artists have kept to a noble and more moderate style; as Bosio, and -the admirable sculptors Rude and Duret; but, on the other hand, P. J. -David d’Angers (1793-1856) devoted himself, in utter violation of all -the severer laws of sculpture, to a violent realism, which, although it -is sustained by great talent and a charming facility in composition, -deteriorates into a lawless exaggeration in his monumental works. His -numerous portrait-busts, on the other hand, are extremely lifelike, and -full of genius. The Genoese artist, James Pradier, takes the first rank -among those sculptors who especially delight in the representation of -sensuous beauty (1792-1852). The talented artist, Barye, who died in -1875, is chief among the sculptors of animals. The sculpture of Belgium -follows the same general direction as the French. - -Rome forms an important central point in the production of modern -sculpture, with her numerous studios, her skill in marble-cutting,—an -art handed down to her from ancient times,—and her vast collection of -antique works. Here Canova and Thorwaldsen had their studios, which were -for many decades the most famous nurseries of modern sculpture. That -the antique conception and the idealistic style should acquire especial -prominence here lay in the nature of things. Only where the modern social -and political life exercises its full powers does sculpture find tasks -that call upon her for the characteristic representation of important -personages, and the lifelike delineation of historical events. - -The English artist, John Gibson, is conspicuous among the sculptors of -different nationalities who have made Rome their headquarters, as the -representative of a noble classic style. The tendency of the numerous -sculptors whom England has recently produced is toward the genre-style, -and toward graceful forms in the manner of Canova. Macdonell, an artist -of much taste, and Sir Richard Westmacott, also well known by his public -works, deserve mention here, as well as R. J. Wyatt, by whom we have some -charming representations of subjects chosen from the ancient myths. The -United States of America should also be included in this enumeration: -for they possess sculptors of decided talent in Randolph Rogers (who -designed the bronze gates of the Washington Capitol), Miss Hosmer, and E. -D. Palmer, who, though a gifted artist, inclines to an exaggeration of -the picturesque. Among the German sculptors in Rome, Martin Wagner, who -died in 1860, is worthy of note for his energy of style; and, among those -still living, Carl Steinhäuser, now in Carlsruhe, is remarkable for an -elevated feeling for form, and depth of sentiment; while J. Kopf shows -much delicate grace; and the more recent artist, Ad. Hildebrand, has a -rare feeling for nature. Finally, Holland has an excellent sculptor of -the idealistic school in Matthias Kessels (1784-1830), who studied under -Thorwaldsen. - - - - -SELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE. - -DR. HORACE BUSHNELL. - - - Dr. Bushnell’s mind was one of the rarest. What it was in his - books, that it was in private, with certain very piquant and - unforgettable flavors added.—_Dr. Burton._ - - I think he had no capacity, with all his eminent powers, for - enmity. Goodness and wisdom were the powers that amounted to - genius in him by being so great.—_Rev. C. A. Bartol._ - -WRONG RESISTED.—As it is said that ferocious animals are disarmed by the -eye of man, and will dare no violence if he but steadily look at them, -so it is when right looks upon wrong. Resist the devil, and he will flee -from you; offer him a bold front, and he runs away. He goes, it may be, -uttering threats of rage; but yet he goes. - -GREAT MEN.—The great and successful men of history, are, commonly, made -such by the great occasions they fill. They are the men who had faith to -meet such occasions; and therefore the occasions marked them, called them -to come and be what the successes of their faith would make them. The -boy is but a shepherd, but he hears from his panic-stricken countrymen -of the giant champion of their enemies. A fire seizes him, and he goes -down to the army, with nothing but his sling, and his heart of faith, to -lay that champion in the dust. Next he is a great military leader, then -the king of his country. As with David, so with Nehemiah; as with him, so -with Paul, and Luther. A Socrates, a Tully, a Cromwell, a Washington—all -the great master-spirits—the founders and law-givers of empires, and -defenders of the rights of men, are made by the same law. These did not -shrink despairingly within the compass of their poor abilities, but in -their heart of faith embraced each one his cause, and went forth under -the inspiring force of their call to apprehend that for which they were -apprehended. - -FAMILY RELIGION—WHY A FAILURE.—The father prays, in the morning, that -his children may grow up in the Lord, and calls it the principal good -of their life, that they are to be Christians, living to God and for -the world to come. Then he goes out into the field, or shop, or house -of trade, and, delving there all day in his gains, keeps praying from -morning to night, without knowing it, that his family may be rich. His -plans and works, faithfully seconded by an affectionate wife, pull -exactly contrary to the pull of his prayers, and to all their common -teaching in religion. Their tempers are worldly, and make a worldly -atmosphere in the home. Pride, the ambition of show, and social standing, -envy to what is above, and jealousy of what is below, follies of dress -and fashion, and the more foolish elation, when a son is praised, or a -daughter admired in the matter of personal appearance, or, what is no -better, a manifest preparing and foretasting of this folly, when the -son or daughter is so young as to be more certainly poisoned by the -infection of it. Oh, these unspoken, damning prayers! how many they are, -and how they fill up all the days! The mornings open with a reverent, -fervent-sounding prayer of words; and then the days come after piling -up petitions of ends, aims, tempers, passions and works, that ask for -anything and everything but what accords with genuine religion. The -prayer of the morning is that the son, the daughter—all the sons and -daughters—may be Christians; and then the prayers that follow are for -anything but that—in fact, for things most contrary to that. Is it any -wonder, when we consider this common disagreement between the prayers of -the family, and all other concerns, ends, and enjoyments of the common -life beside, that so many fine shows of family piety are yet followed by -so much of godless, and even reprobate, character in the children? - - -DR. NOAH PORTER. - -How to Read History. - -Whately pertinently observes, in his annotations upon Lord Bacon’s “Essay -on Studies:” “In reference to the study of history I have elsewhere -remarked upon the importance, among the intellectual qualifications for -such a study, of a vivid imagination. The practical importance of such an -exercise of imagination to a full and clear, and consequently, profitable -view of the transactions related in history can hardly be over-estimated.” - -To stimulate and aid the imagination in its efforts to reproduce the -past, historical plays and poems, and, more recently, historical novels -have been abundantly employed. Their usefulness has been the subject of -frequent discussion, and of various opinions. It has been forcibly, and -perhaps not untruly said, that the majority of the present generation -of English readers have learned more of English history from Shakspere -and Walter Scott than from the entire library of professed historians. -Of course no man would contend that either Shakspere or Scott could be -substituted for the usual historical authorities, but only that they may -supplement them in certain important particulars. Many other historical -plays and novels are invaluable as enabling the reader to enter more -fully into the spirit of past times. They are of especial service -in helping him to appreciate the feelings and motives of prominent -personages, and vividly to reproduce the manners and institutions of -another age. It is not often that an historical writer is endowed with -the painstaking zeal of the antiquarian, and the creative power of the -poet. If we can not have the two gifts in a single writer, we must seek -for them apart in the historian and the novelist. - -Thackeray’s “Henry Esmond” is an admirable example of a good historical -novel, when carefully and conscientiously written by a man of rare gifts -and of a rarer honesty. No reader of this tale of the times of Queen -Anne could fail to derive from it such impressions of the state of -manners and of morals in the higher circles, as well as of the political -jealousies and the religious feuds which divided men of all classes, as -no formal history could possibly convey—such as even the most abundant -and painstaking research into the less accessible resources of historical -knowledge would fail to impart to a man of feeble capacity to picture -and recombine. The service is not a slight one which is rendered to the -world when such a painstaking explorer of historical truth as Thackeray -gathers his materials with faithful and laborious research, and weaves -them together into so fascinating and instructive a story. But this -tale, marvelous as it is for its elaborated truthfulness and picturesque -effects, strikingly illustrates the possible dangers and disadvantages to -which the historical novel may be abused. Thackeray was not without his -prejudices. These, with his desire for producing striking effects, are -manifest in the occasional _overdrawing_ of this generally well-balanced -representation of one of the most interesting periods of English history. -It is notorious that Walter Scott gave very serious offense to multitudes -of his admiring readers by some of his portraitures of the representative -characters of the great historical parties of Scotland and England. With -all the good sense and candor which he had at command, his sympathies -were too intense and his prejudices too tenacious to allow him to write -otherwise than he did, though he know he should excite the indignation of -thousands of his fervid countrymen. Mrs. H. B. Stowe says in the preface -to her recent historical romance, “Oldtown Folks:” “I have tried to make -my mind as still as a looking-glass or a mountain lake, and thus to give -you merely the images reflected therein.” But a fervid and sympathetic -nature like hers can no more free itself from a theological or personal -bias in representing the New England of the past, over which she has -laughed, and wept, and speculated, and struggled all her life, than the -“mountain lake” can hold itself in glassy smoothness against the gusts -and breezes that sweep upon it from the heights above. - -The fact deserves notice that of late professed historians have indulged -somewhat freely in romancing, and so in a sense turned their histories -into quasi-historical novels, especially when they attempt to give -elaborate and eloquent portraitures of the leading personages, in which -the most lavish use is made of effective epithets and pointed antitheses. -Macaulay, among recent historians, has set the fashion very decidedly -in this direction. In his efforts to make history minute, vivid, and -effective, he has often described like an impassioned advocate, and -painted, like a retained attorney, with the most unsparing expenditure of -contrasts and epithets. Carlyle gives sketches, alternately in chalk and -charcoal, that exhibit his saints and demons, now in ghastliest white, -and then in the most appalling blackness. But though he draws caricatures -he draws them with the hand of an artist. Froude, by research, eloquence -and audacity combined, attempts to reverse the settled historic -judgments of all mankind in respect to characters that had been “damned -to everlasting fame.” Bancroft and Motley abound in examples of this -tendency to paint historical characters so much to the life that the -impression is made that the result is only a painting to which there -never was reality. - - -WASHINGTON IRVING. - - To a true poet-heart add the fun of Dick Steele— - Throw in all of Addison, _minus_ the chill, - With the whole of that partnership’s stock and good will, - Mix well, and while stirring him o’er as a spell, - The fine old English gentleman, simmer it well, - Sweeten just to your own private liking, then strain, - That only the finest and clearest remain; - Let it stand out of doors till a soul it receives, - From the warm, lazy sun loitering down through green leaves. - And you’ll find a choice nature, not wholly deserving - A name either English or Yankee—just Irving.—_Lowell._ - - … Washington Irving, one of the best and pleasantest - acquaintances I have made this many a day.—_Sir Walter Scott._ - - The Style of Mr. Irving is always pleasing.—_Macaulay._ - - Throughout his polished pages no thought shocks by - its extravagance, no word offends by vulgarity or - affectation.—_Edinburgh Review._ - - -A Rainy Sunday in an Inn. - -It was a rainy Sunday in the gloomy month of November. I had been -detained in the course of a journey by a slight indisposition, from which -I was recovering; but I was still feverish, and was obliged to keep -within doors all day, in an inn of the small town of Derby. A wet Sunday -in a country inn; whoever has had the luck to experience one, can alone -judge of my situation. The rain pattered against the casements, the bells -tolled for church with a melancholy sound. I went to the windows in quest -of something to amuse the eye, but it seemed as if I had been placed -completely out of the reach of all amusement. The windows of my bed-room -looked out among tiled roofs and stacks of chimneys, while those of my -sitting-room commanded a full view of the stable-yard. I know of nothing -more calculated to make a man sick of this world than a stable-yard on -a rainy day. The place was littered with wet straw that had been kicked -about by travelers and stable-boys. In one corner was a stagnant pool -of water surrounding an island of muck; there were several half-drowned -fowls crowded together under a cart, among which was a miserable -crest-fallen cock, drenched out of all life and spirit, his drooping tail -matted, as it were, into a single feather, along which the water trickled -from his back; near the cart was a half-dozing cow, chewing the cud, and -standing patiently to be rained on, with wreaths of vapor rising from her -reeking hide; a wall-eyed horse, tired of the loneliness of the stable, -was poking his spectral head out of a window, with the rain dripping -on it from the eaves; an unhappy cur, chained to a dog-house hard by, -uttered something every now and then between a bark and a yelp; a drab -of a kitchen wench tramped backward and forward through the yards in -pattens, looking as sulky as the weather itself; everything, in short, -was comfortless and forlorn, excepting a crew of hard-drinking ducks, -assembled like boon companions round a puddle, and making a riotous noise -over their liquor. - -I sauntered to the window, and stood gazing at the people picking their -way to church, with petticoats hoisted mid-leg high, and dripping -umbrellas. The bells ceased to toll, and the streets became silent. I -then amused myself with watching the daughters of a tradesman opposite, -who, being confined to the house for fear of wetting their Sunday finery, -played off their charms at the front windows, to fascinate the chance -tenants of the inn. They at length were summoned away by a vigilant -vinegar-faced mother, and I had nothing further without to amuse me. - -The day continued lowering and gloomy; the slovenly, ragged, spongy -clouds drifted heavily along; there was no variety even in the rain; it -was one dull, continued, monotonous patter, patter, patter, excepting -that now and then I was enlivened by the idea of a brisk shower, -from the rattling of the drops upon a passing umbrella. It was quite -refreshing (if I may be allowed a hackneyed phrase of the day) when -in the course of the morning a horn blew, and a stage-coach whirled -through the street with outside passengers stuck all over it, cowering -under cotton umbrellas, and seethed together, and reeking with the -steams of wet box-coats and upper benjamins. The sound brought out from -their lurking-places a crew of vagabond boys and vagabond dogs, and the -carroty-headed hostler, and that nondescript animal yclept Boots, and -all the other vagabond race that infest the purlieus of an inn; but the -bustle was transient: the coach again whirled on its way; and boy and -dog, and hostler and Boots, all slunk back again to their holes; the -street again became silent, and the rain continued to rain on. - -The evening gradually wore away. The travelers read the papers two -or three times over. Some drew round the fire and told long stories -about their horses, about their adventures, their overturns and -breakings-down. They discussed the credits of different merchants and -different inns, and the two wags told several choice anecdotes of pretty -chambermaids and kind landladies. All this passed as they were quietly -taking what they called their nightcaps; that is to say, strong glasses -of brandy and water or sugar, or some other mixture of the kind; after -which they one after another rang for Boots and the chambermaid, and -walked off to bed in old shoes cut down into marvelously uncomfortable -slippers. There was only one man left,—a short-legged, long-bodied -plethoric fellow, with a very large sandy head. He sat by himself -with a glass of port wine negus and a spoon, sipping and stirring, -and meditating and sipping, until nothing was left but the spoon. He -gradually fell asleep bolt upright in his chair, with the empty glass -standing before him; and the candle seemed to fall asleep too, for the -wick grew long and black, and cabbaged at the end, and dimmed the little -light that remained in the chamber. The gloom that now prevailed was -contagious. Around hung the shapeless and almost spectral box-coats of -departed travelers, long since buried in deep sleep. I only heard the -ticking of the clock, with the deep-drawn breathings of the sleeping -toper, and the drippings of the rain—drop, drop, drop—from the eaves of -the house. - - -Irving’s Last Interview with Scott. - -It was at Sunnyside, on a glorious afternoon in June, 1855, that -surrounded by scenery which Irving has best described, he narrated to me -(S. Austin Allibone) the following account of his last interview with -Scott: - -“I was in London when Scott arrived after his attack of paralysis, on -his way to the continent in search of health. I received a note from -Lockhart, begging me to come and take dinner with Scott and himself the -next day. When I entered the room Scott grasped my hand, and looked me -steadfastly in the face. ‘Time has dealt gently with you, my friend, -since we parted,’ he exclaimed:—he referred to the difference in himself -since we had met. At dinner, I could see that Scott’s mind was failing. -He was painfully conscious of it himself. He would talk with much -animation, and we would listen with the most respectful attention; but -there was an effort and an embarrassment in his manner; he knew all was -not right. It was very distressing, and we (Irving, Lockhart, and Anne -Scott) tried to keep up the conversation between ourselves, that Sir -Walter might talk as little as possible. After dinner he took my arm to -walk up-stairs, which he did with difficulty. He turned and looked in my -face, and said, ‘They need not tell a man his mind is not affected when -his body is as much impaired as mine.’ This was my last interview with -Scott. I heard afterward that he was better; but I never saw him again.” - -Two years later (in 1857), in narrating the same event, Irving told me -that as Scott passed up the stairs with him after dinner, he remarked, -“Times are sadly changed since we walked up the Eildon hills together.” - - -JAMES KIRKE PAULDING. - - There is no better literary _manner_ than the manner of Mr. - Paulding. Certainly no American, and possibly no living writer of - England has more of those numerous peculiarities which go to the - formation of a happy style.—_Edgar A. Poe._ - - His works are exclusively and eminently natural, and - his descriptions of natural scenery are often eminently - beautiful.—_London Athenæum._ - -TIME A DESTROYER.—I saw a temple, reared by the hands of man, standing -with its high pinnacle in the distant plain. The streams beat about it; -the God of nature hurled his thunderbolts against it; yet it stood firm -as adamant. Revelry was in the halls; the gay, the young, the beautiful -were there. I returned, and lo! the temple was no more. Its high walls -lay scattered in ruin; moss and grass grew rankly there; and, at the -midnight hour, the owl’s long cry added to the solitude. The young, the -gay, who had reveled there, had passed away. I saw a child rejoicing -in his youth, the idol of his mother, and the pride of his father. I -returned and the child had become old. Trembling with the weight of -years, he stood the last of his generation, a stranger amidst all the -desolation around him. I saw an old oak standing in all its pride upon -the mountain; the birds were caroling in its boughs. I returned and saw -the oak was leafless and sapless; the winds were playing at their pastime -through the branches. “Who is the destroyer?” said I to my guardian -angel. “It is Time,” said he. When the morning stars sang together for -joy over the new-made world, he commenced his course, and when he has -destroyed all that is beautiful on the earth, plucked the sun from his -sphere, veiled the moon in blood; yea, when he shall have rolled the -heavens and the earth away as a scroll, then shall an angel from the -throne of God come forth, and, with one foot upon the land, lift up his -hand toward heaven, and swear by heaven’s eternal, “time was, but time -shall be no more.” - - [End of Required Reading for December.] - - - - -RETURNING. - -By MARY HARRISON. - - “The spirit shall return to the God who gave it.” - - - White clouds upon heaven’s bosom rest, - Begotten of the sunshine’s love, - Now nestled like a fondled dove - Upon a woman’s loving breast. - - Heaven feeds her baby clouds, they grow, - Then leave her for their manhood’s life; - And wail and scramble in the strife - Through which all earth-born children go. - - They sink and wander in the gloom - Of winding subterranean ways, - And learn the loss of heavenlier days, - By groping through their chosen tomb. - - At length, lights gleam along the distant way, - With eager thoughts of childhood, blest, - And hopes of entering into rest, - They leap to airy, sunny day. - - Now rivers slave them to the fields - To fill the cattle-troughs with drink, - And dress the rose-boughs on their brink, - And feed the grass the meadow yields. - - For friends and good, they look behind, - Then curse the past, and pray to be - Unborn again within the sea, - For birth has been to them unkind. - - All scenes have gone! no good has come! - From bank to bank the waters heave - With tides which only mock and grieve, - Despairs of long-lost, hopeless home. - - And looking but for lulling sleep, - The last deep solace of the grave, - They leap to meet the leaping wave, - And find their lost home in the deep. - - So through his day, blind man has striven, - As vapor-clouds, he came to be, - Drawn from, then wandering to the sea, - Invisible, with God in heaven. - - - - -EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO POPULATION. - -By ATTICUS G. HAYGOOD, D.D. - - -FACTS ON THE SURFACE. - -The records in the Department of Education, in Washington City, show that -in the recent slave States of the Union the total school population was, -in 1881, 5,814,261. Of these, 3,973,676 were white; 1,840,585 colored -children. Counting both races the total school enrollment for 1881 was -3,034,896; of these 2,232,337 were white, 802,559 colored children. -Nearly half the white, and more than half the colored school population -was, in 1881, out of school. In some of these States the school term is -from three to five months; in the cotton States not more than three. -Perhaps five months each year is as long a school term as the conditions -and needs of the laboring classes in these States will allow. - -In 1881 these States expended upon their public schools $13,359,784; -except perhaps in one state this money was expended without distinction -of race. The races have schools of their own; doctrinaires would mix them -by force of law; those who are actually doing the work of education in -these States know that this can not be done, and that only harm would -come of it, if the experiment were attempted. For neither race would do -so well if taught together; the colored children do not desire mixed -schools, and the white children will not attend them. In such conditions -law is helpless, and force is folly; also ruin. - - -OTHER FACTS. - -The official figures give the numbers; parole evidence is necessary to -complete the statement of the case. In 1881 there were, as the Department -of Education reports, in the Southern States 17,248 common schools for -colored children. With exceptions so few that they are inappreciable -in these statements, the teachers in these 17,248 common schools were -colored—the large majority being women. The majority of these teachers -are pitiably incompetent; some of them are well furnished for their -work, and are doing it faithfully and successfully. Nearly all of these -colored teachers who are of any use have received their preparation in -the various schools for higher instruction established by societies -and churches in the Northern States. Some of the best work is done in -schools established and carried on by individual devotion—I will not say -enterprise. Taking them all together there are nearly one hundred and -fifty of these schools, called, as fancy or circumstances prompted or -allowed, universities, colleges, institutes, seminaries, normal schools, -etc., etc. There is hardly an “academy” among them. - - -OVER-NAMING. - -Many will think me wrong in the opinion I now offer; some of the wisest -of the teachers in the real work of teaching negroes will agree with -me: it is a misfortune that the names given these schools are so out -of proportion to their real work and character. None of them, even in -catalogues, go beyond the ordinary college course; many of them do not -come up to it; in none of them do more than a very small number complete -this course. There is not a university, in any proper sense, among them -all. It is not in the spirit of censure that I speak of these things, but -of deep interest in the great and necessary work, that the good people -engaged in these schools are trying, with rare consecration and in the -teeth of a thousand discouragements, to accomplish. - -The great names for these schools have done harm. They are misleading to -begin with, and that is an evil. It is hard enough to get the indifferent -or the antagonistic people to understand the subject of the education of -the negroes at best; it is harder when new meanings have to be given to -old names in order to state acts. I am of the opinion that the names -given to most of these schools have done some harm in the North—whence -the money has been drawn to support them. Northern men have sometimes -spoken to me on these subjects in language that made it plain that they -would have helped more but from a conviction that “schools and not -universities are what these poor people need.” _Per contra_, it may well -enough be answered, some have given largely to build “universities” that -would not give to establish schools. As to the influence on northern -sentiment of the _too-great names_, those who know that sentiment better -than I do can express themselves more definitely. I know that the big -names have done harm in the States where the schools are. At this point -let me say, I am only stating what I believe to be facts. Comments, -inferences, justifications, do not concern me just now. - -First, then, the large names have excited prejudice among the white -people who did not know what was back of the names. Most of them, for a -long time, did not know what the universities and colleges were really -trying to do; the majority do not know at this time. - -Some of those who did know something thought the whole business a mere -sham; for a long time only a few southern white people really knew that -faithful, wise and successful teaching was done in these colleges and -universities—most of it not being college or university work at all. The -few who really knew what good work was being done could over-look the -ambitious names—it being a weakness in the South and West, yielded to -by not a few, to give great names to small schools for white youth. The -wiser and kinder-hearted ones could condone the offense of over-large -names in view of their own example. - -The big names did as much as anything else to anger the poor whites -against all negro education. People who know human nature will understand -this statement without explanation: those who do not know human nature -will not understand it anyway. - -The worst evil, in the long run, of this big naming of schools for -the negroes, fell upon the negroes themselves. It aggravated the -tendency—very strong among them—to be satisfied with the name of a thing -in the lack of the thing itself, and, what is more, not knowing that -they can lack the thing when they have the name. Take, for example, “⸺ -University,” an admirable school well known to me. Its annual enrollment -will average three hundred; its catalogue course reaches from the primary -studies through an ordinary college curriculum; one in ten attempts this -college course; one in fifty may complete it. The whole three hundred -tell their friends: “I was educated in ⸺ University.” It gives them -importance. They pass as scholars beyond their merits among their own -people. In many of them it breeds injurious conceits—of a sort that -makes enemies of those who might be friends, and prejudices with the -uninformed—who in all countries are the majority—the whole subject of -negro education. It is to be feared that only a few colored students know -the difference between “⸺ University” and a real university. - - -NO SHAM IN THE WORK DONE. - -Let me say with emphasis at this point: there is no sham in the work done -in these schools. It is genuine, honest, useful work. This is a general -statement; there may be, doubtless are, some schools that do not deserve -this praise. But the point I wish to make plain to the readers of THE -CHAUTAUQUAN is this: if there be sham it is not in the work done, but in -the name given the place where it is done. I asked one of the veterans: -“Why did you call this school a university?” He answered: “We hoped it -would grow to it some day.” How could I blame the hopefulness of those -who did the naming? So many of our white schools had been named under the -same sort of prophetic impulse. - - -TRAINING SCHOOLS. - -It is those schools backed by the churches and benevolent societies of -the North that are doing the most of the work of preparing teachers among -the colored people for the colored people. The very best of the more than -seventeen thousand colored teachers have learned whatever they know in -these schools. Most of the Southern State governments have recognized the -necessity of preparing colored teachers, and make annual appropriations -to carry on this work. A few States have established schools of their -own; generally they make appropriations to some of the best of the -schools established by others. - -The great and crying need in the work of education among the people is -better teachers in their common schools. They can not be prepared in -a day or a year; for it takes much money and much time. The training -schools are without endowments, and their patrons are unable to pay more -than the lowest tuition fees. If these schools—call them universities, -colleges, institutes, seminaries—what you will, are to keep going at -their present rate, to say nothing of improvement, white people must -furnish the money, for the best of reasons; the negroes have not money -to do this sort of work. Most of this money will have to come from -Northern pockets, if it comes at all. The State of New York is worth -more in property returned for taxation than all the Southern States -together—leaving out Missouri, counted in the census of 1880 among -“Western States.” - - -THE JOHN F. SLATER FUND - -Begins to do its blessed work. This fund is dedicated to the work of -“Uplifting the lately emancipated population of the Southern States -and their posterity, by conferring on them the blessings of Christian -education,” and it seeks to accomplish this result by “the training -of teachers among the people requiring to be taught.” This fund works -through existing institutions; it does not found new schools; there are -already more good and deserving schools than it can help. Many times the -sum this fund affords could be wisely used. - -There is not space in this article to discuss the question, but my -opinion may be stated: It is necessary that the United States government -should aid the States to make their public schools more efficient. -Whatever may be true of other sections, the Southern States, owing to the -facts of their history and to conditions now existing, are not able to do -the work that is upon them. - -As to the sentiment in these States on the subject of negro education, it -may be said in brief: The outcry of small village papers does not always -even reflect the sentiment of the people, and there are certain facts -that indicate that the work of educating the negroes will go on with less -and less hindrance. Three such facts I mention in closing this article: -(1) The duty and necessity of educating the negro has been recognized -by every representative church in the South. (2) This necessity is -recognized in the educational system of every Southern State. (3) No -man who believes he has any political or educational “future,” any -longer opposes, under his proper name, the education of his negro fellow -citizens. - - * * * * * - -Dress changes, but we are not to suppose on that account that the make of -the body changes also. Politeness or rudeness, knowledge or ignorance, -more or less of a certain degree of guilelessness and simplicity, a -serious or playful humor; these are but the outer crust of a man, and may -all change; but the heart changes not, and the whole of man is in the -heart. One age is ignorant, but the fashion of being learned may come; we -are all moved by self-interest, but the fashion of being disinterested -will never come. Amidst the countless myriads of creatures born in the -space of a hundred years, nature may perhaps produce two or three dozen -of rational beings whom she must scatter over the world, and you can -readily imagine that they are never found any where in such large numbers -as to set the fashion of virtue and uprightness.—_Fontenelle._ - - - - -MAN OF LEARNING, TELL ME SOMETHING. - -By MARGARET MEREDITH. - - -I wonder if men could not be persuaded to alter their style of -conversation with girls, to talk to us as they talk to men? - -We have a feeling that learned young men are the dullest of talkers; not -because they talk weightily; Oh, no! because they talk so lightly, and -lightness is not their forte. - -A diligent student, a very cormorant, perhaps, of knowledge, dons a white -necktie and sallies forth, and resolutely leaves behind for the evening -every material he has wherewith to make himself agreeable. He is not -witty, he is too busy to be a gossip, he is too little in company to -learn an easy jog of commonplace or compliment. So he sits on a sofa, -and the girl makes some opening remark, to which he replies with studied -interest; and at the pause she magnetically feels that it is best to make -a longer remark this time. If she were talking to a lad, she might drift -into expressing some of her real ideas, and find profit and pleasure in -airing them; but for the amusement of this young savant, by no means. -Still, at his next turn to speak, or the next, she has come suggestively -near some subject worth talking of; if he were with a man he would -instantly plunge in, and in five minutes they would be deep in discussion -or description, sharpening their wits by every sentence, fixing what they -have read, shaping their crude opinions, thoroughly enjoying each other; -and for this they need not be equals in cultivation, nor altogether -equals in mind. - -Why should it be so different when talking with a woman? There is no -reason, but habit. One says, “People dislike to talk shop; the busy -scholar wants a rest.” On the contrary, most people, I think, would -rather talk shop than anything else. If it is their life interest and -their strong point, they have so much more to say. The truth is, they -fear that the listener will object, and so “in company” they avoid it. I -wager the listener would be delighted. - -I do not write so much to those who can get up at will a brilliant flow -of mere scintillation. That is a scarce enough article to be valuable. -Yet they might use it occasionally on sense as well as on nonsense, and -make themselves all the more notably entertaining. - -I once knew a grave professional man who was said to be both clever -and cultivated, but for me there seemed no possible way to enjoy him. -His visits were the most empty occasions. He was “a desirable person -to be visited by,” but he was unendurable; though he did not fail to -be politely attentive in more ways than one. I was glad he was going -away. Just then a mutual friend came on the scene, who had views on this -matter. I know she gave him the benefit of them, as well as if she had -told me; for such an amazing change I never saw. The passive sitter waked -up, the bore became a charming talker, and all because he had taken his -own permission to be agreeable in his natural way. I was so sorry when he -left town! - -That instance of transformation is what inspires my appeal. The thing -would seem grounded and settled, incapable of cure, but what one -exhortation can accomplish has been proved. - -And it is a case in which the butterfly may well spring full-colored -from the chrysalis, for the stuff that talk is made of is all there; not -repartee, of course, or always brilliant expression for one’s thoughts -and facts; but thoughts and facts very simply used make an evening -world-wide different from a succession of laboriously-framed sentences -carefully intended to be about something in which the man does not take -any interest, and the woman sees he does not. Can we wonder that the -sand-man has to be struggled with many a time by both parties? Young boys -do not blink with sleep under your very eyes; but full-grown men often -do, and largely because they insist on pursuing at thirty-five about the -same topics of conversation that they used at eighteen. - -Don’t you, Mr. Dry-as-dust, want to turn over a new leaf? My -opportunities of learning are limited, perhaps, while yours are constant. -If I am to spend an hour, or two or three, with you, will not you give me -some advantage from your well-furnished store-house? If I do not respond -then possibly you may stand excused, and never again run the risk of -talking over my head. - -But give me one fair trial, and see if we are not “better company” and -better friends ever afterward. - - - - -HIBERNATION. - -By the REV. J. G. WOOD, M.A. - - -The hedgehog, like the bat, is carnivorous. - -Toward the end of autumn it looks out for some retired spot, a perfectly -dry cavity in the ground or in the rock being the favorite resort. Here -it gathers together a large quantity of dry moss, leaves, grass, etc., -covers itself with them, rolls itself into a ball, and sinks into the -hibernating lethargy. - -It is rather remarkable that a hibernating animal is much more sensitive -to a slight touch than to general handling. If, for example, a single -hair of a hibernating bat or a single quill of a hibernating hedgehog be -raised, the creature gives a quick start, and takes a few breaths before -relapsing into lethargy. Yet a bat may be sunk under water, or have a -thermometer tube passed into its stomach, without being awakened. - -When a hibernating bat is sunk under water of the same temperature -as that of its body, it does not even attempt to breathe. A similar -experiment was tried with a hedgehog, and after it had been under water -for twenty-one minutes, one tiny bubble of air rose to the surface. I -need scarcely say that if the animal had been awake, it would have been -drowned in less than a fourth of the time. - -For the bat, no food can be found until the warm weather returns, and so -the hibernation is unbroken for at least five months. But, though food be -almost entirely withdrawn from the hedgehog, some nutriment remains, and -therefore the animal is so constituted that it can discover and consume -the food which has been provided for it. - -This food chiefly consists of snails, which are themselves hibernators, -and which during the winter months conceal themselves so effectually -that they are seldom detected except by their two great wintry foes, the -thrush and the hedgehog. - -The hedgehog, not possessing so wide a range of hibernating temperature -as the bat, which actually “hibernates” daily for a short time even -during the hottest summers, is roused by an hour or two of warm sunshine -such as we often experience about February. Awakened by the warmth, the -hedgehog unrolls itself, creeps out of its refuge, and trundles (I know -no better word to describe its peculiar pace) away in search of food. -Taught by instinct, it is sure to come upon one of the strongholds of the -snail, eats as many as it needs, returns to its home, and sleeps until -awakened in a similar manner. - -Then we have the vegetable-eating squirrel, which is a partial hibernator. - -During the later weeks of autumn, the squirrel may be seen in the act of -making provision for the winter. In the first place it collects a vast -store of fallen leaves, moss, twigs, and similar materials, and with them -constructs its winter nest. - -Squirrels have two distinct kinds of