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diff --git a/old/55096-0.txt b/old/55096-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6fb7126..0000000 --- a/old/55096-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15481 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The American Race, by Daniel G. (Daniel -Garrison) Brinton - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The American Race - A Linguistic Classification and Ethnographic Description of the Native Tribes of North and South America - - -Author: Daniel G. (Daniel Garrison) Brinton - - - -Release Date: July 12, 2017 [eBook #55096] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN RACE*** - - -E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/americanraceling00briniala - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Obvious printing, punctuation and spelling errors in the - English have been corrected. Others may exist in the - American native languages. - - There is great variation in the spelling of tribal names. - - - - - -THE AMERICAN RACE: - -A Linguistic Classification and Ethnographic -Description of the Native Tribes of -North and South America - -by - -DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., - -Professor of American Archæology and Linguistics in the University of -Pennsylvania, and of General Ethnology at the Academy of Natural -Sciences, Philadelphia; Vice-President of the Congrès International -des Américanistes; Medallist of the Société Américaine de France; -President of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, -and of the University Archæological Association of the University of -Pennsylvania; Member of the Anthropological Societies of Berlin and -Vienna, and of the Ethnographical Societies of Paris and Florence; -of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, Copenhagen, and of the Royal -Society of History, Madrid; of the American Philosophical Society, -the American Antiquarian Society, etc. - - - - - - -Philadelphia -David Mckay, Publisher -1022 Market Street. -1901 - -Copyright. -Daniel G. Brinton. -1891. - - - - - TO THE - CONGRÈS INTERNATIONAL DES AMÉRICANISTES, - AN ASSOCIATION - WHOSE BROAD SYMPATHIES AND ENLIGHTENED SPIRIT - ILLUSTRATE THE NOBLEST ASPECTS OF SCIENCE, - AND WHOSE EXCELLENT WORK IN - AMERICAN ETHNOGRAPHY, ARCHÆOLOGY, AND EARLY HISTORY - HAS CREATED A DEEP AND ABIDING INTEREST IN - THESE STUDIES THROUGHOUT EUROPE, - THIS WORK - IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED - BY THE - AUTHOR. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -So far as I know, this is the first attempt at a systematic -classification of the whole American race on the basis of language. I do -not overlook Dr. Latham’s meritorious effort nearly forty years ago; but -the deficiency of material at that time obliged him to depart from the -linguistic scheme and accept other guides. - -While not depreciating the value of physical data, of culture and -traditional history, I have constantly placed these subordinate to -relationship as indicated by grammar and lexicography. There are -well-known examples in the ethnography of other races, where reliance -on language alone would lead the investigator astray; but all serious -students of the native American tribes are united in the opinion -that with them no other clue can compare to it in general results. -Consequently the Bureau of Ethnology of the United States and the -similar departments in the governments of Canada and Mexico have agreed -in adopting officially the linguistic classification for the aboriginal -population within their several territories. - -Wherever the material permitted it, I have ranked the grammatic structure -of a language superior to its lexical elements in deciding upon -relationship. In this I follow the precepts and examples of students of -the Aryan and Semitic stocks; although their methods have been rejected -by some who have written on American tongues. As for myself, I am -abidingly convinced that the morphology of any language whatever is its -most permanent and characteristic feature. - -It has been my effort to pay especial attention to those portions of the -continent whose ethnography remains obscure. The publications of official -bodies, as well as those of numerous societies and individuals, have -cleared up most of the difficulties in that portion of the continent -north of Mexico; hence it is to the remainder that I have given greater -space. The subject, however, is so vast, and the material so abundant, -that I fear the reader may be disappointed by the brevity of the -descriptions I have allowed to the several stocks. - -The outlines of the classification and the general arrangement of -the material are those which for several years I have adopted in my -lecture courses before the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. -In fact, this volume may properly be regarded as an expansion of the -ninth lecture--that on “The American Race,”--in my lectures on general -ethnography, published last year under the title “Races and Peoples.” - -In defining the locations of the various tribes, I have encountered many -difficulties from their frequent removals. As a rule I have assigned a -tribe the location where it was first encountered and identified by the -white explorers; though sometimes I have preferred some later location -where its activity was longest known. - -The great variety of the orthography of tribal names has led me to follow -the rule of selecting that which is locally the most usual. This variety -has been not a little increased by what seems to me the pedantry of many -learned writers, who insist on spelling every native name they mention -according to some phonetic system of their own devising--thus adding to -the already lamentable orthographic confusion. - -I have not thought it advisable to adopt terminations to designate stocks -as distinguished from tribes. The Bureau of Ethnology has adopted for -stocks the termination _an_, as “Algonkian,” “Siouian.” This frequently -gives terms of strange appearance, and is open to some other objections. -It would be desirable to have this question of terminology decided by -the International Congress of Americanists, on some plan applicable to -French, German and Spanish, as well as English, rather than to have it -left to a local body or a single authority. - -My thanks are due Mr. H. W. Henshaw, editor of the _American -Anthropologist_, for revising the list of North Pacific Coast Stocks, and -various suggestions. - -I regret that I have not been able to avail myself of the unpublished -material in the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington; but access to this -was denied me except under the condition that I should not use in any -published work the information thus obtained; a proviso scarcely so -liberal as I had expected. - - _Philadelphia, February, 1891._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - Preface xi - - Table of Contents xiii - - INTRODUCTORY. - - RACIAL HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS. - - Theories of the Origin of the American Race. The “ten lost - tribes.” The “lost Atlantis.” Fu-sang. Supposed Asiatic - immigrations. When man first appeared in America. The - Glacial Epoch. The Post-glacial Era. Oldest relics of man - in America; in California; in Nicaragua; in the Columbian - gravel; in the modified drift; in the loess and moraines. - Man did not originate in America. Physical geography of the - early Quaternary Period. Land connection of North America - with Europe. Opinions of geologists. Remoteness of the - Glacial Epoch. Scheme of the Age of Man in America. “Area of - characterization” of the American Race. Permanence of racial - traits. Cranial forms. Cephalic index. Os Incæ. Cranial - capacity. Color. Hair. Stature. Uniformity of racial type. - Mental endowments. Native culture. Gentile organization. - Marriage. Position of woman. Agriculture. Domestic animals. - Useful arts. Religions. Myths. Symbolism. Opinions about - death. Medicine men. Languages. Linguistic stocks. General - classification. 17-58 - - NORTH AMERICAN TRIBES. - - I. THE NORTH ATLANTIC GROUP. - - 1. The Eskimos or Innuit, and Aleutians 59-67 - - 2. The Beothuks 67-68 - - 3. The Athabascans or Tinné 68-74 - - 4. The Algonkins 74-80 - - 5. The Iroquois 81-85 - - 6. The Chahta-Muskokis 85-89 - - 7. The Catawbas, Yuchis, Timucuas, Natchez, Chetimachas, - Tonicas, Adaize, Atakapas, Carankaways, Tonkaways, - Coahuiltecans, Maratins 89-94 - - 8. The Pawnees or Caddoes 95-97 - - 9. The Dakotas or Sioux 98-101 - - 10. The Kioways 101-102 - - II. THE NORTH PACIFIC GROUP. - - 1. The Northwest Coast and Californian Tribes: The Tlinkit or - Kolosch; the Haidahs; the Salish; the Sahaptins or Nez - Percés, etc. 103-109 - - 2. The Yumas 109-113 - - 3. The Pueblo Tribes 113-117 - - III. THE CENTRAL GROUP. - - 1. The Uto-Aztecan Stock 118 - - a. The Ute or Shoshonian Branch 120-123 - - b. The Sonoran Branch 123-127 - - c. The Nahuatl Branch 128-134 - - 2. The Otomis 135-136 - - 3. The Tarascos 136-138 - - 4. The Totonacos 139-140 - - 5. The Zapotecs and Mixtecs 140-142 - - 6. The Zoques and Mixes 143-144 - - 7. The Chinantecs 144 - - 8. The Chapanecs and Mangues 145 - - 9. Chontals and Popolocas, Tequistlatecas and Matagalpas 146-153 - - 10. The Mayas 153-159 - - 11. The Huaves, Subtiabas, Lencas, Xincas, Xicaques, “Caribs,” - Musquitos, Ulvas, Ramas, Payas, Guatusos 159-164 - - SOUTH AMERICAN TRIBES. - - General Remarks 165-171 - - I. THE SOUTH PACIFIC GROUP. - - 1. THE COLUMBIAN REGION. 172 - - 1. Tribes of the Isthmus and adjacent coast: The Cunas, - Changuinas, Chocos, Caracas, Timotes and others 173-181 - - 2. The Chibchas 181-188 - - 3. The Paniquitas and Paezes 189-192 - - 4. South Columbian Tribes: Natives of Cauca; Coconucos, - Barbacoas, Andaquis, Mocoas, Cañaris 192-201 - - 2. THE PERUVIAN REGION. 202 - - 1. The Kechuas 203-216 - - 2. The Aymaras 216-221 - - 3. The Puquinas 221-224 - - 4. The Yuncas 224-226 - - 5. The Atacameños and Changos 226-228 - - II. THE SOUTH ATLANTIC GROUP. - - 1. THE AMAZONIAN REGION. 229 - - 1. The Tupis 229-236 - - 2. The Tapuyas 236-241 - - 3. The Arawaks 241-250 - - 4. The Caribs 251-258 - - 5. The Cariris 258-259 - - 6. The Coroados, Carajas and others 259-262 - - 7. The Orinoco Basin; Carib sub-stock; Salivas; Arawak - sub-stock; Otomacos; Guamas; Guaybas; Guaraunos; - Betoyas; Churoyas; Piaroas; Puinavis 262-278 - - 8. The Upper Amazonian Basin. List of Languages: - The Zaparos; the Jivaros; the Maynas; the Yameos or - Lamas; the Ardas; the Pebas; the Yaguas; the Itucales; - the Ticunas; the Hibitos; the Panos; the Pammarys; the - Arauas; the Hypurinas 278-295 - - 9. The Bolivian Highlands. The Chiquitos; the Yurucares; - the Mosetenas; the Tacanas; the Samucus; the - Canichanas; the Cayubabas; the Apolistas; the - Otuquis; the Ites, and others 295-306 - - 2. THE PAMPEAN REGION. 306 - - 1. The Gran Chaco and its stocks. The Guaycurus, Lules, - Matacos and Payaguas. The Lenguas, Charruas, Guatos, - Calchaquis 307-321 - - 2. The Pampeans and Araucanians. The Chonos 321-327 - - 3. The Patagonians and Fuegians. The Tzonecas. The Yahgans, - Onas and Alikulufs 327-332 - - Linguistic Appendix 333 - - Vocabularies 335 - - Additions and Corrections 365 - - Index of Authors 369 - - Index of Subjects 374 - - - - -THE AMERICAN RACE. - - - - -INTRODUCTORY. - -RACIAL HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS. - - -The differentiation of the species Man into various races, with permanent -traits and inhabiting definite areas, took place early in the present -geologic epoch. Of these races there are four which are well-marked, -each developed in one of the continental areas as they existed at the -time referred to. They are the Eurafrican or white, the Austafrican or -black, the Asian or yellow, and the American or red race. The color-names -given them are merely approximations, and are retained for the sake of -convenience, and as expressing a general and obvious characteristic.[1] - -The American race was that which was found occupying the whole of the -New World when it first became revealed to Europeans. Its members are -popularly known as “Indians,” or “American Indians,” because Columbus -thought that the western islands which he discovered were part of India; -and his error has been perpetuated in the usually received appellation -of its inhabitants. To the ethnographer, however, they are the only -“Americans,” and their race is the “American Race.” - -When investigation proved that the continent was not a part of Asia, but -a vast independent land-area surrounded by wide oceans, the learned began -to puzzle themselves with the problem of the origin of its inhabitants. -The Hebrew myths of the creation of man and of a universal deluge in -which the whole species perished except a few in Western Asia, for a -long time controlled the direction of such speculations. The wildest as -well as the most diverse hypotheses were brought forward and defended -with great display of erudition. One of the most curious was that which -advanced the notion that the Americans were the descendants of the ten -“lost tribes of Israel.” No one, at present, would acknowledge himself a -believer in this theory; but it has not proved useless, as we owe to it -the publication of several most valuable works.[2] - -Another equally vain dream was that of “the lost Atlantis,” a great -island or land-connection which was imagined to have existed within -recent times between Northern Africa and South America. A reminiscence -of it was supposed to have survived in a story of the Egyptian priests -preserved by Plato, that beyond the Pillars of Hercules was a great -island which had since sunk in the sea. The account may have referred -to the Canary Islands, but certainly not to any land-bridge across the -Atlantic to the American Continent. Such did exist, indeed, but far -back in the Eocene period of the Tertiary, long before man appeared on -the scene. The wide difference between the existing flora and fauna of -Africa and South America proves that there has been no connection in the -lifetime of the present species.[3] - -Scarcely less incredible are the theories which still have some -distinguished advocates, that the continent was peopled from Polynesia, -or directly from Japan or China. Several laborious works have been -compiled with reference to “Fu Sang,” a land referred to as east of -China, and identified by these writers with Mexico. A distinguished -ethnologist has recently published a map showing the courses by which he -supposes the Japanese arrived in America.[4] - -It is not impossible that in recent centuries some junks may have drifted -on the Northwest coast. But their crews would undoubtedly have been -promptly slaughtered; and it is only in later ages that the Chinese -or Japanese constructed such junks. The theory, therefore, offers no -solution to the problem. Still less does that in reference to the -Polynesians. They had no such craft as junks, and though bold navigators, -were wholly unprepared to survive so long a voyage as from the nearest -of the islands of Oceanica to the coast of America. Moreover, we have -satisfactory proof that the eastern islands of Polynesia were peopled -from the western islands at a recent date, that is, within two thousand -years. - -Probably the favorite theory at the present day is that the first -inhabitants of the New World came from northeastern Asia, either by -the Aleutian islands or across Behring Strait. Concerning the Aleutian -islands we know by the evidence of language and archæology that they -were first peopled from America, and not from Asia. Moreover, they -are separated one from the other in places by hundreds of miles of a -peculiarly stormy and dangerous sea.[5] - -It is otherwise with Behring Straits. From East Cape in Siberia one can -see the American shore, and when first explored the tribes on each side -were in frequent communication. No doubt this had been going on for a -long time, and thus they had influenced each other in blood and culture. -But so long as we have any knowledge of the movings at this point, they -have been _from_ America into Asia, the Eskimos pushing their settlements -along the Asian coast. It will be replied that we should look to a period -anterior to the Eskimos. Any migration at that remote epoch is refuted -by other considerations. We know that Siberia was not peopled till late -in the Neolithic times, and what is more, that the vicinity of the strait -and the whole coast of Alaska were, till a very modern geologic period, -covered by enormous glaciers which would have prevented any communication -between the two continents.[6] These considerations reduce any possible -migrations at this point to such as may have taken place long after -America, both North and South, possessed a widespread population. - -The question which should be posed as preliminary to all such -speculations is, _When_ did man first appear on this isolated continent? - -To answer this we must study its later geological history, the events -which have occurred since the close of the Tertiary, that is, during the -Quaternary age. - -In North and also in South America that age was characterized by one -notable event, which impressed its presence by lasting memorials on the -surface of the continent. This was the formation of a series of enormous -glaciers, covering the soil of nearly half the temperate zones with a -mass of ice thousands of feet in thickness. The period of its presence -is called the Great Ice Age or the Glacial Epoch. Beyond the immediate -limits of the ice it may not have been a season of extreme cold, for -glaciers form more rapidly when the temperature is not much below the -freezing point. Nor was it continuous. The ice sheet receded once, -if not twice, causing an “interglacial” epoch, when the climate was -comparatively mild. After this interim it seems to have advanced again -with renewed might, and to have extended its crystalline walls down to -about the fortieth parallel of latitude, touching the Atlantic near -Boston and New York harbors, and stretching nearly across the continent -in an irregular line, generally a little north of the Ohio and a little -south of the Missouri rivers. Enormous ice masses covered the Pacific -Slope as far south as the mouth of the Columbia river, and extended over -1200 miles along the coast, submerging the whole of Queen Charlotte and -Vancouver islands and the neighboring coast of British Columbia, which at -that time were depressed about two hundred feet below the present level. -The ice also covered for four hundred miles or more the plateau or Great -Basin between the Rocky Mountains and the Coast Range, rising in some -places in a solid mass five or six thousand feet above the soil.[7] - -The melting of the second glacial inroad began at the east, and on the -Pacific coast has not yet ceased. Its margin across the continent is -still distinctly defined by a long line of débris piled up in “moraines,” -and by a fringe of gravel and sand called the “overwash,” carried from -these by the mighty floods which accompanied the great thaw. This period -of melting is the “Post-glacial Era.” It was accompanied by extensive -changes in the land-levels and in temperature. - -In the glacial and early post-glacial periods, the northern regions of -the continent and the bottom of the Northern Atlantic were considerably -above their present levels; but in the late post-glacial or “Champlain” -period the land had sunk so much that at Lake Champlain it was five -hundred feet lower than now, and at New York Harbor ten feet lower. The -St. Lawrence river was then an arm of the sea, Lake Champlain was a deep -bay, and the mouth of the Delaware river was where the city of Trenton -now stands, the river itself being a wide inlet.[8] - -The climate, which in the early post-glacial period had been so cold -that the reindeer enjoyed an agreeable home as far south as Kentucky, -changed to such mildness that two species of elephants, the giant sloth -and the peccary, found congenial pasturage in the Upper Ohio and Delaware -Valleys.[9] - -The interest which this piece of geologic history has for us in this -connection is the presence of man in America during all the time that -these tremendous events were taking place. We know he was there, from -the evidence he has left behind him in the various strata and deposits -attributable to the different agencies I have described. How far back -his most ancient relics carry us, is not quite clear. By some, the -stone implements from Table Mountain, California, and a skull found in -the auriferous gravel in Calaveras county, California, are claimed to -antedate any relics east of the mountains. These stone utensils are, -however, too perfect, they speak for a too specialized condition of the -arts, to be attributable to a primitive condition of man; and as for -the Calaveras skull, the record of its discovery is too unsatisfactory. -Furthermore, in a volcanic country such as the Pacific coast, phenomena -of elevation and subsidence occur with rapidity, and do not offer the -same evidence of antiquity as in more stable lands. - -This is an important point, and applies to a series of archæological -discoveries which have been announced from time to time from the Pacific -coast. Thus, in Nicaragua, human foot-prints have been found in compact -tufa at a depth of twenty-one feet beneath the surface soil, and overlaid -by repeated later volcanic deposits. But a careful examination of all -their surroundings, especially of the organic remains at a yet greater -depth, leads inevitably to the conclusion that these foot-prints cannot -be ascribed to any very remote antiquity.[10] The singular changes in -the Pacific seaboard are again illustrated along the coast of Ecuador -and Peru. For some sixty miles north and south near the mouth of the -Esmeraldas river there is a deposit of marine clay six or eight feet -thick underlying the surface soil in a continuous stratum. Under this -again is a horizon of sand and loam containing rude stone implements, and -what is significant, fragments of rough pottery and gold ornaments.[11] -This shows conclusively that an extensive and prolonged subsidence took -place in that locality not only after man reached there, but after he had -developed the important art of the manufacture of clay vessels. This was -certainly not at the beginning of his appearance on the scene; and the -theory of any vast antiquity for such relics is not tenable. - -The lowest, that is, the oldest, deposit on the eastern coast in which -any relics of human industry are claimed to have been found, is that -known as the “Columbian gravel.” This is considered by geologists to -have been formed in the height of the first glacial period. From its -undisturbed layers have been exhumed stones bearing the marks of rough -shaping, so as to serve the purpose of rude primitive weapons.[12] - -During the first or main Inter-glacial Period was deposited the “modified -drift.” In a terrace of this material on the Mississippi, near Little -Falls, Minnesota, Miss Babbitt found numerous quartz chips regarded by -competent archæologists as artificial products.[13] They represent the -refuse of an early workshop near the quartz veins in that vicinity, -and were cast aside by the pristine implement-maker when the Minnesota -glacier was receding for the last time, but still lifted its icy walls -five or ten miles above the present site of Little Falls. - -The extensive beds of loess which cover many thousand square miles in -the Central United States are referred to the second Glacial Epoch. -Professor Aughey reports the finding of rudely chipped arrowhead in this -loess as it occurs in the Missouri Valley. They lay immediately beneath -the vertebra of an elephant, an animal, I need scarcely add, long since -extinct. Another proof of man’s presence about that date is a primitive -hearth discovered in digging a well along the old beach of Lake Ontario. -According to that competent geologist, Professor Gilbert, this dated from -a period when the northern shore of that body of water was the sheer wall -of a mighty glacier, and the channel of the Niagara river had not yet -begun to be furrowed out of the rock by the receding waters.[14] Other -finds which must be referred to about this epoch are those by McGee of a -chipped obsidian implement in the lacustrine marls of western Nevada; and -that of a fragment of a human skull in the westernmost extension of the -loess in Colorado.[15] - -More conclusive than these are the repeated discoveries of implements, -chipped from hard stones, in deposits of loess and gravels in Ohio and -Indiana, which deposits, without doubt, represent a closing episode -of the last Glacial Epoch. There may be some question about the -geologic age of the former finds, but about these there is none. They -prove beyond cavil that during the closing scenes of the Quaternary -in North America, man, tool-making, fire-using man, was present and -active.[16] This decision is not only confirmed, but greatly extended, -by the researches of Dr. C. C. Abbott and others in the gravels about -Trenton, on the Delaware. These were laid down contemporaneously with -the terminal moraine in Ohio and Indiana, from which the palæoliths were -exhumed. Abbott’s discoveries include several hundred stone implements -of the true palæolithic or “Chelléen” type, and some fragments of human -skeletons.[17] They reveal to us not only the presence of man, but a well -defined stage of culture strictly comparable to that of the “river drift” -men of the Thames and the Somme in western Europe, which has been so ably -described by De Mortillet.[18] - -Such discoveries have not been confined to the northern portion of the -continent. Barcena reported the relics of man in a quaternary rock in the -valley of Mexico.[19] The geologists of the Argentine Republic describe -others which must be referred to a very remote age. The writers who have -given the most information about them are Ameghino and Burmeister. They -found bone and stone implements of rude form and the remains of hearths -associated with bones of the extinct horse, the glyptodon, and other -animals now unknown. The stratigraphic relations of the finds connected -them with the deposits of the receding Austral glacier.[20] - -Such facts as these place it beyond doubt that man lived in both North -and South America at the close of the Glacial Age. It is not certain -that this close was synchronous in both the northern and southern -hemispheres, nor that the American glacier was contemporary with the -Ice Age of Europe. The able geologist, Mr. Croll, is of opinion that if -there was a difference in time, the Ice Age of America was posterior to -that of Europe. In any case, the extreme antiquity of man in America is -placed beyond cavil. He was here long before either northern Asia or the -Polynesian islands were inhabited, as it is well known they were first -populated in Neolithic times. - -The question naturally arises, did he not originate upon this continent? -The answer to this is given by Charles Darwin in his magistral -statement--“Our progenitors diverged from the catarhine stock of the -anthropoids; and the fact that they belonged to this stock clearly -shows that they inhabited the Old World.”[21] In fact, all the American -monkeys, whether living or fossil, are platyrhine, have thirty-four -teeth, and have tails, characteristics which show that none of the higher -anthropoids lived in the New World. - -We are obliged, therefore, to look for the original home of the American -glacial man elsewhere than in America. Some interesting geological -facts throw an unexpected light upon our investigations. I have already -remarked that in the various recent oscillations of the earth’s crust, -there occurred about the middle and later Glacial Epoch an uplift of the -northern part of the continent and also of the northern Atlantic basin. -In the opinion of Professor James Geikie this amounted to a vertical -elevation of three thousand feet above the present level, and resulted in -establishing a continuous land connection between the higher latitudes of -the two continents, _which remained until the Post-glacial period_.[22] -Dr. Habernicht also recognizes this condition of affairs and places -it during the “old stone” age in Europe,[23] which corresponds to the -position assigned it by McGee. - -Very recently, Professor Spencer has summed up the evidence in favor of -the elevation of the northern portions of America and the north Atlantic, -about the early Pliocene times, and considers that it proves beyond a -doubt that it must have reached from 2000 to 3000 feet above the present -level.[24] - -Further testimony to the existence of this land bridge is offered by the -glacial striæ on the rocks of Shetland, the Faroe Islands, Iceland and -south Greenland. These are in such directions and of such a character -that Mr. James Croll, a high authority, maintains that they must have -been produced by _land ice_, and that the theory of a land connection -between these localities “can alone explain all the facts.”[25] A -comparison of the flora and fauna in the higher latitudes of the two -continents reveals marked identities which require some such theory to -explain them. Thus, certain species of land snails occur both in Labrador -and Europe, and the flora of Greenland, although American in the north, -is distinctly European in the south.[26] - -Again, in certain very late Pliocene formations in England, known as -the Norwich crag and the red crag of Suffolk, “no less than eighteen -species of American mollusca occur, only seven of which still live on -the Scandinavian coast, the remainder being confined to North America.” -In consequence of such facts the most careful English geologists of -to-day hold that the land communication, which certainly existed between -Europe and North America in Eocene times by way of Iceland and Greenland, -which was then a part of the American continent, continued to exist -through the Miocene and Pliocene Epochs. This land bridge formed a -barrier of separation between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, so that the -temperature of the higher latitudes was much milder than at present.[27] - -The evidence, therefore, is cumulative that at the close of the last -Glacial Epoch, and for an indeterminate time previous, the comparatively -shallow bed of the North Atlantic was above water; and this was about the -time that we find men in the same stage of culture dwelling on both its -shores. - -The attempt has often been made by geologists to calculate the remoteness -in time of the close of the Ice Age, and of these vestiges of human -occupation. The chronometers appealed to are the erosion of river -valleys, especially of the gorge of Niagara, the filling of lake beds, -the accumulation of modern detritus, etc. Professor Frederick Wright, -who has studied the problem of the Niagara gorge with especial care, -considers that a minimum period of twelve thousand years must have -elapsed since its erosion began.[28] But as Professor Gilbert justly -remarks, whatever the age of the great cataract may be, the antiquity of -man in America is far greater, and reaches into a past for which we have -found no time-measure.[29] - -The same may be said for Europe. De Quatrefages and many other students -of the subject consider that the evidence is sufficient to establish -the presence of man near the Atlantic coast in the Pliocene Epoch; and -excellent English geologists have claimed that the caves in the valley of -the River Clwyd, in north Wales, whose floors contain flint implements, -had their entrance blocked by true glacial deposits, so that man was -there present before the Great Ice Age began. - -From this brief presentation of the geologic evidence, the conclusion -seems forced upon us that the ancestors of the American race could have -come from no other quarter than western Europe, or that portion of -Eurafrica which in my lectures on general ethnography I have described as -the most probable location of the birth-place of the species.[30] - -_Scheme of the Age of Man in America._ - - -------------+-------------------+---------------------+----------------- - AGE. | PERIOD. | GEOLOGICAL | HUMAN RELICS. - | | CHARACTERS. | - -------------+-------------------+---------------------+----------------- - | {|Auriferous gravels of|Calaveras - {|1. Pre-glacial. {| California (?). | skull (?). - {| {|Lower lake beds in | - {| {| Great Basin. | - {| | | - {| {|Attenuated drift. |Palæoliths from - {| {|Columbia formation. | Claymont, Del. - {| {|Sinking of Atlantic | - {|2. First glacial. {| Coast. | - {| {|Old glacial drift in | - {| {| Mississippi Valley.| - {| {|Brick clays. | - {| | | - {| {|Modified drift of |Flint chips - {| {| Minnesota | and rude - {| {|Medial Gravels in | implements. - {|3. Inter-glacial. {| Great Basin. | - {| {|Pampas formation. |Bone and stone - {| {|New glacial drift and| implements. - Quaternary {| {| till. fiords. | - {| | | - or {| {| | - {| {|Moraines of Ohio |Palæolithic - Pleistocene.{| {| Valley. | implements - {|4. Second glacial.{|Loess of central | from the - {| {| United States. | moraines. - {| {|British America and | - {| {| N. Atlantic | - {| {| elevated. | - {| | | - {| {|Trenton gravels. |Palæolithic - {| {| | implements - {| {| | from Trenton. - {| {|Completion of Great |Brachycephalic - {| {| Lakes. | skulls from - {| {| | Trenton. - {|5. Post-glacial. {| | - {| {|Elevation of North |Hearth on former - {| {| Atlantic subsiding.| shore of L. - {| {| | Ontario. - {| {|Reindeer in Ohio |Skulls of - {| {| Valley. | Pontimelo - {| {| | and Rio - {| {| | Negro, S.A. - {| {|Climate cold. | - {| {|Lacustrine deposits. |Argillite - {| {| | implements. - {| | | - {| {|Seaboard deposits. |Earliest - {| {| | kitchen-middens. - {|1. Champlain {|Land below present |Limonite bones - {| {| level. | in Florida. - {| or {|Climate mild. |Lagoa Santa bones - {| {| | in Brazil. - {| Fluvial. {|Elephant, mastodon | - {| {| ohioticus, | - {| {| megatherium, | - Recent. {| {| giant bison, | - {| {| horse (all now | - {| {| extinct). | - {| | | - {| {| River deposits. |Quartz and jasper - {|2. Present {| | implements. - {| {|Formation of forest |Pottery. Later - {| or {| loam. | shell heaps. - {| {| |Ohio mounds. - {| Alluvial. {| |Relics of - {| {| | existing or - {| {| | known tribes. - -------------+-------------------+---------------------+----------------- - -Many difficulties present themselves in bringing these periods into -correspondence with the seasons of the Quaternary in Europe; but after a -careful study of both continents, Mr. W. J. McGee suggests the following -synchronisms:[31] - - _North America._ _Western Europe._ - - Inter-glacial period Époque chelléenne. - - Early second glacial period Époque mousterienne. - - Middle (mild) second glacial period Époque solutréenne. - - Close of second glacial period and post-glacial Époque magdalénienne. - - Champlain period Kitchen-middens and - epoque Robenhausienne. - -Of course it would not be correct to suppose that the earliest -inhabitants of the continent presented the physical traits which mark the -race to-day. Racial peculiarities are slowly developed in certain “areas -of characterization,” but once fixed are indelible. Can we discover the -whereabouts of the area which impressed upon primitive American man--an -immigrant, as we have learned, from another hemisphere--those corporeal -changes which set him over against his fellows as an independent race? - -I believe that it was in the north temperate zone. It is there we find -the oldest signs of man’s residence on the continent; it is and was -geographically the nearest to the land-areas of the Old World; and so -far as we can trace the lines of the most ancient migrations, they -diverged from that region. But there are reasons stronger than these. -The American Indians cannot bear the heat of the tropics even as well -as the European, not to speak of the African race. They perspire little, -their skin becomes hot, and they are easily prostrated by exertion in -an elevated temperature. They are peculiarly subject to diseases of hot -climates, as hepatic disorders, showing none of the immunity of the -African.[32] Furthermore, the finest physical specimens of the race -are found in the colder regions of the temperate zones, the Pampas and -Patagonian Indians in the south, the Iroquois and Algonkins in the north; -whereas, in the tropics they are generally undersized, short-lived, of -inferior muscular force and with slight tolerance of disease.[33] - -These facts, taken in connection with the geologic events I have already -described, would lead us to place the “area of characterization” of the -native American east of the Rocky Mountains, and between the receding -wall of the continental ice sheet and the Gulf of Mexico. There it was -that the primitive glacial man underwent those changes which resulted in -the formation of an independent race. - -We have evidence that this change took place at a very remote epoch. The -Swiss anatomist, Dr. J. Kollmann, has published a critical investigation -of the most ancient skulls discovered in America, as the one I have -already referred to from Calaveras county, California, one from Rock -Bluff, Illinois, one from Pontimelo, Buenos Ayres, and others from the -caverns of Lagoa Santa, Brazil, and from the loess of the Pampas. All -these are credited with an antiquity going back nearly to the close of -the last glacial period, and are the oldest yet found on the continent. -They prove to be strictly analogous to those of the Indians of the -present day. They reveal the same discrepancy in form which we now -encounter in the crania of all American tribes. The Calaveras skull -and that from Pontimelo are brachycephalic; those from Lagoa Santa -dolichocephalic; but both possess the wide malar arches, the low orbital -indices, the medium nasal apertures and the general broad faces of the -present population. Dr. Kollmann, therefore, reaches the conclusion that -“the variety of man in America at the close of the glacial period had the -same facial form as the Indian of to-day, and the racial traits which -distinguish him now, did also at that time.” - -The marked diversity in cranial forms here indicated is recognizable -in all parts of the continent. It has frustrated every attempt to -classify the existing tribes, or to trace former lines of migration, by -grouping together similar head-measurements. This was fully acknowledged -by the late Dr. James Aitken Meigs, of Philadelphia, who, taking the -same collection of skulls, showed how erroneous were the previous -statements of Dr. Morton in his _Crania Americana_. The recent studies -of Virchow on American crania have attained the same conclusion.[34] We -must dismiss as wholly untenable the contrary arguments of the French -and other craniologists, and still more peremptorily those attempted -identifications of American skulls with “Mongolian” or “Mongoloid” types. -Such comparisons are based on local peculiarities which have no racial -value. - -Yet it must not be supposed from this that carefully conducted cranial -comparisons between tribes and families are valueless; on the contrary, -the shape and size of the skull, the proportion of the face, and many -other measurements, are in the average highly distinctive family traits, -and I shall frequently call attention to them. - -The lowest cephalic index which I have seen reported from an American -skull is 56, which is that of a perforated skull from Devil river, -Michigan, now in the medical museum at Ann Arbor university;[35] the -highest is 97, from a Peruvian skull, though probably this was the result -of an artificial deformity. - -It is not necessary to conclude from these or other diversities in skull -forms that the American race is a conglomerate of other and varied -stocks. As I have pointed out elsewhere, the shape of the skull is not -a fixed element in human anatomy, and children of the same mother may -differ in this respect.[36] - -A special feature in American skulls is the presence of the epactal bone, -or _os Incæ_, in the occiput. It is found in a complete or incomplete -condition in 3.86 per cent. of the skulls throughout the continent, -and in particular localities much more frequently; among the ancient -Peruvians for example in 6.08 per cent., and among the former inhabitants -of the Gila valley in 6.81 per cent. This is far more frequently than in -other races, the highest being the negro, which offers 2.65 per cent., -while the Europeans yield but 1.19.[37] The presence of the bone is due -to a persistence of the transverse occipital suture, which is usually -closed in fetal life. Hence it is a sign of arrested development, and -indicative of an inferior race. - -The majority of the Americans have a tendency to meso- or brachycephaly, -but in certain families, as the Eskimos in the extreme north and the -Tapuyas in Brazil, the skulls are usually decidedly long. In other -instances there is a remarkable difference in members of the same tribe -and even of the same household. Thus among the Yumas there are some with -as low an index as 68, while the majority are above 80, and among the -dolichocephalic Eskimos we occasionally find an almost globular skull. -So far as can be learned, these variations appear in persons of pure -blood. Often the crania differ in no wise from those of the European. -Dr. Hensell, for instance, says that the skulls of pure-blood Coroados -of Brazil, which he examined, corresponded in all points to those of the -average German.[38] - -The average cubical capacity of the American skull falls below that of -the white, and rises above that of the black race. Taking both sexes, the -Parisians of to-day have a cranial capacity of 1448 cubic centimetres; -the Negroes 1344 c. c.; the American Indians 1376.[39] But single -examples of Indian skulls have yielded the extraordinary capacity of -1747, 1825, and even 1920 cub. cent. which are not exceeded in any other -race.[40] - -The hue of the skin is generally said to be reddish, or coppery, or -cinnamon color, or burnt coffee color. It is brown of various shades, -with an undertone of red. Individuals or tribes vary from the prevailing -hue, but not with reference to climate. The Kolosch of the northwest -coast are very light colored; but not more so than the Yurucares of the -Bolivian Andes. The darkest are far from black, and the lightest by no -means white. - -The hair is rarely wholly black, as when examined by reflected light -it will also show a faint undercolor of red. This reddish tinge is -very perceptible in some tribes, and especially in children. Generally -straight and coarse, instances are not wanting where it is fine and -silky, and even slightly wavy or curly. Although often compared to that -of the Chinese, the resemblances are superficial, as when critically -examined, “the hair of the American Indian differs in nearly every -particular from that of the Mongolians of eastern Asia.”[41] The growth -is thick and strong on the head, scanty on the body and on the face; but -beards of respectable length are not wholly unknown.[42] - -The stature and muscular force vary. The Patagonians have long been -celebrated as giants, although in fact there are not many of them over -six feet tall. The average throughout the continent would probably be -less than that of the European. But there are no instances of dwarfish -size to compare with the Lapps, the Bushmen, or the Andaman Islanders. -The hands and feet are uniformly smaller than those of Europeans of the -same height. The arms are longer in proportion to the other members than -in the European, but not so much as in the African race. This is held to -be one of the anatomical evidences of inferiority. - -On the whole, the race is singularly uniform in its physical traits, and -individuals taken from any part of the continent could easily be mistaken -for inhabitants of numerous other parts. - -This uniformity finds one of its explanations in the geographical -features of the continent, which are such as to favor migrations in -longitude, and thus prevent the diversity which special conditions in -latitude tend to produce. The trend of the mountain chains and the flow -of the great rivers in both South and North America generally follow -the course of the great circles, and the migrations of native nations -were directed by these geographic features. Nor has the face of the land -undergone any serious alteration since man first occupied it. Doubtless -in his early days the Laramie sea still covered the extensive depression -in that part of our country, and it is possible that a subsidence of -several hundred feet altered the present Isthmus of Panama into a chain -of islands; but in other respects the continent between the fortieth -parallels north and south has remained substantially the same since the -close of the Tertiary Epoch. - -Beyond all other criteria of a race must rank its mental endowments. -These are what decide irrevocably its place in history and its destiny -in time. Some who have personally studied the American race are inclined -to assign its psychical potentialities a high rank. For instance, -Mr. Horatio Hale hesitates not to say: “Impartial investigation and -comparison will probably show that while some of the aboriginal -communities of the American continent are low in the scale of intellect, -others are equal in natural capacity, and possibly superior, to the -highest of the Indo-European race.”[43] This may be regarded as an -extremely favorable estimate. Few will assent to it, and probably not -many would even go so far as Dr. Amedée Moure in his appreciation of -the South American Indians, which he expresses in these words: “With -reference to his mental powers, the Indian of South America should be -classed immediately after the white race, decidedly ahead of the yellow -race, and especially beyond the African.”[44] - -Such general opinions are interesting because both of them are the -results of personal observations of many tribes. But the final decision -as to the abilities of a race or of an individual must be based on actual -accomplished results, not on supposed endowments. Thus appraised, the -American race certainly stands higher than the Australian, the Polynesian -or the African, but does not equal the Asian. - -A review of the evidence bears out this opinion. Take the central social -fact of government. In ancient America there are examples of firm and -stable states, extending their sway widely and directed by definite -policy. The league of the Iroquois was a thoroughly statesman-like -creation, and the realm of Peru had a long and successful existence. -That this mental quality is real is shown by the recent history of some -of the Spanish-American republics. Two of them, Guatemala and Mexico, -count among their ablest presidents in the present generation pure-blood -American Indians.[45] Or we may take up the arts. In architecture -nothing ever accomplished by the Africans or Polynesians approaches the -pre-Columbian edifices of the American continent. In the development of -artistic forms, whether in stone, clay or wood, the American stands next -to the white race. I know no product of Japanese, Chinese or Dravidian -sculpture, for example, which exhibits the human face in greater dignity -than the head in basalt figured by Humboldt as an Aztec priestess.[46] -The invention of a phonetic system for recording ideas was reached in -Mexico, and is striking testimony to the ability of the natives. In -religious philosophy there is ample evidence that the notion of a single -incorporeal Ruler of the universe had become familiar both to Tezcucans -and Kechuas previous to the conquest. - -While these facts bear testimony to a good natural capacity, it is also -true that the receptivity of the race for a foreign civilization is not -great. Even individual instances of highly educated Indians are rare; and -I do not recall any who have achieved distinction in art or science, or -large wealth in the business world. - -The culture of the native Americans strongly attests the ethnic unity of -the race. This applies equally to the ruins and relics of its vanished -nations, as to the institutions of existing tribes. Nowhere do we find -any trace of foreign influence or instruction, nowhere any arts or social -systems to explain which we must evoke the aid of teachers from the -eastern hemisphere. The culture of the American race, in whatever degree -they possessed it, was an indigenous growth, wholly self-developed, owing -none of its germs to any other race, ear-marked with the psychology of -the stock. - -Furthermore, this culture was not, as is usually supposed, monopolized -by a few nations of the race. The distinction that has been set up by -so many ethnographers between “wild tribes” and “civilized tribes,” -_Jägervölker_ and _Culturvölker_, is an artificial one, and conveys a -false idea of the facts. There was no such sharp line. Different bands -of the same linguistic stock were found, some on the highest, others on -the lowest stages of development, as is strikingly exemplified in the -Uto-Aztecan family. Wherever there was a center of civilization, that -is, wherever the surroundings favored the development of culture, tribes -of different stocks enjoyed it to nearly an equal degree, as in central -Mexico and Peru. By them it was distributed, and thus shaded off in all -directions. - -When closely analyzed, the difference between the highest and the average -culture of the race is much less than has been usually taught. The Aztecs -of Mexico and the Algonkins of the eastern United States were not far -apart, if we overlook the objective art of architecture and one or two -inventions. To contrast the one as a wild or savage with the other as -a civilized people, is to assume a false point of view and to overlook -their substantial psychical equality. - -For these reasons American culture, wherever examined, presents a family -likeness which the more careful observers of late years have taken -pains to put in a strong light. This was accomplished for governmental -institutions and domestic architecture by Lewis H. Morgan, for property -rights and the laws of war by A. F. Bandelier, for the social condition -of Mexico and Peru by Dr. Gustav Brühl, and I may add for the myths and -other expressions of the religious sentiment by myself.[47] - -In certain directions doubtless the tendency has been to push this -uniformity too far, especially with reference to governmental -institutions. Mr. Morgan’s assertions upon this subject were too -sweeping. Nevertheless he was the first to point out clearly that ancient -American society was founded, not upon the family, but upon the gens, -totem or clan, as the social unit.[48] The gens is “an organized body -of consanguineal kindred” (Powell), either such in reality, or, when -strangers have been adopted, so considered by the tribal conscience. -Its members dwell together in one house or quarter, and are obliged to -assist each other. An indeterminate number of these gentes, make up -the tribe, and smaller groups of several of them may form “phratries,” -or brotherhoods, usually for some religious purpose. Each gens is to a -large extent autonomic, electing its own chieftain, and deciding on all -questions of property and especially of blood-revenge, within its own -limits. The tribe is governed by a council, the members of which belong -to and represent the various gentes. The tribal chief is elected by this -council, and can be deposed at its will. His power is strictly limited by -the vote of the council, and is confined to affairs of peace. For war, -a “war chief” is elected also by the council, who takes sole command. -Marriage within the gens is strictly prohibited, and descent is traced -and property descends in the female line only. - -This is the ideal theory of the American tribal organization, and we may -recognize its outlines almost anywhere on the continent; but scarcely -anywhere shall we find it perfectly carried out. The gentile system is -by no means universal, as I shall have occasion to point out; where it -exists, it is often traced in the male line; both property and dignities -may be inherited directly from the father; consanguine marriage, even -that of brother and sister or father and daughter, though rare, is far -from unexampled.[49] In fact, no one element of the system was uniformly -respected, and it is an error of theorists to try to make it appear so. -It varied widely in the same stock and in all its expressions.[50] This -is markedly true, for instance, in domestic architecture. The Lenâpé, who -were next neighbors to the Five Nations, had nothing resembling their -“long house,” on which Morgan founded his scheme of communal tenements; -and the efforts which some later writers have made to identify the large -architectural works of Mexico and Yucatan with the communal pueblos of -the Gila valley will not bear the test of criticism. - -The foundation of the gentile, as of any other family life, is, as I -have shown elsewhere,[51] the mutual affection between kindred. In -the primitive period this is especially between the children of the -same mother, not so much because of the doubt of paternity as because -physiologically and obviously it is the mother in whom is formed and -from whom alone proceeds the living being. Why this affection does -not lead to the marriage of uterine brothers and sisters--why, on the -contrary, there is almost everywhere a horror of such unions--it is not -easy to explain. Darwin suggests that the chief stimulus to the sexual -feelings is novelty, and that the familiarity of the same household -breeds indifference; and we may accept this in default of a completer -explanation. Certainly, as Moritz Wagner has forcibly shown,[52] this -repugnance to incest is widespread in the species, and has exerted a -powerful influence on its physical history. - -In America marriage was usually by purchase, and was polygamous. In a -number of tribes the purchase of the eldest daughter gave the man a -right to buy all the younger daughters, as they reached nubile age. -The selection of a wife was often regarded as the concern of the gens -rather than of the individual. Among the Hurons, for instance, the old -women of the gens selected the wives for the young men, “and united them -with painful uniformity to women several years their senior.”[53] Some -control in this direction was very usual, and was necessary to prevent -consanguine unions. - -The position of women in the social scheme of the American tribes has -often been portrayed in darker colors than the truth admits. As in one -sense a chattel, she had few rights against her husband; but some she -had, and as they were those of her gens, these he was forced to respect. -Where maternal descent prevailed, it was she who owned the property of -the pair, and could control it as she listed. It passed at her death to -her blood relatives and not to his. Her children looked upon her as their -parent, but esteemed their father as no relation whatever. An unusually -kind and intelligent Kolosch Indian was chided by a missionary for -allowing his father to suffer for food. “Let him go to his own people,” -replied the Kolosch, “they should look after him.” He did not regard a -man as in any way related or bound to his paternal parent. - -The women thus made good for themselves the power of property, and this -could not but compel respect. Their lives were rated at equal or greater -value than a man’s;[54] instances are frequent where their voice was -important in the council of the tribe; nor was it very rare to see them -attaining the dignity of head chief. That their life was toilsome is -true; but its dangers were less, and its fatigues scarce greater, than -that of their husbands. Nor was it more onerous than that of the peasant -women of Europe to-day. - -Such domestic arrangements seem strange to us, but they did not exclude -either conjugal or parental affection. On the contrary, the presence of -such sentiments has impressed travelers among even the rudest tribes, as -the Eskimos, the Yumas and the hordes of the Chaco;[55] and Miss Alice -Fletcher tells me she has constantly noted such traits in her studies of -life in the wigwam. The husband and father will often undergo severe -privations for his wife and children. - -The error to which I have referred of classifying the natives into wild -and civilized tribes has led to regarding the one as agricultural, and -the other as depending exclusively on hunting and fishing. Such was -not the case. The Americans were inclined to agriculture in nearly all -regions where it was profitable. Maize was cultivated both north and -south to the geographical extent of its productive culture; beans, -squashes, pumpkins, and potatoes were assiduously planted in suitable -latitudes; the banana was rapidly accepted after its introduction, even -by tribes who had never seen a white man; cotton for clothing and tobacco -as a luxury were staple crops among very diverse stocks. The Iroquois, -Algonkins and Muskokis of the Atlantic coast tilled large fields, and -depended upon their harvests for the winter supplies. The difference -between them and the sedentary Mexicans or Mayas in this respect was not -so wide as has been represented. - -It was a serious misfortune for the Americans that the fauna of the -continent did not offer any animal which could be domesticated for a -beast of draft or burden. There is no doubt but that the horse existed -on the continent contemporaneously with post-glacial man; and some -palæontologists are of opinion that the European and Asian horses were -descendants of the American species;[56] but for some mysterious reason -the genus became extinct in the New World many generations before its -discovery. The dog, domesticated from various species of the wolf, was -a poor substitute. He aided somewhat in hunting, and in the north as -an animal of draft; but was of little general utility. The lama in the -Cordilleras in South America was prized principally for his hair, and -was also utilized for burdens, but not for draft.[57] Nor were there any -animals which could be domesticated for food or milk. The buffalo is -hopelessly wild, and the peccary, or American hog, is irreclaimable in -its love of freedom. - -We may say that America everywhere at the time of the discovery was in -the polished stone age. It had progressed beyond the rough stone stage, -but had not reached that of metals. True that copper, bronze and the -precious ores were widely employed for a variety of purposes; but flaked -and polished stone remained in all parts the principal material selected -to produce a cutting edge. Probably three-fourths of the tribes were -acquainted with the art of tempering and moulding clay into utensils -or figures; but the potter’s wheel and the process of glazing had not -been invented. Towns and buildings were laid out with a correct eye, and -stone structures of symmetry were erected; but the square, the compass, -the plumb line, and the scales and weight had not been devised.[58] -Commodious boats of hollowed logs or of bark, or of skins stretched on -frames, were in use on most of the waters; but the inventive faculties of -their makers had not reached to either oars or sails to propel them,[59] -the paddle alone being relied upon, and the rudder to guide them was -unknown. The love of music is strong in the race, and wind instruments -and those sounded by percussion had been devised in considerable variety; -but the highest type, the string instruments, were beyond their capacity -of invention. - -The religious sentiment was awake in all the tribes of the continent, -and even the lowest had myths and propitiatory rites by which to explain -to themselves and cajole to their own interests the unknown powers which -order the destiny of human life. There is a singular similarity in these -myths. The leading cycle of them usually describes the exploits of a -divine man, the national hero-god, who was the first instructor, often -the ancestor of the tribe, and the creator of the visible universe. His -later history is related with singular parallelism by tribes in Canada -and Mexico, in Yucatan and Uruguay. After teaching his people the arts of -life and the sacred rites, the forms of their social organizations and -the medicinal powers of plants, he left in some mysterious way, not by -the event of death, but for a journey, or by rising to the sky; leaving -with them, however, his promise to return at some future day, when they -should need him, and he should again become their guide and protector. - -The interpretation of this fundamental American myth, which I have shown -to be the typical religious legend of the race,[60] offers an interesting -problem. Comparing it with others of similar form in Egyptian and Aryac -antiquity, I have explained it as based on the natural phenomenon of the -returning and departing day, as, if not a solar, at least a light myth, -developed through personification and etymologic processes. Often the -hero-god is identified with some animal, as the raven, the rabbit, the -wolf or coyote, the jaguar, the toucan, etc. Possibly in these we may -recognize the “totemic animal” after which the gens was named; but in -most cases the identification cannot be made. - -The hero-god is usually connected with tales of a creation and a flood, -or other destruction of the world. These cosmogonical and cataclysmal -myths belong together, and arise from the same impulse to explain cosmic -phenomena by the analogy with ordinary changes of the seasons and the -day. In constant connection with them, and also with the rites of -religion and medicine, with the social institutions and the calendar, -with the plans of edifices and the arrangement of gens and phratries, -in fact, with all the apparatus of life, was a respect for the _sacred -number_. It is strange how constantly this presents itself throughout -American life, and is, in fact, the key to many of its forms. The sacred -number is Four, and its origin is from the four cardinal points. These -were the guides to the native in his wanderings, and, as identified with -the winds, were the deities who brought about the change of the seasons -and the phenomena of the weather. They were represented by the symbols -of the cross, whose four arms we see portrayed on the altar tablet of -Palenque, on the robes of the Mexican priests, in the hieroglyphs of the -Algonkins, and in countless other connections. - -A rich symbolism rapidly developed in all the sedentary tribes, and very -much along the same lines. The bird, the serpent, the sacred stone, the -tree of life, water as a purifier, the perpetual fire, all these are -members of a religious symbolism, clear signs of which recur in all -segments of the continent. The chants and dances, the ritual of the -medicine men, the functions of esoteric orders and secret societies, -present a resemblance greater than that which can be explained by a -mere similarity in the stage of culture. I explain it by the ethnic and -psychical unity of the race, and its perpetual freedom from any foreign -influence. - -The mortuary rites indicated a belief in the continued existence of -the individual after apparent death. These were by incineration, by -inhumation, by exposure, or by mummification. Articles were placed with -the deceased for use in his future state, and the ceremonies of mourning -were frequently severe and protracted. A sacredness was generally -attached to the bones and therefore these were carefully preserved. In -accordance with a superstition widely felt in the Old World, they were -supposed to harbor some share of the departed spirit. The conception of -the after life is wholly material. The Zapotec, for instance, believes -that he will return to his familiar haunts after a few hundred years, -and buries all the money he makes that he may then live at his ease. Von -Gagern estimates the amount of silver thus secreted and lost within the -last century at a hundred million dollars.[61] - -The ceremonies of religion, which included that of the treatment of -disease, inasmuch as a demonic cause was always assigned to illness, were -in the hands of a particular class, known to the whites as “medicine -men,” or shamans, or sorcerers. Sometimes the right of belonging to -this order was hereditary in a gens, but generally peculiar aptitude -for the business was the only requirement. Many of them were skilled in -legerdemain, and even to-day some of their tricks puzzle the acutest -white observers. As doctors, augurs, rain-makers, spell-binders, leaders -of secret societies, and depositaries of the tribal traditions and -wisdom, their influence was generally powerful. Of course it was adverse -to the Europeans, especially the missionaries, and also of course it was -generally directed to their own interest or that of their class; but -this is equally true of priestly power wherever it gains the ascendency, -and the injurious effect of the Indian shamans on their nations was not -greater than has been in many instances that of the Christian priesthood -on European communities. - -The psychic identity of the Americans is well illustrated in their -languages. There are indeed indefinite discrepancies in their -lexicography and in their surface morphology; but in their logical -substructure, in what Wilhelm von Humboldt called the “inner form,” -they are strikingly alike. The points in which this is especially -apparent are in the development of pronominal forms, in the abundance -of generic particles, in the overweening preference for concepts of -action (verbs), rather than concepts of existence (nouns), and in the -consequent subordination of the latter to the former in the proposition. -This last mentioned trait is the source of that characteristic which is -called _incorporation_. The American languages as a rule are essentially -incorporative languages, that is, they formally include both subject -and object in the transitive concept, and its oral expression. It has -been denied by some able linguists that this is a characteristic trait -of American languages; but I have yet to find one, of which we possess -ample means of analysis, in which it does not appear in one or another of -its forms, thus revealing the same linguistic impulse. Those who reject -it as a feature have been led astray either by insufficient means of -information about certain languages, or by not clearly comprehending the -characteristics of the incorporative process itself.