nest, one for the winter and the -other for the summer. Both nests are of considerable size, and both are -so well concealed that to detect them is a very difficult task. The -summer nest is comparatively light in texture, and is placed near the -ends of lofty boughs, where it is hidden by the leaves. Moreover, its -position renders it almost unassailable, as the branch on which it is -built would not even endure the weight of a small boy. In the winter, -when the leaves are off the trees, the nests are very conspicuous, and -in the New Forest, where I gave some time to watching the habits of the -squirrel, they are exceedingly numerous. - -In fact, the squirrels of the New Forest swarm in such numbers, and do -so much damage to the young twigs of the trees, that many hundreds must -be shot annually, just as is the case with rabbits. They are always -shot just before hibernating, because, as they put on new robes for the -winter, their skins fetch the best prices. Moreover, the animals become -fat, as is the case with all hibernators, and so their flesh is in good -condition for the table. Squirrel-pie is a well-known luxury in some -parts of England, and is far superior to rabbit-pie, as it is free from -the peculiar flavor which attaches itself to the rabbit, and to many -persons is exceedingly repulsive. - -The winter nest is a very large one, containing at least four or five -times as much material as would serve for a summer’s nest. Instead of -being placed at the end of a bough, it is always set in the hollow caused -by the junction of several large branches with the trunk. The exterior is -so skilfully formed, that when the tree is viewed from below, even the -most practised eyes will often fail to detect the nest, large as it is. - -The amount of material which a squirrel employs in this nest is really -wonderful. I have taken out of a single nest armful after armful of -leaves, until quite a large mound was raised at the foot of the tree, -and I should think that there was enough material to fill two large -wheelbarrows, even if it were pressed down closely. - -I may here mention that the nest of the squirrel is known in some parts -of England by the name of “drey,” and in others by that of “cage.” The -latter term is employed in the New Forest. - -The house being ready, next comes the task of laying up a store of food. -This consists chiefly of nuts, which the animal chooses with marvelous -sagacity, or rather, instinct. No one ever yet found an unsound or -worm-eaten nut in a squirrel’s store. The animal does not rely on -a single storehouse, but hides its treasures here and there within -easy range of its nest. Many nuts it buries, and owing to this habit, -nut-trees are apt to spring up in unexpected places, for, if the weather -should be exceptionally severe, the squirrel awakens but seldom from its -winter sleep, and so does not need the store which it has hidden. Or, it -may die or be killed after it has laid up its food, and so the buried -nuts will take root and produce trees. - -A remarkable instance of this fact occurred in the grounds of Walton -Hall, belonging to the late Charles Waterton. - -In former days there had been in the estate an old wooden mill. It had -been disused for many years, and at last the only relic of it was the -upper millstone which was left on the ground. The reader may be aware -that the center of the upper stone is pierced with a tolerably large -hole, through which the corn makes its way between the stones. - -In the autumn of 1813, some nut-eating, hibernating animal, almost -certainly a squirrel, had found this stone, and thought that the hole -would make an admirable hiding-place for a nut. For some reason, the nut -was never eaten, and consequently began to germinate. Mr. Waterton, who -pervaded his grounds at all hours of day and night, detected the green -shoot at once when it appeared in the spring of the following year. -Foreseeing that the shoot, if it lived long enough to become a tree, -would raise the stone from the ground, he had a fence put round it, and -gave special orders for its preservation. - -His prevision proved to be perfectly correct. In course of years, the -little shoot became a large tree twenty-five feet in height, and bearing -fine crops of fruit annually, and Mr. Edmund Waterton told me that in -his boyhood he had often climbed it for the purpose of procuring nuts. -After the stem was large enough to fill the orifice in which it had been -planted it lifted the stone, and raised it some eight or nine inches -above the ground. - -As might be imagined, in the course of years the pressure of the stone -destroyed the bark, and stopped the circulation of the sap, so that -the tree died. In order to save it from being blown down, the trunk and -branches were cut away some feet above the stone. On my last visit to -Walton Hall, shortly before Mr. Waterton’s death, the stone was still -suspended above the ground, and as a memorial of so remarkable a result -of hibernation, I made a careful sketch of it, which was published by -Messrs. Macmillan. - -It is also noticeable as an example of the slow, silent, and almost -irresistible power of vegetation. Even the soft and pulpy mushroom has -been known to raise a flat, heavy paving-stone fairly off the ground. Had -the mushrooms been allowed to grow, and the paving-stone laid on them, it -would have crushed them under its weight. But the vital powers of growth -are so tremendous, even when acting upon so feeble a medium, that they -performed a feat which would have been thought impossible had it not been -witnessed. - -In some parts of South America, where the growth of vegetation is -surprisingly rapid, there used to be, and may be still, a mode of -inflicting capital punishment by the power of vegetation. We all know the -sharply-pointed and bayonet-like leaves of certain aloes. The victim was -simply fastened to the ground over a spot where an aloe was just starting -from the earth, and before a day had gone by, the leaves would grow -completely through the body. - -I briefly mention these examples in order to show how all nature is -linked together, and that the hibernation of animals and the growth of -vegetables are parts of one great system. - -Owing to the manner in which the squirrel disperses his treasures, we can -not tell the amount of the store required by each animal, but in Northern -America we find one which gives the needful information. This is the -chipping squirrel, chipmunk, so called from its cry. Its scientific name -is _Tamias Lysteri_. - -It is a little creature not larger than a two-thirds grown rat, and is -very conspicuous on account of the black and yellow stripes which run -along its back. Being a creature which leads a subterranean life for the -greatest part of its time, it does not possess the bushy tail of the -tree-inhabiting squirrels. - -Its underground habitation is a most elaborate composition of galleries -and chambers, so that there is plenty of space for storage. Audubon once -dug up a nest inhabited by four chipping squirrels, and found in it two -pecks of acorns, a quart of large nuts, rather more than two quarts of -buckwheat, besides about half a pint of grass seeds and ordinary wheat. -Considering that the animals would pass the greater portion of the winter -months in lethargy, and would only eat at long intervals, the amount of -food is really surprising. - -In former days, when the red men were supreme and depended solely on -hunting for their food, many a tribe has been saved from extermination -for want of food in the winter time by digging up the nests of the -chipping squirrel, and eating the inhabitants as well as their stores. - -In the dormouse we have another instance of hibernation brought into -contact with man. - -This pretty little creature, which is too familiar to need description, -possesses in a great degree the power of becoming fat toward the end of -autumn. The ancient Romans were well aware of this fact, and had regular -establishments called “gliraria” for the express purpose of fattening -dormice for the table. - -The dormouse makes a singularly comfortable nest for itself. It is nearly -spherical and is composed externally of grass blades woven together -in a very ingenious manner. The animal only leaves a small aperture, -concealed by grass blades which can be pulled asunder when the inmate -enters or leaves the nest, and which resume their position like the folds -of a drawn curtain. I once had a remarkably fine specimen of a dormouse -nest which was cut out of a hedge. The curtain of grass blades was so -admirably formed that it could seldom be detected by any one who did not -know the specimen. - -Around, but not in this nest, the dormouse places its store of winter -food, which is much of the same nature as that of the squirrel, and -mostly consists of nuts. For this reason the Germans call the creature by -the appropriate name of hazelmaus. - -It was made in the fork of a hazel-branch, and was about four feet from -the ground, so that the small branches served to strengthen as well as -conceal it. The nest was exactly six inches long by three in width, and -was made almost entirely of several kinds of grass, the broad-bladed -sword-grass being the chief material. Interwoven with the grass-blades -were sundry leaves, all hazel and maple, and none of them having been -taken from the branch on which the nest was built. It is therefore -possible that a dormouse may have placed the nest in Mr. Waterton’s -mill-stone. I do not, however, think it probable, because there was no -bush near the stone, and, as far as is known, the dormouse always stores -its food close to its nest. The squirrel, however, ranges farther afield, -and may often be seen in the winter-time digging through the snow, at -some distance from its tree, so as to disinter the hidden food. - -Another vegetable-eating hibernating rodent is the too well-known hamster -(_Cricetus frumentarius_) of Northern Europe. - -It is about a foot in length, but, on account of its numbers, is a most -formidable enemy to the agriculturist. Even when seeking its daily food -it is terribly destructive to the crops, but its worst raids are made at -the end of the autumn, when it provides a store for the winter. For this -purpose it excavates a deep and complicated system of burrows, in which -it stores a quantity of grain so enormous that after the harvest the -farmers are in the habit of digging up the hamster’s burrows and securing -their stolen property. - -A single hamster carried off sixty pounds of wheat for its winter store, -while another had thought that a hundred weight of beans were necessary -for its subsistence. The animal wakes very early from its hibernation, -sometimes even in February. It does not, however, come out of its burrow -at once, but remains beneath the earth until the warm weather has fairly -set in. - -Now we come to the bears. - -I need not say that intertropical bears do not require to hibernate. -Moreover of those bears which inhabit the colder climates the adult -males seldom, if ever, hibernate, while the young of both sexes are very -uncertain in this respect. For example, with the grizzly bear the young -males and females are found at large throughout the whole of winter, and -the same is the case with the polar bear. With the brown bear of Northern -Europe and the black bear of North America the young animals seem to be -rather capricious in hibernating. - -In all cases, however, when the adult female bear is about to add to the -family she prepares for hibernating. With the exception of the polar -bear, who is obliged to form a most remarkable habitation, the female -chooses a safe retreat long before it is required, and gradually conveys -into it a large quantity of leaves, moss, and small branches, so as to -make a comfortable bed. - -Shortly before hibernating she becomes enormously fat, and the new fur -which she puts on is quite half as long again as that of the summer -raiment. Hunters, therefore, are naturally anxious to kill the bear just -before hibernating. - -In the first place, a fully developed winter fur, taken before it has -been injured by use, will sell for twice as much money as the fur of the -same animal when taken in summer or after hibernating. In the next place, -the fat, which is so well-known as “bear’s-grease,” always commands -a ready sale. Lastly, as bear’s meat, prepared either by freezing or -smoking, forms the greatest part of winter food in many a family, it -is a matter of the greatest consequence to have that meat in the best -condition. - -How valuable it is under such circumstances may be realized by reading -the life of the old American hunter, Daniel Boone, and seeing how, when -his wife and children were nearly dying of hunger and cold, he forced his -way across the half-frozen river, succeeded in killing a bear, and by -almost superhuman exertions transported all the meat across the river to -his hut. - -Supposing that the bear is not interrupted in her work, she retires to -the den just before winter, and closes the entrance as well as she can. - -In this place of refuge the young are born. They are at first scarcely -larger than rats, but increase in size, drawing the whole of their -nourishment from their mother, who takes no food during the whole of the -winter and early spring. In consequence, when she and her young emerge, -the latter are fat and strong, while the mother is but the shadow of her -former self. Here again is a wonderful example of the many ways in which -God “giveth meat to all flesh.” - -When a male or young female hibernates it comes out of its refuge as fat -as it was on entering it. The hibernation is so perfect that there is -scarcely any waste of tissue, as is the case with the mother bear, whose -young practically subsist on the store of fat which she laid up in the -autumn. - -The polar bear when about to become a mother is obliged to find a very -different kind of refuge, as there are neither caves, hollow trees, or -branches, and often there is nothing but ice as a resting-place and snow -as a covering. So she depends for shelter upon the snow. After selecting -a convenient snow-drift, she scrapes a hole in it, and suffers the snow -to fall upon her as it will. - -In that country, where even the human inhabitants are obliged to make -their houses out of snow or perish, she is soon buried under many feet of -snow. Her thick fur keeps the snow from contact with the skin, while the -heat of her body gradually melts the snow away from around her, so that -she lies in a sort of tent. - -Now comes the question, ventilation. Were she alone all the time she -would need no communication with the external air, as the hibernation -would be perfect, and respiration would not be required. But her -young, who do not hibernate, must breathe continually from the time of -their birth, and she, being disturbed by them, is forced to breathe -occasionally. - -Now, it is found that when animals are buried under snow their warm -breath continually ascends, and makes a passage into the air. The -aperture is a very small one, but quite sufficient for the purpose; -and even in our Scotch Highlands sheep are enabled to breathe in a -similar manner when buried in the terrible snow-drifts, which are apt to -overwhelm whole flocks at a time.—_London Sunday Magazine._ - - - - -ZENOBIA. - -By ADA IDDINGS GALE. - - - Midst clash of arms, she comes, and glittering spear, - Bold, bright and beautiful, her flashing eye; - Crowned, gemmed and robed in cloth of Tyrian dye. - Palmyra’s pride, unequaled far or near. - Proudly she moves and with imperious mien - Views with a sweeping glance each column o’er, - While they in rapture kneeling do adore, - And rising, vow allegiance to their queen. - The trumpet’s peal, a thousand helmets shine, - The long ranks into perfect order pass, - And at the command move on. Alas! - That fortune’s star for such should e’er decline, - That pomp of pride, that dreams of regal sway - Should like the mists of morning melt away. - - * * * * * - -The man of the least mental powers may be perfect if he move within -the limits of his own capacities and abilities, but even the noblest -advantages become obscured, annulled, and annihilated, when symmetry, -that is so indispensable, is broken through. This mischief will still -oftener appear in these present times; for who will be able to satisfy -the requirements of a present ever calling for more exertion and in the -highest state of excitement?—_Goethe._ - - - - -CHARACTER BUILDING. - -By JAMES KERR. - - -Failure in any enterprise often rouses to fresh effort. You fall in order -to rise again. You are thrown down that you may rise higher. Failure may -thus carry in its bosom a rich harvest of good. In men of spirit, who are -not easily cowed, it acts as a spur to exertion. Every time such a man is -thrown down, and, like the fabled Titan, touches mother earth, he rises -again with renewed strength. Many a great orator has failed ignominiously -in his first attempt; but if he has the right stuff in him he is not -disheartened. Like the late Lord Beaconsfield, he says indignantly: “The -time will come when you will hear me!” He says it, and he keeps his -word. We have a similar instance in M. Thiers, the French historian and -statesman. When as a young man he made his _debut_ in the Chamber of -Deputies, his speech was not a success. He felt that he had failed. On -returning home he said to his friends, “I have been beaten; but never -mind, I am not cast down, I am making my first essay in arms. Beaten -to-day, beaten to-morrow; it is the fate of the soldier and the orator. -In the tribune, as under fire, defeat is as useful as a victory. We begin -again!” Such was the spirit of the man, such his indomitable resolution; -and we all know that his efforts were at last crowned with complete -success. - -Failure, disappointment, and difficulties to be surmounted, doubtless -contribute an element of strength to the character. We thus learn to -persevere in a difficult task. Speaking of the failures, delays, and -obstacles met with at the siege of Troy, Shakspere puts these words into -the mouth of Agamemnon— - - “Which are, indeed, naught else - But the protractive trials of the great Jove, - To find persistive constancy in man.” - -Trials, misfortunes and difficulties of every kind, if properly met, are -a means of discipline. In the struggle with them we are made stronger. -They brace the mind, and give it firmness. A disposition naturally gentle -requires this tonic to prepare it for the rougher duties of life. Many -can say that the disappointments and trials they have met with have given -a firmness to their temper which was much needed, and have been of the -greatest service to them. - -I have never known any one who had difficulties to contend with in his -youth, and who wrestled with them successfully, who was not thankful -for them later in life. They felt that these difficulties, resisted and -overcome, helped to mould their character and make them stronger and -better men than they would otherwise have been. - -We read in the letters of Thomas Erskine, of Linlathen, as follows: “A -friend of mine once repeated to me a sentence which he thought utter -nonsense, but to me it seemed to have a meaning. _What were rocks made -for, my brethren? Even that mariners might avoid them._ There was a gain -in having avoided rocks, which there would not be if rocks had never -existed.” - -In the same manner we may say, What was evil made for? Even that we may -avoid it. There is a gain in having avoided and resisted evil, which -there would not be if evil had never existed. - -The trials and troubles of life afford an education to which no other is -equal. We have not the finest type of character in the monk and the nun, -who lead a life of seclusion far away from the evil of the world. Their -virtues are only negative. It is not among those who are shut up within -stone walls and jealously guarded, that you obtain the noblest type of -character. On the contrary, it is among those who have had to struggle -with evil in all its forms in the strife and conflict of life. In this -way virtue is strengthened, and a character formed nobler than a life of -mere innocence could impart. - -It is seen that in those places where there is the greatest amount of -vice, there are also to be found many examples of the greatest virtue. -It is said that nowhere are there such good people as in London, and -the reason assigned is that nowhere are there so many bad people. The -Londoner lives in the midst of temptations which have to be avoided and -resisted—thus the habit of virtue and of self-control is formed. Those -who are good, in spite of manifold temptations to evil, are likely to be -very good. Their virtue will be of a more robust type than that of those -who are immured in nunneries, and who are kept innocent by temptation -being removed out of their way. - -There are two ways of dealing with mankind. You may remove them from -every temptation, and thus keep them innocent in outward act. Or you -may place them in the midst of temptations, trusting to their power of -resisting them. You wish, for example, to guard a man from the habit of -drunkenness. You shut him up within stone walls, where the very smell of -drink is unknown; or you place him in a lonely island, where there is no -beverage to be had stronger than pure water. - -In this way you get rid of the temptation, but you sacrifice the man. You -make of him a nonentity. Others, not less wise, would pursue a different -course. They would leave him a free agent in the world, with all its -trials and temptations. The probability is he would defend himself from -the danger; for, after all, even in the most drink-loving nations, it is -only a small proportion of the population that give way to this vice. -This latter method has the advantage, instead of sacrificing the man, of -improving him. It contributes an element of strength to his character, -and trains him to be a brave soldier in the battle of life. - -There is much in this avoidance of evil and keeping it in check. It is -the great means available for the development of our moral nature. What -exercise is to the body, resistance to evil is to the mind. - - - - -THE RECREATIONS OF THE PARIS WORKMAN. - -By R. HEATH. - - -The recreations of the better class of Paris workmen wear a character of -Arcadian simplicity. - -On fêtes, and especially during that of the Republic, which, though -nominally confined to the fourteenth of July, continues for several -Sundays afterward, there is much dancing and all the ordinary amusements -of a fair. - -The first day of the week, is, however, only a holiday once a month, for -the majority of workmen. On the afternoon of pay-Sunday the workman takes -his family outside the barrier for a walk into the country. They have a -simple dinner at one of the numerous restaurants in the neighborhood, -and wander in the woods, plucking the wild flowers, or find a quiet -nook, where one of the party reads aloud. These happy afternoons fill -the workman’s heart with joy, and he begins to recall his childhood and -to talk of his old home in some distant province. He takes his wine, is -joyously excited, but nothing more; the whole family return by train or -tram-car, laden with lilac or wild flowers, and are safe in bed by eleven -o’clock. - -Saturday evening is the favorite time for the theater. The workman -prefers the drama, and if the scene is pathetic, is easily moved to tears. - -On Sunday afternoon a few visit the Louvre, the Luxembourg, and the -Salon, and other picture galleries when open. They are observed to fix -their attention mostly on historical scenes, or pictures which touch -the feelings; a scene from the Inquisition, a mother weeping over her -children, or an inundation, or a famine. - -Compared with the German, the Paris workman can hardly be said to possess -any musical faculty whatever. The loud and harsh noises to be heard night -and day in Paris indicate that the popular ear must be in an almost -infantine condition. Cracking their whips with the utmost violence is -the ceaseless delight of Parisian drivers, and during the fête and for -many days after, the urchins on the street render life unsupportable by -constant detonations of gunpowder. - -To judge from the way the workmen gather round bookstalls, and the -avidity with which the young among them may be seen devouring a book -while waiting for the tram, reading must be a real enjoyment to the more -intelligent. I have seen a young fellow in a blouse reading a book as he -sat astride on the back of a heavy cart-horse. A friend, a lady who has -made friends with a family at Belleville, finds them not only to possess -a good library, but to be well acquainted with French literature. When -a workman is a reader his taste will be good. He will despise novels, -especially of the vicious order; his favorite books are histories of the -Revolution, such as Lamartine’s “Girondins;” Louis Blanc’s “Dix Ans;” -“Histoire de Deux-Décembre,” etc.; and for classics, Voltaire, Rousseau, -and perhaps Corneille. - -If in the present adult population many may be found with literary and -artistic tastes, the workmen of the next generation will be educated -men, in the vulgar sense of the word; for it would be difficult to give -adequate expression to the fury with which the instruction of the people -is pressed forward. All classes combine; the Republicans because they -sincerely believe that popular instruction is the great panacea for all -the ills of the world; Conservatives, because they hope that it will make -the people reasonable; Catholics, because they fear to lose even those -who still hold to the church. - -Primary instruction is now compulsory and gratuitous. The choice of the -school rests with the father or guardian, but he can not neglect to have -his child instructed by some one and somewhere. The communal schools are -excellent, and the greatest pains taken with the instruction. For the -present generation there are multitudes of lecture courses, popular and -gratuitous. I have no means of exactly knowing the number, but it is said -that there are now in Paris during the season as many as 2,000 courses of -lectures of one kind or another. A very great number of these are open to -the public. - -In a speech made last December at the West London School of Art, Mr. -Mundella, M.P., stated that he had recently been in France for the -purpose of inquiring into the new system of education, which came into -operation on the 1st of October last year, and that while there he had -spent some time in trying to ascertain the progress the French were -making in giving instruction in art. The Vice-President of the Council -declared himself “perfectly astounded by the facts that had come to his -knowledge on the subject. He had seen in Paris placards, six feet long, -offering gratuitous instruction to every person employed in certain -trades who would come and accept it. He found schools of art, which were -attended by hundreds and thousands of students, in every part of the -country. These schools were supported, not only by government aid, but by -the different municipalities out of the local rates and taxes. Thus all -the artisans of Paris, and a large number of those in the country, were -receiving gratuitous art instruction. The Paris municipality expended -£32,000 in this way last year, and that sum will be largely exceeded -during the present year. He had brought with him the ‘Paris Budget for -Education’ for next year (1883), and he found from it that that city with -its population of 1,900,000 would spend on education double the amount -that was expended for the education of the four millions who lived in -London.” - -Why then may we not hope to see many Garfields in the French Republic? -The first great difficulty is the strong feeling of caste which exists as -powerfully in the workman as in any other class. - -M. Poulot has related an amusing instance of the way a young lady of the -middle class and her mother turned away from him with a kind of horror -when they learnt that he actually _worked_ in a factory, and helped -to make the steam engines. But I have met with an instance quite as -startling on the other side. Meeting at the house of a mutual friend, an -orator, who, a few days before, I had heard deliver a strong philippic -against the government, at a meeting mainly composed of workmen, and on -a question of interest to them, I asked him to introduce me to one of -his friends. He assured me that he only knew them in the meetings, but -that he did not know the address of any. Nothing could give a stronger -impression of the immense chasm between the working class and those not -actually members of it, than to find one of their prominent advocates—a -man who, I believe, has been devoted for years to their cause—without a -single private friend among working-men.—_Good Words._ - - - - -A RUSSIAN NOVELIST. - -By GABRIEL MONOD. - - -France has just lost an author who, though he never wrote in French, -had made France his adopted country, and had been adopted by her as one -of her most illustrious novelists—Ivan Tourgénief. From the time when -the petty persecution of the Russian government obliged him to leave -his native land, he settled in France with his friends the Viardots, -paying only short occasional visits to Russia. It was at Bougival, near -Paris, that he died on the third of September, of a painful disease -from which he had been suffering for more than two years. His works -were often translated into French from the manuscript itself, and -appeared simultaneously in French and in Russian; and though he depicted -Russian types and manners exclusively, his reputation was as great in -Paris as at St. Petersburg, and he passed with the general public for -a great French writer. He has contributed, more than any one else, to -make Russia understood in France, and to create a sympathy between the -two nations. Contemporary Russia lives complete in his works. In his -“Memoirs of a Russian Nobleman,” or “Recollections of a Sportsman,” he -has given expression to the sufferings, the melancholy, the poetry, of -the Russian country-folk, and prepared the way for the emancipation of -the peasants; in “A Nest of Nobles” he has depicted the monotonous life -of the lesser gentry, living on their small fortunes in the heart of -Russia; in “Dimitri Roudine,” in “Smoke,” and in “The Vernal Waters,” we -find those Russian types which are met with all over Europe—those nomads -whose incoherent brains are seething with all sorts of ideas, social, -political, and philosophical; those spirits in search of an ideal and a -career, whom the narrow and suffocating social life of Russia has turned -into idlers and weaklings; those worldlings, with their eccentric or -vulgar frivolity; those women, amongst whom we may find all that is most -cruel in coquetry and most sublime in self-devotion. Last of all, in -“Fathers and Sons,” he has revealed, with a prophetic touch, the first -symptoms of that moral malady of Nihilism which is eating at the heart -of modern Russia, and in “Virgin Soil” he has given us a faithful and -impartial description of the society created by the Nihilistic spirit. -Tourgénief is a realist; his personages are real, his pictures are drawn -from life, his works are full of true facts; but he is at the same time -a true artist, not only in virtue of the power with which he reproduces -what he has seen, but because he has the faculty of raising his -personages to the dignity of human types of lasting truth and universal -significance, and because he describes, not all he sees, but only what -strikes the imagination and moves the heart. He is wholesomely objective; -he does not describe his heroes, he makes them act and speak; the reader -sees and hears and knows them as if they were living people—loves them -and is sorry for them—hates and despises them. Tourgénief is one of those -novelists who have created the greatest number of living types; he is one -of those in whom we find the largest, the most sensitive, the most human -heart. He has shown, like Dickens, all that warmth of heart can add to -genius.—_The Contemporary Review._ - - - - -A LAY OF A CRACKED FIDDLE. - -By FREDERICK LANGBRIDGE. - - - When I was quite a tiny mite, - And life a joyful ditty, - I used to know a poor old wight - Who fiddled through the city. - Alas! it’s thirty years ago— - Time _is_ so quaint and flighty! - And now I’ve mites myself, you know, - And not so very mighty. - And he’s unvexed by flat and sharp; - He’s guessed the awful riddle, - And, haply, got a golden harp - In place of that old fiddle. - - And yet, methinks, I see him now— - So clear the memory lingers— - His long grey hair, his puckered brow, - His trembling, grimy fingers, - The comforter that dangled down - Beyond his waist a long way, - The beaver hat with battered crown, - He’d pause to brush—the wrong way, - The brown surtout that still could brag - Its buttons down the middle, - And, crowning all, the greenish bag - That held the sacred fiddle. - - Two tunes he played, and only two, - One over, one beginning; - “God Save the Queen’s” collapse we knew - Was “Kitty Clover’s” inning. - How startlingly the bow behaved— - Curveted, jerked, and bounded— - The while our gracious queen was saved, - And knavish tricks confounded! - And oh! the helpless, hopeless woe, - Brimful and running over, - In (_very_ slow) the o—o—oh - Of bothering Kitty Clover! - - And so he’d jerk and file and squeak - Like twenty thousand hinges, - While every sympathetic cheek - Was racked with shoots and twinges. - The lawyer left his lease or will, - The workman stopped his hammer, - The druggist ceased to roll the pill, - And ran to calm the clamor. - From doors and windows jingled down - A dancing shower of copper, - Accompanied by many a frown, - And sometimes speech improper. - - He gathered up the grudging dole, - And sought a different station, - But always with a bitter soul, - And deep humiliation. - For what though music win you pence, - If praise it fail to win you? - If fees are paid to hurry hence, - And never to continue? - “Bad times for art,” he’d sometimes say - To any youthful scholar; - “They’d rather grub for brass to-day, - Than listen to Apoller.” - - And so with quaint, pathetic face, - Aggrieved and disappointed, - The minstrel moved from place to place, - And mourned the times disjointed. - His hat was browner than of yore, - His grizzled head was greyer, - And none had ever cried “Encore,” - Or praised the poor old player. - I came to feel (and was not wrong)— - His day was nearly over— - He’d not be bothered very long - By cruel Kitty Clover. - - One day, within a shady square, - Where people lounged or sat round, - He’d played his second woeful air, - And now he took the hat round. - He met with many a gibe and grin, - With coarser disaffection, - The while he tottered out and in, - Receiving the collection. - At length he stopped, with downcast eye, - Beneath a lime tree’s cover, - Where sat a maiden, sweet and shy, - Beside her handsome lover. - - Half hidden in her leafy place, - The modest little sitter - Just glanced into the fiddler’s face, - And read his story bitter. - Unskilled in life and worldly ways, - By womanhood’s divining, - She knew the minstrel’s soul for praise - And sympathy was pining. - Herself with all a heart could need, - No dearest dream denied her, - She felt her gentle spirit bleed - For that poor wretch beside her. - - She hung her head a little while, - Then, growing somewhat bolder, - She rose, and with a blush and smile, - Just touched the minstrel’s shoulder. - “How charmingly you play,” she said. - “How nice to be so clever! - My friend and I” (her cheeks grew red) - “Could sit entranced for ever. - I’ve taken lessons—all in vain; - My touch is simply hateful. - Oh! if you’d play those tunes again, - I’d be so very grateful.” - - He rosined up his rusty bow - (His eyes were brimming over), - Then (o—o—oh!) meandered slow - Through endless “Kitty Clover.” - He’d suffered many a cruel wrong - Amid a sordid nation; - He’d waited wearily and long— - At last the compensation! - What cared he now for snub and sneer - From churlish fools around him? - In those sweet eyes he saw a tear, - And felt that fame had crowned him. - - And you, my friends, may laugh or frown, - And still I’ll risk the saying, - That angels stooped from glory down - To hear the fiddler playing. - And he that holds the golden pen, - That chief of all the bright ones, - Who registers the deeds of men, - The wrong ones and the right ones— - He oped the book, and did record - A sweet and gracious deed there— - A deed performed to Christ the Lord - That he shall smile to read there. - - - - -BLUE LAWS. - - -An interesting and suggestive chapter in our early colonial history is -found in the constitution, laws and court records of Connecticut. That -some of the enactments and judicial proceedings, to those ignorant of -the peculiar condition of the colonists, seem ludicrous, and fit to -provoke the unfriendly criticism they have received, is not denied. But -an honest, competent critic can not take them thus, and will not hastily -discredit the intelligence of the men who, under new and most trying -circumstances, made such regulations for their little commonwealth as -the exigencies of the situation seemed to demand. We do not approve of -all the laws of that olden-time as wise and just; nor do we think the -administration always beyond just reproach; but we do venerate the men -who for the glory of God and the good of society enacted and rigorously -enforced them. - -The ancient orthography is retained as a specimen of the English of that -day: - - CONSTITUTION OF 1638. - - “For as much as it hath pleased the Almighty God, by the wise - disposition of his divine providence, so to order and dispose - of things, that we, the inhabitants, and residents of Windsor, - Hartford and Weathersfield, are now dwelling in and uppon the - river of Conneticut, and the lands thereunto adjoining; and - well knowing, when a people are gathered together, the word - of God requires, that, to the maintienence of the peace and - union of such a people there should bee an orderly and decent - government established, according to God, to order and dispose - of the affaires of the people at all seasons, as occasions shall - require; doe therefore associate and conjoine ourselves to bee - as one publique State or Commonwealth; and doe for ourselves and - our successors, and such as shall be adjoined to us at any time - hereafter, enter into combination, and confederation together, to - meinteine and preserve libberty, and the purity of the gospell of - our Lord Jesus, which we now profess; as also the discipline of - the churches which, according to the truth of said gospell is now - practiced amongst us, as allso in all our civil affaires to be - guided, and governed according to such lawes, rules, orders and - decrees, as shall bee made, ordered, and decreed, as followeth.” - -Then follows the constitution in eleven well considered sections, making -provision for the three departments—legislative, judicial and executive. -We freely confess our admiration of this wonderful document, but can not, -for want of room, print it. This is the less necessary as it evidently -formed the basis of the charter of 1662, and its leading provisions -have been copied, with some modifications, into the constitutions of -the several States, and of the United States. As the first written -constitution formed for and adopted by a free people, for their own -government, it is a marvel of excellence. Written without a model, it -asserts for its authors a more comprehensive and thorough statesmanship -than is usually attributed to the leaders in colonial politics at that -early day. - -The most peculiar feature of their civil polity was that only the -righteous were to be in authority, and all power was vested in members -of the church; and the conservative influence of religion variously -confessed. The church and state were separate, yet, not inconsistently, -we find an article headed: - - “MAINTENANCE OF MINISTRY.” - - “Whereas, the most considerable persons in the land came to - these parts of America, that they might enjoye Christe, in his - ordinances without disturbance; and whereas, amongst many other - precious meanes, the ordinances have beene and are dispensed - amongst us with much purity and power, they took it into their - serious consideration that a due maintenance might bee provided, - and settled, both for the present and the future, for the - encouragement of the minister’s worke therein; and doe order that - those who are taught in the Word, in the several plantations, bee - called together, that evry man voluntarily sett downe what hee is - willing to allow to that end and use; and if any man refuse to - pay a meete proportion, that then hee bee rated by authority, in - some just and equall way; and if after this any man withhold, or - delay due payment, the civil power bee exercised as in other just - debts.” - -The “Capitall Lawes” were severe, and the executive officers a terror to -evil-doers. The death penalty was denounced against criminals convicted -of either of fourteen different offenses. The burglar for the third -offense lost his life. - - 1. “If any man after legall conviction shall have or worship any - other god but the Lord God, hee shall bee put to death.”—Deut. - 13:6, 17:2. - - 2. “If any man or woman bee a witch, that is, hath or consulteth - with a familliar spiritt, they shall bee put to death.”—Exodus - 22:18; Levit. 20:27. - - 3. “If any person shall blaspheme the name of God, the Father, - Sonne or Holy Ghost, with direct, express, presumptuous or - high-handed blasphemy, or shall curse, in like manner, hee shall - bee put to death.” - - 4. “If any man shall commit any willful murder—which is - manslaughter commited from hatred, malice or cruelty—not in a - man’s just and necessary defense, nor by mere casualty against - his will, hee shall bee put to death.” - - 8. “If any person committeth adultery with a married or espoused - wife, the adulterer and adulteress shall surely bee put to death.” - - 12. “If any man shall conspire or attempt any invasion, - insurrection or rebellion against the Commonwealth hee shall bee - put to death.” - -The laws were specially severe against the social evil, and the homes -of the colonists guarded not only against the crimes, but against all -dalliance with evil, and imprudent conduct that might weaken the family -bonds. The purity and bliss of the home might not be endangered with -impunity, and the wayward were punished with wholesome severity. Here -is a court record: “Martha Malbon, for consenting to goe to the farms -with Will Harding at night, to a venison feast, and … for dalliance with -said Harding was whiped.” How it fared with Will we are not told, but -presume there was safety for him only in exile, as there was no marked -discrimination in favor of his sex at that time. As connected with this -case it is further recorded that “Goodman Hunt and his wife for keeping -the councells of said William Harding, baking him a pastry and plum -cakes, and keeping company with him on the Lord’s day, and she suffering -Harding to kisse her, they being only admited to sojourn in this -plantation on their good behavior, ordered to be sent out of this towne -within one month after the date hereof; yea, in a shorter time, if any -miscarriage be found in them.—December 3, 1651.” On another page I find -it recorded that “Will Harding _was_ sentenced to be _severely_ whipped, -fined £10, and presently to depart the plantation, and not retourne under -the penalty of severer punishment.” - - - - -A REMNANT OF SUMMER. - -By E. O. P. - - - I went out in the dull autumnal day, - Around me fell the rain, - The bare trees shivered ’gainst the ashen sky, - My heart was full of pain. - - High in a maple tree, upon a branch, - The tree-trunk close beside, - A little empty bird’s nest, snug and neat, - My tearful eyes espied. - - And straightway, for the time, from grief and care - My sad heart was beguiled, - And on this remnant of the summer gone - Through rain and tears I smiled. - - Not oft has life so dull and drear a day, - But something bright appears - To speak of sunshine and the spring time flown, - And bring a smile through tears. - - - - -THE LIFE OF A PLANET. - -By RICHARD PROCTOR. - - -The material life of a planet is beginning to be recognized as being no -less real than the life of a plant or of an animal. It is a different -kind of life; there is neither consciousness such as we see in one of -those forms of life, nor such systematic progress as we recognize in -plant-life. But it is life, all the same. It has had a beginning, like -all things which exist; and like them all, it must have an end. - -The lifetime of a world like our earth may be truly said to be a lifetime -of cooling. Beginning in the glowing vaporous condition which we see in -the sun and stars, an orb in space passes gradually to the condition of a -cool, non-luminous mass, and thence, with progress depending chiefly on -its size (slower for the large masses and quicker for the small ones), it -passes steadily onward toward inertness and death. Regarding the state in -which we find the earth to be as the stage of a planet’s mid-life—viz., -that in which the conditions are such that multitudinous forms of life -can exist upon its surface, we may call that stage death in which these -conditions have entirely disappeared. - -Now, among the conditions necessary for the support of life in general -are some which are unfavorable to individual life. Among these may -be specially noted the action of those subterranean forces by which -the earth’s surface is continually modeled and remodeled. It has been -remarked with great justice, by Sir John Herschel, that since the -continents of the earth were formed, forces have been at work which -would long since have sufficed to have destroyed every trace of land, -and to have left the surface of our globe one vast limitless ocean. But -against these forces counteracting forces have been at work, constantly -disturbing the earth’s crust, and, by keeping it irregular, leaving room -for ocean in the depressions, and leaving the higher parts as continents -and islands above the ocean’s surface. If these disturbing forces ceased -to work, the work of disintegrating, wearing away, and washing off the -land would go on unresisted. In periods of time such as to us seem long, -no very great effect would be produced; but such periods as belong to -the past of our earth, even to that comparatively short part of the past -during which she has been the abode of life, would suffice to produce -effects utterly inconsistent with the existence of life on land. Only by -the action of her vulcanian energies can the earth maintain her position -as an abode of life. She is, then, manifesting her fitness to support -life in those very throes by which, too often, many lives are lost. The -upheavals and downsinkings, the rushing of ocean in great waves over -islands and seaports, by which tens of thousands of human beings, and -still greater numbers of animals, lose their lives, are part of the -evidence which the earth gives that within her frame there still remains -enough of vitality for the support of life during hundreds of thousands -of years to come. - -This vitality is not due, as seems commonly imagined, to the earth’s -internal heat. Rather the earth’s internal heat is due to the vitality -with which her frame is instinct. The earth’s vitality is in reality -due to the power of attraction which resides in every particle of her -mass—that wonderful force of gravitation, omnipresent, infinite in -extent, the property whose range throughout all space should have taught -long since what science is teaching now (and has been foolishly blamed -for teaching), the equally infinite range of God’s laws in time also. -By virtue of the force of gravity pervading her whole frame, the crust -of the earth is continually undergoing changes, as the loss of heat -and consequent contraction, or chemical changes beneath the surface, -leave room for the movement inward of the rock-substances of the crust, -with crushing, grinding action, and the generation of intense heat. If -the earth’s energy of gravity were lost, the internal fires would die -out—not, indeed, quickly, but in a period of time very short compared -with that during which, maintained as they constantly are by the effects -of internal movements, they will doubtless continue. They are, in -a sense, the cause of earthquakes, volcanoes, and so forth, because -they prepare the earth’s interior for the action of her energies of -attraction. But it is to these energies and the material which as yet -they have on which to work, that the earth’s vitality is due. She will -not, indeed, retain her vitality as long as she retains her gravitating -power. That power must have something to work on. When the whole frame -of the earth has been compressed to a condition of the greatest density -which her attractive energies can produce, then terrestrial gravity will -have nothing left to work on within the earth, and the earth’s globe -will be to all intents and purposes dead. She will continue to exercise -her attractive force on bodies outside of her. She will rotate on her -axis, revolve around the sun, and reflect his rays of light and heat. -But she will have no more life of her own than has the moon, which still -discharges all those planetary functions. - -But such disturbances as the recent earthquakes, while disastrous -in their effects to those living near the shaken regions, assure -us that as yet the earth is not near death. She is still full of -vitality. Thousands—nay, tens, hundreds of thousands of years will -still pass before even the beginning of the end is seen, in the steady -disintegration and removal of the land without renovation or renewal by -the action of subterranean forces.—_The Contemporary Review._ - - - - -DISRAELI’S LONDON. - - -One of Disraeli’s favorite ideas was that London ought to be made the -most magnificent city in the world—a real _Kaiserstadt_, or imperial -town, a model to all other cities in the character of its public -buildings, the sanitary perfection and outer picturesqueness of its -private houses, the width of its streets, etc. When Napoleon III. -commenced the re-edification of Paris he used to say: “Is it not pitiful -that the emperor should be doing by force what we could do so much better -of our own free will, if we had a proper pride, to say nothing of good -sense in the matter?” Once when he was staying at Knole, he launched out -into a parody of Macaulay’s idea of the New Zealander meditating over -the ruins of London Bridge. He imagined this personage reconstructing in -fancy a row of villas at Brixton: “What picture he would make of it! he -would naturally suppose that knowing how to build, and having just awoken -to a knowledge of sanitation, we had built according to the best ideas -in our heads.” Then he took his New Zealander among the ruins of the -stately commercial palaces crowded in narrow lanes all round the Bank, -and the Exchange: “He would conclude that there must after all have been -some tyrannical laws which prevented our merchants from combining their -resources to make their streets spacious and effective, for it would seem -absurd to him that intelligent men should, at a great cost, have built -palaces for themselves in holes and corners where nobody could admire -them properly, when by acting in concert, they might at much less expense -have set much finer palaces in noble avenues, courts and squares.” Then -Disraeli broke out into an animated description of his regenerate London -with Wren’s four grand approaches to St. Paul’s, boulevards transecting -the metropolis in all directions; and the palace of Whitehall rebuilt -after Inigo Jones’s designs to make new government offices. He would have -covered the embankment pedestals with statues of admirals set in colossal -groups recalling great naval achievements, and he thought Stepney ought -to have its cathedral of St. Peter, and containing memorials to all the -humble heroes, sailors or fishermen who lost their lives performing acts -of courage on the water. When he had finished speaking somebody observed -that his plan would cost £200,000,000, and convert every ratepayer into -a porcupine. “We may have to pay £500,000,000 in the end for doing -things in the present way,” he answered; “and as to the porcupine, he is -manageable enough if you handle him in the right way.”—_Temple Bar._ - - - - -TEMPERATURE. - -By J. MORTIMER-GRANVILLE. - - -Such expressions as a “cool head,” “hot-headed,” and the like, commonly -relate to temperament rather than temperature; but it is essential to -a full comprehension of the subject before us that the _rationale_ of -animal heat should be stated, and the laws that govern the phenomenon of -temperature actual and subjective, at least cursorily, explained. - -Heat and the sensation of heat are two widely different states. When, on -a chilly day or after washing in cold water, a man rubs his hands until a -glow of heat seems to suffuse them, there is a very slight rise of actual -temperature caused by the friction; the feeling is principally due to -nerve-excitement, produced mechanically by the rubbing. The blood flows -more freely into, and through, the parts excited immediately afterward, -as shown by the redness, but the first impression of heat is mainly one -of sensation. The feeling and the fact are not even constantly related. -A person may feel hot when not only the surrounding temperature but -that of his body is low; or, he may feel cold when really overheated. -These perverted sensations are occasionally morbid—that is to say, -form part of a state of disease—or they may arise from individual -peculiarities which, perhaps, render perceptions of a particular class -especially acute. On the other hand, there are conditions of the body, -and special sensibilities, in which the sense of heat is dulled, and even -considerable elevations of temperature are not perceived. It is easy to -see how impossible it must be to form a correct judgment of the actual -state of heat either around or within us by simple sensation. - -Throughout the world, whether man be placed in tropical heat or arctic -cold, the temperature of his body must, to maintain health, be preserved -at the same point—about 98.4 to .6 degrees of Fahrenheit. A very small -departure from this universal mean standard constitutes or indicates -disease. The external heat is comparatively unimportant, or only of -secondary moment, in the economy of nature; we can not rely upon it for -the compensation of differences in the heat generated within the body by -the organism. Except for the production of a temporary effect, such as -to give time for the reëstablishment of the normal temperature in a body -chilled, as by submersion, external heat is useless for vital purposes. -The only way in which it can act is by preventing the loss of more heat, -and giving a slight aid to recovery by warming the surface of the body. - -If when a person is cold he goes into a heated apartment, or sits before -a large fire, he receives with advantage just as much heat as will bring -the skin of his body up to the normal standard; as soon as that point is -reached, the organism will begin to labor to get rid of the superfluous -caloric, and by sweating the heat must be kept from rising above the -standard. All the heat thrust upon the body above 98.6 degrees is waste -and mischievous except in so far as it may promote perspiration, which -probably helps to work off some of the useless and burdensome, possibly -morbid and poisonous, materials that oppress the system. This is how -Turkish baths, and “sweatings” generally, do good, by exciting increased -activity of the skin, and, as it were, opening up new ways of egress for -matters which, if retained, might offend. - -So far as the heat of the body is concerned, whether in health or -disease, every degree of external heat which is above the complement -to form 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit with the heat of the body itself at -the time, is useless and may do harm. It follows that in fever the -surrounding atmosphere should be kept cool; in depressing disease, when -the heat-producing powers of the organism are small, the air around -should be warm. These are precisely the conclusions to which experience -and observations conduct us; and the facts now briefly stated explain the -reason why. - -There is no warmth in clothes; the heat comes from the body itself, -generated within, or the surrounding atmosphere, or from substances with -which the body may be in contact. Of course clothes, like any other -materials, can be charged with heat, and will take up as much thermic or -heating property as their specific capacity allows. It is this capability -of receiving heat which constitutes the first condition of warmth in the -comparative value of different materials of dress. The second condition -consists in the physical power of any fabric to hold the heat with which -the article has been charged. For example, some materials will become -warmer in a given time and retain their heat longer than others under -the same conditions of exposure, first to heating and then to cooling -influences. The principle of clothing should be to protect the body from -external conditions which tend to abstract heat, when the surrounding -temperature is lower than that of the body; and to strike heat into the -organism, when the temperature of the outside air and of the substances -with which the skin may be brought into contact is higher than that of -the animal body itself. - -Local temperature, that is, the heat in the several regions of the body -is determined by conditions which control the circulation of the blood, -and the function of nutrition or food appropriation. If the circulation -is free in a part, its temperature is maintained; if, from any cause, -the flow of blood is retarded, the local heat will be reduced. Any one -may put this to the test by encasing the hands in somewhat tight gloves -when the weather is cold. The pressure prevents the free passage of the -blood through the vessels, and the temperature falls. There is no warmth -of any kind in the gloves; they act simply as non-conductors of heat, -and prevent the heat generated within the body from passing off. For -example—if a piece of lint or rag be dipped in cold water and laid on -the skin, and a sheet of impervious or non-conducting material, such as -india-rubber or thick flannel, is wrapped closely round, the heat of the -body will raise the cold water to a temperature at which it will be given -off as steam the moment the covering is removed. When the extremities -are enclosed in thick or dense coverings, their temperature will depend -on the amount of heat generated within them, and if the flow of blood -through the vessels is arrested or retarded, nothing is gained, but -everything lost, by the measures taken to protect them from the external -cold. - -This is a matter of the highest practical moment, and needs to be -thoroughly understood. The feet can not be kept warm unless the blood -circulates freely in the extremities, and that will not be the case if -the boot, shoes, or stockings are tight. These last-named articles of -clothing are practically the worst offenders. A stocking encircling the -foot and leg closely and enveloping every part, with special pressure -at the instep, around the ankle, and above or below the knees, must -inevitably tend to oppose the circulation and so reduce the natural -heat. The arteries which bring the blood to the extremity are set deeper -than the veins that carry it back, and, as the latter are provided with -valves which open toward the heart, it is too commonly supposed that -the “support” afforded by the stocking will favor the return of blood -more than it can impede the deeper supply-currents, and so help the -circulation; but practically we know this is not the fact, for a tight -stocking ensures a cold foot, and the chilliness of which many persons -complain is mainly caused by the practice of gartering, and wearing -stockings which constrict somewhere or everywhere. - -There is a popular notion that if the feet are cold the head must be hot, -and by keeping the extremities warm with wraps the “blood is drawn from -the head,” and its temperature reduced. Those who have on the one hand -studied the phenomenon of fever, and on the other noted the physical -condition of races and individuals who habitually leave the extremities -unclothed, will know that this theory of the distribution of heat is -only partially true. Heat depends on the due supply of nutrient elements -to the tissues. It is the expression or result of the process of local -feeding. If a part is active it will be heated. When the feet are left -bare the complex muscular apparatus of the extremity, which in a stiff -shoe scarcely works, is called into vigorous action, the arch of the -foot plays with every step, and each toe performs its share in the act -of progression. This promotes growth and calls for nutrition, whereby -the heat is maintained; whereas if it be simply packed away as a useless -piece of organism, no amount of external heat will warm it. Work is the -cause and counterpart of heat throughout the body. - -The same principle applies to the head. No amount of external cooling -will reduce the temperature, no drawing away of the blood by artificial -expedients will permanently relieve the sense or obviate the fact of -heat if the organ within the cranium is excessively or morbidly active. -The brain is a peculiarly delicate and complicated organ, requiring more -prompt and constant nutrition than any other part of the body, because -the constituent elements of its tissue change more rapidly than those -of any other in proportion to the amount of exercise. Moreover, the -brain is always acting during consciousness, and even in sleep it is -seldom wholly at rest, as we know from the occurrence of dreams. The -faculty of nutrition is highly developed in the organ or it could not so -continuously, and on the whole healthily, discharge its functions, even -when other parts of the body, or the system as a whole, are suffering -from disease. When the head is heated there is nearly always a local -cause for it, and the remedy must be addressed to the seat of the malady. -The temporary expedient of “drawing away the blood” by applying heat to -the extremities is useful as far as it goes, and may suffice to enable -the organ to rid itself by the contraction of its blood-vessels from -a surplus charge of this fluid, but in the absence of special causes -the _reason_ of the “heat of head” is undue exercise or disturbance of -nutrition in the brain itself. Perhaps the seat of the over-work and -consequent heating may have been limited to a particular part of the -head; for example, the apparatus of sight, or hearing, as when the head -becomes heated by reading too long or in a strong light. The point to -understand is that when the head is physically hot it is the seat of -too much or disorderly nutrition, and either the amount of brain or -sense-power exercised must be reduced or the mode of action changed, and -the particular part of the apparatus of perception or thought which has -been too severely taxed relieved. - -The true condition of health is that in which the temperature of the body -as a whole and of its several parts is not disturbed by surroundings -either of heat or cold. The preservation of a natural and healthy -temperature is mainly to be secured by the maintenance of a regular and -well distributed circulation of blood charged with the materials of -nutrition. - -The first condition of a free and continuous flow of blood is a healthy -heart, not hampered by irritants, mental or physical. Sudden grief or -fright produces cold by arresting the circulation, and the flow may -be permanently retarded by anxiety. The mind has a wondrously direct -influence on the heart and blood-vessels—on the latter through the -nerves, which increase or reduce the calibre of the minute arteries, -as in blushing or blanching at a thought. Instead of loading the body -with clothes, the “chilly” should search out the physical cause of their -coldness. The blood must not only circulate freely; it must be rich in -nourishing materials, and not charged with poison. An excess of any one -element may destroy the value of the whole. It is too much the habit of -valetudinarians and unhealthy people of all kinds, to charge the blood -with substances supposed to be “heating” or “cooling” as they think the -system requires them. This is a mistake. The body does not need to be -pampered with cordials, or refrigerated with cunningly devised potions. -If it be well nourished it will be healthy. - - * * * * * - -There is something fearful in seeing a man of high character being under -an obligation to a fool.—_Goethe._ - - - - -SKATING AND SKATERS. - -By ROBERT MACGREGOR. - - -Though it appears to be impossible to fix on the time when skating first -took root in this country, there can be no doubt that it was introduced -to us from more northern climates, where it originated more from the -necessities of the inhabitants than as a pastime. When snow covered -their land, and ice bound up their rivers, imperious necessity would -soon suggest to the Scands or the Germans some ready means of winter -locomotion. This first took the form of snow-shoes, with two long runners -of wood, like those still used by the inhabitants of the northerly parts -of Norway and Sweden in their journeys over the immense snowfields. - -When used on ice, one runner would soon have been found more convenient -than the widely-separated two, and harder materials used than wood; first -bone was substituted; then it, in turn, gave place to iron; and thus the -present form of skate was developed in the North at a period set down by -Scandinavian archæologists as about A. D. 200. - -Frequent allusions occur in the old Northern poetry which prove -that proficiency in skating was one of the most highly esteemed -accomplishments of the Northern heroes. One of them, named Kolson, boasts -that he is master of nine accomplishments, skating being one; while the -hero Harold bitterly complains that though he could fight, ride, swim, -glide along the ice on skates, dart the lance, and row, “yet a Russian -maid disdains me.” - - Eight arts are mine: to wield the steel, - To curb the warlike horse, - To swim the lake, or skate on heel - To urge my rapid course. - To hurl, well aimed, the martial spear, - To brush with oar the main— - All these are mine, though doomed to bear - A Russian maid’s disdain. - -Specimens of old bone skates are occasionally dug up in fenny parts of -the country. There are some in the British Museum, in the Museum of the -Scottish Antiquaries, and probably in other collections. There seems to -be good evidence that even in London the primitive bone skate was not -entirely superseded by implements of steel until the latter part of last -century. - -Mr. Roach Smith, F.S.A., describing one found about 1839, says that “it -is formed of the bone of some animal, made smooth on one side, with a -hole at one extremity for a cord to fasten it to the shoe. At the other -end a hole is also drilled horizontally to the depth of three inches, -which might have received a plug, with another cord to secure it more -effectually.” - -There is hardly a greater difference between these old bone skates and -the “acmés” and club skates of to-day, than there is between the skating -of the middle ages and the artistic and graceful movements of good -performers of to-day. Indeed, skating as a fine art is entirely a thing -of modern growth. So little thought of was the exercise that up to the -Restoration days it appears to have been an amusement confined chiefly -to the lower classes, among whom it never reached any very high pitch -of art. “It was looked upon,” says a writer in the _Saturday Review_ in -1865, “much with the same view that the boys on the Serpentine even now -seem to adopt, as an accomplishment, the acmé of which was reached when -the performer could succeed in running along quickly on his skates and -finishing off with a long and triumphant slide on two feet in a straight -line forward. A gentleman would probably then have no more thought of -trying to execute different figures on the ice than he would at the -present day of dancing in a drawing-room on the tips of his toes.” - -During all this time, when skating was struggling into notice in Britain, -in its birth-place it continued to be cultivated as the one great winter -amusement. In Holland, too, where it is looked upon less as a pastime -than a necessity, nothing has so frequently struck travelers as the -wonderful change the advent of ice brings about on the bearing of the -inhabitants. “Heavy, massive, stiff creatures during the rest of the -year,” says Pilati, in his “Letters on Holland,” “become suddenly active, -ready and agile, as soon as the canals are frozen,” and they are able to -glide along the frozen surface with the speed and endurance for which -their skating has been so long renowned, though these very qualities -are bought at the expense of the elegance and grace we nowadays look -for in the accomplished skater. Thomson thus graphically describes the -enlivening effects of frost on the Dutch: - - Now in the Netherlands, and where the Rhine - Branched out in many a long canal, extends, - From every province swarming, void of care, - Batavia rushes forth; and as they sweep, - On sounding skates, a thousand different ways - In circling poise, swift as the winds along, - The then gay land is maddened all to joy. - Nor less the northern courts, wide o’er the snow, - Pour a new pomp. Eager on rapid sleds, - Their vigorous youth in bold contention wheel - The long resounding course. Meantime to raise - The manly strife, with highly-blooming charms - Flushed by the season, Scandinavia’s dames - Or Russia’s buxom daughters glow around. - -Though the poet of the “Seasons” speaks of Russia here, it is curious to -note that skating is not a national amusement of the Russians, but is -entirely of foreign and quite recent introduction. It is quite unknown -in the interior, and no Russian—except a few who have picked up the art -in St. Petersburg—ever thinks of availing himself of the many pieces of -water annually frozen hard in so cold a country. - -Perhaps it is in Friesland that the skate is most especially a necessary -of life. What stilts are to the peasant of the Landes, skates are to the -Frisian. The watercourses of the summer are his highways when winter -sets in. “He goes to market on skates; he goes to church on skates,” we -are told; “he goes love-making on skates.” Indeed, it may be doubted if -this province could be inhabited if the art of skating were unknown, for -without it the inhabitants would be confined to home for several months -of each year. Frisians of both sexes actually skate more than they walk, -says M. Depping; no sooner is an infant able to stand upright than the -irons are fastened on his feet; his parents lead him on to the ice, and -teach him how to move along. At six years most of the young skaters -have attained great proficiency, but in Frisian opinion even the best -performers improve up to thirty. - -Here, as elsewhere in Holland, ice races are of frequent occurrence -during the winter. “The races on the ice,” says Pilati, “are the -carnivals of the Dutch: they are their fêtes, their operas, their -dissipations;” naturally, therefore, the people manifest the greatest -interest in them; skate long distances to be present, and cherish the -names of distinguished winners in a way we should never expect from such -an unemotional people as the Hollanders appear when the ice is gone and -when most travelers see them. - -The women have races of their own; but most interesting of all the -contests are those in which the sturdy dames, whom their own painters -delight in depicting as gliding along to market with baskets on their -heads and knitting-needles in their busy fingers, are matched against the -best of the other sex. Though, as a rule, these “Atalantas of the North” -excel the men rather in beauty of style than in speed, yet the prize -often enough goes to one of them. - -Frequently on the Continent skates have proved themselves excellent -engines of war, both in actual fighting—as when a Dutch army on skates -once repulsed a force of Frenchmen on the Scheldt—and as a rapid means -of communication. During the winter of 1806, Napoleon, after the battle -of Jena, wished to send an order with the utmost dispatch, to Marshal -Mortier, directing him to make himself master, without delay, of the -Hanseatic towns. The officer charged with this order found himself at -the mouth of the Elbe at a point where it was seven and a half miles -from bank to bank. To cross in a boat was impossible, as the river was -coated with a surface of newly-frozen ice; to get over by a bridge would -necessitate a detour of more than twenty miles. The officer, knowing how -precious time was, determined to skate over the thin ice; and though it -was too weak to bear a man walking, he skimmed along so rapidly that he -got across in safety, gaining great honor for the ingenuity and boldness -that enabled him to deliver his despatch six hours sooner than he -possibly could have done by the ordinary route. - -In Holland, regiments have regular parades on the ice; but Norway is -probably the only country where it has been considered necessary to -embody a special corps of skaters. In this regiment, “the men are -furnished,” says Mr. Russell, in his translation of Guillaume Depping’s -book, “with the skates in ordinary use in the North, that fixed on the -right foot being somewhat longer than that on the left. Furnished with -these, the soldiers descend steep slopes with incredible rapidity, -re-ascend them as quickly, cross rivers and lakes, and halt at the -slightest signal, even while moving at the highest speed.” - -Skating has had many enthusiastic votaries, but probably none more so -than the two illustrious names that continental skaters are so proud to -reckon in their guild. - -Klopstock, even in his old age, was so ardent a lover of it that, after -skimming over the ice of Altona for hours, “to call back that warmth of -blood which age and inactivity had chilled,” he retired to his study -and wrote fiery lyrics in its praise. His friend and great successor, -Goethe, took to skating under peculiar circumstances. He sought relief in -violent exercise from embittered memories of a broken-off love affair. -He tried in vain riding and long journeys on foot; at length he found -relief when he went to the ice and learned to skate, an exercise of which -he was devotedly fond to the last. “It is with good reason,” he writes, -“that Klopstock has praised this employment of our physical powers which -brings us in contact with the happy activity of childhood, which urges -youth to exert all its suppleness and agility, and which tends to drive -away the inertia of age. We seem, when skating, to lose entirely any -consciousness of the most serious objects that claim our attention. It -was while abandoning myself to these aimless movements that the most -noble aspirations, which had too long lain dormant within me, were -reawakened; and I owe to these hours, which seemed lost, the most rapid -and successful development of my poetical projects.” - -That skating has been in certain circumstances something more than mere -elegant accomplishment, is well illustrated by two anecdotes, told by the -author of some entertaining “Reminiscences of Quebec,” of two settlers in -the far West, who saved their lives by the aid of their skates. In one -case the backwoodsman had been captured by Indians, who intended soon -after to torture him to death. Among his baggage there happened to be -a pair of skates, and the Indians’ curiosity was so excited that their -captive was told to explain their use. He led his captors to the edge -of a wide lake, where the smooth ice stretched away as far as the eye -could see, and put on the skates. Exciting the laughter of the Indians by -tumbling about in a clumsy manner, he gradually increased his distance -from the shore, till he at length contrived to get a hundred yards from -them without arousing their suspicion, when he skated away as fast as he -could, and finally escaped. - -“The other settler is said to have been skating alone one moonlight -night, and, while contemplating the reflection of the firmament in the -clear ice, and the vast dark mass of forest surrounding the lake and -stretching away in the background, he suddenly discovered, to his horror, -that the adjacent bank was lined with a pack of wolves. He at once -‘made tracks’ for home, followed by these animals; but the skater kept -ahead, and one by one the pack tailed off; two or three of the foremost, -however, kept up the chase, but when they attempted to close with the -skater, by adroitly turning aside, he allowed them to pass him. And after -a few unsuccessful and vicious attempts on the part of the wolves, he -succeeded in reaching his log hut in safety.” - - - - -BOOK KNOWLEDGE AND MANNERS. - -By LORD CHESTERFIELD. - - -I have this evening been tired, jaded, nay, tormented, by the company of -a most worthy, sensible and learned man, a near relation of mine, who -dined and passed the evening with me. This seems a paradox, but is a -plain truth, he has no knowledge of the world, no manners, no address; -far from talking without book, as is commonly said of people who talk -sillily, he only talks by book; which in general conversation is ten -times worse. He has formed in his own closet, from books, certain systems -of everything, argues tenaciously upon those principles, and is both -surprised and angry at whatever deviates from them. His theories are -good, but, unfortunately, are all impracticable. Why? because he has only -read, and not conversed. He is acquainted with books, and an absolute -stranger to men. Laboring with his matter, he is delivered of it with -pangs; he hesitates, stops in his utterance, and always expresses himself -inelegantly. His actions are all ungraceful; so that, with all his merit -and knowledge, I would rather converse six hours with the most frivolous -tittle-tattle woman, who knew something of the world, than with him. The -preposterous notions of a systematical man, who does not know the world, -tire the patience of a man who does. It would be endless to correct his -mistakes, nor would he take it kindly; for he has considered everything -deliberately, and is very sure that he is in the right. Impropriety is -a characteristic, and a never-failing one, of these people. Regardless, -because ignorant, of customs and manners, they violate them every moment. -They often shock, though they never mean to offend; never attending -either to the general character, nor the particular distinguishing -circumstances of the people to whom, or before whom they talk; whereas -the knowledge of the world teaches one, that the very same things which -are exceedingly right and proper in one company, time and place, are -exceedingly absurd in others. In short, a man who has great knowledge, -from experience and observation, of the characters, customs, and manners -of mankind, is a being as different from, and as superior to, a man of -mere book and systematical knowledge, as a well-managed horse is to an -ass. Study, therefore, cultivate and frequent, men and women; not only in -their outward, and consequently guarded, but in their interior, domestic, -and consequently less disguised, characters and manners. Take your -notions of things as by observation and experience you find they really -are, and not as you read that they are or should be; for they never are -quite what they should be. - - * * * * * - -A man of the best parts, and the greatest learning, if he does not know -the world by his own experience and observation, will be very absurd; and -consequently very unwelcome in company. He may say very good things; but -they will probably be so ill-timed, misplaced, or improperly addressed, -that he had much better hold his tongue. Full of his own matter and -uninformed of, or inattentive to, the particular circumstances and -situations of the company, he vents it indiscriminately; he puts some -people out of countenance; he shocks others; and frightens all, who dread -what may come out next. The most general rule that I can give you for -the world, and which your experience will convince you of the truth of -is, never to give the tone to the company, but to take it from them; and -labor more to put them in conceit with themselves, than to make them -admire you. Those whom you can make like themselves better, will, I -promise you, like you very well. - -A system-monger, who, without knowing any thing of the world by -experience, has formed a system of it in his dusty cell, lays it down, -for example, that (from the general nature of mankind) flattery is -pleasing. He will therefore flatter. But how? Why, indiscriminately. -And instead of repairing and heightening the piece judiciously, with -soft colors and a delicate pencil; with a coarse brush, and a great -deal of white-wash, he daubs and besmears the piece he means to adorn. -His flattery offends even his patron; and is almost too gross for his -mistress. A man of the world knows the force of flattery as well as he -does; but then he knows how, when, and where to give it; he proportions -his dose to the constitution of the patient. He flatters by application, -by inference, by comparison, by hint; and seldom directly. In the course -of the world there is the same difference, in everything, between system -and practice. - - - - -UNDER THE AUTUMN SKIES. - -By MRS. EMILY J. BUGBEE. - - - The clouds hung loose and gray, - Across the autumn sky, - And at my feet in golden piles, - The dead leaves, drifting lie. - No voice of summer song, - I hear from copse or tree, - The perfume of no summer flower, - Comes floating up to me. - - Death’s silence over all, - Where music was, and bloom, - Enfolded all the sun-kissed hills, - In drapery of gloom. - I walk as in a dream, - Beneath the brooding sky, - While faded, as these autumn leaves, - Life’s hopes around me lie. - - The keen and cruel frost - Has touched my world with blight, - And dark on all its splendors lie, - The shadows of the night. - The memory of its joy, - Like billows of the sea, - Come surging up the silver strand, - Then backward moaning flee. - - Amid this sombre calm, - Beneath these skies of gray, - And drifting of the yellow leaves - I walk alone to-day, - And scarce can look beyond - The shadows cold and drear, - That fold, away from mortal sight, - The summer of my year. - - In the eternal spring, - Beyond time’s changing skies, - Beyond the chilling frost of death, - A resurrection lies. - I can not tell how long, - The snow shall wrap their tomb, - But sometime, shall life’s blighted flowers - Burst into splendid bloom. - - - - -EIGHT CENTURIES WITH WALTER SCOTT. - -By WALLACE BRUCE. - - -III. - -One hundred years have passed away since Richard the Lion-hearted, -Ivanhoe and Robin Hood met at the “Joyous passage of arms at Ashby.” -Our next story, “Castle Dangerous,” opens upon days even more bitter -and warlike; Scotland is rent with bitter feuds. The daughter of King -Alexander the Third died in 1291, and no fewer than twelve persons -claimed the throne. King Edward of England was chosen arbiter. He took -advantage of sectional discord and endeavored to make Scotland subject -to the English crown. He found a willing instrument in the person of -John Baliol, who basely acknowledged himself vassal and subject. King -Edward further demanded the surrender of three powerful castles, Berwick, -Roxburgh and Jedburgh; but the people murmured and Baliol was compelled -to do battle with Edward. Under this weak and treacherous leader the -Scottish army was defeated in a great battle near Dunbar in 1296. Edward -marched through Scotland at the head of a powerful army. He removed to -London the records of the Scottish Kingdom, carried the great stone of -Scone, upon which the Scottish Kings had been crowned for centuries, to -Westminster Abbey, and placed the government of Scotland in the hands of -John de Warrene, Earl of Surrey. - -At this juncture a leader arose in the person of Sir William Wallace, the -son of a private gentleman, and in no way related to the nobility of the -kingdom. His glorious struggle kept alive the spark of Scottish liberty. -He gathered to himself a band of brave men, and defeated