[62] - -As intimated, however, in spite of this underlying sameness, there -is wide diversity in the tongues themselves. Where we cannot find -sufficient coincidences of words and grammar in two languages to admit -of supposing that under the laws of linguistic science they are related, -they are classed as independent stocks or families. Of such there -are about eighty in North and as many in South America. These stocks -offer us, without doubt, our best basis for the ethnic classification -of the American tribes; the only basis, indeed, which is of any value. -The efforts which have been heretofore made to erect a geographic -classification, with reference to certain areas, political or physical; -or a craniological one, with reference to skull forms; or a cultural one, -with reference to stages of savagery and civilization, have all proved -worthless. The linguistic is the only basis on which the subdivision -of the race should proceed. Similarity of idioms proves to some extent -similarity of descent and similarity of psychic endowments. Of course, -there has been large imposition of one language on another in the world’s -history; but never without a corresponding infiltration of blood; so -that the changes in language remain as evidence of national and race -comminglings. I select, therefore, the linguistic classification of the -American race as the only one of any scientific value, and, therefore, -that which alone merits consideration. - -The precise number of linguistic stocks in use in America at the -discovery has not been made out. In that portion of the continent north -of Mexico the researches of the Bureau of Ethnology of the United States -have defined fifty-nine stocks, no less than forty of which were confined -to the narrow strip of land between the Rocky mountains and the Pacific -ocean. - -For convenience of study I shall classify all the stocks into five -groups, as follows:-- - - I. The North Atlantic Group. - - II. The North Pacific Group. - - III. The Central Group. - - IV. The South Pacific Group. - - V. The South Atlantic Group. - -This arrangement is not one of convenience only; I attach a certain -ethnographic importance to this classification. There is a distinct -resemblance between the two Atlantic groups, and an equally distinct -contrast between them and the Pacific groups, extending to temperament, -culture and physical traits. Each of the groups has mingled extensively -within its own limits, and but slightly outside of them. Each is subject -to conditions of temperature, altitude and humidity, which are peculiar -to itself, and which have exerted definite influences on the constitution -and the history of its inhabitants. Such a subdivision of the race is -therefore justified by anthropologic considerations. - - - - -NORTH AMERICAN TRIBES. - - - - -I. THE NORTH ATLANTIC GROUP. - - -1. THE ESKIMOS. - -The word Eskimo, properly _Eski-mwhan_, means in the Abnaki dialect of -Algonquin, “he eats raw flesh,” and was applied to the tribe from its -custom of consuming fish and game without cooking. They call themselves -_Innuit_, “people,” a term the equivalent of which is the usual -expression applied by American natives to their own particular stock. - -The Innuit are at present essentially a maritime and arctic nation, -occupying the coast and adjacent islands from the Straits of Belle -Isle on the Atlantic to Icy Bay, at the foot of Mount St. Elias on the -Pacific, and extending their wanderings and settlements as far up Smith’s -Sound as N. Lat. 80°, where they are by far the northernmost inhabitants -of the earth. They have occupied Greenland for certainly more than a -thousand years, and were the earliest settlers in some of the Aleutian -islands. Portions of them at some remote period crossed Behring Strait -and settled on Asiatic soil, while others established themselves along -the shores of Newfoundland. Indeed, from the reports of the early Norse -explorers and from the character of relics found on the Atlantic coast, -it is probable that they once extended as far south as the mouth of the -Delaware river.[63] Their ancestors quite possibly dwelt on the moors -of New England when the reindeer browsed there, and accompanied that -quadruped in his final migration to the north. They belong in history and -character to the Atlantic peoples. - -This question, as to where their common progenitors resided, has been -much discussed. A favorite theory of some writers has been that they -migrated out of Asia by way of Behring Strait; but those who have studied -their culture on the spot do not advocate this opinion. These observers -have, without exception, reached the conclusion that the Innuit were -originally an inland people, that their migrations were toward the north -and west, and that they have been gradually forced to the inhospitable -climes they occupy by the pressure of foes. Dr. Rink, who passed many -years among them, would look for their early home somewhere in Alaska; -but Mr. John Murdoch and Dr. Franz Boas, two of our best authorities on -this tribe, incline to the view that their primal home was to the south -of Hudson Bay, whence they separated into three principal hordes, the one -passing into Labrador and reaching Greenland, the second moving to the -coast of the Arctic sea, and the third to Alaska. These form respectively -the Greenland, the Chiglit and the Kadjak dialects of the common -tongue.[64] - -The closest observers report the physical traits of the Eskimos as -thoroughly American and not Asian, as has sometimes been alleged.[65] In -appearance the Innuits of pure blood are of medium or slightly undersize, -color dark, nose prominent and sometimes aquiline, hair dark brown or -black, moderately strong on the face, the pubes and in the axilla; the -eyes are dark brown and occasionally blue. The skull is generally long -(dolichocephalic), but is subject to extensive variations ranging from -almost globular to exceptionally long and narrow specimens.[66] - -In spite of the hardships of their life, the Innuits are of a singularly -placid and cheerful temperament, good-natured among themselves and -much given to mirth and laughter.[67] The ingenuity with which they -have learned to overcome the difficulties of their situation is quite -surprising. In a country without wood or water, frightfully cold, and -yielding no manner of edible fruit or vegetable, they manage to live and -thrive. Their principal nurriture is the product of the sea. They build -boats called _kayaks_ or _bidarkas_ from the bones of walrus covered with -the skins of seals; their winter houses are of blocks of snow laid up on -the principle of the circular arch to form a dome, with windows of sheets -of ice. These they warm by means of stone lamps fed with blubber oil. -Their clothing is of bird skins and furs, and they are skilled in the -preparation of a sort of leather. As faithful companions they have their -dogs, intelligent animals, used both in hunting and for drawing small -sledges built of wood or bone. - -With their tools of bone or stone they fashion many curious and useful -articles, displaying a marked inventive faculty and an artistic eye. The -picture-writing which they devised for the assistance of their memory is -greatly superior to any found north of Mexico in the faithful delineation -of objects, especially of animal forms.[68] - -The long winter nights are enlivened by music and songs, of which they -are passionately fond, and by the recital of imaginative tales, the stock -of which is inexhaustible. A skillful bard enjoys a wide reputation, and -some of their poems contain fine and delicate sentiments.[69] Others are -from ancient date, and are passed down from generation to generation -with scrupulous fidelity, every tone, every gesture, being imitated. -The meter and rendition of their songs seem to the European monotonous, -but the Eskimo has his own notion of the music of verse, and it is a -very advanced one; he would have it akin to the sweet sounds of nature, -and for that reason their poets sleep by the sound of running water -that they may catch its mysterious notes, and model on them their own -productions.[70] These songs also serve as a peaceful means to allay -feuds. When two persons quarrel, they will appoint an evening and sing -“nith songs” at each other, and the audience will decide which comes out -best. This verdict will put an end to the ill-feeling. - -The imaginative character of the people is also reflected in their -religions. They believe in one or several overruling powers, and in -a multitude of inferior spirits and uncanny monsters. These require -propitiation rather than worship. The general belief is that a person -has two souls, one of which is inseparably connected with his name and -passes with it to any infant named for him; while the second either -descends to a warm and pleasant abode under the earth or passes to a less -agreeable one in the sky; the streaming lights of the aurora borealis -were sometimes thought to be these latter spirits in their celestial home. - -The rites of their religion were performed chiefly by the priests, called -_angekoks_, who, however, were little better than conjurers. In some -parts this office was hereditary. - -The language of the Innuits is very much the same throughout the whole -of their extended domain. Bishop de Schweinitz once told me that a few -years ago a convert from the Moravian mission in Labrador went to Alaska, -and it required but a few weeks for him to understand and be understood -by the natives there. In character the tongue is highly agglutinative, -the affixes being joined to the end of the word. The verb is very -complex, having thirty-one hundred modified forms, all different and all -invariable.[71] It is rich in expressions for all the objects of Eskimo -life, and is harmonious to the ear. Like the Greek, it has three numbers, -singular, dual and plural. - -Those Eskimos who live in Asia call themselves _Yuit_, a dialect form -of Innuit. They dwell around East Cape and the shore south of it, in -immediate contact with the Namollos or Sedentary Chukchis, a Sibiric -people, totally different in language, appearance and culture. The Yuits -have not at all assimilated to the reindeer-keeping, pastoral habits of -the Chukchis, and by their own well-preserved traditions, moved across -the straits from the American side, with which they continue commercial -intercourse. Their villages are sometimes close to those of the Namollos, -or Sedentary Chukchis, they intermarry, and have a jargon sufficient -for their mutual purposes; but it is an error, though a prevailing one, -to suppose that they are the same people. The Chukchis never entered -America, and the Innuits, as a people, never crossed from Asia, or -originated there.[72] The jade implements of northeastern Siberia have -proved to be of the Alaskan variety of that stone, and not the Chinese -jade, as some supposed.[73] - -From all points whence we have definite information, this interesting -people are steadily diminishing in numbers, even where they are not in -contact with the whites. The immediate causes appear to be increasing -sterility and infant mortality. Two surviving children to a marriage is -about the average productiveness, and statistics show that it requires -double this number for a population to maintain itself even stationary. - -The _Aleutian_ branch occupies the long chain of islands which stretch -westward from the southwestern corner of Alaska. The climate is mild, -the sea abounds in fish, and innumerable birds nest in the rocks. We may -therefore believe the navigators of the last century, who placed the -population of the islands at 25,000 or 30,000 souls, although at present -they have sunk to about 2,000. They have the same cheerful temperament -as the Eskimos, and their grade of culture was, when first discovered, -about the same. In their own language they call themselves _Unangan_, -people, the name Aleutes having been given them by the Russians.[74] - -It may be considered settled that their ancestors populated the islands -from the American and not the Asiatic side. Not only do their own -traditions assert this,[75] but it is confirmed by the oldest relics of -their culture, which is Eskimo in character, and by their language, which -is generally acknowledged to be a derivative of the Alaskan Eskimo.[76] -It is divided into two dialects, the Unalashkan and Atkan, not very -dissimilar, and is remarkable for the richness of its verbal forms.[77] - -In physical traits they are allied to the Eskimos, though with rounder -heads, the average of twenty-five skulls giving an index of 80.[78] -Early in this century they were brought under the control of Russian -missionaries, and became partially civilized and attached to the Greek -Church. In their ancient myths their earliest ancestor was said to have -been the dog, which animal was therefore regarded with due respect.[79] - - -2. THE BEOTHUKS. - -Adjacent to the Labrador Eskimos and the northern Algonkins, upon the -Island of Newfoundland, dwelt the Beothuks, or “Red Indians,” now -extinct, who in custom and language differed much from their neighbors -of the mainland. Although called “red,” they are also said to have been -unusually light in complexion, and the term was applied to them from -their habit of smearing their bodies with a mixture of grease and red -ochre. They are further described as of medium stature, with regular -features and aquiline noses, the hair black and the beard scanty or -absent. - -In several elements of culture they had marked differences from the -tribes of the adjacent mainland. Their canoes were of bark or of skins -stretched on frames, and were in the shape of a crescent, so that they -required ballast to prevent them from upsetting. The winter houses they -constructed were large conical lodges thirty or forty feet in diameter, -having a frame of light poles upon which was laid bark or skins, -generally the latter. Hunting and fishing provided them with food, and -they have left the reputation of irreclaimable savages. They had no -dogs, and the art of pottery was unknown; yet they were not unskilled -as artisans, carving images of wood, dressing stone for implements, -and tanning deerskins for clothing. An examination of their language -discloses some words borrowed from the Algonkin, and slight coincidences -with the Eskimo dialects, but the main body of the idiom stands alone, -without affinities. Derivation was principally if not exclusively by -suffixes, and the general morphology seems somewhat more akin to Eskimo -than Algonkin examples.[80] - - -3. THE ATHABASCANS (TINNÉ). - -Few linguistic families on the continent can compare in geographical -distribution with that known as the Athabascan, Chepewyan or Tinné. -Of these synonyms, I retain the first, as that adopted by Buschmann, -who proved, by his laborious researches, the kinship of its various -branches.[81] These extend interruptedly from the Arctic Sea to the -borders of Durango, in Mexico, and from Hudson Bay to the Pacific. - -In British America this stock lies immediately north of the Algonkins, -the dividing line running approximately from the mouth of the Churchill -river on Hudson Bay to the mouth of the Fraser, on the Pacific. To the -north they are in contact with the Eskimos and to the west with the -tribes of the Pacific coast. In this wide but cold and barren area they -are divided into a number of bands, without coherence, and speaking -dialects often quite unlike. The Loucheux have reached the mouth of -the Mackenzie river, the Kuchin are along the Yukon, the Kenai on the -ocean about the peninsula that bears their name, while the Nahaunies, -Secaunies and Takullies are among the mountains to the south. The Sarcees -lived about the southern head-waters of the Saskatchewan, while other -bands had crossed the mountains and wandered quite to the Pacific coast, -where they appear as Umpquas near Salem, Oregon; as Tututenas on Rogue -river; and in California as Hupas, on and about Trinity river. These are -but a small fraction of the great southern migration of this stock. The -Navajos belong to it, and the redoubted Apaches, who extended their war -parties far into Mexico, and who were the main agents in destroying the -civilization which ages ago began to reveal fair promise in the valleys -of the Gila and its affluents, and who up to very recent years defied -alike the armies of both Mexico and the United States. Their southern -migrations beyond the valley of the Gila probably do not date far back, -that is, much beyond the conquest. Although the Mexican census of 1880 -puts the Mexican Apaches at ten thousand, no such number can be located. -Orozco y Berra mentions one of their tribes in Chihuahua, which he calls -Tobosos; but Spanish authors refer to these as living in New Mexico in -1583. The only Apache band now known to be in Mexico are the Janos or -Janeros in Chihuahua, made up of Lipans and Mescaleros. (Henshaw.) - -Wherever found, the members of this group present a certain family -resemblance. In appearance they are tall and strong, the forehead low -with prominent superciliary ridges, the eyes slightly oblique, the -nose prominent but wide toward the base, the mouth large, the hands and -feet small. Their strength and endurance are often phenomenal, but in -the North at least their longevity is slight, few living beyond fifty. -Intellectually they rank below most of their neighbors, and nowhere do -they appear as fosterers of the germs of civilization. Where, as among -the Navajos, we find them having some repute for the mechanical arts, it -turns out that this is owing to having captured and adopted the members -of more gifted tribes. Their temperament is inclined to be gloomy and -morose; yet in spite of their apparent stolidity they are liable to panic -terrors, to epidemic neuroses, temporary hallucinations and manias--a -condition not at all rare among peoples of inferior culture.[82] - -Nowhere do we find among them any form of government. Their chiefs are -chosen without formality, either on account of their daring in war or for -their generosity in distributing presents. The office is not hereditary, -there is rarely even any war chief, their campaigns being merely hurried -raids. A singular difference exists as to their gentile systems, and -their laws of consanguinity. Usually it is counted in the female line -only. Thus among the Takullies of the north a son does not consider his -father any relation, but only his mother and her people. When a man dies, -all his property passes to his wife’s family. The totems are named from -animals, and as usual a wife must be selected from another totem. This -does not stand in the way of a son being united to his father’s sister, -and such a marriage is often effected for property reasons. Among the -Sarcees the respect for a mother-in-law is so great that her son-in-law -dares not sit at a meal with her, or even touch her, without paying a -fine. Among the Navajo and Apache tribes the son also follows the gens of -the mother, while in the Umpqua and Tutu branches in Oregon he belongs -to that of his father. In all the southern tribes the gens is named from -a place, not an animal.[83] Marriage is polygamous at will, wives are -obtained by purchase, and among the Slave Indians the tie is so lax that -friends will occasionally exchange wives as a sign of amity. Usually the -position of the woman is abject, and marital affection is practically -unknown; although it is said that the Nahaunies, a tribe of eastern -Alaska, at one time obeyed a female chief. - -The arts were in a primitive condition. Utensils were of wood, horn or -stone, though the Takully women manufactured a coarse pottery, and also -spun and wove yarn from the hair of the mountain goat. Agriculture was -not practised either in the north or south, the only exception being -the Navajos and with them the inspiration came from other stocks.[84] -The Kuchin of the Yukon make excellent bark canoes, and both they and -their neighbors live in skin tents of neatly dressed hides. Many of the -tribes of the far north are improvident in both clothing and food, and -cannibalism was not at all uncommon among them. - -The most cultured of their bands were the Navajos, whose name is said to -signify “large cornfields,” from their extensive agriculture. When the -Spaniards first met them in 1541 they were tillers of the soil, erected -large granaries for their crops, irrigated their fields by artificial -water courses or _acequias_, and lived in substantial dwellings, partly -underground; but they had not then learned the art of weaving the -celebrated “Navajo blankets,” that being a later acquisition of their -artisans.[85] - -In their religions there was the belief in deified natural forces and -in magic that we find usually at their stage of culture. The priests or -shamans were regarded with fear, and often controlled the counsels of the -tribe. One of their prevalent myths was that of the great thunder-bird -often identified with the raven. On the Churchill river it was called -_Idi_, and the myth related that from its brooding on the primeval waters -the land was brought forth. The myth is found too widespread to be other -than genuine. The Sarcees seem to have had some form of solar worship, as -they called the sun Our Father and the earth Our Mother. - -The Navajos, who have no reminiscence of their ancestral home in the -north, locate the scene of their creation in the San Juan mountains, and -its date about seven centuries ago. Their story is that the first human -pair were formed of the meal of maize brought by the gods from the cliff -houses in the cañons.[86] - -The Athabascan dialects are usually harsh and difficult of enunciation. -In reducing them to writing, sixty-three characters have to be called on -to render the correct sounds.[87] There is an oral literature of songs -and chants, many of which have been preserved by the missionaries. The -Hupas of California had extended their language and forced its adoption -among the half-dozen neighboring tribes whom they had reduced to the -condition of tributaries.[88] - -ATHABASCAN LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Apaches_, in Arizona, Chihuahua, Durango, etc. - _Ariquipas_, in southern Arizona. - _Atnahs_, on Copper river, Alaska. - _Beaver Indians_, see _Sarcees_. - _Chepewyans_, north of the Chipeways. - _Chiricahuas_, in southern Arizona. - _Coyoteros_, in southern Arizona. - _Hupas_, in California, on Trinity river. - _Janos_, in Chihuahua, near Rio Grande. - _Jicarillas_, in northern New Mexico. - _Kenais_, on and near Kenai peninsula, Alaska. - _Kuchins_, on Yukon and Copper rivers, Alaska. - _Lipans_, near mouth of Rio Grande (properly, _Ipa-ndé_). - _Loucheux_, on lower Mackenzie river; most northern tribe. - _Mescaleros_, in New Mexico, W. of Rio Grande. - _Montagnais_, north of Chipeways. - _Nahaunies_, on Stickine and Talton rivers, Alaska. - _Navajos_, northern New Mexico and Arizona. - _Sarcees_, on upper Saskatchewan and at Alberta. - _Sicaunies_, on upper Peach river. - _Slaves_, on upper Mackenzie river. - _Tacullies_, head waters of the Fraser river, Brit. Col. - _Tinné_, synonym of Athabascan. - _Tututenas_, on Rogue river, Oregon. - _Umpquas_, Pacific coast near Salem, Oregon. - - -4. THE ALGONKINS. - -The whole of the north Atlantic coast, between Cape Fear and Cape -Hatteras, was occupied at the discovery by the Algonkin stock. Their -northern limit reached far into Labrador, where they were in immediate -contact with the Eskimos, and along the southern shores of Hudson Bay, -and its western littoral as far north as Churchill river. In this -vicinity lived the Crees, one of the most important tribes, who retained -the language of the stock in its purest form. West of them were the -Ottawas and Chipeways, closely allied in dialect, and owners of most -of the shores of lakes Michigan and Superior. Beyond these again, and -separated from them by tribes of Dakota stock, were the Blackfeet, whose -lands extended to the very summit of the Rockies. South of the St. -Lawrence were the Abnakis or Eastlanders, under which general name were -included the Micmacs, Echemins and others. The whole of the area of New -England was occupied by Algonkins, whose near relatives were the Mohegans -of the lower Hudson. These were in place and dialect near to the Lenâpés -of the Delaware valley, and to the vagrant Shawnees; while the Nanticokes -of Maryland, the Powhatans of Virginia and the Pampticokes of the -Carolinas diverged more and more from the purity of the original language. - -These and many other tribes scattered over this vast area were related, -all speaking dialects manifestly from the same source. Where their -ancient home was situated has been the subject of careful investigations, -the result of which may be said to be that traditions, archæology and -linguistic analysis combine to point to the north and the east, in other -words, to some spot north of the St. Lawrence and east of Lake Ontario, -as the original home of the stock. - -The Algonkins may be taken as typical specimens of the American race. -They are fully up to the average stature of the best developed European -nations, muscular and symmetrical. The distinguished anthropologist -Quetelet measured with great care six members of the Chipeway tribe, and -pronounced them as equaling in all physical points the best specimens of -the Belgians.[89] Their skulls are generally dolichocephalic, but not -uniformly so. We have in the collection of the Academy seventy-seven -Algonkin crania, of which fifty-three are dolichocephalic, fourteen -mesocephalic, and ten brachycephalic.[90] The eyes are horizontal, the -nose thin and prominent, the malar bones well marked, the lips thin. The -color is a coppery brown, the hair black and straight, though I have seen -a slight waviness in some who claim purity of blood. The hands and feet -are small, the voice rich and strong. Physical endurance is very great, -and under favorable circumstances the longevity is fully up to that of -any other race. - -The totemic system prevailed among the Algonkin tribes, with descent in -the female line; but we do not find among them the same communal life -as among the Iroquois. Only rarely do we encounter the “long house,” -occupied by a number of kindred families. Among the Lenâpés, for example, -this was entirely unknown, each married couple having its own residence. -The gens was governed by a chief, who was in some cases selected by the -heads of the other gentes. The tribe had as permanent ruler a “peace -chief,” selected from a particular gens, also by the heads of the other -gentes. His authority was not absolute, and, as usual, did not extend -to any matter concerning the particular interests of any one gens. When -war broke out, the peace chief had no concern in it, the campaign being -placed in charge of a “war chief,” who had acquired a right to the -position by his prominent prowess and skill. - -While the Mohegans built large communal houses, the Lenâpés and most of -the eastern Algonkins constructed small wattled huts with rounded tops, -thatched with the leaves of the Indian corn or with sweet flags. These -were built in groups and surrounded with palisades of stakes driven -into the ground. In summer, light brush tents took the place of these. -Agriculture was by no means neglected. The early explorers frequently -refer to large fields of maize, squash and tobacco under cultivation by -the natives. The manufacture of pottery was widespread, although it was -heavy and coarse. Mats woven of bark and rushes, deer skins dressed with -skill, feather garments, and utensils of wood and stone, are mentioned -by the early voyagers. Copper was dug from veins in New Jersey and -elsewhere and hammered into ornaments, arrowheads, knives and chisels. -It was, however, treated as a stone, and the process of smelting it was -unknown. The arrow and spear heads were preferably of quartz, jasper -and chert, while the stone axes were of diorite, hard sandstone, and -similar tough and close-grained material.[91] An extensive commerce in -these and similar articles was carried on with very distant points. The -red pipe-stone was brought to the Atlantic coast from the Coteau des -Prairies, and even the black slate highly ornamented pipes of the Haidah -on Vancouver Island have been exhumed from graves of Lenâpé Indians. - -Nowhere else north of Mexico was the system of picture writing developed -so far as among the Algonkins, especially by the Lenâpés and the -Chipeways. It had passed from the representative to the symbolic stage, -and was extensively employed to preserve the national history and the -rites of the secret societies. The figures were scratched or painted on -pieces of bark or slabs of wood, and as the color of the paint was red, -these were sometimes called “red sticks.” One such, the curious _Walum -Olum_, or “Red Score,” of the Lenâpés, containing the traditional history -of the tribe, I was fortunate enough to rescue from oblivion, and have -published it with a translation.[92] The contents of others relating to -the history of the Chipeways (Ojibways) have also been partly preserved. - -The religion of all the Algonkin tribes presented a distinct similarity. -It was based on the worship of Light, especially in its concrete -manifestations, as the sun and fire; of the Four Winds, as typical of the -cardinal points, and as the rain bringers; and of the Totemic Animal. -Their myths were numerous, the central figure being the national hero-god -Manibozho or Michabo, often identified with the rabbit, apparently from a -similarity in the words. He was the beneficent sage who taught them laws -and arts, who gave them the maize and tobacco, and who on his departure -promised to return and inaugurate the Golden Age. In other myths he is -spoken of as the creator of the visible world and the first father of the -race. Along with the rites in his worship were others directed to the -Spirits of the Winds, who bring about the change of seasons, and to local -divinities. - -The dead as a rule were buried, each gens having its own cemetery. Some -tribes preserved the bones with scrupulous care, while in Virginia the -bodies of persons of importance were dried and deposited in houses set -apart for the purpose. - -The tribe that wandered the furthest from the primitive home of the stock -were the Blackfeet, or Sisika, which word has this signification. It is -derived from their earlier habitat in the valley of the Red river of -the north, where the soil was dark and blackened their moccasins. Their -bands include the Blood or Kenai and the Piegan Indians. Half a century -ago they were at the head of a confederacy which embraced these and also -the Sarcee (Tinné) and the Atsina (Caddo) nations, and numbered about -thirty thousand souls. They have an interesting mythology and an unusual -knowledge of the constellations.[93] - -The Lenâpés were an interesting tribe who occupied the valley of the -Delaware river and the area of the present State of New Jersey. For -some not very clear reason they were looked upon by the other members -of the stock as of the most direct lineage, and were referred to as -“grandfather.” Their dialect, which has been preserved by the Moravian -Missionaries, is harmonious in sound, but has varied markedly from the -purity of the Cree.[94] It has lost, for instance, the peculiar vowel -change which throws the verb from the definite to the indefinite form. -The mythology of the Lenâpés, which has been preserved in fragments, -presents the outlines common to the stock. - -ALGONKIN LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Abnakis_, Nova Scotia and S. bank of St. Lawrence. - _Arapahoes_, head waters of Kansas river. - _Blackfeet_, head waters of Missouri river. - _Cheyennes_, upper waters of Arkansas river. - _Chipeways_, shores of Lake Superior. - _Crees_, southern shores of Hudson Bay. - _Delawares_, see _Lenâpés_. - _Illinois_, on the Illinois river. - _Kaskaskias_, on Mississippi, below Illinois river. - _Kikapoos_, on upper Illinois river. - _Lenâpés_, on the Delaware river. - _Meliseets_, in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. - _Miamis_, between Miami and Wabash rivers. - _Micmacs_, in Nova Scotia. - _Menomonees_, near Green Bay. - _Mohegans_, on lower Hudson river. - _Manhattans_, about New York Bay. - _Nanticokes_, on Chesapeake Bay. - _Ottawas_, on the Ottawa river and S. of L. Huron. - _Pampticokes_, near Cape Hatteras. - _Passamaquoddies_, on Schoodic river. - _Piankishaws_, on middle Ohio river. - _Piegans_, see _Blackfeet_. - _Pottawattomies_, S. of Lake Michigan. - _Sauteux_, see _Crees_. - _Sacs and Foxes_, on Sac river. - _Secoffies_, in Labrador. - _Shawnees_, on Tennessee river. - _Weas_, near the Piankishaws. - - -5. THE IROQUOIS. - -When the French first explored the St. Lawrence River, they found both -its banks, in the vicinity where the cities of Montreal and Quebec now -stand, peopled by the _Iroquois_. This tribe also occupied all the area -of New York state (except the valley of the lower Hudson), where it was -known as the Five Nations. West of these were the Hurons and Neutral -Nation in Canada, and the Eries south of Lake Erie, while to the south -of the Five Nations, in the valley of the Susquehanna and pushing their -outposts along the western shore of Chesapeake Bay to the Potomac, were -the Andastes and Conestogas, called also Susquehannocks. Still further -south, about the head-waters of the Roanoke River, dwelt the Tuscaroras, -who afterwards returned north and formed the sixth nation in the league. -West of the Apalachians, on the upper waters of the Tennessee River, -lived the Cherokees who, by their tradition, had moved down from the -upper Ohio, and who, if they were not a branch of the same family, were -affiliated to it by many ancient ties of blood and language. The latest -investigations of the Bureau of Ethnology result in favor of considering -them a branch, though a distant one, of the Iroquois line. - -The stock was wholly an inland one, at no point reaching the ocean. -According to its most ancient traditions we are justified in locating its -priscan home in the district between the lower St. Lawrence and Hudson -Bay. If we may judge from its cranial forms, its purest representatives -were toward the east. The skulls of the Five Nations, as well as -those of the Tuscaroras and Cherokees, are distinctly dolichocephalic, -and much alike in other respects, while those of the Hurons are -brachycephalic.[95] Physically the stock is most superior, unsurpassed -by any other on the continent, and I may even say by any other people -in the world; for it stands on record that the five companies (500 men) -recruited from the Iroquois of New York and Canada during our civil war -stood first on the list among all the recruits of our army for height, -vigor and corporeal symmetry. - -In intelligence also their position must be placed among the highest. It -was manifested less in their culture than in their system of government. -About the middle of the fifteenth century the Onondaga chief, Hiawatha, -succeeded in completing the famous league which bound together his nation -with the Mohawks, Oneidas, Senecas, and Cayugas into one federation of -offence and defence. “The system he devised was to be not a loose and -transitory league, but a permanent government. While each nation was -to retain its own council and management of local affairs, the general -control was to be lodged in a federal senate, composed of representatives -to be elected by each nation, holding office during good behavior and -acknowledged as ruling chiefs throughout the whole confederacy. Still -further, and more remarkably, the federation was not to be a limited one. -It was to be indefinitely expansible. The avowed design of its proposer -was _to abolish war altogether_.”[96] - -Certainly this scheme was one of the most far-sighted, and in its aim -beneficent, which any statesman has ever designed for man. With the -Iroquois it worked well. They included in the league portions of the -Neutral Nation and the Tuscaroras, and for centuries it gave them the -supremacy among all their neighbors. The league was primarily based upon -or at least drew much of its strength from the system of gentes; this -prevailed both among the Iroquois and Cherokees, descent being traced in -the female line. Indeed, it was from a study of the Iroquois system that -the late Mr. Morgan formed his theory that ancient society everywhere -passed through a similar stage in attaining civilization. - -It is consonant with their advanced sentiments that among the Iroquois -women had more than ordinary respect. They were represented by a special -speaker in the councils of the tribe, and were authorized to conduct -negotiations looking towards making peace with an enemy. Among the -Conestogas we have the instance of a woman being the recognized “Queen” -of the tribe. With the Wyandots, the council of each gens was composed -exclusively of women. They alone elected the chief of the gens, who -represented its interests in the council of the tribe.[97] - -In sundry other respects they displayed an intelligent activity. In many -localities they were agricultural, cultivating maize, beans and tobacco, -building large communal houses of logs, fortifying their villages with -palisades, and making excellent large canoes of birch bark. According to -traditions, which are supported by recent archæological researches, the -Cherokees when they were upon the Kanawha and Ohio had large fields under -cultivation, and erected mounds as sites for their houses and for burial -purposes. When first encountered in East Tennessee they constructed -long communal houses like the Five Nations, had large fields of corn, -built excellent canoes and manufactured pottery of superior style -and finish. Although no method of recording thought had acquired any -development among the Iroquois, they had many legends, myths and formal -harangues which they handed down with great minuteness from generation to -generation. In remembering them they were aided by the wampum belts and -strings, which served by the arrangement and design of the beads to fix -certain facts and expressions in their minds. One of the most remarkable -of these ancient chants has been edited with a translation and copious -notes by Horatio Hale.[98] The Cherokees had a similar national song -which was repeated solemnly each year at the period of the green corn -dance. Fragments of it have been obtained quite recently. - -The Iroquois myths refer to the struggle of the first two brothers, -the dark twin and the white, a familiar symbolism in which we see the -personification of the light and darkness, and the struggle of day and -night. - -IROQUOIS LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Andastes_, see _Conestogas_. - _Cayugas_, south of Lake Ontario. - _Cherokees_, on upper Tennessee river. - _Conestogas_, on lower Susquehanna. - _Eries_, south of Lake Erie. - _Hurons_, see _Wyandots_. - _Mohawks_, on Lakes George and Champlain. - _Neutral Nation_, west of the Niagara river. - _Oneidas_, south of Lake Ontario. - _Onondagas_, south of Lake Ontario. - _Senecas_, south of Lake Ontario. - _Susquehannocks_, on lower Susquehanna. - _Tuscaroras_, in Virginia. - _Wyandots_, between Lakes Ontario and Huron. - - -6. THE CHAHTA-MUSKOKIS. - -The various nations who are classed under the Muskoki stock occupied the -broad and pleasant lowlands stretching from the terminal hills of the -Apalachian Mountains to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to -the Mississippi, and even beyond that mighty barrier. The remains of a -few other stocks in the eastern portion of this area indicate that the -Muskokis were not its original occupants, and this was also their own -opinion. Their legends referred to the west and the northwest as the -direction whence their ancestors had wandered; and the Choctaw legend -which speaks of _Nani Waya_, the Bending Mount, a large artificial mound -in Winston county, Mississippi, as the locality where their first parents -saw the light, is explained by another which describes it as the scene -of their separation from the Chickasaws. - -Of the main division of the stock, the Choctaws lived furthest west, -bordering upon the Mississippi, the Chickasaws in the centre, and the -Creeks on the Atlantic slope. The Seminoles were a branch of the latter, -who, in the last century, moved into Florida; but it is probable that the -whole of the west coast of that peninsula was under the control of the -Creeks from the earliest period of which we have any knowledge of it. - -The various members of this stock presented much diversity in -appearance. The Creeks were tall and slender, the Chickasaws short -and heavy; the skulls of both have a tendency to dolichocephaly, but -with marked exceptions, and the custom among many of them to deform -the head artificially in various ways adds to the difficulties of the -craniologist.[99] The color of all is called a dark cinnamon. - -The gentile system with descent in the female line prevailed everywhere. -The Creeks counted more than twenty gentes, the Choctaws and Chickasaws -about twelve, united in phratries of four. In the towns each gens lived -in a quarter by itself, and marriage within the gens was strictly -prohibited. Each had its own burying place and sepulchral mound where the -bones of the deceased were deposited after they had been cleaned. The -chief of each town was elected for life from a certain gens, but the -office was virtually hereditary, as it passed to his nephew on his wife’s -side unless there were cogent reasons against it. The chief, or _miko_, -as he was called, ruled with the aid of a council, and together they -appointed the “war chief,” who obtained the post solely on the ground of -merit. Instances of a woman occupying the position of head chief were not -unknown, and seem to have been recalled with pleasure by the tribe.[100] - -The early culture of these tribes is faithfully depicted in the records -of the campaign of Hernando De Soto, who journeyed through their country -in 1540. He found them cultivating extensive fields of maize, beans, -squashes and tobacco; dwelling in permanent towns with well-constructed -wooden edifices, many of which were situated on high mounds of artificial -construction, and using for weapons and utensils stone implements of -great beauty of workmanship. The descriptions of later travellers and -the antiquities still existing prove that these accounts were not -exaggerated. The early Muskokis were in the highest culture of the stone -age; nor were they deficient wholly in metals. They obtained gold from -the uriferous sands of the Nacoochee and other streams and many beautiful -specimens of their ornaments in it are still to be seen. - -Their artistic development was strikingly similar to that of the -“mound-builders” who have left such interesting remains in the Ohio -valley; and there is, to say the least, a strong probability that they -are the descendants of the constructors of those ancient works, driven -to the south by the irruptions of the wild tribes of the north.[101] Even -in the last century they built solid structures of beams fastened to -upright supports, plastered on the outside, and in the interior divided -into a number of rooms. The art of picture-writing was not unknown to -them, and some years ago I published their remarkable “national legend,” -read off from its hieroglyphics painted on a skin by their chief Chekilli -in 1731.[102] - -The religious rites of the Creeks were so elaborate that they attracted -early attention, and we have quite full accounts of them. They were -connected with the worship of the principle of fertility, the chief -celebration, called the _busk_ (_puskita_, fast), being solemnized when -the young corn became edible. In connection with this was the use of the -“black drink,” a decoction of the _Iris versicolor_, and the maintenance -of the perpetual fire. Their chief divinity was referred to as the -“master of breath” or of life, and there was a developed symbolism of -colors, white representing peaceful and pleasant ideas; red, those of war -and danger. The few Seminoles who still survive in the southern extremity -of the peninsula of Florida continue the ceremonies of the green corn -dance and black drink, though their mythology in general has become -deeply tinged with half-understood Christian teachings.[103] - -THE MUSKOKI LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Apalaches_, on Apalache Bay. - _Chickasaws_, head waters of Mobile river. - _Choctaws_, between the Mobile and Mississippi rivers. - _Coshattas_, on the Red river. - _Creeks_, see _Muskokis_. - _Hitchitees_, sub-tribe of Creeks. - _Muskokis_, between Mobile and Savannah rivers. - _Seminoles_, in Florida. - _Yamassees_, around Port Royal Bay, South Carolina. - - -7. THE CATAWBAS, YUCHIS, TIMUCUAS, NATCHEZ, CHETIMACHAS, TONICAS, ADAIZE, -ATAKAPAS, ETC. - -Within the horizon of the Muskoki stock were a number of small tribes -speaking languages totally different. We may reasonably suppose them -to have been the débris of the ancient population who held the land -before the Muskokis had descended upon it from the north and west. The -_Catawbas_ in the area of North and South Carolinas were one of these, -and in former times are said to have had a wide extension. South of them -was the interesting tribe of the _Yuchis_. When first heard of they were -on both banks of the Savannah river, but later moved to the Chatahuche. -They call themselves “Children of the Sun,” which orb they regard as -a female and their mother. Their gentes are the same as those of the -Creeks, and are evidently borrowed from them. Descent is counted in the -female line. Women are held in honor, and when De Soto first met them -they were governed by a queen.[104] - -Some of both these tribes still survive; but this is not the case with -the _Timucuas_, who occupied the valley of the St. John river, Florida, -and its tributaries, and the Atlantic coast as far north as the St. Mary -river. They have been extinct for a century, but we have preserved some -doctrinal works written in their tongue by Spanish missionaries in the -seventeenth century, so we gain an insight into their language.[105] It -is an independent stock. - -Near the Choctaws were the _Natchez_, not far from the present city of -that name. An account of them has been preserved by the early French -settlers of Louisiana. They were devoted sun-worshippers and their chief -was called “The Sun,” and regarded as the earthly representative of the -orb. They constructed artificial mounds, upon which they erected temples -and houses, and were celebrated for their skill in weaving fabrics from -the inner bark of the mulberry tree and for their fine pottery. In their -religious rites they maintained a perpetual fire, and were accustomed to -sacrifice captives to their gods, and the wives of their chieftain at his -death. - -The _Taensas_ were a branch of the Natchez on the other bank of the -Mississippi. Attention has been drawn to them of late years by the -attempt of a young seminarist in France to foist upon scholars a language -of his own manufacture which he had christened _Taensa_, and claimed -to have derived from these people.[106] The Natchez language contains -many words from the Muskoki dialects, but is radically dissimilar from -it.[107] A few of the nation still preserve it in Indian Territory. - -The _Chetimachas_ lived on the banks of Grand Lake and Grand River, and -were but a small tribe. They are said to have been strictly monogamous, -and to have had female chieftains. Their chief deity was Kut-Kähänsh, the -Noon-day Sun, in whose honor they held sacred dances at each new moon. - -The _Tonicas_ are frequently mentioned in the early French accounts of -the colony of Louisiana. They lived in what is now Avoyelles parish, and -were staunch friends of the European immigrants. Their language is an -independent stock, and has some unusual features in American tongues, -such as a masculine and a feminine gender of nouns and a dual in three -pronouns. - -The _Adaize_ or Atai were a small tribe who once lived between Saline -river and Natchitoche, La. They spoke a vocalic language, differing from -any other, though including a number of Caddo words, which was owing to -their having been a member of the Caddo confederacy. - -The _Atakapas_ had their hunting grounds about Vermilion river and the -adjacent Gulf coast. Their name in Choctaw means “man-eaters,” both they -and their neighbors along the Texan coast having an ugly reputation -as cannibals, differing in this from the Muskokis and their neighbors -east of the Mississippi, among whom we have no record of anthropophagy, -even of a ritual character. The later generations of Atakapas have been -peaceful and industrious. Their language, though in the main quite alone, -presents a limited number of words evidently from the same roots as their -correspondents in the Uto-Aztecan family. - -The coast of Texas, between the mouths of the Colorado and Nueces rivers, -was the home of the _Carankaways_. The Spaniards gave them a very black -character as merciless cannibals, impossible to reduce or convert; -but the French and English settlers speak of them in better terms. In -appearance they were tall and strong, with low foreheads, hooked noses, -prominent cheek bones, tattooed skins, and wore their black hair long -and tangled. The older writers affirm that they spoke Atakapa, and were -a branch of that tribe; but the scanty material of their idiom which we -possess seems to place them in a stock by themselves. - -The _Tonkaways_ are a small tribe who lived in northwest Texas, speaking -a tongue without known relationship. A curious feature of their mythology -is the deification of the wolf. They speak of this animal as their common -ancestor, and at certain seasons hold wolf dances in his honor, at which -they dress themselves in wolf skins and howl and run in imitation of -their mythical ancestor and patron. A branch of them, the Arrenamuses, is -said to have dwelt considerably to the south of the main body, near the -mouth of the San Antonio river. - -The lower Rio Grande del Norte was peopled on both its banks by a stock -which was christened by Orozco y Berra the _Coahuiltecan_, but which -Pimentel preferred to call the Texan. The latter is too wide a word, so -I retain the former. There is not much material for the study of its -dialects, so we are left in the dark as to the relationship of many -tribes resident in that region. They were small in size and rich in -names. Adolph Uhde gives the appellations and locations of seventy-four, -based on previous works and personal observations.[108] The missionary -Garcia, in his _Manual of the Sacraments_, published in the last century, -names seventeen tribes speaking dialects of the tongue he employs, which -appears to be a branch of the Coahuiltecan.[109] - -It is useless to repeat the long list, the more so as the bands were -unimportant and have long since become extinct, with a few exceptions. -They were in a savage condition, roving, and depending on hunting and -fishing. The following appear to have been the principal members of the - -COAHUILETCAN LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Alazapas_, near Monclova. - _Cacalotes_, on the left bank of the Rio Grande. - _Catajanos_ or _Cartujanos_, near Monclova. - _Carrizos_, near Monclova. - _Coaquilenes_, near Monclova. - _Cotonames_, left bank of Rio Grande. - _Comecrudos_, near Reynosa. - _Orejones_, near San Antonio de Bejar. - _Pacaos_ or _Pakawas_, near San Antonio. - -Among the extinct dialects of Tamaulipas was the _Maratin_, which at -one time had considerable extension. The only monument which has been -preserved of it is a wild song, in which the natives celebrated all too -early their victories over the Spaniards. The text contains several -Nahuatl words, but the body of the roots appear to have been drawn from -some other source.[110] Uhde locates the Maratins near Soto la Marina and -along the Gulf between the Rio Panuco and the Rio Grande.[111] - - -8. THE PAWNEES (CADDOES). - -The Pani[112] stock was scattered irregularly from the Middle Missouri -River to the Gulf of Mexico. The Pawnees proper occupied the territory -from the Niobrara River south to the Arkansas. The Arikari branch had -separated and migrated to the north at a comparatively recent period, -while the Wichitas, Caddoes and Huecos roamed over Eastern Louisiana and -Western Texas. The earliest traditions of all these peoples assign their -priscan home toward the south, and the Pawnees remembered having driven -the Dakota tribes from the hunting grounds of the Platte Basin. - -The stock as a rule had an excellent physique, being tall and robust, -with well-proportioned features, the lips thin and the eyes small. -Longevity however was rare, and few of either sex reached the age of -sixty. The division of the tribes was into bands and these into totems, -but the gentile system did not prevail with much strength among them. -The chieftainship of the bands was hereditary in the male line, and the -power of the chief was almost absolute. He was surrounded by a body -of retainers whom he supported, and who carried out his orders. When -he wished a council these messengers carried the summons. Property as -well as power passed to the family of the male, and widows were often -deprived of everything and left in destitution. Marriage was a strictly -commercial transaction, the woman being bought from her parents. The -purchase effected, the bridegroom had a right to espouse all the younger -sisters of his wife as they grew to maturity, if he felt so inclined. The -laxity of the marriage rules of the stock was carried to its limit by the -Arikaris, among whom it is said fathers united with their daughters and -brothers with their sisters, without offending the moral sense of the -community. This may have arisen after corruption by the whites. - -Agriculture among them was more in favor than generally on the plains. -Maize, pumpkins and squashes were cultivated, each family having its -own field two or three acres in extent. For about four months of the -year they were sedentary, dwelling in houses built of poles and bark -covered with sods, while the remainder of the time they wandered over -their hunting grounds, carrying with them tents of skins which were -stretched on poles. The women manufactured a rude pottery and the men -implements and weapons of wood and stone. The Arikaris were skilled in -the construction of boats of skin stretched over wooden frames, an art -they may have learned from the Mandans. - -The information about their religion is vague, but it seems in some -respects to have resembled that of the Mexican nations. One of their -chief divinities was the morning star, _Opirikut_, which was supposed -to represent the deity of fertility and agriculture. At the time of -corn-planting a young girl, usually a captive, was sacrificed to this -divinity. The victim was bound to a stake and partly burned alive; but -before life had ceased, her breast was cut open, her heart torn out -and flung in the flames. Her flesh was then cut into small pieces and -buried in the cornfield. This was believed to secure an abundant crop. -The similarity of the rite to that in vogue among the Mexicans, who also -worshipped the morning star as the goddess of fertility, is interesting. - -The dead were buried with their possessions, and the customs of mourning -continued sometimes for years.[113] - -PANI LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Anaddakkas_, on left bank of Sabine river. - _Arikaris_, on the middle Missouri. - _Assinais_, in central Texas. - _Caddoes_, near Clear Lake, La. - _Cenis_, see _Assinais_. - _Huecos_, on the upper Brazos river. - _Innies_, see _Texas_. - _Nachitoches_, on upper Red river. - _Natacos_, see _Anaddakkas_. - _Pawnees_, between Niobrara and Arkansas rivers. - _Tawakonies_, on upper Leon river. - _Texas_, on upper Sabine river and branches. - _Towachies_, see _Pawnees_. - _Wichitas_, on north bank of Red river. - _Yatasses_, on Stony creek, an affluent of Red river. - - -9. THE DAKOTAS (SIOUX). - -The western water-shed of the Mississippi river was largely in the -possession of the Dakota or Sioux stock. Its various tribes extended in -an unbroken line from the Arkansas river on the south to the Saskatchewan -on the north, populating the whole of the Missouri valley as far up as -the Yellowstone. Their principal tribes in the south were the Quapaws, -Kansas and Osages; in the central region the Poncas, Omahas and Mandans; -to the north were the Sioux, Assiniboins and Crows; while about Green Bay -on Lake Michigan lived the Winnebagoes. - -The opinion was formerly entertained that this great family moved to -the locations where they were first met from some western home; but the -researches of modern students have refuted this. Mr. Dorsey has shown by -an analysis of their most ancient traditions that they unanimously point -to an eastern origin, and that the central and southern bands did not -probably cross the Mississippi much before the fourteenth century.[114] -This is singularly supported by the discovery of Mr. Horatio Hale that -the Tuteloes of Virginia were a branch of the Dakotas; and further, -the investigations of Catlin among the Mandans resulted in showing -that this nation reached the Missouri valley by travelling down the -Ohio. They therefore formed a part of the great easterly migration of -the North Atlantic tribes which seem to have been going on for many -centuries before the discovery. In the extreme south, almost on the -gulf coast of Louisiana, lived some small bands of Dakotas, known as -Biloxis, Opelousas, Pascagoulas, etc. They were long supposed to speak an -independent tongue, and only of late years has their proper position been -defined. - -Their frames are powerful, and the warriors of the Sioux have long -enjoyed a celebrity for their hardihood and daring. The massacre of -General Custer’s command, which they executed in 1876, was the severest -blow the army of the United States ever experienced at the hands of the -red man. With reference to cranial form they are dolichocephalic, sixteen -out of twenty-three skulls in the collection of the Academy[115] offering -a cephalic index under 80. - -The northern Dakotas do not seem to have had the same system of gentes -which prevailed in most of the eastern tribes. Mr. Morgan was of the -opinion that it had existed, but had been lost; this, however, requires -further proof. There are many societies among them, but not of the nature -of clans. Their chiefs hold their position by hereditary descent in the -male line, though among the Winnebagoes the early traveller, Carver found -the anomaly of a woman presiding over the tribe. The central bands, the -Mandans and Minnetarees, recognized gentes with descent in the female -line; while among the Poncas and Omahas there were also gentes, but with -descent in the male line. The condition in this respect, of the members -of this family, as also of that of the Athabascan, seems to prove that -the gentile system is by no means a fixed stadium of even American -ancient society, but is variable, and present or absent as circumstances -may dictate. - -A few members of this family, notably the Mandans, attained a respectable -degree of culture, becoming partly agricultural, and dwelling most of the -year in permanent abodes; but the majority of them preferred depending -on the bounties of nature, pursuing the herds of buffaloes over the -boundless pastures of the plains, or snaring the abundant fish in the -myriad streams which traversed their country. - -The mythology of the Dakotas is concerned with the doings of giants in -whom we recognize personifications of the winds and storms. One of these -is Haokah, to whom the warrior sends up an invocation when about to -undertake some perilous exploit. The thunder is caused by huge birds who -flap their wings angrily and thus produce the portentous reverberations. -The waters are the home of Unktahe, a mighty spirit who lurks in their -depths. Indeed, to the Dakotas, and not to them alone, but to man in -their stage of thought, “All nature is alive with gods. Every mountain, -every tree is worshipped, and the commonest animals are the objects of -adoration.”[116] - -DAKOTA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Arkansas_, on lower Arkansas river. - _Assiniboins_, on Saskatchewan and Assiniboin rivers. - _Biloxis_, in Rapides Parish, Louisiana. - _Crows_, on Yellowstone river. - _Iowas_, on the Iowa river. - _Kansas_, on the Kansas river. - _Mandans_, on the middle Missouri river. - _Minetarees_, on the Yellowstone river. - _Ogallalas_, sub-tribe of Sioux. - _Omahas_, on the Elkhorn river. - _Osages_, on Arkansas and Osage rivers. - _Ottoes_, on the Platte river. - _Poncas_, on the middle Missouri river. - _Quapaws_, on lower Arkansas river. - _Sioux_, on upper Mississippi and affluents. - _Tetons_, sub-tribe of Sioux. - _Tuteloes_, on upper Roanoke river, Va. - _Winnebagoes_, western shore of Lake Michigan. - _Yanktons_, on upper Iowa river. - - -10. THE KIOWAYS. - -The upper basin of the Canadian branch of the Arkansas River was the home -of the _Kioways_. At the middle of this century they were estimated to -be over three thousand, all given to a wild hunting life over the great -plains on which they lived. In close proximity to the Comanches and other -tribes of Shoshonian lineage, their language presents many affinities to -the Shoshonian stock, but not sufficient in the opinion of those who have -examined both to justify classing them together as from a common source. - -The Kioways are light in color, broad shouldered and strong armed, and -for generations were the Arabs of the Great American Desert, depending -on hunting and robbery for a subsistence. Their homes were light skin -lodges, which they spread on poles about twelve feet long. With plenty -of ponies and without fixed habitations, it was easy for them to -move rapidly over the Plains. According to their traditions they came -originally from the North, from some cold country, where they had to -walk on snow shoes, definitely located near the Black Hills, Dakota, -where they were associated with the Apaches. They were idol worshippers, -their priesthood consisting of ten medicine-men. The dead were buried -in deep graves. At present they have been reduced to about one thousand -souls.[117] - - - - -II. THE NORTH PACIFIC GROUP. - - -1. THE NORTHWEST COAST AND CALIFORNIAN TRIBES. - -The lofty chains of the Rocky Mountains extend from north to south, -leaving a narrow coast line seamed with deep and fertile valleys along -the Pacific from Mt. St. Elias to the Gulf of California. In spite of its -great extent in latitude--from the 30th to the 60th degree--there is less -difference in climate than one would suppose from analogy in any other -part of the world. The warm ocean current which bathes the northern coast -mitigates the cold of the winter to such an extent that the isothermal -lines on the Pacific are fifteen degrees of latitude more northerly than -on the Atlantic border of the continent. - -A few of the eastern stocks, the Athabascan and the Shoshonian, have sent -out colonies who have settled on the banks of the Pacific; but as a rule -the tribes of the western coast are not connected with any east of the -mountains. What is more singular, although they differ surprisingly among -themselves in language, they have marked anthropologic similarities, -physical and psychical. Virchow[118] has emphasized the fact that -the skulls from the northern point of Vancouver’s Island reveal an -unmistakable analogy to those from the southern coast of California; -and this is to a degree true of many intermediate points. Not that the -crania have the same indices. On the contrary, they present great and -constant differences within the same tribe;[119] but these differences -are analogous one to the other, and on fixed lines. - -There are many other physical similarities which mark the Pacific Indians -and contrast them with those east of the mountains. The eyes are less -oblique, the nose flatter, the lips fuller, the chin more pointed, the -face wider. There is more hair on the face and in the axilla, and the -difference between the sexes is much more obvious.[120] - -The mental character is also in contrast. The Pacific tribes are more -quiet, submissive and docile; they have less courage, and less of that -untamable independence which is so constant a feature in the history of -the Algonkins and Iroquois. - -Beginning at the sixtieth degree of north latitude and extending to the -fifty-fifth, are the _Tlinkit_ or _Kolosch_. They dwell on the coast -of Alaska and the adjacent islands. Physically they are a strong and -often tall people, light in color, with black or slightly reddish hair, -eyes horizontal, nose aquiline. The Russians spoke of them as the most -intelligent tribe they encountered on the coast. They certainly seem to -have developed an uncommon appreciation of property, which is supposed to -be a sign of a high order of intellect. Thus they have a gentile system -with descent in the female line, but their aristocracy and the selection -of their chiefs are entirely on a property basis. The richest obtain the -highest places. - -The Tlinkit villages are permanent, the houses solidly constructed of -wood, sometimes with the additional protection of a palisade. The carving -and painting upon them are elaborate, the subjects being caricatures -of faces, men, and animal forms. The chiefs erect at one side of their -doors carved and painted “totem posts,” some of which are nearly fifty -feet high. These are also found among the Haidahs and Tshimshians to -the south. The arts are correspondingly developed. Seaworthy canoes -are hewn from the trunks of the red cedar, hides are dressed and the -leather worked into a variety of articles; lamps, mortars and utensils -were chipped or ground out of stone, and they are handy in beating out -ornaments of silver and copper. The Tlinkits have always been active -merchants, and when the first navigators visited their villages in 1741, -they were surprised to find them in possession of iron knives and other -articles obtained by trade over East Cape or from the south. The usual -currency were the dentalium shells found along the coast. One of the -staple articles of trade were slaves, a custom not in existence on the -Atlantic. They were bought from the neighboring tribes, and treated with -great cruelty. - -Tlinkit mythology is rich, having a coherent creation and deluge -myth, the principal figure in which is _Jelchs_, the raven. He is the -Promethean fire-bringer, and sets free the sun, moon and stars from their -prisons. The religious rites are in the hands of priests (shamans), who -as usual exert a great and injurious influence.[121] - -The _Haidahs_, who dwell on Queen Charlotte Islands and Prince of Wales -Archipelago, are probably a distant branch of the Tlinkit, though the -affinity has not been clearly established, so they are officially classed -as the _Skittagetan_ stock, from the Skidegate dialect of the coast. -In culture and appearance they resemble the Tlinkits, having similar -mechanical skill. Their canoes and their intricate carvings, especially -totem-posts and pipes of black slate, are celebrated products of the -northwest coast. - -The above and other tribes of British Columbia and Washington, the -Tshimshian, the Kwakiutl, the Nootka, Salish, Chinook, etc., are so much -alike physically that Dr. Boas, who has carried out the most recent and -thorough examination of them, observes that no physical distinctions can -be drawn between them.[122] In some the hair is slightly wavy; in others -the nose is aquiline or flatter; the heads of several are artificially -deformed, etc.; but these differences do not characterize whole stocks. -All have a great respect for wealth, and consider its accumulation -the chief object of life. Among them all, women are honored for their -chastity and industry, men for their skill in hunting and fishing, and -for their bravery in war. Their character is generally sombre, and vanity -and servility are prominent faults. The animal totemic system generally -prevails, the child among the Salish and Kwakiutl following the father’s -gens. The communities are divided into social strata, as common people, -middle class and chiefs. A favorite method to obtain popularity is to -give a _potlatch_--a great feast, at which the host makes expensive -presents to the guests, and thus becomes as it were their creditor to the -amount of his disbursement. - -The _Salish_, who are distinctively known as Flatheads, though the custom -of deforming the cranium is not confined to them, occupied a large tract -in northern Washington and British Columbia. - -The principal contribution of the Chinooks to modern life has been the -“Chinook jargon” which has become the trade language of the coast. It is -a curious medley of words, and has been recently made the subject of an -interesting study by Mr. Horatio Hale.[123] - -The _Sahaptins_ or _Nez Percés_, with their affiliated tribes, occupied -the middle and upper valley of the Columbia and its affluents, and also -the passes of the mountains. They were in contiguity with the Shoshonees -and the Algonkin Blackfeet, thus holding an important position, -intermediate between the eastern and the Pacific tribes. Having the -commercial instinct of the latter, they made good use of it, and every -summer carried the various products of the coast, as shells, carved -pipes, hammered copper, etc., far down the Missouri, where they exchanged -them for the wares of the tribes there situate. - -Of the numerous other linguistic stocks on the coast it will be -sufficient for me to append the classification adopted by the Bureau of -Ethnology at Washington. - -NORTH PACIFIC COAST STOCKS. - -(_From north to south._) - - _Tlinkit_ or _Koloschan_, in southern Alaska. - _Haidah_ or _Skittagetan_, on Queen Charlotte Islands. - Dialects--Masset, Skidegate, etc. - _Tshimsian_ or _Chimmessyanian_, on Nass and Skeena rivers. - Dialects--Chimmessyan, Nasqua. - _Kwakiuootl_ or _Haeltzukian_, on Gardiner’s Channel. - Dialects--Heiltsuk, Kwakiutl, Quaisla. - _Nutka_ or _Wakashan_, on western coast of Vancouver Island. - Dialects--Aht, Nootka, Wakash. - _Chinook_ or _Chinookan_, Columbia river to Dalles; Pacific coast to - Shoalwater Bay; south to Tillamuk Head. - _Salish_, Admiralty Inlet to Spokane river. - Dialects--Bilcoola, Kawitschin, Lummi, Samie. - _Chimakuan_, Puget Sound, Port Townsend to Port Ludlow. - _Kutenay_ or _Kitunahan_, head-waters of Columbia. - _Sahaptin_ or _Sahaptanian_, middle affluents of Columbia. - Dialects--Klikatat, Nez Percé, Sahaptani, Wallawalla, Yakama. - _Wayilaptu_ or _Waiilaptuan_, near mouth of Wallawalla river. - _Yakonan_, coast of Oregon from Yaquina river to Umpqua river. - _Kalapooian_, on the Wilamette river. - _Kusan_, about Coos Bay. - _Palaihnihan_ or _Achomawi_, on Pit river. - _Takilman_, on upper Rogue river. - _Sastean_ or _Shasta_, on upper Klamath river. - _Lutuamian_ or _Modoc_, on Klamath Lake and Sprague river. - _Quoratean_ or _Ehnek_, on lower Klamath river to junction of Trinity - river. - _Yukian_, in Round Valley, California. - _Yanan_ or _Nozi_, Lassen Butte and Round Mountain. - _Pujunan_ or _Maidu_, east bank of Sacramento river. - _Kulanapan_ or _Pomo_, Russian river and adjacent coast. - _Copehan_ or _Wintun_, on Trinity river. - _Weitspekan_ or _Rurok_, lower Klamath river from Trinity river down. - _Chimarikan_, on New river and Trinity river. - _Wishoskan_, on Humboldt Bay. - _Mariposan_ or _Yokuts_, on Kings river and Tulare Lake. - _Moquelumnian_ or _Mutsun_, on Tuolumne river. - _Costanoan_, north of San Francisco Bay to Monterey Bay. - _Esselenian_, Monterey Bay to San Lucia Mts. - _Salinan_, about San Antonio and San Miguel missions. Includes the - Tatche or Telame. - _Chumashan_, at missions of San Buenaventura, Santa Barbara, Santa - Inez, Purissima and San Luis Obispo. - - -2. THE YUMAS. - -The valley of the Colorado River in Arizona, the peninsula of California -and portions of the eastern shore of the Gulf of California, formed the -home of the Yuma stock. They were found in these regions by Coronado as -early as 1540, and own no traditions of having lived anywhere else. The -considerable differences in their dialects within this comparatively -small area indicates that a long period has elapsed since the stock -settled in this locality and split up into hostile fractions. - -It has also been called the Katchan or Cuchan stock, and the Apache, -that being the Yuma word for “fighting men”; but we should confine the -term Apaches to the Tinneh (Athapascan) tribe so called, and to avoid -confusion I shall dismiss the terms Apache-Yumas, Apache-Tontos and -Apache-Mohaves, employed by some writers. The Yumas, from whom the stock -derives its name, lived near the mouth of the Colorado River. Above them, -on both banks of the river, were the Mohaves, and further up, principally -on Virgin River, were the Yavapai. - -Most of the Yumas are of good stature, the adult males averaging five -feet nine inches high, well built and vigorous. The color varies from -a dark to a light mahogany; the hair is straight and coarse, the eyes -horizontal, the mouth large, and the lips heavy. The skull is generally -brachycephalic, but there are a number of cases of extreme dolichocephaly -(68).[124] - -Animal totems with descent in the male line prevailed among the Yumas, -though they seem for a long time not to have regarded these matters -closely. In culture they vary considerably. The Seris or Ceris, who -formerly lived in the hills near Horcasitas, but in 1779 were removed to -the island of Tiburon, are described as thieves and vagrants, lazy and -wretched. They were exceedingly troublesome to the Mexican government, -having revolted over forty times. The boats they use are of a peculiar -construction, consisting of rushes tied together. As weapons up to recent -years they preferred the bow and arrow, and upon the arrow laid some kind -of poison which prevented the wounds from healing. Their dialect, which -is harsh, is related especially to the western branch of the Yuma stem. -They are described as light in color and some of them good-looking, but -filthy in habits.[125] - -The Yumas and Maricopas were agricultural, cultivating large fields of -corn and beans, and irrigating their plantations by trenches. It is -highly probable that formerly some of them dwelt in adobe houses of the -pueblo character, and were the authors of some of the numerous ruined -structures seen in southern Arizona. The pottery and basket work turned -out by their women are superior in style and finish. A few years ago -the Mohaves of the west bank lived in holes in the earth covered with -brush, or in small wattled conical huts. For clothing they wore strips of -cottonwood bark, or knotted grass. Tattooing and painting the person in -divers colors were common. The favorite ornament was shells, arranged on -strings, or engraved and suspended to the neck. The chiefs wore elaborate -feather head-dresses.[126] - -The Tontos, so-called from their reputation for stupidity, are largely -mixed with Tinné blood, their women having been captured from the -Apaches. Though savage, they are by no means dull, and are considered -uncommonly adept thieves. - -Quite to the south, in the mountains of Oaxaca and Guerrero, the -Tequistlatecas, usually known by the meaningless term Chontales, belong -to this stem, judging from the imperfect vocabularies which have been -published. - -The peninsula of California was inhabited by several Yuma tribes -differing in dialect but much alike in culture, all being on its lowest -stage. Wholly unacquainted with metals, without agriculture of any kind, -naked, and constructing no sort of permanent shelters, they depended on -fishing, hunting and natural products for subsistence. Their weapons were -the bow and the lance, which they pointed with sharpened stones. Canoes -were unknown, and what little they did in navigation was upon rafts of -reeds and brush. - -Marriages among them were by individual preference, and are said not to -have respected the limits of consanguinity; but this is doubtful, as we -are also told that the mother-in-law was treated with peculiar ceremony. -Their rites for the dead indicate a belief in the survival of the -individual. The body was buried and after a certain time the bones were -cleaned, painted red, and preserved in ossuaries. - -The population was sparse, probably not more than ten thousand on the -whole peninsula. At the extreme south were the Pericus, who extended to -N. Lat. 24°; beyond these lived the Guaicurus to about Lat. 26°; and in -the northern portion of the peninsula to latitude 33° the Cochimis.[127] -The early writers state that in appearance these bands did not differ -from the Mexicans on the other side of the Gulf. Their skulls, however, -which have been collected principally from the district of the Pericus, -present a peculiar degree of elongation and height (dolichocephalic and -hypsistenocephalic). - -YUMA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Ceris_, on Tiburon Island and the adjacent coast. - _Cochimis_, northern portion of Californian peninsula. - _Cocopas_, at mouth of Colorado river. - _Coco-Maricopas_, on middle Gila river. - _Comeyas_, between lower Colorado and the Pacific. - _Coninos_, on Cataract creek, branch of the Colorado. - _Cuchanes_, see _Yumas_. - _Diegueños_, near San Diego on the Pacific. - _Gohunes_, on Rio Salado and Rio Verde. - _Guaicurus_, middle portion of Californian peninsula. - _Hualapais_, from lower Colorado to Black Mountains. - _Maricopas_, see _Coco-Maricopas_. - _Mohaves_, on both banks of lower Colorado. - _Pericus_, southern extremity of Californian peninsula. - _Tontos_, in Tonto basin and in the Pinal mountains. - _Tequistlatecas_, of Oaxaca and Guerrero. - _Yavipais_, west of Prescott, Arizona. - _Yumas_, near mouth of Colorado river.[128] - - -3. THE PUEBLO TRIBES. - -The word _pueblo_ in Spanish means simply “town;” but in American -ethnography it has obtained a special signification from the aboriginal -structures so-called, whose remains are found in profusion in Arizona and -the neighboring localities over an area about 350 miles from east to -west and 300 miles from north to south.[129] These are buildings several -stories in height, either of stone or of adobes, communal in character, -that is, intended to accommodate a whole gens or clan, and usually with -certain peculiarities of finish and plan. The adobes are generally large, -some four feet long by two feet wide, and were often made upon the wall -itself, the clay or gravel being carried in a moist state in baskets of -this size and deposited upon the wall till the mass dried. When stones -are employed, they are held together by a mud mortar. The most celebrated -of these adobe edifices are perhaps the Casas Grandes in the valley of -the San Miguel river, in northern Chihuahua. They have frequently been -described and do not differ except in size from hundreds of other ruins -in the Gila basin. - -In connection with the pueblos stand the “cliff-houses,” structures of -stones usually carefully squared and laid in mortar, found in great -numbers and over an area of wide extent in the deep gorges or cañons of -the Colorado, the Gila and the upper Rio Grande, and their numberless -affluents. They are perched upon the ledges of the precipices, which -often descend almost perpendicularly for thousands of feet, and access to -many of them could have been only by ladders or ropes. Prominent points -are frequently surmounted by round or square stone towers, evidently for -purposes of observation. The disposition of the cliff houses renders it -certain that their plans and positions were selected with a view to make -them safe retreats from marauding enemies. - -As descriptions of these interesting ruins have often been introduced -to support vague and extraordinary theories concerning ancient America, -I would emphatically say there is nothing in any of the remains of the -pueblos, or the cliff houses, or any other antiquities in that portion -of our continent, which compels us to seek other constructors for them -than the ancestors of the various tribes which were found on the spot by -the Spaniards in the sixteenth century, and by the armies of the United -States in the middle of the nineteenth. This opinion is in accordance -with history, with the traditions of the tribes themselves, and with the -condition of culture in which they were found. When, in 1735, Pedro de -Ainza made an expedition from Santa Fé against the Navajos, he discovered -tribes dwelling in stone houses “built within the rocks,” and guarded -by watchtowers of stone.[130] The Apaches still remember driving these -cliff-dwellers from their homes, and one of the Apache gentes is yet -named from them “stone-house people.”[131] As for the pueblos, seven or -eight of them are occupied to-day by the same people who built them, and -whose homes they have been for many centuries. - -It is a significant fact that these people do not all belong to the same -stock. On the contrary, the “Pueblo Indians” are members of a number of -wholly disconnected stems. This proves that the Pueblo civilization is -not due to any one unusually gifted lineage, but was a local product, -developed in independent tribes by the natural facilities offered by -the locality. It is a spontaneous production of the soil, climate, and -conditions, which were unusually favorable to agricultural and sedentary -occupations, and prompted various tribes to adopt them. - -Of these different peoples, those of the Moqui Pueblo belonged to the -Shoshonee branch of the Uto-Aztecan stock, and is the only existing -Pueblo which is peopled by that widespread stem.[132] We have good reason -to believe, however, that the Pimas of the Sonoran Group of the same -stock once occupied a number of adobe Pueblos, and quite likely were the -constructors of the Casas Grandes. - -The natives of the remaining Pueblos belong to three independent stocks, -known as the Kera, the Tehua, and the Zuñi families. No relationship -has been discovered between either of these and any tribe outside the -territory I have referred to. - -The culture of the Pueblos, both ancient and modern, bears every mark of -local and independent growth. A knowledge of metals, other than to a -limited extent for ornament, is nowhere evident. Tillage of the fields -in a rude manner was the main source of the food supply. Pottery of fine -temper and in symmetrical forms was manufactured by the women. That they -had any other domestic animal than a fowl, and sometimes a dog, has -not been shown. Mats and clothing were woven of the fibres of bark and -grass, and the culture of cotton was at one time common, especially among -the Moquis and Pimas. The arts of weaving feathers and working shells -into decorative objects are not yet lost. Apart from the development of -the art of architecture, there was little in the culture of the Pueblo -tribes to lift them above the level of the Algonkins. The acequias, or -irrigation trenches, about which much has been written, were a necessity -of their climate, and were in use among their southern neighbors in -Sonora, and the Navajos. - -LINGUISTIC STOCKS OF THE PUEBLOS. - - KERA STOCK. | Pueblos of Kera or Queres, Cochiti, Laguna, Acoma, - | Silla, etc., on the upper Rio Grande, Jemez and San - | Juan rivers. - TEHUA STOCK. | _Jemez_, on the Jemez river. - | _Piros_, on Rio Grande and in Chihuahua. - | _Tanos_, near Albuquerque, New Mexico. - | _Taos_, at Taos Pueblo. - | _Tehuas_, at Tesuque and neighboring Pueblos. - ZUÑI STOCK. | At Zuñi Pueblo. - - - - -III. THE CENTRAL GROUP. - - -1. THE UTO-AZTECAN TRIBES. - -Of all the stocks on the North American Continent, that which I call the -_Uto-Aztecan_ merits the closest study, on account of its wide extension -and the high development of some of its members. Tribes speaking its -dialects were found from the Isthmus of Panama to the banks of the -Columbia River, and from the coast of the Pacific to the Gulf of Mexico. -The relationship of these numerous bands is unquestionable, although many -of them have freely adopted words from other stocks. This, however, will -not surprise us if we recall that most of the Aryac languages of the old -world owe about one third of their radicals to non-Aryac sources. - -The principal members of this stock are the Utes, Shoshonees and -Comanches in the north, various tribes in Sonora, Chihuahua, Sinaloa and -Durango in the center, and the Nahuas or Aztecs in the south. It is not -to be understood that the one of these derived its idioms from the other, -but rather that at some remote epoch all three were offshoots from some -one ancestral stem. This was at a period before the grammatical forms -of the tongue had reached full development, and probably when it was -in a stage of isolation, with tendencies to suffix agglutination and -incorporation. Since then the stages of growth which the several dialects -have reached have been various. The one which far outstripped all others -was the Nahuatl, which arrived at clear and harmonious sounds, fixed -forms, and even some recognizable traces of inflection, though always -retaining its incorporative character. - -The establishment of the unity of this linguistic family we owe to the -admirable labors of Joh. Carl Ed. Buschmann, who devoted years of patient -investigation to examining the traces of the Nahuatl, or as he preferred -to call it, the Aztec language, in Mexico and throughout the continent -to the north. In spite of deficient materials, his sharp-sighted acumen -discovered the relationship of the chief tongues of the group, and later -investigations have amply confirmed his conclusions.[133] - -Long before his day, however, the Spanish missionaries to the tribes -of Sonora and Sinaloa had recognized their kinship to the Aztecs, and -Father Ribas, in his history of the missions established by the Jesuits -in Mexico, published in 1645, stated that the root-words and much of the -grammar of all these dialects was substantially the same as those of the -Nahuatl.[134] - -It is without doubt the most numerous stock now surviving. According to -the census figures of the governments of the United States and Mexico for -1880, the numbers were as follows:[135] - - Shoshonian group, including Pimas in U. S. 26,200 - Sonoran group in Mexican Territory 84,000 - Aztecan group 1,626,000 - - -_a. The Ute or Shoshonian Branch._ - -The northern, or Ute branch, which I so call from its most prominent -member, includes the Shoshonees, Utes and Comanches, with their numerous -sub-tribes and affiliated bands. They occupied at the beginning of this -century an immense area, now included in south-eastern Oregon, Wyoming, -Montana, Idaho, Nevada, parts of California, New Mexico and Arizona, -northern and western Texas, and the states of Durango and Chihuahua in -Mexico. Other names by which they are known in this area are Snakes, -Bannocks, Moquis, etc. Everywhere their tongue is unmistakably the same. -“Any one speaking the Shoshonee language may travel without difficulty -among the wild tribes from Durango, in Mexico, to the banks of the -Columbia River.”[136] Their war parties scoured the country from the -Black Hills of Dakota far into the interior of Mexico. - -So far as can be ascertained, the course of migration of this group, -like that of the whole stock, has been in a general southerly direction. -The Comanche traditions state that about two hundred winters ago they -lived as one people with the Shoshonees somewhere to the north of the -head-waters of the Arkansas River.[137] This is borne out by similar -traditions among the northern Shoshonees.[138] That very careful student, -Mr. George Gibbs, from a review of all the indications, reached the -conclusion that the whole group came originally from the east of the -Rocky Mountain chain, and that the home of its ancestral horde was -somewhere between these mountains and the Great Lakes.[139] This is the -opinion I have also reached from an independent study of the subject, -and I believe it is as near as we can get to the birth-place of this -important stock. - -This stock presents the extreme of both linguistic and physical -development. No tongue on the continent was more cultured than the -Nahuatl, and so were those who spoke it. The wretched root-digging Utes, -on the other hand, present the lowest type of skulls anywhere found in -America.[140] The explanation is easy. It was owing to their lack of -nutrition. Living on the arid plains of the interior, little better -than deserts, they had for generations been half starved. They were not -agricultural, but lived along the streams, catching fish, and making a -poor bread from the seeds of the wild sun-flower and the chenopodium. -Their houses were brush huts, or lodges of dressed buffalo skins; and -where the winters were cold, they dug holes in the ground in which they -huddled in indescribable filth. - -Very much superior to these are the Comanches. A generation or two ago -they numbered about fifteen thousand, and were one of the most formidable -nations of the west. Now they have diminished to that many hundreds, and -live peaceably on reservations. They are tall (1.70) and well formed, the -skull mesocephalic, the eyes horizontal, the nose thin, the color light. -Agriculture is not a favorite occupation, but they are more reasonable -and willing to accept a civilized life than their neighbors, the Apaches -or the Kioways. They had little government, and though polygamists, -the women among them exercised considerable influence. Like the Utes, -they are sun-worshippers, applying to that orb the term “father sun,” -_taab-apa_, and performing various dances and other rites in his honor. -The serpent would seem also to come in for a share of their reverence, -their tribal sign in the gesture speech of the plain being that for a -snake,[141] and indeed they are often called Snake Indians. Not less -interesting is it to find throughout all these tribes, Ute and Comanche, -the deification of the coyote, which occupies so prominent a niche in -the pantheon of the Aztecan tribes and those who have borrowed from -them. According to the Ute myths, the wolf and the coyote were the first -two brothers from whom the race had its origin, and to the latter were -attributed all the good things in the world. - -As we approach the southern border of the group, the stage of culture -becomes higher. The natives of the Pueblo of Moqui, whose curious -serpent-worship has been so well described by Captain Bourke,[142] are -of this stock, and illustrate its capacity for developing a respectable -civilization. The Kizh and Netela, who were attached to the mission of -San Capistrano, were also Shoshonees. - - -_b. The Sonoran Branch._ - -In the valley of the Gila river the Shoshonian and Sonoran branches of -the Uto-Aztecan stock were in contact from time immemorial. The Sonoran -branch begins on the north with the Pimas, who occupied the middle valley -of the Gila, and the land south of it quite to the Rio Yaqui. I continue -for it the name of _Sonoran_ given by Buschmann, although it extended far -beyond the bounds of that province. - -The Pima tribe merits our special attention, because of the remarkable -ruins and relics of a dense former population, sedentary and -agricultural, in the region inhabited by it when the river basin was -first explored. These are the large structures known as the Great Houses -or Casas Grandes, and the remains of the numerous towns, extensive -irrigating trenches, and ruined enclosures, brought to light by the -Hemenway exploring expedition in the Salt river valley. Their walls were -built of adobes or sun-dried bricks of large size, the clay probably -placed in baskets upon the wall and allowed to dry there. The extent of -these remains is surprising, and in the Salt river valley alone, in an -area of half a million acres, it is estimated that two hundred thousand -people may have found support. Making every allowance, there is no doubt -that at some remote epoch the arable land in the valleys of the Gila and -its affluents was under close cultivation. - -Who these busy planters were has supplied material for much speculation. -As usual, the simplest explanation has been the last to be welcomed. In -fact, there is no occasion for us to look elsewhere than to the ancestors -of these Pimas, who lived in the valley when the whites first traveled -it. There is nothing in the ruins and relics which demands a higher -culture than the Pimas possessed. There is no sign of a knowledge of -metals beyond hammered copper; the structures are such as the Pueblo -Indians of the same stock live in now; and the Pimas have a historic -tradition which claims these ruins and these old fields as the work of -their ancestors, from which they were driven by the repeated attacks of -the Apaches and other savage tribes of the north.[143] Some of them, a -sub-tribe called the Sobaypuris (Sabaguis), and doubtless many others, -took refuge in the deep cañons and constructed along their precipitous -sides those “cliff houses,” which have been often described. About a -hundred years ago the Apaches drove them out of these last resorts and -forced them to flee to the main body of the Pimas in the south.[144] In -conclusion, we may safely attribute most of the ruins in the Gila Basin, -as well as most of the cliff houses in the various cañons, to these -tribes of the Uto-Aztecan stock. When the early missionaries reached the -Pimas they found them in precisely the condition of culture of which we -see the remains in the Salt River valley. Their houses were built of -large adobes, sometimes roofed with tiles; they were agricultural and -industrious; their fields were irrigated by like extensive canals or -trenches, and their weapons, utensils and clothing were just such as the -Hemenway expedition showed were those of the early accolents of the Gila -and the Salado.[145] - -Most of the other tribes of this group were, from the first knowledge we -have of them, inclined to sedentary and agricultural lives. The Opatas, -on the head-waters of the Rio Yaqui, and the Tarahumaras, in the valleys -of the Sierra Madre, are quiet, laborious peoples, who accepted without -difficulty the teachings of the early missionaries. They cultivate the -ground and build houses of adobes or of wood plastered. - -The Tehuecos, Zuaques, Mayos and Yaquis are sub-tribes of the Cahitas, -and speak a dialect the most akin of any to the Nahuatl. They are -tall, vigorous men, active and laborious, trading in salt and woolen -stuffs, cheerful, and much given to music. South of the Tarahumaras and -immediately adjoining them, in the State of Chihuahua, are the Tepehuanas -on the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre, from 25° to 27° latitude north. -They are a people of unusual intelligence, of excellent memory, and when -first met were living in solid houses of logs or of stone and clay, or -as genuine troglodytes in artificial caves, and cultivating abundant -crops of maize and cotton, which latter they wove and dyed with much -skill.[146] The chroniclers speak of them as the most valiant of all the -tribes of New Spain, but laborious and devoted to their fields.[147] - -The tribe of the Sonoran group which reached the point furthest to the -south was the Coras, who dwelt in the Sierra of Nayarit, in the State of -Jalisco. From their location they are sometimes called Nayerits. They -were a warlike but agricultural people, about the same level as the -Tepehuanas. - -The Tubares were a peaceable nation living in the Sierra of Sinaloa. They -received the missionaries willingly and seem to have been an industrious -tribe, their principal object of commerce being articles of clothing. It -is said that they spoke two entirely distinct languages, one a dialect of -Nahuatl, the other of unknown affinities.[148] The Guazapares and the -Varogios are described as living near the Tubares, on the head-waters of -the Rio del Fuerte, and speaking the same or a similar dialect.[149] - -In the defiles of the lofty range, which is sometimes called the Sierra -de Topia, resided the Acaxees, Xiximes and other wild tribes, speaking -related tongues. By some authorities they are alleged to belong to the -Sonoran group, but as the material is lacking for comparison, their -ethnographic position must be left undetermined. - -The Guaymas, on the coast of the Gulf of California, south of the Ceris -(a Yuma folk), have been ascertained by Mr. Pinart to speak a dialect -allied to that of the southern Pimas, and are therefore to be added -to this group. Another Pima dialect was the Bacorehui, spoken by the -Batucaris and Comoparis on the lower Rio del Fuerte; as it was also that -of the Ahomes, a distinctly Pima people.[150] - -The uniform tradition of all the tribes of this stock in Sonora and -Sinaloa, so far as they were obtained by the early missionaries, was to -the effect that their ancestors had migrated from localities further to -the north.[151] - - -_c. The Nahuatl Branch._ - -Under the term _Nahuas_, which has the excellent authority of Sahagun -in its favor, I shall include all the tribes of the Uto-Aztecan stock -who spoke the Nahuatl language, that called by Buschmann the Aztec, -and often referred to as the Mexican. These tribes occupied the slope -of the Pacific coast from about the Rio del Fuerte in Sinaloa, N. lat. -26°, to the frontiers of Guatemala, except a portion at the isthmus -of Tehuantepec. Beyond this line, they had colonies under the name of -Pipiles on the coast of Guatemala, and in the interior the Alaguilacs. -The Cuitlatecos, or Tecos, “dung-hill people,” was a term of depreciation -applied to those in Michoacan and Guerrero. On the borders of the lakes -in the valley of Mexico were the three important states Tezcuco, Tlacopan -and Tenochtitlan, who at the time of the conquest were formed into a -confederacy of wide sway. - -The last mentioned, Tenochtitlan, had its chief town where the city of -Mexico now stands, and its inhabitants were the Azteca. East of the -valley were the Tlascaltecs, an independent tribe; south of and along -the shore of the gulf from Vera Cruz almost to the mouth of the Rio de -Grijalva, were Nahuatl tribes under the dominion of the confederacy. An -isolated, but distinctly affiliated band, had wandered down to Nicaragua, -where under the name Nicaraos they were found on the narrow strip of land -between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific, which they had conquered from -tribes of Chapanec lineage. The most distant of all were the Seguas, -who at the time of the conquest resided in the Valle Coaza, on the Rio -Telorio, and later moved to Chiriqui Lagoon. After the conquest they were -scattered still further by the transportation of colonies of Tlascalans -to Saltillo in the north, and to Isalco in San Salvador in the south. - -I omit entirely from this group the Toltecs and the Chichimecs. These -were never tribal designations, and it is impossible to identify them -with any known communities. The Toltecs may have been one of the early -and unimportant gentes of the Azteca, but even this is doubtful. The -term was properly applied to the inhabitants of the small town of Tula, -north of the valley of Mexico. In later story they were referred to as a -mythical people of singular gifts and wide domain. Modern and uncritical -writers have been misled by these tales, and have represented the Toltecs -as a potent nation and ancestors of the Aztecs. There is no foundation -for such statements, and they have no historic position.[152] - -The term Chichimeca was applied to many barbarous hordes as a term of -contempt, “dogs,” “dog people.”[153] It has no ethnic signification, and -never had, but was used in much the same way as _Cuitlateca_, above -referred to.[154] - -The government of these states did not differ in principle from that of -the northern tribes, though its development had reached a later stage. -Descent was generally reckoned in the male line, and the male children -of the deceased were regarded as the natural heirs both to his property -and his dignities. Where the latter, however, belonged rather to the gens -than the individual, a form of election was held, the children of the -deceased being given the preference. In this sense, which was the usual -limitation in America, many positions were hereditary, including that of -the chieftaincy of the tribe or confederation. The Montezuma who was the -ruler who received Cortez, was the grandson of Axayacatl, who in turn was -the son of the first Montezuma, each of whom exercised the chief power. - -The land was held by the gens and allotted to its members for -cultivation. Marriage was also an affair regulated by the gentile laws of -consanguinity, but the position of woman was not specially inferior, and -in the instance of the daughter of the first Montezuma, one seems to have -occupied the position of head chief for a time. - -The general condition of the arts in ancient Mexico is familiar to all -who have turned their attention to American history. It has indeed -received more than its due share of attention from the number and -prominence of the Nahuas at the conquest. They were little if at all -superior to many of their neighbors in cultural progress. Even in -architecture, where they excelled, the Zapotecs, Totonacos and Tarascos -were but little behind them. Numerous artificial pyramids and structures -of hewn stone remain in the territories of all these to prove their skill -as builders. The Mexicans may be said to have reached the age of bronze. -Many weapons, utensils and implements, were manufactured of this alloy -of copper and tin. Gold, silver, lead and copper, were likewise deftly -worked by founding and smelting into objects of ornament or use. Lead was -also known, but not utilized. The majority of implements continued to be -of stone. They were fortunate in having for this purpose a most excellent -material, obsidian, which volcanic product is abundant in Mexico. From -it they flaked off arrow points, knives and scrapers, and by polishing -worked it into labrets and mirrors. A variety of nephrite or jade was -highly esteemed, and some of the most elaborate specimens of Mexican art -in stone are in this hard, greenish material. Fragments of colored stones -were set in mosaic, either as masks, knife handles or the like, with -excellent effect. - -With the undoubtedly dense population of many districts, the tillage -of the ground was a necessary source of the food supply. The principal -crop was as usual maize, but beans, peppers, gourds and fruit were also -cultivated. Cotton was largely employed for clothing, being neatly woven -and dyed in brilliant colors. - -The religious rites were elaborate and prescribed with minuteness. -Priests and priestesses were vowed to the cult of certain deities. Their -duties consisted in sweeping and decorating the temples, in preparing the -sacrifices, and in chanting at certain periods of the day and night. The -offerings were usually of quails, rabbits or flowers, but, especially -in Tenochtitlan, human sacrifices were not infrequent. The victims were -slaves or captives taken in war. At times their flesh was distributed to -the votaries, and was consumed as part of the ceremony; but as this was a -rite, the Aztecs cannot be said to have been anthropophagous. - -The priestly class had charge of the education of the youth of the better -class. This was conducted with care and severity. Large buildings were -set apart for the purpose, some for boys, others for girls. The boys -were taught martial exercises, the history of the nation, the chants and -dances of the religious worship, forms of salutation, the art of writing, -etc. The girls were instructed in household duties, the preparation of -food, the manufacture of garments, and the morals of domestic life.[155] - -The literature which represented this education was large. It was -preserved in books written upon parchment, or upon paper manufactured -from the fibrous leaves of the maguey. This was furnished in great -quantities from different parts of the realm, as much as 24,000 bundles -being required by the government annually as tribute. A book consisted -of a strip of paper perhaps twenty feet long, folded like a screen into -pages about six inches wide, on both sides of which were painted the -hieroglyphic characters. These were partly ideographic, partly phonetic; -the latter were upon the principle of the rebus, conveying the name or -word by the representation of some object, the word for which had a -similar sound. I have called this the _ikonomatic_ method of writing, and -have explained it in detail in several essays on the subject.[156] - -Their calendar recognized the length of the year as 365 days. The -mathematical difficulties in the way of a complete understanding of it -have not yet been worked out, and it may have differed in the various -tribes. Its elements were a common property of all the Nahua peoples, as -well as many of their neighbors; which of them first devised it has not -been ascertained. - -UTO-AZTECAN LINGUISTIC STOCK. - -_a. Shoshonian Branch._ - - _Bannacks_, in Montana and southern Idaho. - _Cahuillos_, in southern California. - _Chemehuevis_, branch of Pi-utes, on Cottonwood Island. - _Comanches_, in northern Texas, on both banks of Rio Grande. - _Kauvuyas_, southern California, near the Pacific. - _Kechis_, in southern California, branch of Kauvuyas. - _Kizh_, in southern California, branch of Kauvuyas. - _Moquis_, in Moqui Pueblo, Arizona. - _Netelas_, in southern California. - _Pa-Vants_, south of Great Salt Lake. - _Pi-utes_, in southern and central Nevada, Arizona, California, - Utah. - _Shoshonees_ or _Snakes_, in New Mexico and Colorado, Idaho and - southern Oregon. - _Utes_ or _Utahs_, in Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, etc. - _Wihinasht_, in Oregon, south of Columbia river. - -_b. Sonoran Branch._ - - _Acaxees_, (?) in the Sierra de Topia. - _Cahitas_, south of Rio Yaqui. - _Coras_, in the Sierra de Nayarit. - _Eudeves_, a sub-tribe of Opatas. - _Guaymas_, on Rio de Guaymas. - _Mayos_, on R. Mayo, sub-tribe of Cahitas. - _Nevomes_, see _Pimas_. - _Opatas_, head-waters of Rio Yaqui. - _Papayos_, or _Papagos_, sub-tribe of Pimas. - _Pimas_, from Rio Yaqui to Rio Gila. - _Sabaguis_, sub-tribe of Pimas. - _Tarahumaras_, in the Sierra of Chihuahua. - _Tehuecos_, on R. del Fuerte, dialect of Cahita. - _Tecoripas_, speak dialect of Pima. - _Tepehuanas_, in Durango. - _Tubares_, in upper Sinaloa. - _Yaquis_, on Rio Yaqui. - -_c. Nahuatlecan Branch._ - - _Alaguilacs_, on Rio Motagua in Guatemala. - _Aztecs_, in the valley of Mexico. - _Cuitlatecos_, south and west of Michoacan. - _Mexicans_, see _Aztecs_. - _Meztitlatecas_, in the Sierra of Meztitlan. - _Nicaraos_, in Nicaragua between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific. - _Niquirans_, see _Nicaraos_. - _Pipiles_, on Pacific coast in Soconusco and Guatemala. - _Seguas_, near Chiriqui Lagoon. - _Tecos_, see _Cuitlatecos_. - _Tezcucans_, in valley of Mexico. - _Tlascalans_, in Tlascala, east of valley of Mexico. - _Tlascaltecans_, in San Salvador. - - -2. THE OTOMIS. - -According to Aztec tradition, the Otomis were the earliest owners of the -soil of Central Mexico. Their language was at the conquest one of the -most widely distributed of any in this portion of the continent. Its -central regions were the states of Queretaro and Guanajuato; from the -upper portion of the valley of Mexico it extended north to the Rio Verde, -on the west it adjoined the Tarascans of Michoacan, and on the east the -Huastecs of Panuco. - -The Otomis are below the average stature, of dark color, the skull -markedly dolichocephalic,[157] the nose short and flattened, the eyes -slightly oblique. Following the lead of some of the old writers, -modern authors have usually represented the Otomis as rude savages, -far inferior to the Nahuas. Doubtless the latter often so represented -them, but this does not correspond with what we learn of them from -other sources. Although subjected by the Nahuas, they do not seem to -have been excessively ignorant. Agriculture was not neglected, and -from their cotton the women wove clothing for both sexes. Ornaments of -gold, copper and hard stones were in use; their religion was conducted -with ceremony;[158] and they were famous for their songs and musical -ability.[159] The members of the nation to-day are laborious, good -tempered, and endowed with a remarkable aptitude for imitation, -especially in sculpture. Some of the women are quite handsome.[160] - -Their language has attracted a certain amount of attention, partly from -its supposed similarity to the Chinese, partly because it is alleged to -differ from most American tongues in showing no incorporation. Both of -these statements have been proved erroneous.[161] It is a tongue largely -monosyllabic, of extremely difficult enunciation, worn down by attrition -almost to an isolating form, but not devoid of the usual traits of the -languages of the continent. There are several dialects, the relations of -which have been the subject of fruitful investigations.[162] - -OTOMI LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Jonaz_, in Prov. of Queretaro. - _Matlaltzincos_, in Valley of Mexico and Mechoacan. - _Mazauhas_, southwest of Valley of Mexico. - _Mecos_, see _Jonaz_. - _Otomis_, throughout Central Mexico. - _Pames_, in Queretaro and Guanajuato. - _Pirindas_, see _Matlaltzincos_. - - -3. THE TARASCOS. - -The Tarascans, so called from _Taras_, the name of a tribal god,[163] had -the reputation of being the tallest and handsomest people of Mexico. - -They were the inhabitants of the present State of Michoacan, west of -the valley of Mexico. According to their oldest traditions, or perhaps -those of their neighbors, they had migrated from the north in company -with, or about the same time as the Aztecs. For some three hundred years -before the conquest they had been a sedentary, semi-civilized people, -maintaining their independence, and progressing steadily in culture.[164] -When first encountered by the Spaniards they were quite equal and in some -respects ahead of the Nahuas. The principal buildings of their cities, -the chief of which was their capital Tzintzuntan, were of cut stone well -laid in mortar. A number of remains of such have been reported by various -travelers, many of them being conical mounds of dressed stones, locally -called _yacates_, which probably are sepulchral monuments.[165] - -In their costume the Tarascos differed considerably from their neighbors. -The feather garments which they manufactured surpassed all others in -durability and beauty. Cotton was, however, the usual material. Gold and -copper are found in the mountains of the district, and both these metals -were worked with skill. Nowhere else do we find such complete defensive -armor; it consisted of helmet, body pieces, and greaves for the legs and -arms, all of wood covered neatly with copper or gold plates, so well done -that the pieces looked as if they were of solid metal.[166] - -A form of picture-writing was in use in Michoacan, but no specimen of it -has been preserved. The calendar was nearly the same as that in Mexico, -and the government apparently more absolute in form. Many but confused -details have been preserved about their religion and rites. There was a -mysterious supreme divinity, Tucapacha, though Curicaneri, who is said to -have represented the sun, was the deity chiefly worshipped. Large idols -of stone and many of smaller size of terra cotta may still be exhumed by -the energetic archæologist. Cremation was in vogue for the disposition of -the dead, and human sacrifices, both at funerals and in the celebration -of religious rites, were usual. - -The Tarascan language is harmonious and vocalic, and its grammar is -thoroughly American in character, the verb being extraordinarily -developed, the substantive incorporated in the expression of action, and -the modifications of this conveyed by numerous infixes and suffixes. - - -4. THE TOTONACOS. - -The first natives whom Cortes met on landing in Mexico were the -_Totonacos_. They occupied the territory of Totonicapan, now included -in the state of Vera Cruz. According to traditions of their own, they -had resided there eight hundred years, most of which time they were -independent, though a few generations before the arrival of the Spaniards -they had been subjected by the arms of the Montezumas. The course of -their early migrations they stated had been from the west and northwest, -and they claimed to have been the constructors of the remarkable pyramids -and temples of Teotihuacan, ten miles northwest of the city of Mexico. -This boast we may be chary of believing, but they were unquestionably -a people of high culture. Sahagun describes them as almost white in -color, their heads artificially deformed, but their features regular -and handsome.[167] Robes of cotton beautifully dyed served them for -garments, and their feet were covered with sandals. The priests wore -long black gowns with collars, so that they looked like Dominican monks. -The religion which prevailed among them was a sun-worship with elaborate -rites, among which were the circumcision of boys and a similar operation -on girls. - -These people were highly civilized. Cempoalla, their capital city, was -situate about five miles from the sea, at the junction of two streams. -Its houses were of brick and mortar, and each was surrounded by a small -garden, at the foot of which a stream of fresh water was conducted. Fruit -trees and grain fields filled the gardens and surrounded the city. -Altogether, says the chronicler, it was like a terrestrial paradise.[168] -That this description is not overdrawn, is proved by the remarkable -ruins which still exist in this province, and the abundant relics of -ancient art which have been collected there, especially by the efforts -of Mr. Hermann Strebel, whose collections now form part of the Berlin -Ethnographic Museum.[169] - -The affinities of the Totonacos are difficult to make out. Sahagun says -that they claimed kinship with the Huastecs, their neighbors to the -north, which would bring them into the Maya stock. Their language has, -in fact, many words from Maya roots, but it has also many more from the -Nahuatl, and its grammar is more in accord with the latter than with -the former.[170] Besides these, there is a residuum which is different -from both. For this reason I class them as an independent stock, of -undetermined connections. - - -5. THE ZAPOTECS AND MIXTECS. - -The greater part of Oaxaca and the neighboring regions are still occupied -by the Zapotecs, who call themselves _Didja-Za_.[171] There are now about -265,000 of them, about fifty thousand of whom speak nothing but their -native tongue. In ancient times they constituted a powerful independent -state, the citizens of which seem to have been quite as highly civilized -as any member of the Aztecan family. They were agricultural and -sedentary, living in villages and constructing buildings of stone and -mortar. The most remarkable, but by no means the only specimens of these -still remaining are the ruins of Mitla, called by the natives _Ryo Ba_, -the “entrance to the sepulchre,” the traditional belief being that these -imposing monuments are sepulchres of their ancestors.[172] These ruins -consist of thirty-nine houses, some of adobe, but most of stone, and two -artificial hills. The stone houses have thick walls of rough stone and -mortar, faced with polished blocks arranged in a variety of symmetrical -patterns, such as are called grecques. Sometimes these patterns are -repeated on the inner walls, but more frequently these were plastered -with a hard white coat and painted an Indian red, with numerous figures. -These delineations are on a par with those from the valley of Mexico and -the ancient cities of Yucatan, and reveal much the same technique. One of -the rooms is called the “hall of the columns,” from six round monolithic -columns nearly ten feet in height, which were intended to support a roof -of heavy stone slabs. - -The Mixtecs adjoined the Zapotecs to the west, extending along the coast -of the Pacific to about the present port of Acapulco. In culture they -were equal to the Zapotecs; having a preference for an agricultural -life, constructing residences of brick and stone and acquainted with a -form of picture or hieroglyphic writing, in which they perpetuated the -memory of their elaborate mythology.[173] They pretended to have taken -their name from Mixtecatl, one of the seven heroes who set out from -Chicomoztoc, “the land of seven caves,” far in the north, and at other -times pretended descent from the fabulous Toltecs, claims which Sahagun -intimates were fictions of the Nahuas living among them.[174] - -The Zapotecs made use of a calendar, the outlines of which have been -preserved. It is evidently upon the same astronomical theory as the -Mexican, as was their system of enumeration. Their language is not -inharmonious. It is called the _ticha za_, “language of the noble people.” - -ZAPOTEC-MIXTEC LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Amusgos_, in Guerrero. - _Chatinos_, in Oaxaca, department of Jamiltepec. - _Chuchonas_, on borders of Oaxaca and Guerrero. - _Cuicatecos_, in Oaxaca, department of Teotilan. - _Mazatecos_, in Oaxaca, near boundary of Puebla, in ancient province - of Mazatlan. - _Mixtecos_, in Oaxaca and Guerrero. - _Papabucos_, in Oaxaca. - _Soltecos_, in Oaxaca. - _Zapotecos_, in Oaxaca. - - -6. THE ZOQUES AND MIXES. - -The mountain regions of the isthmus of Tehuantepec and adjacent portions -of the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca are the habitats of the Zoques, -Mixes, and allied tribes. The early historians draw a terrible picture -of their valor, savagery and cannibalism, which reads more like tales -to deter the Spaniards from approaching their domains than truthful -accounts.[175] However this may be, they have been for hundreds of years -a peaceful, ignorant, timid part of the population, homely, lazy and -drunken, but not violent or dangerous. The Mixes especially cultivate -abundance of maize and beans, and take an interest in improving the roads -leading to their towns.[176] - -The faint traditions of these peoples pointed to the south for their -origin. When they lived in Chiapas they were conquered by the Chapanecs -(Mangues), and this induced many of them to seek independence in the -Sierra to the north and west. At present the main village of the Mixes -is San Juan Guichicovi, while the Zoques are scattered between the -Rio del Corte and the Rio Chiapa. They are described as agricultural -and laborious, but also as stupid, inclined to drunkenness, and very -homely.[177] - -A comparison of the two languages leaves no doubt as to their derivation -from a common stem. - -ZOQUE LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Chimalapas_, a sub-tribe of Zoques. - _Mixes_, in Oaxaca, and on the Isthmus. - _Tapijulapanes_, on Rio de la Sierra. - _Zoques_, in eastern Tabasco, Chiapas and Oaxaca. - - -7. THE CHINANTECS. - -The Chinantecs inhabited Chinantla, which is a part of the state of -Oaxaca, situated in the Sierra Madre, on the frontiers of the province -of Vera Cruz. Their neighbors on the south were the Zapotecs and Mixes, -and on the north and east the Nahuas. They lived in secluded valleys and -on rough mountain sides, and their language was one of great difficulty -to the missionaries on account of its harsh phonetics. Nevertheless, -Father Barreda succeeded in writing a _Doctrina_ in it, published in -1730, the only work which has ever appeared in the tongue. The late Dr. -Berendt devoted considerable study to it, and expressed his conclusions -in the following words: “Spoken in the midst of a diversity of languages -connected more or less among themselves, it is itself unconnected with -them, and is rich in peculiar features both as to its roots and its -grammatical structure. It is probable that we have in it one of the -original languages spoken before the advent of the Nahuas on Mexican -soil, perhaps the mythical Olmecan.”[178] - -The Chinantecs had been reduced by the Aztecs and severely oppressed by -them. Hence they welcomed the Spaniards as deliverers. Their manners were -savage and their disposition warlike.[179] Other names by which they are -mentioned are _Tenez_ and _Teutecas_. - - -8. THE CHAPANECS AND MANGUES. - -In speaking of the province of Chiapas the historian Herrera informs -us that it derived its name from the pueblo so-called, “whose -inhabitants were the most remarkable in New Spain for their traits and -inclinations.”[180] They had early acquired the art of horsemanship, they -were skillful in all kinds of music, excellent painters, carried on a -variety of arts, and were withal very courteous to each other. - -One tradition was that they had reached Chiapas from Nicaragua, and had -conquered the territory they possessed from the Zoques, some of whom -they had rendered tributary, while others had retired further into the -Sierra. But the more authentic legend of the Chapas or Chapanecs, as they -were properly called from their totemic bird the _Chapa_, the red macaw, -recited that their whole stock moved down from a northern latitude, -following the Pacific coast until they came to Soconusco, where they -divided, one part entering the mountains of Chiapas, the other proceeding -on to Nicaragua, where we find them under the name of Mangues, or -Chorotegans, along the shores of Lake Managua.[181] Here they occupied a -number of populous villages, estimated by the historian Oviedo to contain -about forty thousand souls.[182] They were agricultural and sedentary, -and moderately civilized, that is, they had hieroglyphic books, wove -and spun cotton, were skilled in pottery and had fixed government. They -are described as lighter in color than most Indians, and wearing long -hair carefully combed. A small band wandered still further south, to the -vicinity of Chiriqui Lagoon.[183] - -The Chapanec language is one of marked individuality. Its phonetics -are harmonious, but with many obscure and fluctuating sounds. In its -grammatical construction we find a singular absence of distinction -between subject and object. While the appreciation of number in the form -of nouns is almost absent, their relations are expressed with excessive -particularity, so that a noun may have different forms, as it is used in -different relations.[184] There is comparatively slight development of -the polysynthetic structure which is generally seen in American languages. - -CHAPANEC LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Chapanecs_, on Rio Grande in Central Chiapas. - _Chorotegans_, see _Mangues_. - _Dirians_, in the mountains south of Lake Managua. - _Guetares_, in Costa Rica. - _Mangues_, on Lake Managua, Nicaragua. - _Orotinans_, on the Gulf of Nicoya. - - -9. CHONTALS AND POPOLOCAS; TEQUISELATECAS AND MATAGALPAS. - -According to the census of 1880 there were 31,000 Indians in Mexico -belonging to the _Familia Chontal_.[185] No such family exists. The word -_chontalli_ in the Nahuatl language means simply “stranger,” and was -applied by the Nahuas to any people other than their own. According to -the Mexican statistics, the Chontals are found in the states of Mexico, -Puebla, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Tobasco, Guatemala and Nicaragua. A similar -term is _popoloca_, which in Nahuatl means a coarse fellow, one speaking -badly, that is, broken Nahuatl. The popolocas have also been erected -into an ethnic entity by some ethnographers, with as little justice -as the Chontallis. They are stated to have lived in the provinces of -Puebla, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Mechoacan, and Guatemala. Sometimes the same -tribe has been called both Chontales and Popoloras, which would be quite -correct in the Nahuatl tongue, since in it these words are common nouns -and nearly synonymous in signification; but employed in an ethnographic -sense, they have led to great confusion, and the blending into one of -distinct nationalities. I shall attempt to unravel this snarl as far as -the linguistic material at my command permits. - -The Chontales of Oaxaca lived on the Pacific coast on the Cordillera in -that State, in the Sierra Quiegolani. They were brought under instruction -in the latter part of the sixteenth century by Father Diego Carranza, -who labored among them for twelve years with gratifying success, and -wrote a _Doctrina_, _Sermones_ and _Ejercicios Espirituales_ in their -language.[186] Unfortunately these works are no longer to be found, and -the only specimen of their idiom which I have obtained is a vocabulary -of 23 words, collected by John Porter Bliss in 1871. This is too limited -to admit of positive identification; but it certainly shows several -coincidences with the Yuma linguistic stock.[187] Provisionally, however, -I give it the name of _Tequistlatecan_, from the principal village of the -tribe, where Father Carranza built his church. The Chontales of Guerrero -were immediately adjacent to those of Oaxaca, in the same Sierra, and -there is every reason to believe that they belonged to the same family; -and from their location, history and associations, I do not doubt that -Orozco y Berra was right in placing the Triquis in the same family.[188] - -The Chontales of Tabasco occupied most of the basin of the Rio Grijalva. -Herrera states that their language was that in general use in the -province, being richer in words than the Zoque, or the provincial Mexican -which has been introduced.[189] This leads us to believe that it was a -Maya dialect, a supposition confirmed by a MS. vocabulary obtained by the -late Dr. C. H. Berendt. By this it is seen that the Chontal of Tabasco is -a member of the numerous Maya family, and practically identical with the -Tzendal dialect.[190] - -In Nicaragua two entirely different peoples have been called Chontales. -The first of these is also sometimes mentioned as Popolucas. Their tongue -is, or a generation ago was, current in and around the city of Matagalpa -and in various hamlets of the departments of Matagalpa, Segovia and -Chontales. The only specimen I know of it is a vocabulary, obtained in -1874 by the Rev. Victor Noguera, and supplied by him to Dr. Berendt. It -contains a small percentage of words from the neighboring dialects, but -in the mass is wholly different, and I consider it an independent stock, -to which I give the name _Matagalpan_. - -The second Chontales of Nicaragua are those mentioned as Chontal-lencas -by M. Désiré Pector, and are none other than the Lencas described by Mr. -E. G. Squier. - -The Chontal of Honduras is located geographically in those regions where -the Chorti dialect of the Maya stock prevails, and there is no reasonable -doubt but that it is Chorti and nothing more. - -The Chontales described by Mr. E. G. Squier as living in the mountains -north of Lake Nicaragua, about the sources of the Blewfield river, and -of whose language he gives a short vocabulary,[191] are proved by this to -be members of the extensive family of the Ulvas. - -Of the various tribes called Popolocas, that living at the period of the -conquest in and near Puebla was the most important. Their chief city was -Tecamachcalco, and they occupied most of the old province of Tepeaca. We -can form some idea of their number from the statement that in the year -1540 Father Francisco de las Navas visited their country for missionary -purposes, and in less than two months converted (!) and baptized 12,000 -of them, and this without any knowledge of their language.[192] The -first who did obtain a familiarity with it was Francisco de Toral, -afterwards first bishop of Yucatan. He described it as most difficult, -but nevertheless succeeded in reducing it to rules and wrote an _Arte y -Metodo_ of it, now unfortunately lost.[193] Its relationship has remained -obscure. De Laet asserted that it was merely a corrupt dialect of the -Nahuatl;[194] while Herrera was informed by his authorities that it was -a wholly different tongue.[195] In this opinion he was right. In 1862 -Dr. Berendt succeeded in obtaining a short vocabulary of it as it is -still spoken at Oluta, Tesistepec, San Juan Volador and the neighboring -country. A comparison shows that it belongs to the Mixe family. The -ancient province of Tepeaca adjoined directly the territory of the Mixes, -and this identification proves that their tongue was more important and -extended much more widely than has hitherto been supposed. It was spoken, -therefore, by the Tlapanecos, Coviscas and Yopes, who were located in -this region. - -The Popoloca of Oaxaca is an entirely different tongue. It is mentioned -as identical with the Chochona, and some have supposed this dialect, -in which we have a _Catecismo_ by Father Roldan, was the same as the -Popoloca of Tepeaca. This is an error. As I have said, the first -missionary to master and write about the latter was Father Toral, who -wrote his _Arte_ about 1561; but more than ten years before that, to -wit, in 1550, Father Benito Fernandez had printed in the city of Mexico -his _Doctrina en Lengua Misteca_, and had composed variants in the -Tepuzcolola and Chochona dialects of that tongue.[196] The Chochona -or Popoloca, of Oaxaca, belongs to the Zapotec-Mixtec, and not to the -Zoque-Mixe family. - -The Popolocas who lived in and near Michoacan were also called Tecos, -and Orozco y Berra enumerates the language they spoke, the Teca, among -those which are extinct.[197] The name _Tecos_, however, was merely an -abbreviated form of _Cuitlatecos_, and was applied to the conquered -Nahuatl population around Michoacan. In some of the old glossaries _teco_ -is explained by _Mexicano_.[198] The language they spoke belonged to the -Nahuatl branch of the Uto-Aztecan stock. - -The Popolocas of Guatemala were located at the close of the eighteenth -century in two curacies widely apart.[199] One of these was Yanantique, -partido of San Miguel, province of San Salvador, and contained the -villages Conchagua and Intipuca. Now Intipuca is a Lenca name, as stated -by Mr. Squier, and we are thus authorized to identify these Popolocas -with the Lencas. The other Popolocas were at and near Conguaco in -the partido of Guazacapan, province of Escuintla, where they lived -immediately adjacent to the Xincas. Dr. Otto Stoll identifies them with -the Mixes, but by an error, as he mistook the vocabulary collected -by Dr. Berendt of the Popoloca of Oluta, for one of the Popoloca of -Conguaco.[200] What language is spoken there I do not know, as I have not -been able to find a word in it in any of my authorities. - -Dr. Julius Scherzer has further added to the confusion about the -Popolocas of Guatemala by printing at Vienna a vocabulary under this -name which he had obtained near the Volcan de Agua.[201] It is nothing -more than the ordinary Cakchiquel dialect of that locality, known as the -_lengua metropolitana_ from its official adoption by the church. - - -10. THE MAYAS. - -The geographical relations of the members of the Maya stock are in marked -contrast to those of the Uto-Aztecan--its only rival in civilization. -Except the colony of the Huastecas on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico -in the valley of the Rio Panuco, all its dialects were in contiguity. -The true Maya, which is believed to be the purest form of the language, -extended over the whole of the peninsula of Yucatan, around Lake Peten, -and far up the affluents of the Usumacinta, the dialect of the Lacandons -being closely akin to it. The principal tribes in Guatemala were the -Quiches, the Cakchiquels and the Mams; while in Tabasco the Tzendals and -the Tzotzils held an extensive territory. We cannot identify the builders -of the ruined cities of Palenque in Tabasco and Copan in Honduras with -the ancestors of any known tribe, but the archæological evidence is -conclusive that whoever they were, they belonged to this stock, and spoke -one of its dialects. - -The historic legends of several members of the family have been well -preserved. According to the earliest authorities, those of the Quiches -went back more than eight hundred years before the conquest,[202] that -is, to about 700 A. D.; while the chronicles of the Mayas seem to present -a meagre sketch of the nation nearly to the beginning of the Christian -era.[203] The uniform assertion of these legends is that the ancestors of -the stock came from a more northern latitude, following down the shore -of the Gulf of Mexico. This is also supported by the position of the -Huastecas, who may be regarded as one of their tribes left behind in the -general migration, and by the tradition of the Nahuas which assigned them -a northern origin.[204] So far no relationship has been detected with any -northern stock, but the striking similarity of some art remains in the -middle Mississippi to those of Yucatan, suggests that one should search -in this vicinity for their priscan home.[205] - -Physically the Mayas are short, strong, dark, and brachycephalic. The -custom of compressing the skull antero-posteriorly which formerly -prevailed, exaggerated this latter peculiarity. When first encountered -by the Spaniards they were split into a number of independent states of -which eighteen are enumerated in Yucatan alone. According to tradition, -these were the fragments of a powerful confederacy which had broken up -about a century before, the capital of which was Mayapan. The tribes were -divided into gentes, usually named after animals, with descent in the -male line. A man bore the names of both his father’s and mother’s gens, -but the former was distinguished as his “true name.” The chieftainship -was hereditary, a council from the gentes deliberating with the ruler. - -The art in which these people excelled was that of architecture. They -were born builders from a remote epoch. At the time of the conquest the -stately structures of Copan, Palenque, T’Ho, and many other cities were -deserted and covered with an apparently primitive forest; but others not -inferior to them Uxmal, Chichen Itza, Peten, etc., were the centers of -dense population, proving that the builders of both were identical. The -material was usually a hard limestone, which was polished and carved, and -imbedded in a firm mortar. Such was also the character of the edifices of -the Quiches and Cakchiquels of Guatemala. In view of the fact that none -of these masons knew the plumb-line or the square, the accuracy of the -adjustments is remarkable.[206] Their efforts at sculpture were equally -bold. They did not hesitate to attempt statues in the round of life-size -and larger, and the facades of the edifices were covered with extensive -and intricate designs cut in high relief upon the stones. All this was -accomplished without the use of metal tools, as they did not have even -the bronze chisels familiar to the Aztecs. Gold, silver and copper were -confined to ornaments, bells and similar purposes. - -The chief source of the food supply was agriculture. Maize was the -principal crop, and the arable land was carefully let out to families by -the heads of the villages. Beans and peppers were also cultivated and -bees were domesticated, from which both honey and wax, used in various -arts, were collected. Cotton was woven into fabrics of such delicacy that -the Spaniards at first thought the stuffs were of silk. It was dyed of -many colors, and was the main material of clothing. Brilliant feathers -were highly prized. Their canoes were seaworthy, and though there was -no settlement of the Mayas on the island of Cuba as has been alleged, -there was a commercial interchange of products with it, since Columbus -was shown wax from Yucatan and was told about the peninsula. An active -commerce was also maintained with southern Mexico, along the Gulf Coast, -the media of exchange being cacao beans, shells, precious stones and flat -pieces of copper.[207] - -The points which have attracted the most attention in Maya civilization, -next to its architecture, are the calendar and the hieroglyphics. The -calendar is evidently upon the same basis as that of the Mexicans, -turning upon the numerals thirteen, twenty, and four. But the Mayas -appear to have had more extended measures for the computation of time -than the Aztecs. Besides the cycle of twenty years, called by them the -_katun_, and that of fifty-two years, they had the _ahau katun_, or Great -Cycle, of two hundred and sixty years. - -Both the Cakchiquels, Quiches and Mayas of Yucatan were literary peoples. -They made frequent use of tablets, wrote many books, and covered the -walls of their buildings with hieroglyphs carved on the stone or wood, or -painted upon the plaster. Their characters are entirely different from -those of the Mexicans. Most of them have rounded outlines, something like -that of a section of a pebble, and for this reason the name “calculiform” -has been applied to the writing. Their books were of maguey paper or of -parchment, folded like those of the Mexicans. Although five or six of -them have been preserved, as well as numerous inscriptions on the walls -of buildings, no satisfactory interpretations have been offered, largely, -perhaps, because none of the interpreters have made themselves familiar -with the Maya language.[208] - -Imperfect description of the myths and rites of the Yucatecan Mayas are -preserved in the old Spanish authors; while of the Quiches we have in -the original their sacred book, the _Popol Vuh_ with a fair translation -by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg.[209] This may well be considered one -of the most valuable monuments of ancient American literature, and its -substantial authenticity cannot be doubted. Its first part presents a -body of ancient mythology and its second the early history of the tribe. -The latter is supplemented by a similar document relating to the history -of their neighbors the Cakchiquels, written at the time of the conquest, -which I have published from the unique MS. in my possession.[210] Many -facts relating to their ancient mythology, history and superstitions were -written down by educated natives of Yucatan in a series of documents -entitled “the Books of Chilan Balam,” copies of a number of which have -been preserved.