the English -army near Stirling. The Scottish people, as they had no king, chose -him Protector, and he was titled Sir William Wallace, Governor of the -Scottish Nation. He was defeated, captured by a traitor, brought to trial -in the great hall of William Rufus in Westminster, sentenced to death -as an outlaw, his body divided into four quarters and placed on London -bridge. - -Among the followers of William Wallace were two powerful barons, Robert -Bruce and John Comyn, whose claims were about equal, by descent, to -the Scottish throne. They met before the high altar in the Church of -Dumfries. What passed betwixt them is not known; but they quarrelled and -Bruce slew him with his dagger. Scott puts a defence of this high-handed -deed in the mouth of Robert Bruce which we will quote later. Having -committed an act which would bring down upon his head the fierce anathema -of the Romish Church, which would moreover arouse the King of England -and the powerful family of Comyn, Bruce determined to put them all to -defiance, and was crowned King of Scotland at the Abbey of Scone the 29th -of May, 1306. Among his devoted friends was James, Lord of Douglas. His -castle was on the border of Scotland, and it is in the vicinity of this -castle, known as Castle Dangerous, that the scene of our romance is laid. -So much for the historical preface which may be of service to the reader -in connection with the incidents under our consideration. - -In the old chronicles and poems of Scottish history, notably that of -Barbour, considerable space is devoted to the adventures of Douglas. -His castle was captured again and again by the English; but the victors -held it at such hazard against the attacks of the adventurous Douglas, -that it was considered a perilous and uncertain piece of property. -With a romantic enthusiasm, in keeping with those chivalrous times, -Lady Augusta, a wealthy English heiress, distinguished for her beauty, -promised her hand and fortune to the knight, who would show his courage -by defending the castle against the Scots “for a year and a day.” A brave -knight, John de Walton, started up and said “that for the love of that -lady he was willing to keep the Perilous Castle for a year and a day if -the King pleased to give him leave.” The King gladly gave his consent, -being well pleased to get so brave a knight for such an important -fortress. - -There was an old prophecy of Thomas the Rhymer, that as often as the -Castle of Douglas should be destroyed it would arise grander and stronger -than ever from its ruins. The prophecy had already been fulfilled and -its great walls seemed able to withstand the most powerful siege. Some -manuscripts of Thomas the Rhymer were also preserved in the Castle, and -our first chapter opens with a description of two travelers, showily -dressed in the fashion of the wandering minstrels of the day, apparently -father and son, making a pilgrimage to the castle with the avowed -purpose of finding some of the papers or books of the old poet. They are -lodged at the house of one Thomas Dickson. They arouse the suspicion of -two English soldiers who are quartered at the Dickson farm-house. The -elder minstrel is conducted to the castle and imprisoned; the younger -is placed in a neighboring convent. By this time the reader begins to -suspect that the younger minstrel is no other than the fair Lady Augusta, -making a trip under disguise of a minstrel-boy to see how her knight is -prospering. Attended by her father’s minstrel she reminds one of Rosalind -in “As You Like It,” under the guidance of the faithful Touchstone. -During her detention at the convent she confessed her secret to Sister -Ursula, and they escape by night through a trap-door and subterraneous -passage, although the convent is strongly guarded. They separate, and -by rather an unnatural process again meet at the Douglas Kirk, where -the services of Palm Sunday are converted into a warlike controversy. A -hand-to-hand conflict, worthy of the Homeric heroes, is recorded between -Lord Douglas and De Walton. In the midst of the fray a herald arrives, -announcing the defeat of the English army, and the first triumph of -Robert Bruce. De Walton surrenders to Douglas, who allows him without -ransom to return to England with the Lady Augusta, and unlike the seven -years’ toil of Jacob for Rachel, the daughter of Laban, which was -lengthened to fourteen years, the one year and a day was shortened, no -doubt to the great delight of the interested parties. - -The most dramatic incident in the story is the midnight interview -between the English knight, De Valence, and the old sexton in the ruined -burial-place of the Douglas Kirk. The story throughout is chivalrous -and romantic; but “Castle Dangerous” does not rank with other stories -of the Waverley series in power, incident or dramatic unity. I have -already alluded to “Count Robert of Paris” as the last of the Waverley -Novels written by the great magician, and it is so regarded, as “Castle -Dangerous” was never really completed by the author; but it serves as a -connecting link in the great chain, and, in spite of its incompleteness, -gives a graphic description of years eloquent with prowess and manly -courage. - -There are five poems of Sir Walter which I deem worthy of association -with the Waverley Novels, viz: “The Lord of the Isles,” “The Lay of the -Last Minstrel,” “The Lady of the Lake,” “Marmion,” and “Rokeby,” which I -propose to consider, each in its place. - -“The Lord of the Isles” is associated with the same stirring events as -“Castle Dangerous,” and presents a faithful portrayal of the adventures -and history of Robert Bruce. It opens at Ardtornish Castle whose ruins -still rise bold and towering on the coast of Morven. I saw it once in the -gray gloamin’ of an August evening, on my return from Staffa and Iona; -and the opening canto of the poem was impressed upon my mind at that -time, in lines never to be effaced. As I sat upon the deck of the steamer -I heard the minstrel song again echoing among the crags—“Wake Maid of -Lorn”—prelude to the wedding festivities already arranged but destined to -be long delayed. I saw Lord Ronald’s fleet again sweep by - - “Streamered with silk and tricked with gold, - Manned with the noble and the bold - Of Island chivalry.” - -I saw the solitary skiff, bearing the hope and pride of Scotland, -making slow and toilsome progress, with rent sail and gaping planks, and -heard above the roar of the tempest the calm reply of King Robert to his -impatient brother: - - “In man’s most dark extremity - Oft succor dawns from heaven.” - -I saw the lights of the castle again gleam over the dark billows as the -door opened to the regal wanderer asking shelter. I saw the haughty look -of the proud Lorn, his lifelong enemy. I saw the bridal feast changed -into warlike debate, and Scott’s lines came to my mind with pictured -force: - - “Wild was the scene; each sword was bare, - Back streamed each chieftain’s shaggy hair - In gloomy opposition set, - Eyes, hands, and brandished weapons met; - Blue gleaming o’er the social board, - Flashed to the torches many a sword; - And soon those bridal lights may shine - On purple blood for rosy wine.” - -I saw the Abbott, with hoodless head and withered cheek stop upon the -threshold, while - - “Threat and murmur died away, - Till on the crowded hall there lay - Such silence as the deadly still, - Ere bursts the thunder on the hill; - With blade advanced, each chieftain bold - Showed like the sworder’s form of old, - As wanting still the torch of life - To wake the marble into strife.” - -I heard the haughty words of Argentine demanding Bruce, as England’s -prisoner, and the loud turmoil of fiercer chiefs demanding his life, -while the brave Ronald cries: - - “Forbear! - Not in my sight while brand I wear, - O’ermatched by odds, shall warrior fall, - Or blood of stranger stain my hall! - This ancient fortress of my race - Shall be misfortune’s resting-place, - Shelter and shield of the distressed, - No slaughterhouse for shipwrecked guest.” - -I heard the Abbott’s stern charge asking the heroic King if he knew -reason aught, why his curse should not be pronounced in requital of -that rash deed at the high altar of the Church of Dumfries. I heard the -eloquent defense of the King, and the unexpected and sublime blessing of -the Abbott. - - “Abbott!” the Bruce replied, “thy charge - It boots not to dispute at large. - This much, howe’er, I bid thee know, - No selfish vengeance dealt the blow, - For Comyn died his country’s foe. - Nor blame I friends whose ill-timed speed - Fulfilled my soon-repented deed, - Nor censure those from whose stern tongue - The dire anathema has rung. - I only blame my own wild ire, - By Scotland’s wrongs incensed to fire. - Heaven knows my purpose to atone, - Far as I may, the evil done, - And hears a penitent’s appeal - From papal curse and prelate’s zeal. - My first and dearest task achieved, - Fair Scotland from her thrall relieved, - Shall many a priest in cope and stole - Say requiem for Red Comyn’s soul. - While I the blessed cross advance, - And expiate this unhappy chance - In Palestine, with sword and lance. - But, while content the Church should know - My conscience owns the debt I owe, - Unto De Argentine and Lorn - The name of traitor I return, - Bid them defiance stern and high, - And give them in their throats the lie; - These brief words spoke, I speak no more, - Do what thou wilt; my shrift is o’er.” - Like man by prodigy amazed, - Upon the king the abbott gazed; - Then o’er his pallid features glance - Convulsions of ecstatic trance, - And undistinguished accents broke - The awful silence ere he spoke. - “De Bruce! I rose with purpose dread - To speak my curse upon thy head, - To give thee as an outcast o’er - To him who burns to shed thy gore; - But, like the Midianite of old, - Who stood on Zophim, heaven-controlled, - I feel within my aged breast - A power that will not be repress’d. - It prompts my voice, it swells my veins, - It burns, it maddens, it constrains!— - De Bruce, thy sacrilegious blow - Hath at God’s altar slain thy foe: - O’ermastered yet by high behest, - I bless thee, and thou shalt be blest! - Blessed in the hall and in the field, - Under the mantle as the shield. - Avenger of thy country’s shame, - Restorer of her injured fame, - Blessed in thy scepter and thy sword, - De Bruce, fair Scotland’s rightful lord, - Blessed in thy deeds and in thy fame, - What lengthened honors wait thy name! - In distant ages sire to son - Shall tell thy tale of freedom won, - And teach his infants in the use - Of earliest speech to falter Bruce.” - -There is nothing, to my mind, in any poem more dramatic than this -unexpected prayer of the abbott; and the reader does not wonder that - - “O’er the astonished throng - Was silence, awful, deep and long.” - -The scene of the poem now changes to the stormy island of Skye, where Sir -Walter pauses to give one of his beautiful descriptions in the fourteenth -and fifteenth divisions of canto third. - -The fourth canto takes the king _en route_ past the island of Staffa, -with its Fingal’s Cave, and Iona, with its sainted shrine—the cradle of -Christianity in Britain, now in ruin. His description of Staffa is one of -the most beautiful in English verse: - - “Where, as to shame the temples decked - By skill of earthly architect, - Nature herself, it seemed would raise - A minster to her Maker’s praise! - Not for a meaner use ascend - Her columns, or her arches bend; - Nor of a theme less solemn tells - That mighty surge that ebbs and swells, - And still, between each awful pause, - From the high vault an answer draws, - In varied tones prolonged and high, - That mocks the organ’s melody. - Nor doth its entrance front in vain - To old Iona’s holy fame, - That nature’s voice might seem to say, - ‘Well hast thou done, frail child of clay! - Thy humble powers that stately shrine - Tasked high and hard—but witness mine!’” - -In canto fifth the king returns to Scotland. He rallies his adherents, -and the sixth canto closes with a graphic description of the battle of -Bannockburn. The incidents are so stirring that we almost forget the fate -of fair Edith and her brave Roland, but the last line of the poem assures -us that they are at last happily wedded. - -“The Lord of the Isles” does not possess the pleasing qualities of the -“Lady of the Lake,” or the sustained vigor of “Marmion;” but it is a -noble poem throughout, and abounds with passages revealing the deep -reverence and exalted character of the author. The reader will note the -heart-spoken prayer and God-speed of the priest as King Robert embarks -upon his uncertain mission: - - “O heaven! when swords for freedom shine - And monarch’s right, the cause is thine! - Edge doubly every patriot blow! - Beat down the banners of the foe! - And be it to the nations known, - That victory is from God alone.” - -In connection with the “Lord of the Isles” and “Castle Dangerous,” it -is well to read carefully the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth -chapters of Scott’s “Tales of a Grandfather.” It is also pleasant to -note that the friendship between Robert Bruce and James Douglas was -constant and unchanging; in fact, their unwavering trust and fidelity -are emphasized by the dying wish of the king, who desired his heart -to be carried to Jerusalem after his death, and requested Douglas to -take charge of it. It was in fulfillment of a vow which he had been -unable to perform—to go to Palestine and fight for the Holy Sepulchre. -“Douglas wept bitterly as he accepted the office, the last mark of the -Bruce’s friendship and confidence. He caused a case of silver to be -made, into which he put the heart, and wore it around his neck, by a -string of silk and gold.” He set off with a gallant train of the bravest -men in Scotland. But the doughty James found an opportunity in Spain -for a skirmish with the infidels, which he could not let pass; he was -overpowered by numbers, and, seeing no chance for escape, he took from -his neck the Bruce’s heart, and throwing it before him, exclaimed, “Pass -first in fight, as thou wert wont to do, and Douglas will follow thee or -die.” His body was found after the battle lying upon the silver case, and -the heart of the Scottish king was returned to his native country, and -interred beside the high altar under the east window of Melrose Abbey. - - - - -PLANT NUTRITION. - -By MAXWELL T. MASTERS, M.D. - - -A living plant feeds, breathes, grows, develops, multiplies, decays, and -ultimately dies. In so doing it receives, it spends, it accumulates, it -changes. Some of these processes are always in operation, very generally -more than one is going on at the same time, and the action of one is -modified by and controlled by that of another. Some circumstances and -conditions favor these operations, others hinder them. - -The nutritive process has to be entered on the creditor side as a -receipt. The plant will indeed feed upon itself for a time, or rather it -will feed upon what its predecessor left it as an inheritance for this -very purpose, or upon the stores accumulated in the plant itself during -the preceding season; thus, when a seed, or rather the young plant within -the seed, begins to grow, it is at first unable to forage for itself, but -it depends for its sustenance on the materials laid up for its use during -the preceding season by the parent plant. So the bud of a tree awakening -into life, and beginning its career as a shoot which is to bear leaves -and flowers, derives its first meals from the reserves accumulated the -autumn previously in the parent branch. Very generally a little water, -supplied from without, is required before the plant can avail itself -of these stored-up provisions, but this is not always indispensable. -Potatoes begin to sprout in their cellars or pits, as growers know to -their cost, before they can have obtained a drop of water from without. -In this latter case there is water enough already in the tuber to allow -of food being utilized. - -A certain degree of useful heat is, of course, quite indispensable. -Practically, no plant will feed when its temperature is reduced as -low as the freezing point, and in most cases the heat requires to be -considerably greater. Each kind of plant, each individual plant, and -indeed each part of a plant, feeds, and performs each item of its -life-work best at a certain temperature, and ceases to work at all -when the temperature falls below or rises above a certain point. The -particular degree, whether most or least favorable, varies according to -the plant, its age, stage of growth and various external circumstances, -which we need only mention, as their effects will be readily understood -without the necessity of explanation. - -Leaving, however, on one side, the temperature, we have to consider the -water which is so essential, not only in the feeding processes with -which we are now concerned, but with every other action of plant life. -Fortunately there is, in general, no lack of it; the earth and the air -contain their shares of this elementary compound in varying proportions -and varying modifications as liquid or gaseous. Besides, the plant itself -has so much of it that even at the driest condition compatible with life, -it still constitutes a very large proportion of the entire weight. Now, -it is as a rule when the plant, the seedling, or the bud is at its driest -that growth begins, the necessity for food first manifests itself, and -the demand for a further supply of water becomes imperative. How is the -demand supplied? We have seen that there is no lack of that fluid. How is -it to get into the plant? - -When one liquid, say spirit, is poured into another, say water, the -two gradually mix. If we suppose these liquids to consist of a number -of molecules, then, mixture may be taken to be the result of the -displacement say of one molecule of water by one molecule of spirit, -and so, throughout the whole quantity of liquid, there is displacement -and replacement till at length equilibrium is restored and a thorough -diffusion results. This power of diffusion does not always exist. The -molecules of water and of oil will not mix or diffuse freely through each -other. Water containing carbonic acid gas will not mix, in this sense of -the term, with water containing acetate of lead. - -It may be a truism to say, that for the process of diffusion the liquids -must be diffusible, but the fact must be carefully borne in mind in all -questions relating to the feeding of plants. In the case of plants, the -phenomenon of diffusion, or the gradual admixture of two liquids of -different natures, is complicated by the presence of a membrane in the -shape of the cell-wall. The water from the outside has to pass through -the membrane to reach the protoplasm on the other side. Speaking broadly, -there are no holes in the membrane through which the water can pass. -Ingress is secured by that process of diffusion to which reference has -just been made, and by virtue of which the molecules of the membrane -and the molecules of the water shift and change places; the space that -was occupied by a molecule of membrane is now occupied by a molecule -of water, and _vice versa_. The access, therefore, of water into the -interior of a closed cell is the result of the process of diffusion. -Where two liquids mix without any intervening membrane, the mixture is -called diffusion simply; where there is an intervening membrane, the -diffusion process is known as “osmosis.” - -The raw material (the term is not quite accurate, but for illustration -sake it may pass) is that very marvelous substance now called -“protoplasm.” We must leave it to chemists and microscopists to explain -its composition and indicate its appearance. - -Diffusion is not equal or alike in all cases; it depends upon the extent -to which the two liquids are diffusible, upon their different densities, -upon temperature, and a variety of other conditions. So, in the case of -osmosis, we have not only the nature of the two fluids to consider, but -their relation to the membrane that separates them. The membrane may be -much more permeable to one of the two fluids than to the other. Thus, in -the case of a living cell, the membrane or wall is much more permeable -to water than it is to protoplasm; and so it happens that, while water -readily penetrates the membrane and diffuses itself in the protoplasm, -protoplasm does not nearly so readily permeate the membrane as the water. -Ingress of water is easy and of constant occurrence, egress of protoplasm -is rare and exceptional. - -Pure water or weak saline solutions, such as are generated in the soil -under certain circumstances, pass readily through membrane—that is, -the molecules of the one shift and change places with those of the -other—while those of gummy or albuminous substances like protoplasm do -not. After a time, if there is no outlet for the water absorbed, or if it -is not utilized within the plant in some way, absorption and diffusion -cease, the cell becomes saturated with water, and until something happens -to disarrange the balance, no more is absorbed. But, even in the case -where the cell is saturated with water, it may still take up other -liquids, because the diffusive power of those other liquids, in relation -to the cell-wall and to the protoplasm, is different from that of water, -and this absorption may go on in its way till saturation point is reached -for each one of them, just as in the case of water. On the other hand, -it may happen that the plant may be saturated with other substances, and -incapable of taking up more of them, while at the same time pure water -may be freely taken up. - -Just so much and no more of each particular substance is absorbed, the -exact quantity of each being regulated in all cases by the condition and -requirements of the cells, their membranous walls, and their contents. -Thus it happens that some particular substances may be found by the -chemist to exist in large relative proportions in the plant, while the -quantity in any given sample of the soil from which it must be derived -is sometimes so small as to elude detection. The plant in this case, or -some part of it, is so greedy, if we may so say, for this particular -substance, that it absorbs all within its reach, and stores it up in its -tissues or uses it in some way, the demand ensuring supply. On the other -hand, the soil may contain a large quantity of some particular ingredient -which is incapable of being absorbed, or which the plant does not or can -not make use of, and, in consequence, none is found within the plant. The -supply is present, but there is no demand. - -The different physical requirements of the plant supply also the -explanation of the fact that different plants, grown in the same soil, -supplied with the same food, yet vary so greatly in chemical composition. -Thus, when wheat and clover are grown together, and afterwards analyzed, -it is found that while lime is abundant in the clover, it is relatively -in small quantity in the wheat; and silica, which is abundant in the -wheat, is absent from the clover. Poisonous substances even may be -absorbed, if they are of such a nature as to be capable of absorption; -and so the plant may be killed by its own action—by suicide, as it were. - -The entrance of water into the plant and the entrance of those soluble -materials which a plant derives from the soil are therefore illustrations -of the process of osmosis, and are subjected to all the conditions under -which osmosis becomes possible, or under which it ceases to act. - -One thing we must strive to impress forcibly on the reader, because, if -the notion is well grasped, it will enable him to understand plant life -so much more vividly. We allude to the continual changes that are going -on throughout the whole living fabric of the plant while in its active -condition. Cell membrane, the protoplasm, the entire mass of liquid -and solid constituents of which the plant consists, are, as we have -seen, made up of molecules, each, as it were, with a life of its own, -undergoing continual changes according to different circumstances, acting -and reacting one upon another so long as any active life remains. - - - - -C. L. S. C. WORK. - -By REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D., SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION C. L. S. C. - - -Readings for the month: “Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology,” by Dr. J. -H. Wythe; “Canadian History;” Chautauqua Text-Book No. 24; “Biographical -Stories,” by Nathaniel Hawthorne; Required Readings, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -Memorial Day, Sunday, December 9, “Milton’s Day.” See “Memorial Days,” -Chautauqua Text-Book, No. 7. Monday, December 10, may be used if -preferred. - - * * * * * - -Remember the 5 p. m. Sunday “Chautauqua Vesper Service.” Observe the hour -personally or as local circles. Now and then a brief public service at -this hour may be very profitable. - - * * * * * - -There can be no substitute accepted for the “Preparatory Latin course in -English.” - - * * * * * - -One of our faithful members—a member of the class of ’84—on the first -day of October sent this pleasant greeting to the Superintendent of -Instruction: “My Dear Doctor—This is opening day. I must send you a line -just to keep it—and the Lord keep you!” - - * * * * * - -The Sacramento Circle last year answered in writing over 1,000 questions, -besides having prepared sixty-two original papers. - - * * * * * - -A young lady who has charge of a Young Ladies’ Seminary in Washington, -D. C., recently remarked that she had adopted the Chautauqua Text-Books -on History as an auxiliary in her school, as they are so condensed and -so carefully arranged. She said that at the last examination of her -graduating class the influence of the little Text-Books was visible in -the remarkable proficiency of the pupils. - - * * * * * - -Each C. L. S. C. Local Circle in the study of Biology should secure the -services of a local microscopist, if possible. Without the microscope, -Biology is like Hamlet with Hamlet left out. - - * * * * * - -In one of the leading churches of one of the leading denominations in one -of the leading cities of the United States, a strange thing has happened. -The president of the local circle of the C. L. S. C. made application for -the privilege of holding bi-monthly meetings in a room in the basement -of the church, so many of the members of the circle being members of the -church. The matter was referred to the president of the board, a leading -lawyer, who refused the application. When asked why he should exclude -such an auxiliary of the church, and especially a circle containing so -much of the religious element, he responded that it “could not be a -religious organization, because they were studying biology.” This is very -hard to believe if it were not well vouched for. If the church had been a -Methodist Episcopal Church, the editor of this column would have felt at -liberty to make a few direct remarks; but, as it refers to another very -respectable and very orthodox branch of the Holy Catholic Church, he must -content himself with this general announcement. What would this leading -lawyer have said to the wise man who said: “Go to the ant, thou sluggard, -consider her ways and be wise;” or to that wiser teacher who commanded -his disciples to “consider the lilies.” Biology zoölogical and biology -botanical being commended in the Bible, and the study being necessary to -the fullest interpretation of the Bible, we commend our legal friend to a -little more biblical study. - - * * * * * - -Apropos to the above item is the following communication from an earnest -New England member: “At a certain Sunday-school convention this question -was given me to answer: ‘What is the effect of the Chautauqua course of -reading on Christian zeal? Does it tend to increase one’s interest in -Christian and Church work?’ I answered in substance as follows: ‘I am -very glad of the opportunity for saying, and saying confidently, that, -judging from what experience and observation I have had, as also from -the nature of the case, just as whatever is calculated to enlighten -and invigorate the mind, deepen, broaden, elevate and strengthen -character, to enlarge the soul and warm and ennoble the heart, must -tend to intensify Christian zeal, so the Chautauqua course of reading -and study, when conducted or pursued in accordance with the projector’s -idea, can not but tend to have this effect—to deepen and to invigorate, -by enlightening, piety. Precisely what we need in our day is a more -intelligent piety—a broader and stronger Christian manhood. Our piety -generally is too narrow, or superficial, or feeble. We are apt to build -up too much on some one side. We are one-sided, unsymmetrical, sanctified -in spots only, as it were. We want to be built out more on all sides, -that we may be _thoroughly_ furnished unto _every_ good work—that we may -be fruitful in all directions. Meantime, if the cultivation of such a -thoughtful, intelligent, reverent piety as the prayerful study of the -works and Word of God is calculated to promote, is not calculated to -intensify one’s interest in and zeal for Christ’s cause, it would be -interesting to know what could.’ Subsequently I dropped a line to one of -the members of a circle which I organized a year ago—a bright, Christian -young woman, who, though an operative in the mill, yet clearly grasped -the Chautauqua Idea, and who, together with as fine a company of young -men and women as were ever grouped together for any cause, has most -enthusiastically and successfully pursued that idea for a year:—to this -young lady I dropped a line, submitting the question: ‘Do you find the C. -L. S. C. helpful, or otherwise, to Christian piety?’ Permit me to quote -from her reply: ‘Do I love my Savior, or his church, any less for what -I have learned the past year? No. A thousand times no. Jesus seems ever -so dear to me, as I look up into the starry heavens, and try to recall -something I have learned about those wonderful worlds. And when I think -of him who created, and who, by his almighty power and wisdom controls -and keeps them all in place; when I think of him as my own kind Heavenly -Father, though I am poor, and lowly, and ignorant, and weak, and sinful, -my heart throbs with gratitude, love and praise—for he owns me as his -child! O! I wish I could tell you how happy I feel to-night, my Savior -seems so near and dear to me. My heart is full of love to him and to his -people; and I do want to do something to help on his glorious cause. I -am praying day by day that he will show me my duty, and help me to do -it; and I know you will pray for me that I may be faithful and true.’ -Does not this testimony have the true ring in it? Does this look much as -though the C. L. S. C. had secularized the writer’s mind, or diverted her -energies from church channels? This lady, together with several other -members of that circle, is a devoted Sunday-school worker. What is more, -not a little of the glowing, enthusiastic zeal expressed above, has been -kindled and developed during this very past year of C. L. S. C. reading -and study.” - - - - -OUTLINE OF C. L. S. C. READINGS. - - -DECEMBER, 1883. - -The required readings for December include “Vegetable Biology,” -Hawthorne’s “Biographical Stories,” Chautauqua Text-Book, No. 24, -“Canadian History,” and the required readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -_First Week_ (ending December 8)—1. “Vegetable Biology,” to chapter v, -page 27. - -2. “Biographical Stories,” to chapter iii, page 19. - -3. “German History” and “German Literature,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings for December 4, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -_Second Week_ (ending December 16)—1. “Vegetable Biology,” from chapter -v, page 27, to chapter viii, page 46. - -2. “Biographical Stories,” from chapter iii, page 19, to chapter vi, page -40. - -3. Readings on Physical Science and Political Economy, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, for December 11. - -_Third Week_ (ending December 24)—1. “Vegetable Biology,” from chapter -viii, page 46, to paragraph 10, page 66. - -2. “Biographical Stories,” from chapter vi, page 40, to chapter viii, -page 59. - -3. “Readings in Art,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings for December 18, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -_Fourth Week_ (ending December 31)—1. “Vegetable Biology,” from paragraph -10, page 66, to the end of volume. - -2. “Biographical Stories,” from chapter viii, page 59, to end of book. - -3. “Selections from American Literature,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - -4. Sunday Readings for December 25, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - - - -A REUNION AT MILWAUKEE. - - -The five local circles in Milwaukee named Alpha, Beta, Grand Avenue, -Delta and Iota, recently had a grand reunion on the occasion of the visit -of the Superintendent of Instruction. It having been announced in the -papers that Dr. Vincent would attend the Wisconsin conference and preach -Saturday afternoon, the circles decided to give him a reception. The -committee on invitation sent out about two hundred invitations gotten -up in a very tasteful and unique manner. The envelopes were covered -with autumn leaves of most delicate tints, and contained each a square -gilt-edged card, also covered with leaves, bearing the monogram C. L. S. -C. and the following invitation: “You are kindly invited to meet Rev. -J. H. Vincent, D.D., Superintendent of Instruction of the Chautauqua -Literary and Scientific Circle on the evening of Saturday, October 6, in -the parlors of the Grand Avenue Congregational Church. Reception, 6 to 9. -Refreshments, 6:30.” - -There was also a smaller card containing a neat little device in a circle -in the center, representing a hand holding a handkerchief, and a request -in the corner that this card be shown at the door. - -Besides these two cards there was a green leaf (artificial) in each -envelope for a badge, and a little printed slip of instructions, -directing each member to wear the leaf as a badge, and explaining the -Chautauqua salute to be given Dr. Vincent when he entered the room. - -The committees on decorations and on supper made diligent preparations, -so that when the time arrived parlor No. 1 was tastefully arranged -with vines and flowers, while through the open doors could be seen -twelve tables in parlor No. 2 arranged for an inviting feast. Among the -decorations was the banner of the class of ’86, made of maroon velvet -bordered with cream colored fringe, and bearing the class motto, in -letters cut from white felt, “We study for light to bless with light.” - -Above the platform was a diploma granted to Mrs. William Millard of -the class of ’83, which arrived from Plainfield a few hours before the -reception, and was used as an object lesson by the Doctor in his address. -The entire event was most joyous, this being the first union meeting of -the circles, and the first time many of them had ever met their revered -leader. Of his address, what can be said but that it was _like him_; -full of uplifting thoughts and helpful ideas of inestimable value to all -Chautauquans, and delivered in his delightful manner. - -On Sabbath Dr. Vincent conducted a vesper service in the Immanuel -Presbyterian Church, the largest in the city. The Chautauquans gathered -in an adjoining room, and forming two columns, headed by Dr. Vincent, -marched into the audience room where the central seats were reserved for -them. Short addresses were given by Bishop Hurst and Dr. Buckley, which, -with the impressive vesper service, made the occasion one long to be -remembered. - - - - -A C. L. S. C. EXPERIENCE. - - -From an able speech by Prof. H. A. Strong, before the local circle of -Erie, Pa., we clip the following: “Says one of the workers and leaders -around the C. L. S. C. camp-fire at Chautauqua: ‘I was in Missouri, March -last, and was compelled to take a freight train to make connection. As -I entered the caboose I noticed a little candle on a cracker-box on the -side of the car. There was a door on hinges made out of bits of leather, -and a rough button held in its place by a screw, closed the door. After -the train started, the conductor came in, and, after attending to his -duties, stepped to the box, turned the button, opened the door, and -took out a package of C. L. S. C. books, recognizable as such anywhere, -sat down on a bench and began working with one of the Chautauqua -text-books. Of course it was an absolute necessity that I should make his -acquaintance. I approached him and asked him what he was doing. He said: -“A friend of mine in St. Louis called my attention to this Chautauqua -course of reading. I did not know what it meant, but I knew I ought to -read. So, finally, I joined the circle, bought the books, and put them in -this box. My brakemen read with me. One of us keeps watch and the others -read. Sometimes we are switched off on a side-track, and then we make -good progress. Sometimes it is pretty hard work when we have an unusually -long run and much freight; but for the sake of the help it is, I am going -to hold on to it.” I felt like giving the fellow a round of applause, all -alone as I was in the car.’ Such an experience of the C. L. S. C. can -be duplicated over and over again in the history of any class, and the -simple truth is the realization of the vision.” - - - - -THE C. L. S. C. IN TORONTO. - - -In Canada the course of study for 1883-4 opened with a meeting of C. L. -S. C. workers and their friends in the lecture-room of the Metropolitan -Methodist church, Toronto, on the evening of the 29th of September. After -a few words of greeting from Mr. Edward Gurney, jr., president of the -Toronto Central Circle, Rev. Dr. Thomas, pastor of the Jarvis Street -Baptist Church, spoke for a short time on the importance and value of a -systematic course of reading. The too common habit of desultory reading, -with its waste of time and mental enervation, came in for a vigorous -denunciation from the doctor. All reading, he said, should be purposeful -and systematic, and no reading can be of any real profit that is not of -that character. The C. L. S. C. course answered two supreme questions -that can not fail to arise in the mind of any young man who is desirous -to rise: “What shall I read?” and “How shall I read?” In this age of -great intellectual power it was important that we should avail ourselves -of every opportunity for the better equipment of our minds, so that we -can use with precision the implements of our profession or calling, -whatever that may be. The multitudes that are treading upon each other -in the lower levels of life, are the incompetent; no first-class worker -in any line need remain idle. The doctor also pointed out that this is a -skeptical age, and that we should be prepared to answer, if necessary, -the reflections that are being cast upon the foundations of our faith. -Before closing he said: “I want to declare my entire sympathy with -the work and purposes of this rapidly-spreading Chautauqua tree, from -the branchings of which thousands and tens of thousands are gathering -with delight and gratitude the most luscious fruit. I thank God for -this course of study, by means of which the mind is led into the green -pastures and beside the still waters of literature. My mind has been -stirred in the matter as it would not have been if I had not examined -into it closely, and if I had not been profoundly impressed by the fact -that multitudes of our young people spend their spare moments in reading -pernicious literature in which the serpent has left his slimy trail. I am -going to join this class to-night for myself.” - -Rev. Mr. Milligan, of old St. Andrew’s Presbyterian church, followed with -an earnest, practical address on “How to Read Books.” He impressed upon -his hearers the fact that books are made for man, and not man for books, -and that it is possible for us to abuse the gift of books by becoming -literary ceremonialists, just as we can abuse any other good thing. Every -investment we make in relation to books should be made with a definite -purpose, and should make us richer. In our reading, too, we should have -something more ultimate in view than the mere book; we should endeavor to -ponder and reflect on the subject which it treats. In this way we become -thinkers, and thinking becomes a necessity, and the mind and memory are -enriched and strengthened. Mr. Milligan expressed his hearty coöperation -and sympathy with the Chautauqua scheme, and his pleasure that it is -associated with the churches. A brief round-table conference followed -the addresses, in which thought and experience were interchanged, and -inquiries as to the methods and progress of the Chautauqua Idea were -answered by the president, and by the Canadian secretary, Mr. Peake. The -local press is doing good work in bringing the advantages of the scheme -before its readers, and public interest is awakening in all directions in -regard to it. - - - - -SUNBEAMS FROM THE CIRCLE. - - -C. L. S. C. class of ’87 sends out the following circular to its members: - -_Beloved Friends and Co-Laborers_:—We greet you with joy and gladness as -we enter upon our four years’ college course of reading and study. It is -wisely selected and admirably prepared for us in our home life. We that -toil ten hours in the shop, office, and store, with the never ending -farm life and detail of housekeeping, will know not a little struggle -to command forty minutes per day; but we need it and will do it. Mary -A. Livermore was forty-five years of age before ever attempting public -speaking, and in a decade was queen of the American rostrum. Some of -you at Chautauqua, last August, remember the determined earnestness of -Louise R. F. Jones. She writes: “Aiken, S. C., Oct. 6. Have formed a -local circle of thirteen; first meeting last night at our house, two men, -eleven women; sent for our books yesterday. Have persuaded two persons -in Augusta, Ga., to join the C. L. S. C. In Langley, a small town eight -miles out, my ‘Hall in the Grove’ has been read, and a circle is the -promise. In Spartanburg, S. C., a circle is formed, which, with Aiken, -are the only two in the Palmetto State, so far as known.” This Pansy -Class of ’87 ought to graduate at least 10,000, and with five hundred -members like our South Carolina friend, it would be accomplished. One -of our class travels, and in forty days visited over thirty newspaper -offices, begging editors to publish the C. L. S. C. leaflets, and -securing their sympathy. Another one, (just completing his three score -years) when on trains, goes from car to car, and politely and quietly -seating himself in front or back of the passenger, introduces the -“People’s College.” Our motto, “Neglect not the gift that is in thee.” -Inspired words! Let each one of us make them ours in the best sense. -Let us introduce circles as rapidly as possible. Every day that passes -now is forty minutes behind, and it is difficult to catch up. It can be -done up to the first of January. Class writing paper has been prepared. -Communicate with either of the undersigned concerning it. Rev. Frank -Russell, Mansfield, Ohio, president Class of ’87. K. A. Burnell, 150 -Madison St., Chicago, secretary Class of ’87. - - * * * * * - -The Rev. C. S. Woodruff, of Bayonne, N. J., class of ’82, was present -at Chautauqua this year, and passed under the Arches with the class of -’83. On his return home he took occasion to preach upon the subject of -education, and mention the Chautauqua plan particularly. As a result he -has organized a local circle of over sixty, and it is still growing. He -says: “Every pastor ought to visit Chautauqua. After being inspired he -should spread his enthusiasm among all his people. Let us cast out the -devil of bad literature by giving the people good reading.” - - * * * * * - -The Johnstown, N. Y., local circle, includes among its officers a critic -and an orthoepist—two excellent officers. Much exact knowledge of -pronunciation, spelling, use of words, and forms of expression may be -obtained at evening sessions, if critical and wise persons are selected. - - * * * * * - -There is an energetic circle of twelve members at Shushan, N. Y., the -outgrowth of one member who began the readings two years ago. There is -something contagious in the C. L. S. C. - - * * * * * - -Nothing could show better the peculiar work of the C. L. S. C. than the -following suggestive toasts offered at the “Opening Day Exercises” at -Meriden, Conn.; they were: “The C. L. S. C., a beneficial force in the -life of a business man; as a coöperative with the duties of a school -teacher; for young working people, establishing an alliance between labor -and culture; as promoting Christian growth and culture; for the wife and -mother at home.” - - * * * * * - -A very pleasant and inspiring piece of news comes from the same circle. -A young printer belonging to the circle became so much interested in his -studies, and so anxious for further development that leaving his trade -he has undertaken a college course. The circle did a kindly act when -they presented to him that most necessary book for a student—Webster’s -Unabridged Dictionary. - - * * * * * - -A local circle whose work is done by correspondence has been started in -the province of Ontario. There are but two members, but a dozen might -carry on the work with equal success. For readers who are remote from -the regular societies this plan may be utilized and made a means both of -culture and of sociability. - - * * * * * - -A novel and exceedingly useful idea comes to us from Union City, Indiana. -On a neatly printed program there is given the outline of the exercises -for four months. The circle meets fortnightly, and the date, place of -meeting, exercises and participants are given for eight sessions, so that -there can be no mistake or misunderstanding about the work to be done. -The plan is to be commended to all circles. - - * * * * * - -The class of ’85, C. L. S. C., held a meeting at the grounds of the -New England Assembly at Framingham and organized by the election of -the following officers: President, Rev. J. E. Fullerton, of Hopkinton, -Mass.; Vice Presidents, Miss Lena A. Chubbuck, New Bedford, Mass., Alice -C. Earle, Newport, R. I., Miss Marcia E. Smith, Swanton, Vt., J. B. -Underwood, Meriden, Conn.; Secretary and Treasurer, Albert B. Comey, -South Framingham, Mass. Plans were suggested looking to the social and -other interests of the New England members; said plans to be perfected -as soon as the details can be arranged by the executive committee. It is -earnestly desired that all persons in the New England States belonging -to class ’85 will send their name and address to the Secretary. The -President cordially solicits correspondence from members of the class -upon matters pertaining to its interests. - - * * * * * - -From the Silver Creek, N. J., _Local_ we learn that the meeting for -re-organization of the C. L. S. C. has been held, and that on October 8 -the first regular meeting took place. Several new members have joined the -circle. - - * * * * * - -At Spring Mills, N. J., though several members have moved from the -village, and a few have dropped the course, they report a prospect of -doubling their numbers. - - * * * * * - -A circle of eleven members is reported at Greencastle, Pa. - - * * * * * - -Osceola, Iowa, has a circle of seventeen members, class of ’87. - - * * * * * - -Some one inquires for a copy of “the rules of the C. L. S. C. to guide -in their meetings.” There are no rules to guide in the meetings of the -local circles. The wide diversity of circumstances under which they exist -would make a fixed organization impracticable. What would fit the great -circles of Troy, N. Y., and Pittsburgh, Pa., would be of little use to -the small circle of the village. The many plans and outlines of work in -this department are presented especially to guide new circles to the plan -best suited to their needs. - - * * * * * - -Montana has sent us reports of several energetic circles; the one at -Bozeman, of fifteen members, is the last reported. - - * * * * * - -A circle has been organized at Hood River, Oregon. - - * * * * * - -The Summer Assembly at Monteagle, Tenn., did some excellent work in the -interest of the C. L. S. C. Many circles are being formed as a result of -the efforts made there to spread information concerning the methods and -object of the organization. - - * * * * * - -One zealous C. L. S. C. worker writes us that while traveling through the -west in search of health she has succeeded in making many think about the -course, and has persuaded ten to enroll for ’84. It is such individual -effort that extends the boundaries of our work. - - * * * * * - -At Mountain Lake Park, Md., Assembly there was formed last summer a very -interesting circle. The members are widely scattered. They come from West -Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, but have formed the “Mt. Lake Park -C. L. S. C.,” which they are keeping up while belonging to the local -circles at their homes. There are some forty-three members. - - * * * * * - -As an example of how the attention of your community may be drawn to the -C. L. S. C., we quote the following from the Petersburg Va., _Mail_: -“Everybody has heard of Chautauqua, and the readers of _The Mail_ have -enjoyed several excellent papers concerning that institution from the -pen of Mrs. C. D. Tinsley, of this city, who spent the summer there. But -there are many people who do not know that the C. L. S. C. is spreading -out its branches in all directions and offering very fine advantages to -people who desire to undertake a systematic course of reading. The course -extends over a period of four years, and embraces religious, scientific, -and general literature of a substantial character. The books are cheap, -and it is said that one may cover the whole course by reading for forty -minutes each day. At the end of the fourth year, if the student has gone -over the ground, a diploma is given, bearing the seal of the C. L. S. -C. A number of ladies and gentlemen of this city have handed in their -names. The writer is favorably impressed with what he has seen of it, and -cheerfully commends it to the public. All information required may be had -of Mr. C. D. Tinsley, of this city.” - - * * * * * - -A member from Canada writes: “As one of the class of ’84—the -‘Irrepressibles’—and having caught the inspiration at Chautauqua, I can -hardly write or say anything strong enough to express my admiration of -the movement. I wish the officers could do something for Palestine. When -visiting it a year ago I induced my dragoman, Herbert C. Clark, of Joppa, -to subscribe then and there for THE CHAUTAUQUAN, as we were sitting on -the ruins of the old wall of Mount Zion, above the valley of Hinnom. Mr. -Clark writes me that he enjoys it exceedingly. I was much of the time -for ten days with Dr. Selah Merril, the U. S. Consul, and his lady, who -worthily represents the women of America. There are many fine people -speaking the English language in Jerusalem and other points, who are cut -off from many of the advantages of our Christian civilization. Nothing -prospers under the administration of the stupid Turk, and literature -especially is discouraged. I believe the C. L. S. C. is just what these -good people need.” - - - - -LOCAL CIRCLES. - - -=Vermont= (West Brattleboro).—For the past three years, there have been -at West Brattleboro, Vt., informal gatherings of from eight to twelve -members of the C. L. S. C., who called themselves a “circle.” But until -this year there has been no formal organization. At the meetings subjects -were taken up in the way decided upon at the previous meeting. These -meetings were found to be of much profit and interest to ourselves. As -we learned to know and appreciate the “Chautauqua Idea,” we began to -see growth could not be expected without organization. Accordingly a -meeting was called for the evening of September 20, to which all were -invited, whether they proposed to join or not. At this meeting the aims -and methods of the C. L. S. C. were fully discussed, and an organization -was effected under the name of the “Vincent Circle,” with a president and -secretary. There was also a committee for program chosen, to serve for -two months. It was decided to hold meetings once in two weeks, at houses -of the members. We are happy to say that we start upon our new year -with a membership of thirty-nine, eighteen of whom are regular members, -representing classes ’84, ’86 and ’87. Nor is this all the gain. Another -circle has been organized, under the name of “Pansy.” This circle is -composed wholly of new members, who thought they could work to better -advantage separately. It has twenty-two members. No doubt the secretary -will report to you, as the circle is very wide-awake, and means to profit -by the experience of the ’84s. It has been thought best to devote the -time at the meetings during October and November to Grecian history, as -that is the principal subject for study during those two months. The -following was the program for the first meeting, October 4. The second -meeting was similar in character: - - 1. Responsive Reading from “Assembly Hymnal.” - - 2. C. L. S. C. Song No. 6, from “Assembly Hymnal.” - - 3. Report of Secretary. - - 4. Introduction of the subject of “Grecian History,” by Prof. H. - H. Shaw. - - 5. Paper on “The Advantages of the Study of Grecian History.” - - 6. Instrumental Music. - - 7. Reading of Selections pertaining to Greece, from the Second - Canto of “Childe Harold.” - - 8. Blackboard Drill on “Outlines of Grecian History,” by Rev. C. - H. Merrill. - - 9. Question Box, Questions to be answered at next meeting. - - 10. C. L. S. C. Song No. 19. - - 11. Closing Prayer. - -After the regular exercises, which began at 7:30, closing at 9, an hour -was spent in a social way. - - * * * * * - -=Massachusetts= (Lawrence).—Immediately after the Assembly at Framingham, -a meeting was called in the interests of the Circle in one of our -city churches, at which its purpose and method of working were fully -explained. Two circles were already in existence, and with these as a -basis we put in some hard work during the month of September, securing -to date forty-two new members, with more to come. Two additional circles -have been formed, so that we now have four, with a total membership of -about one hundred. October 1, Opening Day, was duly observed by a union -Round-Table of all the circles, and a large number of invited friends. -A program consisting of music and readings was given, all appropriate -to the occasion. We have engaged Prof. W. C. Richards for a course of -lectures in November, and shall have others from time to time through the -winter. We have also arranged for a monthly union meeting, each local -circle in turn conducting the exercises for the evening. - - * * * * * - -=Massachusetts= (Franklin).—As the Bryant Bell at Chautauqua rang out its -call to study on October 1, the members of our local circle assembled to -celebrate the first anniversary of their existence as a local circle. -Complimentary tickets were issued to their friends, and at the hour of -opening the chapel was filled, the audience numbering not far from five -hundred. Promptly on the hour, the new members of Class of ’87 (the -Pansy class) marched into the room, and taking position in open ranks -allowed the Class of ’86 to pass through; they taking position on the -right, opened ranks, and allowed the president of the circle and the -speaker of the evening to pass through, receiving as a greeting the -Chautauqua salute. The program consisted of instrumental music, singing -of selections from Chautauqua Songs, an address of greeting from the -president, Rev. G. E. Lovejoy, the commencement address by Rev. A. E. -Winship, of Boston, and the recital of the anniversary poem by Miss -Laura Pond. The whole affair was a helpful and enjoyable opening of the -Chautauqua work for 1883 and 1884. The circle starts upon its work with -increased membership and enthusiasm, and one and all are ready to say God -bless the originator of the C. L. S. C., and God speed the work in the -days to come! - - * * * * * - -=Connecticut= (Meriden).—The Meriden branch of the C. L. S. C., held -Opening Day exercises; nearly every member was present, together with a -few invited guests, mostly those who have especially assisted them in -their work during the past three years. The exercises were opened by -the circle singing from Chautauqua Songs a song of welcome, after which -an address of introduction of the several classes to the guests and a -synopsis of the work of the Circle, was delivered by the president, who -also took occasion to speak encouragingly to each class, and referred -to their several colors and what they symbolized. At the close of the -address a prayer of thanksgiving was offered, when the company sat down -to a banquet of good things. After supper several toasts were offered and -responded to, and several testimonials of interest in the success of the -organization offered. The C. L. S. C. feel justly proud of their success, -and all who have taken time to examine into its aim and the results -accomplished, commend them highly. - - * * * * * - -=Connecticut= (Hartford).—Within a few days a general interest has been -manifested with regard to a C. L. S. C. circle in Hartford—more than -fifty having expressed their desire to become members of the Class of -’87. Last year, however, Hartford had but a few Chautauqua readers. Among -them was a little circle of five young ladies not long out of school. -They found the Chautauqua course just what they needed to give form and -direction to their studies, and they sat down to the table of good things -spread before them as to a mental banquet. A severe bereavement met the -circle in the loss of one of their members, a young lady who had been -an eager student and whose enthusiasm had done much to help the circle. -By her suggestion Greek had been introduced into the course, and the -Iliad was being read in connection with the Greek literature. At the -last meeting before her death when it was proposed to omit some of the -less interesting portions, she said, earnestly: “Don’t let us skip any. -Let us do our duty.” The shock of her death was such that at first it -seemed that they could not go on with their work, but the words of their -departed friend came back to them with peculiar meaning: “Let us do our -duty,” and with chastened hearts they took up their work again. They did -not find the course too laborious, but were able to add to it the White -Seal course and some valuable supplementary reading upon the topics in -question. Now, with undiminished interest, they are ready to go on with -the second year, hoping that a large band will be ready to accompany them. - - * * * * * - -=New York= (Johnstown).—A meeting for the reorganization of Johnstown C. -L. S. C. was held September 26, 1883. The names of fifteen new members -were enrolled; so we launch our little craft of twenty-two members, with -a prospect of taking an occasional recruit as we journey on. We have -decided to meet every alternate week. At our next meeting, October 10, -we read an outline on Greek History, Vol. ii., Part vii., a paper on -American literature, and selections from THE CHAUTAUQUAN. - - * * * * * - -=Pennsylvania= (Erie).—The officers and members of the Erie local circle -of the C. L. S. C. presented a very elaborate program at its opening -session Monday evening, October 8, at the Y. M. C. A. Hall in this city. -The hall was densely crowded, and the interest steadily increased to -the close. The organization was completed, and its roll bids fair, this -season, to be seventy-five strong. - - * * * * * - -=Delaware= (Wilmington).—Through the zealous efforts of the pastor -of Asbury M. E. Church, the Asbury local circle was organized during -September last. It has about thirty members. Among the members is one -graduate of the class of ’83. Considerable interest in the course has -been aroused through the city, and there are more persons to join. - - * * * * * - -=District of Columbia= (Washington).—A meeting of the Banneker Circle -was held September 17 for reorganization and general talk concerning -the work for 1883-84. Quite a large number of our members of last year -attended, and from the number of applicants for admission, it seems -that we will be compelled to abandon our idea of meeting from house to -house of the several members and meet at the church. It is exceedingly -gratifying to note the continued interest in the work. Our meetings are -held every Monday night. The pastor of one of the churches in another -section of our city, attended our last meeting, in order that he might -learn enough about the C. L. S. C. to organize a circle among many of his -members, who seem anxious to join. We spent many pleasant and instructive -evenings last year over our work, and hope to realize as much benefit -from the studies of this year. Knowing of the benefits of the C. L. S. C. -we are always glad to help others to join. One of our members has been -influenced, through last year’s work, to attend college. - - * * * * * - -=Ohio= (Cincinnati).—The reception to the Class of 1883, of Cincinnati -and vicinity, took place on Friday evening, September 28. The spacious -parlors where the reunion was held were fragrant with flowers. A -beautiful piece of crayon work—“Welcome, 1883,” with C. L. S. C. -monogram—prepared by the superintendent of penmanship of Cincinnati -public schools, together with a fine portrait of Dr. Vincent, held -conspicuous places. The following was the program: - - Piano solo—Miss Clara Looker. - - Address of welcome to the Class of 1883—Mr. John G. O’Connell. - - Class song of 1882. - - Toast—“The Class of 1882.” Response by Mrs. M. J. Pyle. - - Class song of 1883. - - Toast—“The Class of 1883.” Response by Mr. Clifford Lakeman. - - Vocal solo—“The Flower Girl.” Miss Clara Looker. - - Toast—“The Cincinnati Circles.” Response by Miss Bessie Hicks. - - Song—“Join O Friends in a Memory Song.” - - Toast—“Chautauqua.” Response by Mr. M. S. Turrell. - - Song—“C. L. S. C. Commencement Carol.” - - Toast-“Our Chancellor, Dr. J. H. Vincent.” Response by Miss - Harriet Wilson. - - Song—“Sing Pæans over the Past.” - -Letters of regret were then read from unavoidable absentees. Time and -space will only permit of the publication of the following letter, which -is an embodiment of the sentiment contained in the others: - - HOT SPRINGS, ARK., September 24, 1883. - - _Rev. J. G. O’Connell, President C. L. S. C. Alumni Association - of Cincinnati, Ohio_:—Please accept my thanks for your very kind - invitation to attend the C. L. S. C. reception, Friday evening, - September 28. The intervening 700 miles will prevent. But does - not the Chancellor of the Out-of-Doors University say that, - “When the bell at Chautauqua rings on memorial days, all true - Chautauquans hear its echo?” And as this same Chancellor teaches - so diligently the superiority of mind over matter, why may I not - apply this teaching to my own case and say to you that I will be - with you in some sort of soul-telephonic manner, and hear your - speeches and join in your songs, and enjoy with you the feast of - reason and the flow of soul? - - I am sorry I said I couldn’t go. I think you may expect me. I - read most carefully the report of Commencement Day, and welcomed - (in my heart) all the ’83s. - - A popular writer in a most popular magazine says: “There are in - this life three stages of existence. The first, when we believe - every thing is white. The second, when one is sure every thing is - black; the third, when one knows that the majority of things are - simply gray.” - - Members of the C. L. S. C. have gone a step further than that. - To us, all the world has a _golden_ hue. How _can_ one fully - understand the meaning of the terms, “communion of Saints,” and - “brotherly kindness,” unless he has spent a season at Chautauqua - _as a student_, in full sympathy with the great work being done - there? What grand opportunities are there afforded for growth and - symmetrical development of character. - - Please tell your Alumni Association how glad I am to be counted - one of its members. I thank you again for your kind remembrance - of me. - - Wishing you a most joyous reunion, and uniting with you in - warmest love for our Alma Mater, I am yours sincerely, - - HATTIE N. YOUNG. - -The officers were elected for the coming year, and after a handsome -collation bountifully served, the society parted for the evening, -filled with additional enthusiasm for the success of their Alma Mater. -President, Mr. John G. O’Connell; Vice Presidents, Mr. M. S. Turrell, -Mrs. M. J. Pyle, Miss Mary E. Dunaway; Corresponding Secretary, Mr. -Clifford Lakeman; Recording Secretary, Miss Julia Kolbe; Treasurer, Miss -Selina Wood. - - * * * * * - -=Illinois= (Mattoon).—This is the first year of the C. L. S. C. of -Mattoon. We organized the last of September, and have an enthusiastic -membership of over twenty. We take the lessons as given in THE -CHAUTAUQUAN, sometimes assigning the work to individuals, and again we -have general recitations. During the winter we had an afternoon with -Longfellow; also a lecture upon the History of Greece, and one upon the -Sun, with diagrams. Most of us have completed the work for the year, and -have written the memoranda. Our meetings have been both profitable and -interesting. - - * * * * * - -=Iowa= (Anamoso).—Our C. L. S. C. circle was organized in January, 1883, -with a membership of nine ladies, all of whom have taken up the four -years’ course of study. The order of exercises varies somewhat, but is -always exceedingly interesting, each study receiving due investigation -and research. Generally, however, our president assigns the different -subjects to the members on the preceding meeting, thus giving each leader -time to prepare questions which will bring out all the points of interest -in the lesson. Amid crowding duties we are glad to note in our membership -an increasing enthusiasm over the C. L. S. C. work. - - * * * * * - -=Iowa= (Quasqueton).—We are a struggling little company of two regular -members of the C. L. S. C. We have not been lacking in interest ourselves -and are heartily in sympathy with the C. L. S. C.; think it is a grand, -good thing. - - * * * * * - -=Missouri= (Kansas City).—The Kansas City local circle was reorganized -on September 25, and was ready to begin work promptly the first week in -October. We have at present forty-four members. Our circle has propagated -the Chautauqua Idea, and sent off branches until now there are at least -six circles in the city, and about three hundred of our citizens are -reading the course. - - * * * * * - -=Missouri= (Independence).—A local circle was organized here in September -with forty-seven regular members. We have a president, vice president, -secretary, treasurer, and board of managers. We meet every Friday -evening, and thus far have followed the conversational plan. All are -interested, and the Chautauqua enthusiasm has the true ring. Already -the ’87s are looking forward to the day when they will pass through the -Arches. - - - - -C. L. S. C. ROUND-TABLE. - - From the record of ’82. Held in the Hall of Philosophy in August, - 1882, at 5 p. m. [This report had been overlooked, and as it - contains much that will be interesting, is here published.] - - -DR. VINCENT: What are the advantages of the C. L. S. C.? What are the -advantages to our homes? - -A VOICE: Unity in the family, in study and spirit. - -A VOICE: System of reading at home. - -A VOICE: It brings good literature into the house. - -A VOICE: It trains intelligent citizens in the house. - -A VOICE: It saves time that would be otherwise wasted. - -A VOICE: It gives pleasant subjects of thought while we are about our -daily work. - -A VOICE: It promotes conversation. - -A VOICE: It leads us into new lines of work. - -A VOICE: It makes us more attractive to each other. - -A VOICE: It keeps husbands at home in the evening. [Laughter.] - -MR. MARTIN: It keeps wives home in the evening. - -A VOICE: It crowds out unprofitable occupation. - -A VOICE: It leads to farther investigation. - -A VOICE: It cultivates the conversational powers. - -DR. VINCENT: It not merely brings subjects of conversation, it brings the -power of conversation. - -A VOICE: It makes the Southern people love the Northern people. - -A VOICE: It lifts the home up a little higher. - -A VOICE: It crowds out gossip. - -A VOICE: It cultivates a missionary spirit. - -DR. VINCENT: In what respect? - -A VOICE: In getting people into the circle and into all kinds of work. - -A VOICE: A lady says it makes the evening hearth exceedingly pleasant. - -A VOICE: It inspires us to want to help others. - -A VOICE: It has in one instance made a Christian of an Infidel. - -A VOICE: In more than one instance. - -A VOICE: There is a book in the course that will do that every time it is -attentively read. - -DR. VINCENT: What is that? - -A VOICE: “The Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation.” - -A VOICE: And the “Tongue of Fire.” - -A VOICE: And “The Outline Study of Man” is a wonderful book. - -A VOICE: It helps fathers and mothers to grow up with their children. - -A VOICE: It helps them cultivate their memory. - -A VOICE: I found that I could remember dates much better than before. - -REV. W. D. BRIDGE: It brings the old into sympathy with the young. - -A VOICE: It gives even old men books they would not have read. - -A VOICE: It creates a spirit of union among all kinds of people that -belong to it. - -A VOICE: It brings the grown people into sympathy with the public school -and its work. - -A VOICE: It makes us better Christians and workers in the church. - -A VOICE: It was suggested a moment ago that it brings the older people -into sympathy with the young: I think it brings the young people into -sympathy with the old. - -A VOICE: It increases the respect of the young for the old also. - -A VOICE: It teaches old people to become younger. - -A VOICE: It makes old people wish that the thing had been thought of -earlier. - -A VOICE: It brings us to Chautauqua. - -DR. VINCENT: That is a great thing for Chautauqua as well as for us. - -A VOICE: It teaches us never to be discouraged. - -A VOICE: It teaches us the spirit of propriety. - -A VOICE: The first of the Chautauqua mottoes has been noticed; the other -two should come in for their share. - -DR. VINCENT: The other two mottoes should be recognized. It helps us to -“keep our Heavenly Father in the midst.” - -A VOICE: It shows in the class of ’82 the proof of the third motto, -“Never be discouraged.” - -A VOICE: It teaches us to “look up, and not down.” - -DR. VINCENT: To “look forward and not backward,” to “look out and not -in,” and “to lend a hand.” - -A VOICE: It leads to an investigation of science by people who had never -thought of it before. - -MR. INGHAM: It teaches all classes to find a book store. - -DR. VINCENT: Brother Ingham is in the book trade. [Laughter.] - -A VOICE: It teaches people that no one is too old to study. - -A VOICE: It gives a higher idea of the responsibility of life. - -A VOICE: It makes the bookseller keep good books. [Applause.] - -DR. VINCENT: It makes the bookseller keep the books at a lower figure. - -A VOICE: It develops the habit of systematic thought and work. - -A VOICE: It discovers people to themselves, showing themselves their -natural bent and power. - -A VOICE: It breaks down the deep seated denominational prejudices. - -DR. VINCENT: Without in the slightest degree diminishing our loyalty to -them. - -A VOICE: It fits the mind for its eternal mission and home. - -A VOICE: It makes one see what a wonderful thing a book is. - -A VOICE: It puts the divine idea into all the study: “We study the words -and works of God,” and this promotes unity of scientific and religious -pursuits. - -A VOICE: It selects a course of reading that we would not ourselves -select. - -A VOICE: It teaches us the value of time. - -A VOICE: It teaches us to recognize God in everything. - -A VOICE: It furnishes a good channel for the expenditure of money in -connection with young people. - -DR. VINCENT: We ought to say in connection with that, it builds up an -individual library that acquires an individual preciousness; when a man -looks at it he is rich, for he owns books bought himself. The square -yards of books are not worth much. The books that are mine are worth much -to me. - -A VOICE: It makes it plain that the world is going forward and not back. - -A VOICE: It helps the world to go forward, and helps others to acquire -knowledge. - -A VOICE: It gives us a hint as to the powers and possibilities of the -mind. - -A VOICE: It teaches me how very little I know myself. - -A VOICE: I think it teaches old and young to appreciate art in its -different forms. - -DR. VINCENT: It enables people to distinguish between good preaching and -poor preaching. - -A VOICE: It teaches that faithful labor, though in a very limited degree, -will be rewarded here and hereafter. - -A VOICE: And that it will accomplish a great deal of good in addition to -the reward. - -A VOICE: It awakens latent energies in the mind. - -A VOICE: It makes the common people better critics. - -DR. VINCENT: It makes what they would call where caste prevails “common -people” better critics. We have no common people in this country. We are -all kings. - -A VOICE: It makes us understand better the Chautauqua Idea. - -A VOICE: It makes us patient in weakness and suffering. - -A VOICE: It helps us bear the burdens of life. - -DR. VINCENT: In many places there is no social enjoyment for those who do -not dance. The C. L. S. C. gives us congenial society. I have known many -people where the habit of dancing and card playing prevailed, to justify -these indulgencies on the ground that there was nothing else to do. In a -few such places the C. L. S. C. has turned the dance and the card table -out of doors. Of course some of you do not look at that matter as I do. -There may be some of you who dance or allow your children to attend -dancing school, and some of you allow your children to play cards. I have -avoided dogmatism on all subjects where the Word of God does not come in -as the final authority. I never like to dogmatize about these things. But -I do believe that such is the condition of society to-day, and such are -the unseen perils of the day—perils always present—that the family that -can enjoy itself thoroughly in an intellectual way, so as not to create -a taste for the stimulating power of the dance and the card table and of -the theater is a safer, and in the long run, a happier family than the -family otherwise controlled by so-called worldly tastes. [Applause.] It -becomes us to be very free from dogmatism about these things, because we -do not want to lay down laws that have not been laid down for us; but if -we can, let us substitute the influences of the C. L. S. C. for these -things. - -WRITTEN PAPER: The C. L. S. C. gives new hope and courage to those who -have thought that the days for personal improvement had gone by. - -DR. VINCENT: Dr. Wilkinson, in his address the other day, made reference -to the fact that I myself had never enjoyed college opportunities. I did -enjoy the very best academic opportunities up to the time that I should -have entered college, but circumstances, which seemed very much like -Providence, interposed at that crisis in my life, where the question was -settled by three contingencies. I suffered from a bronchial affection, -and my friends regarded me in great peril physically. I submitted three -questions to three men after serious thought and earnest prayer, and -resolved to be governed by the decision of the three men if they should -decide in the same line. To one, an able scholar and a most efficient -preacher, and a man occupying a high position in the church, I submitted -the question of my intellectual fitness, and gave him a long account -of my intellectual history. To another man, my father, I submitted the -financial part of the business. That was a question that he alone could -settle. To a distinguished physician, one of the ablest in New York -City, I submitted the question of my physical health. Now, said I, if -these three men combine in their decision, I shall consider the question -settled in that way. If they differ, I shall consider it still open. The -decision of all three was quite in a given line, and I entered very soon -into the active ministry. - -The fact that I lacked the _prestige_ of the college was humiliating to -me to the last degree. It made me morbid for years. I was too honest to -impose on people, and therefore too likely to betray myself where no -good could come of it, and where there was no necessity of it. But my -humiliation led me to do this thing: To turn my theological studies and -the preparation of sermons into means of mental discipline; to acquire -the habit of laying hold of a subject, and of holding on to it, and -persisting in holding on to it until I could master it, so that if I did -not have more than a smattering (and I did have a smattering of Greek and -Latin and Hebrew to begin with), I would have the discipline of thinking -on subjects and of tearing them open on my own account. I tried to do -that through all the years of my active ministry. - -I drew up for myself a sort of C. L. S. C. thirty years ago, and took -glimpses of all that the boy examines in college, so that the C. L. S. -C. of to-day developed out of it, and different as it may be, it is -the result of bitter experience and immense effort, so far as I was -personally concerned. - -I really ought not to have mentioned these things to you. I have never -done so anywhere except to a limited circle of friends. When I watch boys -in college, their pleasures and struggles; when I look at the buildings, -at the bronze statue of the first president of Yale, the libraries, -the art department, the scientific department; when I hear that old -bell ring from day to day, when I look on the _campus_ and see the boys -marching or lounging, singing the college songs; when I see them striving -for preëminence in the athletic arena; when I remember that certain -prerogatives depend upon victory on this side or the other; when I see -old men who were students fifty or sixty years ago, the oldest that are -left, and see the joy that comes from the inspiration of such memories, -then I see that it is a great thing to be able to give old people and -every-day people a touch of the joy and hope and memory that colleges -alone can give, and no one unless identified with such an institution can -feel. - -It is for that purpose that we have the “Hall in the Grove,” and the -“Arches,” the “Memorial Days,” the “Badges,” the “Diplomas,” etc. -Privileges heretofore limited to college life are thus and now guaranteed -to the old and the young. This is another benefit that comes from the C. -L. S. C. [Applause.] I should have taken a shorter time to tell it, but I -could not. - -WRITTEN PAPER: In accordance with your request for the members of the -Circle to remember each other at the throne of grace each Sabbath -afternoon, would it not be well to have a set hour, say five o’clock, -Sunday afternoon? - -DR. VINCENT: The suggestion is a good one. We will call five o’clock -Sunday afternoon “Our Sacred Hour.” Mr. Bridge, make an item for the -columns of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, that it may reach all the members of the -Circle. - -As I said the other night, we are not all of the same way of thinking, -but we may all think upward, and whatever the degree of our thought and -the kind of our faith, if the look be upward, there will be an uplift. If -with sincere desire we pray for others and seek God’s glory, he will lead -us into all truth. Let us appoint with your approval five o’clock Sabbath -afternoon for the uplook in order to uplift. Those who approve lift your -hands. - -My friends, while the formal worship—the going aside and kneeling down, -and observing the form of worship—is very useful, the idea of prayer is -not limited to the place or particular mode, or to the words you speak. -Prayer is sometimes the mightiest that leaps without words out of the -inmost heart to the highest heaven. Let us think a prayer wherever we -may be. Sometimes when people are too busy with their hands and under -the pressure of every-day labor to retire, and have not words or place -for the specific act of prayer, the uplift of the soul, the upreach, is -prayer that brings down abundant blessings. Let it be so with us. Let us -not be bound too much by times and circumstances and words. Let us have -the heart, and let forms and words come as they will, and let us not -neglect times and forms and words. - - - - -QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. - -ONE HUNDRED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “EASY LESSONS IN VEGETABLE BIOLOGY.” - -By A. M. MARTIN, GENERAL SECRETARY C. L. S. C. - - -1. Q. How is the word Biology made up, and what does it mean? A. It is -made up of two Greek words—_bios_, life, and _logos_, a discourse. It -means the study of living things. - -2. Q. What does Biology include in its survey? A. Both animals and -vegetables, and considers their forms and peculiarities, the parts of -which they are composed, their relations to each other, and the uses -which they serve. - -3. Q. What are the subjects of Physics and Chemistry? A. The general -forces of nature and the changes in non-living matter. - -4. Q. What is the teaching of the Bible and of all the religions of -mankind, the belief of the most eminent philosophers, the doctrine -held by the early Christian fathers, and maintained by the majority of -scientific and unscientific men as to the difference between a living -body and the same body after death? A. That it arises from the union of -matter and spirit. - -5. Q. What is it that entitles any thing to be called a living being? A. -The presence of little particles of living matter scattered through it. - -6. Q. What does this living matter look like when seen through the -microscope? A. Like a little bit of jelly or albumen. It is generally -transparent; is neither quite solid or fluid. - -7. Q. What is it called? A. It is often called protoplasm, or first -formation. It is also called by the better term bioplasm, or living -formation. - -8. Q. What is said as to the resemblance of the particles of bioplasm -to one another, no matter where they belong? A. They always look alike. -There is no difference under the microscope between the bioplasm of a -blade of grass or a whale, or an oak, a rose, a dog, or a man. - -9. Q. What does chemical examination show as to all living matter? A. -That it is composed of the same elementary materials. Oxygen, hydrogen, -carbon, and nitrogen enter into the construction of every piece of -bioplasm. - -10. Q. In what three different states do we recognize matter in every -bioplast, or living particle? A. Matter not yet alive, but about to -become so, called pabulum, or nutriment. Living matter in the strictest -sense, or bioplasm. Formed material, or matter which was alive, but is so -no longer. - -11. Q. What peculiarity has living matter as to motion? A. All bioplasm -has spontaneous motion. Non-living matter has inertia. - -12. Q. What are the three kinds of motion of bioplasm? A. Inherent -motions of individual particles among themselves. Constant change of -shape. Wandering movements. - -13. Q. What is the peculiarity of living matter as to the power of -nutrition and growth? A. The non-living increases in size by external -additions; but bioplasm selects appropriate material from its food, -or pabulum, changes the chemical relations of this material, and -appropriates it to its own structure in such a way that it grows from -within. - -14. Q. What is the peculiarity of bioplasm as to reproduction A. Bioplasm -can generate or reproduce its own kind of living matter. - -15. Q. What power has a living thing to preserve its own identity? A. A -living being preserves its identity amid all the material changes which -take place. - -16. Q. In the grouping together of living things according to their real -relationships, what do types represent? A. General plans of structure. - -17. Q. How are classes formed? A. By the special modification of a type. - -18. Q. What are orders? A. They are groups of the same class related by a -common structure. - -19. Q. What is a family or genus? A. A still smaller group having -generally the same essential structure. - -20. Q. What is a species? A. It is the smallest