[211] They are replete with curious material. - -MAYA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Achis_, in eastern Guatemala, now extinct. - _Aguatecas_, in Aguacatan, Guatemala. - _Cakchiquels_, in central Guatemala. - _Chaneabals_, in eastern Chiapas. - _Chinantecos_ or _Cinantecos_, same as _Tzotzils_. - _Choles_, in Depart. Palenque, in Chiapas. - _Chortis_, in valley of Rio Montagua, near Copan. - _Huastecas_, on Rio Panuco, north of Vera Cruz. - _Ixils_, on head-waters of Rio-Salinas, in Guatemala. - _Lacandons_, on the Rio Lacandon. - _Mams_, in western Guatemala. - _Mayas_, in peninsula of Yucatan. - _Mopans_, north of the Chols, in Guatemala. - _Quekchis_, on Rio Cahabon, in Guatemala. - _Quiches_ (_Utlateca_), head-waters of Rio Grande, Guatemala. - _Pokomams_, south of Rio Grande, in Guatemala. - _Pokonchis_, in central Guatemala. - _Tzendals_, in Tabasco and Chiapas. - _Tzotzils_, in Chiapas. - _Tzutuhils_, south of lake Atitlan, Guatemala. - _Uspantecas_, on Rio Negro, Guatemala. - - -11. THE HUAVES, SUBTIABAS, LENCAS, XINCAS, XICAQUES, “CARIBS,” MUSQUITOS, -ULVAS, RAMAS, PAYAS, GUATUSOS. - -The small tribe of the _Huaves_ occupies four hamlets on the isthmus of -Tehuantepec on the Pacific Ocean.[212] The men are tall and strong but -the women are unusually ugly. Their occupation is chiefly fishing and -they have the reputation of being dull. The language they speak is said -to be of an independent stock, and according to various writers the tribe -claims to have come from some part of the coast a considerable distance -to the south. The vocabularies of their tongue are too imperfect to -permit its identification. - -The _Subtiabas_ are inhabitants of the valley of that name near the -modern city of Leon in Nicaragua. They were called Nagrandans by Mr. -E. G. Squier,[213] because the site of ancient Leon was on the plain -of Nagrando and the province also bore this name at the time of the -conquest. They are probably the descendants of the ancient Maribois, -whom both Oviedo and Palacios place a few leagues from Leon and to whom -they ascribe an independent language; but it is an error of some later -writers to confound them with the Chorotegans or Mangues, to whom they -had no relationship whatever. Their language stands by itself among the -inter-isthmian stocks. - -The _Lenca_ is spoken by several semi-civilized tribes in central -Honduras. Its principal dialects are the Intibucat, Guajiquero, Opatoro -and Similaton. It is an independent stock, with no affinities as yet -discovered. The Guajiqueros dwell in remote villages in the San Juan -Mountains southwest of Comayagua, the capital of Honduras. We owe to -the late Mr. E. G. Squier vocabularies of all four dialects and an -interesting description of the present condition of the stock.[214] - -A little known tribe in a low stage of culture dwelt on the Rio de -los Esclavos, the _Xincas_. They extended about fifty miles along the -Pacific coast and thence back to the Sierra which is there about the same -distance. The one vocabulary we have on their tongue shows some loan -words from their Nahuatl neighbors the Pipiles, but in other respects it -appears to be a stock by itself. Its radicals are generally monosyllabic, -and the formation of words is by suffixes.[215] The tribe was conquered -by Alvarado, in 1524, who states that their principal village was at -Guazacapam. It was built of wood and populous. There are some reasons for -believing that previous to the arrival of the Quiches and Cakchiquels on -the plains of Guatemala that region was occupied by this nation, and that -they gave way before the superior fighting powers of the more cultured -stock. - -The _Xicaques_ live in the state of Honduras to the number of about -six thousand. Their seats are on the waters of the Rio Sulaque and Rio -Chaloma. They acknowledge one ruler, who is elective and holds the office -for life. Their language contains a few Nahuatl words, but in the body of -its vocabulary reveals no relationship to any other stock. - -The word _Carib_ is frequently applied by the Spanish population to any -wild tribe, merely in the sense of savage or wild. Thus on the upper -Usumacinta the Lacandons, a people of pure Maya stock, are so called by -the whites; on the Musquito coast the uncivilized Ulvas of the mountains -are referred to as Caribs. There are a large number of pure and mixed -Caribs, probably five or six thousand, in British Honduras near Trujillo, -but they do not belong to the original population. They were brought -there from the island of St. Vincent in 1796 by the British authorities. -Many of them have the marked traits of the negro through a mingling of -the races, and are sometimes called “Black Caribs.” The Rev. Alexander -Henderson, who has composed a grammar and dictionary of their dialect, -gives them the name _Karifs_, a corruption of Carib, and is the term by -which they call themselves. - -That portion of Honduras known as the Musquito coast derived its name, -not from the abundance of those troublesome insects, but from a native -tribe who at the discovery occupied the shore near Blewfield Lagoon. They -are an intelligent people, short in stature, unusually dark in color, -with finely cut features, and small straight noses--not at all negroid, -except where there has been an admixture of blood. They number about -six thousand, many of whom have been partly civilized by the efforts of -missionaries, who have reduced the language to writing and published -in it a number of works. The Tunglas are one of the sub-tribes of the -Musquitos. - -On the head-waters of the streams which empty along the Musquito coast -reside the numerous tribes of the _Ulvas_, called by the English _Smoos_. -These are dark, but lighter in color than the Musquitos, and are much -ruder and more savage. The custom of flattening the head prevails among -them, and as their features are not handsome at the best, and as they are -much afflicted with leprous diseases, they are by no means an attractive -people. - -THE ULVA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Bulbuls_, see _Poyas_. - _Carchas_ or _Cukras_, on Rio Meco above Matlack Falls. - _Cocos_, on Rio Coco. - _Micos_, on Rio Mico. - _Parrastahs_, on Rio Mico. - _Pantasmas_, on upper basin of Rio Coco. - _Melchoras_, on Rio de los Ramas. - _Siquias_, on upper Rio Mico. - _Smoos_, see _Woolwas_. - _Subironas_, on Rio Coco. - _Twakas_, at San Blas and on Rio Twaka. - _Woolwas_, _Ulvas_, _Smoos_, on head-waters of Blewfield river. - -The _Ramas_, described as men of herculean stature and strength, with a -language of their own, reside on a small island in Blewfield Lagoon. - -Toward the mountains near the head-waters of Black River, are the -_Payas_, also alleged to be a separate stock. But unfortunately we have -no specimens of these tongues.[216] - -The upper waters of the Rio Frio and its affluents form the locality of -the _Guatusos_ or Huatusos. By some older writers these were supposed -to be of Nahuatl affinities, and others said that they were “white -Indians.” Neither of these tales has any foundation. I have seen some -of the Guatusos, and their color is about that of the average northern -Indians; and as for their language, of which we have rather full -vocabularies, it is not in the slightest related to the Nahuatl, but -is an independent stock. They are a robust and agile set, preferring a -wild life, but cultivating maize, bananas, tobacco and other vegetables, -and knitting nets and hammocks from the fibres of the agave. The -huleros, or gatherers of india rubber, persecute them cruelly, and are -correspondingly hated. It is doubtful if at present they number over six -hundred.[217] - -The mountain chain which separates Nicaragua from Costa Rica, and the -head-waters of the Rio Frio from those of the more southern and eastern -streams, is the ethnographic boundary of North America. Beyond it we -come upon tribes whose linguistic affinities point towards the southern -continent. Such are the Talamancas, Guaymies, Valientes and others, which -I must include, in view of recent researches into their languages, in the -next section. - - - - -SOUTH AMERICAN TRIBES. - - - - -GENERAL REMARKS. - - -The linguistic classification of the South American tribes offers far -greater difficulties than that of North America. Not only has it been -studied less diligently, but the geographical character of the interior, -the facilities with which tribes move along its extensive water-ways, -and the less stable temperament of the white population have combined to -obscure the relationship of the native tribes and to limit our knowledge -about them. - -The first serious attempt to take a comprehensive survey of the idioms of -this portion of the continent was that of the Abbé Hervas in his general -work on the languages of the globe.[218] Balbi and Adelung did scarcely -more than pursue the lines he had traced in this portion of the field. So -little had these obtained definite results that Alexander von Humboldt -renounced as impracticable the arrangement of South American tribes by -their languages, because “more than seven-eighths would have remained -what the classifying botanists call _incertæ sedis_.”[219] - -This eminent naturalist, however, overlooked no opportunity to collect -material for the study of the native tongues, and on his return to Europe -placed what he had secured in the hands of his distinguished brother -for analysis. William von Humboldt, who was the profoundest linguist of -his day, gave close attention to the subject, but rather from a purely -critical than an ethnographic aspect. He based upon the South American -languages many principles of his linguistic philosophy; but so little -general attention was given the subject that his most valuable study was -first given to the press by myself in 1885.[220] - -Sixty years ago the French traveler, Alcide D’Orbigny, published his -important work devoted to South American Ethnography, but confined to -that portion of the continent he had visited, south of the parallel of -12° south latitude.[221] His classification was based partly on language, -partly on physical traits, and as it seemed simple and clear, it has -retained its popularity quite to the present day. He subsumes all the -tribes in the area referred to under three “races,” subdivided into -“branches” and “nations” as follows:-- - - 1. _Ando-Peruvian Race._ - - BRANCH. NATIONS. - - 1. PERUVIAN. Quichuas. - Aymaras. - Chancos. - Atacamas. - - 2. ANDEAN. (Antisian.) Yuracares. - Mocetenes. - Tacanas. - Maropas. - Apolistas. - - 3. ARAUCANIAN. Aucas. - Fuegians. - - 2. _Pampean Race._ - - BRANCH. NATIONS. - - 1. PAMPEAN. Tehuelches. - Puelches. - Charruas. - Mbocobis. - Mataguayos. - Abipones. - Lenguas. - - 2. CHIQUITEAN. Samucus. - Chiquitos. - Saravecas. - Otuquis. - Curuminacas. - Covarecas. - Curaves. - Tapiis. - Curucanecas. - Paiconecas. - Corabecas. - - 3. MOXEAN. Moxos. - Chapacuras. - Itonamas. - Canichanas. - Mobimas. - Cayuvavas. - Pacaguaras. - Itenes. - - 3. _Brasilio-Guaranian Race._ - - NATIONS. - - Guaranis. - Botocudos. - -In this classification, the distinctions of “races” and “branches” are -based exclusively on physical characteristics, and are at times in -conflict with a linguistic arrangement. The Botocudos and Guaranis, for -instance, are wholly dissimilar and should no more be classed together -than the Peruvians and the Tupis; the Saravecas and Paiconecas speak -Arawak dialects; and other examples could be cited. When D’Orbigny -confined himself to the identification of related tribes by a close -scrutiny of their idioms, he rendered valuable service by introducing -order into the chaotic nomenclature of earlier writers, as he forcibly -points out; but his physical discriminations are of little value. - -About the middle of this century, two German travelers, Von Tschudi and -Von Martius, gave close attention to the linguistic ethnology of the -continent, Von Tschudi in Peru and Von Martius in Brazil. The former -found the field so unoccupied that he did not hesitate to write in a -work published less than ten years ago, “In fact, the knowledge of the -languages of South America is to-day less than it was two hundred years -ago.”[222] His own divisions of the linguistic regions (_Sprachgebiete_) -of the continent is less satisfactory than we might expect. He describes -three principal and seven minor districts, the former being, 1. The -Pampo-Andean; 2. The inter-Andean; and 3. The Tupi-Guarani regions. The -minor centers are, 1. The Arawak-Carib region; 2. That of Cundinamarca; -3. The Rio Meta; 4. The Rio Tolima; 5. The Rio Atrato; 6. The Rio Salado; -7. The Chaco; 8. That of the Moxos. - -These are so far from meeting the requirements of our linguistic -possessions at present that scarcely one of them can be accepted. Von -Tschudi was an able and critical scholar in his particular field, that -of the Kechua tongue, but he had not made a wide study of South American -languages. - -Von Martius was much more of a comparative linguist. His work on the -ethnography and linguistics of South America[223] is a mine of general -information, and indispensable to every student of the subject. Taking -the numerous and confused dialects of Brazil, and the almost hopeless -synonymy of its tribal names, he undertook a classification of them by -establishing verbal and grammatical similarities. It is now generally -recognized that he went too far in this direction. He maintained, for -instance, that there is a demonstrable relationship between the Tupi, -the Carib, and the Arawak stocks; later studies have not endorsed -this, but have tended to show that they cannot be traced to any common -mother-speech. What Martius called the “Guck” nations, which he -brought into connection through the word of that sound used by them to -designate the paternal uncle, are now considered to be without general -relationship. The researches of Karl Von Den Steinen and Lucien Adam have -overthrown this theory. - -It is especially in studying the vast and largely unexplored regions -watered by the upper streams of the mighty Amazon, that one is yet at a -loss to bring the native inhabitants into ethnic order. Of the various -explorers and travellers who have visited that territory, few have paid -attention to the dialects of the natives, and of those few, several have -left their collections unpublished. Thus, I have been unable to learn -that Richard Spruce, who obtained numerous vocabularies along the Amazon -and its branches, gave them to the press; and there were in the hands -of Von Tschudi more than a hundred vocabularies collected by the German -naturalist, Johannes Natterer, in the interior of Brazil,[224] most of -which I learn are still in manuscript. In default of material such as -this, the classification of the tribes of Brazil must remain imperfect. - -It is also a matter of much regret that no copy can be found of the work -of the celebrated missionary, Alonso de Barcena, _Lexica et Precepta in -quinque Indorum Linguis_, published at Lima, in 1590--if, indeed, it -was ever really printed. It contained grammars of the Kechua, Aymara, -Yunca, Puquina and Katamareña, (spoken by the Calchaquis). Of the two -last mentioned idioms no other grammar is known, which makes the complete -disappearance of this early printed book particularly unfortunate. -Another Jesuit, Father Guillaume D’Étré, wrote out the catechism and -instructions for the sacraments in eighteen languages of eastern Peru and -the upper Orinoco;[225] but this, too, seems lost. - -Of late years no one has paid such fruitful attention to the relationship -and classification of the South American tribes and languages as M. -Lucien Adam. Although I have not in all points followed his nomenclature, -and have not throughout felt in accordance with his grouping, I have -always placed my main dependence on his work in the special fields he -has selected--the three great South American families of the Amazon -region, the Arawak (called by him the Maypure), the Carib, and the -Tupi.[226] - -The general plan which I shall adopt is rather for convenience of -arranging the subject than for reasons based on similarities either of -language or physical habitus. It is that which allows the presentation of -the various stocks most in accordance with their geographic distribution -and their historic associations. - -It is as follows: - - I. The South Pacific group. - 1. The Columbian region. - 2. The Peruvian region. - - II. The South Atlantic group. - 1. The Amazonian region. - 2. The Pampean region. - - - - -I. THE SOUTH PACIFIC GROUP. - - -1. THE COLUMBIAN REGION. - -This region includes the mountainous district in northwestern South -America, west of the basin of the Orinoco and north of the equator--but -without rigid adherence to these lines. The character of its culture -differed considerably from that found in the Atlantic regions and was -much more closely assimilated to that of Peru. Three lofty mountain -chains traverse New Granada from north to south, the intervening valleys -being beds of powerful rivers, rich in fish and with fertile banks. -This configuration of the soil has exerted a profound influence on the -life and migrations of the native inhabitants, severing them from the -fellow-members of their race to the east and directing their rovings in a -north and south direction. - -The productive valleys were no doubt densely populated; though we must -regard as a wild extravagance the estimate of a modern writer that at -the conquest the native inhabitants of New Granada reached “six to eight -millions”[227]; and I hope that the historian Herrera was far beyond the -truth when he asserted that in Popayan alone, in a single year fifty -thousand of the Indians died of starvation, five thousand were killed and -eaten by the famishing multitude, and a hundred thousand perished from -pestilence![228] - - -_1. Tribes of the Isthmus and Adjacent Coast._ - -At the discovery, the Isthmus of Panama was in the possession of the -_Cunas_ tribe, as they call themselves. They are the same to whom were -applied later the names Darien Indians (Wafer), Tules, Cunacunas, Cuevas, -Coybas, Mandingas, Bayanos, Irriacos, San Blas Indians, Chucunacos, -Tucutis, etc. - -They extended from the Gulf of Uraba and the river Atrato on the east to -the river Chagres on the west. In that direction they were contiguous to -the Guaymis, while on the right bank of the Atrato their neighbors were -the Chocos. - -The Cunas are slightly undersized (about 1.50), but symmetrical and -vigorous. Their color is light, and individuals with chestnut or -reddish hair and grey eyes have always been noted among them, and have -erroneously been supposed to be albinos. Their skulls are markedly -brachycephalic (88) and their faces broad. - -In spite of the severe measures of the Spaniards, they have never been -thoroughly reduced, and still manifest an unconquerable love of freedom -and a wild life. When first met they lived in small villages composed -of communal houses, raised maize and cotton, working the latter into -garments for the women, and possessed some gold, which they obtained -from the mountain streams and by working auriferous veins. The men -usually appeared naked and used poisoned arrows. - -The Cuna language does not seem to be positively connected with any -other stock, nor have dialects of it been discovered elsewhere. A number -of verbal similarities have been pointed out with the Chibcha, and it -has also a certain similarity to the Carib;[229] but with our present -knowledge it would be hasty to class it along with any other. - -The _Changuina_ or Dorasque tribes of the Isthmus lived latterly on -the River Puan, a branch of the Telorio, and are said to have numbered -5000 persons, though but a few miserable remnants are surviving. -They are lighter in color than the Guaymis, with whom they were in a -constant state of quarreling. In earlier times they were bold warriors, -lived by hunting, and were less cultured than their neighbors; yet a -remarkable megalithic monument in the pueblo of Meza is attributed to -them.[230] At the period of the conquest they dwelt in the high Sierras -back of the volcano of Chiriqui and extended to the northern coast -near Chiriqui Lagoon, where the River Changuina-Aula (_aula_, in the -Mosquito language, means river), still preserves their name. They were an -independent warlike tribe, and gave the Spaniards much trouble. Finally, -these broils led to their practical extinction. The last member of the -Dorasque branch died in 1882, and few others remain. - -CHANGUINA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Chalivas_, on upper Changuina-Aula. - _Changuinas_, near Bugaba. - _Chumulus_, near Caldera. - _Dorasques_, on the Rio Puan. - _Gualacas_, near San Francisco de Dolega. - _Teluskies_, near Rio Puan. - -The _Chocos_ were the first nation encountered in South America on -passing beyond the territory of the Cunas. They occupied the eastern -shore of the Gulf of Uraba, and much of the lower valley of the Atrato. -Thence they extended westerly across the Sierra to the Pacific coast, -which they probably occupied from the Gulf of San Miguel, in north -latitude 8°, where some of them still live under the name of Sambos, -down to the mouth of the San Juan River, about north latitude 4°, on -the affluents of which stream are the Tados and Noanamas, speaking -well-marked dialects of the tongue. To the east they reached the -valley of the Cauca, in the province of Antioquia. The Tucuras, at the -junction of the Sinu and the Rio Verde, are probably their easternmost -branch.[231] - -Anthropologically, they resemble the Cunas, having brachycephalic skulls, -with large faces, but are rather taller and of darker color. Here the -resemblance ceases, for they are widely dissimilar in language, in -customs and in temperament. Instead of being warlike and quarrelsome, -they are mild and peaceable; they lived less in villages and communal -houses than in single isolated huts. Most of them are now Catholics and -cultivate the soil. They have little energy and live miserably. At the -time of the conquest they were a trafficking people, obtaining salt from -the saline springs and gold from the quartz lodes, which they exchanged -with the tribes of the interior. Some of them were skilful in working the -metal, and fine specimens of their products have been obtained from their -ancestral tombs. - -CHOCO LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Angaguedas_, west of province of Cauca. - _Cañasgordas_, west of province of Cauca. - _Caramantas_, west of province of Cauca. - _Chocos_, on Rio Atrato. - _Chamis_, near Marmato. - _Chiamus_ or _Chocamus_, on the Pacific. - _Citaraes_, on Rio Buei and Rio Buchado. - _Murindoes._ - _Necodades._ - _Noanamas_, on head-waters of Rio San Juan. - _Paparos_, between rivers Sapa and Puero. - _Patoes._ - _Rio Verdes_, on the Rio Verde. - _Sambos_, on Rio Sambo, south of Gulf of San Miguel. - _Tados_, head-waters of Rio San Juan. - _Tucuras_, on Rio Senu. - -It is worth while recording the names and positions of the other native -tribes along the northern coast at the time of the discovery, even if we -are unable to identify their linguistic connections. An official report -made in 1546 furnishes a part of this information.[232] At that time and -previously the eastern shore of Venezuela was peopled by the Chirigotos, -who are probably the Chagaragotos of later authors.[233] Their western -neighbors were the Caracas, near the present city of that name. They were -warlike, wove hamacs, poisoned their arrows, and wore ornaments of gold. -The whole coast from Caracas to Lake Maracaibo was in possession of the -Caquetios, who also wove hamacs, and dwelt in stationary villages. They -were of milder disposition and friendly, and as a consequence were early -enslaved and destroyed by the Spaniards. Even at the date of the Relation -they had disappeared from the shore. It is possible that they fled far -inland, and gave their name in later days to the river Caqueta. - -Along the eastern border of Lake Maracaibo were the Onotes, “The Lords of -the Lagoon,” _Señores de la Laguna_, a fine race, whose women were the -handsomest along the shore.[234] They lived in houses built on piles -in the lake, and fished in its waters with nets and hooks. They traded -their fish for maize and yuca to the Bobures. These dwelt on the southern -shore of the lake, and are distinguished as erecting temples, _mesquites -adoratorios_, for their religious rites.[235] The Sierra on the west of -the lake was the home of the warlike Coromochos. - -These warriors probably belonged to the Goajiros, who then, as now, -occupied the peninsula on the northwest of Lake Maracaibo. - -It is not easy to say who were the Tirripis and Turbacos, who lived -about the mouth of the Magdalena River, though the names remind us of -the Chibcha stock. Approaching the Gulf of Darien from the east, we find -the highlands and shores on its west peopled by the Caimanes. These -undoubtedly belonged to the Cunas, as is proved by the words collected -among them in 1820 by Joaquin Acosta.[236] The earliest linguistic -evidence about their extension dates from a report in 1515,[237] in which -the writer says that all along this coast, up to and beyond San Blas, -the natives call a man _uma_ and a woman _ira_, which are words from the -Cuna dialects. - -In the mountainous district of Mérida, south of the plains in the -interior from Lake Maracaibo, there still dwell the remains of a number -of small bands speaking dialects of a stock which has been called from -one of its principal members, the _Timote_. It has been asserted to -display a relationship to the Chibcha, but the comparisons I have made do -not reveal such connection. It seems to stand alone, as an independent -tongue. - -All the Timotes paid attention to agriculture, raising maize, pepper -and esculent roots of the potato character. Those who lived in the warm -regions painted their bodies red and went naked; while those in the -uplands threw around them a square cotton blanket fastened at the waist. -Some of them buried their dead in caves, as the Quindoraes on the banks -of the Motatan. With them they placed small figures in terra cotta. The -Mocochies, living where caves are rare, built underground vaults for -their dead, closing the entrance with a great stone.[238] - -From the writings of Lares and Ernst I make the following list of the -members of the - -TIMOTE LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Aricaguas._ - _Aviamos._ - _Bailadores._ - _Canaguaes._ - _Chamas._ - _Escagueyes._ - _Guaraques._ - _Guaquis._ - _Iguiños._ - _Insumubies._ - _Jajies._ - _Miguries._ - _Mirripuyas._ - _Mocochies._ - _Mocotos._ - _Mocombos._ - _Mombunes._ - _Mucuchaies._ - _Mucunchies._ - _Mucurabaes._ - _Mucutuyes._ - _Quindoraes._ - _Quinos._ - _Quiroraes._ - _Tabayones._ - _Taparros._ - _Tatuyes._ - _Tiguinos._ - _Tricaguas._ - -Few of these names are found in the older writers. In the Taparros we -recognize the “Zaparas,” who, in the last century, lived in contiguity -to the Goajiros of the adjacent peninsula.[239] The Mucuchis gave their -name to an early settlement of that name in the province of Mérida.[240] -The prefix _muco_ or _moco_, which is very common in place-names of that -region, is believed by Lares to have a locative significance. Such names -give approximately the extent of the dialects at the settlement of the -country. - -In the highlands near the present city of Caracas, and in the fertile -valleys which surround the beautiful inland lake of Valencia to the -southeast, were at the discovery a number of tribes whose names, Arbacos, -Mariches, Merigotos, etc., give us no information as to their affinities. -They are now extinct, and nothing of their languages has been preserved. -All the more store do we set by the archæology of the district, about -which valuable information has been contributed by Dr. G. Marcano.[241] -He opened a number of burial mounds where the bones of the dead, after -having been denuded of flesh, were interred, together with ornaments and -utensils. These were in stone, bone and terra cotta, the only metal -being gold in small quantity. The character of the work showed the -existence of a culture belonging to the highest stage of polished stone. -Many of the skulls were artificially deformed to a high degree, the -frontal obliquity in some cases being double the normal. Add to this that -there was present an almost unexampled prognathism, and we have crania -quite without similars in other parts of the continent. When not deformed -they were brachycephalic, and both series gave a respectable capacity, -1470 c. c. - - -_2. The Chibchas._ - -Most of the writers on the Chibchas have spoken of them as a nation -standing almost civilized in the midst of barbarous hordes, and without -affinities to any other. Both of these statements are erroneous. The -Chibchas proper, or Muyscas, are but one member of a numerous family of -tribes which extended in both directions from the Isthmus of Panama, and -thus had representatives in North as well as South America. The Chibcha -language was much more widely disseminated throughout New Granada at -the time of the discovery than later writers have appreciated. It was -the general tongue of nearly all the provinces, and occupied the same -position with reference to the other idioms that the Kechua did in -Peru.[242] Indeed, most of the tribes in New Granada were recognized as -members of this stock.[243] Nor were they so much above their neighbors -in culture. Many of these also were tillers of the soil, weavers and -spinners of cotton, diggers of gold in the quartz lodes, skilled in -moulding and hammering it into artistic shapes, and known widely as -energetic merchants. - -No doubt the Chibchas had carried this culture to the highest point of -all the family. Their home was on the southern confines of the stock, -in the valleys of Bogota and Tunja, where their land extended from the -fourth to the sixth degree of north latitude, about the head-waters of -the Sogamoso branch of the Magdalena. Near the mouth of this river on its -eastern shore, rises the Sierra of Santa Marta, overlooking the open sea, -and continuing to the neck of the peninsula of Goajira. These mountains -were the home time out of mind of the Aroacos, a tribe in a condition of -barbarism, but not distantly related in language to the Chibchas. - -When the Spaniards first undertook the conquest of this Sierra, they met -with stubborn resistance from the Tayronas and Chimilas, who lived among -these hills. They were energetic tribes, cultivating fields of maize, -yucca, beans and cotton, which latter they wove and dyed for clothing. -Not only were they versed in stratagems, but they knew some deadly -poison for their arrows.[244] - -In later generations the Tayronas disappear entirely from history, but -I think the suggestion is well founded that they merely became merged -with the Chimilas, with whom they were always associated, and who -still survive in the same locality as a civilized tribe. We have some -information about their language.[245] It shows sufficient affinity with -the Chibcha to justify me in classing the Tayronas and Chimilas in that -group. - -An imperfect vocabulary of the native residents of Siquisique in the -state of Lara, formerly the province of Barquisimetro, inclines me to -unite them with the Aroac branch of this stock, though their dialect is -evidently a mixed one.[246] - -A still more interesting extension of this stock was that which it -appears to have had at one time in the northern continent. A number -of tribes beyond the straits, in the states of Panama and Costa Rica, -were either filially connected or deeply influenced by the outposts of -the Chibcha nation. These were the Guaymis in Veraguas, who possessed -the soil from ocean to ocean, and the Talamancas of Costa Rica, who in -a number of small sub-tribes extended quite to the boundaries of the -present state of Nicaragua. It has been recently shown, and I think -on satisfactory evidence, that their idioms contain a large number of -Chibcha words, and of such a class that they could scarcely have been -merely borrowed, but point to a prolonged admixture of stocks.[247] Along -with these terms are others pointing to a different family of languages, -perhaps, as has long been suspected, to some of the Carib dialects; but -up to the present time they must be said not to have been identified. - -Thus Lucien Adam has pointed out that the two groups of the Guaymi -dialects differ as widely, as follows: - - MUOI-MUR- VALIENTE- - IRE-SAVANERO. GUAYMI-NORTENO. - - Sun, _cui_, _nono_, _noana_. - Moon, _dai_, _so_, _go_. - Water, _ci_, _ca_, _ño_, _ñu_. - Man, _cuia_, _ni-togua_. - Woman, _moima_, _ni-uire_. - Eye, _guagava_, _ogua_. - Nose, _se_, _chegua_, _ni-doñ_, _domo_. - Foot, _sera_, _n-goto_. - -Dr. Max Uhle, in a late essay, has collected numerous verbal identities -between the various Guaymi and Talamanca dialects on the one hand, and -the Aroac and Chibcha on the other, including most of the simple numerals -and many words besides those which would be likely to be introduced by -commerce. Not stopping with this, he has successfully developed a variety -of laws of vowel and consonant changes in the dialects, which bring the -resemblance of the two groups into strong relief and do away with much of -their seeming diversity. Moreover, he points out that the terminations of -the present and imperative are identical, and the placement of words in -the sentence alike in both. These and his other arguments are sufficient, -I think, to establish his thesis; and I am at greater pains to set it -forth, as I regard it as one of unusual importance in its bearing on the -relations which existed in pre-historic times between tribes along the -boundary of the two continents. - -As to the course of migration, I do not think that the discussion of the -dialectic changes leaves any room for doubt. They all indicate attrition -and loss of the original form as we trace them from South into North -America; evidently the wandering hordes moved into the latter from the -southern continent. So far, there is no evidence that any North American -tribe migrated into South America. - -To illustrate these points I quote from Uhle’s tables the following: - -_Comparison of the Chibcha with the Costa Rican Dialects._ - -(T. = Talamanca. G. = Guaymi.) - - CHIBCHA. COSTA RICA. - - Head, _zysqui_, _dzekung_, T., _thokua_, G. - Ear, _cuhuca_, _kuku_, T. - Tongue, _pcua_, _ku_, T. - Breasts, _chue_, _tsu_, T. - Navel, _mue_, _mbwo_, T. - Foot, _quihyca_, _ketscha_, T. - Bird, _sue_, _du_, T., _nukua_, G. - Fish, _gua_, _gua_, G. - Snake, _tacbi_, _thekebe_, G. - Ant, _ize_, _tsa_, T. - Maize, _aba_, _ep_, T. - Stone, _hyca_, _hak_, T. - Water, _sie_, _di_, T., _chi_, G. - Sun, _sua_, _chui_, G. - House, _güe_, _hu_, T., _xu_, G. - Comb, _cuza_, _kasch_, T. - One, _ata_, _et_, T., _ti_, G. - Two, _boza_, _bu_, T., _bu_, G. - Three, _mica_, _mia_, T., _mai_, G. - -The numerous relics which since 1859 have been disinterred from the -ancient sepulchres of Chiriqui may be attributed to the members of this -stock; perhaps, as M. Pinart has suggested, to the ancestors of the -Guaymis, or, as Dr. Berendt thought, to the Cunas or Coibas.[248] These -graves are scattered in small groups or cemeteries, rarely more than ten -acres in extent, over the Pacific slope of the province of Chiriqui. The -similarity of the culture of their makers to that of the Chibchas has not -failed to impress archæological experts. Thus, W. H. Holmes remarks in -his admirable article on the “Art of Chiriqui.” “In their burial customs, -in the lack of enduring houses or temples, and in their use of gold, they -were like the ancient peoples of middle and southern New Granada.”[249] - -These relics are in stone, in pottery of many varieties and forms, and -in the metals gold, copper, silver and tin in various alloys. So large -was the quantity of gold that from a single cemetery over fifty thousand -dollars in value have been extracted. No wonder that Columbus and his -companions gave to this region the appellation _Castillo del Oro_, Golden -Castilé. - -Such a condition of civilization is in accord with the earliest -descriptions of the Chiriqui tribes. When in 1521 Francisco Compañon -overran their country, he found the Borucas and their neighbors living in -villages surrounded with high wooden palisades, the posts firmly lashed -together, making a solid wall of defence.[250] - -The culture of the Chibchas has been portrayed by numerous writers, and -it deserves to rank as next to that of the Nahuas and Kechuas, though in -many respects inferior to both of these. Their chiefs held by succession -through the female side, the matriarchal system prevailing throughout -their tribes. Agriculture was diligently pursued, the products being -maize, potatoes, yucca and cotton. Artificial irrigation by means of -ditches was in extended use. Salt was prepared on a large scale by -evaporation, and their skill in the manufacture of cotton cloth was -notable. Copper and bronze were unknown, and all their tools and weapons -were of wood and stone. In this respect they were in arrears of their not -distant neighbors, the Kechuas. Gold, however, they had in quantity, and -knew how to smelt it and to work it into vases and ornaments of actual -beauty. The use of stone for building was unknown, and their finest -structures were with wooden walls coated with clay and roofed with straw. - -In spite of what has sometimes been brought forward, it is not likely -that they had any method of writing, and much that has been advanced -about their calendar is of doubtful correctness. They had neither the -quipos of the Peruvians nor the picture writing of the Mexicans. The -carved stones which have sometimes been produced as a species of calendar -were probably merely moulds for hammering gold into shape. - -Quite a body of their mythologic legends have been preserved, replete -with interest to the student of the religious sentiment of this race. -They indicate an active imagination and may be regarded as quite -authentic. - -The Chibchas proper, as well as the Aroacos, were meso- or -brachycephalic, the cephalic index ranging above 80. They were of -moderate stature, dark in color, the face broad, the eyes dark and often -slightly oblique, the cheek-bones prominent and the general appearance -not handsome. - -CHIBCHA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Aruacs_ (_Aroacos_), in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and on - Rio Paramo. - _Bintucuas_, a sub-tribe of the Aruacs. - _Borucas_, sub-tribe of Talamancas. - _Bribris_, sub-tribe of Talamancas. - _Bruncas_, see _Borucas_. - _Cabecars_, sub-tribe of Talamancas. - _Chibchas_, on upper Rio Magdalena, near Bogota. - _Chicamochas_, about 4° N. lat. - _Chimilas_, in the sierra of Santa Marta. - _Chitas_ or _Chiscas_, near Sierra de Morcote. - _Duits_, near Duitama. - _Guacicas_, east of Bogota, on the head-waters of Rio Meta. - _Guamacas_, a sub-tribe of Aruacs. - _Guaymis_, on both slopes of the Cordillera, in Veraguas. - _Köggabas_, a sub-tribe of the Aruacs. - _Morcotes_, near San Juan de los Llanos. - _Muois_, a sub-tribe of the Guaymis. - _Murires_, a sub-tribe of the Guaymis. - _Muyscas_, see _Chibchas_. - _Sinsigas_, in the sierra near Tunja. - _Talamancas_, in the sierra in Costa Rica. - _Tayronas_, in the Sierra de Santa Marta. - _Terrabas_, a sub-tribe of Talamancas. - _Tirribis_, a sub-tribe of Talamancas. - _Tucurriques_, a sub-tribe of the Talamancas. - _Tunebos_, in the sierra east of Bogota. - _Valientes_, a sub-tribe of the Guaymis. - - -_3. The Paniquitas and Paezes._ - -A number of tribes living to the north and west of the Chibchas seem to -have belonged to one stock. They are mentioned by the older historians as -acting in alliance, as in constant war with the Chibchas, and several of -them as speaking dialects of a tongue wholly different from the Chibchas. -Their stage of culture was lower, but they were acquainted with the bow, -the sling and the war-club, and had fixed habitations. I give the list of -these presumably related tribes, and apply to the stock the name of one -of the modern tribes which retain the language.[251] - -PANIQUITA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Canapeis_, sub-tribe of Colimas (Herrera). - _Colimas_, on the right bank of Magdalena, adjacent to the Musos. - _Manipos_, adjacent to the Pijoas. - _Musos_, on right bank of the Magdalena, adjacent and north of the - Muyscas. - _Nauras_, on the Rio Carari. - _Paezes_, on the central Cordillera. - _Panches_, on the east bank of Magdalena, near Tocayma. - _Paniquitas_, between upper waters of the Magdalena and Cauca. - _Pantagoros_, on both shores of the Magdalena and in province of - Quimbaya. - _Pijaos_, in Popayan, on the Cauca and Neyva. - -My reasons for identifying the modern Paniquitas and Paezes with the -ancient tribes named are, first, the identity of the location, and -secondly, the presence of the initial syllable _pan_ in the names of -two of the principal extinct peoples, a word which in Paniquita means -“mountain,” and clearly refers to the position of their villages in the -sierra, between the head-waters of the Cauca and Magdalena Rivers. - -Among the references in the older writers, I may mention that Herrera -states that the language of the Panches was one of the most extended -in that part of the country, and that the tribes speaking it almost -surrounded the Muyscas;[252] and Piedrahita specifically adds that the -Pijaos, the most powerful tribe in Popayan, whose territory extended from -Cartago to the city of Popayan, along the valley of the Neyva, and quite -to San Juan de los Llanos, belonged to the same stock as the Pantagoros. - -Some fragments have been preserved from the mythology of the Musos, who -lived about 24 leagues northwest of Santa Fé, on the right bank of the -Magdalena. Their legends pointed for the home of their ancestors to the -left or western side of the river. Here dwelt, lying in a position of -eternal repose, the Creator, a shadow whose name was _Are_. Ages ago he -carved for his amusement two figures in wood, a man and a woman, and -threw them into the river. They rose from its waters as living beings, -and marrying, became the ancestors of the human species.[253] - -Most of these tribes are reported to have flattened artificially their -heads, and to have burned the bodies of their dead, or, in Popoyan, to -have mummified them by long exposure to a slow fire. - -The Paezes live on both slopes of the central Cordillera, across the -valley of the Magdalena from Bogota, some two thousand in number, in -twenty-one villages. They prefer the high altitudes, and are a hardy -set of hunters and mountaineers. In spite of the cold they go nearly -naked, but what is rare among native Americans, they wear a hat of reeds -or bark, resembling in this some Peruvian tribes. Nor are they devoid -of skill in hammering gold into ornaments, and weaving fibres of the -maguey into mats and cloths. One of their peculiar customs is to burn -down a house whenever a birth or a death takes place in it. The harsh -dialect they speak has been rendered accessible by a publication of Señor -Uricoechea. Its practical identity with the Panequita is obvious from the -following comparison:[254] - - PANEQUITA. PAEZ. - - Eye, _yafi_, _yafi_. - Hand, _kousseh_, _cose_. - House, _iat_, _yath_. - Man, _pitsto_, _piz petam_. - Tongue, _tunneh_, _toné_. - Tooth, _kit_, _quith_. - Two, _hendsta_, _enz_. - Three, _tejta_, _tec_. - Four, _pansta_, _panz_. - - -_4. South Columbian Tribes, Natives of Cauca, Coconucos, Barbacoas, -Andaquis, Mocoas, Cañaris._ - -In the states of Cauca and Antioquia there are scarcely any full-blood -natives remaining, and the tribes after the conquest were so shifted -about that it is difficult to know to which of them we should attribute -the abundant remains of ancient art which are scattered profusely -over this region. There are numerous sepulchral tumuli, especially -in the Frontino and Dabeiba districts, which yield a rich harvest to -the antiquary. They contain gold figures, vases and ornaments, stone -implements of uncommon perfection, mirrors of polished pyrites, and small -images in stone and terra cotta. There are also remarkable ruins in the -valley of the Rio de la Plata, an affluent of the upper Magdalena. They -consist in colossal statues rudely carved from stone, and edifices of -the same material, partly underground, the walls of large slabs, and the -roof supported by cylindrical carved pillars. A few of these still remain -intact, but the majority have been wrecked by the earthquakes and by the -vandalism of treasure-hunters.[255] - -In an attempt to restore the ancient ethnography of this region, Dr. -Posada-Arango thinks the former tribes can be classed under three -principal nations:[256] - - 1. The _Catios_, west of the river Cauca. - 2. The _Nutabes_, on the right bank of the Cauca, in its central - course. - 3. The _Tahamies_, toward the east and south. - -In addition to these, there are the Yamacies, near the present city of -Saragossa. - -According to the early records, these tribes lived in fixed habitations -constructed of wood and roofed with thatch. They were cultivators of -the soil, skilled in the manufacture of pottery and stone implements, -and had as domestic animals parrots and a small species of dog (_perros -de monte_). Their clothing was of cotton, and they were much given to -wearing ornaments, many of which were of gold. - -From the unfortunate absence of linguistic material, I am unable to -classify these interesting peoples. - -In the valleys of the Sierra south of the Paezes dwelt the _Guanucos_, -described by the first explorers as a warlike people in an advanced -stage of culture. Their houses were of stone, roofed with straw. The sun -was worshipped with elaborate ceremonies, including choruses of virgins -and the ministration of thousands of priests.[257] The dead were buried -and the funeral solemnities associated with human sacrifice. At present -the neighbors of the Paezes on the western slope of the Cordillera are -the Moguexes or Guambianos, partially civilized and carrying on a rude -agriculture. They are much given to dissolute dances to the sound of the -marimba, and to stupefying themselves with stramonium, which they also -use to catch fish.[258] - -The informant of the Abbé Hervas, Señor Velasco, asserted that the -Guanucos were a branch of the _Coconucos_, who dwelt near the foot of the -mountain of that name in Popayan, and figure considerably in some of the -older histories.[259] Bollaert learned that some of them still survive, -and obtained a few words of their language, which he was also told was -the same as that of the Pubenanos.[260] I have found by comparison that -it is identical with that of the Moguexes and Totoros,[261] and I am -therefore enabled to present the following group as members of what I -shall call the - -COCONUCA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Coconucos_, at the sources of the Rio Purase. - _Guanucos_, in the Sierra. - _Guambianos_, see _Moguexes_. - _Moguexes_, on the western slope of the Cordillera. - _Pubenanos_, adjacent to the Coconucos. - _Mosqueras_, sub-tribe of Moguexes. - _Polindaras_, head-waters of Rio Cauca. - _Totoros_, in the Sierra between the Magdalena and Cauca. - -To these should probably be added the Conchucos and Guaycos, who appear -to have been adjacent tribes speaking the same tongue, although also -being familiar with the Kechua language.[262] - -In the upper valleys of the rivers Daule, Chone and Tachi, there still -survive some families of the “painted Indians,” who were referred to by -Cieza de Leon as Manivis, now usually called Colorados, but whose own -name is Sacchas, men or people. They are naturally of a light yellow -hue, some with light hair and eyes, but are accustomed to go naked and -cover their skin with a reddish vegetable pigment, which on the face is -laid on in decorative lines. Their language,[263] with which we have -some acquaintance, appears to belong to the same family as that of the -Barbacoas, to whom the Jesuit Father Luca della Cueva went as missionary -in 1640, and that of the Iscuandes and the Telembis, all residing in the -forests near the coast, between 1° and 2° north latitude. These are -described by M. André, who visited them in 1880, as of mixed blood and -reduced to a few hundreds, but still retaining something of their ancient -tongue, of which he obtained a vocabulary of 23 words. The Cuaiqueres he -reports as also speaking this idiom.[264] - -Velasco mentions that the Barbacoas, Telembis and Iscuandes formed a -confederation governed by a council of nine members chosen equally from -the three tribes. - -To the south of the Telembis and adjoining the Kechua-speaking Malabas in -the district of La Tola were the Cayapas, of whom some remnants remain, -still preserving their native tongue. A vocabulary of it, obtained by H. -Wilcszynski, has recently been published.[265] On comparing it with the -Colorado vocabulary secured by Bishop Thiel and edited by Dr. Seler, it -is clear that they are dialects of the same stock, as will be seen from -these examples:[266] - - CAYAPA. COLORADA. - Head, _mishpuca_, _michu_. - Hair, _achua_, _apichu_. - Eye, _capucua_, _caco_. - Fingers, _fia-misho_, _té-michu_. - Fire, _nin-guma_, _ni_. - Water, _pi_, _pi_. - Rain, _shua_, _chua-ptana_. - Tree, _chi_, _chi-tue_. - Night, _quepe_, _quepe_. - Sister, _in-socki_, _soque_. - House, _ia_, _ya_. - White, _fiba_, _fibaga_. - To sleep, _casto_, _catzoza_. - To drink, _pi-cushno_, _cuchi_. - -The Cayapas are described as well-built, with oval faces and roman -noses.[267] - -As the Barbacoas were the first known and probably the most numerous -member of this family, I shall select their name to apply to them all, -and classify the group as follows: - -BARBACOA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Barbacoas_, on Upper Patia and Telembi. - _Cayapas_, on coast near La Tola. - _Colorados_, on Daule, Chone and Tachi Rivers. - _Cuaiqueres_, on the coast about 1° N. Lat. - _Iscuandes_, on Rio Patia. - _Manivis_, head-waters of Rio Telembi. - _Sacchas_, see _Colorados_. - _Telembis_, on Rio Telembi. - -I have, in obedience to a sense of caution, treated of this stock as -separate from the Cocanuca; but the fragmentary vocabularies at my -command offer a number of resemblances between the two, and I expect that -ampler material will show increased analogies, probably to the extent of -proving them branches of the same family tree. - -In the roughest part of the Eastern Cordillera, about the head-waters -of the two rivers Fragua, (between 1° and 2° north latitude), live the -_Andaquis_. They are wild and warlike, and are the alleged guardians -of the legendary _Indeguau_, “House of the Sun,” a cavern in which, -according to local tradition, lies piled the untold gold of the ancient -peoples.[268] At the time of the conquest their ancestors are said to -have occupied the fertile lands between the Magdalena and Suaza rivers, -especially the valley of San Augustin, where they constructed mysterious -cyclopean edifices and subterranean temples, and carved colossal -statues from the living rock. These have been described and portrayed -by intelligent travelers, and give us a high opinion of the skill and -intelligence of their builders.[269] - -The only specimen I have found of the Andaqui language is the vocabulary -collected by the Presbyter Albis. Its words show slight similarities to -the Paniquita and the Chibcha,[270] but apparently it is at bottom an -independent stock. The nation was divided into many sub-tribes, living -in and along the eastern Cordillera, and on the banks of the rivers -Orteguasa, Bodoquera, Pescado, Fragua and San Pedro, all tributaries of -the Caqueta. - -The home of the _Mocoas_ is between 1° and 2° north lat. along the Rio -de los Engaños or Yari, (whence they are sometimes called Engaños or -Inganos), and other tributaries of the Caqueta.[271] They are partially -civilized, and have seven or more villages near the town of Mocoa. They -are the first natives encountered in descending the eastern slope of the -Cordillera. Unfortunately, we have a very imperfect knowledge of their -language, a few words reported by the Presbyter Albis being all I have -seen. So many of them are borrowed from the Kechua, that I have no means -of deciding whether the following list of the stock is correct or not: - -MOCOA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Almaguereños_. - _Engaños_ or _Inganos_. - _Mesayas_. - _Mocoas_. - _Pastuzos_. - _Patias_ (?) - _Sebondoyes_. - -Of these, the Patias dwelt on the lofty and sterile plain between the two -chains of the Cordilleras in Popayan. The Sebondoyes had a village on the -Putumayo, five leagues south of the Lake of Mocoa (Coleti). - -The region around the Gulf of Guayaquil was conquered by the Inca Tupac -Yupanqui about 1450.[272] The accounts say that it had previously been -occupied by some five-and-twenty independent tribes, all of whom were -brought under the dominion of the Kechuas and adopted their language. -The most prominent of these were the _Cañaris_, whose homes were in the -hot valleys near the coast. Before the arrival of the Incas they had a -certain degree of cultivation, being skilled in the moulding of copper, -which they worked with a different technique from the Kechuas. Many of -their copper axes are ornamented with strange figures, perhaps totemic, -cut into the metal. As much as five or six hundred pounds’ weight of -these axes has been taken from one of their tombs.[273] Some of the most -beautiful gold work from the Peruvian territory has been found in modern -times in this province, but was perhaps the work of Kechua rather than of -Cañari artists.[274] - -The original language of the Cañaris, if it was other than the Kechua, -appears to have been lost. - - -2. THE PERUVIAN REGION. - -The difficulty of a linguistic classification of the tribes of the -Peruvian region is presented in very formidable terms by the old writers. -Cieza de Leon said of this portion of the continent: “They have such a -variety of languages that there is almost a new language at every league -in all parts of the country;”[275] and Garcilasso de la Vega complains of -the “confusion and multitude of languages,” which gave the Incas so much -trouble, and later so much impeded the labors of the missionaries.[276] -An authority is quoted by Bollaert to the effect that in the vice-royalty -of Quito alone there were more than forty distinct tongues, spoken in -upwards of three hundred different dialects.[277] - -Like most such statements, these are gross exaggerations. In fact, from -all the evidence which I have been able to find, the tribes in the -inter-Andean valley, and on the coast, all the way from Quito, under the -equator, to the desert of Atacama in 25° south latitude, belonged to -probably four or at most five linguistic stocks. These are the Kechua, -the Aymara, the Puquina, the Yunca, and the Atacameño. Of these, the -first three were known in the early days of the conquest, as “the three -general languages”--_lenguas generales_--of Peru, on account of their -wide distribution. But it is quite likely, as I shall show later, that -the Aymara was a dialect, and not an independent stock. - - -_1. The Kechuas._ - -The Kechua in its various dialects, was spoken by an unbroken chain of -tribes for nearly two thousand miles from north to south; that is, from -3° north of the equator to 32° south latitude. Its influence can be -traced over a far wider area. In the dialects of Popayan in Ecuador, in -those on the Rio Putumayo and Rio Napo, in those on the Ucayali and still -further east, on the banks of the Beni and Mamore, in the Moxa of the -Bolivian highlands, and southeast quite to the languages of the Pampas, -do we find numerous words clearly borrowed from this widespread stock. - -This dissemination was due much more to culture than to conquest. It -was a tribute to the intellectual superiority, the higher civilization, -of this remarkable people, as is evident by the character of the words -borrowed. It is a historic error to suppose that the extension of the -Kechua was the result of the victories of the Incas. These occurred but -a few centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards, and their influence -was not great on the native tongues, as even the panegyrist of the Incas, -Garcilasso de la Vega, confesses.[278] The opinion of Von Tschudi was so -positive on this point that he says: “With a few unimportant exceptions, -wherever the Kechua was spoken at the time of the conquest, it had -been spoken thousands of years before the Inca dynasty began.”[279] The -assertion of Garcilasso de la Vega, that the Inca gens had a language of -its own, has been shown to be an error.[280] - -Where should we look for the starting-point, the “cradle,” of the -far-spread Kechua stock? The traditions of the Incas pointed to the -shores and islands of Lake Titicaca as the birth-place of their remotest -ancestors; but as Markham has abundantly shown, this was a pure myth. He -himself is decidedly of the opinion that we must search for the cradle -of the stock in the district of Cuzco, perhaps not far from Paucartambo, -“The House of the Dawning,” to which other venerable Incarian legends -assigned the scene of the creation of their common ancestors.[281] - -But there are many reasons, and to me satisfactory ones, for believing -that the first Kechuas appeared in South America at the extreme north of -the region they later occupied, and that the course of their migration -was constantly from north to south. This was also the opinion of the -learned Von Tschudi. He traces the early wandering of the Kechua tribes -from the vicinity of Quito to the district between the Andes and the -upper Marañon, thence in the direction of Huaraz, and so gradually -southward, following the inter-Andean plateau, to the northern shore -of Lake Titicaca. There they encountered warlike tribes who put a stop -to their further progress in that direction until the rise of the Inca -dynasty, who pushed their conquests toward the south and west. - -The grounds for this opinion are largely linguistic.[282] In his -exhaustive analysis of the Kechua language, Von Tschudi found its -most archaic forms in the extreme north, in the dialects of Quito and -Chinchasuyu. This is also my own impression from the comparison of -the northern and southern dialects. For instance, in the Chinchaya -(northern), the word for water is _yacu_, while the southern dialects -employ _yacu_ in the sense of “flowing water,” or river, and for water in -general adopted the word _unu_, apparently from the Arawak stock. Now, -as Karl von den Steinen argues in a similar instance, we can understand -how a river could be called “water,” but not how drinking water could be -called “river;” and therefore we must assume that the original sense of -_yacu_ was simply “water,” and that the tribes who retained this meaning -had the more archaic vocabulary.[283] - -Mr. Markham indeed says: “In my opinion there is no sufficient evidence -that the people of Quito did speak Quichua previous to the Inca -conquest;” and he quotes Cieza de Leon to the effect that at the time -of the Spanish conquest they had a tongue of their own.[284] I have, -however, shown how untrustworthy Cieza de Leon’s statements are on such -subjects; and what is conclusive, there were Kechua-speaking tribes -living at the north who never were subjugated by the Incas. Such for -instance were the Malabas, whom Stevenson, when visiting that region in -1815, found living in a wild state on San Miguel river, a branch of the -Esmeraldas.[285] This is also true, according to the observations of -Stübel, of the natives of Tucas de Santiago in the province of Pasto in -Ecuador.[286] - -This opinion is further supported by a strong consensus of ancient -tradition, which, in spite of its vagueness, certainly carries some -weight. Many of the southern Kechua tribes referred for their origin to -the extreme northwest as known to them, to the ancient city of Lambayeque -on the Pacific coast, a locality which, according to Bastian,[287] held -a place in their traditions equivalent to that of Culiacan, “the Home of -the Ancestors,” in the legendary lore of the Aztecs. - -The legends of the ancient Quitus have been preserved in the work of -Juan de Velasco, and although they are dismissed with small respect -by Markham, I am myself of the opinion that there is both external -and internal evidence to justify us in accepting them as at least -genuine native productions. They relate that at a remote epoch two -Kechua-speaking tribes, the Mantas on the south, and the Caras on the -north, occupied the coast from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the Esmeraldas -River. The Caras were the elder, and its ancestors had reached that part -of the coast in rafts and canoes from some more northern home. For many -generations they remained a maritime people, but at length followed up -the Esmeraldas and its affluents until they reached the vicinity of -Quito, where they developed into a powerful nation under the rule of -their _scyri_, or chiefs. Of these they claimed a dynasty of nineteen -previous to the conquest of their territory by the Inca Huayna Capac. -They inherited in the male line, and were monogamous to the extent -that the issue of only one of their wives could be regarded as legal -heirs.[288] They did not bury their dead, as did the southern Kechuas, -but placed them on the surface of the soil and constructed a stone mound -or tomb, called _tola_, over the remains, resembling in this the Aymaras. - -The extent of the Kechua tongue to the north has not been accurately -defined. Under the name _Yumbos_, or _Yumbos de Guerra_, the old -Relations included various tribes in the Quito region who had not been -reduced by the Spanish Conquistadores.[289] A recent traveler, M. André, -states that the Yumbos belong to the family of the Quitus, and include -the tribes of the Cayapas, Colorados and Mangaches.[290] Of these, the -Cayapas and Colorados, as I have shown, belong to the Barbacoa stock, -though the term _Colorados_ “painted,” is applied to so many tribes that -it is not clear which is meant. The geographer Villavicencio observes -that “the Napos, Canelos, Intags, Nanegales and Gualeas, collectively -called Yumbos, all speak dialects of the Kechua.” The modern Canelos he -describes as a cross between the ancient Yumbos and the Jivaros, to whom -they are now neighbors, while the modern Quitos adjoin the Zaparos. Their -language, however, he asserts, has retained its purity.[291] - -Whether we should include in this stock the Macas, who dwell on the -eastern slope of the Andes a few degrees south of the equator, is not -clear, as I have found no vocabularies. Velasco refers to them as a -part of the Scyra stock, and they are in the Kechua region. Mr. Buckley, -who visited them a few years ago, describes them as divided into small -tribes, constantly at war with each other. Their weapons are spears and -blow-pipes with poisoned arrows. Hunting is their principal business, -but they also raise some maize, yucca and tobacco. Polygamy prevails -along with the patriarchal system, the son inheriting the property of his -father. Some rude pottery is manufactured, and their huts of palm leaves -are neatly constructed. Like the Jivaros, they prepare the heads of the -dead, and sometimes a man will kill one of his wives if he takes a fancy -that her head would look particularly ornamental thus preserved.[292] - -The southern limit of the Kechua tongue, before the Spanish conquest, -has been variously put by different writers; but I think we can safely -adopt Coquimbo, in south latitude 30°, as practically the boundary -of the stock. We are informed that in 1593 the priests addressed -their congregations in Kechua at this place,[293] and in the same -generation the missionary Valdivia names it as the northern limit of the -Araucanian.[294] Doubtless, however, it was spoken by outlying colonies -as far south as the river Maule, in south latitude 35°, which other -writers assign as the limit of the conquests of the Incas. - -Cieza de Leon and other early Spanish writers frequently refer to the -general physical sameness of the Peruvian tribes. They found all of them -somewhat undersized, brown in color, beardless, and of but moderate -muscular force. - -The craniology of Peru offers peculiar difficulties. It was the policy -of the rulers to remove large numbers of conquered tribes to distant -portions of the realm in order to render the population more homogeneous. -This led to a constant blending of physical traits. Furthermore, -nowhere on the continent do we find skulls presenting more grotesque -artificial deformities, which render it difficult to decide upon their -normal form. When the latter element is carefully excluded, we still -find a conflicting diversity in the results of measurements. Of 245 -Peruvian crania in the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences, -Philadelphia, 168 are brachycephalic, 50 are dolichocephalic, and 27 -mesocephalic. Of 13 from near Arica, all but one are dolichocephalic. Of -104 from Pachacamac, 93 are brachycephalic and none dolichocephalic. It -is evident that along the coast there lived tribes of contrasted skull -forms. From the material at hand I should say that the dividing line was -near Pisco, those south of that point having elongated, those north of it -rounded heads. The true Kechuas and Aymaras are meso or brachycephalic. -The crania from the celebrated cemetery of Ancon, which is situated on -the coast near Lima, are mostly deformed, but when obtained in natural -form prove the population to have been mesocephalic, with rounded orbits -(megasemes) and narrow prominent noses (leptorhines). An average of six -specimens yielded a cubical capacity of 1335 cub. cent.[295] - -The cubical capacity of the Peruvian skulls from the coast generally -averages remarkably low--lower than that of the Bushmen or Hottentots. -Careful measurements give the capacity at 1230 cubic centimeters.[296] -They almost reach the borders of microcephaly, which Broca placed at 1150 -cubic centimeters. - -Although the Spanish writers speak of the Inca as an autocratic despot, -a careful analysis of the social organization of ancient Peru places -it in the light of a government by a council of the gentes, quite in -accordance with the system so familiar elsewhere on the continent. The -Inca was a war-chief, elected by the council as an executive officer to -carry out its decision, and had practically no initiative of his own. -Associated with him, and nearly equal in power, was the _huillac huma_, -or “speaking head,” who acted as president of the tribal council, and was -the executive officer in the Inca’s absence. The totemic system still -controlled the social life of the people, although it is evident that the -idea of the family had begun to assert itself. The land continued to be -owned by the gens or _ayllu_, and not by individuals.[297] - -Agriculture had reached its highest level in Peru among the native -tribes. The soil was artificially enriched with manure and guano brought -from the islands; extensive systems of irrigation were carried out, and -implements of bronze, as spades and hoes, took the place of the ruder -tools of stone or wood. The crops were maize, potatoes both white and -sweet, yucca, peppers, tobacco and cotton. Of domestic animals the llama -and paco were bred for their hair, for sacrifices and as beasts of -burden, but not for draft, for riding nor for milking.[298] The herds -often numbered many thousands. The Inca dog was a descendant of the -wolf,[299] and monkeys, birds and guinea pigs were common pets. - -Cotton and hair of the various species of the llama were spun and woven -into a large variety of fabrics, often ornamented with geometric designs -in color. The pottery was exceedingly varied in forms. Natural objects -were imitated in clay with fidelity and expression, and when a desirable -model was not at hand, the potter was an adept in moulding curious -trick-jars that would not empty their contents in the expected direction, -or would emit a strange note from the gurgling fluid, or such as could -be used as whistles, or he could turn out terra-cotta flutes and the -like. Not less adroit were the artists in metal, especially in bronze -and in gold and silver. The early writers are filled with expressions -of astonishment at the amount, variety and beauty of the Incarian gold -work. Its amount we may well credit when we are told that the value of -the precious metals shipped to Spain within twenty-five years after the -conquest was four hundred million ducats of gold. There are specimens -enough remaining to judge of its artistic designs. They are quite -ingenious and show dexterous manipulation, but rarely hint at a sense of -the beautiful. - -Peruvian architecture was peculiar and imposing. It showed no trace of an -inspiration from Yucatan or Mexico. Its special features were cyclopean -walls of huge stones fitted together without mortar; structures of -several stories in height, not erected upon tumuli or pyramids; the doors -narrowing in breadth toward the top; the absence of pillars or arches; -the avoidance of exterior and mural decoration; the artistic disposition -of niches in the walls; and the extreme solidity of the foundations. -These points show that Inca architecture was not derived from that north -of the isthmus of Panama. In the decorative effects of the art they were -deficient; neither their sculpture in stone nor their mural paintings at -all equalled those of Yucatan. - -The only plan they had devised to record or to recall ideas was by means -of knotted strings of various colors and sizes, called quipus. These -could have been nothing more than mere mnemonic aids, highly artificial -and limited in their application. - -The official religion was a worship of the sun; but along with it were -carried the myths of Viracocha, the national hero-god, whom it is not -difficult to identify with the personifications of light so common in -American religions. The ceremonies of the cult were elaborate, and were -not associated with the bloody sacrifices frequent in Yucatan and Mexico. -Their mythology was rich, and many legends were current of the white and -bearded Viracocha, the culture hero, who gave them their civilization, -and of his emergence from the “house of the dawn.” According to some -authorities which appear to be trustworthy, the more intelligent of the -Kechuas appear to have risen above object-worship, and to have advocated -the belief in a single and incorporeal divinity. - -A variety of ancestral worship also prevailed, that of the _pacarina_, -or forefather of the _ayllu_ or gens, idealized as the soul or essence -of his descendants. The emblem worshipped was the actual body, called -_malqui_, which was mummied and preserved with reverential care in sacred -underground temples. - -The morality of the Peruvians stood low. Their art relics abound in -obscene devices and the portraiture of unnatural passions. We can -scarcely err in seeing in them a nation which had been deteriorated by a -long indulgence in debasing tastes. - -The Kechua language is one of harsh phonetics, especially in the southern -dialects, but of considerable linguistic development. The modifications -of the theme are by means of suffixes, which are so numerous as to give -it a flexibility and power of conveying slight shades of meaning rare -in American tongues, and which Friedrich Müller compares to that of the -Osmanli Turks.[300] Its literature was by no means despicable. In spite -of the absence of a method of writing, there was a large body of songs, -legends and dramas preserved by oral communication and the quipus. A -number of these have been published. Among them the drama of _Ollanta_ is -the most noteworthy. It appears to be a genuine aboriginal production, -committed to writing soon after the conquest, and bears the marks of an -appreciation of literary form higher than we might have expected.[301] -The poems or _yaraveys_, usually turn on love for a theme, and often -contain sentiments of force and delicacy.[302] Several excellent -grammatical studies of the Kechua have appeared in recent years.[303] - -KECHUA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Ayahucas_, south of Quitu. - _Canas_, east of the Vilcañeta Pass. - _Caras_, on the coast from Charapoto to Cape San Francisco. - _Casamarcas_, on the head-waters of the Marañon. - _Chachapuyas_, on the right bank of the Marañon. - _Chancas_, near Huanta, in department Ayacucho. - _Chichasuyus_, in the inter-Andean valley, from Loxa to Cerro - de Pasco. - _Conchucos_, near Huaraz. - _Huacrachucus_, on both banks of the gorge of the Marañon. - _Huamachucus_, on the upper Marañon. - _Huancapampas_, near Juan de Bracamoros. - _Huancas_, in the valley of Sausa. - _Huancavillcas_, on and near the river Guayaquil. - _Huanucus_, near Tiahuanuco. - _Incas_, between Rio Apurimac and Paucartambo. - _Iquichanos_, near Huanta. - _Kechuas_, from Lake Apurimac to the Pampas. - _Lamanos_ or _Lamistas_, about Truxillo. - _Malabas_, on Rio San Miguel (a branch of the Esmeraldas). - _Mantas_, on the coast north of the Gulf of Guayaquil. - _Morochucos_, in the department of Ayacucho. - _Omapachas_, adjacent to the Rucanas. - _Quitus_, near Quito. - _Rucanas_, near the coast, about lat. 15°. - _Yauyos_, near Cañete.[304] - - -_2. The Aymaras._ - -I have thought it best to treat of the Aymara as a distinct linguistic -stock, although the evidence is steadily accumulating that it is, if not -merely a dialect of the Kechua, then a jargon made up of the Kechua and -other stocks. In the first place, the name “Aymara” appears to have been -a misnomer, or, as Markham strongly puts it, a “deplorable blunder,” of -the Jesuit missionaries stationed at Juli.[305] The true Aymaras were -an unimportant _ayllu_ or gens of the Kechuas, and lived in the valley -of the Abancay, hundreds of miles from Juli. A number of them had been -transported to Juli to work in the mines, and there had intermarried -with women of the Colla and Lupaca tribes, native to that locality. The -corrupt dialect of the children of these Aymara colonists was that to -which the Jesuit, Ludovico Bertonio, gave the name Aymara, and in it, -Markham claims, he wrote his grammar and dictionary.[306] - -Its grammar and phonetics are closely analogous to those of the southern -Kechua dialects, and about one-fourth of its vocabulary is clearly -traceable to Kechua radicals. Moreover, the Colla, Lupaca, Pacasa and -allied dialects of that region are considered by various authorities as -derived from the Kechua. For these reasons, Markham, Von Tschudi, and -later, Professor Steinthal, have pronounced in favor of the opinion that -the so-called Aymara is a member of the Kechua linguistic stock.[307] - -On the other hand, the decided majority of its radicals have no affinity -with Kechua, and betray a preponderating influence of some other stock. -What this may have been must be left for future investigation. It does -not seem to have been the Puquina; for although that tongue borrowed from -both the Aymara and the pure Kechua dialects, its numerals indicate a -stock radically apart from either of them. - -The Aymara was spoken with the greatest purity and precision by the -Pacasas; and next to these, by the Lupacas; and it was especially on -these two dialects that Bertonio founded his Grammar, and not upon the -mongrel dialect of the imported laborers, as Markham would have us -believe.[308] - -The physical traits of the Aymara Indians offer some peculiarities. These -consist mainly in an unusual length of the trunk in proportion to the -height, in a surprising development of the chest, and short extremities. -The proportion of the thigh to the leg in length is under the average. -The leg and calf are well developed, and the general muscular force good. -The hands and feet are smaller even than is common in the American race. -The skull has a tendency to dolichocephaly.[309] The unusual thoracic -development is plainly attributable to the tenuity of the atmosphere -breathed by these residents of heights varying from 4,000 to 17,000 feet -above sea level. Making allowances for the results of this exposure, they -do not differ materially from the general physical habits of the Kechuas. - -The location they occupied was generally to the south and east of the -Kechuas, upon the plateau and western slopes of the Andes, from south -latitude 15° to 20°, and through about six degrees of longitude. It may -be said roughly to have been three hundred miles from north to south, -and four hundred from east to west. The total native population of this -area to-day is about six hundred thousand, two-thirds of whom are of pure -blood, and the remainder mixed. Some of them dwell along the sea coast, -but the majority are on the Bolivian plateau, the average altitude of -which is more than twelve thousand feet above sea level. - -The old writers furnish us very little information about the Aymaras. At -the time of the discovery they were subject to the Kechuas and had long -been thus dependent. Many, however, believe that they were the creators -or inspirers of the civilization which the Kechuas extended so widely -over the western coast. Certain it is that the traditions of the latter -relate that their first king and the founder of their higher culture, -Manco Capac, journeyed northward from his home on the shores of Lake -Titicaca, which was situated in Aymara territory. From the white foam of -this inland sea rose the Kechua culture-hero Viracocha, who brought them -the knowledge of useful arts and the mysteries of their cult. - -On the cold plain, higher than the summit of the Jungfrau, which borders -this elevated sea are also found the enigmatical ruins of Tiahuanuco, -much the most remarkable of any in America. They are the remains of -imposing edifices of stone, the cyclopean blocks polished and adjusted -so nicely one to the other that a knife-blade cannot be inserted in -the joint.[310] In architectural character they differ widely from the -remains of Incarian structures. The walls are decorated with bas-reliefs, -there are remains of columns, the doors have parallel and not sloping -sides, all angles are right angles, and large statues in basalt were -part of the ornamentation. In these respects we recognize a different -inspiration from that which governed the architecture of the Kechuas.[311] - -No tradition records the builders of these strange structures. No one -occupied them at the time of the conquest. When first heard of, they -were lonely ruins as they are to-day, whose designers and whose purposes -were alike unknown. The sepulchral structures of the Aymaras also -differed from those of the Incas. They were not underground vaults, but -stone structures erected on the surface, with small doors through which -the corpse was placed in the tomb. They were called _chulpas_, and in -construction resembled the _tolas_ of the Quitus. Sometimes they are in -large groups, as the _Pataca Chulpa_, “field of a hundred tombs,” in the -province of Carancas.[312] - -AYMARA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Canas_, in the Sierra of the province so-called, east of Cuzco. - _Canchis_, in the lowlands of the province of Canas. - _Carancas_, south of Lake Titicaca. - _Charcas_, between Lakes Aullaga and Paria. - _Collas_, or _Collaguas_, north of Lake Titicaca. - _Lupacas_, west of Lake Titicaca, extending to Rio Desaguadero. - _Pacasas_, occupied the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca. - _Quillaguas_, on part of the southern shore of Lake Titicaca. - - -_3. The Puquinas._ - -The Puquinas are also known under the names Urus or Uros, Hunos and -Ochozomas. They formerly lived on the islands and shores of Lake -Titicaca, in the neighborhood of Pucarini, and in several villages of -the diocese of Lima. Oliva avers that some of them were found on the -coast near Lambayeque.[313] If this is correct, they had doubtless been -transported there by either the Incas or the Spanish authorities. They -are uniformly spoken of as low in culture, shy of strangers and dull -in intelligence. Acosta pretends that they were so brutish that they -did not claim to be men.[314] Garcilasso de la Vega calls them rude -and stupid.[315] Alcedo, writing in the latter half of the eighteenth -century, states that those on the islands had, against their will, been -removed to the mainland, where they dwelt in gloomy caves and in holes in -the ground covered with reeds, and depended on fishing for a subsistence. - -They are alleged to have been jealous about their language, and unwilling -for any stranger to learn it. Their religious exercises were conducted -in Kechua, with which they were all more or less acquainted. The only -specimen of their tongue in modern treatises is the Lord’s Prayer, -printed by Hervas and copied by Adelung.[316] On it Hervas based the -opinion that the Puquina was an independent stock. The editors of the -“Mithridates” seemed to incline to the belief that it was related to the -Aymara, and this opinion was fully adopted by Clement L. Markham, who -pronounced it “a very rude dialect of the Lupaca,”[317] in which he was -followed by the learned Von Tschudi.[318] - -None of these authorities had other material than the _Pater Noster_ -referred to. Hervas credits it to a work of the missionary Geronimo de -Ore, which it is evident that neither he nor any of the other writers -named had ever seen, as they all speak of the specimen as the only -printed example of the tongue. This work is the _Rituale seu Manuale -Peruanum_, published at Naples in 1607. It contains about thirty pages in -the Puquina tongue, with translations into Aymara, Kechua, Spanish and -Latin, and thus forms a mine of material for the student. Though rare, a -copy of it is in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, and is thus readily -accessible. I have published a number of extracts from its Puquina -renderings in the _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_ -for 1890. They are sufficient to show that while this language borrowed -many terms, especially those referring to religion and culture, from the -neighboring Kechua and Aymara dialects, these were but additions to a -primitive stock fundamentally different from either of them. - -The dissimilarity of the three tongues is well seen in their numerals, -which are as follows: - - KECHUA. AYMARA. PUQUINA. - One, _huc_, _mayni_, _pesc_. - Two, _iscay_, _pani_, _so_. - Three, _quimsa_, _quimsa_, _capa_. - Four, _tahua_, _pusi_, _sper_. - Five, _pichka_, _pisca_, _tacpa_. - Six, _soccta_, _chocta_, _chichun_. - Seven, _canchis_, _pa-callco_, _stu_. - Eight, _pusacc_, _quimsa-callco_, _quina_. - Nine, _iscon_, _llalla-tunca_, _checa_. - Ten, _chunca_, _tunca_, _scata_. - -In these lists the Aymara numerals, _one_, _two_ and _four_ are -independent; _three_, _five_, _six_ and _ten_ are taken from the -Kechua; and the remaining three are compound, _pa-callco_, being 2+5; -_quimsa-callco_, 3+5; and _llalla-tunca_ meaning “less than ten.” -_Callco_ is derived from the word for “foot,” the counting being with the -toes. On the other hand, there is not a single numeral in the Puquina -which can be derived from either Kechua or Aymara; and what is more -remarkable, there is apparently not one which is compounded. - -It remains puzzling to me why the Puquina, which seems to have been -spoken only by a few wretched villagers about Lake Titicaca, should have -been classed by writers in the sixteenth century as one of the _lenguas -generales_ of Peru. Not only does Ore refer to it by this term, but in -one of the official _Relaciones Geograficas_ written in 1582, it is -mentioned as “one of the three general languages of this kingdom.”[319] -This would seem to indicate that at that period it had a wider extension -than we can now trace. - - -_4. The Yuncas._ - -The Yuncas occupied the hot valleys near the sea between south latitude -5° and 10°, their capital being in the vicinity of the present city -of Truxillo. Their tongue belongs to an entirely different stock from -the Kechua, and was not influenced by it. It still survives in a few -sequestered valleys. The extreme difficulty of its phonetics aided to -prevent its extension.[320] - -There is little doubt but that the Yuncas immigrated to their locality at -some not very distant period before the conquest. According to their own -traditions their ancestors journeyed down the coast in their canoes from -a home to the north, until they reached the port of Truxillo.[321] Here -they settled and in later years constructed the enormous palace known -as the _Gran Chimu_, whose massive brick walls, spacious terraces, vast -galleries and fronts decorated with bas-reliefs and rich frescoes, are -still the wonder and admiration of travelers.[322] - -Near by, in the valley of Chicama and vicinity, they constructed -capacious reservoirs and canals for irrigation which watered their -well-tilled fields, and were so solidly constructed that some of -them have been utilized by enterprising planters in this generation. -Doubtless some of these were the work of the Incas after their conquest -of this valley by the Inca Pachacutec, as is related by Garcilasso de -la Vega,[323] but the fact that the Chimus were even before that date -famed for their expertness in the working of metals and the fashioning of -jewels and vases in silver and gold,[324] proves that they did not owe -their culture to the instruction of the Quichuas. - -The term _yunca-cuna_ is a generic one in the Kechua language, and means -simply “dwellers in the warm country,” the _tierra caliente_, near the -sea coast. It was more particularly applied to the Chimus near Truxillo, -but included a number of other tribes, all of whom, it is said, spoke -related dialects. Of the list which I append we are sure of the Mochicas -or Chinchas, as the Yunca portion of Geronimo de Ore’s work is in this -dialect;[325] of the Estenes, Bastian has printed quite a full vocabulary -which is nearly identical with the Yunca of Carrera;[326] Mr. Spruce -obtained in 1863 a vocabulary of forty words from the Sechuras, proving -them to belong to this stock;[327] but the dialects of the Colanes and -Catacoas are said by the same authority to be now extinct. According to -the information obtained by the Abbé Hervas, the “Colorados of Angamarca” -also spoke a Yunca dialect,[328] but I have been unable to identify this -particular tribe of “painted” Indians. - -The location of the stock at the conquest may be said to have been from -south lat. 4° to 10°; and to have included the three departments of -modern Peru called Ancachs, Libertad, and Piura. - -YUNCA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Catacoas_, on the upper Rio Piura. - _Chancos_, on the coast south of the Mochicas. - _Chimus_, near Truxillo. - _Chinchas_, see _Mochicas_. - _Colanes_, on Rio Chiura, north of Payta. - _Etenes_, in the valleys south of Lambayeque. - _Mochicas_, at Mochi, near Truxillo. - _Morropes_, north of Lambayeque. - _Sechuras_, on Rio Piura. - - -_5. The Atacameños and Changos._ - -In the valley of the river Loa, about 20°-23° south latitude, and in -the vicinity of Atacama, there still survive remnants of a tribe called -Atacameños by the Spaniards, but by themselves _Lican-Antais_, people -of the villages. Their language appears to be of an independent stock, -equally remote from that of the Kechuas and the Aymaras. Vocabularies -of it have been preserved by various travelers, and the outlines of its -grammar have been recently published by San-Roman.[329] From two of its -numerals and some other indications Dr. Darapsky has connected it with -the Aymara, which is also spoken in that vicinity.[330] The relationship, -however, cannot be considered established, and the latest researches tend -to sharpen the contrast between the _Cunza_, as it is sometimes called, -and the Aymara. - -The Lican-antais are fishermen and live in a condition of destitution. -The aridity of the climate is unfavorable to agriculture. In physical -habitus they are short, with dark complexions, flat broad noses and low -foreheads. - -D’Orbigny identifies the Lican-Antais with the Olipes, Lipes or Llipis -of the older writers[331] (Garcilasso, etc). This, however, is open -to doubt. Von Tschudi hazarded the opinion that the Atacameños were a -remnant of the Calchaquis of Tucuman, who had sought refuge from the -Spaniards in this remote oasis on the coast.[332] I can find no positive -support for this view, as we have no specimens of the language of the -Calchaquis. - -Immediately to the south of the Atacameños, bordering upon the sterile -sands of the desert of Atacama, between south latitude 22° and 24°, are -the _Changos_. In their country it never rains, and for food they depend -entirely on the yield of the sea, fish, crustacea and edible algae. Like -the Bushmen of the Kalihari desert, and doubtless for the same reason -of insufficient nutrition, they are undersized, as a tribe perhaps of -the shortest stature of any on the continent. The average of the males -is four feet nine inches, and very few reach five feet.[333] They are, -however, solidly built and vigorous. The color is dark, the nose straight -and the eyes horizontal. - -Nothing satisfactory is reported about their language, which is asserted -to be different from the Aymara or any other stock. The tribe has been -confounded by some writers with the Atacameños, and the Spaniards -apparently included both under the term _Changos_; which is at present -used as a term of depreciation. But both in location and appearance they -are diverse. Whether this extends also to language, as is alleged, I have -not the material to determine, and probably the tongue is extinct.[334] - - - - -II. THE SOUTH ATLANTIC GROUP. - - -1. THE AMAZONIAN REGION. - -Those two mighty rivers, the Amazon and the Orinoco, belong to one -hydrographic system, the upper affluents of the latter pouring -their waters for six months of the year into the majestic expanse -of the former. Together they drain over three million square miles -of land,[335] clothed throughout with lush tropical vegetation and -seamed by innumerable streams, offering natural and facile paths of -intercommunication. It is not surprising, therefore, that we find -linguistic stocks extended most widely over this vast area, each counting -numerous members. Of them the most widely disseminated were the Tupi, the -Tapuya, the Carib and the Arawak families, and to these I shall first -give attention. - - -_1. The Tupis._ - -Along the coast of Brazil and up the Amazon there is current a more -or less corrupted native tongue called the “common language,” _lingua -geral_. It is derived mainly from the idiom of the Tupis, whose villages -were found by the first discoverers along the seaboard, from the mouth of -the La Plata to the Amazon and far up the stream of the latter. According -to their traditions, which are supported by a comparison of their -dialects, the Tupis wandered up the coast from the south. Their earlier -home was between the Parana river and the Atlantic. There they called -themselves _Carai_, the astute, a term they afterwards applied to the -Spaniards, but later were given the name _Guaranis_, meaning warriors, -by which they are generally known. They must have been very numerous, as -a careful estimate made in 1612 computed those then living in the modern -states of Corrientes and Uruguay at 365,000; a census which could not -have been much exaggerated, as about a century later the Jesuits claimed -to have over three hundred thousand Christianized and living in their -“reductions;”[336] even to-day ninety per cent. of the population of -Uruguay have Guarani blood in their veins. - -The inroads of the Spaniards from the south and of the kidnapping -Portuguese from the east, reduced their number greatly, and many bands -sought safety in distant removals; thus the Chiriguanos moved far to the -west and settled on the highlands of Bolivia, where they have increased -their stock from four or five thousand to triple that number,[337] -extending as far south as the Pilcomayo river. On the upper waters of -the Parana were the Tapes, a nation so called from the name of their -principal village. It is another form of Tupi, and means “town.” They -received the early missionaries willingly, and are complimented by these -as being the most docile and intelligent of any of the nations of South -America.[338] - -The Tupi tribes did not extend north of the immediate banks of the -Amazon, nor south of the Rio de la Plata. It would appear not improbable -that they started from the central highlands where the Tapajoz on the -north and the Paraguay on the south have their sources. Their main body -followed the latter to the Atlantic, where the Tupis proper separated and -moved up the coast of Brazil. This latter migration is believed to have -been as late as a few hundred years before the discovery.[339] - -Like the Tapuyas, the Tupis have a tendency to dolicocephaly, but it -is less pronounced. They are less prognathic, the forehead is fuller -and the color of the skin brighter. The hair is generally straight, but -Pöppig saw many among the Cocamas of pure blood with wavy and even curly -hair.[340] - -I have no hesitation in including in the Tupi family the Mundurucus, or -Paris, on the upper Tapajoz. Their relationship was fully recognized -by Professor Hartt, who was well acquainted with both dialects.[341] -They are a superior stamp of men, tall, of athletic figures, light in -color, their naked bodies artistically tattooed. Their women are skilled -in weaving cotton hammocks, and the men pursue some agriculture, and -manufacture handsome feather ornaments. - -To the same family belong the Muras and Turas, in the swampy valley of -the Madeira in its middle course, “an amphibious race of ichthyophagi,” -as they are called by Martius, savage and hostile, and depraved by -the use of the _parica_, a narcotic, intoxicating snuff prepared from -the dried seeds of the _Mimosa acacioides_. At the beginning of this -century they were estimated at 12,000 bowmen; but this was doubtless -a great exaggeration. Though their dialect differs widely from the -_lingua geral_, the majority of their words are from Tupi roots.[342] -Others are related to the language of the Moxos, and in the last century -certain of their tribes lived in the immediate vicinity of these, and -were brought into the “reductions” of the Moxos Indians by the Jesuit -missionaries.[343] The tendency of their migrations has been down the -Madeira. - -The tribes of this lineage in the extreme south of Brazil were numerous. -The Guachaguis, corresponding apparently to the modern Guachis, are -said by Lozano to speak a corrupt Guarani.[344] Vocabularies have -been obtained by Castelnau and Natterer, which indicate only a remote -resemblance. According to their own tradition, they migrated from near -the Moxos in the Bolivian highlands. - -The Gualachos, who spread from the river Iguaza to the sea coast, spoke -a Guarani dialect in which the sounds of _f_, _j_ and _l_ were present, -which, in pure Guarani, are absent. They built thatched houses divided -into several rooms, and raised abundant harvests.[345] - -The Omaguas and Cocamas, the most western of the Tupis, dwelling within -the limits of Ecuador, had evidently profited by their contiguity to -the civilization of Peru, as they are described by early travelers as -familiar with gold, silver and copper, living in permanent villages -connected by good roads, and cultivating large fields of cotton, maize -and various food-plants. The art-forms which they produced and the -prevalence of sun-worship, with rites similar to those of Peru, indicate -the source of their more advanced culture. By some authors the Omaguas -are stated to have migrated down the Rio Yupura from Popayan in New -Granada, where a tribe speaking their dialect, the Mesayas are alleged -still to reside.[346] The peculiar “mitred” skulls of the Omaguas are an -artificial deformity prized by them as a beauty. - -The Tupi is rich in mythological tales which have been collected by -several competent students of their tongue. (Hartt, Magalhaes, etc.) -Their religion is a simple animistic nature-worship. - -The dead were buried in large urns, usually in localities set aside for -the purpose. One such on the island Maraho, near the mouth of the Amazon, -has yielded a rich harvest to archæologists. - -The general culture of the Tupis was superior to that of any other -Brazilian tribes, but much inferior to that of the Incas. They were to -a slight extent agricultural, raising maize, manioc, tobacco, which -they smoked in pipes, and several vegetables. Some fowls, monkeys and -peccaries were tamed and used as food. Their houses were of straw, -lattice work and leaves, sometimes plastered with mud. The communal -system prevailed, twenty or thirty families occupying one residence. -A number of such houses would be erected on some favorable site and -surrounded by a palisade of strong poles. These towns were, however, not -permanent, and nearly half the year was spent in hunting and fishing -expeditions along the streams. They went entirely naked, but wove -excellent hammocks from the bark of trees and other vegetable fibres. -Devoid of a knowledge of metals, they were in the height of the age of -polished stone, many of their products in this direction being celebrated -for symmetry and delicacy.[347] The art of the potter was also well -developed, and the vases from the Amazon, called _igasauas_, rank both -in symmetry, decoration and fine workmanship among the most creditable -specimens of American ceramics. - -The language which characterizes this widely distributed stock is -polysynthetic and incorporating, with the flexibility peculiar to this -class of tongues. It has been the subject of a number of works, but -still lacks a thorough comparative treatment. The Jesuit missionaries -adopted the Guarani dialect throughout their extensive “reductions,” -and translated into it a variety of works for the instruction of their -acolytes, some of which have been printed. - -TUPI LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Ababas_, in Bolivia. - _Amazonas_, on lower Amazon. - _Anambes_, on Rio Tocantins. - _Apiacas_, near Rio Arinos and upper Tapajoz. - _Araguagus_, on lower Paru. - _Bororos_, near Rio Paraguay. - _Camaguras_, in province Matogrosso. - _Cambevas_, see _Omaguas_. - _Cambocas_, mouth of Rio Tocantin. - _Caracatas_, on upper Uruguay and Parana. - _Cayovas_, on Rio Tapajoz. - _Chaneses_, in Bolivia. - _Chiriguanos_, in Bolivia. - _Chogurus_, on Rio Pajehu. - _Cocamas_, near Rio Nauta (upper Amazon) and Rio Ucayali. - _Cocamillas_, near the Cocamas. - _Cuchiuaras_, on Rio Tocantins. - _Guaranis_, in Uruguay. - _Guarayos_, in Bolivia. - _Guayanas_, in Uruguay. - _Gujajaras_, on Rio Maranhao. - _Jacundas_, on Rio Tocantins. - _Jamudas_, in province Pará. - _Maues_, on the Amazon. - _Mbeguas_, on Rio Parana. - _Manitsauas_, on upper Schingu. - _Mitandues_, near Rio Tapajoz. - _Mundurucus_, on Rio Tapajoz. - _Muras_, on Rio Madeira. - _Omaguas_, on lower Iça. - _Oyampis_, on upper Oyapok. - _Pacajas_, on lower Amazon. - _Parentintims_, in province Amazonas. - _Paris_, see _Mundurucus_. - _Piturunas_, on Rio Curitiba. - _Sirionos_, on Rio Paray, Bolivia. - _Tamoyos_, near San Vincente, Brazil (extinct). - _Tapaunas_, on Rio Tocantins. - _Tapirapes_, in province Goyaz. - _Tapes_, on Rio Uruguay. - _Turas_, on lower Rio Madeira. - _Uyapas_, on Rio Arinos. - _Yurunas_, on Rio Schingu, from 4° to 8°. - - -_2. The Tapuyas._ - -The _Tapuya_ stock is at once the most ancient and the most extensive -now living on the soil of Brazil. Its various tribes are found from s. -lat. 5° to s. lat. 20°, and from the Atlantic to the Schingu river. The -name _Tapuya_ was applied to them by the Tupis, and means “enemies” or -“strangers”--two ideas which are always synonymous in primitive life. -They are also called _Crens_ or _Guerens_, the Old Ones or Ancient -People. This seems to have reference to their possession of the coast -before the arrival of the Tupi hordes from the south. - -By some writers they are believed to have been the earliest constructors -of the _sambaquis_, the shell-heaps or kitchen-middens, which are of -great size and numerous, along the Atlantic and its bays. These are -supposed to indicate an antiquity of 2,000 years;[348] but the Tapuyas -can lay claim to a title to their land far older than that. The skulls -and human bones which were discovered by Dr. Lund in the caves of Lagoa -Santa in immediate juxtaposition to those of animals now extinct, came -from a region occupied by the Tapuyas, and are in all respects parallel -to those of the tribe to-day. This would assign them a residence on the -spot far back in the present geologic period. - -Their appearance is that of an antique race of men. They are of middle -height, with long upper and short lower extremities. The face is -broad, the eyes small and under prominent ridges, the forehead low and -retreating; the sutures are simple, the face prognathic, and the skull -decidedly dolichocephalic (73), but of good capacity (1470 cub. cent.), -and leptorhinic; the mouth is large and the nose prominent. In color they -present a variety of shades of reddish-brown, and their hair, which is -coarse, verges rather on the dark-brown than the black.[349] They are not -ugly, and the expression of the face, especially in the young, is often -attractive. Those of them, however, who distend the lower lip with the -large labret or _botoque_ (from which the _Botocudos_ derive their name), -cannot be other than hideous to European eyes. - -In culture the Tapuyas are reported to stand on the lowest scale. When -free in their native woods they go absolutely naked; they have no other -houses than temporary shelters of leaves and branches; they manufacture -no pottery, build no canoes, and do not know how to swim. When first -in contact with the whites they had no dogs, knew nothing of the use -of tobacco or salt, and were common cannibals. They have no tribal -organizations and no definite religious rites. - -To counterbalance all these negatives, I hasten to add that they -are hunters of singular skill, using strong bows with long arrows, -manufacture polished stone axes and weave baskets of reeds, and, what -is rare among the Indians, use tapers made from wild bees-wax and bark -fibre.[350] Their marriages are monogamous, though rarely permanent, and -they are not devoid of family affection.[351] Though lacking definite -religious ideas, they are careful to bury the dead, and have a belief -that the spirit of the departed survives and wanders about at night, for -which reason they are loth to move in the dark. The soul of a chief may -take the form of a jaguar. During a thunder storm they shake a burning -brand and shoot arrows toward the sky, to appease by imitation the powers -of the storm; and they are much given to semi-religious dances, in which -their motions are to the sound of a native flute, which is played with -the nose.[352] - -Their language is difficult in its phonetics, and presents a contrast to -most American tongues by its tendency toward the isolating form, with -slight agglutination. A carefully prepared vocabulary of it has recently -been published by Dr. Paul Ehrenreich,[353] whose studies on this stock -have been peculiarly valuable. - -TAPUYA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Apina-gês_, north of Rio Tocantins. - _Aponegi-crens_, in south of province Maranhao. - _Acroas_, near Rio Tocantins. - _Aimores_, see _Botocudos_. - _Botocudos_, in Sierra dos Aimures. - _Carahos_, on Rio Tocantins. - _Camacans_, near Rio Pardo. - _Cayapos_, north of Rio Pardo. - _Chavantes_, near Rio Maranhao. - _Cherentes_, near Rio Tocantins. - _Chicriabas_, near Rio de San Francisco. - _Coretus_, on Rio Yupura. - _Cotoxos_, near Rio Doce. - _Cumanachos_, in province Goyaz. - _Crens_, see _Botocudos_. - _Gês_, in province Goyaz. - _Goyotacas_, in province Goyaz (see below). - _Malalalis_, near Rio Doce. - _Malalis_, in province Goyaz. - _Masacaras_, in province Goyaz. - _Pancas_, on Rio das Pancas. - _Potés_ (_Poton_), on upper Mucuri. - _Puris_, near Rio Paraiba. - _Suyas_, on upper Schingu. - -The Goyotacas in the province of Goyaz and the regions adjacent include -a large number of tribes which Von Martius has shown to have sufficient -linguistic affinity among themselves to unite in one group, and -connections enough with the Tapuya stem to be regarded as one of its -sub-stocks.[354] - -GOYOTACA SUB-STOCK. - - _Capochos_, in the sierra between Minas Geraes and Porto Seguro. - _Coropos_, on the Rio da Pomba. - _Cumanachos_, adjacent to the Capochos. - _Machacalis_, on and near Rio Mucury. - _Macunis_, between Minas Geraes and Porto Seguro. - _Monoxos_, adjacent to the Macunis. - _Panhames_, on head-waters of Rio Mucury. - _Patachos_, on head-waters of Rio de Porto Seguro. - -Another group believed by Martius to be a mixed off-shoot of the Tapuya -family belong to what I may call the - -TUCANO SUB-STOCK. - - _Cobeus_, on Rio Uaupes. - _Dace_, on Rio Uaupes. - _Jupua_, on upper Yupura. - _Jauna_, on Rio Uaupes. - _Tucano_, on Rio Uaupes. - -All these tribes are found in the vicinity of the river Uaupes, and are -distinguished by three vertical lines tattooed or incised on the cheeks. -They take their name, as do some other Brazilian tribes not related to -them, from the beautiful toucan bird, which is frequently held sacred -among them, and is sometimes chosen as the totem of a gens. - -I also attach to this stock the Carnijos or Fornio, a vocabulary of whose -language has been published by Professor John C. Branner, and which -hitherto has not been identified.[355] The following comparison between -it and the Tapuya dialects will show the affinity: - - CARNIJOS. TAPUYA. - Fire, _tŏch_, _tiaköh_. - Eye, _i-to_, _ainthó_, _kitho_. - Nose, _d-ereta_, _d’asigri_. - Tooth, _i-axi_, _aiquá_, _daguoi_. - - -_3. The Arawaks._ - -The Arawak stock of languages is the most widely disseminated of any in -South America. It begins at the south with the Guanas, on the head-waters -of the river Paraguay, and with the Baures and Moxos on the highlands of -southern Bolivia, and thence extends almost in continuity to the Goajiros -peninsula, the most northern land of the continent. Nor did it cease -there. All the Antilles, both Greater and Less, were originally occupied -by its members, and so were the Bahama Islands,[356] thus extending its -dialects to within a short distance of the mainland of the northern -continent, and over forty-five degrees of latitude. Its tribes probably -at one time occupied the most of the lowlands of Venezuela, whence they -were driven not long before the discovery by the Caribs, as they also -were from many of the southern islands of the West Indian archipelago. -The latter event was then of such recent occurrence that the women of the -Island Caribs, most of whom had been captured from the Arawaks, still -spoke that tongue. - -They were thus the first of the natives of the New World to receive the -visitors from European climes, and the words picked up by Columbus and -his successors on the Bahamas, Cuba and Hayti, are readily explained by -the modern dialects of this stock. No other nation was found on any part -of the archipelago except the two I have mentioned. The whole of the -coast between the mouths of the Orinoco and Amazon appears to have been -in their possession at or a short time before the epoch of the discovery. - -The Antis or Campas, who perhaps occupy the original home of the -stock, own as the centre of their domain the table-land known as El -Gran Pajonal, or the Great Grass Field, bounded by the rivers Ucayali, -Pachitea and Perene. Their hue is a bistre and their habits wild; some -slight tillage is carried on, and the women spin and weave the wild -cotton into coarse garments. The taming of animals is one of their -arts, and around their huts are seen monkeys, parrots, peccaries and -tapirs.[357] It is noteworthy that some of them are skilful blacksmiths, -smelting the metal from the native ores, and working it into axes, -knives, spear points, etc., of excellent quality.[358] - -The names Campas and Antis were used as generic terms, the latter applied -to the tribes on the slopes of the Cordilleras and the former to those on -the plains. A large number of sub-tribes are named by the older writers, -the principal of which were the Choseosos, Machigangas, Pilcosumis and -Sepaunabos. The Machigangas lived on the Pilcopata and Vilcanota, and -their language has been erroneously stated by Von Tschudi to be an -independent stock.[359] The Chunchas and Cholones are by some classed -with the Campas, and they are said to have been the possessors of the -famous Cerro de Sal, or Salt Mountain, to which the neighboring tribes -repaired in great numbers to obtain supplies of this useful article. - -The Guanas are a nation who have long lived on the upper Paraguay, in -the province Mato Grosso on the river Mambaya, and vicinity. D’Orbigny -believed that they were a member of the Mataco group,[360] but they are -now recognized as belonging to the Arawak stock. They are noteworthy for -their peaceful disposition and unusual intelligence. Hervas speaks of -them as the most able nation visited by the missionaries in the whole of -America.[361] The traveler Castelnau confirmed this good opinion. He -found them living in neat houses and cultivating the land with skill and -industry. They raised not only the ordinary food plants, but cotton and -sugar cane, pressing the sap from the latter by machinery of their own -devising, and moulding the sugar into loaves. Their cotton cloth, dyed of -various colors, was highly esteemed for its texture. - -Castelnau describes them as occupying four settlements near Albuquerque -and Miranda, and comprising the Chualas or Guanas proper, the Terenos, -the Laianas, and the Quiniquinaos.[362] Later investigations have shown -that of these the Terenos and Quiniquinaos are members of the Guaycuru -stock of the Chaco, and that the Chualas and Laianas alone belong to the -true Guanas.[363] - -The _Paiconecas_ or Paunacas were attached to the mission of the -Conception in Bolivia, in 16° south latitude. They numbered about 500 -in 1831. In customs and appearance they approached the Chiquitos. Their -former home was between the sources of the Rio Blanco and Rio Verde. - -The _Saravecas_, three or four hundred in number in 1831, were attached -to the mission of Santa Anna, in Bolivia, and were its handsomest -members. Their former homes were in the eastern hills of the Cordillera, -about 16° south latitude. - -Although these are classed as irreducible stocks by D’Orbigny and others -who have followed him, they are both clearly branches of the Arawak -stem, as will be seen by a brief comparison.[364] - - PAICONECA. SARAVECA. ARAWAK STOCK. - Sun, _isese_, _caame_, _sese_, _camu_. - Moon, _kejere_, _cache_, _kejeres_, _kashi_. - Fire, _chaki_, _tikai_, _yaki_, _ikii_. - Water, _ina_, _une_, _ine_, _une_. - Eye, _ihuikis_, _nol_, _nohlo_, _ikise_. - -Others could readily be added, but the above are sufficient. - -Another important tribe of this stock in this region were the Piros, -otherwise called Chuntaquiros and Simirenchis, whose home was about the -junction of the Ucayali and Apurimac, and thence along both these rivers. -The vocabularies of their tongue obtained by Castelnau and Paul Marcoy -leave no doubt of their affiliations. They were largely converted by the -Jesuits between 1683 and 1727. - -The Wapisianas, or Wapianas in British Guiana, with their sub-tribe the -Atorai (Tauri or Dauri), are stated by Im Thurn to speak a tongue wholly -different from the Arawak; but an analysis of its expression and an -extended comparison place it beyond doubt in this stock.[365] - -The Tarumas and Maopityans, who now live in southern British Guiana, -but are said to have originally come from the Rio Negro, speak related -dialects. - -They enjoy a rather high degree of culture, being celebrated for the -manufacture of cassava graters, for the hunting dogs which they breed and -train, and for the fine pottery they manufacture. Both Schomburgk and Im -Thurn regard them as an independent stock; but from a comparison of the -fifteen nouns given by the former in their language,[366] I infer that -they are an Arawak tribe, speaking a dialect mixed with some Carib and -Tupi words, and with frequent vowel elision. - - TARUMA. - Sun, _ouang_, (_auvan-ialü_, Paravilhana). - Moon, _piwa_, (_pia_, Baniva, _piua_, Ouayéoué). - Fire, _hua_, (_hua-to_, Carib). - Water, _tza_, (_tuná_, Carib). - Head, my, _a-tta_, (_no-totia_, Baré). - Eye, my, _a-tzi_, (_a-kussi_, Arawak). - Mouth, _me-ruku-kanna_, (_ülle-rukuhu_, Arawak). - Nose, _assa_, (_issi-rihi_, Arawak). - Hand, _ahu_, (_kx-aua_, Bakairi). - Foot, _appa_, (_upu_, Galibi). - Bow, _tzeika_, (_takou_, Carib). - Star, _uingra_, (_uinari_, Baré). - -This comparison leaves little doubt but that this mixed dialect is -chiefly of Arawak lineage. - -The Arawaks wandered as far east as the upper Schingu river, where Von -den Steinen found the Kustenau, a distant member of the stem, with -various minor tribes, as the Vauras, Mehinacus, etc. Along the river -Ventuari the populous tribe of the Maipures have taken a conspicuous -place in the annals of the missions. Indeed, the whole stock is sometimes -called by their name;[367] but it is well to retain the better known -_Arawak_, which is the appellation of that portion of the tribe in Guiana -between the Corentin and Pomeroon rivers. It means “meal-eaters,” and was -first applied to them in derision on account of their large consumption -of cassava bread. - -There is a prevailing similarity in their physical type. The adults are -slightly undersized, rarely reaching above five feet six inches, with -low foreheads and straight narrow noses. The form of the skull is short -and the jaws are not protruding--orthognathic and brachycephalic.[368] -The physical force averages less than that of the European, and there is -decidedly less power of resisting disease.[369] The Jesuit Eder mentions -a peculiarity among the Peruvian Arawaks, (Moxos, Baures). It is that the -end of the little finger does not reach to the last joint of the third -finger. The absence of this peculiarity he states will reveal a mixture -of Spanish blood to the third generation.[370] It would be interesting -to learn how widely this is noticeable. - -The culture of the Arawak stock was generally somewhat above the stage -of savagery. On the West Indian islands Columbus found them cultivating -maize, potatoes, manioc, yams and cotton. They were the first to -introduce to Europeans the wondrous art of tobacco smoking. They wove -cotton into garments, and were skilful in polishing stone. They hammered -the native gold into ornaments, carved curious masks of wood, blocked -rude idols out of large stones, and hollowed the trunks of trees to -construct what they called _canoes_. - -Such is approximately the culture of the existing tribes of the stock. -The Arawaks of Guiana also raise cassava and maize, though they depend -largely on hunting and fishing. Like the northern tribes, they have -well-developed gentile or totemic systems, with descent in the female -line.[371] Marriages are by purchase, and the strange custom of the -_couvade_ obtains; that is, at the period of parturition the husband -takes to his hammock, and is waited on as if he was the sick one. Their -houses are usually single, not communal, and are furnished with swinging -hammocks, mats, basket-work and pottery. - -The Haytian mythology was quite extensive, and the legends of the Arawaks -of Guiana have been collected, and are also rich. In all the tribes the -dead were generally buried, and often the house of the deceased was -destroyed or the spot deserted. - -ARAWAK LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Amarapas_, in British Guiana. - _Antis_ or _Campas_, on Rio Apurimac. - _Araicus_, on Rio Jatahy. - _Arawaks_, on coast of Guiana. - _Atorais_, on the upper Essequibo. - _Banivas_, on Rio Atahuapo and Rio Içauna. - _Barés_, on Rio Negro. - _Baures_, on Rio de los Baures. - _Campas_, see _Antis_. - _Canamirim_, on Rio Jurua. - _Cariayos_, on Rio Negro. - _Cauixanas_, on Rio Jupura. - _Chontaquiros_, see _Piros_. - _Goajiros_, on Goajira peninsula. - _Guanas_, on Rio Paraguay. - _Guinaus_, on upper Orinoco. - _Haitians_, on island of Hayti. - _Jabaanas_, on Rio Marauia. - _Jucunas_, on Rio Jupura. - _Jumanas_, near Rio Jupura. - _Juris_, on Rio Solimoes. - _Kustenaus_, on Rio Schingu. - _Manaos_, near Rio Negro. - _Manatenerys_, on Rio Purus. - _Manivas_, see _Banivas_. - _Maipures_, on Rios Ventuari and Orinoco. - _Maranhos_, on Rio Jatahy. - _Mariates_, on Rio Iza. - _Mawakwas_, on upper Orinoco. - _Moxos_, on head-waters of Rio Mamore. - _Paiconecas_, on Rio Blanco. - _Pareni_, on Rio Orinoco. - _Parisis_, in province Mato Grosso. - _Passés_, on lower Jupura. - _Piapocos_, on Rio Guaviare. - _Piros_, on Rio Ucayali. - _Saravecas_, near Santa Ana, Bolivia. - _Simirenchis_, see _Piros_. - _Tainos_, see _Haitians_. - _Tarianas_, on Rio Negro. - _Tarumas_, in British and Dutch Guiana. - _Uainambeus_, on Rio Jupura. - _Uainumas_, on Rio Jupura. - _Uirinas_, on Rio Marari. - _Wapisianas_, in Guiana. - _West Indians_, on Bahamas and Antilles. - _Yuris_, see _Juris_. - -The Barés are now found along the banks of the Casaquiare and the -Guainia, the Felipe, the Atabapo and some portions of the Rio Negro. -They belong to the Arawak stock, their dialect being related to those of -the Banivas and Maipures. About the middle of this century the traveller -Richard Spruce found them in the regions assigned by Gilii to other -tribes, indicating a displacement of the population. He collected a -number of vocabularies, offering sufficient evidence in his opinion to -establish the relationship of the following bands:[372] - -BARÉ FAMILY OF THE ARAWAK STOCK. - - _Barés_, or _Barrés_, on Rio Negro, etc. - _Cunipusanas_, on Rio Casaquiare. - _Guariquenas_, on Rio Casaquiare. - _Jabaanas_, on Rio Pacimoni. - _Mandauacas_, on Rio Casaquiare and Siapa. - _Masacas_, on Rio Masaca and Siapa. - _Pacimonarias_, on Rio Casaquiare. - _Tarianas_, on Rio Yupura. - -To these I would add the Uirinas of the Rio Marari, on the strength of a -vocabulary collected by Natterer. - - -_4. The Caribs._ - -The Carib stock is one of the most extensively distributed in the -southern continent. At the discovery its dialects were found on the -Lesser Antilles, the Caribby Islands, and on the mainland from the -mouth of the Essequibo River to the Gulf of Maracaibo. West of the -latter it did not reach the coast, nor has any positive traces of its -introduction above the straits of Panama earlier than the conquest been -found, in spite of frequent assertions to the contrary. Inland from the -Arawaks on the shore of Guiana are a number of Carib tribes, as the -Macusi and Woyawoi, so numerous that this region has been thought by -some to have been the original home of the stock; but the discovery by -Dr. Karl von den Steinen of a tribe, the Bakairi, on the head-waters -of the Schingu River, speaking a very pure form of the language,[373] -and the recognition of the Carib affinities of the Palmellas on the -Rio dos Baures, throw another light on the trend of Carib migrations, -strongly supported by a series of other considerations. Thus, it has -been satisfactorily shown by Im Thurn that the Caribs in Guiana wandered -thither from the Orinoco district, some inland and some along the coast, -and probably from the large islands adjacent to the coasts.[374] - -These islands in turn were peopled from the mainland to the east, as -I have already shown, their earlier population having been Arawak. -All the Island, Orinoco and Guiana Caribs can thus be traced back to -the mainland of northern Venezuela. In this vicinity was spoken the -Cumanagoto dialect, in the province of Cumana or New Andalusia. According -to the early missionaries, it was current along the coast for more than -a hundred leagues, extending into the province of Caracas and beyond. -The tribes who spoke it were the Chaymas, the Cores, the Cumanas, the -Quacas, the Parias, the Palenques, the Varrigones, and others.[375] -Other dialects to the west are the Opone and Carare, specimens of which -were obtained by Lengerke in the vicinity of Bucaramanga, province of -Santander.[376] - -The sierra which divides the head-waters of the Caura from those of the -Rio Branco and other streams flowing into the Rio Negro and Amazon, are -peopled on both slopes by wandering tribes of the Carib stock. Near the -sources of the Caura, Chaffanjon found the once formidable Guaharibos, -now naked and wretched fugitives, fearing the white far more than they -are feared by him.[377] On the southern slope, along the Rio Jauapery -and neighboring streams, are bands of Crichanas, Ipurucotos (Purigotos), -Macuchis, and Jauamerys (Waimiris), all speaking nearly related dialects -of the Carib tongue. Dr. Barboza Rodrigues has given a touching picture -of their recent struggles with the whites of the adjacent settlements, -and the miserable condition to which they are reduced. We owe to the -same sympathetic naturalist an interesting description of their customs -and language.[378] - -The hill tribes of French Guiana are known as Roucouyennes, from the -_roucou_, a vegetable coloring matter with which they paint their skins. -They exhale a peculiar odor like that of new leather, probably from -the action of the tannin in the roucou on the skin. Naturally they are -light in color, and at birth almost white.[379] Marriages of father and -daughter, or brother and sister, are not rare among them.[380] - -A connecting link between these Caribs of Guiana and the Bakairis of -the south is supplied by the Apiacas of the Rio Tocantins, who speak a -pure dialect of the stock, midway in character between those of the two -extremes named.[381] - -The Arubas, who occupied the island of that name off the coast of -Venezuela, and whose mixed descendants now speak the Papamiento jargon, -are no doubt correctly assigned to this stock by M. Pinart. They were -skillful potters, and buried their dead in large urns. The numerous -polychromatic petroglyphs they have left and their peculiar character are -especially noteworthy.[382] - -Sir Robert H. Schomburgk classifies the Carib stock in Guiana as follows, -giving a short specimen of each dialect, which differ, he says, among -themselves about as much as French and Italian.[383] - -CARIB SUB-STOCK IN GUIANA. - - _Accawai_. - _Arecuna_. - _Caribisi_. - _Guianau_. - _Macusi_. - _Maiongkong_. - _Mawakwa_. - _Pianochotto_. - _Soerigong_. - _Tiverighotto_. - _Waiyamara_. - _Woyawoi_. - -The Guaques, who live on the head-waters of the Caqueta or Yapura river, -have not been heretofore identified as Caribs; but their dialect, as -collected by Presbyter Manuel P. Albis in 1853, leaves no doubt as to -its relationship. He describes them as intelligent and kindly, but -incorrigible and dexterous thieves, skillful in the collection of wax and -the preparation of poisons. Nowhere is the couvade with its associate -superstitions more rigidly observed. No woman must be seen by men during -her catamenia, and at childbirth she must separate from the household for -three months. During all that time her husband strictly observes a diet -and seclusion.[384] - -The lower Orinoco basin was for a long time the center of distribution of -the stock; they probably had driven from it nations of Arawak lineage, -some of whom, as the Goajiros, they pushed to the west, where they were -in contact with the Carib Motilones,[385] and others to the islands and -the shores to the east. The Carijonas and Guaques on the head-waters -of the Yapura or Caqueta are now their most western hordes, and the -Pimenteiras on the Rio Paruahyba are their most eastern. We can thus -trace their scattered bands over thirty-five degrees of latitude and -thirty of longitude. The earliest center of distribution which best -satisfies all the conditions of the problem would be located in the -Bolivian highlands, not remote from that I have assigned to the Arawaks. - -The physical features of the Caribs assimilate closely to those of the -Arawaks. They are taller in the average and more vigorous, but their -skulls are equally brachycephalic and orthognathic. They are beardless, -and have the same variability in color of skin. As good specimens of the -modern Caribs we may take the tribes of Venezuela. These are spoken of as -“the strongest, handsomest and most intelligent of any of the natives in -northern South America.”[386] They are tall, straight and symmetrical, -the women not less muscular than the men. The hair is sometimes slightly -wavy, as Von den Steinen saw among the Bakairi. - -The Caribs have had a bad reputation as to culture on account of -their anthropophagous tendencies. Indeed, the word _cannibal_ is a -mispronunciation of their proper name, _Karina_. But they were quite on -a par with their neighbors, the Arawaks, and in some respects superior -to them. For instance, their canoes were larger and finer, and they had -invented the device of the sail, which seems to have been unknown to all -the other tribes on the continent. To some extent they were agricultural, -and their pottery was of superior quality. - -The beginnings of picture-writing were in use among them, and the -remarkable rock inscriptions still visible on the Orinoco and the -Essequibo are attributable to them, and were probably intended as -conjurations to the supernatural powers, similar to others which -remain in St. Vincent and other islands from the date of the Carib -occupation.[387] Their family life was not usually communal, but each -household occupied its own dwelling. In some parts, as in the deltas of -the Essequibo and Orinoco, and even on the dry savannas, their huts were -built on a substructure of piles which lifted them five or six feet from -the ground or the water, as the case might be. - -The religious rites they observed were often elaborate. Their principal -divinities are said to have been the sun, moon and earth, the latter -of which was spoken of as the mother of the race. They practiced the -_couvade_, and their priests, called _piaye_, exercised unlimited power, -and were correspondingly feared. - -It was the opinion of Von Martius that the Carib, the Tupi-Guarani and -the Arawak stocks are traceable to some very ancient common tongue. This -view is at first sight strengthened by a wide comparison of vocabularies, -but is weakened by an examination of the grammars of the three families, -especially their pronominal elements. It is probable that the three -ancestral tribes had early and close communication, but not original -identity. - -The seeming relationship has been rendered more prominent in certain -instances by free later borrowings. M. Adam has shown that some of the -northern dialects are in the condition of jargons, their grammar on the -Carib model, their words drawn from various stocks. Such are the “Island -Carib,” which is largely Arawak, and the Boni-Ouyana, described by Dr. -Crévaux.[388] - -CARIB LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Akavais_, or _Accowoios_, in southern British Guiana. - _Apalais_, on the lower Paru. - _Apiacas_, on the lower Tocantins. - _Arecunas_, on Rio Branco. - _Aricoris_, see _Yaos_. - _Bakairis_, on the Upper Schingu. - _Caribisis_, in Guiana. - _Carijonas_, head-waters of the Caqueta. - _Cariniacos_, on lower Orinoco. - _Chaimas_, in ancient province of Cumana. - _Cumanagotos_, in ancient province of Cumana. - _Galibis_, in French Guiana. - _Guaques_, on the upper Caqueta. - _Guaharibos_, on the upper Caura. - _Guayqueris_, in province of Cumana. - _Jauamerys_, on Rio Jauapery. - _Macusis_, on Rio Negro. - _Maqueritares_, on Rio Branco. - _Motilones_, near R. Zulia in Venezuela. - _Palmellas_, on Rio Paruahyba. - _Paramonas_, sub-tribe of Akavais. - _Paravilhanas_, on Rio Branco. - _Pianagotos_, on Rio Branco. - _Pimenteiras_, on Rio Paruahyba. - _Purigotos_, on Rio Jauapery. - _Roucouyennes_, in French Guiana. - _Tamanacas_, on Rio Cuccivero. - _Tiverighotto_, on Rio Branco. - _Trios_, on upper Corentyn. - _Vaiyamaras_, on Rio Branco. - _Voyavois_, on Rio Branco. - _Yaos_, in Guiana. - _Zurumutas_, sub-tribe of Macusis. - (The Orinoco sub-stock will be described later.) - - -_5. The Cariris._ - -In his enumeration of the tribes of Central Brazil, Von Martius brings -together a large number who once dwelt in the provinces of Bahia and -Pernambuco, under the general title, “the Guck or Coco stem,” so called -from the word which in many of them means “the paternal uncle.”[389] -This division has not been endorsed by later research, and it is evident -that Von Martius included several quite different stocks under this -appellation. - -Among these, the most prominent were the _Cariris_ or Kiriri. They are -now reduced to about 600 souls, but at one time were a powerful nation, -and in 1699 the Jesuit Mamiani published a grammar and other works in -their tongue.[390] They were among the more cultivated of the Brazilian -tribes, given to agriculture, skilled in dyeing and weaving cotton, -employing a primitive spindle and loom, with weapons of several kinds and -of superior finish. - -The Sabuyas, who dwell near them, speak a closely related dialect; -but further affinities have not been verified. They have, indeed, -many loan words from the Tupi, and some from the Carib stock, but the -ground-work of these tongues is different. Von den Steinen offers some -reasons for believing that they moved down the Amazon from a far western -residence.[391] - - -_6. The Coroados, Carajas and others._ - -The Coroados derive their name from the Portuguese word _coroa_, a crown, -the term “crowned” being applied to several native tribes who wore their -hair in a peculiar manner. It is not at all an ethnic designation, and I -use it to bring into relief the need of some term of greater precision. -Thus, there are the Coroados who are neighbors and linguistically related -to the Puris, dwelling on the Paruahyba river. By some they have been -included among the Tapuyas as alleged relatives of the Botocudos. But -not only is there no relationship of language, but physically they -are widely apart. The Puris-Coroados are a dark yellow brown, with -mesocephalic heads, dark brown oblique eyes, large mouths and thick -lips--nowise the type of the Botocudo. They are moreover agricultural in -habits, and farther advanced in the arts.[392] - -There are other Coroados in the extreme south of Brazil, in the province -of Rio Grande do Sul, whither they are said to have wandered from the -north. These do not appear to be Botocudos either. They have round heads, -dark brown eyes, low foreheads, and are of a light coffee color. They -are noticeable for their clean and ornamental huts, and for their skill -in hunting, in which they employ arrows five feet in length, with bone -points. They pray to certain stars as protective divinities, and like -some northern tribes, clean and preserve the bones of the dead.[393] - -The _Carajas_ belong to a stock who dwell on the affluents of the -river Araguay, in the province of Goyaz in southern Brazil. The -traveler Castelnau[394] penetrated to them, and was our earliest source -of information about them. They are wild and warlike, with a bad -reputation among their neighbors. He was told they had no religion and -no rites, but also that they were strictly monogamous and singularly -firm moralists, punishing libertinage with the death of both parties; -statements which do not accord. Their method of burial was curious. The -corpse was interred in an upright position, the head out of the ground. -An ample stock of bananas and other food was placed near it, and renewed -from time to time. This clearly indicates a belief in life after death. -The pure Carajas are markedly dolichocephalic. - -The Caraja language is known too imperfectly to permit a proper study of -its relationship. It is complex and difficult, and spoken differently by -the men and the women. From the scant material at hand I perceive lexical -relationship in some important words to the Tapuya stock,[395] but a wide -divergence in phonetics and apparently in construction. Its members are -as follows: - -CARAJA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Carajahis_, about Salinas. - _Carajas_, on the Rio Araguay. - _Chimbioas_, on the eastern affluents of lower Araguay. - _Javahais_, on upper Araguay and island of Bananal. - _Ximbioas_, see _Chimbioas_. - -A certain number of vocabularies have been obtained by travelers in -Brazil from mixed-blood tribes, who spoke dialects sometimes compounded -of several native tongues, sometimes of these mingled with Portuguese -or negro elements. Such is the dialect of the _Meniens_, who lived in -eastern Brazil near the Villa Belmonte, whose speech was a jargon of -the Tapuya and negro languages; and that of the _Cames_ in the interior -of San Paulo, who also made use of a barbarous dialect, compounded of -the African idioms of runaway slaves, and that of the Botocudos. The -Catoquina, a specimen of which was obtained by Spix from a band on the -affluent of the Jurua, and the Catoxa or Cotoxo of the Rio Parda, are -other examples.[396] - - -_7. The Orinoco Basin; Carib Sub-Stock; Salivas; Arawak Sub-Stock; -Otomacos; Guamas; Guayoas; Garuoas; Guaraunos; Betoyas; Piaroas, etc._ - -The Llanos of Venezuela coincide with the former “Territory of Caqueta,” -and embrace a region about forty thousand square miles in extent, covered -either with grass and rushes or with dense forests. In the wet season -it is a vast marsh, in the dry it is scorched by a burning sun, raising -the thermometer daily to over 100° in the shade. Yet the Llanos are but a -part of the vast upper water-shed of the northern affluents of the Amazon -and those of the Orinoco, which together drain a country larger than the -whole of France. - -This wide expanse is thinly populated with bands of savages, gaining -their subsistence chiefly from the rivers, few of them brought within -the range of civilized influences. Linguistically the majority belong to -the Arawak and the Carib stocks; but there are numbers of tribes whose -affinities are uncertain, or who are apparently of quite another lineage. -Scores of names are found in the records of the missions and on the pages -of travelers, of peoples who have disappeared or are now known by other -designations. Alexander von Humboldt named and located 186 tribes on the -Orinoco and its affluents alone; but renounced as hopeless the attempt -to give them a linguistic classification.[397] I shall not attempt to -unravel the tangled ethnography of this region farther than to mention -those tribes concerning whom specimens of language or the statements of -European visitors permit a reasonable guess as to their affinities. - -Something over a century ago, when Father Gilii wrote, largely from -personal knowledge, his description of the tribes on the Orinoco and -its affluents, he believed they could be included in nine linguistic -stocks,[398] as follows: - -1. The _Carib_ in a number of dialects, as the Tamanaca, the Paiura, the -Quiri-Quiripa, the Mapuya, the Guanero, the Guayquira, the Palenque, the -Maquiritare, the Oje, the Mucuru, and others. - -2. The _Saliva_, to which he assigned the dialects Ature, Piaroa and -Quaqua. - -3. The _Maipure_ (Arawak), in its dialects Avane, Meepure, Cavere, -Parene, Guipunave, and Chirupa. - -4. The _Otomaca_, with one dialect, the Tarapita. - -5. The _Guama_, with its dialect, the Quaquaro. - -6. The _Guayba_, related to the Chiricoa. - -7. The _Jaruri_ (_Yarura_). - -8. The _Guaraunos_. - -9. The _Aruaca_. - -This classification can stand as only approximately accurate, but it -serves as an excellent starting point. - -Beginning with the Carib stock, and basing my list on the works of -Codazzi and more recent travelers, especially Crévaux, Coudreau and -Chaffanjon, I offer the following as the tribes which may be definitely -located as its members: - -CARIB SUB-STOCK IN THE ORINOCO REGION. - - _Amarizonas_ (_Amarisanes_), near the Rio Guaviare and Rios Etari - and Ayrico. - _Arecunas_, on head-waters of the Rio Caroni. - _Ariguas_, near the Rio Tauca. - _Cabiunes_, on the Rio Apoporis. - _Carataimas_, on the Rio Cauca. - _Chaymas_, on the Rio Guarapiche. - _Cucciveros_, on the Rio Cauca. - _Cuneguaras_, on the Rio Maturin. - _Enaguas_, on the Rio Agua Branca. - _Guarives_, on the Rio Uñare. - _Maquiritares_, on the Orinoco, near Lake Carida and Rio Ventuari. - _Matanos_, on Rio Caura. - _Mucos_, on Rio Apoporis. - _Panares_, on Rio Caura. - _Parecas_, on the lower Orinoco. - _Paudacotos_, near the Rio Caura. - _Quiri-Quiripas_, on the lower Orinoco. - _Quivas_, on the Orinoco near the confluence of the Meta. - _Tamanacas_, on lower Orinoco. - _Tuapocos_, on the Rio Maturin. - _Vayamanos_, on the Rio Paragua. - _Yaos_, on the Rio de la Trinidad. - _Yocunos_, on the Rio Apoporis. - -Even when Codazzi collected his material, more than half a century ago, -the once powerful Tamanacas had entirely disappeared, and no tribe of -the name existed in the region.