group whose structure is -constant. - -21. Q. What are individuals? A. They are the units of organic life, -forming a complete animated existence. - -22. Q. What are peculiarities of races or breeds called? A. Varieties. - -23. Q. How are vegetables and animals distinguished from each other? -A. By the term kingdom, and the types in each kingdom are called -sub-kingdoms. - -24. Q. Under what five types or plans of structure can all the multitude -of plants which clothe the earth or dwell in the sea be arranged? A. -Protophytes, Thallogens, Acrogens, Endogens and Exogens. - -25. Q. What are the elementary masses of bioplasm usually called? A. They -are usually called cells, even if they are merely pieces of animated -jelly, uninclosed by an outside shell or membrane. - -26. Q. What is the principal difference between animals and plants? -A. The latter can be nourished by simple mineral or chemical (that is -unorganized) matter, while animal nutrition requires material which has -been organized, or made part of a living being. - -27. Q. What do most vegetable cells produce on the outside? A. A membrane -or cell wall, within which the living matter is, as it were, imprisoned. - -28. Q. What concentrations of living matter are there within a cell? -A. A concentration called a _nucleus_, and sometimes a still further -concentration within the nucleus, called _nucleolus_, or little nucleus. - -29. Q. Of what substance is the cell wall composed? A. A substance -somewhat like starch, called cellulose. - -30. Q. When it becomes solid how is it known? A. As woody tissue. - -31. Q. How is common wood made up? A. Of a number of these cells arranged -side by side. - -32. Q. Of what shape may vegetable cells be? A. They may be globular, -oval, conical, prismatic, cylindrical, branched, or of any other form. - -33. Q. What are some of the varieties of formed material into which the -bioplasm within the cell wall may be transformed? A. They may be solid, -as coloring matter, starch, crystals, and resin; or fluid, as oil and -gum, or solutions of sugar or tannin. - -34. Q. What is the most important of these substances called? A. -Chlorophyll, the source of the green color of plants. - -35. Q. What other product of vegetable cells is even more widely -distributed than chlorophyll? A. Starch. - -36. Q. How do cells generate? A. By self-multiplication. - -37. Q. What are the simplest forms of plant life? A. Those that consist -of a single cell. - -38. Q. In the higher classes of plants what is the character of the union -of cells which forms tissues and organs? A. It is permanent. - -39. Q. What are made by the union of cells into groups? A. The woody -fibers of plants, and the cellular tissue which makes the softer, fleshy -and pithy parts. - -40. Q. What has observation shown as to the production of new cells in -the highest plants? A. That they are not produced everywhere uniformly, -but in particular spots. - -41. Q. What terms have been applied to places of this kind? A. -Growing-point, and growing or formative layer. - -42. Q. Where may growing-points and formative layers be seen? A. -Growing-points may be seen in the tips of buds, and formative layers -between the wood and bark of trees. - -43. Q. What names have been given to the tissue which is here formed by -the division and union of cells? A. Formative or generating tissue. - -44. Q. What are in direct contrast to the generation tissues? A. The -healing tissues, or cork tissues. - -45. Q. How are vessels made? A. By the union of several cells, the -partition-walls disappearing, while the union continues at the margin. - -46. Q. What are bast-tubes or bast-fibers? A. They are long, pointed, -thick-walled tubes, commonly united into bundles. - -47. Q. To what part of the flower is the term nectaries, or honey-glands, -given? A. To any part of a flower which secretes honey or sugary fluids. - -48. Q. What is the first independent tissue formed in flowering plants by -the union of cells? A. The epidermis or skin. - -49. Q. What is each of the pores found among the epidermic cells called? -A. A stoma, or mouth. - -50. Q. What are hairs? A. They are epidermal structures, composed of one -or more cells. - -51. Q. What do we find next to the epidermis? A. The cortex, or bark, -often composed of cells containing starch or chlorophyll. - -52. Q. What is beneath the bark? A. The formative layer or cambium, in -which thin-walled cells become transformed into vascular or bast-cells, -and thence are changed into permanent cells. - -53. Q. What do groups of cells thus formed, united into bundles and -penetrating the rest of the tissue, form? A. The fibro-vascular bundles. - -54. Q. What are the simpler types of plants that have no fibro-vascular -bundles, called? A. Cellular plants. - -55. Q. What are the rest termed? A. Vascular plants. - -56. Q. Of what does the fundamental tissue generally consist? A. Of -thin-walled cells containing starch, although other forms of cells may be -present. - -57. Q. What is the simplest form of individual plant life? A. A particle -of living matter inclosed in a membrane or cell-wall. - -58. Q. What are plants of this type of structure called? A. Protophytes. - -59. Q. Where are many of these one-celled plants found? A. In the green -slime which grows on stones and on boards in damp places. - -60. Q. What is one of the simplest forms, often found in rain-water -casks, called? A. The protococcus. - -61. Q. What are the unicellular plants most interesting to those who -study with the microscope? A. Diatoms. - -62. Q. In the living state where are diatoms found abundantly? A. In -every pond, rivulet, ocean and rock-pool. - -63. Q. What do they form in a fossil state? A. Large strata of rock -material. - -64. Q. What are thallogens? A. Plants composed of a tissue of cells, or -bioplasts, but with no clear distinction of stem, root and leaves. - -65. Q. What three classes are included under this type? A. Algæ, or -sea-weeds; Lichens, or the dry, leafy, or mossy patches on trees, stones, -etc.; and Fungi, or mushrooms, molds, and their allies. - -66. Q. Into what three orders have Algæ, or sea-weeds, been divided? A. -The red, the olive and the green sea-weeds. - -67. Q. How are Fungi regarded by some scientists? A. As neither animal -nor vegetable, but forming a sort of third kingdom. - -68. Q. What seems to be the principal business of the Fungi? A. The -removal of the waste material of both animal and vegetable life. - -69. Q. What are Acrogens? A. Plants which grow at the summit only, and -not in diameter. - -70. Q. What plants do we find in fresh-water ponds and rivers, growing in -tangled masses of dull green color that illustrate the manner of growth -in the type of Acrogens? A. Stone-worts, consisting of two genera, Chara -and Nitella. - -71. Q. What are the nodes, and what the internodes in the stone-worts? A. -The points on the axis, or stem, from which the branchlets spring, are -called nodes, and the intervening parts are internodes. - -72. Q. How is each internode formed? A. By the growth and elongation of -single cells. - -73. Q. How are the branchlets produced? A. By the sub-division of single -cells. - -74. Q. What other families of plants are examples of Acrogens? A. Ferns -and Mosses. - -75. Q. What are Endogens? A. Plants whose vessels and woody fibers first -grow within the stem. The seed has but a single lobe, or cotyledon. - -76. Q. What families of plants are found in the type of Endogens? A. -Grasses, Rushes, Lilies, and Palms, with similar families. - -77. Q. In the growing plant what part grows from the axis upward, and -what part from the axis downward? A. The stem grows from the axis upward, -and the root downward. - -78. Q. What is the root formed by the downward elongation of the axis -called? A. It is called the primary root. - -79. Q. What is the stem of a plant? A. That part which bears the leaves, -flowers, and fruit. - -80. Q. What is the length of life of the stem and roots? A. It may be -only a single year, or annual; two years, or biennial; or a number of -years, or perennial. - -81. Q. What are thorns? A. Undeveloped branches, and many plants which -are thorny when wild are not so under cultivation. - -82. Q. Of what are leaves constituted? A. Cells, with cavities, -fibro-vascular bundles and epidermis. - -83. Q. How do the veins in the leaves of Endogens differ from those in -the leaves of Exogens? A. They are generally parallel or straight in -Endogens, and do not form a network as in Exogens. - -84. Q. What are five of the names given to leaves according to their -shapes? A. Lanceolate, or narrow and tapering; oblong, or narrow and -not tapering; cordate, or heart-shaped; sagittate, or arrow-shaped; and -ovate, or egg-shaped. - -85. Q. What is the function or use of leaves? A. To expose the juices of -the plant to light and air, and thus aid in forming the woody matter of -the stem and the various secretions. - -86. Q. What constitute a plant’s organs of nutrition? A. The root, stem -and leaves. - -87. Q. What is the flower of a plant? A. It is the organ, or assemblage -of organs, for the production of the seed. - -88. Q. What are the four whorls in which the parts of a flower are -usually arranged called? A. The outer whorl is the calyx, the next the -corolla, the third the stamens, and the innermost the pistil. - -89. Q. To what is the term fruit applied in botanical language? A. To the -mature, perfect pistil, whether dry or succulent. - -90. Q. What nutritious grains are classed among the family of Endogens -called grasses? A. Wheat, barley, oats, rice and Indian corn. - -91. Q. What other families are noted members of the type of Endogens? A. -Palms and bananas. - -92. Q. What are some of the other families of the type of Endogens? A. -The orchid, the lily and the bulrushes. - -93. Q. What are Exogens? A. Plants whose woody fibres grow in outer -layers. The seed has two lobes, or cotyledons. - -94. Q. How many different species are included in this type? A. About -seventy thousand. - -95. Q. What are Incomplete Exogens? A. Those whose flowers have no -corolla. They are of two kinds. - -96. Q. What are the first kind? A. Those whose seeds are naked, as in the -cone-bearing family, consisting of the fir and spruce tribe, the cypress -tribe, and similar plants. - -97. Q. What are the second kind? A. Those whose seeds are contained in -the ovary, as the amaranth, buckwheat, laurel, nettle, fig, and the -catkin-bearing family. - -98. Q. What are some of the plants in the next sub-division of the type -of Endogens, those whose flowers have both calyx and corolla? A. The -honeysuckle, teasel, lobelia, convolvulus, primrose, and labiate and -composite families. - -99. Q. What are some of the families of plants found in another class of -Exogens that also have calyx and corolla, but the corolla has distinct -petals, and the stamens are attached to the calyx? A. The umbelliferous, -the leguminous, and the cactus families. - -100. Q. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the highest class, -or the most perfect Exogens? A. The calyx and the corolla are present, -the petals are distinct and inserted into the receptacle, and the stamens -grow from beneath the ovary. - - - - -POPULAR EDUCATION. - - -CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE. - -_President_—Lewis Miller. - -_Superintendent of Instruction_—J. H. Vincent, D.D. - -_Counselors_—Lyman Abbott, D.D.; J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. W. Warren, -D.D.; W. C. Wilkinson, D.D. - -_Office Secretary_—Miss Kate F. Kimball. - -_General Secretary_—A. M. Martin. - - -1.—AIM. - -This new organization aims to promote habits of reading and study in -nature, art, science, and in secular and sacred literature, in connection -with the routine of daily life (especially among those whose educational -advantages have been limited), so as to secure to them the college -student’s general outlook upon the world and life, and to develop the -habit of close, connected, persistent thinking. - - -2.—METHODS. - -It proposes to encourage individual study in lines and by text-books -which shall be indicated; by local circles for mutual help and -encouragement in such studies; by summer courses of lectures and -“students’ sessions” at Chautauqua, and by written reports and -examinations. - - -3.—COURSE OF STUDY. - -The course of study prescribed by the C. L. S. C. shall cover a period of -four years. - - -4.—ARRANGEMENT OF CLASSES. - -_Each year’s Course of Study will be considered the “First Year” for new -pupils_ whether it be the first, second, third, or fourth of the four -years’ course. For example, “the class of 1887,” instead of beginning -October, 1883, with the same studies which were pursued in 1882-83 by -“the class of 1886,” will fall in with “the class of ’86,” and take for -their first year the second year’s course of the ’86 class. The first -year for “the class of 1886” will thus in due time become the fourth year -for “the class of 1887.” - - -5.—C. L. S. C. COURSE OF READING, 1883-84. - - -I. REQUIRED. - -History of Greece.[I] By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Vol. 2; parts 7, 8, 10 -and 11. Price, $1.15. - -Stories in English History by the Great Historians. Edited by C. E. -Bishop, Esq. Price, $1. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 16, Roman History; No. 24, Canadian History; -No. 21, American History; No. 5, Greek History. Price, 10 cents each. - -Preparatory Latin Course in English. By Dr. W. C. Wilkinson. Price, $1. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 23, English Literature. By Prof. J. H. -Gilmore. Price, 10 cents. - -Primer of American Literature. By C. F. Richardson. Price, 30 cents. - -Biographical Stories by Hawthorne. Price, 15 cents. - -How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. By W. Blaikie. Price, cloth, 80 -cents; paper, 50 cents. - -Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology. By Dr. J. H. Wythe. Price, cloth, 40 -cents; paper, 25 cents. - -Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker. Price, cloth, $1; -paper, 50 cts. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 18, Christian Evidences; No. 39, Sunday-School -Normal Class Work; No. 43, Good Manners; No. 4, English History. Price, -10 cents each. - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN, price, $1.50, in which will be published: - - Sunday Readings. Selected by Dr. J. H. Vincent. - Readings in Commercial Law. By Edwin C. Reynolds, Esq. - Readings in Political Economy. By Prof. George M. Steele, D.D. - Readings in French History and Literature. By Dr. J. H. Vincent. - Studies in American History and Literature. By A. M. Martin, Esq. - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN will also contain, in the department of Required -Readings, brief papers, as follows: - - Readings in German History and Literature. - Readings in Roman History. - Readings in American Literature. - Readings about the Arts, Artists, and their Masterpieces. - Readings in Physical Science. - - -ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR STUDENTS OF THE CLASS OF 1884. - -Hints for Home Reading. By Dr. Lyman Abbott. Price, cloth, $1; boards, 75 -cts. - -The Hall in the Grove. By Mrs. Alden. (A Story of Chautauqua and the C. -L. S. C.) Price, $1.50. - -Outline Study of Man. By Dr. Mark Hopkins. Price, $1.50. - - -II. FOR THE WHITE SEAL. - -Persons who pursue the “White Seal Course” of each year, in addition to -the regular course, will receive at the time of their graduation a white -seal for each year, to be attached to the regular diploma. - -History of Greece.[I] By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Vol. 2. Completed. Price, -$1.15. - -Chautauqua Library of English History and Literature. Vol. 2. Price, -cloth, 50 cents; paper, 35 cents. - -Church History. By Dr. Blackburn. Price, $2.25. - -Bacon’s Essays. Price, $1.25. - - -III. REQUIRED.—FOR THE WHITE (CRYSTAL) SEAL FOR GRADUATES OF ’82 AND ’83. - -For the benefit of graduates of the C. L. S. C. who, being members of -local circles, wish to continue in the same general line of reading -as undergraduate members, a White Crystal Seal Course is prepared. -This consists mainly of books belonging to the current year’s study, -but not previously read by the graduates. An additional white seal is -also offered to the graduates, the books for which are specified under -paragraph 4. Some of these books were in the first four year’s course, -and are therefore to be _re_-read. The payment of one dollar at one time -entitles a graduate to the White Crystal and White Seals for four years. -If only fifty cents is paid, it will be credited for but one year. - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Required Reading. - -History of Greece.[I] By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Vol. 2. Completed. Price, -$1.15. - -Preparatory Latin Course in English. By. Dr. W. C. Wilkinson. Price, $1. - -Credo. By Dr. L. T. Townsend. Price, $1. - -Bacon’s Essays. Price, $1.25. - - -IV. REQUIRED.—FOR ADDITIONAL WHITE SEAL FOR GRADUATES OF ’82 AND ’83. - -Brief History of Greece. By J. Dorman Steele. Price, 60 cents. - -Stories in English History by the Great Historians. Edited by C. E. -Bishop. Price, $1. - -Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology. By Dr. J. H. Wythe. Price, cloth, 40 -cents; paper, 25 cents. - -Biographical Stories. By Nathaniel Hawthorne. Price, 15 cents. - -How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. By W. Blaikie. Price, cloth, 80 -cents; paper, 50 cents. - -Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker. Price, cloth, $1; -paper, 50 cts. - -Primer of American Literature. By C. F. Richardson. Price, 30 cents. - -Chautauqua Text-Books, Nos. 4, 5, 16, 18, 21, 23, 39 and 43. Price, each, -10 cents. - - * * * * * - -The following is the distribution of the books and readings through the -year: - - -_October._ - -History of Greece.[I] Vol. 2. By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Parts 7 and 8. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 5, Greek History. By Dr. J. H. Vincent. - -Primer of American Literature. By C. F. Richardson. - -Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -_November._ - -History of Greece.[I] Vol. 2. By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Parts 10 and 11. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 5, Greek History. By Dr. J. H. Vincent. - -Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -_December._ - -Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology. By Dr. J. H. Wythe. - -Biographical Stories. By Nathaniel Hawthorne. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 24, Canadian History. - -Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -_January._ - -Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker. 14 chapters. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 18, Christian Evidences. By Dr. J. H. Vincent. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 39, Sunday School Normal Class Work. - -Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -_February._ - -Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker. Completed. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 21, American History; No. 24, Canadian History. - -How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. By W. Blaikie. - -Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -_March._ - -Preparatory Latin Course in English. By Dr. W. C. Wilkinson. Half of book. - -Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -_April._ - -Preparatory Latin Course in English. By Dr. W. C. Wilkinson. Completed. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 16, Roman History. By Dr. J. H. Vincent. - -Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -_May._ - -Stories in English History by the Great Historians. By C. E. Bishop. Half -of book. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 4, English History. By Dr. J. H. Vincent. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 23, English Literature. By Prof. J. H. Gilmore. - -Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -_June._ - -Stories in English History by the Great Historians. Completed. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 4, English History. By Dr. J. H. Vincent. - -Chautauqua Text-Books.—No. 43, Good Manners. By J⸺ P⸺. - -Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN - - -6.—SPECIAL COURSES. - -Members of the C. L. S. C. may take, in addition to the regular course -above prescribed, one or more special courses, and pass an examination -upon them. Pupils will receive credit and testimonial seals to be -appended to the regular diploma, according to the merit of examinations -on these supplemental courses. - - -7.—THE PREPARATORY COURSE. - -Persons who are too young, or not sufficiently advanced in their studies -to take the regular C. L. S. C. course, may adopt certain _preparatory -lessons_ for one or more years. - -For circulars of the preparatory course, address Miss K. F. KIMBALL, -Plainfield, New Jersey. - - -8.—INITIATION FEE. - -To defray the expenses of correspondence, memoranda, etc., an annual -fee of fifty cents is required. This amount should be forwarded to Miss -K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J., (by New York or Philadelphia draft, -Post-office order on Plainfield, N. J., or the new Postal Note, to be -ready about September 1.) Do not send postage-stamps if you can possibly -avoid it. _Three_-cent stamps will not be received. - -N. B.—In sending your fee, be sure to state to which class you belong, -whether 1884, 1885, 1886, or 1887. - - -9.—APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP. - -Persons desiring to unite with the C. L. S. C. should forward answers -to the following questions to MISS K. F. KIMBALL, PLAINFIELD, N. J. The -class graduating in 1887 should begin the study of the lessons required -October, 1883. They _may_ begin as late as January 1, 1884. - -1. Give your name in full. - -2. Your post-office address, with county and State. - -3. Are you married or single? - -4. What is your age? Are you between twenty and thirty, or thirty and -forty, or forty and fifty, or fifty and sixty, etc.? - -5. If married, how many children living under the age of sixteen years?[J] - -6. What is your occupation? - -7. With what religious denomination are you connected? - -8. Do you, after mature deliberation, resolve, if able, to prosecute the -four years’ course of study presented by the C. L. S. C.? - -9. Do you promise, if practicable, to give an average of four hours a -week to the reading and study required by this course? - -10. How much more than the time specified do you hope to give to this -course of study? - - -10.—TIME REQUIRED. - -An average of forty minutes’ reading each week-day will enable the -student in nine months to complete the books required for the year. More -time than this will probably be spent by many persons, and for their -accommodation a special course of reading on the same subjects has been -indicated. The habit of thinking steadily upon worthy themes during one’s -secular toil will lighten labor, brighten life, and develop power. - - -11.—MEMORANDA. - -The annual ‘examinations’ will be held at the homes of the members, and -in writing. Duplicate Memoranda are forwarded, one copy being retained -by each student and the other filled out and forwarded to the office at -Plainfield, N. J. - - -12.—ATTENDANCE AT CHAUTAUQUA. - -Persons should be present to enjoy the annual meetings at Chautauqua, -but attendance there is not necessary to graduation in the C. L. S. C. -Persons who have never visited Chautauqua may enjoy the advantages, -diploma, and honors of the “Circle.” - - -13.—MISCELLANEOUS. - -For the history of the C. L. S. C., an explanation of the LOCAL CIRCLES, -the MEMORIAL DAYS to be observed by all true C. L. S. C. members, ST. -PAUL’S GROVE at Chautauqua, etc., etc., address (inclose two-cent stamp) -Miss K. F. KIMBALL, Plainfield, N. J., who will forward the “Chautauqua -Hand-Book, No. 2,” sixty-four pages. Blank forms, containing the ten -questions given in paragraph 9, will also be sent on application. - - -14.—CHAUTAUQUA PERIODICALS. - -THE CHAUTAUQUAN, organ of the C. L. S. C.; 76 pages; ten numbers; $1.50 -per year. CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY DAILY HERALD, organ of Chautauqua meetings; -8 pages; 48 columns. Daily in August; 19 numbers. Contains the lectures -delivered at Chautauqua; $1 per volume. Both periodicals one year, $2.50. -Address Dr. Theodore L. Flood, Editor and Proprietor, Meadville, Pa. - - -15.—BOOKS OF THE C. L. S. C. - -For all the books address Phillips & Hunt, New York, or Walden & Stowe, -Cincinnati or Chicago. - -[I] Students of the new class (1887) to be organized this fall, and -graduates of the classes of 1882 and 1883, not having read volume 1 of -Timayenis’s History of Greece, will not be required to read volume 2, but -instead of volume 2 of Timayenis’s, will read “Brief History of Greece.” -Price, paper, 60 cts. - -[J] We ask this question to ascertain the possible future intellectual -and moral influence of this “Circle” on your homes. - - - - -CHAUTAUQUA NORMAL COURSE. - -Season of 1884. - - -LESSON II.—BIBLE SECTION. - -_The Bible from God Through Man._ - -By J. L. HURLBUT, D.D. - -The Sunday-school teacher in his work uses one book, and one only. To -that one book he appeals as an authority; the doctrines contained in that -book he asserts as truth; the moral system of that book he insists upon -as the standard for man’s obedience. It is therefore necessary to know -concerning the Bible: - -I. The claims of the Bible believer. - -II. The evidences supporting those claims. - -I. There are _four claims_ made on behalf of the Bible by those who -believe in it. - -1. _Its Genuineness._ By this we mean that we possess the book -substantially as it was written. Not that we have an absolutely perfect -text, or that the translations represent precisely the original, or -that we know just when or by whom all the books were written, but that -the work has come into our possession without serious mutilation or -interpolation. We can accept it as the Bible. - -2. _Its Authenticity._ By this we mean that the book contains the -truth. Its records are trustworthy history; its reports of discourses -or parables or conversations give the substance of their thoughts; its -statements upon every subject can be depended upon as honest and truthful. - -3. _Its Inspiration._ By this we mean simply that this book came from -God. “Divine inspiration we understand to be an extraordinary divine -agency upon teachers while giving instruction, whether oral or written, -by which they were taught what and how they should write or speak.” (Dr. -Knapp, quoted by McClintock and Strong.) - -4. _Its Authority._ By this we mean that the Bible contains God’s law, -and was given to us as the standard in life. It contains “the only rule, -and the sufficient rule, for our faith and practice.” No doctrine is -to be accepted unless it is in accordance with the teachings of the -Bible, and no law is binding which conflicts with the higher law of the -Scriptures. - -II. _The Evidences Supporting these Claims._ It is not necessary to -present the proofs of each claim apart from the others. Those attesting -the genuineness of the Bible will be given with Lesson iv, “The Canon -of Scripture;” but the other claims are so linked together that the -proofs of one are the proofs of all. If the Bible can be proven _true_, -its truth is of such a nature as to show a divine original; and if it -proceeds from God, it comes as God’s law. Hence we present together the -_Ten Evidences_ of its Authenticity, Inspiration and Authority. - -1. _Its Adaptation to Human Need._ (1) We start with the proposition -that _there is a God_; a person who governs the universe; not a mere -personification of law or force, but a spiritual existence. (2) _God has -a Law._ If God has no law for man, then for man there is practically no -God. (3) _We have a right to know that law._ What would be thought of a -law-maker with absolute power, who concealed his decrees, yet expected -his subjects to obey them, and punished them for disobedience? (4) _We -find just such a law as we need in the Bible_, and we find it nowhere -else, for it is not stamped into our consciousness, nor is it written -in nature. (5) We conclude then that _the Bible contains the Divine -Revelation_. - -2. _Its General Acceptance._ The common consent of intelligent society -has accredited this book as authentic and divine. (1) We find an _early -acceptance_ among those best acquainted with its facts, and nearest -to them; the Old Testament regarded as divine among the Jews; the New -Testament among the Christians. (2) We find a _continuous acceptance_ -through all the centuries since; at no time the chain of belief being -broken. (3) We find a _present acceptance_ now; in this age of searching -investigation, when nothing is accepted on ground of tradition only, the -Bible has more readers, more students, more believers in the intelligent -classes than at any previous period of its history. - -3. _Its Characteristics._ The Bible contains four traits which, taken -together, distinguish it from all other books. (1) _Its Variety._ -Written at intervals through 1,600 years, by more than thirty authors, -in different lands and different languages, it contains history, poetry, -genealogy, biography, ethics, epistles, doctrine, and many other classes -of composition. (2) _Its Harmony._ Underneath its variety of the surface -there is a harmony, so that its statements and its principles are nowhere -discordant. Contrast with this the discords of scientists. Could we -place on one shelf sixty-six books on astronomy, written during sixteen -centuries, by thirty writers, and find them harmonious? (3) _Its Unity._ -Amid all the different subjects of the Bible there is one unifying -purpose. It presents as its theme _Redemption_, and every chapter in -every book falls into line in relation to that central thought. (4) _Its -Progressiveness._ There is a steady development of truth in Scripture, -a growing light through its centuries. We see the revelation beginning -with Adam, taking a step upward with Noah, another with Abraham, again -with Jacob, and so mounting higher in turn with Moses, Samuel, David, -Isaiah, Malachi, Peter and Paul, each on a loftier platform of spiritual -knowledge than the age before him, until John crowns the pyramid of truth -in his gospel and the Apocalypse. Not all the earth can show another book -besides the Bible with all these four traits, which show the work divine. - -4. _The Harmony of its Relations._ The statements of the Bible come into -relation with facts ascertained in various departments of knowledge; yet -in none of these do we find contradiction, in all an ever increasing -harmony as our knowledge grows. (1) _With Localities._ The Bible names -more than two thousand places in the ancient world; lands, rivers, seas, -mountains, towns, villages, brooks, etc., yet not a single locality has -been placed wrongly by the Scripture. (2) _With Existing Institutions._ -We find in the world such bodies of people as the Jews, the Samaritans, -the Christian church; such services as the passover, baptism, the Lord’s -Supper, etc. Take away the Bible and none of these can be accounted for; -open the Bible, their origin is plain. (3) _With Historical Monuments._ -During the present century thousands of ancient inscriptions have been -brought forth and deciphered, and the history of great empires has been -written, bearing close relation to the history of the Bible. But not a -line of the Bible annals has been discredited by these explorations, -and many Bible statements have been placed in clearer light. (4) _With -Science._ Though “the conflict of science and the Bible” has been often -referred to, yet the testimony of the best scientists is that the opening -chapters of Genesis are in substantial and growing accord with geology; -that the tenth chapter of Genesis tallies with the latest conclusions -of comparative philology; and that modern astronomy furnishes the best -illustrations of the attributes of God as revealed in Scripture. - -5. _The Fulfillment of its Prophecies._—It is very evident that no man, -unaided by Divine wisdom, can know the future and make prediction of -coming events. Yet there is a book containing many prophecies, which -have been fulfilled to the letter. (1) There are _predictions concerning -places_, as Babylon, Nineveh, Jerusalem, Tyre, Egypt, all differing in -their statements, yet all brought to pass. (2) There is a series of -predictions concerning Christ, beginning in Eden and extending through -the Old Testament, growing in definiteness as the hour of fulfillment -drew near, and all accomplished. Thus the New Testament and the Old -mutually prove each other. - -6. _The Person of Christ._—We find in the gospels four accounts, by -different writers, of one Person. They tell us that he was at once God -and man; that he grew up in a country village, yet surpassed all the -wisdom of the philosophers; that he could create food, yet suffered -hunger; that he could raise the dead, yet submitted to be tortured and -crucified; that he was free from worldly ambition, yet became the founder -of the greatest kingdom earth has seen. The life, the character, the -personality, is so unique and original that no one could have invented -it. Hence the writers of the gospels must have drawn their sketch from -the life. - -7. _The Candor of its Writers._—The authors of these documents write -like honest men, telling their story plainly, without partisan bias. -They relate the sins of their heroes, Abraham’s deception, Jacob’s -double-dealing, Moses’ anger, David’s crime, Peter’s denial, Paul’s -quarrel with Barnabas. Their tone of sincerity shows the truthfulness of -the narration. - -8. _The Elevation of its Teachings._—Here is a book, written in an age -when even the most cultured nations worshiped idols and held the grossest -conceptions of God, with correspondingly low ideals of morals for men. -Yet in such ages, the Bible presents a view of God to which the world -has been slowly broadening its vision; and a standard of character which -rises far above that of Plato, Cicero, or Confucius, and is now adopted -as the ideal manhood by ethical philosophers. Whence, but from a divine -source, came those lofty teachings of the Scriptures? - -9. _Its Influence Upon the World._—What the Bible has done shows the -hiding of its power. (1) _See its effects upon nations._ The lands where -it is honored, America, England, North Germany, are the three lands of -most advanced civilization and largest hope for the race. The lands where -it is forbidden, as Spain, or where it is unknown, as China, are those -whose condition is most hopeless. (2) _See its effects upon individuals._ -The people who study the Bible are not the drunkards, thieves, criminal -classes. Those who have the word in their minds and hearts become purer, -better, higher than others. It transforms men from sinners to saints, -and its influence makes earth a picture of heaven. No false book, no -deceiving book could thus make the world better. - -10. _Its Self Convincing Power in Experience._—There is in the -consciousness of man a conviction that the religion of the Bible rests -upon a sound foundation. And he who puts the Bible to the test in his -own experience, who lives its life, and follows its law, and enjoys its -communings, finds an assurance to the satisfaction of his spiritual -nature, that this book contains God’s message to his soul. Every -Christian’s experience is, therefore, a testimony to the truth and the -inspiration of Scripture. - -[To those who wish to pursue this subject further we recommend the -following works: “Credo,” by L. T. Townsend; “The Logic of Christian -Evidences,” by Dr. Wright; Chautauqua Text Book No. 18; “Christian -Evidences,” by Dr. Vincent; “The Christ of History,” by Principal Young; -“Historical Illustrations of the Old Testament,” by Rawlinson & Hackett; -“The Story of Creation,” by Dr. Campbell; and “Farmer Tompkins and His -Bibles,” by W. J. Beecher, D.D.] - - -CHAUTAUQUA NORMAL CLASS—S. S. SECTION. - -LESSON II.—THE SUPERINTENDENT: HIS QUALIFICATIONS, DUTIES AND -RESPONSIBILITY. - -By R. A. HOLMES, A.M. - -In Lesson I we considered the place, purpose and prerogatives of the -Sunday-school. That it may keep to its place, accomplish its purpose, -and enjoy its prerogatives, efficient organization is necessary. By -universal consent the chief officer of such organization is called “The -Superintendent.” Experience has proved that the character of the school -and its success or failure, as measured by the standards already given, -depend very largely upon the character of the superintendent and his -understanding of his work. This lesson will content itself with answering -briefly three questions: - -I. _What are the Qualifications of the Model Superintendent?_—The purpose -of the school is the conversion and spiritual education of those who -are under its influence. This, therefore, must be the purpose of the -superintendent. As one can not teach what he does not know, so he can not -accomplish a purpose unless he knows practically the steps which lead -to its accomplishment. The superintendent therefore must be (_a_) _both -converted and spiritually educated_. Conversion implies oneness with -Christ in will and desire. Christ’s will is the conversion of the world. -To effect it he instituted the church on earth. The superintendent must -therefore be (_b_) _a member of the church, and a firm believer in it and -its power_. - -The church in its endeavor to accomplish its holy mission has instituted -the Sunday-school. Its special function is the teaching of the word. Its -great need is and has been competent teachers. Their appointment and -continuance in office rests with the superintendent. The superintendent -should therefore be (_c_) _a good judge of human nature_; (_d_) _a person -of approved teaching ability_. - -The school in active operation uses as its only text-book the Holy -Scriptures. The text-book is a difficult one. It deals with the deepest -problems of spiritual life and death. It is the offspring of a remote -day, and is filled with allusions to a state of society and social -customs entirely foreign to anything with which we are familiar. A -trained teacher in secular education with no knowledge of this book -may make utter failure as a teacher of it. A knowledge of it in its -entirety is absolutely essential to the teacher in the Sunday-school. -The superintendent must therefore be (_e_) _a thorough and intelligent -scholar in Bible lore_. - -The membership of the Sunday-school, aside from teachers and officers, -is largely composed of children and youth. By nature humanity tires -of monotony. Children are more restive under monotonous routine than -those who have won self-control by culture. To keep in the school its -children and youth, to keep them interested in its purposes while in the -school, and to hold them untiringly to the true work of the school, needs -fertility of brain to give proper variety to the conduct of the school, -intelligence to discern the effects of all measures that are adopted, -tact to change and adapt to the ever varying conditions of school life, -and common sense to direct and govern the whole. The superintendent must -therefore be (_f_) _a person fertile in expedients_ and (_g_) _a person -of intelligence, tact and common sense_. - -But often in the conduct of the school infelicities occur. The different -parts do not move in harmony with each other. Cases of variance between -pupils and teachers arise. Often times the school suffers from financial -lack. The chief officer of the school is the one to whom all such matters -come for final adjudication. The superintendent therefore must be (_h_) -_a person of good executive ability_, that with firm, strong hand he may -hold each part of the system of which he is the center revolving in its -own orbit, never flagging, never tiring, never ceasing to do its own -part in the work, never clashing with any other. Such are some of the -principal qualifications of the superintendent. - -II. _What should be his personal character?_—In general, all that -is suggested in the foregoing outline as to qualifications. But our -requirements must not end there. A man may be a so-called Christian and -yet be far from possessing the character which is an essential to the -Sunday-school superintendent. He may be a church member, and be even -less than a so-called Christian. He may be a good judge of human nature, -and yet himself a poor illustration of it. He may be possessed of fine -teaching power, and yet misuse it. He may know the Bible as well as -Erasmus, and yet be like Erasmus, the subject of Luther’s keen reproach -of being everything in word, and nothing in deed. He may be all we have -described, and yet lack in character. - -The superintendent therefore should be pious, “having reverence for -God, and for religious duties.” He should be devout, that is, should -carry into daily life the active expression of his piety. This would -forbid sudden anger, inconsiderate levity, trifling with Scriptures, by -thoughtless quotations, and all outward conduct that does not comport -with true consecration. He should be honest, truthful in word and act, -humble, loyal, and scrupulously observant of the Sabbath. - -His constant motto should be as he daily studies to build character in -himself and others, “Study to show thyself approved unto God, a workman -that needeth not to be ashamed.” Let the student make for himself an -outline of what the superintendent should be in character. - -III. _What are his duties?