[399] The process of dissolution and -destruction has gone on since his day with increasing rapidity, so -that when Chaffanjon visited the Orinoco and Caura in 1884, he found -that immense and fertile region almost uninhabited, the ancient tribes -scattered and disappeared, or existing only in wretched remnants, -_misérables débris_, of their former selves.[400] The opportunity is -forever lost, therefore, to define the ethnography of this region by -original observation, and we are thrown back on the collections and -statements of former observers. - -The Maquiritares, however, still remain as one of the handsomest peoples -on the Orinoco, and remarkable for the skill with which they manufacture -canoes sixty or seventy feet long from the trunk of a single tree.[401] - -On the river Uaupes, an affluent of the Rio Negro M. Coudreau encountered -various tribes, such as the Tarianos or Javis and the Nnehengatus, of -whose tongues he obtained brief vocabularies. They indicate a distant -influence of the Carib stock, especially the latter, but they seem mixed -largely with elements from other sources.[402] They dwell adjacent to -the Tucanos, to whom I have already referred as assigned by some to the -Tapuyas. (See above, p. 240.) - -Gilii’s second group, the _Salivas_, offers difficulties. There appears -to be none of them under that name at present on the Orinoco. Chaffanjon -states that the Atures have become extinct.[403] The Piaroas survive, -but the tribe so-called to-day speak a tongue wholly unlike the Saliva, -and unconnected, apparently, with any other stock;[404] and the modern -Quaquas (Guagues) speak a dialect of the Arawak. Yet a hundred and fifty -years ago the missionaries estimated the Salivas at four thousand souls. -They lived principally on the river Cinareuco, below the Meta, and also -on the Rio Etari, where they were in contact with the Carib Amarisanes. -They are described as of a kindly and gentle disposition, well-made in -body and willing scholars of their spiritual masters. In their heathendom -they had the unique custom of disinterring the bones of their dead after -the expiration of a year, burning them, and then collecting the ashes to -mix with their drinking water.[405] Their language, which was vocalic -and nasal, has been preserved in sufficient specimens to serve for -comparison. According to Vergara y Vergara, it is still spoken on the -banks of the Meta,[406] and Hartmann includes in those who employ it, the -Quevacus and Maritzis, at the head of the Ventuari, and the Mayongcong on -the Merevari.[407] - -The Arawak stock, which Gilii calls the _Maipure_, had numerous branches -in this region. They occupied much of the Orinoco in its middle and upper -course, as well as the valleys of its affluents. Gumilla speaks of one -of its members, the Caveres, as savage and inhuman warriors, but as the -only nation which had been able to repulse the attacks of the down-river -Caribs, who were accustomed to ascend the stream in fleets of eighty to a -hundred canoes, destroying every village on its banks.[408] - -The same authority mentions the Achaguas as possessing the most agreeable -and cultured dialect, though he is in doubt whether it is strictly -related to the Maipure. This nation, quite prominent in the older annals, -still existed in the middle of this century to the number of five hundred -on the Rio Muco. They were not civilized, and practiced the customs of -polyandry and the destruction of female infants.[409] Cassani refers to -them as on the river Ele, and describes them as tattooed and painted, -with well-formed bodies and taking great pride in preserving and dressing -their magnificent hair.[410] - -From a variety of sources at my disposition I have prepared the following -list of the - -ARAWAK SUB-STOCK IN THE ORINOCO REGION. - - _Achaguas_, on Rio Ele and Rio Muco. - _Amoruas_, on Rio Vichada. - _Avanenis_, on Rio Guainia. - _Banivas_, see _Manivas_. - _Barés_, on Rios Baria and Guainia. - _Cabacabas_, between Rios Yapura and Apoporis. - _Cafuanas_, on Rio Yapura. - _Carusanas_, on the Guainia and Inirida. - _Cauiris_, right bank of Rio Guaviare. - _Caveres_ (_Cabres_), on Rio Zama and Orinoco near it. - _Chirupas_, on the Rio Zama. - _Guaripenis_, on Rio Guainia. - _Guaypunavis_ (_Guipunavis_), on Lake Inirida. - _Macuenis_, on Rio Guainia. - _Manivas_ (_Banivas_, _Manitivas_), on Rio Guaviare and Rio Negro - and their affluents. - _Maipures_, on middle Orinoco. - _Moroquenis_, on Rio Yapura. - _Mituas_, on Lake Inirida. - _Moruas_, on Rio Yapura. - _Parenes_, on middle Orinoco. - _Piapocos_, near mouth of Rio Guaviare. - _Uaupes_, on Rio Uaupes (?). - _Yaviteris_, on Rio Atabapo. - -The _Otomacos_ remain, as Gilii placed them, an independent stock, with -their single dialect, the Tarapita. The Jesuits first encountered them -in 1732, amid the forests south of the Orinoco, between the Paos and the -Jaruros. In later years they are described as a low grade of savages, -given to the eating of earth. They are also said to be monogamous, and -the women among them enjoy an unusual degree of consideration, being -permitted to take equal part in the public games.[411] Their present -locality appears to be on or near the river Meta. - -The tribes whom Gilii mentions as the _Guamas_ and Quaquaros lived on -the banks of the Rio Apure, and in his day had the reputation of “a -numerous and valorous people.”[412] They were not unacquainted with some -of the arts, and were particularly skillful in the manufacture of small -figures in terra cotta, many of which are to be picked up on the sites -of their ancient villages. Now, however, they have been smitten with -the fate of their race, and are reduced to a few miserable vagrants, -destined to disappear wholly in a few years. Their arts are lost, and -the oppression of the whites has driven from them all hopes of bettering -their condition.[413] - -Of their language I have no specimens. According to Felipe Perez, it is -related to the Omagua, and hence should be included in the Tupi stock; -but this writer is not always dependable. - -The _Guaybas_ (Guahibos) and Chiricoas dwelt originally on the broad -plains between the Casanare and Meta rivers; but a number of them were -converted in the latter half of the seventeenth century and persuaded to -come to the missions. They soon returned to their roving life. Cassani -speaks of them as of mild and friendly disposition, but incorrigible -vagabonds, “the gypsies of the Indies,” constantly migrating from place -to place.[414] They have never lost their love of the wilderness, and -it has been their salvation, for they still survive--quite a numerous -people--on the left bank of the Orinoco, from the Rio Meta to the -Vichada. They are rebellious to all attempts at civilization, and the -white man is not safe who ventures into their territory.[415] - -Humboldt, in his discussion of the tribes of the Orinoco, refers to -the Guahibos as white in color, and founds some speculations on this -fact. Their hue is indeed light, at times what may fairly be called a -dirty white; but in this respect we are assured by recent and competent -authority they do not differ from their neighbors, the Maquiritares and -Piaroas. It is not a question of descent, but of climatic surroundings -and mode of life.[416] - -The home of the _Jaruris_, Yaruras, or, as they called themselves, -Japurin, was on and near the Orinoco, between the rivers Meta and -Capanapaco. They depended on hunting and fishing, and were indolent -and averse to agriculture. They had few arts, but were friendly in -disposition, not given to drunkenness, and usually monogamous. At present -they number scarcely a hundred individuals, badly formed, afflicted with -contagious disease, and rapidly on the road to extinction. They have -lost their trait of sobriety, and a man will readily offer his wife or -daughter in exchange for a bottle of brandy. (Chaffanjon.) - -The _Guaraunos_, called by the English _Warraus_, continue to live in -considerable numbers--some say about fifteen thousand--in and near the -delta of the Orinoco. They are a thrifty, healthy people, building -their houses ingeniously upon piles to protect them from the periodical -overflows of the stream. This method of construction, however, was -adopted only when they sought as refuge marshy and lonely spots to escape -their enemies. Contrary to the statements of most travelers, those who -know them best report them as preferring dry uplands, where they make -clearings, plantations and houses with singular industry and skill. -The favorite wood used in such construction is the _temiche_ (not the -_moriche_) palm, which they call, from its magnificent fronds, “the -feathers of the sun,” _ya juji_.[417] - -Humboldt placed their number at the beginning of the century at about six -thousand, which is doubtless more correct than the later estimates. He -adds that the Guayquiries, who inhabited the peninsula of Araya and the -adjacent islands of Margarita, “admit the relationship of their language -with that of the Guaraunos.”[418] At the beginning of the last century -Gumilla found them living on the south bank of the Orinoco in a most -wretched condition and nearly annihilated by their merciless enemies, the -Caribs. It is probable, therefore, that they removed from that location -to the coast.[419] No other dialect of the tongue, so far as I know, has -been discovered, and it seems an independent stock. - -In appearance they are dark in hue, of muscular build, hair black, -abundant and very fine, noses straight and well-shaped, skull -brachycephalic, stature below medium. - -The _Aruaca_ mentioned by Gilii were some tribes of the Arawaks who -occasionally visited the southern bank of the Orinoco, and whose -relations to the Maypures were not known to him. They are also mentioned -by other authors. - -Having thus reviewed the linguistic stocks named by Gilii, I shall -proceed to mention some which escaped his attention. - -One of the most interesting of these is the _Betoi_, or _Betoya_. -This tongue derived its name from a tribe dwelling at the foot of the -mountains of Bogota, between the rivers Apure and Tame, and are therefore -included by some among the Indians of New Granada. From a number of -authorities I find the following members are attributed to the - -BETOYA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Airicos_, on head-waters of the Manacacia, the Ele and Guainia. - _Amaguages_, near Rio Caqueta. - _Anibalis_, on Rio Apure. - _Betois_, on and near Rio Casanare, about north latitude 5°. - _Correguages_, on Rio Yari and head-waters of Caqueta. - _Jamas_, on Rio Manacacia. - _Macaguages_, on Rios Caucaya, Mecaya and Sensella. - _Piojes_, on Rio Putumayo, and on the Napo and Caucaya (Cocayu). - _Quilifayes_, on Rio Apure. - _Situfas_, on Rio Casanare. - _Tamas_, on the Rio Yari and Rio Caguo. - _Tunebos_, in the Cordillera, adjacent to the Betois. - -Of these, the Piojes and Correguages, of which we have vocabularies, do -not show close resemblance to the Betoya, yet undoubtedly some;[420] so -I place them in this stock partly in deference to old authorities. - -The Piojes derive their name from the particle of negation in their -language, this being their usual reply to all inquiries by traders or -travelers. They are divided into two bands, speaking the same dialect, -one on the Napo and one on the Putumayo, neither knowing anything of the -other. Some of their customs are peculiar. For instance, it is their rule -that a widow shall take her son, a widower his daughter, to replace the -deceased consort.[421] They are somewhat agricultural, and are skillful -boatmen. - -The Tamas formerly lived on the river Aguarico (Coleti). Dr. Crévaux -found them on the Caguo, a branch of the Yapura, and obtained from them a -short vocabulary, but enough to mark them as members of the stock.[422] -There are also some on the Rio Meta who speak Spanish only. (Perez.) - -The Betoya has impressed me as showing some distant affinity to the Choco -stock, and it may be that ampler resources on both sides would lead to -the establishment of an original identity. The following words from the -very scanty number which I have for comparison are noteworthy: - - CHOCO STOCK. BETOYA STOCK. - Man, _uma-china_, _uma-soi_, _emi-ud_. - Woman, _uerá_, _ro_. - Fire, _tŭjoor_, _toa-tui_. - Ear, _juru_, _ca-joro-so_. - Nose, _jun_, _ju-saca_, _jin-quepui_. - -The Choco _do_, river, seems related to the Betoya _ocu-du_, water. - -The Macaguages are industrious and agricultural. Both sexes dress alike -in cotton tunics dyed in violet color, and suspend bright feathers and -strings of beads in ears, nose and lips.[423] - -A singular question has arisen as to the relationship of the Betoya and -the Yarura languages. Their near connection was affirmed by the early -missionaries. In fact, the history of the conversion of the Betoyas turns -upon the identity of the two tongues. It was brought about in 1701 by a -Yarura Indian, a convert to Christianity, who accidentally discovered -that he was understood by the Betoyas. - -In spite of this detail, it is evident from an inspection of the -vocabularies, that there is absolutely no relationship between the -two idioms. I can only explain the contradiction as arising from some -ambiguity or similarity of names. The two tribes lived together in the -time of Gumilla, making up about three thousand souls.[424] - -About the middle of this century some six hundred of the Betoyas dwelt on -the head-waters of the river Manacacia.[425] - -In the territory of St. Martin, above the falls of the Guaviare and -along the Rio Guejar and the Meta, are several tribes asserted to speak -related dialects, but of which I have little information. The principal -one is that of the _Churoyas_, of whom Professor Nicolas Saenz has given -an interesting sketch and a short vocabulary.[426] They are very ugly, -with broad faces, low foreheads, small and oblique eyes, and in color -like dried tobacco. Nudity is their usual garb, and the skin is decorated -with tattoo marks instead of clothing. According to Perez they number -about 1200.[427] Following him and other authorities, I may enumerate the -following members of the - -CHUROYA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Bisaniguas_, on the Rio Guejar. - _Choroyas_, on the Rio Guejar. - _Cofanes_, on the Rio Aguarico. - _Guayues_, on the Rio Caqueta. - _Macos_, on the Rio Aguarico. - -Whether the Cofanes here named are those of the Province of Quitu who -murdered the Jesuit missionary, Raphael Ferrer, in 1602, I have not -discovered. Perez describes them as still warlike and seclusive, living -in the terminal hills of the Cordillera, and avoiding traffic with the -tribes of the lower river.[428] - -An examination of the vocabulary furnished by Saenz inclines me to think -that the Churoya may be a mongrel dialect, or at least has borrowed -freely from neighboring stocks. I subjoin the principal words from his -short vocabulary, with some comparisons: - - Sun, _mshojaint_. - Moon, _juimit_ (_oamito_, Guahiba). - Fire, _hijit_ (_chichi_, = sun, Carib). - Water, _minta_. - Bow, _piranso_ (_paria_, Roucouyenne). - Arrow, _funait_. - Tobacco, _joo_. - Plantain, _parasa_. - Dog, _uilg_. - Tortoise, _ainjachie_. - Wind, _che_. - Skin, _begt_. - -The _Piaroas_ are mentioned by Gilii as a branch of the Salivas, but -their language reveals no such connection. They are still found on -both banks of the Orinoco above the confluence of the Vichada and near -the mouth of the Mataveni. They are savage and superstitious, avoiding -contact with the whites; they have had good reason to be extremely -distrustful of the advances of their civilized neighbors. They are much -given to nocturnal ceremonies, and entertain a great respect for the -tapir, who is their reputed ancestor, and also the form which is taken by -the souls of the departed.[429] - -The _Puinavis_ dwell on the Inirida, an affluent of the Guaviare. -A tribe, the Guipunabis, is mentioned by Gilii as belonging to the -Maipure (Arawak) stock; but it cannot be the same with the one under -consideration, the language of which appears to be without affinities. -Latham identified them with the _Poignavis_ of the older writers, -and on slight linguistic evidence, believed them connected with the -Banivas.[430] My own comparisons do not justify this opinion. - - -_8. The Upper Amazonian Basin._ - -No portion of the linguistic field of South America offers greater -confusion than that of the western Amazonian region. The statements are -so conflicting, and the tribal changes apparently so rapid, that we are -at a loss to bring modern observations into accord with older statements. -Thus, I am entirely unable to accept the linguistic classification of -Hervas, which certainly was based on the best information of his day. As -a matter of comparison I give it. - -_List of Languages in the Governments of Maynas and the Marañon (Hervas)._ - - STOCKS. DIALECTS. - - 1. ANDOA. Araro. - Chuudaviño. - Gae. - Guazago. - Murato. - Pabo. - Pinche. - Simigae. - Bobonazo. - - 2. CAMPA. Amjemhuaco. - Curano. - Manua. - Nanerua. - Nesahuaco. - Sepaunabo. - Tasio. - - 3. CHAYAVITA. Cahuapano. - Paranaruro. - - 4. COMABA. Ginua. - Inuaco. - Ruanababo. - Zepo. - - 5. CUNIBA. Manamabobo. - Mananamabua. - - 6. ENCABELLADA. Guajoyo. - Guencoyo. - Neocoyo. - Zaparro, or Encabellado. - Ziecoyo. - - 7. IEBERA. Tiputini. - Tibilo. - - 8. MAINA. Chapo. - Coronado. - Humurano. - Roamaino. - - 9. MUNICHE. Muchimo. - Otanabe. - - 10. PANA. Iltipo. - Pelada. - - 11. PIRA. Cusitinavo. - Manatinavo. - Upatarinavo. - - 12. SIMIGAE. Arazo. - Ijinori. - Nevo. - Oa. - Zaparro. - - 13. LUCUMBIA. Putumayo. - Yete. - Ceoqueyo. - - 14. URARINA. Barbudo. - Itucale. - Mayoruño. - Musimo. - - 15. YAMEA. Amaono. - Nahuapo. - Napeano. - Masamae. - - 16. JINORI. Acamaori. - Camacori. - Iqueconejori. - Panajori. - Tremojori. - -A slight examination of this classification suffices to reveal its -general inaccuracy. The Zaparos are included in both the Encabellada and -the Simigae stocks. The latter is given both as a stock and as a dialect -of the Andoa. In fact, all three of the stocks named belong together as -dialects of one. The Pano stock, as we now know it, appears scattered -under Cuniba, Urarina and Pana; and the arrangement is incorrect in many -other points. While it has a value in preserving the names of some now -missing tribes, as a linguistic scheme it is wholly unsafe. - -The _Zaparos_ constitute one of the most extended and numerous nations -in the upper valley of the Amazon. They dwell near or adjacent to the -Jivaros on the south, and as their name is variously spelled Zaparos, -Xeberos and Jeberos, they have at times been confounded with them. They -differ, however, not only in language, but in appearance and temperament. -The Zaparos are lighter in color, smaller in stature, with oblique eyes, -large mouths, and expanded nostrils.[431] Their disposition is indolent -and easy tempered, and their abilities inferior. This is seen in the -construction of their houses and the appearance of their fields, which do -not compare advantageously with those of the Jivaros; but they display -some ingenuity in manufacturing clothing from the bark of a species of -_Ochroma_, and they are skillful in concocting the urara poison, in -making blow-pipes, and are daring boatmen. - -In 1632 they lived near the Omaguas, on the river Curary, and their -number was estimated by the missionaries at 10,000. At present -their main body dwells between the rivers Pastaza and Napo and along -the Marañon between the rivers Zamora and Morona. In 1850 Osculati -estimated their number at over 20,000, which is certainly in excess -of their present representatives. The many small tribes into which -they are divided, and the confused orthography of the names applied -to them, render it difficult to offer a satisfactory list. It seems -tolerably certain that the ancient “Andoas” were the Zaparos of the -upper Pastaza,[432] and equally sure that the Encabellada, the Iebera, -the Simigae and the Jinori languages, all supposed by Hervas to be -independent stocks,[433] were spoken by members of the Zaparo family. The -Iquitos are another populous branch, sometimes supposed to be distinct. - -The Zaparo language is agreeable to the ear, partaking of the phonetic -character of the Brazilian idioms. The Italian traveler, Osculati, -has furnished a very satisfactory account of it, both grammatical and -lexicographical,[434] and there are vocabularies by other voyagers. - -I offer the following alphabetic list of the sub-tribes of the Zaparos, -without attempting to define their several positions in the general -district referred to: - -ZAPARO LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Achuales_. - _Agapicos_. - _Aicores_. - _Andoas_. - _Anguteris_. - _Antires_. - _Araros_, or _Arazos_. - _Ayacares_. - _Bobonazos_. - _Cahuaches_. - _Chudavinos_. - _Churitunas_. - _Comacoris_. - _Conejoris_. - _Copatasas_. - _Curyies_. - _Curarayes_. - _Custimanos_. - _Cutinanas_. - _Encabellados_. - _Eriteynes_. - _Frascavinos_. - _Gaes_. - _Ginoris_. - _Gualaquizas_. - _Guazacas_. - _Himuetacas_. - _Huasimoas_. - _Ibanomas_. - _Incuris_. - _Itremajoris_. - _Macavinas_. - _Mautas_. - _Moronas_. - _Mueganos_. - _Muratos_. - _Napotoas_. - _Neocoyos_. - _Nepas_. - _Nerecamues_. - _Nushinis_. - _Oas_. - _Panajoris_. - _Paranapuras_. - _Pastazas_. - _Pavos_. - _Pindis_. - _Putumayos_. - _Quirivinas_. - _Rotunos_. - _Semigaes_. - _Shiripunas_. - _Tabalosos_. - _Tiputinis_. - _Tivilos_. - _Tremajoris_. - _Yasunis_. - _Yegueyos_. - _Yetes_. - _Zamoros_. - _Zapaos_. - -On the mountain slope of the Cordillera, north of the Zaparos and east of -the Cañaris, are the _Jivaros_ (Givaros, Xivaros), a wild, warlike tribe, -never subjugated either by the Kechuas or the Spaniards. Their homes -are about the head-waters of the rivers Pastaza, Santiago, and other -affluents of the Marañon. They are rather tall, of light color, with thin -lips, aquiline noses, straight eyes, prognathic jaws, hair black or with -a reddish tinge. - -Some say their various bands number as many as four hundred, named from -the streams on which they live. Most of them depend upon hunting and -fishing, others pursue agriculture and breed pigs. Their weapons are -the sarbacane, the lance, the bow and the shield. They have developed a -system of sound-signalling or telegraphy by means of large wooden drums -placed at certain distances apart, by beating on which in a peculiar -manner the advent of an enemy, his number and direction, can be heralded -over hundreds of square miles in a few hours. The Jivaros are celebrated -for the preparation of human heads by a process of boiling and drying so -as to preserve the hair and soft parts. Many of these trophy heads have -been brought to Europe, and their purpose has led to some discussion. -It appears that they are prepared both as trophies of victory and out -of reverence to departed chiefs.[435] Their houses are built solidly of -wood, with wooden doors. They sleep upon wooden frames, and construct -tools of the same material.[436] - -The principal event in their history was their revolt against the -Spanish authorities in the year 1599. They destroyed many settlements -and the entire city of Logroño, carrying the women into captivity. Many -of them had already been converted to Christianity, and their rites are -said still to preserve some reminiscences of such teachings. In recent -years many of them have been civilized through the efforts of Italian -missionaries. - -The language of this important nation, although early studied, has as yet -no printed literature. I have found of it only the first five numerals, -which do not seem to have connection with any other tongue. They are as -follows: - -1. _Alza_; 2. _catuta_; 3. _kala_; 4. _ingatu_; 5. _aleyticlon_.[437] - -From a study of proper names and ethnographic traits, Dr. Hamy has -expressed himself with great assurance that the Jivaros belong to the -Guarani group of the Tupi stock;[438] but the above numerals do not -indicate such relationship, nor do I think that his other arguments -establish it. For the present they must be considered an independent -stock. - -JIVARO LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Antipas_, above the Pongo de Manseriche. - _Aguarunas_, below the mouth of the Rio Nieva and Rio Huallaga. - _Ayulis_, on the Rio Morono. - _Cherembos_, left bank of Marañon. - _Chirapas_. - _Huambisas_, on Marañon above the Pongo de Manseriche. - _Lojanos_. - _Muratos_, below mouth of the Rio Pastaza. - _Pautis_. - _Uambisas_, south of the Marañon. - _Zamoras_. - -The eastern neighbors of the Jivaros are the scattered bands of the -_Maynas_, separated by Hervas into two stocks, the Maina and the -Chayavita, but so far as I can learn, without sufficient reason. The -language is or was spoken at the mission of the Conception on the upper -Marañon and in the uplands around Cerros de Mainas. It is singularly -harsh and difficult. The natives were wild, and lived by hunting and -fishing. Their earlier home was on the upper waters of the Morona and -Pastaza rivers. - -The following bands are embraced in the - -MAINA LINGUISTIC STOCK.[439] - - _Cahuapanas_. - _Chapos_. - _Chayavitas_. - _Coronados_. - _Humuranos_. - _Mainas_. - _Roamainas_. - -On the Rio Javary there seem to be several independent stocks. One of -these is that of the _Yameos_, who are found in the lower course of the -river and also further up the Marañon, near Nauta, and on the Huallaga, -where they are called Llameos, Yameos, Lamas, or Lamistas. Formerly -they were a numerous and warlike nation, sharply divided into gentile -organizations, and carefully refraining from intermarriage in the gens. -At an early date we hear of them between the Rio Tigre and the Napo. -(Markham.) - -The following sub-tribes are stated by various writers to belong to the - -LAMA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Aguanos_. - _Alabonos_. - _Amaonos_. - _Cahuaches_. - _Massamaes_. - _Miquianos_. - _Nahuapos_. - _Napeanos_. - _Parranos_. - _Yarrapos_. - -Pöppig describes them as agricultural and industrious, and much given to -trade and travel. - -In appearance, they are small, dirty and Mongoloid, sharply contrasting -with the Indians of the Huallaga, who are all tall, strong and well -built, with good features.[440] - -In conformity to old authorities, Markham classes the _Ardas_ as a -sub-tribe of the Yameos. Their home was between the rivers Napo and -Masso. On the latter they were in immediate contiguity to the Massamaes -(Coleti). There has been published a _Doctrina_ in their language, from -which the Lord’s Prayer is quoted by Ludewig.[441] This version has no -resemblance to the Pater in Yamea contained in the Mithridates; so for -the present I leave the Ardas unclassified. - -Higher up the river Javary are a number of tribes speaking related -dialects of what I shall call the _Peba_ stock, though there are some -reasons to consider it a corrupt dialect of the Omagua, and hence related -to the Tupi. - -PEBA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Caumaris_. - _Cauwachis_. - _Pacayas_. - _Pebas_. - -To this list I add the Yeguas, Yaguas or Yahuas, found in the same -vicinity, and remarkable for their fine personal appearance, “the -most perfect physical type,” says M. Ordinaire, “of all the Indian -races.”[442] The vocabulary of their language obtained by Castelnau -shows unmistakable affinities to that of the Pebas.[443] - -On the Rio Chambira, adjacent to the Yameos and Omaguas, dwelt in the -early part of the last century the _Itucales_ and Varinas or Uarunas, -who, according to Coleti, spoke allied dialects. The Itucales were -noteworthy as the aptest and most biddable converts obtained by the -missionaries on the river. They were agricultural and monogamous.[444] -Hervas classes them with the Musimos, the Mayorunas and the Barbudos, -under the Urarina language; but the last two are members of the Pano -stock. - -The _Ticunas_ (Tecunas, Tucunas) are found along the lower Javary and -the Solimoes, adjacent to the Pebas. They wander about in a state of -nakedness, depending on hunting and fishing, and under a loose control -of the Brazilian government. Many of them can converse in Kechua, though -their own tongue is of a different group. They are given to dances of -a sacred character, in which the actors appear in masks. An operation -allied to circumcision is practiced on infants of both sexes at the time -of assigning them names.[445] One of the several tribes called “Orejones” -is thought by Pöppig to belong to the Ticunas.[446] - -The tribes in the valley of the Huallaga were first visited by Franciscan -missionaries in 1676. In that year Father Jose de Araujo converted a -number of the Hibitos (Xibitos) in the Upper Huallaga, and wrote an -_arte_ of their language. He found it the same as that of the Chunchos -in the Sierra. Their neighbors further down the river, the Cholones, -speaking a different idiom, were brought under the instruction of Father -Francisco Gutierrez, who composed a work on their tongue. A century -later we find these two nations living together at the mission, counting -4800 souls, and occupying that portion of the province of Cajamarquilla -between 7° and 8° 30´ s. lat. They were peaceable and agricultural, with -fields of cotton and food plants.[447] - -This fair scene disappeared in the turbulent life of the next generation, -and when the traveler Pöppig visited the Huallaga in 1834 he found the -mission in decay, and the natives, much reduced in numbers, had resumed -their wild life and again become savages.[448] At present, along the -main stream to the north, are the Cocamillas, the Aguanteas, and the -Puinahuas. All these appear to be of the Tupi stock, with dialects akin -to the Cocama and Omagua.[449] - -_The Panos._ When the missionaries first crossed the Cordillera and -explored the upper Ucayali river, they found a number of related tribes, -the principal of whom were the Panos. By their traditions they had moved -from near the equator at the north. They differed little in culture from -their neighbors, and are now nearly extinct. By the earlier writers they -were placed in relation to the Omaguas as members of the Tupi stock,[450] -but the researches of M. Raoul de la Grasserie have vindicated for them -an independent position.[451] They are said to have possessed a form of -hieroglyphic writing, which they painted on a sort of paper manufactured -from vegetable fibre. - -Some of the Mayorunas are reported as having thick beards and white skins -(Martius), but these peculiarities are probably attributable to early -admixtures with the white race. - -The largest of these tribes at present is that of the Conibos, who -constitute now the greater part of the natives the traveler encounters on -the Ucayali. In appearance they have some resemblance to the Peruvians. -The nose is aquiline and prominent, the forehead broad, the eye large, -and the cheek bones not prominent. In intelligence they are superior -to their neighbors, learning the Spanish language readily, and proving -themselves valuable house-servants. They are apathetic, however, and none -of the Panos have shown any earnest desire to adopt a civilized life.[452] - -The Cashibos are the most savage tribe on the Ucayali or its affluents, -and are said to have the ugly custom of eating their relations when they -die, and if this event is long delayed, the old men are killed. But such -is the power of ideas, that one of the obstacles to their conversion is -that they so much prefer their bodies to become food for their relatives -than a feast for worms![453] - -The Pacaguaras or Pacavaras, on the rivers Beni and Mamore, classed by -D’Orbigny as a separate stock, belong among the Panos, as is clearly -seen by the vocabulary furnished by that traveler, and later that by Mr. -Heath.[454] The easternmost branch of the stock (not noted by M. de la -Grasserie), are the Canawarys (Canamarys), who live on the banks of the -Purus. Mr. Chandless heard that they were related to the Conibos, and the -few words he obtained of their language prove the statement correct.[455] - - PANO. PACAGUARA. CANAWARY. - Sun, _bari_, _uari_, _wari_. - Fire, _chi_, _chi-i_, _chi-i_. - Water, _uaca_, _waka_. - -Mr. Chandless also says, “The Conibos are of the same tribe as the -Manitenerys of the river Purus,” which would bring these latter also -into the Pano stock. The short vocabulary of their language which he -supplies does not bear out this assertion. Mr. Richard Spruce considered -that it proved them to be of the Carib stock;[456] but to me it seems -unmistakably a member of the Arawak family, as will be seen from the -following analysis: - - MANITENERY. ARAWAK STOCK. - Sun, _cashi_, _catche_. - Moon, _siri_, _casiri_. - Fire, _chi-chi_, _chichi_. - Water, _huni_, _uni_. - -From the above considerations I offer the following names as comprising -the - -PANO LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Barbudos_, on the Marañon. - _Callisecas_, on upper Ucayali.[457] - _Canawarys_, on Rio Purus. - _Caripunas_, near cataracts of Rio Madeira. - _Cashibos_, on Rio Pachitea and Aguaitia. - _Chamicuros_, on west bank of the Rio Huallaga.[458] - _Cochivuinas_, a sub-tribe of Mayorunas. - _Conibos_, on upper Ucayali. - _Culinos_, on Rio Juvary. - _Jaunavos_, see _Caripunas_. - _Mayorunas_, on Rio Tapichi and Rio Yavari. - _Maxorunas_, near Rio Tapichi. - _Panos_, on upper Ucayali. - _Pacaguaras_, on Rio Beni. - _Remos_, on Ucayali, from Abayan to Chanchaguaya. - _Sencis_, right bank of Ucayali above Saraycu. - _Setibos_ (_Setevos_), on upper Ucayali.[459] - _Sipibos_, on upper Ucayali. - -Mr. Chandless[460] met on the rivers Purus and Jurua tribes of a -stock whose tongue I have not been able to connect with any other. -They are represented on the former stream by the Pammanas or Pammarys -(_pama-ouiri_, eaters of the _pama_, a kind of berry), or Puru-purus -(_piru-poru_, name of a skin disease which prevails there), whose name -has been transferred to the river. These are believed by Martius to -be the same or allied to the Pamas, a tribe who formerly lived on the -Madeira, but were driven thence by the Caripunas.[461] On the Jurua are -the apparently related _Arauas_ and Araicus. All these depend on hunting -and fishing, and are of migratory habits. Some of the Pammanas are -reported as light in hue, with blue eyes and brown hair.[462] - -Many tribes with names differing from the above are recorded by the -older writers as resident on these rivers, but owing to the absence of -linguistic material, no identification is possible. - -The close relationship of the Pammarys of the Purus and the Arauas of the -Jurua is shown by the following comparison: - - PAMMARY. ARAUA. - Moon, _massicu_, _massicu_. - Fire, _si ju_, _sihu_. - Water, _paha_, _paha_. - Dog, _djuimahi_, _jumayhi_. - -So far as known, I would place the following tribes in the - -ARAUA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Arauas_ (_Araó_), on the lower Jurua. - _Pamas_, formerly on the Madeira. - _Pammarys_, on the Rio Purus. - _Puru-purus_, on the Rio Purus. - -The jargon of the Yaguas, on the Amazon between Nauta and Pebas, seems to -have borrowed from this stock; as: - - YAGUA. PAMMARY. - Sun, _ini_, _saf-iny_. - Water, _haha_, _paha_. - -The neighbors of the Arauas on the river Purus are the _Hypurinas_ -(better Jupurinas) of whose language Mr. Chandless also supplies a -short vocabulary. It contains a few words in common with the Pammary, -but probably only borrowed by both from the Arawak. The following will -illustrate the two tongues: - - PAMMARY. JUPURINA. - Sun, _safiny_, _atocanti_. - Moon, _massicu_, _cassiri_. - Fire, _siju_, _chamina_. - Water, _paha_, _iborahai_. - River, _wainy_, _weni_. - Dog, _djuimahi_, _anguity_. - Tortoise, _ú-jurú_, _chetuyu_. - Tapir, _dama_, _chama_. - -The Hypurinas on the Rio Acre (or Aquiri) belong to the same tribe. They -are said to be related to the Chacobos and the Piros of the Ucayali. -They are without civilization. The women go naked, but the men wear long -purple robes, and both sexes pierce the lips and nose. Some agriculture -is carried on, but hunting and fishing are the main sources of the food -supply.[463] - -The total number of natives on the Purus and its affluents was estimated -by Colonel Labré, in 1885, at 40,000, “speaking forty or more different -languages;” but this last assertion we may take with large allowance. -Probably not over four or five stocks are represented. The same explorer -names nine tribes visited by him on the river Ituxy. They are the: 1, -Caccharari; 2, Canamary; 3, Catauxi; 4, Guarayo; 5, Huatanary; 6, -Hypurina; 7, Hyuma; 8, Pamana; and 9, Pammary tribes.[464] - -In this list, as elsewhere, the term _Guarayos_ has no ethnic -significance. It is a Tupi word applied in this Spanish form to various -wild, uncivilized tribes. - - -_9. The Bolivian Highlands: the Chiquitos, Yurucares, Mosetenas, Tacanas, -Samucus, Canichanas and others._ - -On the Atlantic face of the Cordillera, in the easternmost portion of -Bolivia, where the head-waters of the Madeira are known by the names of -the Mamore, the Guapai and the Beni, there is an astonishing variety of -linguistic stocks. It would seem that the broken remnants of many diverse -nations had sought refuge in the deep vales and dense forests of this -region. - -We have already seen that the Caribs were represented here by the -Palmellas, and the Arawaks by the Moxos and Baures. South of the Moxos -was the extensive region of the _Chiquitos_, stretching between south -latitude 16° and 18°, and from the upper affluents of the Paraguay -river to the summit of the Cordillera. On the south it adjoined the -Gran Chaco, and on the west the territory of the Kechuas. They were a -medium-sized, mild-mannered people, mostly of little culture, depending -on the chase for food, but willingly adopting the agricultural life -recommended to them by the missionaries. They were divided into a vast -number of small roving bands, the most important group of which were the -Manacicas, whose homes were near Lake Xaray, about the head-waters of -the Paraguay. Their myths relating to a male and female deity and their -son reminded the Jesuits of the Christian Trinity.[465] The Manacicas -were agriculturists and remarkably skilful potters. The villages they -constructed were surrounded with palisades and divided by broad streets. -The corpses of the dead were deposited in underground vaults, and both -property and rank passed in the male line to the sons of the deceased. - -The Chiquito language is interesting for its scope and flexibility, -being chiefly made up of generic particles capable of indefinite -combination.[466] It is singular in having no numerals, not even as -far as three. Its four principal dialects were those of the Taos, the -Piñocos, the Manacicas and the Penoquies.[467] It was selected by the -missionaries as the medium of instruction for a number of the neighboring -tribes. - -Of such tribes there were many, widely different in speech, manners and -appearance from the Chiquitos. Some of them are particularly noteworthy -for their un-Indian type. Thus, to the west of the Chiquitos, on the -banks of the rivers Mamore and Chavari, were the Yurucares, the Tacanas -and the Mosetenas, all neighbors, and though not of one tongue, yet alike -in possessing a singularly white skin and fine features. Their color -is as light and as really white as many southern Europeans, the face -is oval, the nose straight, fine, and often aquiline, the lips thin, -the cheek-bones not prominent, the eyes small, dark and horizontal, the -expression free and noble. They are of pure blood, and the most important -tribe of them derived their name, _Yurucares_, white men, from their -Kechua neighbors before the conquest. They are usually uncommonly tall -(1.75), bold warriors, lovers of freedom and given to a hunting life. The -women are often even taller and handsomer than the men. - -The traveler D’Orbigny suggested that this light color arose from their -residence under the shade of dense forests in a hot and humid atmosphere. -He observed that many of them had large patches of albinism on their -persons.[468] - -The branches of these stocks may be classed as follows: - -YURUCARI LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Conis_. - _Cuchis_. - _Enetés_. - _Mages_. - _Mansiños_. - _Oromos_. - _Solostos_. - -MOSETENA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Chimanis_. - _Magdalenos_. - _Maniquies_. - _Muchanis_. - _Tucupis_. - -The Toromonas occupy the tract between the Madre de Dios and the Madidi, -from 12° to 13° south latitude. According to D’Orbigny they are, together -with the Atenes, Cavinas, Tumupasas and Isuiamas, members of one stock, -speaking dialects of the _Tacana_ language. He was unable to procure a -vocabulary of it, and only learned that it was exceedingly guttural and -harsh.[469] From their position and their Kechua name (_tuyu_), low or -swamp land, I am inclined to identify the Toromonas with the Tuyumiris -or Pukapakaris, who are stated formerly to have dwelt on the Madre de -Dios and east of the Rio Urubamba, and to have been driven thence by the -Sirineris (Tschudi). - -According to recent authorities the Cavinas speak the same tongue as the -Araunas on the Madre de Dios, which are separated from the Pacaguaras by -the small river Genichiquia;[470] and as the language of the Toromonas is -called in the earlier accounts of the missions _Macarani_, I may make out -the following list of the members of the - -TACANA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Araunas_. - _Atenes_. - _Cavinas_. - _Equaris_. - _Isuiamas_. - _Lecos_. - _Macaranis_. - _Maropas_. - _Pukapakaris_. - _Sapiboconas_. - _Tacanas_. - _Toromonas_. - _Tumupasas_. - _Tuyumiris_. - -The Araunas are savage, and according to Heath “cannibals beyond a -doubt.” He describes them as “gaunt, ugly, and ill formed,” wearing the -hair long and going naked.[471] Colonel Labré, however, who visited -several of their villages in 1885, found them sedentary and agricultural, -with temples and idols, the latter being geometrical figures of polished -wood and stone. Women were considered impure, were not allowed to know -even the names of the gods, and were excluded from religious rites.[472] -The Cavinas, on the other hand, are described by early writers as -constructing houses of stone.[473] The Maropas, on the east side of the -river Beni near the little town of Reyes, speak a dialect of Tacana -as close to it as Portuguese to Spanish. They are erroneously classed -as a distinct nation by D’Orbigny, who obtained only a few words of -their tongue. The Sapiboconas, who lived at the Moxos Mission, and of -whose dialect Hervas supplies a vocabulary, are also a near branch of -the stock. We now have sufficient material to bring these tribes into -relation. With them I locate the Lecos, the tribe who occupied the -mission of Aten, and are therefore called also Atenianos.[474] At present -some civilized Lecos live at the mission of Guanay, between the Beni and -Titicaca; but we have nothing of their language.[475] - -The Tacana dialects present a number of verbal analogies to Kechua and -Aymara; so many in fact that they testify to long inter-communion between -the stocks, though I think not to a radical identity. I present a few: - - TACANA. KECHUA. - Man, _reanci_, _runa_. - Water, _jene_, _una_. - Hand, _ma_, _maqui_. - Foot, _quatri_, _chaqui_. - House, _etai_, _uta_ (Aymara). - Stone, _tumu_, _rumi_. - Star, _emata_, _matti_. - Lightning, _ilapa_, _illapa_. - Year, _mara_, _mara_. - Three, _quimisha_, _quimsa_. - Four, _puschi_, _pusi_ (Aymara). - Five, _pischica_, _pichka_. - -The numerals above “two” have clearly been borrowed from the -Kechua-Aymara. - -There are also a large number of verbal coincidences between the Tacana -and the Pano groups, but not enough to allow us to suppose an original -unity. - -The _Samucus_ (Zamucas) embraced a number of sub-tribes dwelling on the -northern border of the Chaco, between 18° and 20° south latitude, and -about the river Oxuquis. They did not resemble the Chaco stocks, as they -were not vagrant hunters, but dwelt in fixed villages, and pursued an -agricultural life.[476] Their language was singularly sweet in sound, and -was called by D’Orbigny “the Italian of the forest.” They included the -following members: - -SAMUCU LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Careras_. - _Cayporotades_. - _Coroinos_. - _Cuculados_. - _Guaranocas_. - _Ibirayas_. - _Morotocos_. - _Potureros_. - _Satienos_. - _Tapios_. - _Ugaronos_. - -Among these the Morotocos are said to have offered the rare spectacle -of a primitive gynocracy. The women ruled the tribe, and obliged the -men to perform the drudgery of house-work. The latter were by no means -weaklings, but tall and robust, and daring tiger-hunters. The married -women refused to have more than two children, and did others come they -were strangled. - -On the river Mamore, between 13° and 14° of south latitude, were -the numerous villages of the _Canichanas_ or Canisianas. They were -unusually dark in complexion and ugly of features; nor did this -unprepossessing exterior belie their habits or temperament. They were -morose, quarrelsome, tricky and brutal cannibals, preferring theft to -agriculture, and prone to drunkenness; but ingenious and not deficient -in warlike arts, constructing strong fortifications around their -villages, from which they would sally forth to harass and plunder their -peaceable neighbors. By a singular anomaly, this unpromising tribe -became willing converts to the teachings of the Jesuits, and of their own -accord gathered into large villages in order to secure the presence of a -missionary.[477] Their language has no known affinities. It is musical, -with strong consonantal sounds, and like some of the northern tongues, -makes a distinction between animate and inanimate objects, or those so -considered.[478] - -Between 13° and 14° of south latitude, on the west bank of the Rio -Mamore, were the _Cayubabas_ or Cayuvavas, speaking a language without -known affinities, though containing words from a number of contiguous -tongues.[479] The men are tall and robust, with regular features and a -pleasant expression. The missionaries found no difficulty in bringing -them into the fold, but they obstinately retained some of their curious -ancient superstitions, as, for instance, that a man should do no kind -of work while his wife had her monthly illness; and should she die, he -would undertake no enterprise of importance so long as he remained a -widower.[480] - -Brief notices will suffice of the various other tribes, many of them now -extinct, who centered around the missions of the Chiquitos and Moxos -early in this century. - -The _Apolistas_ took their name from the river Apolo, an affluent of the -Beni, about south latitude 15°. They were contiguous to the Aymaras, and -had some physical resemblance to them. From their position, I suspect -they belong in the Tacana group. - -The _Chapacuras_, or more properly Tapacuras, were on the Rio Blanco or -Baures in the province of Moxos. They called themselves _Huachis_, and -the Quitemocas are mentioned as one of their sub-tribes. Von Martius -thinks they were connected with the Guaches of Paraguay, a mixed tribe -allied to the Guaycuru stock of the Chaco. The resemblance is very slight. - -The _Covarecas_ were a small band at the mission of Santa Anna, about -south latitude 17°. Their language was practically extinct in 1831. - -The _Curaves_ and the _Curuminacas_, the former on the Rio Tucubaca -and the latter north of them near the Brazil line, were said to have -independent languages; but both were extinct at the time of D’Orbigny’s -visit in 1831. The same was true of the _Corabecas_ and _Curucanecas_. - -The _Ites_ or Itenes were upon the river Iten, an affluent of the Mamore -about 12° south latitude. They were sometimes improperly called Guarayos, -a term which, like Guaycurus, Aucas, Yumbos and others, was frequently -applied in a generic sense by the Spanish Americans to any native tribe -who continued to live in a savage condition. - -The _Movimas_ (Mobimas) occupied the shores of the Rio Yacuma, and Rio -Mamore about 14° south latitude. In character and appearance they were -similar to the Moxos, but of finer physique, “seldom ever under six -feet,” says Mr. Heath. They are now civilized, and very cleanly in their -habits. The vocabularies of their language show but faint resemblances -with any other. - -The _Otuquis_, who in 1831 did not number over 150 persons, lived in the -northeast part of the province of Chiquitos near the Brazilian line. -Their language was nearly extinct at that time. The short vocabulary -of it preserved by D’Orbigny does not disclose connections with other -stocks, unless it be a distant affinity with the Tacana group. This may -be illustrated by the following words: - - OTUQUI. TACANA DIALECTS. - Man, _vuani_, _reanci_. - Woman, _vuaneti_, _anu_. - Sun, _neri_, _ireti_. - Moon, _ari_, _bari_. - Water, _uru_, _yuvi_. - Head, _ikitao_, _ekuya_. - -It was the policy of the Jesuits in their missions in this district -to gather the tribes from the forest and mountain into permanent -settlements, and reduce as far as possible the number of languages and -dialects, so as to facilitate instruction in religious teaching. Shortly -after this Order was expelled from their missions (1767), an official -report on their “reductions” was printed in Peru, giving a list of the -tribes at each station, and the languages in use for instruction.[481] -From this scarce work I extract a few interesting particulars. - -The province of Apolobamba is described as extending about eighty leagues -northeast-southwest, east of the Cordillera, and west of the Rio Beni. -The languages adopted in it were the Leca, spoken by the Lecos Indians -at the mission of Aten, and the Maracani, at the mission of Tumupasa, on -the Rio Beni. Forty-nine nations are named as belonging to the mission -of the Chiquitos, each of whom is stated to have spoken a different -language or dialect, though all were instructed in their religious duties -in Chiquito. At the mission of Moxos twenty-nine tribes are named as in -attendance, but it had not been found possible, such was the difference -of their speech, to manage with less than nine languages, to wit, the -Moxa, the Baure, the Mure, the Mobima, the Ocorona, the Cayubaba, the -Itonama and the Maracani.[482] - -Of these tongues I have classed the Leca and Maracani as dialects of the -Takana, not from comparison of vocabularies, for I have seen none of -either, but from the locations of the tribes speaking them. The Moxa and -Baure are dialects of the Arawak stock. The Mura is a branch of the Tupi, -spoken by the powerful tribe of the Muras on the Medeira and Amazon, who -distinctly recalled in tradition their ancestral home in the west.[483] -The Chiquito, the Mobima, the Caniciana (Canichana), the Cayubaba, the -Itonama and the Ocorona remain so far irreducible stocks. Vocabularies -of the first five have been preserved, but nothing of the Ocorona. It -is probably identical with the Rocorona, in which Professor Teza has -published some texts.[484] I have not been able to identify it with -any other tongue. Hervas unites both with the Herisebocona as a single -stock.[485] - - -2. THE PAMPEAN REGION. - -South of the dividing upland which separates the waters of the Amazon -from those which find their way to the Rio de la Plata, the continent -extends in broad level tracts, watered by numerous navigable streams and -rich in game and fish. Its chief physical features are the wooded and -rolling Chaco in the north, the treeless and grassy Pampas to the south, -and the sterile rocky plains of Patagonia still further toward the region -of cold. In the west the chain of the Cordilleras continues to lift its -summits to an inaccessible height until they enter Patagonia, when they -gradually diminish to a range of hills. - -The tribes of all this territory, both east and west of the Andes, -belong ethnographically together, and not with the Peruvian stocks. What -affinities they present to others to the north are with those of the -Amazonian regions. - - -_1. The Gran Chaco and its Stocks. The Guaycurus, Lules, Matacos and -Payaguas. The Charruas, Guatos, Calchaquis, etc._ - -The great streams of the Parana and Paraguay offer a natural boundary -between the mountainous country of southern Brazil and the vast plains of -the Pampas formation. In their upper course these rivers form extensive -marshes, which in the wet season are transformed into lakes on which -tangled masses of reeds and brushwood, knitted together by a lush growth -of vines, swim in the lazy currents as floating islands. These were the -homes of some wild tribes who there found a secure refuge, the principal -of whom were the Caracaras, who came from the lower Parana, and were one -of the southernmost offshoots of the Tupi family.[486] - -For five hundred miles west of the Parana and extending nearly as far -from north to south, is a wide, rolling country, well watered, and -usually covered with dense forests, called El Gran Chaco.[487] Three -noble rivers, the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo and the Salado, intersect it in -almost parallel courses from northwest to southeast. - -Abounding in fish and game and with a mild climate, the Chaco has always -been densely peopled, and even to-day its native population is estimated -at over twenty thousand. But the ethnology of these numerous tribes is -most obscure. The Jesuit missionaries asserted that they found eight -totally different languages on the Rio Vermejo alone,[488] and the names -of the tribes run up into the hundreds. - -As is generally the case with such statements, distant dialects of the -same stock were doubtless mistaken for radically distinct tongues. From -all the material which is accessible, I do not think that the Chaco -tribes number more than five stocks, even including those who spoke -idioms related to the Guarani or Tupi. The remainder are the Guaycuru, -the Mataco, the Lule and the Payagua. This conclusion is identical with -that reached by the Argentine writer, Don Luis J. Fontana, except that he -considers the Chunipi independent, while I consider that it is a member -of the Mataco stock. - -One of the best known members of the _Guaycuru_ stock was the tribe of -the Abipones, whose manners and customs were rendered familiar in the -last century through the genial work of the Styrian missionary, Martin -Dobrizhoffer.[489] They were an equestrian people, proud of their -horsemanship and their herds, and at that time dwelt on the Paraguay -river, but by tradition had migrated from the north. - -The Guaycurus proper were divided into three gentes (_parcialidades_) -located with reference to the cardinal points. On the north were -the Epicua-yiqui; on the west the Napin-yiqui, and on the south the -Taqui-yiqui. Their original home was on the Rio Paraguay, two hundred -leagues from its mouth, but later they removed to the banks of the -Pilcomayo. Their system was patriarchal, the sons inheriting direct from -the father, and they were divided into hereditary castes, from which it -was difficult to emerge. These were distinguished by different colors -employed in painting the skin. The highest caste, the _nabbidigan_, were -distinguished by black.[490] - -The Abipones were almost entirely destroyed early in this century by the -Tobas and Mbocobis,[491] and probably at present they are quite extinct. -The Tobas are now the most numerous tribe in the Chaco, and their -language the most extended.[492] They remain savage and untamable, and -it was to their ferocity that Dr. Crévaux, the eminent French geographer -and anthropologist, fell a victim in recent years. The dialects of -the Abipones, Mbocobis and Tobas were “as much alike as Spanish and -Portuguese” (Dobrizhoffer). - -The Guachis speak a rather remote dialect of the stock, but undoubtedly -connected with the main stem. According to the analogy of many of their -words and the tenor of tradition, they at one time lived in the Bolivian -highlands, in the vicinity of the Moxos and Chiquitos. It is probable -that they are now nearly extinct, as for several generations infanticide -has been much in vogue among them, prompted, it is said, by superstitious -motives. Forty years ago an inconspicuous remnant of them were seen by -Castelnau and Natterer in the vicinity of Miranda.[493] - -The Malbalas, who were a sub-tribe of the Mbocobis, dwelling on the Rio -Vermejo, are described as light in color, with symmetrical figures and of -kindly and faithful disposition. Like most of the Chaco tribes, they were -monogamous, and true to their wives.[494] - -The Terenos and the Cadioéos still survive on the upper Paraguay, and are -in a comparatively civilized condition. The latter manufacture a pottery -of unusually excellent quality.[495] - -On the authority of Father Lozano I include in this stock the -Chichas-Orejones, the Churumatas, that branch of the Mataguayos called -Mataguayos Churumatas (from the frequent repetition of the syllable -_chu_ in their dialect), the Mbocobis and Yapitalaguas, whose tongues -were all closely related to the Toba;[496] while Dr. Joao Severiano da -Fonseca has recently shown that the Quiniquinaux is also a branch of this -stock.[497] - -The _Lules_ are a nation which has been a puzzle for students of the -ethnography of the Chaco. They were partly converted by the celebrated -Jesuit missionary and eminent linguist, Father Alonso de Barcena, -in 1690, who wrote a grammar of their language, which he called the -Tonicote. The Jesuit historian of Paraguay, Del Techo, states that -three languages were spoken among them, the Tonicote, the Kechua and -the Cacana, which last is a Kechua term from _caca_, mountain, and -in this connection means the dialect of the mountaineers. Barcena’s -converts soon became discontented and fled to the forests, where they -disappeared for thirty years or more. About 1730, a number of them -reappeared near the Jesuit mission of the Chaco, and settled several -towns on the rivers Valbuena and Salado. There their language was studied -by the missionaries. A grammar of it was composed by Machoni,[498] and -a vocabulary collected by the Abbé Ferragut.[499] Meanwhile the work of -Barcena had disappeared, and the Abbé Hervas expressed a doubt whether -the Lule of Machoni was the same as that of his predecessor. He advanced -the opinion that the ancient Lule was the Cacana; that the modern were -not the descendants of the ancient Lules, and that the Mataras of the -Chaco were the Tonicotes to whom Barcena was apostle.[500] - -The missionary Lozano to some extent clears up this difficulty. He states -that the Lules or Tonicotes were divided into the greater and lesser -Lules, and it is only the latter to which the name properly belonged. -The former were divided into three bands, the Isistines, the Oristines, -and the Toquistines.[501] None of these latter existed under these names -at the close of the last century, and at present no tribe speaking -the Lule of Machoni is known in the Chaco. The language has evident -affinities both with the Vilela and the Mataco,[502] but also presents -many independent elements. The statement of Hervas, copied by various -subsequent writers,[503] that the ancient or greater Lules spoke the -Cacana, and that this was a different stock from the Lule of Machoni, -lacks proof, as we have no specimen of the Cacana, and not even indirect -knowledge of its character. Indeed, Del Techo says definitely that the -missionaries of the earliest period, who were familiar with the Lule of -that time, had to employ interpreters in ministering to the Cacanas.[504] - -The modern Vilelas live on the Rio Salado, between 25° and 26° south -latitude. I find in it so many words of such character that I am inclined -to take it as the modern representative of the Lule of Machoni, though -corrupted by much borrowing. When we have a grammar of it, the obscurity -will be cleared up. - - LULE. VILELA. - Tongue, _lequy_, _lequip_. - Tooth, _llu_, _lupe_. - Hand, _ys_, _ysip_. - House, _enú_, _quané_. - -A comparison of the Vilela with the Chunipi, (Chumipy, Sinipi or -Ciulipi,) proves that they are rather closely related, and that the -Chunipi is not an independent tongue as has often been stated. In view of -this, I include it in the Lule dialects. - -The third important stock is that of the _Matacos_. It is still in -extensive use on the Rio Vermejo, and we have a recent and genial -description of these people and their language from the pen of the -Italian traveler, Giovanni Pelleschi.[505] They are somewhat small in -size, differing from the Guaycurus in this respect, who are tall. Their -homes are low huts made of bushes, but they are possessed of many small -arts, are industrious, and soon become conversant with the use of tools. -Their hair is occasionally wavy, and in children under twelve, it is -often reddish. The eyes are slightly oblique, the nose large, straight -and low. Like all the Chaco Indians, they do not care for agriculture, -preferring a subsistence from hunting and fishing, and from the product -of their horses and cattle. What few traditions they have indicate a -migration from the east. - -The term Mataguayos was applied to some of this stock as well as to some -of the Guaycurus. The former included the Agoyas, the Inimacas or Imacos, -and the Palomos, to whom the Jesuit Joseph Araoz went as missionary, and -composed a grammar and dictionary of their dialect. He describes them -as exceedingly barbarous and intractable.[506] The Tayunis had at one -time 188 towns, and the Teutas 46 towns. This was in the palmy days of -the Jesuit reductions.[507] Both these extensive tribes are classed by -D’Orbigny with the Matacos. - -According to the older writers the _Payaguas_ lived on the river -Paraguay, and spoke their tongue in two dialects, the Payagua and the -Sarigue. Von Martius, however, denies there ever was such a distinct -people. The word _payagua_, he remarks, was a generic term for “enemies,” -and was applied indiscriminately to roving hordes of Guaycurus, Mbayas, -etc.[508] - -The Payaguas, however, are mentioned distinctly by the early missionaries -as a nation with peculiar language and habits. They differed from their -neighbors as being aquatic, not equestrian. They were singularly skilful -boatmen and had a mythology apart from the other tribes, “worshipping the -devil under the figure of a great bird.”[509] There is also a manuscript -in the Library of the American Philosophical Society, written in the -middle of the last century, describing the visit of a missionary to the -Payaguas, at that time resident near Santa Fé in Paraguay. He accuses -them as given to revolting vices and utterly barbarous.[510] - -The statement of Von Martius that the nation has entirely disappeared is -incorrect, as quite recently a vocabulary of it has been obtained by Don -Luis de Fontana, which shows it to be distinct both from the Guaycuru and -any other known stock.[511] - -LINGUISTIC STOCKS OF THE GRAN CHACO. - -_Guaycuru Stock_: - - _Abipones_, in the central Chaco. - _Aguilotes_, sub-tribe of the Mbocobis. - _Bocobis_, see _Mbocobis_. - _Cadioéos_, near Fort Olimpo on the Paraguay. - _Chichas Orejones_. - _Churumatas_. - _Guachis_, on Rio Mondego. - _Guaycurus_, on the middle Paraguay. - _Malbalas_, on the Rio Vermejo. - _Matagayos-Churumatas_. - _Mbayas_, on Rio Xerui. - _Mbocobis_, on the Rio Vermejo. - _Pitilagas_, see _Yapitalaguas_. - _Quiniquinaux_, northeast of Albuquerque. - _Tobas_, north of the Mbocobis. - _Terenos_, on the Rio de Miranda. - _Yapitalaguas_, on the Rio Vermejo. - -_Lule Stock_: - - _Chunipis_, on Rio Vermejo. - _Juris_, on Rio Salado. - _Lules_, near Rio Vermejo. - _Mataras_, on Rio Pilcomayo. - _Oristines_, on Rio Pilcomayo. - _Sinipis_, see _Chunipis_. - _Tonocotes_, on Rio Pilcomayo. - _Toquistines_, on Rio Pilcomayo. - _Vilelas_, north of the Rio Vermejo. - _Ysistines_, on the Pilcomayo. - -_Mataco Stock_: - - _Agoyas_, on Rio Vermejo. - _Atalalas_, on Rio Vermejo. - _Enimagas_ or _Imacos_, on east bank of Pilcomayo. - _Matacos_, on Rio Verde. - _Mataguayos_, north of Rio Vermejo. - _Ocoles_, south of Rio Vermejo. - _Palomos_, on Rio Vermejo. - _Taunies_, on Rio Vermejo. - _Teutas_, on Rio Vermejo. - _Vejosos_, on Rio Vermejo. - _Xolotes_, on Rio Vermejo. - _Yoes_, on Rio Vermejo. - -_Payagua Stock_: - - _Agaces_, on Rio Paraguay. - _Payaguas_, near Santa Fé. - _Sarigues_, on middle Paraguay. - -Among the independent Chaco stocks, D’Orbigny classes the _Lenguas_, who -in 1828 lived, about 300 in number, near Corrientes.[512] Von Martius -believed they were a branch of the Guaycurus.[513] There is ample -evidence, however, that they were a wandering branch of the Chiquitos -of Bolivia. The missionary, J. P. Fernandez, who visited them about a -century before D’Orbigny, says expressly that they spoke the same tongue -as the Chiquitos;[514] and the statement of Hervas that the similarities -of their words to the Chiquito arose from borrowed expressions is not -well founded.[515] - -The _Charruas_ were a barbarous nation living in the extensive plains -which stretch from the banks of the Parana to the sea coast. They were -savage and courageous, without fixed homes, and skilled in the use of -the bola. One of their customs was to cut off a joint of a finger on -the death of a relative, and there were few of the adults that were not -thus maimed.[516] In appearance they were usually large in size, heavily -built, with big heads and broad faces, narrow noses, small eyes and large -mouths. Their color was dark.[517] - -The members of this family as recorded by the early writers, especially -Hervas, are as follows: - -CHARRUA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Bohanes_, on the Paraguay near the Rio Negro (extinct). - _Chanes_, adjacent to the Bohanes. - _Charruas_, on the coast east of the Rio Uruguay. - _Guenoas_, east of the Uruguay. - _Martidanes_, east of the Uruguay. - _Minuanes_, between the Uruguay and Parana. - _Yaros_, on east bank of Uruguay (extinct). - -Dr. Paul Ehrenreich describes them as they are to-day, splendid riders -and daring soldiers, but faithless and tricky;[518] so they have not much -improved since Father Chomé in 1730 stigmatized them as _francs voleurs -de grand chemin_.[519] - -The _Guatos_ or Vuatos were accolents of the upper Paraguay and Araguay, -and had fixed settlements near Albuquerque. Travelers report them as an -unusually handsome people. They are well-built, light in hue, with Roman -noses and regular features, and the men with a well-developed beard on -lip and chin. This appearance does not belie their intelligence, which is -above the average. Polygamy prevails to an uncommon extent. Von Martius -thought that they were of a northeastern origin, connected perhaps with -the Malalis of Bahia, who are a Tapuya people.[520] There may have -been some admixture, as from a small vocabulary I quote the following -resemblances: - - GUATO. TAPUYA. - Water, _maguen_, _magnan_. - Head, _dōken_, _dicran_. - Hand, _ida_, _danicra_. - Foot, _apoo_, _po_, _ipaa_. - Tooth, _maqua_, _aiqua_. - Tongue, _chagi_, _dageuto_. - -A recent writer does not give so favorable an opinion of this people. He -found them living about the junction of the Rio San Lorenzo with the Rio -Paraguay, and in a depraved condition. Girls who were not more than five -or six years old were used by the men as wives. Sterility and premature -decrepitude were the natural consequences.[521] - -On the western border of the Chaco, in the provinces of Tucuman and -Catamarca, resided the _Calchaquis_, a tribe interesting as the only one -in the South Atlantic Group who constructed walls of cut stone. At least, -such are found in their country, as for instance, one about thirty miles -from Andalgala, where there is a well-constructed dry wall about ten -feet high, enclosing a space nearly a mile in diameter, evidently once a -walled city. Stone built tombs are also frequent, from which the rifler -is rewarded with mummies, ornaments of impure gold, and small idols of -copper. But I doubt if the Calchaquis developed any such ripe arts as -these. History tells us that they voluntarily accepted the rule of the -Incas about the middle of the fifteenth century, and that their land -became part of the _Collasuyu_ or southern district of the empire. All -these remains have a distinct impress of Kechua art, and we may be sure -that their inspiration was throughout Peruvian.