_—They are four fold. (1) To his church. (2) To -his pastor. (3) To his teachers. (4) To his pupils. - -His duties to his church are plain. - -1. _He should attend the regular services of the church regularly._—This -can admit of no negative. He should do it for its effect on himself. He -should do it as an encouragement to his teachers. He should do it as an -example to his pupils. - -2. _He should impress habitual church going as a duty upon his teachers -and pupils_ from the desk in the Sunday-school room, and should use all -means to effect the object. - -3. _He should contribute regularly and uniformly to all the benevolent -objects_ which the church presents as worthy of Christian liberality. The -reasons for this are too plain to need mention. - -4. _He should urge to the same duty the teachers and pupils of the -school_, that they may each do their part, no matter how small, in the -work of Christian benevolence. - -5. _He should contribute of his means as God prompts_ him to the support -of his church, and not measure himself by the standard of proportionate -values. He should also teach the same duty in his school. - -6. _He should be loyal to his own particular church_; should know -its particular beliefs; should pray for its particular welfare; and -fearlessly do whatever lies in his power to promote its purity and peace. - -II. _His duties to his pastor._ - -1. Is that of _Coöperation_. The pastor and superintendent should know -each other’s plans and purposes thoroughly. The pastor should always be -able to feel that in his superintendent he has one upon whom he can -depend, who will aid him in his work; share with him a certain portion of -the duties devolved upon him, and in all possible ways be like Aaron and -Hur, hand upholders in the fight against Amalek. - -2. That of _Allegiance_. The pastor is the one man of all the church -upon whom all eyes are fixed. Among his multitude of acts, some will be -misunderstood. Among the multitude of tongues some will be captious and -critical. A spark may kindle a conflagration. The superintendent owes -it to church and pastor to be loyal to his pastor and render him the -knightly service which the king could expect from the lord. He should -also teach the same duty to teachers and pupils in the school. - -3. _He should be his Pastor’s Index Rerum_; not his mentor, but his -reference, to which he can turn for information concerning affairs in -that portion of the church represented by the school. Sick children to be -visited, poverty to be helped with true charity, anxious souls looking -for the Savior, these and many similar are within the superintendent’s -knowledge oft times, when unknown to the pastor. To bring them to the -pastor’s knowledge is an evident duty. - -4. _That of Harmony._ The pastor and superintendent should agree. The -school should have no plans or methods contrary to the pastor’s desires. -Church and school should walk the same path, and in it go hand in hand. - -III. _His duties to his Teachers._ While these are many we mention but -five, and these without discussion, leaving the student to fill up the -outlines. - -1st. _Supervision of Work._ 2d. _Personal and close Acquaintance._ 3d. -_Frequent Visiting._ 4th. _Individual Coöperation._ 5th. _A Weekly -Teacher’s Meeting._ - -IV. _What are his duties to his Pupils?_ - -1st. _To know each one personally._ It is the measure of the -superintendent’s power. 2d. _To visit them at their homes_, or to insure -a visit by their teachers. It is his chief means of knowledge concerning -them. 3d. _To review their knowledge of the lesson_ regularly, from week -to week, and at the quarter’s end to conduct a thorough and systematic -review of the quarter’s teaching. 4th. _To urge them to all of the -various duties_ which are required of one in the Christian life. 5th. -_To aid their home training_, or supplement it, in providing suitable -methods for using their spare time. 6th. _To set before them the constant -example_ of a pure and holy life. - - - - -EDITOR’S OUTLOOK. - - -THE C. L. S. C. PLAN. - -No organization that has appeared in the past fifty years has been more -favored than the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. From the -first the surroundings have been such as to aid its growth. Eminent -educators and literary men pronounced their blessings on its head the -day it was born. Thousands of people shouted its praises to the echo, in -the grove at Chautauqua, as soon as they saw what it was and heard its -name. Chautauqua had a history of five years to place behind the C. L. S. -C.—a history of enterprising investigation in the fields of science and -philosophy, Biblical literature, church and Sunday-school work, and moral -reforms. It was five years of hard work to popularize useful information -on all these lines of thought. This was a good beginning for the C. L. S. -C., and right here it started. With the summer meetings at Chautauqua it -has been associated during these first five years of its history. The C. -L. S. C. Commencement exercises are held in the Hall of Philosophy, in -St. Paul’s grove, at Chautauqua, and from thence the diplomas are sent -out to the graduates all over the world. - -It never was the design of Dr. Vincent or Mr. Lewis Miller, the founders -of Chautauqua, that all the work of students should be pressed into the -compass of three weeks of meetings in August, but rather that Chautauqua -should be carried into towns and cities, into homes and offices and -workshops all over the land. When the C. L. S. C. appeared and its -curriculum was announced with the promise that every person who should -complete the four years course of reading in ancient and modern history -and literature, the sciences, philosophy and art, would graduate and -receive a diploma signed by the officers of the C. L. S. C., the idea -was easily carried abroad. The press of the country was ready, as we now -see, to assist. The plan was written up and philosophized upon from the -beginning; but more than this was needed to insure success. To make the -Chautauqua Idea as practical in a town five hundred or a thousand miles -away as it was at Chautauqua was a hard task to perform; but when it -was decided that the _individual_ could enroll his name in the C. L. S. -C. office and pursue his studies at home, or when traveling, by devoting -forty minutes a day to his books, and could fill out examination papers -at the end of each year, the practicability of the plan was admitted by -everybody. The organization was simple, the working of the system has -been almost perfect, and each succeeding year has witnessed a marvelous -growth; classes ranging from 7,000 up to 14,000 members have been -enrolled from year to year until the present outlook is more encouraging -than all the past. - -The local circle has come to be an important factor in the working of -the organization. Men are clannish, and in the work of education the -world has always recognized the social element as a powerful agency. It -was natural that in the C. L. S. C. men and women, who had no scruples -on the question of the co-education of the sexes, should come together -and effect local organizations, elect their officers and do their work -methodically, under the inspiration of one another’s presence. Just as -in raising a building ten men are stronger than one man, so in a town -or city ten persons will lift up the Chautauqua Idea in more homes and -attract the attention of more people to it than one person possibly -can. “In union there is strength,” and while the practical working of -the “local circle” is to be seen in the growing intelligence of its -individual members, it is a fact that through the local circle the C. -L. S. C. is taking hold of the people in all parts of our land, and -thus demonstrating that the founders of Chautauqua have inaugurated an -educational system which has the merit of being a “Home College,” whose -privileges may be enjoyed by all classes and conditions of people. While -it is not sectarian or even denominational, it is Christian, and carries -correct ideas of God and the Bible, of Jesus Christ and redemption, of -the Holy Ghost and Christian life into every reader’s mind and into every -family where the course of study is received. - - -MARTIN LUTHER. - -Our heritage of civil and religious liberty is an outgrowth of the -Reformation, begun in the fifteenth century. By common consent the -Protestant churches confess indebtedness to Martin Luther, the principal -agent raised up by God for the deliverance of his people. We gladly join -our brethren of a free press and the heralds of a free gospel, in making -some mention of this fourth centennial day. Want of space must greatly -abridge the tribute we would bring, and forbids any attempt to weave such -fitting chaplets as other hands will certainly bring to the altar. - -Four hundred years ago to-day, November 10, 1483, Martin Luther was born -in Eisleben, Saxony. The great German reformer, whose words shook the -world, and whose power, after centuries, is felt by millions indebted -to him, was of humble origin, his parents being peasants of the poorer -class, but religious, honest, self-respecting people. He refers tenderly -to them, and says: “In supporting their family they had a hard and -bitter fight of it.” His own privations and hardships in early life -were met with something of the heroism and persistence of endeavor that -marked his later years. In school, though a sprightly lad, full of fun -and frolic, and often corrected for his faults by a severe master, he -was yet a diligent student, eager for communion with all truth. His -ambition and thirst for knowledge led him gracefully to accept what was -unfavorable in his circumstances, yet not passively or without methods of -improving them. The spirited youth, with some others under like pecuniary -embarrassments, rather than leave school, for a time sought bread in the -neighboring villages, and found way to the hearts of their benefactors by -singing at their doors. The songs of the boys seem to have been offered -and accepted as a remuneration for the material aid they needed, and -thus the depressing sense of mendicancy was not so seriously felt. He -earned his master’s degree when yet young, having by his proficiency in -both classical studies and philosophy attracted the attention of some -scholarly men. He left school with honors, but not happy. Soon after -began the great struggle of his eventful life. On a careful introspection -he found in his quickened soul cravings that human knowledge could not -satisfy. Educated a Catholic, and observant of all their rites and -ceremonies, but finding little comfort in them, in his unrest and almost -despondence, he entered a monastery, thinking by fastings, penance and -prayers to find relief for a wounded conscience. The way to him was dark; -the conflict terrible; the unhappy monk knew of sin, but not the Savior. -The day of his deliverance was at hand, though for a time he saw but the -dawn. With the Bible found in his cell as his almost only guide, he at -length clearly apprehended the way of salvation by faith alone—believing -he was justified. The change was great, and the whole tenor of his -after life confessed it. The strong, earnest, cultured man, rejoicing -now in the gospel liberty, himself baptized with the spirit and fully -consecrated to work for others, was a fit instrument for inaugurating any -needed reformation. Led by the spirit and ever true to his convictions, -he was soon, though wishing to avoid the issue, in open conflict with -the Papal authorities. How bravely, and with what results the battle was -fought, is well known. It was an open, manly fight. Any disguise with -him was simply impossible. He never masked his own position, nor sought -to flank that of the enemy. The warfare, on his part, was honorable, but -the shafts he forged were pointed, and hurled with tremendous force. His -multitudinous disquisitions, essays and replies came in quick succession, -as the exigencies of the controversy called for them. He wrote, any -reader will say, rapidly, from the fullness of his mind and heart; and -very few authors have left on their works so strong an impress of their -own personality. He is perhaps best known in his “Table Talk.” There is a -freshness in these off-hand sayings that is charming, and quite disarms -criticism. His greatest gift to the German people was his faithful -translation of the Bible into their vernacular, and his commentaries that -are still held in high esteem. The reformer’s influence, great while he -lived, has increased immensely during the four centuries. As a biblical -critic and expositor his ability is now recognized by the general church. -He held to the spiritual and supernatural in religion, but recognized the -human as well as divine factor in the books of the Bible, and in that, -too, the church is in sympathy with him. - - -THE TEMPERANCE QUESTION. - -Of this question it is the political aspect which at the present time is -most prominent. It is becoming a grave, disturbing force in our politics. -Viewing the temperance cause in the light of political action, it is -clear that it is advancing, and that those who have the cause at heart -have reason to thank God and take courage. No little chagrin was felt -when it was known that the noble action of the people of Iowa a year ago, -in voting for constitutional prohibition, was, owing to a technicality, -of none effect. But again in that great state the battle has been fought; -this time in a different way. The Republican party there had the wisdom -to champion the prohibition measure; this plank was squarely inserted -in the party platform, and in the campaign recently closed it was the -leading issue. We have the result of the election, and it should give -the friends of temperance encouragement and hope. A second time this -righteous principle has triumphed. The Republican party has won the day, -and if its avowed purpose is redeemed in the State of Iowa, the sale of -strong drink will soon be made a crime. We turn to the state of Ohio, -and here, too, we see sure tokens that the temperance cause is moving -forward. The confession comes from prominent politicians, that if, in -Ohio as in Iowa, their party had adopted prohibition it might have been -better. This was not done; but the question in the late election was -submitted to a popular vote and the result, all things considered, is -most encouraging. Some sanguine people may have had faith that the -prohibitory amendment would be carried, but perhaps the number was not -large. That it received the great vote it did in a state where the liquor -interest is of such magnitude and so strongly intrenched, is something to -cheer and make thankful the hearts of good people. - -One does not need the vision of a prophet to see that the day of the -triumph of prohibition in our country is coming on. The right is to -win. The time is in the not-distant future when state laws and state -constitutions will say that men shall not make their living by pandering -to the depraved appetite of fellow men. The rum-seller’s business will -be made illegal and criminal. Even those who are looking forward to the -prohibition of the liquor traffic by the national constitution will not -long be called fanatical and visionary. But meanwhile other work for -temperance besides that looking to this condition of things, so much to -be desired, should not be neglected. Personal effort to preserve the -youth and reclaim men is always demanded. People are clearly in error -who say: “Prohibition or nothing.” Laws whose aim is the curtailing of -liquor selling, should be sought, enacted, sustained and enforced as -better than none at all. Until we can have prohibition, let us have as -stringent restrictive enactments as possible. It is a short-sighted view -of things which prompts such a sentiment as this: “If we can not have -prohibition, let us have free rum.” The adage of the “half-loaf” and -the “whole” is full of sound wisdom. We can but think there are earnest -temperance men who make a grave mistake. Prohibition—unquestionably the -true measure to apply to the liquor traffic, and for whose adoption we -should persistently work—fills their minds and hearts. They bend their -energies to secure this. But for other legal measures, falling short -of this desideratum, and aiming only to restrict the wretched traffic, -they have no support. Everywhere restrictive liquor statutes are seen -very imperfectly executed for want of interest and determined effort -on the part of temperance people, whose rigid enforcement would work a -grateful change in our communities. If the law says that the saloon shall -not be opened on Sunday; that it shall be closed at a certain hour of -the night; that intoxicants shall not be sold to youth under a certain -age, or by any provision looks to the diminution of the great curse of -our people, it should be regarded as good so far as it goes, for so -much of prohibition as it contains, and should have the support of good -citizens, though their hope looks and their labors are directed to the -total prohibition by law of the sale of strong drink as a beverage. To -make the best and most of what we have is the true policy in every issue -of life. If we can not have prohibition now, we can see that our laws -are enforced. When they are thoroughly enforced, we will be much nearer -prohibition. - - -AN EXTRA DAY IN THE CALENDAR. - -“There is an island off the coast of New Zealand where the day of the -week changes. There Saturday is Sunday, and Sunday, Monday. When Sunday -noon closes, Monday noon begins. A man sits down to his dinner Sunday -noon, and it is Monday noon before he is done eating.” - -A correspondent sends us the above statement and asks, is it correct? We -answer: Not to the islanders, who, as ourselves, have but 365 solar days -in a year. But to a stranger coming there on his voyage round the world, -who has 366 at his disposal, it is true. He has one day to spare, has no -name or place for it in the week, and just drops it out of his reckoning, -as though it had never been. The explanation is simple enough, even for -the young. The revolution of the earth on its axis, from west to east, -once in 24 hours, gives the sun an apparent motion round the earth from -east to west. To us the sun rises and sets. The succession of day and -night is just the same as if the sun really went round the earth. As the -sun’s apparent motion is from east to west, a man traveling eastward, -at whatever speed, will see the sun rise, reach the meridian, and set, -a little sooner each day than the day before. So the time indicated by -his watch, and that by the sun will differ more and more as he goes on; -and what he gains each day in time will evidently be to a solar day, as -the distance traveled is to the earth’s circumference. One degree east -will make a difference of four minutes, fifteen degrees an hour, one -hundred and eighty degrees twelve hours. Having reached the one hundred -and eightieth meridian, his chronometer and the sun are just twelve hours -apart, so he changes his reckoning, to avoid confusion, and at noon -Sunday calls it Monday. The correction is of course too much, but if he -waits till beyond that time it amounts to more than half a day, and is -constantly increasing. If the error is to be corrected all at once—and -this is the only way that is found practicable—it should be done when it -amounts to half a day. When he has completed the circuit of the earth -a whole day will have been gained. If another man, from the same place -of departure, go west, or with the sun, he will lose a day, and the -two meeting would be, if neither had changed his reckoning, two whole -days apart—yet each had the same number of hours and minutes. He who -had the greater number of days had them just so much shorter. There is, -of course, no reason in the nature of things, why the days of the week -should be changed on the one hundred and eightieth meridian rather than -elsewhere. There must be some point from which longitude is reckoned, and -to avoid confusion English and American navigators agree on Greenwich, -near London, and their nautical charts, almanacs, etc., are arranged -accordingly. If they had taken as their starting point Washington, the -one hundred and eightieth meridian would have been west of where it is, -the number of degrees between the places. - - - - -EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK. - - -The privilege of joining the new C. L. S. C. class just forming will be -granted till the first day of January, 1884. This class will graduate -in 1887. It begins work with genuine Chautauqua enthusiasm. Send -applications for membership to Dr. J. H. Vincent, Plainfield, N. J. - - * * * * * - -The Protestant Episcopalians held their General Convention in -Philadelphia in October, and during this month they consecrated an -assistant Bishop for New York City, and another for the city of -Baltimore. The Methodist Episcopal Church will hold their General -Conference in the same city in May, 1884. - - * * * * * - -General Sherman says that he regards the Indian question as substantially -eliminated from the problem of the army. The completion of the -trans-continental lines of railway, and the extensive emigration into -the territories have made large contributions to the settlement of the -question. But for all that, we shall find many demands made upon us by -the Indians in the future. Fair treatment of them will go far toward -preventing trouble. - - * * * * * - -Governor Murray, of Utah, reports to the Secretary of the Interior that a -secret organization among the Mormons, which has been in existence for -a number of years, nullifies the laws of the United States and prevents -the execution of the decrees of the Supreme Court. The Governor proposes -to repeal the act giving a legislature to the territory, and to rule -the people directly by the United States Government. That is a good -suggestion, but why does not Governor Murray do something to prevent -Mormon missionaries importing men, and especially women, from European -countries to keep their ranks full? We send missionaries to foreign lands -to preach the gospel, and permit the Mormons to bring agents of evil over -here by the hundreds and thousands. - - * * * * * - -The lively canvass for the election of Mayor of Brooklyn, N. Y., has -brought to light the fact that the cost of the Brooklyn bridge was -$21,000,000. - - * * * * * - -That fine military organization known as the Cleveland Greys has decided -to purchase ten acres of land on the shores of Chautauqua Lake for a -summer camping ground. - - * * * * * - -General Sheridan is now commander of the armies of the United States. -His abilities as a fighter, which made his splendid reputation in the -Shenandoah Valley and on other fields of battle, are not needed now, but -rather the qualities which made him an excellent quartermaster as a staff -officer. The nation is to be congratulated that while the great generals -of the war, Grant and Sherman, are retiring, so capable and worthy an -officer as Sheridan, who won a world-wide fame by his skill and heroism -in battle, is promoted to this important command. - - * * * * * - -It is estimated that the German-American element in this country can not -fall short of nine millions. This embraces all that were born in the -Fatherland, and all that were born of German parents in this country, and -that speak the German language. - - * * * * * - -Three hundred thousand voters in Ohio declared themselves in favor of -constitutional prohibition at the election in October. The moral force -of that vote is tremendous. Never before did the Prohibitionists, who -believe in carrying their cause into politics, act more wisely than -when they compelled an old and powerful political organization to take -up their cause and plead for its success—“wisdom is justified of her -children.” If they did fail the effort was a great success, as is every -action for a good cause. When the dominant political party shall adopt -prohibition as one of the chief planks in its platform it will hold -the Christian and temperance voters in its ranks, but when it throws -this cause overboard these people will think seriously of turning their -political machinery upside down. - - * * * * * - -Mr. V. C. Dibble expresses these sensible views on a live question in a -recent number of the _Journal of Education_: “The objection to classical -culture rests upon the assumption that it is not practical; an assumption -which, although not uncommon, is nevertheless incorrect. There is no -issue between classical education and that which is practical. The only -education worthy of any serious advocacy is the practical—that which is -adapted to the condition of its subjects, and which will prepare them for -the real work which life will demand of them. Education is in fact life -begun.” - - * * * * * - -The paper on which the United States currency is printed is manufactured -at Dalton, Mass., and the Boston _Herald_, in a recent issue, gives -the following particulars: Eighteen or twenty Treasury girls, who earn -$3 a day, count the sheets, examining each one closely, and rejecting -all imperfect ones. An automatic register at the end of the machine -registers every sheet as it is cut off and laid down. The register man -takes them away in even hundreds, and they are immediately counted in -the drying room. In all the various processes of finishing every sheet -is counted, and they are again counted on their receipt at the Treasury -Department in Washington. The great protection of the government against -counterfeiting lies in the paper here made. The distinctive feature is -the introduction of colored silk threads into the body of the paper while -it is in the process of manufacture. They are introduced while the paper -is in the pulp, and are carried along with it to the end of the machine, -where it is delivered as actual paper. This has been more fatal than -anything else to the professional counterfeiters. - - * * * * * - -The political work during the past month has been a contest in several -states for state officers. Massachusetts has attracted the attention of -politicians everywhere, because General Butler was the most conspicuous -figure in the campaign. He was a musical candidate. Editors of political -papers never failed to criticise him and to praise him. He mixed up with -schools, charitable institutions, moral reforms, and the industries of -the state. He has been defeated by a heavy majority, and Mr. Robinson, -the Republican candidate, elected over him. It is now predicted by the -wise ones that this will close General Butler’s race for the presidency, -but this may prove to be false, because all ordinary rules fail when -applied to an abnormal character like General Butler. He rides the -stormiest sea of any man in American politics. - - * * * * * - -Concerning candidates for the Presidency, all aspirants seem to be using -a kind of tactics that will keep their names out of sight, while they -gather all the strength possible for the coming struggle. In late years -a number of eminent men have run well in the newspapers and in political -street talk, but when the votes were counted in the National Convention -they failed. Senator Don Cameron is in Europe, and rumor says he will -remain there till late in the summer of 1884. Ex-Senator Conkling has -lost his political influence, and Senator Logan is obliged to share -the political fortunes of his party in Illinois with Secretary Robert -Lincoln. This trio, Cameron, Conkling and Logan, who were mighty forces -in the last National Republican Convention, will not be able to dominate -the action of their states in the next campaign for the Presidency. -Perhaps, as one result, the voice of the people will be more potential, -and, in such a case, correct ideas of government will triumph. - - * * * * * - -Ready made houses is an important branch of manufacturing in some parts -of the country. “A correspondent of the _Old Colony Memorial_ paid a -visit not long ago to Fairfield, Maine, where a large establishment -is located for the production of these knock down houses, and he says -that few have any idea to what extent this business has been carried -in Waterville and its neighborhood, or to what perfection it has been -brought. In the establishment to which we refer dwelling houses are made, -like boots and shoes, in any quantity, and of any size or style, and -for any market in the wide world. Not long since this concern received -a single order for fifty houses for Cape May, to be delivered speedily -and in complete finish. These houses were to be, not sheds nor shanties, -but regularly ordered dwellings; and they were made accordingly and -so delivered, and contain hundreds of occupants at this moment. An -order will be received for a $50,000 hotel, or an ornate, French-roof, -cottage for a fine country estate, and these as easily and expeditiously -furnished as an ordinary boarding house for a country village, or a barn -for a ranch in Kansas or Colorado.” This would be a good plan for persons -to adopt who contemplate building cottages at Chautauqua. Try it. - - * * * * * - -“The first railroad in Palestine is being laid out, and the preliminary -survey has been completed as far as the Jordan. It is to run between -Acre and Damascus, and is called the Hamidié line, because it is named -after his present Majesty, the Sultan Abdul Hamid. Probably one reason -why the firman has been granted so easily lies in the fact that it passes -through a great extent of property which he has recently acquired, to -the east of the plain of Esdraelon. The concession is held by ten or -twelve gentlemen, some of whom are Moslems and some Christians, but all -are Ottoman subjects resident in Syria. Among the most influential are -the Messrs. Sursock, bankers, who own the greater part of the plain of -Esdraelon, and who have, therefore, a large interest in the success of -the line.” - - * * * * * - -Several eminent Englishmen have visited this country during the past -month. Lord Coleridge, representing the law, Henry Irving the stage, -Matthew Arnold, literature, and Père Hyacinthe, theology. The reception -of these gentlemen in our eastern cities indicates that the world has a -peculiar fondness for its own. Henry Irving was received by more people, -entertained more elegantly, and eulogized with more applause, than any -one in the list. Yet he has not done a tithe as much for the elevation -of his fellow men across the waters as any one of the others. Is it not -still true, “The children of this world are wiser in their generation -than the children of light?” - - * * * * * - -A Hindoo prophet, Babu Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, has come to this country -from the Orient. He was educated in the religion of Brahminism. Some -years ago he renounced idolatry, and in company with his cousin, Keshub -Chunder Sen, joined the Brahmo Somaj, a theistic movement started in 1830 -by Ram Mohun Roy. Mr. Sen and Mr. Mozoomdar have since become prominent -leaders in this religious and social movement. Mr. Mozoomdar left India -last spring for a tour around the world. He is about forty-two years of -age, is above the average height, is of dark complexion and finely-cut -features. He is the author of two books; one on “The Faith and Progress -of the Bramo Somaj,” and one just published entitled “The Oriental -Christ,” which is a devout and poetic conception of Christ as seen by an -Oriental mind. - - * * * * * - -The term “dude” is a very convenient nickname for the over-nice or -simpering individuals who are found in considerable numbers on every -line of the world’s work. There is the fashionable dude, scholarly dude, -literary dude, artistic dude, etc. They are a useless class of persons, -unless they serve as scare-crows to frighten other people from the line -of life on which they move. Perhaps this is as good service as can be -claimed at the hands of such a set of weaklings. - - * * * * * - -The Arctic relief expedition has proven to be a great failure. No relief -for the Greeley party was provided by the expedition, and yet it has -returned home. The verdict which public opinion seems to render is, that -the “Arctic Relief Expedition” was _badly managed_ from first to last. - - * * * * * - -It is said that one result of President Arthur’s visit to the Northwest -is a determination to appoint only residents of territories to the -important territorial offices. This is a concession to the people of the -territories who are dissatisfied with appointments from without. - - * * * * * - -The decision of the Supreme Court on the Civil Rights bill turns the -whole question over to the government of the states in which the colored -people live. If they do not secure justice there, they have another high -privilege in reserve, namely, the right of appeal to a higher court. - - * * * * * - -The dynamite explosions in October, on the underground railroad in -London, were ineffectual attempts as movements either against the city or -general government. Some Irish leaders claim that the Irish did not do -the mischief, but that designing Englishmen who mean to keep up perpetual -war between Ireland and England, were the guilty parties. The ways of -this conflict are as dark as the railroad tunnel under London. - - * * * * * - -The Chautauqua Board of Trustees will hold their annual meeting at the -Sherman House, in Jamestown, N. Y., on Wednesday and Thursday, the 9th -and 10th of January, 1884. - - * * * * * - -The _Deaf-Mute Advance_ comes to our table once every week, from -Jacksonville, Ill. As the name indicates, it is published in the interest -of deaf-mutes, and is doing much to inspire with a desire for education -the class of people to whom it ministers. In a late number the editor -says: “A young lady from the country came to Danville some days ago, -driven by a green boy, who had his first view of town life. She had -occasion to go to the Deaf and Dumb Institute, and the boy, when he -went home, said he saw the people there ‘winking at each other on their -fingers.’” - - * * * * * - -Mr. Moody successfully opened his great mission in England on Nov. 4. -Four meetings were held, each of which was attended by from 4,000 to -6,000 persons. The iron hall built for the occasion proved to be complete -in all its arrangements, affording seating room for 5,800 persons. All -around on the sides of the hall appropriate texts were displayed, such as -“God is Love,” and over the platform, “We pray you in Christ’s stead be -ye reconciled to God.” Mr. Sankey sang with customary effect. Mr. Moody’s -powerful addresses showed that he had not lost his hold on the people. At -the close of the evening meeting a man in the hall shouted out that Mr. -Moody’s last mission in London had been a failure. Mr. Moody answered by -calling for volunteers to come out boldly on the Lord’s side, whereupon -about three thousand men arose _en masse_. The incident caused much -excitement. - - * * * * * - -The first number of _The Outlook_, the paper published in the interest -of the class of ’84, is out. It is a stirring little sheet, brimming -over with class news, class gossip and class enthusiasm. The ’84s are -especially fortunate in having such an editor as Mr. Bridge to lead them. -This little quarterly will undoubtedly do much toward awakening the class -and making their closing year even more brilliant than their beginning. -Let every member subscribe. - - * * * * * - -A novel and entertaining exhibit was held in Paris in October. It was -called “The Exposition of the Incoherent Arts,” and was arranged by -and contributed to by young artists. Such a collection of absurdities -is rarely seen, this one being on a much larger scale than those in -previous years, and those who attend go to laugh. It is necessary to be a -Frenchman and a Parisian to thoroughly appreciate all the happy hits and -plays upon words, but even a foreigner can find food enough for laughter. -The proceeds of the exhibition are for the poor of Paris, and it is -expected that it will net quite a good sum. The exhibition abounds in -pictures of the realistic school. For instance, where there is a figure -wearing a shoe it will very likely be a genuine shoe attached; or hair -will be stuck on instead of painted, suns and moons be represented by -gold and silver paper pasted on, and one painting gives a ship sailing -along accompanied by fishes, the fishes being two or three regular dried -herrings glued to the canvas. One of the most prominent pictures is a -portrait of the lecturer and critic, M. Henri de Lapommeraye. The hair -and mustache, the eyeglass, the book just laid down, the letter he is -reading, and the glass of sugar and water at hand, are all real objects -attached to the picture, and of course, stand out most “naturally” from -the canvas. No. 85 is entitled, “Poem of a Pig.” It is a very striking -geometrical fantasy, the five different handlings of plain geometrical -figures giving a pig drama in five acts. First act, pig strolling along -seeking whom he may devour; second act, a sudden noise startles him, he -scents the wind; third act, feeling he is pursued, he turns his head; -fourth act, a knife shines in the air, he guesses, he flees; fifth act, -fate is fate, and the beast sees heaven. No. 167 is “A Wild Pansy” (study -of flowers). One forgets that “_une pensée sauvage_” can also mean a -savage thought, and the surprise comes in to find the flowers of the -picture are a fierce young boy and a scared-looking cat, and the boy is -murdering the cat by running a spear through its neck. These are but -samples of the whimsicalities. - - - - -ASTRONOMY OF THE HEAVENS FOR DECEMBER. - -By PROF. M. B. GOFF. - - -THE SUN. - -On the twenty-first day of this month, in our latitude, occurs the -shortest day in the year. The sun rises at 7:20 and sets at 4:37, making -the day’s length 9 hours, 17 minutes. This is also the day on which -properly our winter begins. The sun has reached the winter solstice, his -most southerly point, and now begins his journey northward, causing the -days to grow gradually longer. - - -THE MOON. - -The moon’s phases occur in the following order: First quarter, on the -7th, at 6:38 a. m.; full moon on the 13th, at 10:20 p. m.; last quarter -on the 21st, at 3 a. m., and new moon on the 29th, at 7:51 a. m., -Washington time (or, according to the “new reckoning,” eight minutes and -twelve seconds later in each case). The moon approaches nearest to the -earth on the 12th, at 10:24 a. m., and is farthest away on the 24th, at -10:12 a. m. Its greatest altitude in this latitude will be on the morning -of the 14th, when it will be 60° 53′ above the southern point of our -horizon. - - -MERCURY - -Will be evening star during the entire month. But it matters little, so -far as seeing it with the naked eye is concerned, until near the close -of the month, whether it be morning or evening star. On the 1st it sets -at 4:35 p. m., and is then too near the sun to be seen. On the 30th it -sets at 6 p. m., a few minutes before the moon, and about 5½° south of -the latter body. On the 31st it sets at 6:03 in the evening, about one -and one-third hours later than the sun, and 1½° north of where the sun -disappears. On both these evenings, and for several days both before and -after these times, this planet is visible to the ordinary eye, and by its -bright white light is readily recognized. Although visible several times -each year, it is a remarkable fact that it has been seen by comparatively -few persons. In the higher latitudes it is much more difficult to see -than in the lower, and the atmosphere of some parts of Europe is very -unfavorable for its observation. - - -VENUS - -Will also be evening star throughout the month, setting on the 1st at -5:36, and on the 31st at 6:36 in the evening. It is at its greatest -distance from the sun at 2 p. m. on the 12th. By far the brightest star -in the west after sunset, a failure to recognize it would be almost -impossible. It is the _Hesperus_ of the ancients. On the evening of the -31st it is about seven degrees south and a little west of the moon. - - -MARS - -Will be the morning star, rising at 9:45 p. m. on the 1st, and at 7:51 -p. m. on the 31st. From the 1st to the 23d it will have a direct motion, -that is, a motion from west to east, of 11 minutes and 18 seconds of arc; -on the 23d, it will be stationary, and from the 23d till the end of the -year it will have a retrograde motion, that is, from east to west, of one -minute and forty-two seconds of arc. About nine o’clock on the evening of -the 18th, it is north of the moon 8° 18′. - - -JUPITER, - -King of the planets, will also rank as morning star. On the 1st he will -rise at 8:33, and on the 31st at 6:23 in the evening, and like Mars will -maintain nearly the same position in the heavens during the whole month, -his motion being 9′ 22″ retrograde. On the 16th, at 9:51 p. m., he will -be 5° 43′ north of the moon. The moons of Jupiter can be readily seen -with a telescope of moderate power, or good opera glasses. - - -SATURN, - -Though properly an evening star, shines from “dewy eve till early dawn,” -rising on the 1st at 4:27 p. m., and setting next morning at 6:47; and -on the 31st rising at 2:21 in the afternoon, and setting the following -morning at 4:42. His motion will be 9′ 9″ retrograde, and on the 12th at -7:53 p. m., he will be 55 minutes north of the moon. The rings of Saturn -are an object of great interest to every observer and the present is a -favorable time to see them in great splendor, though the view in December -1884 and 1885 will be still finer. - - -URANUS - -Begins the month by rising at 1:02 a. m., (thus putting himself among the -morning stars), and at the close of the month at 11:11 p. m. His motion, -which is direct, but only 1′ 42″ in thirty days, seems slow enough, but -when we reflect that he actually travels an average absolute distance of -over thirty million miles a day, we can but wonder at his terrific speed. -He is located about two degrees southeast of _Beta Virginis_, and “can be -seen with the naked eye, if one knows where to look.” - - -NEPTUNE, - -The most distant of the planets, rises on the 1st at 3:30 p. m., and sets -on the 2d at 5:26 a. m., and on the 31st rises at 1:31 in the afternoon -and sets the following morning at 3:25. His motion is retrograde, and -amounts to 2′ 34″ for the month. This planet is of no special interest -to the ordinary reader, as “to recognize its disk with ease,” requires a -magnifying power of three hundred or upward. - - - - -C. S. L. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR DECEMBER. - - -EASY LESSONS IN VEGETABLE BIOLOGY. - -It will be observed that many of the words and expressions used by Dr. -Wythe in his “Lessons” are pronounced and explained in the “Glossary and -Index.” Where such explanations and pronunciations occur, of course no -notes have been prepared. - -P. 12.—“Albumen,” al-buˈmen. The word is derived from _albus_, the Latin -word for white. Albumen forms a part of all animal fluids and solids. The -white of an egg is almost pure albumen. In the vegetable world it is the -food laid up for the nourishment of the embryo around which it lies. - -P. 13.—“Slide.” A small slip of glass about three inches long by one -wide. It is intended to place objects on which are to be examined under -the microscope. The “cover” here referred to, is a square of very thin -glass, which is placed over the object to hold it in place. - -“Capillary attraction,” căpˈil-la-ry. When a capillary (hair-like) tube -is dipped into a liquid, there is an attraction between the solid and the -particles or molecules of the liquid which causes the latter to rise in -the tube if it wets it, or to sink if it does not. - -“Heated stage.” The simplest means for heating the stage or slide upon -which an object is placed, is by a small alcoholic lamp placed at the -corner of the stage. - -P. 15.—“32 deg. F.” 32 degrees on the Fahrenheit thermometer. This scale, -invented in 1714, by Fahrenheit, is commonly used in England and America, -although the centigrade scale (where the distance between the boiling -point and zero is divided into one hundred parts) takes its place largely -on the continent, and in most scientific works. - -P. 18.—“Amœba,” a-mœˈba. Readers who live in warm climates will have -no trouble in finding the _amœba_ attached to the stems of plants or -floating in pools of stagnant water. To find a specimen in December in -temperate latitudes will be more difficult, but by collecting grass and -stems of water plants, with water from a pool, and keeping them in a warm -room for a time, specimens may be obtained. - -P. 22.—“Cinchona,” cin-chōˈna. The tree from which the well known drug, -Peruvian bark, is obtained. - -“Quinine.” Kwiˈnīn is Webster’s preferred pronunciation, kwe-nīnˈ, -Worcester’s. Quinine is an alkaloid obtained from the cinchona bark. - -P. 28.—“Nucleus.” The nucleus may be easily seen in a thin section from -an apple or potato, placed under a microscope. - -“Mucilaginous,” mū-ci-lăgˈi-noŭs. Like mucilage. - -P. 29.—“Silica,” sĭlˈi-ca. Flint or quartz. - -P. 31.—“Tannin,” tănˈnin, or tannic acid. An astringent principle found -in nut-galls and the bark of many trees. If treated with ether a solid is -obtained which is soluble in water. It is used in tanning leather. - -“Starch.” The grains of starch are easily found. Wheat, oats, arrow-root, -sage and tapioca all furnish excellent examples. - -“Crystals.” Răphˈi-des is the name given by botanists to the little -crystals found in the tissues. A section of an onion will reveal them. -Also, the juice of the hyacinth. - -P. 34.—“Cochineal Cactus,” cŏchˈi-nēal. The cactus from which the -cochineal insects, whose bodies are sold in the shops for a red dye, are -obtained. The plant is also called cochineal fig, and is raised with as -great care for food for the insect, as is the mulberry tree for the silk -worm. - -P. 35.—“Vessels.” The “dotted” vessel, or duct, is a long, open tube -whose sides are marked by pores, or dots. A transverse section of a -radish will furnish an example. A fern will furnish an example of -“reticulated” cell; almost any common plant contains the “annular” and -“spiral” cells. - -P. 36.—“Epidermis.” All varieties of cells will be found in the epidermis -together with the mouths, or stomata. For examination a layer should be -carefully removed with a razor or knife, a little water put on it to -prevent too rapid drying, and the whole covered by a thin glass. - -P. 37.—“Volatile oil.” That which wastes away when exposed to the -atmosphere; as musk. - -P. 39.—To prepare sections of wood for slides there is a very simple -instrument which may be made at home by any one possessed of a little -ingenuity. Let a block of hard wood be selected, one and one-fourth -inches square by two inches in length, its ends perfectly smooth. In -one end drill a hole one-fourth of an inch in diameter, lengthwise, one -and one-half inches. In the other end insert a common wood screw, its -point filed square, until it reaches the hole. In the side of the block, -one-half inch from the end in which the hole has been bored, insert -another screw, with square point; this is to be used as a clamp. To cut -the section take a branch the proper diameter, and which has been boiled -in water, place it in the hole, and clamp solidly with the screw at the -side. With a keen razor cut off the end even with the block. By turning -the screw in the end of the block the branch will be pushed forward any -distance desired, and the section can be cut by a sliding motion of the -razor across the stem. The slices should be removed from the knife with -a camel’s hair brush, slightly dampened, and may be preserved in weak -spirits. The work is, of course, very delicate, and requires the skill -and nicety of touch which only practice brings. To mount the sections in -Canada balsam, as Dr. Wythe advises, the object should be placed exactly -in the center of the slide, which must be carefully cleaned from dust, -and a drop of the balsam placed upon it; hold the slide over a flame -until the balsam spreads over the object. Air bubbles should be broken -with a needle. A glass cover, warmed, should now be placed on the object -and pressed sufficiently to remove the superfluous balsam. The whole -should be put in a warm place until thoroughly dry. - -P. 42.—“Showers of blood,” or blood-rain. A shower of reddish dust mixed -with rain, which has been known to fall in several places on the eastern -coast of the Atlantic. - -P. 42.—“Diatoms.” “They are found in great abundance in the mud of -rivers, lakes and ponds. They are also present in those deposits of clay -which once formed the beds of rivers and lakes, and which are now dry. -In order to procure the diatoms from these deposits, the earth or clay -should be well washed with pure water, and the deposit allowed to settle -and the water poured off. This may be repeated several times. The deposit -is then to be washed with hydrochloric acid, and when the effervescence -is over, the acid is poured off, and a fresh portion is added. This may -be repeated several times. When no action occurs by its use cold, the -deposit may be transferred to a watch-glass, and kept over a spirit -lamp, at a temperature of about 200° for three or four hours. The deposit -must then be well washed with pure water, and will be found to consist -almost entirely of diatoms.”—_Lankester._ - -P. 47.—“Fungi,” fŭnˈji. No class is so easy to study in the winter. If -fruit, bread and the like are allowed to mould, any number of interesting -objects will be found. In the woods fungi are to be gathered from bark -and old logs. Of these the peziza, or cup-moulds will be found most -pleasing. Lichens also abound, and numerous sections can be made from -them. - -P. 62.—“Big Trees.” These Big Trees are Cedars (_sequoia gigantea_). -“Calaveras,” kä-lä-vāˈräs. - -“Buds.” Many plants form their buds in the fall. A careful search will -reveal such for examination. The lilac and trailing arbutus form their -flower buds in autumn, and in vigorous plants a section of the bud will -show distinctly the flower stowed away for spring. - -P. 63.—“Leaves.” “Opposite” leaves are seen in the chickweed and fuchsia; -“whorled,” in Prince’s pine; the “alternate,” in the rose family. The -arrangement of leaves on the stem has been reduced to a science, called -_phyllotaxy_. - -P. 64.—“Bracts.” Seen in the camellia and strawberry. The white portion -of the calla blossom is a colored bract called spathe; also, the “pulpit” -of the common Indian turnip or Jack-in-the-pulpit. - -“Sessile” leaves are seen in the upper leaves of the common primrose -and spring beauty. All plants of the violet and the rose families bear -_stipules_. - -P. 65.—“Lanceolate,” as in the peach; _oblong_, the radical leaves of -shepherd’s purse; _cordate_, in the blood-root; _sagittate_, in the stem -leaves of shepherd’s purse; _ovate_, in chickweed and violet; _pinnate_, -as in the rose; _bipinnate_, as in the sensitive plant. - -P. 68.—When the stamens and pistils are on separate trees or plants, the -fertilization is accomplished in various ways; insects or birds carry the -pollen in many cases, in others the wind wafts it. - -“_Hypogynous_,” as in the cress, radish, cabbage, and other cruciform -plants. - -P. 69.—_Perigynous_, as in the rose family; _epigynous_, as in the -caraway, celery, and parsnip. - -P. 76.—“Labiate.” The word means lip-shaped, and the order is named from -the peculiar shape of the corolla. - -P. 77.—“Composite,” or compounded; “Herbaceous,” her-bāˈshus. Plants with -soft stems which die every year. - -“Coriander,” cŏˌri-anˈder; “Asafœtida,” ăsˈa-fĕtˌi-da. - -P. 78.—“Papilionaceous,” pa-pĭlˈyo-nāˌshus. From the Latin for butterfly. - -“Tamarind,” tămˈa-rĭnd. A tree 60 to 80 feet in height, with dense -foliage. A native of Africa and India. Its pods are preserved and used as -a medicine, or as an article of diet. - -“Senna,” sĕnˈna. A drug prepared from the dried leaves of the cassia, -a shrub raised in India and Nubia. A variety of cassia is found in the -United States, but its leaves are less powerful. “Acacia,” a-kāˈshĭ-a, -“Mimosa,” mī-mōˈsa. - -P. 79.—“Ranunculus,” ra-nŭnˈcu-lŭs. The word means a little frog. Pliny -is said to have so named this species because many of its members grow in -water where frogs abound. - -“Aconite,” acˈo-nite. A plant related to the Hellebores; the common -wolf’s bane, or monk’s hood. - -“Cruciate,” kruˈshĭ-āt. The petals are arranged in the form of a cross. - -P. 80.—“Chimborazo,” chim-bo-rāˈzo. A peak of the Andes in Ecuador. It is -the sixth in height among the lofty peaks of the range. - -P. 82.—“Floras.” The whole number of plants native to any section forms -its flora. - -“Urticaceæ,” ur-ti-caˈce-æ. Nettles. - -P. 83.—“Rhododendrons,” rhōˌdo-dĕnˈdron; “Azalias,” a-zāˈle-as. These -plants both belong to the order of heathworts or _ericaceæ_, the order to -which the huckleberry, cranberry, trailing arbutus, and other well-known -plants belong. - - -BIOGRAPHICAL STORIES. - -P. 14.—This picture, West declared sixty-seven years after it was -painted, contained some touches that he never surpassed. - -P. 15.—“Camera-obscura,” cămˈe-ra obˌscūˈra. Literally, a dark chamber. - -P. 16.—“Parma.” A province in the north of Italy. - -“Death of Wolfe.” This picture contained one feature which at that -period was entirely new. West used costumes in his picture which were -appropriate to the time and character. Before this the classical costume -was used on all occasions. It is said that Sir Joshua Reynolds, the -president of the royal academy before West, tried to dissuade him from -this innovation, but was the first to acknowledge his success. - -P. 24.—“Gulliver,” gŭlˈli-ver. The hero of a satire, “Gulliver’s -Travels,” by Swift. He is represented first as a surgeon, and then as -captain of several ships. He takes voyages, during which he discovers -many strange countries, among them the country of the Lilliputs -(lĭlˈli-pŭt), a race of little men. - -P. 29.—“Uttoxeter,” ŭksˈe-ter. - -P. 34.—“Merry-Andrew.” One whose business it is to make sport for -others—a clown, a court fool. - -P. 68.—“Oxenstiern,” ŏksˌen-steernˈ. - -P. 70.—“Lutzen,” lootˈseen. A town of Prussia. - -P. 72.—“Muscovy,” musˈco-vy. The former name of Russia. - - -GERMAN HISTORY. - -P. 129, c. 1.—“Merovingians,” mer-o-vinˈgi-ans. The first Frankish king -of whom we have authentic accounts was Chlodio, who ruled about the -middle of the fifth century. His successor, Merovæus, gave his name to -the first _house_, or dynasty of the Franks; of him we know little more -than that he fought against Attila. - -“St. Remigius,” re-mijˈi-us, or St. Remy, rehˈmeˌ. (439?-533.) The -Apostle of the Franks. When but a young man he was made Bishop of Rheims. -By his zealous work he spread Christianity widely through the Frankish -kingdom. A contemporary declares him to have been the most eloquent man -of his times. - -“Rheims,” reemz. A city in northeastern France, whose bishops date from -the fourth century, and whose cathedral is one of the finest gothic -edifices in Europe. - -P. 129, c. 2.—“Arian.” The religion of Arius, a bishop of the fourth -century, who held that Christ, though chief of created beings, was not -equal to God. A book lately issued by Appleton & Co., “Arius the Libyan,” -will be found to be an interesting account of his life and doctrines. - -“Paris.” The first account which we have of Paris is from Cæsar, -who visited it in the last century before Christ. It was then but a -collection of huts on an island in the Seine, and was called Lutetia. - -“Poitiers,” poi-teerzˈ. A town of France, one hundred and eighty miles -southwest of Paris. - -“Abderrahman,” äbd-er-rähˈmän; “Viceroy,” vīceˈroy. One who rules in -the place of a king; a substitute. “Caliph,” cāˈliph. The successors of -Mohammed were all called caliphs. - -“Damascus.” Soon after the death of Mohammed Damascus was captured by his -followers and made their capital. Such it remained for ninety years. On -the fall of the Ommiyades, their successors, the Abbassides chose Bagdad -as their capital. - -P. 130, c. 1.—“Islam,” ĭzˈlam. Meaning obedience, submission, is a name -given to the religion of Mohammed. - -“Gregory I.” (540-604.) Born of a noble family and educated for public -life, he was made prefect of Rome in 573, but his strong religious -nature led him to give up his position, turn over his wealth to the -Church and become a monk. Through the fourteen years of his pontificate, -Gregory employed every means to purify and strengthen the Church, -sending missionaries into all parts of the world, combating Arianism and -rectifying many abuses. - -“Augustin.” The Apostle of the English. A Benedictine monk at Rome -when chosen by Gregory I. to go on a mission to the Saxons. He went to -England about 597, was received kindly by King Ethelbert, and allowed to -preach through Kent. After a time Ethelbert adopted Christianity and was -baptized. This led to the complete triumph of the religion throughout the -kingdom. Augustin was made Archbishop of Canterbury, and until his death -had charge of the Church in England. - -“Holy See.” A name given to the office of the pope, and also applied to -the pope himself, or his court. _See_ is derived from the Latin verb “to -sit,” and literally means a seat, or site, hence a place where power is -exercised. - -P. 130, c. 2.—“Asceticism,” as-cetˈi-cism. The practice common among -members of the early Church of withdrawing from all business and society -to devote themselves to a rigorous life of penance and self-denial. - -“Vatican Hill.” The _Mons Vaticanus_ of the ancient Romans, from which -the palace of the Vatican takes its name. - -“Dacia,” dāˈci-a. A province of the Romans north of the Danube, and -comprising parts of the present countries of Hungary, Transylvania and -Roumania. - -“Dalmatia,” dal-māˈti-a. A narrow strip of country lying along the -eastern shore of the Adriatic, now belonging to the Austro-Hungarian -Empire. - -“Istria,” isˈtri-a. A peninsula, now of Austria, on the northeastern -coast of the Adriatic. - -“The German Crown.” In 1806, one thousand and six years after the -crowning of Charlemagne, a league known as the Confederation of the -Rhine, and of which Napoleon Bonaparte was protector, was formed between -the central and southern German states. Its real object was to aid France -against Prussia and Austria. The king of Germany resigned his crown then, -and the empire came to an end. - -P. 131, c. 1.—“Roland.” Roland, or Orlando, was the nephew of King -Charlemagne, brought up by him and trained to be a warrior. He is the -hero of one of the most famous stories of the middle ages, “The Song of -Roland.” Various authors have used this tale. The _Orlando furioso_ of -Ariosto, and _Orlando innamorato_ of Boiardo, are prominent among these. -In a metrical narrative the story was sung by the minstrels of those -times. According to this song Charles had been seven years in Spain -warring against the heathen, until there remained but one king unsubdued, -Marsilius of Saragossa. He had promised homage, and the step-father of -Roland, Ganelon, was, by Roland’s advice, sent on an embassy to him. -Ganelon was angry because Roland had advised that he be sent, and in -revenge betrayed to Marsilius the pass through which the rear guard and -most valiant portion of Charles’ army, under Roland would pass. Charles, -with the body of his army, passed through, and when Roland appeared -with his twenty thousand men, an army of four hundred thousand heathens -attacked him. Roland fought until only a fragment remained before blowing -his enchanted horn to summon Charles to his aid. Before his uncle could -reach the pass every man was dead. The Saracens fled back to Spain, but -the king pursued, completely defeating them. But the death of Roland -robbed the conquest of all its glory, and threw France into mourning. - -“Paladin,” pălˈa-dĭn. A distinguished knight. - -“Roncesvalles,” ron-thĕs-välˈyĕs. The pass in which Roland and his band -were destroyed. - -“Otto the Great.” Otto I. (936-973.) - -“Ardennes,” arˌdenˈ. The forest of Ardennes lies in the northeastern part -of France, covering a portion of the department of the same name, and -extending into Belgium. - -P. 131, c. 2.—“Frisian,” frisˈi-an. Belonging to the Frisians, a tribe -formerly living beyond the Batavi, but pushed to the borders of the North -Sea by the Franks. - -“Aix,” āks. A town in southern France whose thermal springs were known to -the Romans. - -“Alcuin,” ălˈkwin. (735-804.) His great reputation for learning caused -Charles to invite him in 780 from England, his native country, to open -a school in France. This institution is supposed to have been the germ -of the present University of Paris. Alcuin afterward opened a school at -Tours, which became very famous. - -“Verden.” A town lying southeast of Bremen, in Prussia. - -P. 132, c. 1.—“Haroun-al-Raschid.” See notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for -November. - -“Bretons.” The inhabitants of Brittany, the triangular peninsula which -extends from the western coast of France into the Atlantic Ocean. - -“Almayne,” alˈ-main. - -P. 132, c. 2.—“Eginhard,” ĕgˈin-hart. He had been a pupil of Alcuin, -and by him was introduced at court. Eginhard’s history of Charles and -his accounts of the Franconian kings have given him a permanent place -among the writers of the middle ages. See Longfellow’s poem, “Emma and -Eginhard,” in “Tales of a Wayside Inn.” - - -NOTES ON GERMAN LITERATURE. - -It will be found helpful to read the extracts from German Literature in -connection with the “Outline of German Literature” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for -November, thus fixing the period to which each author belongs. Care has -been taken in selecting the extracts to choose only from those who are in -the first rank, and omit all minor writers. The selections are intended -to show the style of each, and the lines of thought which he followed. - -P. 132, c. 2.—“Würtzburg,” wurtsˈburg. A city of Bavaria on the Main, -whose history dates back to the sixth century. - -“Minster.” The word comes from the Latin _monasterium_, and is applied -to the church or chapel belonging to a monastery; also, as here, to a -cathedral. - -“War of Wartburg.” In 1206 the landgrave, Hermann I., summoned the poets -of his nation to a musical tournament in the castle of Wartburg, in the -Thuringian Forest. The competition ran so high that it was called the -Wartburg war, and in 1300, a poem, “The War of Wartburg,” appeared, -celebrating the event. - -P. 134, c. 1.—“Luther.” The value of Luther’s literary work can not be -estimated. As a poet, his hymns have won him a permanent place. Beside -his original verses, he re-arranged and set to music many of the Psalms, -thus really founding the church music of Germany. His translation of the -Bible must be counted his most important work; but beside this he left -a mass of sermons, theses, tracts and controversial writings which, at -the time of their writing, wielded wide influence. These latter show -most plainly the fiery spirit of their author, his clear conceptions of -truths, and his pure style. Special attention should be called to his -“Table Talk,” which contains numberless short and pithy statements of his -opinions, and to his Catechism on the Decalogue, Apostles’ Creed, and the -Lord’s Prayer. - -P. 134, c. 2.—“Nathan the Wise.” This was Lessing’s last drama, and -was written to show his own religious views and to advocate the wide -toleration in which he believed. The three chief characters, Nathan a -Jew, Saladin a Mohammedan, and a Christian are thrown together, and their -association causes a strong friendship in spite of their diverse views. -They practice the utmost charity toward each other. The story of the -“Three Rings” contains the point of the drama. It is taken from an old -Italian novel. - - -READINGS IN ART. - -P. 142, c. 1—“Nicolo Pisano,” pe-sāˈno. (1200?-1278?) His architectural -works are also important, he having designed churches for Padua, Venice -and Florence, and a campanile for Pisa. - -“Pisa,” peeˈsā. A city of Italy, west of Florence, on the river Arno. Its -cathedral contains much fine art. - -“Siena,” sĭ-enˈnā. A city of Tuscany, south of Florence. - -“St. Dominic,” dŏmˈĭ-nik. (1170-1221.) The founder of the order of -“preaching friars.” - -“Bologna,” bo-lonˈyā. An Italian city at the foot of the Appenines, and -north of Florence. - -“Andrea Orcagna,” or-kānˈyä. (1329-1389.) The son of a Florentine -sculptor who instructed him in art. His surname, Orcagna, is said to have -been a corruption of L’Archagnuolo (the Archangel). His fame as a painter -and architect was equal to that as a sculptor. - -“San Michele,” mĭ-kaˈla. The churches of Italy are almost without -exception named after the saint to which they are dedicated, as in this -case, San Michele, after St. Michael. - -“Giotto,” jŏtˈo. (1276-1336.) He was born near Florence, and brought up -a shepherd lad. While tending his sheep it is said that a Florentine -painter found him drawing on the surface of a rock, and was so convinced -of his genius that he took him to Florence to be educated. His talent -was so great that he was soon employed in the decoration of the church -at Assisi. The details of his life are not known except that he traveled -extensively through Italy, being employed in ornamenting many prominent -buildings. It is as a painter that Giotto is best known, and as such -he did much to awaken art from its unnatural and stiff forms, and to -introduce realism. “Campanile,” kăm-pa-nēˈla. - -“Ghiberti,” gee-bĕrˈtee. (1378-1455.) He learned the trade of a -goldsmith, but at that time the goldsmith’s art included others, -especially designing and coloring. At first Ghiberti was a fresco -painter, but was called to sculpture by his success with the bronze doors -over which he spent most of his life. “San Giovanni,” jo-vänˈnee. - -P. 142, c. 2.—“Donatello” do-nä-tĕlˈo. (1383-1466.) He was a native of -Florence. One of the Medici became his patron, and he was enabled to -apply himself to art. He was a painter of merit as well as a sculptor, -and the only one of the age worthy to be ranked with Ghiberti. - -“Brunelleschi,” broo-nĕl-lĕsˈkee. (1377-1444.) Better known as an -architect than as a sculptor. “Zenobius,” ze-noˈbi-us. - -“Lucca del Robbia,” del-robˈe-ä. (1400?-1463?) He was trained to the -goldsmith’s art, but took up sculpture. To him is attributed the interest -in porcelain which started in Europe in the fifteenth century. His -process of glazing was probably learned from the Saracens, and consisted -essentially in using stanniferous (containing tin) enamel. This rendered -the terra-cotta work permanent, and gave a white background. - -“Uffizi,” oof-fēˈtsi. “A palace of Florence whose galleries are among -the best of Europe. It contains paintings of all the principal European -schools, and many famous statues. There are halls devoted to sculptures -of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, drawings of the old masters, -engravings, ancient bronzes, medals, gems, cameos, intaglios, the whole -forming one of the finest collections in the world.” There is also a -library in the palace which is rich in manuscript and letters of Italian -writers. - -“Verrocchio,” vāirˌrokˈke-o. (1432-1488.) Of the very little known of -Verrocchio, the most interesting fact is that he was the first to take a -mould of the human form to aid in designing. - -“Leonardo da Vinci,” le-o-narˈdo dä vĭnˈchee. (1452-1519.) A native of -Florence. In youth he was recognized as an almost universal genius and -speedily surpassed all instructors. He became attached to the court of -Milan in 1483 as a musician and improvisatore, and remained there until -1499, when he removed to Florence. About this time he was employed in -various cities as an architect and engineer. He went to France in 1145 -with Francis I., as court painter, and there died. As a sculptor we have -no remains of his work. Vinci was as remarkable a thinker as artist. -Hallam says of his literary fragments: “They are like revelations of -physical truths vouchsafed to a single mind. The discoveries which made -Galileo and Kepler and other names illustrious, the system of Copernicus, -the very theories of recent geologies are anticipated by da Vinci, within -the compass of a few pages.” - -“Contucci,” con-tukˈche. “Sansovino,” sän-so-veeˈno. (1460-1529.) -Sansovino was a Florentine, and his early works were executed there. -Thence he went to Rome and worked, and in 1513 took charge of the Holy -House of Loreto, at which he worked until his death. - -P. 143, c. 1.—“Loreto,” lo-rāˈto. “The Holy House, in which, according -to tradition, the Virgin Mary was born, the annunciation and incarnation -took place, and the holy family resided on their return from Egypt. The -legend is that the house was transported by angels in 1291 from Nazareth -to the eastern coast of the Adriatic, and thence in 1294 to the coast of -Italy. It is a rudely built brick house, 13½ feet high, with one door and -one window.… The relics, treasures and offerings of different pilgrims -are numerous and valuable. The house is enclosed in a marble casing, -which is covered with exquisite sculptures.” - -“Buonarroti,” boo-ōˌnä-rotˈee. (1475-1563.) A painter, sculptor, and -architect. He came from a family of high rank. His artistic genius was -early displayed, and he was put under masters to study. Lorenzo de’ -Medici, pleased with his ability, took him to his palace, where he -studied until his patron’s death in 1492. He was summoned to Rome by -Julius II., to design his tomb, and in 1508 he began the decoration of -the Sistine chapel. When seventy years old he was called upon to take up -architecture, and finish St. Peter’s, then under way. For the rest of -his life he was engaged upon this church, together with several other -buildings of Rome. Michael Angelo was not only an artist, but a writer; -his sonnets are among the best in any literature. - -“Centaurs.” Fabulous creatures of mythology—half man and half horse. - -“Carrara,” kär-räˈrä. A city of northern Italy, which gives its name to a -chain of mountains belonging to the Appenines. They contain quarries of -fine and valuable marble. - -“Giuliano,” joo-le-äˈno; “Lorenzo,” lo-renˈzo; de’ Medici, da mĕdˈe-chee. -A family distinguished in Florentine history, of which Lorenzo, called -The Magnificent (1448-1492), was the most famous member. Giuliano, his -brother, was assassinated in 1478, an attempt being made against them -both, instigated, some say, by Pope Sixtus IV. - -“Modena,” modˈe-na; “Bagarelli,” bah-gah-rahˈlee. - -“Padua,” padˈu-a; “Riccio,” retˈcho. (1480-1532.) - -“Tatti,” tahˈtee. (1479-1570.) Also called Jacopo Sansovino, from his -master. Tatti was a Florentine, and worked in his native city and at Rome -until 1527, when he went to Venice; there he founded a school and did -much work. - -“Mars.” The Roman god of war, corresponding to the Greek Ares. - -“Neptune,” nepˈtune. In Roman mythology the god of the sea. The Poseidon -of the Greeks. - -P. 143, c. 2.—“Pacher,” paˈker. He lived about 1480. - -“Veit Stoss.” (1483-1533.) His early labors were in the churches of his -native city. The second period of his life was spent in Nuremberg where -many of his works remain. Of them it is said: “They are distinguished -by a tender fervor and grace, a mild softness of form, and a clearly -developed style of relief, with a great deal of life likeness.” - -“Jörg Syrlin,” yŭrg seerˈlen. He lived in the latter half of the -fifteenth century. - -“Riemenschneider,” reˌmen-schnīˈder; “Von Schrenburg,” fon schrenˈburg; -“Vischer,” fĭshˈer. He began his work in 1489, and died 1529. - -“Chef d’œuvre,” shā-doovrˈ, masterpiece. - -“Regensborg,” reˈgens-borg. The German name for Ratisbon, a city of -Bavaria. - -“Apollo,” a-pŏlˈlo. One of the most popular of Greek divinities. -Numerous offices were filled by him; he was the god of song and music, -of prophecy, of punishment, of protection, and of the sun. Smith says of -him: “It may safely be asserted that the Greeks would never have become -what they were without the worship of Apollo.” And again: “In him the -brightest side of the Grecian mind is asserted.” - -“Orpheus,” orˈphe-us. “Eurydice,” eu-ridˈi-ce. Orpheus was a poet and -musician of Grecian mythology. His lyre enchanted even the beasts of the -field, and the rocks were moved from their places at its sound. His wife, -Eurydice, died and was carried to Hades, but Orpheus followed and by the -music of his lyre won back his wife on condition that he should not look -upon her until they were past the bounds of the infernal regions. His -love overpowered him, he turned to see if she followed, only to see her -disappear. His grief, it is said, led him to treat the Thracian women -with contempt, and he was murdered by them. - -“Maximilian,” maks-ĭ-milˈyan; “Innsbrück,” insˈbrook. - -“Fontainebleau,” fonˈtanˌblōˈ. A suburb of Paris, famous for its splendid -palace. This palace was begun in the tenth century, and has been added -to, remodeled and ornamented by various monarchs since. Its architecture -is of all schools, its pictures, statues and books invaluable. - -P. 144, c. 1.—“Bernini,” bér-neeˈnee. He began work for the pope at the -age of eighteen, and spent several years on the churches and palaces of -Rome. His fame was so great that he was invited to Paris in 1665 to -complete the Louvre; but his plans for this were never carried out. His -latter life was spent in Italy. - -“Allessandro Algardi,” al-les-sanˈdro äl-garˈdee. (1598-1654.) “Puget,” -püˌˈzhaˌ. (1622-1694.) “Girardon,” zheˌrarˌdonˈ. (1628-1715.) “Houdon,” -ooˌdonˈ. (1741-1828.) - -“Pigalle,” peˌgalˈ. (1714-85.) “Duquesnoy,” düˌkaˈnwäˌ. (1594-1646.) -“Schlüter,” schlĭˈter. (1662-1714.) - -“Winckelman,” wĭnkˈel-män (1717-1768). A German archæologist. His -researches and writings stimulated the interest since taken in -archæology, and he is regarded as its founder. Also his theories of the -beautiful and “History of Art” opened a new field in German thought. - -“Canova,” kä-noˈvä; “Pompeii,” pom-peˈyi; “Herculaneum,” herˈcu-laˌne-um. - -“Theseus,” theˈse-us. A legendary hero of Attica, of whom many wonderful -adventures are told. This story of the Minotaur (a monster, half man, -half bull,) is that Theseus was taken to Crete along with the youths and -maidens which were offered every year to the monster. The king’s daughter -fell in love with him and gave him a sword with which he killed the -Minotaur, and then escaped from the labyrinth in which he was confined, -by a thread which he had unraveled as he went in. - -“Dannecker,” dänˈek-er. (1758-1841.) “Chaudet,” shoˈda. (1763-1810.) -“Thorwaldsen,” torˈwawld-sen; “Villa Carlotta,” vēˈlyâ car-lotˈa. - -“Gutenberg,” gooˈten-bĕrg. (1400?-1468.) The reputed inventor of printing. - -“Mayence,” māˈyângs. The French name for Mentz, a city of Hesse on the -banks of the Rhine. “Leuchtenberg,” loikˈten-bĕrg. - -P. 144, c. 2.—“Schadow,” shäˈdo; “Stettin,” stetˈteen. A town of Prussia. - -“Blücher,” blooˈker; “_Naïvete_,” näˈēv-tā, simplicity, ingenuousness. -“Rauch,” rowk; “Bülow,” büˈlo; “Scharnhorst,” sharnˈhorst; -“Charlottenburg,” shar-lutˈten-boorg. A town of Prussia. - -“Dürer,” düˈrer. (1471-1528.) A German painter and engraver. - -P. 145, c. 1.—“Thiergarten,” teerˈgar-ten. A park in Berlin. - -“Schierelbein,” shĕˈrel-bīn; “Dirschau,” deerˈshow. A town of Prussia. - -“Rietschel,” reetˈshel; “Friedenskirche,” frēˌdens-kerˈka; “Hähnel,” -häˈnel; “Brühl,” brül; “Schwanthaler,” shwänˈtä-ler; “Bosio,” boˈsi-o; -“Duret,” düˌrāˈ; “Pradier,” präˌde-āˈ; “Barye,” bäˈrēˌ. - -P. 145, c. 2.—“Steinhäuser,” stīnˈhow-zer; “Carlsruhe,” karlsˈroo; -“Hildebrand,” hilˈde-brand; “Kessels,” kĕsˈels. - - -SELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE. - -P. 146, c. 1.—“Whately,” hwātˈlĭ. (1787-1863.) Archbishop of Dublin; -author of several important works, chief among which is his “Elements of -Logic.” - -“Thackeray,” thăkˈe-rĭ. (1811-1863.) An English novelist. - -P. 146, c. 2.—“Steele.” (1671-1729.) An English essayist. - -“Addison.” (1672-1719.) An English poet and essayist. - -P. 147, c. 1.—“Benjamins,” “a smart coat.” It is said to have been so -called from a tailor of that name who first made it. Perhaps also from -association with the “coat of many colors.” - -“Purlieus,” pûrˈlūs. The outer part of the inn, here. The word means -_pure place_, and was first applied to that portion of the forest around -the castle which was free or pure from the forest laws; hence it came to -mean the outer part of any place. - -P. 147, c. 2.—“Plethoric,” ple-thorˈic; over-full. “Negus.” A drink -made from water, wine, sugar, nutmeg, and lemon-juice, and said to have -received its name from its first compounder, Colonel Negus. - -“Sunnyside.” Irving’s home on the Hudson, near Tarrytown. The house is an -old Dutch mansion. It was near here that Rip Van Winkle lived. - -“Eildon Hills,” eelˈdun. A group of hills in southern Scotland. - - - - -BOOKS RECEIVED. - - -“Putnam’s Handy Book Series of Things Worth Knowing.” Work for Women, -by George J. Manson. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West -Twenty-third Street, 1883. - -“The Primer of Politeness.” A Help to School and Home Government, by -Alex. M. Gow, A.M. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. - -“An Introduction to the History of Educational Theories,” by Oscar -Browning, M.A. New York: Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square, 1882. - -“The Life of Washington and the History of the American Revolution,” by -Washington Irving. With illustrations. Centennial edition. New York: G. -P. Putnam’s Sons, 1883. - -“Mother Truth’s Melodies.” Common Sense for Children—A Kindergarten, by -Mrs. E. P. Miller. Chicago and New York: Fairbanks, Palmer & Co., 1883. - -“The American Girl’s Home Book of Work and Play,” by Helen Campbell. -Illustrated. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1883. - -“Beyond the Gates,” by Elizabeth Stuart Phelps. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin -& Co., 1883. - -“Mary Lamb,” by Annie Gilchrist. Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1883. - -“Bright and Happy Homes.” A Household Guide and Companion, by Peter -Parley, Jr. Chicago & New York: Fairbanks, Palmer & Co., 1882. - -“Sketches and Anecdotes of American Methodists of ‘The Days that Are -no More,’” by Daniel Wise, D.D. New York: Phillips & Hunt; Cincinnati: -Walden & Stowe, 1883. - -“Handbook of Dates.” Arranged Alphabetically and Chronologically. -Compiled by Henry Clinton Brown. New York: A. Lovell & Co., 1883. - -“Library of Biblical and Theological Literature,” edited by George -R. Crooks, D.D., and John F. Hurst, D.D. New York: Phillips & Hunt; -Cincinnati: Walden & Stowe, 1883. - -“Contrary Winds, and Other Sermons,” by Wm. M. Taylor, D.D., LL.D. New -York: A. C. Armstrong & Son, 1883. - -“Arius the Libyan.” An Idyl of the Primitive Church. New York: D. -Appleton & Co., 1884. - -“A Text-Book of Inorganic Chemistry,” by Prof. Victor von Richter. -Authorized translation of the third German edition, by Edgar F. Smith, -A.M., Ph.D. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston, Son & Co., 1883. - -“Holland and Its People,” by Edmondo De Amicis. Translated from the -Italian by Caroline Tilton. Fifth edition. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. - -“All Aboard for Sunrise Lands.” A Trip through California, Across the -Pacific to Japan, China and Australia, by Edward A. Rand. Illustrated. -New York and Chicago: Fairbanks, Palmer & Co., 1883. - -“Summer Rambles in Europe,” by Alex. Clark. New York: Nelson & Phillips, -publishers, 1879. - - - - -INTERMEDIATE NORMAL CLASS. - -The list of names belonging to the Intermediate Normal Class should have -been inserted in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November. - - -PRIZE PAPERS. - -Mary D. Coles, 1st prize, 1367 Frankford Avenue, Phila., Pa. - -Dr. John A. Steven, 2d prize, 164 High street, Hartford, Conn. - -Wm. B. Stevenson, 3d prize, Leech’s Corners, Mercer Co., Pa. - - -DESERVING SPECIAL MENTION. - - Mrs. Mary W. Clark, West Brattleboro, Vt. - Anna C. Cobb, 1001 Fourth Avenue, New York. - Mary A. Lilley, Ypsilanti, Mich. - John L. Lowes, Canonsburg, Pa. - Anna M. Poppins, New Wilmington, Pa. - Nellie H. Skidmore, Fredonia, N. Y. - Emilie E. Streeter, W. Brattleboro, Vt. - Junia D. Uart, Dayton, O. - - -ADDITIONAL PAPERS. - - Emma L. Abbott, 3 Linden St., Provisena, R. I. - Mrs. W. C. Armor, Bradford, McKean Co., Pa. - Ida A. Baker, Hydetown, Pa. - Hattie Bierbower, 120 Chestnut St., Evansville, Ind. - Mrs. H. R. Blaisdell, Paris, Ky. - Ray B. Borden, Merchantville, N. J. - Clara J. Brown, Morning Sun, O. - Mrs. Vinolia A. Brown, Morning Sun, O. - Martha Buck, Carbondale, Ill. - E. W. Bushnell, Springfield, O. - Lizzie A. Call, Stafford, Gen. Co., N. Y. - Mrs. Hattie E. Chambers, Bradford, Pa. - Rev. H. L. Crumley, 29 E. Pine St., Atlanta, Ga. - Mary Dayton, 109 N. Chapin St., Binghamton, N. Y. - Mrs. H. M. S. Dithridge, Tionesta, Forest Co., Pa. - Harriet E. Elder, 1128 S. Michigan St., South Bend, Ind. - Ruie M. Ely, Bantam, Clermont Co., O. - Alice C. Ennig, Ennigsville, York Co., Pa. - Flora A. Ennig, Ennigsville, York Co., Pa. - Mary J. Ennig, Ennigsville, York Co., Pa. - Martha J. Evarts, Clarendon, N. Y. - Emma L. Firth, Titusville, Pa. - W. J. Fischer, Box 384, Alton, Ill. - Alice Foster, Leech’s Corners, Mercer Co., Pa. - Rev. James M. Foster, Leech’s Corners, Mercer Co., Pa. - Jennie Foster, Leech’s Corners, Mercer Co., Pa. - Mrs. Albert Gleaves, Evansville, Ind. - Ida E. Goodrich, Geneva, O. - Rev. W. H. Groves, Fayetteville, Tenn. - Miriam J. Guernsey, Canton, Pa. - Lizzie Heald, Moline, Ill. - Mary Herring, Tecumseh, Mich. - Emma K. Hine, Poland, O. - Cora J. Hoover, Flushing, Mich. - Myrtie C. Hudson, Ann Arbor, Mich. - Jennie H. Hunt, Olean, N. Y. - Arthur Hutchinson, Holley, N. Y. - Juliet W. Jennings, Ashtabula, O. - Maria R. Jones, Meriden, Conn. - Anna M. Lane, Liberty Falls, N. Y. - Mrs. O. S. Ludlow, Parma, Mich. - Sadie Lyle, 37 Liberty Street, Allegheny, Pa. - Emma L. Manchester, 247 Friendship St., Providence, R. I. - Jennie E. Martin, West Henrietta, N. Y. - Mrs. Ada T. McCollin, Sugar Grove, Pa. - Mina B. McCollister, Col. Inst., Ft. Edward, N. Y. - Amelia McGranahan, Kennard, Pa. - Maria McKitterick, Burlington, Iowa. - Sarah A. Mie, 267 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y. - Addie B. Morgan, Stapleton, Richmond Co., N. Y. - Mrs. C. O. Norris, W. Farmington, O. - Nellie M. Norris, W. Farmington, O. - Bartie Page, Frewsburg, Chautauqua Co., N. Y. - Mrs. M. E. Page, Frewsburg, Chautauqua Co., N. Y. - M. R. Palmer, 1011 Up. 6th St., Evansville, Ind. - Mrs. P. P. Pinney, Clarion, Pa. - Lucie A. Pooley, Bridgeville, Pa. - Mary C. Robinson, Albion, Mich. - Nannie M. Schenck, Osage City, Kansas. - Mary Scotten, Great Bend Village, Pa. - Mrs. Josiah Smith, Jeffersonville, N. Y. - Mrs. Rev. Wm. Smith, Howell, Mich. - Mary A. Sowers, Carbondale, Ill. - Rev. Orange H. Spoor, Charlotte, Mich. - Mary Stevenson, Leech’s Corners, Mercer Co., Pa. - Mrs. M. S. Stephenson, Herridon, Va. - Kittie M. Thorpe, Napoli, Cattaraugus Co., N. Y. - Mrs. Flora A. Wachter, St. Petersburg, Pa. - Minnie Ware, Stapleton, Richmond Co., N. Y. - Margaret A. Watts, 13th and Main Sts., Louisville, Ky. - Mattie R. Weaver, Latrobe, Pa. - Ella C. Webster, Tecumseh, Mich. - Mattie Wilcox, Chautauqua, N. Y. - Mrs. S. T. Williams, Sheffield, Pa. - Mrs. A. R. Worth, Indianola, Iowa. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: ROYAL BAKING POWDER - -Absolutely Pure.] - -This powder never varies. A marvel of purity, strength and wholesomeness. -More economical than the ordinary kinds, and can not be sold in -competition with the multitude of low test, short weight, alum or -phosphate powders. _Sold only in cans._ ROYAL BAKING POWDER CO., 106 Wall -Street, New York. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. - -Page 132, “Bagbad” changed to “Bagdad” (The Caliph of Bagdad) - -Page 142, “Sansorino” changed to “Sansovino” (Contucci, better known as -Sansovino) - -Page 142, “unparalled” changed to “unparalleled” (unparalleled in beauty) - -Page 143, “Würzburg” changed to “Würtzburg” (in the Würtzburg cathedral) - -Page 145, “Steinhaüser” changed to “Steinhäuser” (Carl Steinhäuser) - -Page 145, “unforgetable” changed to “unforgettable” (piquant and -unforgettable flavors) - -Page 146, “antithises” changed to “antitheses” (and pointed antitheses) - -Page 151, “chipmuck” changed to “chipmunk” (the chipping squirrel, -chipmunk) - -Page 159, “until” added (not entirely superseded by implements of steel -until the latter part of last century) - -Page 174, “unicellar” changed to “unicellular” (the unicellular plants) - -Page 182, “pensêe” changed to “pensée” (une pensée sauvage) - -Page 187, “Posidon” changed to “Poseidon” (The Poseidon of the Greeks.) - -Page 187, accents added to Innsbrück, Blücher, and Steinhäuser. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Chautauquan, Vol. 04, December 1883, by -The Chautauquan Literary and Scientific Circle - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHAUTAUQUAN, VOL. 04 *** - -***** This file should be named 55112-0.txt or 55112-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/1/1/55112/ - -Produced by Emmy, Juliet Sutherland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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