[522] - -The earliest missionaries depict the Calchaquis with curious usages -and with a certain barbaric splendor. A widow became the wife of her -husband’s brother, as of old in Israel. So long as she was a virgin, a -girl could dress in the gaudiest colors, but once _prostrato pudore_, -as the monk delicately puts it, she must change to sober weeds. Their -ornaments were of silver and copper, and the nobles wore a circlet of -gold and brilliant feathers. Their seasons of mourning were accompanied -with the most violent orgies. Over the dead they raised heaps of stones, -and held that the souls became stars.[523] - -We have no specimen of the language of the Calchaquis, although a -grammar of it was written by the Jesuit, Alonso de Barcena, and perhaps -published. It is called the Katamareño or Cacana tongue, terms derived -from the Kechua. The proper names, however, which have been preserved in -it indicate that it was different from the Kechua.[524] I have already -referred (page 227) to Von Tschudi’s suggestion that it survives in the -modern Atacameño. - -From the few specimens of skulls which have been examined, the Calchaquis -appear allied to the Aucanian stock,[525] and it may be that further -research will prove them a branch of the Araucanians. - -The following tribes are mentioned by old writers as members of the - -CATAMAREÑA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Acalianes_. - _Cacas_ or _Cacanas_. - _Calchaquis_. - _Catamarcas_. - _Diagitas_ or _Drachitas_. - _Quilmes_. - _Tamanos_. - -The learned Barcena also prepared a grammar of the Natixana or Mogana -language, spoken by the _Naticas_, whom we find mentioned by later -authorities as neighbors of the Calchaquis in the government of Santa -Fé.[526] They apparently belonged among the Chaco tribes. Barcena adds -that nine different tongues were spoken in the district of Cordova, among -which were the Sanavirona and Indama, which had not been learned by the -missionaries.[527] - - -_2. The Pampeans and Araucanians._ - -South of the Gran Chaco, say from south latitude 35°, begins the true -Pampas formation. This, according to the geologist Burmeister, is not a -marine deposit, but the result of fluvial overflows and dust storms. It -is diluvial and quaternary, and overlies the Patagonian formation, which -is marine and early Pleistocene. The pampas are in parts wide grassy -plains, like the prairies of the upper Mississippi valley; in parts they -are salt deserts, in parts more or less wooded. With little variety, this -scenery reaches from the Chaco to the Rio Negro, S. lat. 40°. Nearly the -whole of this territory was occupied by one linguistic stock. It is the -same which is found in Chili, where its most prominent members are the -Araucanians. - -Which was the course of migration, whether from the Pacific coast to -the Pampean plains or the reverse, is not positively decided, but I am -inclined to believe it was the latter. The ancestors of the Araucanians -would not willingly have crossed the barren wastes of the desert of -Atacama; there are evidences of a different people inhabiting Chili -before they possessed it, and we have traces that they had not obtained -full possession of that country at its discovery. This view does not -deny subsequent migrations of the Araucanians into the Pampas under the -pressure of the Spanish invasion.[528] In such moving they were simply -returning to the traditional homes of their ancestors. As the name of -the whole stock, I adopt the word Aucanian, from the Araucanian verb -_aucani_, to be wild, indomitable, from which are derived the tribal -names Aucanos and Aucas, occurring on both sides of the Andes.[529] - -The Pampeans are principally nomadic hordes wandering from pasture -to pasture with their horses, cattle and sheep. Their transitory -encampments, called _tolderias_, are pitched by the side of some pond -or stream. There their low tents made of dried horse skins are grouped -confusedly, one to each family. Their food is chiefly horse flesh -and mutton, often eaten raw. They raise no vegetables, and dislike -agriculture. They carry on, however, many small industries, tan and dye -leather, which they work up into boots and horse furniture, and forge -with skill iron heads for their long lances, and knives for the chase, -while the women trim the ostrich skins into rugs, and weave wool into -blankets and ponchos, highly prized for their serviceable qualities.[530] -These products are bought up by the merchants in the cities, and thus the -tribe is supplied with what it most prizes from European markets. - -These roving hordes have no particular names. They are referred to as the -northern, eastern or western peoples by the Aucanian terms having these -significations, Puelches, Moluches, Huiliches. Besides these, there are -the Ranqueles on the Rio Quinto, directly west of Buenos Ayres, who are -said to have immigrated from Chili,[531] and the Querandies, now probably -extinct, who once dwelt near that city. - -Those living on the eastern slopes of the Andes, about the city of -Mendoza, and in the ancient province of Cuyo, are described as taller -and stronger than the Araucanians of Chili, and as claiming descent from -the Pampean tribes.[532] They were locally known as Guarpes, and spoke -dialects called the Allentiac and the Milcocayac, not distant from the -Pampean proper, concerning which some grammatical description has been -preserved.[533] - -Few of the Pampean tribes have been induced to accept civilization or -Christianity. They still believe in their good spirit, _Chachoa_, and -in one of evil or misfortune, _Gualicho_; they continue to obey their -priests or medicine men; and the resting places of the dead are regarded -with superstitious awe. Marriage among them, while it has the appearance -of violence, is really carried out with the consent of the girl and her -parents, for a sum agreed upon. - -The Molu-Che or Manzaneros are said to be the best of the Pampeans. -They are sedentary and have extensive orchards of apples and flocks of -sheep to the north of the Rio Limay. They have well-cut features, fresh -light complexion, black fine hair, and their women are considered really -handsome.[534] - -The Araucanians of Chili, known as singularly bold warriors who defied -successfully the Incas, and gave the Spaniards the greatest trouble, -occupy the Pacific coast from south latitude 25° to about 43°, and -number about 20,000. In physical appearance they resemble the Pampeans, -and present marked differences from both the Kechuas of Peru and the -Tapuyas of Brazil, having high, brachycephalic skulls,[535] and a clear -copper color of skin. They are of moderate stature, but muscular, with -black hair, round faces, small eyes, and small feet and hands. They -are divided locally into northern and southern tribes, but there is -little difference in dialects. Their tongue, the _Chilidungu_, has -been extravagantly lauded by some who have studied it, and one worthy -missionary was so enamored with it that he published a grammar and -dictionary of it in Europe, that it might be introduced as the learned -language there, to supersede the Latin:[536] it certainly is harmonious -and flexible. - -The Araucanians did not at any time rise in culture above the level of -the Iroquois and Algonquins in the northern continent. It is true that in -the tombs in their country we discover fine specimens of pottery, some -good work in bronze, gold, copper and silver, and beautiful specimens of -polished stone implements.[537] But if one examines closely the art-forms -of these relics, he can not fail to recognize in them the potent -inspiration of the Inca civilization; and we may be sure that if they -were not directly booty from that nation, they were the products of its -trained workmen, and are not to be put to the credit of Aucanian industry. - -AUCANIAN LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Araucanos_, in northern and central Chili. - _Aucanos_ or _Aucas_, in the central Pampas. - _Chauques_, in the Archipelago of Chiloe. - _Chonos_,(?) on Pacific, south of Chiloe. - _Cuncos_, in Chili, south of Rio Valdivia. - _Divie-ches_, on Rio Colorado. - _Guarpes_, near Mendoza. - _Huiliches_(southern people), tribes to the south. - _Moluches_ (western people or warriors), on Pacific coast. - _Pehuenches_ (pine-forest people), east of Cordillera, north of - Rio Colorado. - _Picunches_ (northern people), north of Pehuenches. - _Puelches_ (eastern people), on both banks of Rio Negro. - _Querandies_, near site of Buenos Ayres. - _Ranqueles_, between Rio Quarto and Rio Quinto. - -The Pacific coast of Patagonia, gashed by ancient glaciers into deep -fiords and rocky islands, harbors various tribes whose affinities are -uncertain. The most curious of them would seem to be the _Chonos_ or -Chunos, or Cuncones. They lived south of the archipelago of Chiloe, and -are described as having red hair, a light olive complexion, and of mild -and friendly manners. They raised a breed of dogs (perhaps guanacos), and -wove their clothing from its coarse long hair. - -This account comes to us from as far back as 1619, when the first -missionaries visited them,[538] and these traits cannot therefore be -attributed to intermixture with Europeans. They are not peculiar in these -respects. Similar traits are reported of the Boroas, a tribe in one of -the valleys of central Chili;[539] and I have already referred to the red -hair of the boys among the Matacos of the Gran Chaco. Perhaps it was not -unusual among these nations, as I can in no other way explain the strange -idea of the poet Ercilla the Homer of the Araucanian Conquest, that -these people were descendants of the Frisians of North Holland![540] - -The language of the Chonos is said to be quite different from that of -the Araucanians. Pöppig believed it to be a distant dialect of the same -stock. Some recent travelers assert that they are now extinct, but Dr. C. -Martin informs us that the original inhabitants of the Chonos Islands, -who were the “Huaihuenes” Indians, were transported in 1765 to the island -of Chaulañec, where their posterity still survive.[541] - - -_3. The Patagonians and Fuegians._ - -The Patagonians call themselves Chonek or Tzoneca, or Inaken (men, -people), and by their Pampean neighbors are referred to as Tehuel-Che, -southerners. They do not, however, belong to the Aucanian stock, nor -do they resemble the Pampeans physically. They are celebrated for -their stature, many of them reaching from six to six feet four inches -in height, and built in proportion.[542] In color they are a reddish -brown, and have aquiline noses and good foreheads. They care little for -a sedentary life, and roam the coast as far north as the Rio Negro. -They are not without some religious rites, and are accustomed to salute -the new moon, and at the beginning of any solemn undertaking to puff -the smoke of their pipes to the four cardinal points, just as did the -Algonquins and Iroquois.[543] - -Their language differs wholly from the Araucanian, though it has borrowed -many words from it. An interesting fact illustrating its stability in -spite of their roving life has been brought out by Ramon Lista. He has -compared its present form with the vocabulary of it given by Pigafetta in -his voyage in 1520, and shows that in the intervening generations it has -undergone scarcely any change.[544] - -Von Martius believed that a connection between the Patagonian and the -Tapuya stocks could be shown, and gives a tabular comparison of the -two.[545] I have extended this by means of Ramon Lista’s vocabulary -of the former and Dr. Ehrenreich’s corrected forms of the Tapuya, and -conclude that the resemblances are illusory, depending on incorrect -orthography of the sounds. - -About the beginning of the last century the tribes known as Poyas -(_Pey-yuy_) and Reyes (_Rey-yuy_) were collected at a Mission established -on Lake Nahuelhuapi, about south latitude 42°. Hervas reports them as -speaking a language radically different from the Araucanian, and probably -they should be classed with the Tzonecas.[546] - -On the inhospitable shores of Tierra del Fuego there dwell three nations -of diverse stock, but on about the same plane of culture. One of these is -the _Yahgans_ or Yapoos, on the Beagle canal; the second is the _Onas_ or -Aonik, to the north and east of these; and the third the _Alikulufs_, to -the north and west. - -Of these the Yahgans are the best known, through the efforts of the -English missionaries who have reduced their language to writing. It is a -polysyllabic, agglutinative tongue, with both pre- and suffixes, and is -extremely rich in expressions for the ordinary needs of their life. The -verb has four numbers, a singular, dual, trial and plural. It does not -seem in any way related to the Aucanian stock.[547] - -The tongue of the Onas, who are known as the _Yakanna-Cunni_, is -apparently connected with the Tsoneca or Patagonian, which people they -also resemble in stature and physical traits.[548] - -The Fuegians are generally quoted as a people on the lowest round of the -ladder of culture; and so they are painted by many observers. They have -no government, they can count only to three, ordinary family affection -is not observable, and even mothers manifest a lack of love for their -offspring. Their shelters are wretched, and they go almost naked in a -climate which is both cold and damp. - -On the other hand, they display singular ingenuity in their utensils for -hunting and fishing; they use the sling, the club, the bow, the bola and -the lance; the women weave reed baskets so firmly that they will hold -water, and their bark canoes are light and seaworthy. - -In hunting they have the service of a native dog which they have -trained, and whose welfare they look after with sedulous attention. -Though devoid of idols and external rites of worship, they manifest -in many ways a sense of religion. Thus the relations of the sexes are -surrounded with ceremonies of fasting and bathing, to neglect which -would entail misfortunes, and the name of the dead is not pronounced out -of superstitious awe. The songs and legends of the Yahgans show some -imaginative power. Many of them relate to the marvelous achievements -of the national hero, _Umoara_, who appears to be a wholly mythical -individual. Their strongest passion would seem to be for personal -adornment, and for this purpose shells, vegetable beads, bright pebbles -and variegated feathers, are called into requisition.[549] - -These traits are not those of an enfeebled intellect, and an examination -of their physical powers supports a favorable opinion of their -capacities. Some of them are unusually tall and strong, especially -those on the east coast. Their skulls are mesocephalic and prognathic, -and their brains, which have been examined most carefully by a German -anatomist, show not a single point of inferiority to the average European -brain.[550] - -From examinations which have been carried on in the numerous shell-heaps -which line the shores, there is no evidence that any other people ever -occupied the islands. Skulls and relics are such as those of the present -inhabitants.[551] The total number of these is about 8000, nearly equally -divided between the tribes named. - -The classification of the smaller tribes under the above stocks is not -yet complete. So far as I can make it out, it is as follows: - -ALIKULUF LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Alikulufs_, on the western end of the Beagle Channel. - _Karaikas_, south of the Alikulufs. - -ONA LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Aoniks_ or _Onas_, on Magellan Strait, both shores. - _Huemuls_, near Skyring and Otway Bays. - _Irees_, see _Pescherees_. - _Oensmen_, see _Aoniks_. - _Pescherees_, on central portions of the Strait. - _Yacanas_, see _Aoniks_. - -YAHGAN LINGUISTIC STOCK. - - _Kennekas_, see _Takanikas_. - _Takanikas_, on both shores of the Beagle Channel. - _Yahgans_, see _Yapoos_. - _Yapoos_, on the central Beagle Channel. - -The opinion has been advanced by Dr. Deniker of Paris,[552] that the -Fuegians represent the oldest type or variety of the American race. He -believes that at one time this type occupied the whole of South America -south of the Amazon, and that the Tapuyas of Brazil and the Fuegians -are its surviving members. This interesting theory demands still -further evidence before it can be accepted. It is not confirmed by such -linguistic comparisons as I have been able to institute. - - - - -LINGUISTIC APPENDIX - - -The linguistic classification of the American tribes is at present -imperfect in many regions on account of the incomplete information about -their tongues. A proper comparison of languages or dialects includes -not merely the vocabulary, but the grammatical forms and the phonetic -variations which the vocal elements undergo in passing from one form of -speech to another. In some respects, the morphology is more indicative of -relationship than the lexicon of tongues; and it is in these grammatical -aspects that we are peculiarly poorly off when we approach American -dialects. Yet it is also likely that the tendency of late years has -been to underestimate the significance of merely lexical analogies. The -vocabulary, after all, must be our main stand-by in such an undertaking. - -For that reason I have thought it worth while to bring together a short -list of common words and show their renderings in a number of American -tongues. Inasmuch as the languages north of Mexico--those in the -United States and Canada--have been frequently studied and are readily -accessible in published books, I have confined my specimens to the -tongues of the central and southern regions of the continent. - -The words I have selected for the vocabulary are those which I think -would be most likely to indicate relationship, when such existed. But -as every comparative linguist is aware, neither these nor any words are -free from the risk of ambiguity and equivocation. Thus, in many languages -there are two or three different terms for “man,” as _homo_, _vir_ or -_male_; “woman” is _wife_ or _female_; “sun” and “moon” are often merely -descriptive terms or synonyms of day, light, night and darkness; the -parts of the body have in American tongues the personal possessive noun -prefixed or suffixed; what is worse, the terms for such may differ with -the person, as in Kechua, where the word for “eye,” “arm,” etc., differ -as it is _my_ or _thy_ eye, etc. “Hand” and “arm,” “foot” and “leg,” are -frequently not discriminated, the corresponding words meaning properly -“upper extremity,” “lower extremity,” etc.; and so on for almost every -word that could be chosen. - -The proper inference to draw from these facts is, not that a comparison -of vocabularies is worthless or nearly so, but just the contrary. Where -we find that a short vocabulary, imperfect for the above reasons, and -still more so for the general ignorance of linguistics on the part of -collectors, and the varying values they give to the alphabets employed, -yet reveals identities with others, we are justly authorized to consider -such analogies as highly significant and suggestive of profounder -comparisons. - -YUMA DIALECTS NEAR THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. - - _Cochimi._ _Guaicuru._ _Seri._ _Yuma._ - Man, uami, tama, éte, _pl._ ti, eketam, hamuk. - Woman, wakoe, wuetu, anai, ekemam, hanya. - Sun, ibo, ibunga, untairi, shaa, rahj, inyaa. - Moon, gamma, isah, kilshia. - Fire, usi, amak, aua. - Water, kahal, ahj, aχ, aha. - Head, agoppi, ihlit, ilta, - Eye, ayibika, ito, ido. - Ear, istla, ismahlka. - Mouth, ahà, iten, ya-à. - Nose, namu, ife, ihu. - Tongue, ipχl, ehpelh. - Teeth, itast, ehdoh. - Hand, neganna, titshuketa, intlash, israhl. - Foot, agannapa, itova, ime. - House, ajihuenen, ambuja, aki, ava. - 1, teguep, tashχo, sitik. - 2, goguò, kamoe, ko-okχ, o’ak. - 3, kombio, meakunju, ka-pka, hamok. - 4, magacubugua, kshuχkua, hoba. - 5, naganna teguep, ko-oχtom, harabk. - -The above vocabularies illustrate the extension of the Yuma stock to -the southward. The Cochimi and Guaicuru are remote dialects, but of -positive affinities. The Yuma words which I have added for comparison are -principally from the Mohave dialect, and are taken from the vocabularies -published by the “U. S. Geographical Surveys west of the 100th Meridian.” - -The Seri words are chiefly from the satisfactory vocabulary obtained by -the late John Russell Bartlett. The relationship of the dialect to the -Yuma stock is evident. - -DIALECTS OF THE UTO-AZTECAN STOCK. - - _Tarahumara._ _Pima._ _Nahuatl._ _Ute._ - Man, tehoje, tinot, tlacatl, tawatz. - Woman, muki, upi, uba, cihuatl, oubea. - Sun, taica, tash, tonatiuh, tabi. - Moon, maitsaca, { maskat, } metztli, mytogé. - { massar, } - Fire, naïki, tletl, tē vua, M. - Water, { shontik, } atl, pah. - { sueti, } - Head, moola, nemoah, totzontecon, totsein. - Eye, pusiki, ixtololotli, puevi. - Ear, nechcala, naank, nacaztli, nangk. - Mouth, camatl, temb. - Nose, jachcala, yacatl, yaga, M. - Tongue, tenila, nenepilli, lengi, M. - Tooth, ptahan, tlantli, tahwan. - Hand, noh, maitl, mōu, makhde. - Foot, tala, icxitl, igug. - House, { nip-ki, } calli, kahan. - { ki, } - 1, yumako, ce, shui. - 2, oca, guoca, kuak, ome, wyune. - 3, vaīk, yey, pay. - 4, ki-ak, nahui, vachue. - 5, huitas, macuilli, manuy. - -The eight dialects which I give from the extensive Uto-Aztecan stock will -illustrate the relationship of its members. The words marked M. in the -Ute or Shoshonian vocabulary belong to the Moqui dialect, which appears -to approach nearer the Aztecan branch than the speech of the northern -tribes. The Tepehuana words are from the vocabulary obtained by M. -Tarayre, and published in his _Explorations_ (see _anté_, p. 136). I have -placed the geographical extremes, the Nahuatl and the Ute, side by side, -to illustrate the really striking similarity of these dialects, the one -current on the Columbia river, the other extending to Chiriqui lagoon, -near the Isthmus of Panama. Buschmann, in his works already referred to -(_anté_, p. 119), cites numerous other examples. - -DIALECTS OF THE UTO-AZTECAN STOCK.--(_Continued._) - - _Heve._ _Tepehuana._ _Opata._ _Cora._ - Man, dor, chiuaitcam, uri, teuit, teáta. - Woman, { hub, } osi, _pl._ nau, uita. - { hoquis, } - Sun, tuui, tanaol, tät, xeucat. - Moon, metzat, maasol, metza, añahupi. - Fire, te, tay, thai, teujcuarit. - Water, bat, suudai, vat, ahti. - Head, zonit, maao, muuti. - Eye, vusit, bopoe, mäua, hiuziti. - Ear, nacat, naxaihti. - Mouth, tenit, intrigni. - Nose, dacat, yak. - Tongue, nenet, nuin, nanuriti. - Tooth, tanus, tatama. - Hand, mamat, ingnaono. - Foot, tarat, incaiao, moamati. - House, quit, vāāk, kit, chapoariti. - 1, sei, homad, se. - 2, godum, gaok, hualpoa. - 3, veidum, baech, vaide. - 4, nausi, maukao, nago. - 5, marqui, chetam, marizi. - -Still more substantial proof of the unity of this stock is furnished by -the comparative grammar of its different members. These present various -phases of morphological development, but always on the same lines. The -Nahuatl is much the higher of them all, and in some of its forms attains -to a truly inflectional character, as has been shown by Professor -Steinthal. - -CENTRAL STOCKS. - - _Totonaco._ _Tarasco._ _Otomi._ - _Upper._ _Lower._ - Man, tziuereti, n’yōh. - Woman, chajat, tac, taco, cucha, cuxareti, datsu, sitzu. - Sun, co, chichini, huriata, ’hiadi. - Moon, papa, malcoyo, cutzi, rzana. - Fire, turiri, tzibi. - Water, chochot, xcan, itsi, dehe. - Head, ayxaca, ehpu, ña. - Eye, lacaztaponitni, lacacholna, eskua, da. - Ear, tangan, cacaxcolna, kutsikua, gu. - Mouth, quilni, quelpaja, haramekua, ne. - Nose, quincan, quin, tz-ure, siu. - Tongue, katamba, qhane. - Tooth, tatzanitni, taizalatna, sini, ttzi. - Hand, macanitni, macatatna, haqui, ’ye. - Foot, tohuan, tojolat, gua. - House, quahta, ngu. - 1, tom, omollana, ma, ’ne, r’e. - 2, toy, toy, tziman, yoho. - 3, toto, toton, tanimo, hiu. - 4, tat, tamu, gooho. - 5, quitziz, yumu, cqtta. - -The Totonaco is spoken in two diverse dialects by the inhabitants of the -plains and the uplands. The difference is not so great as appears in the -written tongue, as they are mutually intelligible. - -A number of works on the Tarascan language have recently been edited or -written by Dr. Nicolas Leon, of Morelia, Michoacan, so that there is -abundant material for the study of the tongue. - -The Otomi presents so many sounds unfamiliar to the European ear that the -attempt to represent it by our alphabets can be only remotely accurate. -I have a very extensive MS. dictionary of the tongue, based on the -_Vocabulario Mexicano_ of Molina. - -CENTRAL STOCKS. - - _Zoque._ _Mixe._ _Zapotec._ _Mixtec._ - Man, puen, yai-tohk, beni niguio, yee. - Woman, yoma, toix, beni gonaa, ñahadzehe. - Sun, hama, xeuh, { chii, - { gobiche. - Moon, poya, xapa, xona xibeo. - Fire, hucata, xöön, guii. - Water, na, noo, niza. - Head, copac, cobaac, icqui, dzini. - Eye, vitem, huin, bizaloo, tenu. - Ear, tatzec, tatzc, tiaga, tutnu, dzoho. - Mouth, angnaca, au, rua, rohua, yuhu. - Nose, quina, höp, xii, dzitui. - Tongue, totz, yen, luuchi, yaa. - Tooth, tetz, tötz, chitalaaga, noho. - Hand, tzamguica, cöö, naa, daha. - Foot, manguica, teic, nii. - House, töc, tenk, yuu, lichi, huahi. - 1, tuma, tuuc, tubi, ek. - 2, metza, metzc, tiopa, uvui. - 3, tucay, tucoc, chona, uni. - 4, macscuy, mactaxc, tapa, kmi. - 5, mosay, mocoxc, guayo, hoho. - -In the above vocabularies the relation of the Zoque to the Mixe is more -clearly shown than that of the Zapotec to the Mixtec. A more extended -comparison of the two latter has been instituted by Pimentel in his work -on the languages of Mexico, which appears to strengthen the belief that -they belong to the same stock. Prof. Friedrich Müller, however, continues -to regard them as separate stocks (_Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, -Bd. II., Ab. I., s. 298, sq.). The question is discussed with fullness -in the introduction, by Dr. Nicholas Leon, to the _Arte del Idioma -Zapoteco_, of Juan de Cordova (ed. Morelia, 1886), to which the student -is referred. I think the evidence is sufficient to regard them as allied -idioms. The Zapotec of the mountains, _Zapoteco serrano_, differs -considerably from that which is given above. - -CENTRAL STOCKS. - - _Chinantec._ _Huave._ _Maya._ _Chapanec._ - Man, { cha, } náshui, uinic, dipaju, naha. - { ñuh, } - Woman, mui, { naptah, } ixal, nafui. - { nostah, } - Sun, mañui, noet, kin, napiju, nyumbu. - Moon, zei, cahau, u, yuju. - Fire, nigei, kaak, niiyu. - Water, mui, ha, nimbu. - Head, gui, pol, hol, tkima. - Eye, manihi, uich, naté. - Ear, xicin, nyujmi. - Mouth, cuhaha, chi, duŭi, nunsu. - Nose, ni, nyungu. - Tongue, uak, baelu, griji. - Tooth, co, niji. - Hand, nquaha, cab, dila, diro. - Foot, nni, uoc, oc, laku, gura. - House, nu, piem, otoch, nangu. - 1, cna, anop, hun, tike, ticao. - 2, tno, epoem, ca, jomi, hăo. - 3, nne, erof-poef, ox, jami, haui. - 4, quiu, apûkif, can, haha. - 5, ña, akukif, ho, hāomo. - -The Chinantec is included in the Zapotec stock by Pimentel, who follows -the dictum of Hervas, confessedly without examination (_Lenguas Indigenas -de Mexico_, Tom. III., cap. 37). This was not the opinion of Dr. Berendt, -who has compared both tongues, and a comparison of the short vocabularies -which I give shows only one word, that for “foot,” which is identical in -both. - -The Huaves, who claim a migration from the south, do not reveal a -connection in their language with any of the southern stocks. - -The Maya of the Vocabulary is the pure tongue as spoken in Yucatan. -Its various dialects have been carefully studied by Berendt, Stoll and -others. The most corrupt is probably the Chaneabal of Chiapas, of which I -gave a short analysis in the _American Anthropologist_, Jan., 1888. - -INTER-ISTHMIAN STOCKS. - - _Musquito._ _Lenca._ _Xicaque._ _Ulva._ - Man, waikna, amashe, jomé, all. - Woman, mairen, mapu, pitmé, yall. - Sun, lapta, gasi, behapoi, moa. - Moon, kati, numui, uaigo. - Fire, pauta, uga, inqueamoos, ku. - Water, li, güas, sur, uas. - Head, lel, toro, laipuco, tunik. - Eye, nakro, saring, non, miniktaka. - Ear, kiama, yang, fora, tabaki. - Mouth, bila, ingori, muipane, dinibas. - Nose, kakma, napse, meguin, nangitak. - Tongue, twisa, navel, rin, tuki. - Tooth, napa, nagha, quir, anaki. - Hand, mita, gulala, mor, tumi. - Foot, mena, güagl, san, kalkibas. - House, watla, tahu, chef, u. - 1, kumi, ita, pani, { aslar, - { aloslag. - 2, wal, na, matis, muye bu. - 3, niupa, lagua, contis, muye bas. - 4, wälwäl, aria, urupan, muya runca. - 5, matasip, saihe, casanpani, muye sinca. - -The above four vocabularies are taken from MS. material in my possession -collected by E. G. Squier and Dr. C. H. Berendt. They do not appear to -indicate the slightest relationship either between themselves, or with -any other known stocks. The careful researches of Lucien Adam on the -Musquito grammar do not bring it into connection either with the Carib -or the Chibcha families, with which it has sometimes been supposed to be -affined. - -The Lenca dialects, of four of which I have vocabularies, do not differ -materially, but the exact distribution of the stock at the period of the -conquest is uncertain. - -INTER-ISTHMIAN STOCKS.--(_Continued_.) - - _Guatuso._ _Subtiaba._ _Matagalpan._ _Xinca._ - Man, ochapa, rabu, misa, jumu, jurac. - Woman, curijuri, rabaku, yūeiya, ayala. - Sun, toji, daska, lal, pari. - Moon, ziji, dŭkkú, aiko, ahua. - Fire, cuepala, agu, lauale, ŭra. - Water, ti, iĭa, li, ui. - Head, machia, edi, ekxu, ma’ike, gesalia. - Eye, mafi zicu, siktu, kuñke, yurati. - Ear, nato coto, nyahu, topalke, mami. - Mouth, macoquica, daghu, taŭake, xajac. - Nose, natain, dakko, namke, jutu narin. - Tongue, macu, duhun, tomamke, eilan. - Tooth, oca, sinnyu, ninike, jari xajan. - Hand, macu quichia, nyau, panake, pum, pu. - Foot, naho quichia, nasku, napake, guapan. - House, uh, guá, u, macu. - 1, anacachumaru, imba, bas, ica. - 2, ponca, pangi, apu, buyo, ti, piar. - 3, assu, gūatba, uala. - 4, paque, posai, asku, bota´jio, iria. - 5, uissu, pijar. - -The Guatuso is taken from the vocabularies collected by Bishop Thiel, and -several times republished. The remaining three are from MS. materials -collected by Dr. C. H. Berendt. The Xinca I have previously published, -with a general discussion of the tribe, in the _Proc. of the Amer. -Philosoph. Soc._, 1885. - -The Matagalpan or “Chontal of Nicaragua” (see _anté_, p. 149), is from -the vocabulary collected by the Rev. Victor Noguera. It appears to stand -quite alone. A few remote resemblances to the Talamanca dialects of Costa -Rica seem to exist, which, if real, would connect the Matagalpan with -South American stocks. - -COLUMBIAN STOCKS. - - _Cuna._ _Changuina._ _Andaqui._ _Tucura._ - Man, mastule, taro, himbera. - Woman, puna, bia. - Sun, ipe, querele, caqui, ahumautu. - Moon, ni, sirala, mitae, jedeco. - Fire, chau, quebu, jifi (= candle). - Water, ti, si, ti, yi, jiji, pania. - Head, chag’la, { duku, } quinaji, poru. - { quinunuma, } - Eye, ibia, oko, sifi, tabu. - Ear, ugua, kuga, sunguajo, quiburi. - Mouth, kagya, caga, ité. - Nose, ŭchue, neko, quifi, kaimbu. - Tongue, guapina, cuba, sonae. - Tooth, nugada, zuu, sicoga. - Hand, changa, kulosol, sacaá, juwajimi. - Foot, nacamali, ser, soguapana, jenu. - House, neca, hu, cojoo, té. - 1, quenchigue, que, aba. - 2, pogua, como, unmé. - 3, pagua, calabach, unpia. - 4, paquegua, calacapa, kimare. - 5, atale, calamale, cuesume. - -The Cuna and the Changuina or Dorasque are from M. Alph. Pinart’s various -publications on these dialects; the Andaqui from the collections of the -Presbyter Albis; and the Tucura, a Choco dialect, from the report of Dr. -A. Ernst (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1887, 302). The last mentioned -was obtained on the upper Sinu river, near the junction of the Rio Verde. -It is not of the San Blas (Cuna) family, but clearly Choco. - -I have already referred (p. 200) to some slight similarity of the Andaqui -to the Chibcha; but until we have more extensive material of the former, -the question must be left open. - -DIALECTS OF THE CHOCO STOCK. - - _Noanama._ _Tado´._ _Chami._ _Sambo or Choco._ - Man, emokoyda, umujina, muguira, { umachina, - { muguira. - Woman, uida, uena, huera, auera. - Sun, edau, pesia, umata, pisia, imuanba. - Moon, edau, jedego, tedeco, jedecó. - Fire, igdn, tibúa, tibuzhia, tŭjoor. - Water, du, panea, pania, { pania. - { do = river. - Head, púdu, paru´, boro, poro. - Eye, daū, taū, tao, tau. - Ear, cachi, kŭru´, guru, juru. - Mouth, i, itai´, gu, ji, itai. - Nose, keun, kung, y, cung, jun. - Tongue, meujina, kinóme, guiranee, quirame. - Tooth, hierra, kida´, guida, tida. - Hand, hua, hua´, tua, jua. - Foot, bopidi, jinuga´, tiui, jinu. - House, di, tee´, te, dhe. - 1, aba, aba, aba, aba. - 2, nu, ume, ube, ome. - 3, tanjupa, kimaris, umpea, ompea. - 4, jay upa, guasuma, guimare, quimari. - 5, juambo, kisona, guasome, guasoma. - -The Choco family had probably at one time a much wider extension than we -are familiar with in historic times. I have suggested (_anté_, pp. 274, -275), that even the sparse material for comparison as yet available seems -to indicate an affinity with the Betoya stock. As our knowledge of the -Orinoco and the Columbian region extends, probably other tribes will be -discovered speaking related dialects. The four vocabularies which I give -above serve to illustrate the comparatively slight differences of the -phonetics. Another dialect, the Tucará (see _anté_, p. 176, note), is -given on the preceding page. - -DIALECTS OF THE CHIBCHA STOCK. - - _Chibcha._ _Aroac._ _Chimila._ _Guaymi._ - Man, muysca, sökue, söökué, nitocua. - Woman, ti-güi, yun-kue, yuunkué, meri. - Sun, sua, yuia, neiin-á, ninguane. - Moon, chie, tii, tii, só. - Fire, gata, gué, uuñé, nocua. - Water, sie, yira, niitake, si, ña. - Head, zysqui, zankalla, oökrá, thokua. - Eye, upcua, uba, uaákua, ocua. - Ear, cuhuca, kuhcua, kuúsaka, olo. - Mouth, quihica, köhka, köökua, cā da. - Nose, saca, niksaiñ, naañakra, secua. - Tongue, pcua, kuca, kuá, tudra. - Tooth, sica, köhka (?), né, tu. - Hand, yta, atta-kra, aattakra, cuse. - Foot, quihicha, ksa, pukré, pookré, ngoto. - House, güe, húi, aátaka, jú. - 1, ata, kuté, kuté, kr-ati. - 2, boza, moga, muuhná, kro-bu. - 3, mica, maigua, teieme´, kro-mai. - 4, muihica, murieié, murieié, kro-boko. - 5, hisca, achigua, kutendeu-rehattagra, kro-rigua. - -The relations of the Chibcha dialects are so important in their bearings -on the question of the migrations from South into North America, that in -addition to the specific comparisons on page 186, I here add vocabularies -of six dialects; three, the Chibcha, Aroac and Chimila, from south of the -Isthmus, and three, the Guaymi, Talamanca and Boruca, from north of it. - -The Chibcha proper is a language of extremely difficult phonetics for a -European, and doubtless the Spanish orthography, in which it is rendered, -is far from accurate. - -The fundamental identity of the dialects of the stock becomes much more -apparent after a study of their laws of phonetic variation, as set forth -by Dr. Max Uhle (_anté_, p. 185). - - CHIBCHA STOCK. COLUMBIAN STOCKS. - _Talamanca._ _Boruca._ _Paniquita._ _Timote._ - Man, vipá, con-rokh, piz, petam, { mayoi, - { kak, nachu. - Woman, arácra, kam-rokh, neyo, cuenas, { kursum, - { naktun. - Sun, divu, kak, itaqui, mpú. - Moon, turu, tebe, ate. - Fire, yuk, dukra, ipi, chirip, fú. - Water, di, di, yo, chimpué. - Head, tsuko, sagra, dicté, kicham. - Eye, vubra, caix, yafi. - Ear, cucüh, cuaga, tógnue, timabum. - Mouth, sacu, casa, yugue, { macabó, - { karichnuck. - Nose, chi´scah, xiska, inz. - Tongue, ku, tone, chiqui vú. - Tooth, aka, quith. - Hand, ura, dijurre, cose. - Foot, iucra, di-krescua, chinda, kuju. - House, huh, yath, nakot. - 1, et, yas, vitech, kari. - 2, bug, enz, gem. - 3, mang, tec, sut, hisjut. - 4, keng, panz, pit. - 5, skera, taz, { caboc, - { mubes. - -The Talamanca and Boruca are Chibcha dialects (see preceding page). The -Paniquita (see _anté_, pp. 190-192) has no positive affinities with -its neighbors. The grammatical character of its Paez dialect has been -analyzed by Fr. Müller (_Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, Bd. II., Ab. -I., p. 356). He points out some similarity in the numerals to the Kechua -and Goajiro. But this is not significant. - -The various vocabularies of the Timote stock differ considerably, and -none of them is at all complete. - - DIALECTS OF THE DIALECTS OF THE - BARBACOA STOCK. COCANUCO STOCK. - _Colorado._ _Cayapa._ _Moguex._ _Totoro._ - Man, zachi, unilla, liu-pula, muck, mujel. - Woman, sona, sonala, su-pula, schut, ishu. - Sun, ió, pacta, puizarum. - Moon, pe, macara, puil. - Fire, ni, ninguma, ipt. - Water, pi, pi, pii. - Head, muchú, mishpuca, pusro, pushu. - Eye, cacó, capucua, cap, captchul. - Ear, pungui, calo. - Mouth, fiquiforo, tipaqui, chidbchad, trictrap. - Nose, quinfu, kijo, kind, kim. - Tongue, nigca, nile. - Teeth, tesco, tchugul. - Hand, tede, fia-papa, coze, cambil. - Foot, nede, ne-papa, kadzigd. - Home, ia, ya, yaatk, ia. - 1, manga, kanendova. - 2, paluga, pubuin. - 3, paimun, puinbun. - 4, humbaluló, pipuin. - 5, manta, tchajpun. - -A comparison of the above vocabularies will probably strengthen the -supposition I have advanced (_anté_, p. 199), that these two stocks were -originally branches of one and the same. The material on all the dialects -is scanty, and for a proper grammatical collation is quite wanting. -As they are yet living idioms, it is to be hoped that some energetic -traveler will supply the facts to solve the question. The sources of the -vocabularies are indicated in the text. - -PERUVIAN STOCKS. - - _Kechua._ _Aymara._ _Yunca._ _Atacameño._ - Man, runa, hague, chacha, ñofœn, sima. - Woman, huarmi, marmi, mecherrœc, licau. - Sun, inti, inti, villca, xllang, capim. - Moon, quilla, phakhsi, çamur. - Fire, nina, nina, humur. - Water, una, yacu, uma, la, leng, puri. - Head, uma, ppekeña, lecq, hlacsi. - Eye, ñaui, nayra, locq, kjepi. - Ear, rincri, hinchu, medeng, aike. - Mouth, simi, lacca, ssap, khaipe. - Nose, sencca, nasa, fon, misi, sipe. - Tongue, ccallu, lakhra, ed, lasi. - Tooth, quiru, lacca, cchacca, œcquang, quenne. - Hand, maqui, ampara, mœcqua, suyi. - Foot, chaqui, cayu, loc, khoche. - House, huasi, uta, enec, lec, an, turi. - 1, huc, mayni, maya, onöc, na, sema. - 2, iscay, pani, paya, atput, pac, poya. - 3, quimsa, quimsa, çopæt, çoc, palama. - 4, tahua, pusi, nopœt, noc, chalpa. - 5, pichka, pisca, exllmätzh, mutsma. - -The wide differences between the four main Peruvian stocks are seen -in the above vocabularies. The Kechua and Aymara alone have anything -in common. The Yunca is presented in the Mochica dialect, which is -that adopted by Carrera in his Grammar. The vocabulary of the Etenes, -as furnished by Bastian, differs from it only in the word for “eye,” -_tassack_, and “head,” _chätz_, which is remarkable, considering the -extreme difficulty of the Yunca phonetics. The grammars of these three -tongues are carefully analyzed by Fr. Müller. - -The Atacameño words are from the authorities quoted on p. 227. Of its -grammar we have only the imperfect account furnished by San Roman, which -seems to remove it from the character of the Kechua and Aymara. - -SOUTH ATLANTIC LINGUISTIC STOCKS. - - _Arawak._ _Tapuya._ _Tupi._ _Kiriri._ - Man, wadili, { samnaha, } apyaba, klöh. - { waha, } - Woman, hiaeru, zokna, cunhá, kütsi. - Sun, haddali, taru te mu, curasse, utschih. - Moon, katti, kmuniak, jaçi, cayacu. - Fire, hikkihi, chompek, tatá, issuh. - Water, wuini, muniā, hy, dzu. - Head, krain, canga, tzambu. - Eye, akussi, ketom, tesa, po-nubi. - Ear, adikkehi, nunk-hōn, namby, benjen. - Mouth, uelleru kuhu, nimā, juru, oriza. - Nose, issirihi, kigin, iting, nambih. - Tongue, uejehi, kzigiok, japecong, nunuh. - Tooth, ari, { zhún, } ainha, dza. - { yune, } - Hand, uekabbu, po, ypo, mnssang. - Foot, ukutti, po, py, bouih. - House, bahü, kjiemm, oka, era, bate. - 1, abba, pogik, jebe, bihe. - 2, biama, nom, mucuing, wachani. - 3, kabbuhin, tscho caorhu, musapui, wachani dikie. - 4, bibiti, iapes chacoron, erundi. - 5, abbatekabbe, nonhoron. - -The four chief stocks of the eastern Amazon region present a fundamental -diversity both in vocabulary and grammar. The Arawak is shown as it is, -as current in Guiana and along the northern affluents of the Amazon; -the Tapuya is in the dialect of the Botocudos, as presented by Dr. Paul -Ehrenreich; the Tupi is the “lingua geral” of Brazil; and the Kiriri is -from the _Arte_ of Mamiani. - -In most of the South Atlantic stocks the numerals are imperfectly -developed, all quantities above three being usually expressed by compound -words. - -DIALECTS OF THE ARAWAK STOCK. - - _Chontaquiro._ _Baniva._ _Piapoco._ _Guana._ - Man, geji, enami, ima, { hapohitai, - { tahanan. - Woman, sichuné, neyau, inanahi, zeeno. - Sun, intiti, amorci, ureri, kat-hai. - Moon, cachiri, { pia, } keri, kohaivai. - { achita, } - Fire, chichi, arsi, kitsai, incu. - Water, uné, ueni, huni, houna. - Head, huejijua, { ibupi, } ivita, kombaipoi. - { nombo, } - Eye, huijarsajé, nu puri, nouto ui, onguei. - Ear, huijepe, notarifara, gua-wui, guaihaino. - Mouth, huespé, e-noma, wa-numa, baho. - Nose, huisiri, pe-yapa, nouïacou, agueiri. - Tongue, guenè, n-hotare, wa-nimi, nahainai. - Tooth, huisé, na-si, yai, onhai. - Hand, huamianuta, capi, ha-capi, no. - Foot, huisiqui, itsipara, ouabari, djahavai. - House, panchi, panisi, capi, maihaino. - 1, suriti, abehita, poikoja. - 2, apiri, pucheibata, pid-djaho. - 3, noquiri, maisibba, mopoa. - 4, ticti, bainoco, honaton. - 5, tictisiri, abemo hacapi, houakoo. - -These four vocabularies of some dialects of the Arawak stock, from -localities wide apart, disclose extensive variations from the standard -tongue. They are, however, rather apparent than real, and often depend on -either variations in orthography, or the substitution of synonymous or -allied words. This is well seen in the comparative table of thirty-six -Arawak dialects presented in tabular form by Karl von den Steinen in -his _Durch Central-Brasilien_, s. 294. Neither he nor Adam includes the -Chontaquiro in the Arawak stock, but a comparison of vocabularies leaves -no doubt about it. The Chontaquiro prefix _hue_ is the Piapoco _gua_, = -“thy.” - -DIALECTS OF THE CARIB STOCK. - - _Bakairi._ _Motilone._ _Guaque._ _Tamanaca._ - Man, uguruto, ya´kano, guire, nuani. - Woman, pekoto, esate, guerechi, aica. - Sun, tsisi, güicho, uehi. - Moon, nuna, kuna, nuna. - Fire, pĕ´to, güesta, majoto. - Water, paru, kuna-siase, tuna. - Head, kχinaraχu, jutuye, prutpe. - Eye, kχānu´, anú, emuru, januru. - Ear, kχi uanata´, pana, janari, panari. - Mouth, kχi ta´λ, indare. - Nose, kχana´λ, ona, onari. - Tongue, kχ u´lu, inico, nuru. - Tooth, kχ ie´λ, kiyuko, yeri. - Hand, kχ ama´λ, oma, niñare, jamgnari. - Foot, kχ uχuλ, pisa, iyu puru, ptari. - House, ŏtá, pesoa, migna. - 1, tokalole, tukum-arko, ovin. - 2, asage, kos-arko, oco. - 3, asage-tokalo, koser-arko, orva. - 4, asage-asage, kos aj-taka. - 5, oma (hand). - -The oldest existing forms of the Carib stock are believed by Von den -Steinen to be preserved in the Bakairi, which I have accordingly placed -first in the vocabularies of this family. - -The Motilone, which is placed beside it, is one of the most northwestern -dialects, and shows singular tenacity of the radicals of the language. - -The Guaque, which is substantially the same as the Carijona, is the -extreme western member of the family, but presents unmistakably the -physiognomy of the stock. - -Of the Tamanaca I have seen but incomplete specimens, but on account of -its former importance, I insert it in this connection. - -DIALECTS OF THE CARIB STOCK.--_Continued._ - - _Roucouyenne._ _Macuchi._ _Maquiritare._ _Cumanagoto._ - Man, okiri, uratâe, rahuwari, guarayto. - Woman, oli, nery, wiri, guariche. - Sun, chichi, uci, ouéi, chi, sis. - Moon, nunu, capoui, nonna, nuna. - Fire, uapot, apo, guahato. - Water, tuna, tuna, tona, tuna. - Head, itepuru, popahy, iyoha, putpo. - Eye, yanuru, yénu, tenu, yenur, ono. - Ear, panari, panure, ihanarri, panar. - Mouth, uaiamu, unta, intarri, umptar. - Nose, yemna, yuna, yonari, ona. - Tongue, nulu, unum, iwini, nuri. - Tooth, yéré, piriabura, adderri, yer. - Hand, yamuru, yanda, arra mori, yemiar. - Foot, pupuru, uta, ohorro, putar. - House, pacolo, euete, ahute, pata. - 1, auini, tiuim, toni, tibin. - 2, uakéné, sagané, hake, achac. - 3, eleuau, siruané, arrowawa, achoroao. - 4, sacreré, hake kiema, yzpe. - 5, matiquim, petpe. - -The Roucouyenne and Macuchi are dialects on either slope of the sierra -south of Guyana. Both appear to have been affected by their proximity to -the Arawak stock. - -The Maquiritare of the Orinoco and the Cumanagoto of the northern portion -of Venezuela are comparatively closely related, and both present few -foreign elements. - -We may expect a thorough treatment of the comparative grammar of the -Carib dialects from M. Lucien Adam, who is engaged in this study at the -present time. - -A large amount of material has been collected by Von den Steinen, of -which but a small portion has been published. It relates principally to -the southern Carib dialects. - -LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO BASIN. - - _Opone and _Peba._ _Yahua._ _Saliva._ - Carare._ - Man, comoley, huano, cocco. - Woman, watoa, huaturuna, gnacu. - Sun, bueno, wana, hini, mumesechecocco. - Moon, cano, remelane, arimaney, vexio. - Fire, fotó, feula, jigney, egussa. - Water, tuna, ain, aah, cagùa. - Head, iube, siyoco, raino, firignio. - Eye, ieu, yeo, vinimichi, huiranca, pacuté. - Ear, itana, stana, mituva, ontisiui, aicupana. - Mouth, rito, huiçama, aajà. - Nose, iena, yena, vinerro, unirou, incuu. - Tongue, inu, syno. - Tooth, viala. - Hand, iaso, iyaso, vi-nitaily, hui janpana, immomó. - Foot, idebu, stuyo, vi nimotay, muniumatu, caabapa. - House, mune, lowarrey, rore. - 1, tomeulay, tekini. - 2, nomoira, nanojui. - 3, tamoimansa, munua. - 4, namerayo, naïrojuiño. - 5, taonella, tenaja. - -The Opone and the Carare have evidently been subjected to foreign -influences, but still retain the characteristics of the Carib dialects. - -The Peba and the Yahua are not attached to the Carib family. They, -however, reveal the traces of its influence, and appear to have adopted -many words from it. Probably they are largely jargons, and between -themselves indicate a rather close relationship. - -Of the Saliva, which seems to stand alone, the materials are inadequate. -Some texts, with an effort at a grammatical analysis, are given in the -_Mithridates_, III., s. 625. - -LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO BASIN.--(_Continued._) - - _Otomaca._ _Piaroa._ _Guaraouna._ _Guahiba._ - Man, andoua, ovo, guarao, pebi. - Woman, ondoua, ysaho, { ibama, petiriba, C., - { tira, pihaoua. - Sun, noua, morho, hoke, { wameto, C., - { icatia, isota. - Moon, oura, chawa, guanica, oamito. - Fire, noua, ocoura, hècouno, isoto. - Water, ia, ahiia, ho, mera. - Head, chû, { pemoto hocota, C., - { ibun. - Eye, chiahere, yto huto. - Ear, cacoco, { pemohuyo roto, C., - { nu tanipara. - Mouth, chaha, doco, pinpierda. - Nose, chihino, ca-icari, pepomuteito. - Tongue, chame, peeberta. - Tooth, chacou, ca-ycay, bono. - Hand, chumu, ca-mahu, napi. - Foot, chinepo, omu, petahu. - House, hanouco, ta-habo (my). - 1, enga, itchaca, cahene. - 2, dé, manamo, nawanube. - 3, yakia, dianamo, acueyani. - 4, depitade, urabocaya, penaya autsiva. - 5, ionga pinibo, uabachi, cahecobe. - -The above four _lengue matrice_ were among the most important on the -Orinoco. The Guaraouna or Warrau was, and continues to be, spoken by the -tribes of the delta, who are numerous and intelligent, when they have a -fair chance to live undisturbed. - -Of the Otomaca only the merest fragments have been published, and my -vocabulary is nearly empty. - -Several recent travelers have brought back information about the Piaroa -and Guahiba, some of which may be found in the eighth volume of the -_Bibliothèque Linguistique Américaine_ (Paris, 1882), with observations -by M. Adam. C. refers to Chaffanjon. - -LANGUAGES OF THE ORINOCO BASIN.--(_Continued._) - - _Omagua._ _Yarura._ _Betoya._ _Correguaje._ - Man, ava, mena, pume, umasoi, emiud, pai. - Woman, huaina, cunia, ibi, ain, ro. - Sun, huarassi, do, teo-umasoi, ense. - Moon, yase, goppe, teo-ro, paimia. - Fire, tata, condé, futui. - Water, uni, uui, ocudú, ocŏ. - Head, yacue, pacchá, rosaca, sijope. - Eye, zaicana, { batchioo, C., } ufoniba, ñancoca. - { jonde, } - Ear, nami, cajoroso. - Mouth, yuru, yaoo, C. - Nose, ti, nappe, jusaca, jinquepui. - Tongue, cumuera, { hihn, C., } ineca, chimenu. - { toppono, } - Tooth, say, hundee, C., cojini. - Hand, pua, icchi, rum-cosi, jete. - Foot, pueta, tahoo, C., rem-ocá, coapi. - House, uca, guce. - 1, uyepe, canāme, edojojoi. - 2, mucuica, { adotchami, } edoi. - { ñoeni, } - 3, iruaca, tarani, ibutu. - 4, adoitchemī. - 5, canikiro. - -The Omagua is a well-marked Tupi dialect. Adam has shown the grammatical -concordances clearly (_Compte-Rendu du Cong. des Amer._, 1888, p. 496). - -The Yarura and Betoya reveal faint resemblances in the words for “sun” -and “tongue”; but not enough to justify assuming a relationship. Their -grammars are quite unlike, that of the Yarura preceding by suffixes, that -of the Betoya by prefixes (see Müller, _Sprachwissenschaft_, Bd. II., Ab. -I., s. 361). - -The Correguaje shows less analogy to the Betoya in the above vocabulary -than in a more extended comparison. The word for water, _ocŏ_, reappears -in a number of dialects not akin to this stock, and is perhaps allied to -the Chinchasuyu _yacu_ (see _anté_, p. 205). - -DIALECTS OF THE UPPER AMAZONIAN BASIN. - - _Pano._ _Culino._ _Baré._ _Puinavi._ - Man, buene, huebo, nukung, ehinari. - Woman, avio, yusabu, auy, hinatape. - Sun, bari, wari, camuhu, iama. - Moon, usde, osi, ozii, ki, heboet. - Fire, si, yuai, cameni. - Water, uaca, unpas, uaka, huni, u, eti. - Head, macho, mapo, mazu, dosia, ahouiat. - Eye, buero, würru, iwiti, ambic. - Ear, pauké, tsaybynky, idatini, about. - Mouth, uschà, ibi, ecuacha, inuma, ayé. - Nose, desan, rüky, itti, mohec. - Tongue, āna, anu, inene, arok. - Tooth, seta, sena, sita, heheyi. - Hand, maku, nucobi, arap. - Foot, tacu, tarú, whyta, isi, asim. - House, subo, subu. - 1, pajü, uüty, bacanacari, atam. - 2, dabui, rubä, rabii, bicunama, ahao. - 3, muken aute, takuma, kirikunama, apaoui. - 4, akaouno. - 5, daptan. - -The grammatical and phonetic relations of the Pano stock have been -judiciously analyzed by M. Raoul de la Grasserie (_Compte-Rendu du -Cong. des Amer._, 1888, p. 438, sq.). The Pano and Culino are seen to -be closely connected, those who use the one doubtless understanding the -other. - -The Baré, which is an Arawak dialect, I have inserted here for the sake -of convenience. - -The Puinavi is unclassified (see _anté_, p. 278). In the few words above -given, those for “sun,” “water,” and “foot” appear to have affinities to -the Baré. - -DIALECTS OF THE UPPER AMAZONIAN BASIN.--(_Continued._) - - _Catoquina._ _Ticuna._ _Zaparo._ _Tucano._ - Man, eu, iyate, táúcuo, euma, mina. - Woman, ainà, niai, itiúmu, numea. - Sun, tscha, ehajeh, yano´cua, muipu. - Moon, wahlya, cashi´cua, mama nunpo. - Fire, ychta, ejheh, anamis-hu´cua, pecaméê. - Water, uata-hy, aaitchu, muricha, ocó. - Head, ghy, nahairu, a´naca, diptuá. - Eye, yghó, nehaai, namijia, caperi. - Ear, masaehta, nachiuai, taure, umepero. - Mouth, nunaghy, naha, atupa´ma, sero. - Nose, opaghpó, naran, najúcua, ekéá. - Tongue, nogho, kohny, ririccià, yéménó. - Tooth, y, taputa, icare, upiry. - Hand, paghy, tapamai, ichiosa, amupamá. - Foot, achman, nacoutai, iñocua, dipoca. - House, ih, hi, itia, uiy’. - 1, heghykty, hucih, nucua´qui, nekeu. - 2, upaua, tarepueh, anamis-hiñaqui, piana. - 3, tupaua, tomepueh, aimucuraque, itiana. - 4, hoyhan, ague mouji, { huet sara maja } bapalitina. - { itiaca, } - 5, hueamepueh, manucua, nicumakina. - -The Catoquina and Ticuna are mixed dialects or jargons, but clearly -related to each other. Martius hesitated whether to assign them to his -“Guck” or his “Gês” stem. They both contain elements of the Arawak, -probably by borrowing. Locally they are neighbors. The vocabulary of -Ticuna is from Paul Marcoy’s work. - -The Tucano, which is in the form obtained by Coudreau, shows elements -of Betoya and Arawak. Its relationship to the Tapuya is not fully -established. - -The Zaparo from the Putumayo is from the collection of Osculati. It does -not seem in any way related to the great stocks of the Amazonian region. - -DIALECTS OF THE UPPER AMAZONIAN BASIN.--(Continued.) - - _Tacana._ _Maropa._ _Sapibocona._ _Araua._ - Man, deja, dreja, reanci, maquida. - Woman, ano, anu, anu, waidaua. - Sun, ireti, isjeti, mahi. - Moon, bari, bantri, bari, massicu. - Fire, quati, cuati, cuati, sihu. - Water, { eave, } yuvi, eubi, paha. - { jene, - Head, echu, echujā, echuja. - Eye, etra drun dru, eta chundru, etua churu. - Ear, edaja, eshacuena. - Mouth, equatri, equatra. - Nose, evieni, evi, evi. - Tongue, eana, eana, eana. - Tooth, etre, etré. - Hand, ema, eme, eme, usafa. - Foot, equatri, evatri, ebbachi, otama. - House, ejtej, etai, zami. - 1, pea, pembive, carata, warihi. - 2, beta, beta, mitia, famihi. - 3, quimisha, camisha, curapa, arishafaha. - 4, puchi, puschi. - 5, puchica, pischica. - -The interesting group of the Tacana stock is illustrated above by three -of its dialects. I regret that the recent publication on the Arauna by -Rev. Nicolas Armentia (_Navegacion del Rio Madre de Dios_) has not been -accessible to me. - -The scanty vocabulary of the Araua does not permit any extended study of -its relations. - -I call attention to the numerals of the Sapibocona and Cayubaba as -given above and on page 360. Prof. Fr. Müller has transposed the two in -his lists of examples (_Sprachwissenschaft_, II., I., p. 438. Compare -_Mithridates_, III., p. 576). - -LANGUAGES OF THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS. - - _Yurucare._ _Itene._ _Samucu._ _Chiquito._ - Man, suñe, huatiki, { vairiguè, } ñoñich. - { nani, H., } - Woman, yee, tana, { yacotea, } paich. - { cheke, H., } - Sun, puine, mapito, yede, anene, zuuch. - Moon, subi, panevo, etosia, vaach, paas. - Fire, aima, iche, pioc, pee. - Water, sama, como, yod, tuuch. - Head, dala, mahui, yatodo, taanys. - Eye, tanti, tauté, to, yedoy, nosuto. - Ear, meye, iniri, yagorone, { nonemasu, - { umapus. - Mouth, pile, ai. - Nose, unte, yacunachu, iña. - Tongue, otu. - Tooth, sansa, oo. - Hand, bana, uru, ymanaetio, { panaucos, - { ees, H. - Foot, te farafka, irie, pope. - House, { vive, techte, } poo. - { siba, } - 1, lecia, lecca, chomara, etama. - 2, lasie, gar. - 3, libi, gaddioc. - 4, lapsa. - 5, cheti. - -The variety of stocks on the Bolivian highlands is clearly shown by the -vocabularies on this and the following page. I have taken them from the -D’Orbigny MSS., in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, the collections -of Hervas, and the papers of E. Heath in the _Kansas City Review_, -1883. I have not been able to connect any one of the eight tongues -with any other, although each has some words which have been borrowed -from others or from some common stock. Thus, the Yurucare _suñe_, man, -Mosetena _zoñi_, Chiquito _ñoñich_, are too similar not to be from the -same radical. It must be remembered that the Chiquito was adopted by the -missionaries as the general language for instruction, and other tribes -were persuaded to learn it whenever possible. Thus some of its words came -to be substituted for those originally familiar to the speakers. - -The Chiquito and the Yurucare are the only tongues of the eight given -of which I have found satisfactory grammatical notices; and that of the -latter is still unpublished (see _anté_, p. 297). - -LANGUAGES OF THE BOLIVIAN HIGHLANDS.--(_Continued._) - - _Canichana._ _Mosetena._ _Cayubaba._ _Mobima._ - Man, { hiochama, } zoñi, meyése, iti-laqua. - { enacu, D., } - Woman, huiquigáue, phen, tenani, { cue´ya, - { cuc ya, H. - Sun, ni-cojli, tsuñ, itoco, { tino, - { mossi, H. - Moon, ni-milaue, yvua, irara, yeche. - Fire, ni-chuco, tsi, idore, vŭée. - Water, nih-tji, ozñi, ikita, to´mi. - Head, ni-mucukh, hutchi, guana-quana, ba-quáqua. - Eye, eu-tokhe, ve, _pl._, vein, en-chaco, tsora. - Ear, eu-comeh, choñ, ena-jengicui, lototo. - Mouth, eu-chene, chóo, en-diachi, cuana. - Nose, e-ebjé, hey, ena-hauvéo, { ba-chi, - { chini, H. - Tongue, eu-tscháva, nem, ena-yi, { ruchlan, - { rulcua, H. - Tooth, { eu-huti, } monyin } söichlan. - { eu-cuti, D., } (_pl._), } - Hand, eu-tehli, uñ, en-dadra, { chopan, - { zoipok, H. - Foot, eu-ajts, yu, en-arje, risan. - House, nit-cojl, aca, droya, asña. - 1, mereca, zrit, pebbi. - 2, caadita, pana, bbeta. - 3, caarjata, chibbin, kimisa. - 4, tsis. - 5, canam. - -LANGUAGES OF THE CHACO TRIBES. - - _Guaycuru._ _Guaycuru._ _Toba._ _Payagua._ - Man, conailaigo, sellarnicke, iale, yraic, D., pichires. - Woman, ivuavo, alucke, aló, elommi. - Sun, ali jega, nalacke, la lá, ijcabala. - Moon, aipainahi, auriucke, karoic, apajsa. - Fire, noolai, nodecke, nodec, anorec, D. - Water, niogo, estract, netrat, guayaque. - Head, lacaicke, lakaic, caracaic, D., yamagra. - Eye, cogaicoguo, laicté, haité, yacte, D., yatiqui. - Ear, conapajoti, telá, tela, yaiguala. - Mouth, coniola, halap, ayap, D. - Nose, codeimie, lunuke, lomi, imic, D., iyocque. - Tongue, codocaiti, lacharat. - Tooth, codoai, hué, lué, yohua, D. - Hand, cobahaga, yagata, pokena, inagchiac. - Foot, codohoua, lapiá, lapiá, ypia, D., ybagro. - House, dimi, lumacké, nollic, nnoic, D., yaggo. - 1, nathedac. - 2, cacayni _or_ nivoco. - 3, cacaynilia. - 4, nalotapegat. - 5, nivoca-cacaynilia. - -The three dialects of the Guaycuru stock above given show considerable -diversity. The first is from Castelnau, the second from Fontana, the -third (Toba) from Carranza and de Angelis. The Payagua is also from -Fontana (_Revista de la Soc. Geog. Argentina_, 1887, p. 352, sq.). - -All the Chaco tribes are singularly defective in numeration. Pelleschi -says that intelligent chiefs among them cannot count the fingers of one -hand. Above the two numerals are generally compound words and have not -fixed forms. - -LANGUAGES OF THE CHACO TRIBES.--(_Continued._) - - _Lule._ _Vilela._ _Chunupi._ _Mataco._ - Man, pelé, nitemoi, nitepac, { pairé, - { inoon, D. - Woman, uacal, quisle, jiolé, chiegua. - Sun, yny, olò, oló, iguala. - Moon, alit, copī, cocpi, huela. - Fire, ycuá, niè, nié, etog. - Water, to, fo, ma, maá, { elot, - { guag, D. - Head, tocó, niscone, niscan, litec, D. - Eye, zu, chù, toqué, tacqui, teloy. - Ear, cusanep, maslup, mas leguep, kiotei. - Mouth, cá, yep, notagni, D. - Nose, nùs, limic, niji veppe, nognes. - Tongue, lequy, lequip. - Tooth, llu, lupe. - Hand, ys, isip, ysivep, nog-guez. - Foot, ellú, ape, huopep, kalay´. - House, uyâ, enú, guane, huane, { guoslo, - { lubuque, D. - 1, alapea, agit, { hotequachi, - { efagla, D. - 2, tamop, uke, { hotequoasi, - { tacuas, D. - 3, tamlip, nipetuei, { lach tdi qua jel, - { tacuya, D. - 4, locuep, yepkatalet, { tdi-qua less-hichi, - { nocuepogec, D. - 5, ype befagla, D. - -The near relationship of the Lule, Vilela and Chunupi appears clear from -the above comparison. The Chunupi words are taken from Fontana (_ubi -suprá_), the Vilela from the vocabulary of Gilii’s _Storia Americana_, -and the Lule from Machoni’s Grammar. - -The Mataco is also from Fontana, and represents the dialect as spoken -to-day. The words marked D. are from the D’Orbigny MSS. - -LANGUAGES OF THE LA PLATA BASIN AND PAMPAS. - - _Guachi._ _Guato._ _Caraja._ _Araucanian._ - Man, chacup, matai, abou, che. - Woman, outie´, mouhaja, awkeu, domo. - Sun, ō-es, nouveai, tisu, antu. - Moon, o-alete, upina, aadou, endo, cuyen. - Fire, mata, eastou, cuthal. - Water, euak, maguen, be-ai, co. - Head, iotapa, dōkeu, woara, lonco. - Eye, iataya, marei, waa-rouwai, ge. - Ear, irtanmété, mavi, wana-outai, pilun. - Mouth, iape, dijio, wa-a-rou, uun. - Nose, ia-note, taga, wa-day-asan, yu. - Tongue, iteche, chagi, wa-cla-rato, que-uun. - Tooth, iava, maqua, wa-a-djon, voro. - Hand, iolai-mason, ida, wa-debo, cuu. - Foot, iacalep, apoo, wa-a-wa, namun. - House, poecha, mucu, aeto, ruca. - 1, tamak, tchenai, wadewo, quiñe. - 2, eu-echo, du-uni, wadebo-thoa, epu. - 3, eu-echo-kailau, tchum, wadeboa-heodo, cula. - 4, eu-echo-way, dekai, wadebo-jeodo, meli. - 5, localau, toera, wadewa-jouclay, quechu. - -The vocabularies of the Guachis, Guatos and Carajas are from the -collections of Castelnau (_Expédition_, Tome V., Appendix); that of the -Araucanian from Febres’ _Diccionario_. - -The Guachis are classed as belonging to the Guaranis (Tupi stock), and by -tradition came from the west (see _anté_, p. 233). A comparison with the -Samucu vocabulary (page 359) seems to me to suggest several resemblances -which would be worth further study on more extended material. - -The Guatos may be a mixed off-shoot of the Tapuya stock, as has been -suggested (_anté_, p. 318). Of the Caraja, we must await the publication -of the abundant material collected by Dr. Paul Ehrenreich. - -PATAGONIAN AND FUEGIAN STOCKS. - - _Tsoneca, 1._ _Tsoneca, 2._ _Yahgan._ _Alikuluf._ - Man, nuken, chonik, ohă, uön, ack´inish. - Woman, nacuna, karken, kepa, shepush, ack´hanash. - Sun, chuina, gengenko, lŭm, lŭm. - Moon, chuina, showan, han´nuka, cunnequa. - Fire, ma-ja, yaik, pushaky, tĕtal. - Water, karra, ley, shamea, chanash. - Head, guil, kittar, lukabe, of´chocka. - Eye, gottel, g-ötl, della, telkh. - Ear, shene, shaa, ufkhea, teldil. - Mouth, shahan, yeak, uffeare. - Nose, oo, tchal, or, cushush, nohl. - Tongue, del, tal, lŭn, luckin. - Teeth, curr, oër, orre, tu´un, cauwash. - Hand, ore, fan, tsicc’r, { jösch, } yuccaba. - { marpo, } - Foot, keal, { shankence, } cŏeeă, cutliculcul. - { alj, } - Home, cocha, kou, uk kral, hŭt. - 1, cheuquen, chuche, ocoale, tow quid ow. - 2, xeukay, houke, combabe, telkeow. - 3, keash, { aäs, } mutta, cup´eb. - { kaash, } - 4, kekaguy, { carge, } carga, inadaba. - { kague, } - 5, keytzum, ktsin, cup´aspa. - -The vocabularies of the Tsoneca, Tehuelhet or Patagonian differ -considerably in the various writers. No. 1 is from Von Martius, completed -from D’Orbigny’s lists. No. 2 is based on Lt. Muster’s examples, -supplemented from the vocabularies in Ramon Lista’s _Exploraciones_. - -The Yahgan and Alikuluf pass for independent stocks. Yet in a number of -words they resemble each other, and in a few, for example, those for -“eye,” “woman,” “moon,” “man,” there seems more than a chance similarity. - - - - -ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. - - -P. 24. AURIFEROUS GRAVELS OF CALIFORNIA. The principal reference is J. -D. Whitney, _The Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California_, -pp. 258-288 (Cambridge, Mass., 1879). Professor Whitney believes that the -evidence is sufficient to attribute the mortars, pestles, beads, etc., -found in the auriferous gravels to late pliocene man. But Dr. Joseph -Leidy describes equine skulls, molars, incisors, etc., found in these -gravels, thirty-five to forty feet below the surface, “not differing in -any respect from those of the modern horse,” and “unchanged in texture” -(see _ibid._, p. 257). Dr. Leidy informs me personally that for such -reasons he gravely doubts the antiquity of the formation, and distrusts -the great age of the human relics it contains. - -P. 27. PALÆOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. Reports of the discovery of very large -numbers of supposed palæolithic implements in various parts of the -United States have been collected and published by Mr. Thomas Wilson -in the _Report of the U. S. National Museum_, 1887-88, pp. 677-702. -These implements, however, are called palæolithic from their form and -workmanship only, and not from the stratigraphic relations in which they -were found. As palæolithic forms often survived in the riper culture of -the neolithic age, the only positive proof of their older origin must be -that they are found in undisturbed relation to older strata. - -P. 33. REMAINS OF MAN IN THE EQUUS BEDS. What American geologists call -the Equus Beds are those which yield in abundance the bones of various -species of fossil horse, as _E. major_, _occidentalis_, _excelsus_, -_barcenæi_, _fraternus_, _crenidens_, etc., most of which have been -determined by Dr. Joseph Leidy and Prof. E. D. Cope. The principal -localities of these beds are: 1. The Oregon Desert; 2. The country of -the Nueces, in southwestern Texas; and 3. The valley of Mexico. The -horizon to which these beds should be referred was considered by Prof. -King to be the Upper Pliocene; but by Prof. G. K. Gilbert, Dr. Joseph -Leidy, and I think, by Prof. Cope, it is rather held to be pleistocene -or early quaternary, probably as old as the great glacial phenomena of -the Continent. According to Cope and Gilbert, rude stone implements have -undoubtedly been found _in place_ in the Equus beds of Nevada, California -and Southwestern Texas. See the _American Naturalist_, 1889, p. 165; -_Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences_, Phila., 1883, p. 134, sq. - -Pp. 106, 108. KWAKIUTL AND NOOTKA STOCKS. After the pages referred -to had been printed, I received, through the kindness of Mr. Horatio -Hale, advance sheets of the Sixth Annual Report of the Committee of the -British Association on the tribes of the Northwest Coast, prepared by -Dr. Franz Boas, with an introduction by Mr. Hale, and including eighteen -vocabularies. Dr. Boas’ researches furnish clear evidence of a connection -between the Kwakiutl and the Nootka tongues, and there is little doubt -that they are distantly related. An instructive article on the physical -characteristics of the Indians of the North Pacific coast is contributed -by Dr. Boas to the _American Anthropologist_ for January, 1891. His -conclusion is: “Each tribe appears composed of many types, but in each we -find a marked prevalence of a certain type.” - -P. 123. SUPPOSED CONNECTION OF SONORAN LANGUAGES WITH THE MAYA STOCK. -In his _Etudes Aztèques_, published in the _Museon_, 1890, p. 506, M. -W. Baligny endeavors to show a connection between the vocabularies of -Sonoran languages and the Maya dialects. His strong points are some of -the numerals and the personal pronouns of the first and second person. I -have elsewhere given good reasons for not depending on these pronominal -analogies in American languages (see _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 396). -And as to the numerals, “dont la ressemblance est évidente” (according -to him), when the Sonoran tongues disagree with the Nahuatl, they have -almost always clearly borrowed from the Yuma stem, as in “two,” _guoca_, -_kuak_ (see _Vocabs._, _anté_, pp. 335, 336). - -P. 163. LANGUAGE OF THE RAMAS. Since my negative observations about the -Ramas were in type, I have received a short vocabulary of their language -from the Rev. W. Siebärger, Moravian missionary on the Musquito coast. -The orthography is German. - - _Rama._ - Man, nikikna, - Woman, kuma, - Sun, nunik, - Moon, tukan, - Fire, abung, - Water, sii, - Head, kiing, - Eye, up, - Ear, kuka, - Mouth, kaka, - Nose, taik. - Tongue, kup. - Tooth, siik. - Hand, kuik. - Foot, kaat. - House, knu. - 1, saiming. - 2, puk sak. - 3, pang sak. - 4, kun kun beiso. - 5, kwik astar. - -My informant writes me that the Ramas are about 250 in number, and are -all Christians and able to speak and write English, except a few very old -persons. Their language will probably be extinct in a few years. They -are confined to their island in Blewfield Lagoon. It is particularly -interesting, therefore, to fix their affinities before the opportunity -passes. From the above vocabulary I think there is little doubt but that -they are a branch of the Changuina or Dorasque stock, described pp. 174, -175. The following words attest this, the Changuina forms being from A. -L. Pinart’s _Vocabulario Castellano-Dorasque, Dialectos Chumulu, Gualaca -y Changuina_ (Paris, 1890): - - _Rama._ _Changuina._ - Sun, nunik, kĕlik u. - Fire, abung, kebug-al (fire-brand). - Water, sii, si. - Head, kiing, kin-unuma. - Ear, kuka, kuga. - Mouth, kaka, kaga. - Nose, taik, θakai. - Tongue, kup, kuba. - Tooth, siik, su. - Hand, kuik, kula. - House, knu, ku. - -The numerals for “two” and “three,” _puk sak_, _pang sak_, are doubtless -the Cuna _pocua_, _pagua_. The Ramas, therefore, belong to the Isthmian -tribes, and formed the vanguard of the South American immigration into -North America. What time they moved northward and possessed themselves of -their small island is unknown, but it was probably after the conquest. -Mr. Siebärger writes me: “They were always kept under, even ill-treated, -by the Musquito Indians, and are still very submissive and teachable.” - -The following errata should be noted: - -P. 69, line 3; for _Nehaunies_ read _Nahaunies_. - -Pp. 89, 95, 98 and 101, the numbers of the sections should read 7, 8, 9, -10, instead of 5, 6, 7, 8. - -P. 169, line 17, for _maternal_ read _paternal_. - -P. 197, for _Morropas_ read _Malabas_. - -P. 251, line 11, for _Wapiana_ read _Woyawoi_. - -Transcriber’s Note: the listed errata have been corrected. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] For the full development of these principles, I would refer the -reader to my work entitled _Races and Peoples; Lectures on the Science of -Ethnography_ (David McKay, Philadelphia.) - -[2] Notably, Adair’s _History of the North American Indians_, and Lord -Kingsborough’s magnificent _Mexican Antiquities_. - -[3] For a complete refutation of this venerable hypothesis see an article -“L’Atlantide,” by Charles Ploix, in the _Revue d’Anthropologie_, 1887, p. -291; and de Mortillet, _Le Préhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme_, p. 124. - -[4] De Quatrefages, _Histoire Générale des Races Humaines_, p. 558. He -adds the wholly incorrect statement that many Japanese words are found in -American languages. - -[5] The nearest of the Aleutian islands to Kamschatka is 253 miles -distant. The explorer Behring found the western Aleutians, those nearest -the Asian shore, uninhabited. See W. H. Dall, “Origin of the Innuit,” -pp. 96, 97, in _Contributions to North American Ethnology_, Vol. I. -(Washington, 1877). - -[6] The evidences of a vast ice-sheet once covering the whole of -East Cape are plainly visible. See Dr. I. C. Rosse, _Medical and -Anthropological Notes on Alaska_, p. 29. (Washington, 1883.) - -[7] Joseph Prestwich, _Geology_, Vol. II, p. 465, (Oxford, 1888). J. -D. Dana, _Text Book of Geology_, pp. 355-359 (New York, 1883). Geo. M. -Dawson, in _The American Geologist_, 1890, p. 153. The last mentioned -gives an excellent epitome of the history of the great Pacific glacier. - -[8] James D. Dana, loc. cit., p. 359. - -[9] James D. Dana, “Reindeers in Southern New England,” in _American -Journal of Science_, 1875, p. 353. - -[10] See “On an Ancient Human Footprint from Nicaragua,” by D. G. -Brinton, in _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_ 1887, p. -437. - -[11] J. S. Wilson, in _Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London_, -Vol. III., p. 163. - -[12] The finders have been Messrs. H. P. Cresson and W. H. Holmes. From -my own examination of them, I think there is room for doubt as to the -artificial origin of some of them. Others are clearly due to design. - -[13] Her account is in the _American Naturalist_, 1884, p. 594, and -a later synopsis in _Proceedings of the American Association for the -Advancement of Science_, 1889, p. 333. - -[14] G. K. Gilbert, in _The American Anthropologist_, 1889, p. 173. - -[15] W. J. McGee, “Palæolithic Man in America,” in _Popular Science -Monthly_, November 1888. - -[16] See G. Frederick Wright, _The Ice Age in North America_. - -[17] Dr. Abbott has reported his discoveries in numerous articles, and -especially in his work entitled _Primitive Industry_, chapters 32, 33. - -[18] De Mortillet, _Le Préhistorique Antiquité de l’Homme_, p. 132, sq. - -[19] Mariano de la Barcena, “Fossil Man in Mexico,” in the _American -Naturalist_, Aug., 1885. - -[20] Florentino Ameghino, _La Antiguedad del Hombre en el Plata_, passim. -(2 vols, Buenos Aires, 1880.) - -[21] _The Descent of Man_, p. 155. Dr. Rudolph Hoernes, however, has -recently argued that the discovery of such simian forms in the American -tertiary as the _Anaptomorphus homunculus_, Cope, renders it probable -that the anthropoid ancestor of man lived in North America. _Mittheil -der Anthrop. Gesell. in Wien_, 1890, § 71. The Anaptomorphus was a lemur -rather than a monkey, and had a dentition very human in character. - -[22] Quoted by G. F. Wright in _The Ice Age in America_, p. 583. - -[23] H. Habernicht, _Die Recenten Veränderungen der Erdoberfläche_, s. 27 -(Gotha, 1882). He further shows that at that time both northern Russia -and northern Siberia were under water, which would effectually dispose of -any assumed migration by way of the latter. - -[24] J. W. Spencer, in the London _Geological Magazine_, 1890, p. 208, -sqq. - -[25] James Scroll, _Climate and Time_, p. 451. - -[26] G. F. Wright, _The Ice Age in North America_, pp. 582-3 (New York, -1890). De Mortillet, _Le Préhistorique_, etc., pp. 186-7. H. Rink, in -_Proc. of the Amer. Philos. Society_, 1885, p. 293. - -[27] In his excellent work, _The Building of the British Isles_, (London, -1888), Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne presents in detail the proofs of these -statements, and gives two plates (Nos. XII. and XIII.), showing the -outlines of this land connection at the period referred to (pp. 252, 257, -etc.). - -[28] Wright, _The Ice Age_, p. 504. - -[29] Gilbert, _Sixth An. Rep. of the Com. of the N. Y. State -Reservation_, p. 84 (Albany, 1890). - -[30] _Races and Peoples_, chapter III. (David McKay, Philadelphia.) - -[31] “Palæolithic Man in America” in _Popular Science Monthly_, Nov., -1888. - -[32] “No one could live among the Indians of the Upper Amazon without -being struck with their constitutional dislike to heat.” “The impression -forced itself upon my mind that the Indian lives as a stranger or -immigrant in these hot regions.” H. W. Bates, _The Naturalist on the -Amazon_, Vol. II., pp. 200, 201. - -[33] See E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, pp. 189, 190, who -speaks strongly of the debility of the tropical Indians. - -[34] See J. Kollmann, _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1884, s. 181 _sq._ -The conclusion of Virchow is “que les caracteres physionomiques des têtes -Américaines montrent une divergence si manifeste qu’on doit renoncer -definitivement à la construction d’un type universel et commun des -Indigènes Américains.” _Congrès des Américanistes_, 1888, p. 260. This is -substantially the conclusion at which Dr. James Aitken Meigs arrived, in -his “Observations on the Cranial Forms of the American Aborigines,” in -_Proc. of the Acad. Nat. Sci. of Phila._, 1866. - -[35] Henry Gilman, _Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1885_, p. -239. Other perforated skulls from similar graves in the same locality -showed indices of, 82, 83, 85. - -[36] D. G. Brinton, _Races and Peoples; Lectures on the Science of -Ethnography_, p. 20. (David McKay, Philadelphia.) - -[37] Dr. Washington Matthews, in the _American Anthropologist_, 1889, p. -337. - -[38] _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, Bd. II., s. 195. - -[39] Cf. Lucien Carr, in the _Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody -Museum_, p. 367. - -[40] Lucien Carr, “Notes on the Crania of New England Indians,” in the -_Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History_, 1880; and -compare Topinard, _Elements d’Anthropologie Générale_, p. 628. (Paris, -1885.) - -[41] H. Fritsch, in _Compte-Rendu du Congrès des Américanistes_, 1888, p. -276. - -[42] For instance, some of the Mixes of Mexico have full beards (Herrera, -_Decadas de las Indias_, Dec. IV., Lib. IX., cap. VII.); the Guarayos -of Bolivia wear long straight beards, covering both lips and cheeks -(D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Vol. I., p. 126); and the Cashibos of -the upper Ucayali are bearded (Herndon, _Exploration of the Valley of the -Amazon_, p. 209). - -[43] “Report on the Blackfeet,” in _Trans. Brit. Assoc. Adv. of Science_, -1885. - -[44] “Les Indiens de la Province de Mato Grosso,” in the _Nouvelles -Annales des Voyages_, 1862. - -[45] The Mexican president Benito Juarez was a full-blood Zapotec; -Barrios of Guatemala, a full-blood Cakchiquel. - -[46] _Vues des Cordillères, et Monumens des Peuples Indigènes de -l’Amérique_, Tome I. p. 51. - -[47] _Ancient Society_, by Lewis H. Morgan (New York, 1878); _Houses and -House-Life of the American Aborigines_, by the same (Washington, 1881); -Bandelier, in the _Reports of the Peabody Museum_; Dr. Gustav Brühl, _Die -Culturvölker Alt Amerikas_ (Cincinnati, 1887); D. G. Brinton, _The Myths -of the New World_, 3d Ed. revised, David McKay (Philadelphia, 1896); -_American-Hero Myths_, by the same (Philadelphia, 1882). - -[48] The word totem is derived from the Algonkin root _od_ or _ot_ and -means that which belongs to a person or “his belongings,” in the widest -sense, his village, his people, etc. - -[49] Among the Brazilian hordes, for instance, Martius, _Beiträge zur -Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, Bd. I. s. 116 (Leipzig, 1867). - -[50] Thus the Heiltsuk and Kwakiutl of the northwest coast, though -speaking close dialects of the same stock, differ fundamentally in their -social organization. That of the former is matriarchal, of the latter -patriarchal. Boas, _Fifth Report to the Brit. Assoc. Adv. Science_, p. 38. - -[51] _Races and Peoples; Lectures on the Science of Ethnography_, p. 55 -(David McKay, Philadelphia.) - -[52] _Die Entstehung der Arten durch Räumliche Sonderung_ (Basel, 1889). - -[53] J. W. Sanborn, _Legends, Customs and Social Life of the Seneca -Indians_, p. 36 (Gowanda, N. Y., 1878). - -[54] Father Ragueneau tells us that among the Hurons, when a man was -killed, thirty gifts were required to condone the offence, but when a -woman was the victim, forty were demanded. _Relation des Jesuits_, 1635. - -[55] Dr. W. H. Corbusier, in _American Antiquarian_, Sept., 1886; Dr. -Amedée Moure, _Les Indiens de Mato Grosso_, p. 9 (Paris, 1862). - -[56] This opinion is defended by Max Schlosser in the _Archiv für -Anthropologie_, 1889, s. 132. - -[57] The lama was never ridden, nor attached for draft, though the -opposite has been stated. See J. J. von Tschudi, “Das Lama,” in -_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1885, s. 108. - -[58] See “The Lineal Measures of the Semi-Civilized Nations of Mexico and -Central America,” in my _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 433 (Philadelphia, -1890). - -[59] The Caribs and some of the Peruvian coast tribes sometimes lifted a -large square cloth when running with the wind; but this is not what is -meant by a sail. - -[60] _American Hero-Myths_ (Philadelphia, 1882). - -[61] Carlos de Gagern, _Charakteristik der Indianischen Bevölkerung -Mexikos_, s. 23 (Wien, 1873.) - -[62] I have treated this subject at considerable length in opposition -to the opinion of Lucien Adam and Friedrich Müller in my _Essays of an -Americanist_, pp. 349-389 (Philadelphia, 1890). - -[63] Packard, “Notes on the Labrador Eskimo and their former range -southward,” in _American Naturalist_, 1885, p. 471. - -[64] John Murdoch, in _The American Anthropologist_, 1888, p. 129; also -Dr. Henry Rink, _The Eskimo Tribes_ (London, 1887); Dr. Franz Boas, _The -Central Eskimo_, in the Sixth _Annual Report_ of the Bureau of Ethnology; -W. H. Dall, _Tribes of the Extreme Northwest_ (Washington, 1887); Ivan -Petroff, in _The American Naturalist_, 1882, p. 567. - -[65] Dall is positive that there is no racial distinction between the -Innuit and the other American Indians, loc. cit., p. 95. He adds: “The -Tartar, Japanese or Chinese origin of these people finds no corroboration -in their manners, dress or language.” - -[66] Commander G. Holm found the East Greenlanders, a pure stock, well -marked mesocephalic, with a maximum of 84.2 (_Les Grönlandais Orientaux_, -p. 365, Copenhagen, 1889). Dall gives the range to his measurements of -Innuit skulls from 87 to 70 (_Contributions to American Ethnology_, Vol. -I, p. 71). - -[67] “Unlike the Indian,” writes Mr. F. F. Payne, “the Eskimo is nearly -always laughing, and even in times of great distress it is not hard -to make them smile.” “The Eskimo at Hudson Strait,” in _Proc. Canad. -Institute_, 1889, p. 128. - -[68] W. J. Hoffman, “On Indian and Eskimo Pictography,” in _Trans. -Anthrop. Soc. of Washington_, Vol. II, p. 146. - -[69] See some examples in my _Essays of an Americanist_, pp. 288-290 -(Philadelphia, 1890). - -[70] G. Holm, _Les Grönlandais Orientaux_, p. 382 (Copenhagen, 1889). - -[71] Dr. A. Pfizmaier, _Darlegungen Grönländischer Verbalformen_ (Wien, -1885). - -[72] On the relative position of the Chukchis, Namollos and Yuit, consult -Dall in _American Naturalist_, 1881, p. 862; J. W. Kelly, in _Circular -of the U. S. Bureau of Education_, No. 2, 1890, p. 8; A. Pfizmaier, _Die -Sprachen der Aleuten_, p. 1 (Vienna, 1884). The Yuits are also known as -_Tuski_. The proper location of the Namollos is on the Arctic Sea, from -East Cape to Cape Shelagskoi (Dall). - -[73] _Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum_, 1883, p. 427. All of -Clement G. Markham’s arguments for the Asiatic origin of the Eskimos have -been refuted. - -[74] Either from the river Olutora and some islands near its mouth -(Petroff); or from Eleutes, a tribe in Siberia, whom the Russians thought -they resembled (Pinart). - -[75] Ivan Petroff, in _Trans. Amer. Anthrop. Soc._, Vol. II, p. 90. - -[76] Comp. H. Winkler, _Ural-Altäische Völker und Sprachen_, s. 119, and -Dall, _Contributions to N. Amer. Ethnology_, Vol. I, p. 49, who states -that their tongue is distinctly connected with the Innuit of Alaska. - -[77] Dr. A. Pfizmaier, _Die Sprache der Aleuten und Fuchsinseln_, s. 4 -(Vienna, 1884). - -[78] Dall, loc. cit., p. 47. - -[79] Ivan Petroff, loc. cit., p. 91. - -[80] Mr. A. S. Gatschet has compiled the accessible information about -the Beothuk language in two articles in the _Proceedings of the American -Philosophical Society_, 1885 and 1886. - -[81] J. C. E. Buschmann, _Der Athapaskische Sprachstamm_, 4to., Berlin, -1856, and _Die Verwandtschafts-Verhältnisse der Athapaskischen Sprachen_, -Berlin, 1863. - -[82] See Mgr. Henry Faraud, _Dix-huit Ans chez les Sauvages_, pp. 345, -etc. (Paris, 1866.) Petitot, _Les Déné Dindjié_, p. 32. - -[83] See George M. Dawson, in _An. Rep. of the Geol. Survey of Canada_, -1887, p. 191, sq.; Washington Matthews and J. G. Bourke, in _Jour. of -Amer. Folk-Lore_, 1890, p. 89, sq. - -[84] The best blanket-makers, smiths and other artisans among the Navajos -are descendants of captives from the Zuñi and other pueblos. John G. -Bourke, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, 1890, p. 115. - -[85] A. F. Bandelier, _Indians of the Southwestern United States_, pp. -175-6 (Boston, 1890). - -[86] Dr. Washington Matthews, in _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, 1890, -p. 90. - -[87] The student of this language finds excellent material in the -_Dictionnaire de la Langue Déné-Dindjié_, par E. Petitot (folio, Paris, -1876), in which three dialects are presented. - -[88] Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 72, 76 (Washington, 1877). - -[89] “On voit que leur conformation est à peu près exactement le nôtre.” -Quetelet, “Sur les Indiens O-jib-be-was,” in _Bull. Acad. Royale de -Belgique_, Tome XIII. - -[90] I refer to the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. The -numerous measurements of skulls of New England Algonkins by Lucien Carr, -show them to be mesocephalic tending to dolichocephaly, orthognathic, -mesorhine and megaseme. See his article, “Notes on the Crania of New -England Indians,” in the _Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of -Natural History_, 1880. - -[91] The best work on this subject is Dr. C. C. Abbott’s _Primitive -Industry_ (Salem, 1881). - -[92] _The Lenâpé and their Legends; with the Complete Text and Symbols -of the Walum Olum, and an Inquiry into its Authenticity._ By Daniel G. -Brinton, Philadelphia, 1885 (Vol. V. of Brinton’s _Library of Aboriginal -American Literature_). - -[93] See Horatio Hale, “_Report on the Blackfeet_,” in _Proc. of the -Brit. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science_, 1885. - -[94] See _Lenâpé-English Dictionary: From an anonymous MS. in the -Archives of the Moravian Church at Bethlehem, Pa._ Edited with additions -by Daniel G. Brinton, M. D., and Rev. Albert Seqaqkind Anthony. Published -by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, 1888. Quarto, -pp. 236. - -[95] J. Aitken Meigs, “Cranial Forms of the American Aborigines,” in -_Proceedings_ of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia, May, 1866. - -[96] Horatio Hale, _The Iroquois Book of Rites_, pp. 21, 22. -(Philadelphia, 1883. Vol. II. of Brinton’s _Library of Aboriginal -American Literature_.) - -[97] J. W. Powell, _First Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, p. 61. -(Washington, 1881.) - -[98] _The Iroquois Book of Rites_, referred to above. - -[99] There are twenty-one skulls alleged to be of Muskoki origin in -the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, of which fifteen have a -cephalic index below 80. - -[100] Examples given by William Bartram in his MSS. in the Pennsylvania -Historical Society. - -[101] See on this subject an essay on “The Probable Nationality of the -Mound-Builders,” in my _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 67. (Philadelphia, -1890.) - -[102] D. G. Brinton, “The National legend of the Chahta-Muskoki Tribes,” -in _The Historical Magazine_, February, 1870. (Republished in Vol. IV. of -Brinton’s _Library of Aboriginal American Literature_.) - -[103] “The Seminole Indians of Florida,” by Clay MacCauley, in _Annual -Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, 1883-4. - -[104] See for the Yuchis, their myths and language, Gatschet in -_Science_, 1885, p. 253. - -[105] _Arte de la Lengua Timuquana_ compuesto en 1614 per el Pe -Francisco Pereja. Reprint by Lucien Adam and Julien Vinson, Paris, -1886. An analytical study of the language has been published by Raoul -de la Grasserie in the _Compte Rendu du Congrès International des -Américanistes_, 1888. - -[106] See “The Curious Hoax of the Taensa Language” in my _Essays of an -Americanist_, p. 452. - -[107] D. G. Brinton, “The Language of the Natchez,” in _Proceedings_ of -the American Philosophical Society, 1873. - -[108] _Die Länder am untern Rio Bravo del Norte._ S. 120, sqq. -(Heidelberg, 1861.) I give the following words from his vocabulary of the -Carrizos: - - Man, _nâ_. - Woman, _estoc_, _kem_. - Sun, _al_. - Moon, _kan_. - Fire, _len_. - One, _pequeten_. - Two, _acequeten_. - Three, _guiye_. - Four, _naiye_. - Five, _maguele_. - -The numbers three, four and five are plainly the Nahuatl _yey_, _nahui_, -_macuilli_, borrowed from their Uto-Aztecan neighbors. - -[109] Bartolomé Garcia, _Manuel para administrar los Santos Sacramentos_. -(Mexico, 1760.) It was written especially for the tribes about the -mission of San Antonio in Texas. - -[110] As _chiquat_, woman, Nah. _cihuatl_; _baah-ka_, to drink, Nah. -_paitia_. The song is given, with several obvious errors, in Pimentel, -_Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico_, Tom. III., p. 564; Orozco y Berra’s lists -mentions only the Aratines, _Geografia de las Lenguas de Mexico_, p. 295. - -[111] Adolph Uhde, _Die Länder am unteru Rio Bravo del Norte_, p. 120. - -[112] The name Pani is not a word of contempt from the Algonkin language, -as has often been stated, but is from the tongue of the people itself. -_Pariki_ means a horn, in the Arikari dialect _uriki_, and refers to -their peculiar scalp-lock, dressed to stand erect and curve slightly -backward, like a horn. From these two words came the English forms Pawnee -and Arikaree. (Dunbar.) - -[113] The authorities on the Panis are John B. Dunbar, in the _Magazine -of American History_, 1888; Hayden, _Indian Tribes of the Missouri -Valley_ (Philadelphia, 1862), and various government reports. - -[114] J. Owen Dorsey, “Migrations of Siouan Tribes,” in the _American -Naturalist_, 1886, p. 111. The numerous and profound studies of this -stock by Mr. Dorsey must form the basis of all future investigation of -its history and sociology. - -[115] The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. - -[116] Mrs. Mary Eastman, _Dahcotah; or Life and Legends of the Sioux_, p. -211. (New York, 1849.) - -[117] W. P. Clark, _Indian Sign Language_, p. 229 (Philadelphia, 1885); -Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, _Report on Indian Tribes_, pp. 28, 80. -(Washington, 1855.) - -[118] R. Virchow, _Verhand. der Berliner Gesell. für Anthropologie_, -1889, s. 400. - -[119] Dr. Franz Boas, “Fourth Report on the Tribes of the North West -Coast,” in _Proceed. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Science_, 1887. - -[120] Dr. J. L. Le Conte, “On the Distinctive Characteristics of the -Indians of California,” in _Trans. of the Amer. Assoc. for the Adv. of -Science_, 1852, p. 379. - -[121] Dr. Aurel Krause, _Die Tlinkit Indianer_. (Jena, 1885.) - -[122] See the various reports of Dr. Boas to the British Association for -the Advancement of Science, and the papers of Messrs. Tolmie and Dawson, -published by the Canadian government. - -[123] _A Manual of the Oregon Trade Language or Chinook Jargon._ By -Horatio Hale. (London, 1890.) - -[124] Dr. W. F. Corbusier, in _American Antiquarian_, 1886, p. 276; Dr. -Ten Kate, in _Verhand. der Berliner Gesell. Für Anthrop._, 1889, s. 667. - -[125] J. R. Bartlett, _Explorations in New Mexico_, Vol. I., p. 464. C. -A. Pajeken, _Reise-Erinnerungen in ethnographischen Bildern_, s. 97. - -[126] Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, _Report on Indian Tribes_ (Washington, -1855), and numerous later authorities, give full information about the -Yumas. - -[127] Jacob Baegert, _Nachricht von den Amerikanischen Halbinsel -Californien_. (Mannheim, 1773.) - -[128] I have not included in the stock the so-called M’Mat stem, -introduced erroneously by Mr. Gatschet, as Dr. Ten Kate has shown no such -branch exists. See _Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell._, 1889, -ss. 666-7. - -[129] Mr. E. A. Barber estimates that the area in which the -characteristic remains of the cliff-dwellers and pueblos are -found contains 200,000 square miles. _Compte Rendu du Congrès des -Américanistes_, 1878, Tome I., p. 25. - -[130] “Casas y atalayas eregidas dentro de las peñas.” I owe the -quotation to Alphonse Pinart. - -[131] The Tze-tinne; Capt. J. G. Bourke, in _Jour. Amer. Folk-lore_, -1890, p. 114. - -[132] This affinity was first demonstrated by Buschmann in his _Spuren -der aztekischen Sprache_, though Mr. Bandelier erroneously attributes it -to later authority. See his very useful _Report of Investigations among -the Indians of the South Western United States_, p. 116. (Cambridge, -1890.) Readers will find in these excellent reports abundant materials on -the Pueblo Indians and their neighbors. - -[133] Buschmann, _Die Spuren der aztekischen Sprache im nördlichen Mexiko -und höheren Americanischen Norden_. 4to. Berlin, 1859, pp. 819. - -_Grammatik der Sonorischen Sprachen._ 4to. Berlin, Pt. I., 1864, pp. 266; -Pt. II., 1867, pp. 215. - -[134] Perez de Ribas, _Historia de los Triomphos de Nuestra Santa Fé_, -Lib. I., cap. 19. - -[135] _Anales del Ministerio de Fomento_, p. 99. (Mexico, 1881.) - -[136] Col. A. G. Brackett, in _Rep. of the Smithson. Inst. 1879_, p. 329. - -[137] Capt. W. P. Clark, _The Indian Sign Language_, p. 118. -(Philadelphia, 1885.) - -[138] _Ibid._, p. 338. - -[139] See _Contributions to North American Ethnology_, Vol. I., p. 224. -(Washington, 1877). - -[140] R. Virchow, _Crania Ethnica Americana_. - -[141] W. P. Clark, _The Indian Sign Language_, p. 118. - -[142] _The Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona._ By John G. Bourke. (New -York, 1884.) - -[143] For these legends see Captain F. E. Grossman, U. S. A., in _Report -of the Smithsonian Institution_, pp. 407-10. They attribute the Casas -Grandes to Sivano, a famous warrior, the direct descendant of Söhö, the -hero of their flood myth. - -[144] The Apaches called them Tze-tinne, Stone House People. See Capt. -John G. Bourke, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, 1890, p. 114. The -Apaches Tontos were the first to wander down the Little Colorado river. - -[145] See the descriptions of the Nevomes (Pimas) in Perez de Ribas, -_Historia de los Triumphos de Nuestra Santa Fé_, Lib. VI., cap. 2. -(Madrid, 1645.) - -[146] “Las casas eran o de madera, y palos de monte, o de piedra y barro; -y sus poblaciones unas rancherias, a modo de casilas.” Ribas, _Historia -de los Triumphos de Nuestra Santa Fé_, Lib. X., cap. 1. (Madrid, 1645.) - -[147] Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. V., cap. 44. An interesting -sketch of the recent condition of these tribes is given by C. A. Pajeken, -_Reise-Erinnerungen_, pp. 91-98. (Bremen, 1861.) - -[148] Perez de Ribas, _Historia_, etc., Lib. II., cap. 33. - -[149] Eustaquio Buelna, _Peregrinacion de los Aztecas y Nombres -Geograficos Indigenas de Sinaloa_, p. 20. (Mexico, 1887.) - -[150] Buelna, loc. cit., p. 21. - -[151] Father Perez de Ribas, who collected these traditions with care, -reports this fact. _Historia de los Triumphos_, etc., Lib. I., cap. 19. - -[152] See “The Toltecs and their Fabulous Empire,” in my _Essays of an -Americanist_, pp. 83-100. - -[153] There is an interesting anonymous MS. in the _Fond Espagnol_ of -the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, with the title _La Guerra de los -Chichimecas_. The writer explains the name as a generic term applied -to any tribe without settled abode, “vagos, sin casa ni sementera.” He -instances the Pamis, the Guachichiles and the Guamaumas as Chichimeca, -though speaking quite different languages. - -[154] “Cuitlatl, = _mierda_” (Molina, _Vocabulario Mexicano_). -Cuitlatlan, _Ort des Kothes_ (Buschmann, _Aztekische Ortsnamen_, s. -621), applied to the region between Michoacan and the Pacific; also to a -locality near Techan in the province of Guerrero (Orozco y Berra, _Geog. -de las Lenguas_, p. 233). - -[155] Dr. Gustav Brühl believes these schools were limited to those -designed for warriors or the priesthood. Sahagun certainly assigns them a -wider scope. See Brühl, _Die Calturvölker Alt-Amerikas_, pp. 337-8. - -[156] See “The Ikonomatic Method of Phonetic Writing” in my _Essays of an -Americanist_, p. 213. (Philadelphia, 1890.) - -[157] Four skulls in the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences, -Philadelphia, give a cephalic index of 73. - -[158] Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva España_, Lib. X, cap. 29. - -[159] D. G. Brinton, _Ancient Nahuatl Poetry_, p. 134. (Philadelphia, -1887, in Library of Aboriginal American Literature.) - -[160] E. G. Tarayre, _Explorations des Regions Mexicaines_, p. 282. -(Paris, 1879). - -[161] D. G. Brinton, _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 366. - -[162] H. de Charencey, _Melanges de Philologie et de Palæographie -Américaine_, p. 23. - -[163] Sahagun, _Historia_, Lib. X, cap. 29. The name is properly -_Tarex_, applied later in the general sense of “deity,” “idol.” Tarex -is identified by Sahagun with the Nahuatl divinity Mixcoatl, the god of -the storm, especially the thunder storm. The other derivations of the -name Tarascos seem trivial. See Dr. Nicolas Leon, in _Anales del Museo -Michoacano_, Tom. I. Their ancestors were known as Taruchas, in which we -see the same radical. - -[164] Dr. Nicolas Leon, of Morelia, Michoacan, whose studies of the -archæology of his State have been most praiseworthy, places the beginning -of the dynasty at 1200; _Anales del Museo Michoacano_, Tom. I., p. 116. - -[165] From the Nahuatl, _yacatl_, point, apex, nose; though other -derivations have been suggested. - -[166] For numerous authorities, see Bancroft, _Native Races of the -Pacific Coast_, vol. II., pp. 407-8; and on the antiquities of the -country, Dr. Leon, in the _Anales del Museo Michoacano_, passim, and -Beaumont, _Cronica de la Provincia de Mechoacan_, Tom. III., p. 87, sq. -(Mexico, 1874). - -[167] Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva España_, Lib. X., cap. 6. - -[168] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. II., Lib. V., -cap. 8. - -[169] Strebel, _Alt-Mexiko_. - -[170] Pimentel, _Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico_, Tom. III., p. 345, sq. - -[171] From _didja_, language, _za_, the national name. - -[172] Mr. A. Bandelier, in his careful description of these ruins -_(Report of an Archæological Tour in Mexico_, Boston, 1884) spells this -Lyo-ba. But an extensive _MS. Vocabulario Zapoteco_ in my possession -gives the orthography _riyoo baa_. - -[173] Garcia, _Origen de los Indios_, Lib. V., cap. IV., gives a lengthy -extract from one of their hieroglyphic mythological books. - -[174] Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva España_, Lib. X., cap. VI. - -[175] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_. Dec. IV., Lib. X., -cap. 7. - -[176] _Explorations and Surveys of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec_, pp. -126-7. (Washington, 1872.) - -[177] J. G. Barnard, _The Isthmus of Tehuantepec_, pp. 224, 225. (New -York, 1853.) - -[178] _Apuntes sobre la Lengua Chinanteca, MS._ - -[179] Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias Occidentales_. Dec. III., Lib. III., -cap. 15. - -[180] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_. Dec. IV., Lib. X., -cap. 11. - -[181] Gregoria Garcia, _Origen de los Indios_, Lib. V., cap. v. - -[182] Oviedo, _Historia General de las Indias_, Lib. XLII., cap. 5. - -[183] Peralta, _Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Panama, en el Siglo XVI_, p. 777. -(Madrid, 1883.) - -[184] Lucien Adam, _La Langue Chiàpanéque_ (Vienna, 1887); Fr. Müller, -_Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, Bd. IV., Abt. I. s. 177. - -[185] _Anales del Ministerio de Fomento_, p. 98. (Mexico, 1881.) - -[186] Beristain y Souza, _Biblioteca Hispano-Americana Septentrional_, -Tomo I., p. 438. - -[187] For example: - - _Tequistlatecan._ _Yuma dialects._ - Man, acue, eke-tam, ham-akava. - Woman, canoc, anai, sinyok. - Sun, orá, rahj. - Moon, mu_tla_, h’la. - Water, laha, aha, kahal. - Head, ahūa, hū. - Eyes, au, yu. - Mouth, aco, a, aha. - Tree, ehe, ee-ee. - Foot, la_mish_, mie. - Two, ucuc, kokx, goguo. - -[188] _Geografia de las Lenguas de Mejico_, p. 187. - -[189] _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. III., Lib. VII., cap. -III. - -[190] See also Dr. Berendt’s observations on this language in Lewis H. -Morgan’s _Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity in the Human Family_, p. -263. (Washington, 1871.) - -[191] In his _Nicaragua, its People, Scenery and Monuments_, Vol. II., -pp. 314, 324. (New York, 1856.) - -[192] “Fr. Francisco de las Naucas primus omnium Indos qui _Popolocae_ -nuncupantur anno Dom. 1540, divino lavacro tinxit, quorum duobus mensibus -plus quam duodecim millia baptizati sunt.” Franciscus Gonzaga, _De -Origine Seraphicae Religionis_, p. 1245. (Romae, 1587.) - -[193] “Fr. Francisco de Toral, obispo que fué de Yucatan, supo primero de -otro alguno la lengua popoloca de Tecamachcalco, y en ella hizo arte y -vocabulario, y otras obras doctrinales.” Geronimo de Mendieta, _Historia -Eclesiastica Indiana_, Lib. V., cap. 44. - -[194] “Linguâ Mexicanâ paullulum diversa.” De Laet, _Novus Orbis_, p. 25. - -[195] _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Decad. II., Lib. X., cap. 21. - -[196] See the note of J. G. Icazbalceta to the _Doctrina_ of Fernandez, -in H. Harrisse’s _Biblioteca Americana Vetustissima_, p. 445, sq. - -[197] _Geografia de las Lenguas de Mejico_, p. 273. - -[198] See an article “Los Tecos,” in the _Anales del Museo Michoacano_, -Año II., p. 26. - -[199] Domingo Juarros, _Compendio de la Historia de la Ciudad de -Guatemala_, Tomo I., pp. 102, 104, et al. (Ed. Guatemala, 1857.) - -[200] Dr. Otto Stoll, _Zur Ethnographie der Republik Guatemala_, s. 26 -(Zurich, 1884). - -[201] In the _Sitzungsbericht der Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, Wien, -1855. - -[202] “Demas de ocho cientos años,” says Herrera. _Historia de las Indias -Occidentales_, Dec. III., Lib. IV., Cap. XVIII. - -[203] I have edited some of these with translations and notes, in _The -Maya Chronicles_, Philadelphia, 1882. (Volume I. of my _Library of -Aboriginal American Literature_). - -[204] Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva España_, Lib. X., cap. 29, sec. 12. - -[205] One of the most remarkable of these coincidences is that in the -decoration of shells pointed out by Mr. Wm. H. Holmes, in his article -on “Art in Shells,” in the _Second Annual Report of the Bureau of -Ethnology_. (Washington, 1883.) - -[206] On this point see “The Lineal Measures of the Semi-Civilized -Nations of Mexico and Central America,” in my _Essays of an Americanist_, -p. 433. (Philadelphia, 1890.) - -[207] The principal authority is the work of Diego de Landa, _Relacion de -las Cosas de Yucatan_. It has been twice published, once imperfectly by -the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, Paris, 1864, 8vo.; later very accurately -by the Spanish government, Madrid, 1881, folio. - -[208] The most profitable studies in the Maya hieroglyphs have been by -Dr. Cyrus Thomas in the United States, Dr. E. Förstemann, Ed. Seler and -Schellhas in Germany, and Prof. L. de Rosny in France. On the MSS. or -codices preserved, see “The Writings and Records of the Ancient Mayas” in -my _Essays of an Americanist_, pp. 230-254. - -[209] _Popul Vuh, Le Livre Sacré._ Paris, 1861. - -[210] _The Annals of the Cakchiquels, the original text with a -Translation, Notes and Introduction._ Phila., 1885. (Volume VI. of my -_Library of Aboriginal American Literature_.) - -[211] See “The Books of Chilan Balam,” in my _Essays of an Americanist_, -pp. 255-273. - -[212] The name Huaves is derived from the Zapotec _huavi_, to become -rotten through dampness. (_Vocabulario Zapoteco._ MS. in my possession.) -It was probably a term of contempt. - -[213] _Nicaragua, its People and Scenery_, Vol. II., p. 310. - -[214] E. G. Squier, “A Visit to the Guajiquero Indians,” in _Harper’s -Magazine_, October, 1859. A copy of his vocabularies is in my possession. - -[215] I collected and published some years ago the only linguistic -material known regarding this tribe. “On the Language and Ethnologic -Position of the Xinca Indians of Guatemala,” in _Proceedings of the -American Philosophical Society_, 1884. - -[216] On the ethnography of the Musquito coast consult John Collinson, in -_Mems. of the Anthrop. Soc. of London_, Vol. III., p. 149, _sq._; C. N. -Bell, in _Jour. of the Royal Geograph. Soc._, Vol. XXXII., p. 257, and -the _Bericht_ of the German Commission, Berlin, 1845. Lucien Adam has -recently prepared a careful study of the Musquito language. - -[217] See Leon Fernandez and J. F. Bransford, in _Rep. of the Smithsonian -Institution_, 1882, p. 675; B. A. Thiel, _Apuntes Lexicograficos_, Parte -III.; O. J. Parker, in Beach’s _Indian Miscellany_, p. 346. - -[218] _Catalogo de las Lenguas conocidas._ Madrid, 1805. This is the -enlarged Spanish edition of the Italian original published in 1784, and -it is the edition I have uniformity referred to in this work. - -[219] _Personal Narrative_, Vol. VI., p. 352 (English trans., London, -1826). - -[220] _The Philosophic Grammar of American Languages, as set forth by -Wilhelm von Humboldt; with the Translation of an Unpublished Memoir by -him on the American Verb._ By Daniel G. Brinton. (8vo. Philadelphia, -1885.) This Memoir was not included in the editions of Wilhelm von -Humboldt’s Works, and was unknown even to their latest editor, Professor -Steinthal. The original is in the Berlin Public Library. - -[221] _L’Homme Américain de l’Amérique Méridionale, considéré sous ses -Rapports Physiologiques et Moraux._ Par Alcide D’Orbigny. 2 vols. Paris, -1839. - -[222] _Organismus der Khetsua Sprache._ Einleitung. (Leipzig, 1884.) - -[223] _Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas, zumal -Brasiliens._ Von Dr. Carl Friedrich Phil. von Martius. Leipzig, 1867. 2 -vols. - -[224] Von Tschudi, _Organismus der Kechua Sprache_, s. 15, note. - -[225] He was superior general of the missions on the Marañon and its -branches about 1730. See _Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses_, Tom. II., p. -111, for his own description of his experiences and studies. - -[226] See especially his paper “Trois familles linguistiques des -bassins de l’Amazone et de l’Orénoque,” in the _Compte-Rendu du Congrès -internationale des Américanistes_, 1888, p. 489 _sqq._ - -[227] Joaquin Acosta, _Compendio Historico de la Nueva Granada_, p. 168. -(Paris, 1848.) - -[228] _Hist. de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. VII., Cap. XVI. - -[229] Dr. Max Uhle gives a list of 26 Cuna words, with analogies -in the Chibcha and its dialects. (_Compte-Rendu du Cong. Internat. -Américanistes_, 1888, p. 485.) Alphonse Pinart, who has published the -best material on Cuna, is inclined to regard it as affiliated to the -Carib. (_Vocabulario Castellano-Cuna._ Panama, 1882, and Paris, 1890.) - -[230] A. L. Pinart, _Coleccion de Linguistica y Etnografia Americana_, -Tom. IV., p. 17; also the same writer in _Revu d’Ethnographie_, 1887, p. -117, and _Vocabulario Castellano-Dorasque_. Paris, 1890. - -[231] On the Chocos consult _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1876, s. -359; Felipe Perez, _Jeografia del Estado del Cauca_, p. 229, sq. -(Bogota, 1862.) The vocabulary of _Chami_, collected near Marmato by C. -Greiffenstein, and published in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1878, p. -135, is Choco. The vocabulary of the Tucuras, given by Dr. Ernst in the -_Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell._, 1887, p. 302, is quite -pure Choco. The Chocos call their language _embera bede_, “the speech of -men.” - -[232] “Relacion de las tierras y provincias de la gobernacion de -Venezuela (1546),” in Oviedo y Baños, _Historia de Venezuela_, Tom. II. -Appendice. (Ed. Madrid, 1885.) - -[233] Aristides Rojas, _Estudios Indigenos_, p. 46. (Caracas, 1878.) - -[234] “Mas hermosas y agraciadas que las de otros de aquel continente.” -This was the opinion of Alonzo de Ojeda, who saw them in 1499 and later. -(Navarrete, _Viages_, Tom. III., p. 9). Their lacustrine villages -reminded him so much of Venice (Venezia) that he named the country -“Venezuela.” - -[235] According to Lares, the Bobures and Motilones lived adjacent, and -to the north of the Timotes. The Motilones were of the Carib stock. See -Dr. A. Ernst, in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1885, p. 190. - -[236] Joaquin Acosta, _Compend. Hist. de la Nueva Granada_, p. 31, note. - -[237] Martin Fernandez de Enciso, _La Suma de Geografia_. (Sevilla, -1519.) This rare work is quoted by J. Acosta. Enciso was alguacil mayor -of Castilla de Oro in 1515. - -[238] See Jose Ignacio Lares, _Resumen de las Actas de la Academia -Venezolana_, 1886, p. 37 (Caracas, 1886); and Dr. Ernst, in _Zeitschrift -für Ethnologie_, 1885, s. 190. - -[239] G. Coleti, _Dizionario dell’ America Meridionale_, s. v. (Venezia, -1771.) Not to be confounded with the Zaparos of the Marañon. - -[240] _Ibid._, s. v. - -[241] G. Marcano, _Ethnographie Pre-Columbienne de Venezuela._ (Paris, -1889.) - -[242] “La lingua _Muysca_, detta anticamente _Chybcha_, era la comune e -generale in tuttigl’ Indiani di quella Monarchia.” Coleti, _Dizionario -Storico-Geografico dell’ America Meridionale_, Tom. II., p. 39. (Venezia, -1771.) - -[243] “Casi todos los pueblos del Nuevo Reyno de Granada son de Indios -Mozcas.” Alcedo, _Diccionario Geografico de America_, s. v. _Moscas_. “La -lengua Mosca es como general en estendissima parte de aquel territorio; -en cada nacion la hablan de distinta manera.” J. Cassani, _Historia del -Nuevo Reyno de Granada_, p. 48. (Madrid, 1741.) He especially names the -Chitas, Guacicas, Morcotes and Tunebos as speaking Chibcha. - -[244] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. IV., Lib. X., -cap. 8. - -[245] Rafael Celedon, _Gramatica de la Lengua Köggaba_, Introd., p. xxiv. -(_Bibliothèque Linguistique Américaine_.) - -[246] The vocabulary is furnished by General Juan Thomas Perez, in the -_Resumen de las Actas de la Academia Venezolana_, 1886, p. 54. I offer -for comparison the following: - - SIQUISIQUE. CHIBCHA-AROAC. - Sun, _yuan_, _yuia_. - Wife, _esio_, _sena_. - Fire, _dueg_, _gue_. - Water, _ing_, _ni_. - Snake, _tub_, _kĕbi_. - -[247] The connection of the Aroac (not Arawak) dialects with the Chibcha -was, I believe, first pointed out by Friedrich Müller, in his _Grundriss -der Sprachwissenschaft_, Bd. IV., s. 189, note. The fact was also noted -independently by Dr. Max Uhle, who added the Guaymis and Talamancas to -the family. (_Compte Rendu du Congrès Internat. des Américanistes_, 1888, -p. 466.) - -[248] Pinart, _Bulletin de la Société de Geographie_, 1885; Berendt, in -_Bull. of Amer. Geog. Society_, 1876, No. 2. - -[249] In _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_. Washington, -1888. - -[250] Joaquin Acosta, _Compendio Historico de la Nueva Granada_, p. -77. When, in 1606, the missionary Melchor Hernandez visited Chiriqui -lagoon, he found six distinct languages spoken on and near its shores by -tribes whom he names as follows: Cothos, Borisques, Dorasques, Utelaes, -Bugabaes, Zunes, Dolegas, Chagres, Zaribas, Dures. (_Id._, p. 454.) - -[251] The only information I have on the Paniquita dialect is that -given in the _Revue de Linguistique_, July, 1879, by a missionary (name -not furnished). It consists of a short vocabulary and some grammatical -remarks. - -[252] Herrera, _Descripcion de las Indias Occidentales_, Cap. XVI. - -[253] Alcedo, _Diccionario Geografico_, s. v., Muzos. - -[254] _Vocabulario Paez-Castellano_, por Eujenio del Castillo i Orosco. -Con adiciones por Ezequiel Uricoechea. Paris, 1877. (Bibliothèque -Linguistique Américaine.) - -[255] Felipe Perez, _Geografia del Estado de Tolima_, p. 76 (Bogota, -1863); R. B. White, in _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, 1883, -pp. 250-2. - -[256] Dr. A. Posada-Arango, “Essai Ethnographique sur les Aborigenes de -l’Etat d’Antioquia,” in the _Bulletin de la Société Anthrop. de Paris_, -1871, p. 202. - -[257] Thirty thousand, says Herrera, with the usual extravagance of the -early writers (_Decadas de Indias_, Dec. VII., Lib. IV., cap IV.) - -[258] Leon Douay, in _Compte Rendu du Congrès des Américanistes_, 1888, -p. 774, who adds a vocabulary of Moguex. The name is derived from _Mog_, -vir. - -[259] Hervas, _Catologo de las Lenguas Conocidas_, Tom. I., p. 279. -Father Juan de Ribera translated the Catechism into the Guanuca, but so -far as I know, it was not printed. - -[260] Bollaert, _Antiquarian and Ethnological Researches_, etc., pp. 6, -64, etc. The words he gives in Coconuca are: - - IN MOGUEX. - Sun, _puitchr_, _piuchr_. - Moon, _puil_, _pulue_. - Stars, _sil_, _?_ - Chief, _cashu_, _?_ - Maize, _bura_, _purat_. - -Bollaert probably quoted these without acknowledgment from Gen. Mosquera, -_Phys. & Polit. Geog. of New Granada_, p. 45 (New York, 1853). - -[261] My knowledge of the Totoro is obtained from an anonymous notice -published by a missionary in the _Revue de Linguistique_, July, 1879. Its -relationship to the group is at once seen by the following comparison: - - TOTORO. MOGUEX. - Man, _mujel_, _muck_. - Woman, _ishu_, _schut_. - Head, _pushu_, _pusts_. - Eye, _cap-tshal_, _cap_. - Mouth, _trictrap_, _chidbchab_. - Nose, _kim_, _kind_. - Arm, _qual_, _cuald_. - Fingers, _cambil_, _kambild_. - -[262] See Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias_, Dec. VI., Lib. VII., cap. V. - -[263] The vocabulary was furnished by Bishop Thiel. It is edited with -useful comments by Dr. Edward Seler in _Original-Mittheilungen aus der -Ethnologischen Abtheilung der König. Museen zu Berlin_, No. I., s. 44, -sq. (Berlin, 1885). - -[264] Ed. André, in _Le Tour du Monde_, 1883, p. 344. From this very -meagre material I offer the following comparison: - - TELEMBI. COLORADO. - Eye, _cachu_, _caco_. - Nose, _quimpu_, _quinfu_. - House, _yall_, _ya_. - Hand, _ch’to_, _te-de_. - Foot, _mi-to_, _ne-de_. - Mother, _acuá_, _ayá_. - Hair, _aichi_, _apichu_. - -The terminal syllable _to_ in the Telembi words for hand and foot -appears to be the Colorado _té_, branch, which is also found in the Col. -_té-michu_, finger, _te-chili_, arm ornament, and again in the Telembi -_t’raill_, arm. - -[265] In the _Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft_, 1887, -ss. 597-99. - -[266] Other analogies are undoubted, though less obvious. Thus in Cayapa, -“man” is _liu-pula_; “woman,” _su-pula_. In these words, the terminal -_pula_ is generic, and the prefixes are the Colorado _sona_, woman, -abbreviated to _so_ in the Colorado itself, (see Dr. Seler’s article, -p. 55); and the Col. _chilla_, male, which in the Spanish-American -pronunciation, where _ll = y_, is close to _liu_. - -[267] Bollaert, _Antiquarian and Ethnological Researches_, p. 82. - -[268] Manuel I. Albis, in _Bulletin of the Amer. Ethnol. Soc._, vol. I., -p. 52. - -[269] A. Codazzi in Felipe Perez, _Jeografia del Estado de Tolima_, pp. -81 sqq. (Bogota, 1863.) - -[270] - - As tooth, Andaqui, _sicoga_; Chibcha, _sica_. - house, ” _co-joe_; ” _jüe_. - -[271] Manuel P. Albis, in _Bull. of the Amer. Ethnolog. Soc._, Vol. I., -pp. 55, sq. See also General T. C. de Mosquera, _Memoir on the Physical -and Political Geography of New Granada_, p. 41 (New York, 1853). - -[272] Garcilasso de la Vega, _Commentarios Reales_, Lib. VIII., cap. 5. -He calls the natives Huancavillcas. - -[273] F. G. Saurez, _Estudio Historico sobre los Cañaris_ (Quito, 1878). -This author gives cuts of these axes, and their inscribed devices. - -[274] For a description, with cuts, see M. L. Heuzey, “Le Trésor de -Cuenca,” in _La Gazette des Beaux-Arts_, August, 1870. - -[275] _Cronica del Peru_, Pt. I., cap. cxvi. - -[276] _Comentarios Reales de los Incas_, Lib. VII., cap. 3. - -[277] _Antiquarian, Ethnological and other Researches, in New Granada, -Ecuador, Peru and Chili_, p. 101 (London, 1860). - -[278] He complains that the languages which the Incas tried to suppress, -had, since their downfall, arisen as vigorous as ever, _Comentarios -Reales de los Incas_, Lib. VII., cap. 3. - -[279] _Organismus der Khetsua Sprache_, s. 64 (Leipzig, 1884). - -[280] See von Tschudi, _Organismus der Khetsua Sprache_, s. 65. It is to -be regretted that in the face of the conclusive proof to the contrary, -Dr. Middendorf repeats as correct the statement of Garcilasso de la Vega -(_Ollanta, Einleitung_, s. 15, note). - -[281] See his Introduction to the _Travels of Pedro Cieza de Leon_, p. -xxii. (London, 1864). - -[282] See his _Organismus der Khetsua Sprache_, ss. 64-66. - -[283] The Chinchaya dialect is preserved (insufficiently) by Father -Juan de Figueredo in an Appendix to Torres-Rubio, _Arte de la Lengua -Quichua_, edition of Lima, 1701. It retained the sounds of _g_ and _l_, -not known in southern Kechua. The differences in the vocabularies of the -two are apparent rather than real. Thus the Chin. _rupay_, sun, is the K. -for sun’s heat (ardor del sol); Chin. _caclla_, face, is K. _cacclla_, -cheeks. Markham is decidedly in error in saying that the Chinchaya -dialect “differed very considerably from that of the Incas” (_Journal -Royal Geog. Soc._, 1871, p. 316). - -[284] Introduction to his translation of Cieza de Leon, p. xlvii, note. - -[285] Bollaert, _Antiquarian and Ethnological Researches_, p. 81. - -[286] Von Tschudi, _Organismus der Khetsua Sprache_, s. 66. Hervas was -also of the opinion that both Quitu and Scyra were Kechua dialects -(_Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas_, Tom. I., p. 276). - -[287] A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des Alten Americas_, Bd. II., s. 93. - -[288] Juan de Velasco, _Histoire du Royaume de Quito_, pp. 11-21, sq. -(Ed. Ternaux-Compans, Paris, 1840.) But Cieza de Leon’s expressions -imply the existence of the matriarchal system among them. See Markham’s -translation, p. 83, note. Some claim that the Quitus were a different, -and, in their locality, a more ancient tribe than the Caras. - -[289] _Relaciones Geograficas de Indias_. Peru. Tom. I., p. 19. (Madrid, -1881.) - -[290] In _Le Tour du Monde_, 1883, p. 406. The word _Yumbo_ appears to be -derived from the Paez _yombo_, river, and was applied to the down-stream -Indians. - -[291] “Casi tal come lo enseñaron los conquistadores.” Manuel -Villavicencio, _Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador_, pp. 168, 354, -413, etc. (New York, 1858.) According to Dr. Middendorf, the limit of the -Incarial power (which, however, is not identical in this region with that -of the Kechua tongue), was the Blue river, the Rio Ancasmayu, an affluent -of the upper Patia. (_Ollanta, Einleitung_, s. 5. Berlin, 1890.) - -[292] Mr. C. Buckley, “Notes on the Macas Indians of Ecuador,” in -_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, 1874, pp. 29, sqq. - -[293] References in Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, Bd. III., s. -492. - -[294] _Arte de la Lengua Chilena_, Introd. (Lima, 1606). - -[295] Paul Topinard, in _Revue d’Anthropologie_, Tome IV., pp. 65-67. - -[296] Lucien Carr, _Fourth Report of the Peabody Museum of Archæology_. - -[297] I would especially refer to the admirable analysis of the Peruvian -governmental system by Dr. Gustav Brühl, _Die Culturvölker Alt-Amerikas_, -p. 335, sqq. (Cincinnati, 1887.) I regret that the learned Kechuist, -Dr. E. W. Middendorf, had not studied this book before he prepared his -edition of the _Ollanta_ drama (Berlin, 1890), or he would have modified -many of the statements in its _Einleitung_. - -[298] See J. J. von Tschudi, “Das Lama,” in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, -1885, s. 93. - -[299] Dr. Nehring has shown that all the breeds of Peruvian dogs can be -traced back to what is known as the Inca shepherd dog. _Zeitschrift für -Ethnologie_, 1885, s. 520. - -[300] _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, Bd. II., Abth. I., 370. - -[301] A careful edition is that of G. Pacheco Zegarra, _Ollantai; -Drame en Vers Quechuas du temps des Incas_ (Paris, 1878); an English -translation, quite faulty, was given by C. G. Markham (London, 1871); one -in Kechua and German by Von Tschudi, and recently (1890) Dr. Middendorf’s -edition claims greater accuracy than its predecessors. - -[302] Espada, _Yaravies Quiteños_. (Madrid, 1881.) - -[303] J. J. Von Tschudi, _Organismus der Khetsua Sprache_ (Leipzig, -1884); Dr. E. W. Middendorf, _Das Runa Simi, oder die Keshua Sprache_. -(Leipzig, 1890.) - -[304] The Yauyos spoke the Cauqui dialect, which was somewhat akin to -Aymara. - -[305] See Markham’s paper in _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, -1871, p. 309. - -[306] _Arte de la Lengua Aymara_, Roma, 1603; _Vocabulario de la Lengua -Aymara_, Juli, 1612. Both have been republished by Julius Platzmann, -Leipzig, 1879. - -[307] See Steinthal, “Das Verhältniss zwischen dem Ketschua und Aimara,” -in _Compte-Rendu du Congrès International des Américanistes_, 1888, p. -462. David Forbes reverses the ordinary view, and considers the Kechua -language and culture as mixed and late products derived from an older -Aymara civilization. See his article on the Aymara Indians in _Journal of -the Ethnological Society of London_, 1870, p. 270, sqq. - -[308] “Principalmente se enseña en este Arte la lengua Lupaca, la qual no -es inferior a la Pacasa, que entre todas las lenguas Aymaricas tiene el -primer lugar.” Bertonio, _Arte de la Lengua Aymara_, p. 10. - -[309] For measurements, etc., see David Forbes, in _Journal of the London -Ethnological Society_, October, 1870. - -[310] One of the most satisfactory descriptions of them is by E. G. -Squier, _Travels in Peru_, Chaps. XV., XVI. (New York, 1877). - -[311] The observations of David Forbes on the present architecture of -the Aymaras lend strong support to his theory that the structures of -Tiahuanuco, if not projected by that nation, were carried out by Aymara -architects and workmen. See his remarks in _Jour. of the London Ethnol. -Soc._, 1870, p. 259. - -[312] D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Tome I., p. 309. - -[313] Quoted by A. Bastian. - -[314] “Son estos _Uros_ tan brutales que ellos mismos no se tienen por -hombres.” Acosta, _Historia de las Indias_, p. 62 (Ed. 1591). - -[315] “Los Indios Puquinas … son rudos y torpes.” La Vega, _Comentarios -Reales de los Incas_, Lib. VII., cap. 4. - -[316] _Mithridates_, Theil III., Abth. II., ss. 548-550. - -[317] In the _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, 1871, p. 305. - -[318] In his _Organismus der Ketschua Sprache_, s. 76 (Leipzig, 1884). - -[319] _Relaciones Geograficas de Indias_. Peru, Tom. I., p. 82. (Madrid, -1881.) - -[320] Fernando de la Carrera, _Arte de la Lengua Yunga_. (Lima, 1644, -reprint, Lima, 1880.) - -[321] See Von Tschudi, _Die Kechua Sprache_, p. 83, 84. - -[322] Charles Wiener, _Perou et Bolivie_, p. 98, seq. (Paris, 1880.) - -[323] _Commentarios Reales_, Lib. VI., cap. 32. - -[324] See the chapter on “The Art, Customs and Religion of the Chimus,” -in E. G. Squier’s _Peru_, p. 170, sq. (New York, 1877.) - -[325] “En la lengua Mochica de los Yungas.” Geronimo de Ore, _Rituale seu -Manuale Peruanum_. (Neapoli, 1607.) - -[326] A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer Alt-Amer._ Bd. II. - -[327] In C. R. Markham’s translation of Cieza de Leon, Introduction, p. -xlii. (London, 1864.) - -[328] _Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas_, Tome I., p. 274. - -[329] Dr. R. A. Philippi, _Reise durch die Wüste Atacama_, s. 66. (Halle, -1860.) J. J. von Tschudi, _Reisen durch Sud-Amerika_, Bd. V., s. 82-84. -T. H. Moore, _Compte-Rendu du Congrès Internat. des Américanistes_, 1877, -Vol. II., p. 44, sq. Francisco J. San-Roman, _La Lengua Cunza de los -Naturales de Atacama_ (Santiago de Chile, 1890). The word _cunza_ in this -tongue is the pronoun “our,”--the natives speak of _lengua cunza_, “our -language.” Tschudi gives the only text I know--two versions of the Lord’s -Prayer. - -[330] “Con la nacion Aymara esta visiblimente emparentada la Atacameña.” -Dr. L. Darapsky, “Estudios Linguisticos Americanos,” in the _Bulletin del -Instituto Geog. Argentino_, 1890, p. 96. - -[331] _L’Homme Américain_, Tom. II., p. 330. - -[332] _Organismus der Khetsua Sprache_, s. 71, and _Reisen_, Bd. V., s. -84. - -[333] Alcide D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Tome I., p. 334. (Paris, -1839.) - -[334] “Entre los Changos no se conserva vestigio de lengua indijena -alguna.” F. J. San-Roman, _La Lengua Cunza_, p. 4. - -[335] Wallace estimates the area of the Amazon basin alone, not including -that of the Rio Tocantins, which he regards as a different system, at -2,300,000 square miles. (_Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_, p. 526.) - -[336] See authorities in Von Martius, _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde -Amerikas_, Bd. I., s. 185. (Leipzig, 1867.) - -[337] The origin of the Chiriguanos is related from authentic traditions -by Nicolas del Techo, _Historia Provinciæ Paraquariæ_, Lib. XI., Cap. -2. The name Chiriguano means “cold,” from the temperature of the upland -region to which they removed. - -[338] “Nullam gentem Christianis moribus capessendis aut retiendis -aptiorem in australi hoc America fuisse repertam.” Nicolas del Techo, -loc. cit., Lib. X., Cap. 9. - -[339] Comp. von Martius, u. s., s. 179. - -[340] _Reise in Chile und Peru_, Bd. II., s. 450. - -[341] “Though widely different from the Tupi, ancient or modern, I am -satisfied that the Mundurucú belongs to the same family.” C. F. Hartt, in -_Trans. of the Amer. Philological Association_, 1872, p. 75. - -[342] Von Martius, _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, Bd. I., s. -412. A specimen of their vocalic and sonorous language is given by E. -Teza, _Saggi Inediti di Lingue Americane_, p. 43. (Pisa, 1868.) - -[343] G. Coleti, _Dizionario Storico-Geografico dell’ America -Meridionale_, Tom. II., p. 38. (Venezia, 1771.) - -[344] Lozano, _Hist. de la Conquista de Paraguay_, pp. 415, 416. - -[345] Lozano, _Ibid._, pp. 422-425. - -[346] Paul Marcoy, _Voyage à travers l’Amérique du Sud_, Tome II., p. -241; comp. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, Bd. III., s. 427. - -[347] The “Amazon-stones,” _muira-kitan_, are ornaments of hard stone, as -jade or quartz. - -[348] H. Müller, in _Compte Rendue du Congrès Internat. des -Américanistes_, 1888, p. 461. - -[349] Dr. P. M. Rey, _Etude Anthropologique sur les Botocudos_, p. 51 and -passim. (Paris, 1880.) Dr. Paul Ehrenreich, “Ueber die Botocudos,” in -_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1887, Heft I. - -[350] Von Tschudi, _Reise in Sud Amerika_, Bd. II., p. 281. If this is -one of their ancient arts, it is the only instance of the invention of an -artificial light south of the Eskimos in America. - -[351] Dr. P. M. Rey states that the custom of kissing is known to them -both as a sign of peace between men, and of affection from mothers to -children. (_Et de Anthropologique sur les Botocudos_, p. 74, Paris, -1880.) This is unusual, and indeed I know no other native tribe who -employed this sign of friendship. - -[352] Dr. Rey, _loc. cit._, p. 78, 79. - -[353] In the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1887, s. 49. - -[354] A comparative vocabulary of these dialects is given by Von Martius, -_Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, Bd. I., s. 310. - -[355] In the _Transactions of the American Association for the -Advancement of Science_, 1886, p. 329. The terms for comparison are -borrowed from Von den Steinen’s Comparative Vocabulary of the Tapuya -Dialects. - -[356] See D. G. Brinton, “The Arawack Language of Guiana in its -Linguistic and Ethnological Relations,” in _Trans. of the Amer. Phil. -Soc._, 1871. - -[357] Olivier Ordinaire, “Les Sauvages du Perou,” in _Revue -d’Ethnographie_, 1887, p. 282. - -[358] C. Greiffenstein, in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1878, s. 137. - -[359] Von Tschudi, _Organismus der Kechua Sprache_, p. 67. For other -members of the Campas see Hervas, _Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas_, -Tom. I., p. 262; Amich, _Compendio Historico de la Serafica Religion_, p. -35, and _Scottish Geog. Journal_, Feb., 1890. - -[360] D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Tom. II., p. 104, note. - -[361] “Los Guanas son la mejor nacion de las barbaras hasta ahora -descubiertas en America.” Hervas, _Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas_, -Tom. I., p. 189. - -[362] _Expédition dans l’Amérique du Sud_, Tome II., p. 480. - -[363] _Compte-Rendu du Cong. Internat. des Américanistes_, 1888, p. 510. - -[364] The words from the Paiconeca and Saraveca are from D’Orbigny, -_L’Homme Américain_, Tome I., p. 165; those from the Arawak stock from -the table in Von den Steinen, _Durch Central-Brasilien_, s. 294. - -[365] Im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, p. 165. Comp. Von den -Steinen, _Durch Central Brasilien_, ss. 295, 307. - -[366] Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, in _Report of the Brit. Assoc. for the -Adv. of Science_, 1848, pp. 96-98. See also Im Thurn, u. s., pp. 163, -272; Martius, _Ethnographie_, Bd. I., s. 683. - -[367] Lucien Adam, _Compte-Rendu du Congrès Internat. d’Américanistes_, -1888, p. 492. - -[368] “All the numerous branches of this stem,” says Virchow, “present -the same type of skull.” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1886, s. 695. - -[369] Everard F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, p. 189. -(London, 1883.) - -[370] F. X. Eder, _Descriptio Provinciæ Moxitarum_, p. 217. (Budæ, 1791.) -Dr. Washington Matthews has kindly made for me a number of observations -upon Navajo Indians with reference to this anatomical peculiarity. It is -not markedly present among them. - -[371] For particulars see Im Thurn, _ubi suprá_, Chap. VII. - -[372] Von Martius, _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, Bd. I., s. -625-626. - -[373] Karl von den Steinen, _Durch Central-Brasilien_, Cap. XXI., “Die -Heimat der Kariben.” - -[374] Im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, p. 171-3. - -[375] See Francisco de Tauste, _Arte, Bocabulario, y Catecismo de la -Lengua de Cumana_, p. 1 (Ed. Julius Platzmann). - -[376] They are printed in the Berlin _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1878. - -[377] Chaffanjon, _L’Orénoque et le Caura_, p. 308 (Paris, 1889). - -[378] Joao Barboza Rodrigues, _Pacificaçáo dos Crichanas_, (Rio de -Janeiro, 1885). Dr. Rodrigues was Director of the Botanical Museum of -the Amazons. His work contains careful vocabularies of over 700 words -in the Macuchi, Ipurucoto and Crichana dialects. His journeys to the -Rio Jauapery were undertaken chiefly from philanthropic motives, which -unfortunately did not bear the fruit they merited. - -[379] “D’un blanc presque pur.” Dr. J. Crévaux, _Voyages dans l’Amérique -du Sud_, p. 111 (Paris, 1883). - -[380] Dr. Crévaux, _Ibid._, p. 304. - -[381] See Dr. Paul Ehrenreich, in the _Verhandlungen der Berliner -Anthrop. Gesell._, 1888, p. 549. These are not to be confounded with the -Apiacas of the Rio Arinos, who are of Tupi stock. The word _apiaca_ or -_apiaba_ in Tupi means simply “men.” - -[382] A. S. Pinart, _Aperçu sur d’ile d’Aruba, ses Habitants, ses -Antiquités, ses Petroglyphes_ (folio, Paris, 1890). - -[383] Report of the _Brit. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science_, 1848, p. 96. - -[384] _Bulletin of the Amer. Ethnolog. Society_, Vol. I., p. 59. - -[385] The identification of the Motilones as Caribs we owe to Dr. Ernst, -_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1887, s. 296. - -[386] “La mas bella, la mas robusta y la mas intelligente,” etc. F. -Michelena y Rojas, _Exploracion Official de la America del Sur_, p. 54 -(Bruselas, 1867). - -[387] See D. G. Brinton, “On a Petroglyph from the Island of St. -Vincent,” in _Proceedings of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia_, -1889, p. 417. - -[388] Also the Ouayéoué, of which a short vocabulary is given by M. -Coudreau in the _Archives de la Société Américaine de France_, 1886. - -[389] Martius, _Ethnographie_, Bd. I., s. 346, sq. The word may mean -either maternal or paternal uncle, V. d. Steinen, s. 292. - -[390] Luiz Vincencio Mamiani, _Arte de la Lingua Kiriri_, and his -_Catechismo na Lingua da naçao Kiriri_. The former has been republished -(1877), and also translated into German by Von der Gabelentz (1852). - -[391] _Durch Central-Brasilien_, s. 303. This writer looks upon the -Cariris as a remote off-shoot from the Carib stock. - -[392] See Von den Steinen, _Durch Central-Brasilien_, s. 320; Paul -Ehrenreich, _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1886, s. 184. - -[393] Reinhold Hensel, “Die Coroados der Provinz Rio Grande do Sul,” in -_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, Bd. II., s. 195. - -[394] F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans l’Amérique du Sud_, Tom. I., p. -446. - -[395] For instance: - - CARAJA. BOTOCUDO. - Woman, _awkeu_, _joku-nang_. - Sun, _tiou_, _taru_. - Head, _w-oara_, _curu_. - Tooth, _wa-djon_, _yune_. - Hand, _wa-depo_, _nipo_. - Fire, _eaotou_, _poté_. - -Dr. Paul Ehrenreich, who has a mass of unpublished material about the -Caraja language, says it is wholly unconnected with the Carib group. -_Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesell._, 1888, p. 548. - -[396] Vocabularies of these are collected by Von Martius in his -_Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, Bd. II., ss. 155, 156, 161, -212, etc. - -[397] The list is given in his _Personal Narrative of a Journey in the -Equinoctial Regions of America_, Vol. VI., pp. 354-358, of the English -translation (London, 1826). - -[398] F. S. Gilii, _Saggio di Storia Americana_, Tom. III., Lib. -III., cap. 12 (Roma, 1782). In speaking of _lengue matrici_, he says -positively, “In tutta l’estensione del grande Orinoco non ve ne sono che -nove,” p. 204. - -[399] Aug. Codazzi, _Geografia de Venezuela_, pp. 247, 248 (Paris, 1841). - -[400] J. Chaffanjon, _L’Orénoque et la Caura_, p. 247 (Paris, 1889). - -[401] Michelena y Rojas, _Exploracion Oficial de la America del Sur_, p. -344 (Bruselas, 1867). - -[402] A. Coudreau, _Archives de la Société Américaine de France_, 1885, -p. 281. - -[403] _L’Orénoque et le Caura_, p. 183. - -[404] See the Vocabularies. - -[405] Consult J. Cassani, _Historia de la Provincia de la Compañia de -Jesus del Nuevo Reyno de Granada_, fol. 170, 227 (Madrid, 1741); and -Joseph Gumilla, _El Orinoco Ilustrado y Defendido_, p. 65 (Madrid, 1745). - -[406] Quoted by Aristides Rojas, _Estudios Indigenas_, p. 183 (Caracas, -1878). This work contains much useful information on the Venezuelan -languages. - -[407] Jorge S. Hartmann, “Indianerstämme von Venezuela,” in _Orig. -Mittheil. aus der Ethnol. Abtheil. der König. Museen zu Berlin_, 1886, s. -162. - -[408] Joseph Gumilla, _El Orinoco_, p. 66. - -[409] Felipe Perez, _Geografia del Estado de Cundinamarca_, p. 109. - -[410] _Historia de la Provincia de Granada_, pp. 87, 93. He calls them a -“nacion suave y racional.” - -[411] Felipe Perez, _Geografia del Estado de Boyuca_, p. 136. - -[412] G. D. Coleti, _Dizionario Storico-Geografico dell’ America -Meridionale_, Tom. I. p. 164 (Venezia, 1772). - -[413] J. Chaffanjon, _L’Orénoque et le Caura_, p. 121. - -[414] “Los Gitanos de las Indias, todo parecido en costumbres y modo de -vivir de nuestros Gitanos.” Cassani, _Hist. de la Prov. de Granada_, p. -111. Gumilla remarks: “De la Guajiva salen varias ramas entre la gran -variedad de Chiricoas.” (_El Orinoco Ilustrado_, etc. Tom. II. p. 38.) - -[415] Chaffanjon, _L’Orénoque et le Caura_, pp. 177, 183, 187, 197. - -[416] The subject is fully discussed from long personal observation by -Michelena y Rojas, _Exploracion Oficial de la America del Sur_, p. 346. - -[417] See the observations of Level in Michelena y Rojas, _Exploracion -Oficial de la America del Sur_, p. 148, sq. The Guaraunos are also well -described by Crévaux, _Voyages dans l’Amérique du Sud_, p. 600, sqq. -(Paris, 1883), and J. Chaffanjon, _Archives de la Société Américaine de -France_, 1887, p. 189. Im Thurn draws a very unfavorable picture of them -in his _Indians of British Guiana_, p. 167. - -[418] A. Von Humboldt, _Personal Narrative_, Vol. III., p. 216 (Eng. -trans. London, 1826). - -[419] Joseph Gumilla, _L’Orinoco Ilustrado_, Tom. II., p. 66. They spoke -Carib to him, but that was the _lengua general_ of the lower river. - -[420] A description of the Correguages and a vocabulary of their dialect -are given by the Presbyter Manuel M. Albis, in _Bulletin of the Amer. -Ethnol. Soc._, Vol. I., p. 55. - -[421] Arthur Simpson, _Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador_, p. 196 (London, -1886). In his appendix the author gives a vocabulary of the Pioje (and -also one of the Zaparo). - -[422] Printed in the _Bibliothèque Linguistique Américaine_, by M. L. -Adam, Tome VIII., p. 52. - -[423] Manuel P. Albis, in _Bull. of the Amer. Ethnol. Society_, Vol. I., -p. 55. - -[424] See the account in the interesting work of Father Cassani, -_Historia de la Provincia de la Compañia de Jesus del Nuevo Reyno de -Granada_, pp. 231, 232, 257, etc. (Madrid, 1741). He describes the -Jiraras as having the same rites, customs and language as the Airicos on -the river Ele, p. 96. Gumilla makes the following doubtful statement: -“De la lengua Betoya y Jirara, que aunque esta gasta pocas _erres_, y -aquella demasiadas, ambas quieren ser matrices, se derivan las lenguas -Situfa, Ayrica, Ele, Luculia, Jabue, Arauca, Quilifay, Anaboli, Lolaca, y -Atabaca.” (_El Orinoco Ilustrado y Defendido_, Tom. II., p. 38, Madrid, -1745.) - -[425] Felipe Perez, _Geografia del Estado de Cundinamarca_, p. 113. - -[426] In the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1876, s. 336, sq. - -[427] _Geografia del Estado de Cundinamarca_, p. 114 (Bogota, 1863). - -[428] _Ibid._, _Geografia del Estado de Cauca_, p. 313. - -[429] Chaffanjon, _ubi suprá_, p. 203. - -[430] He gives _oueni_, water, _zenquerot_, moon, as identical in the -Puinavi and Baniva. The first may pass, but the second is incorrect. See -his remarks in A. R. Wallace, _Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_, p. -528 (London, 1853). A vocabulary of 53 Puinavi words is furnished from -Dr. Crévaux’s notes in Vol. VIII. of the _Bibliothèque Linguistique -Américaine_ (Paris, 1882). - -[431] Ed. André, in _Le Tour du Monde_, 1883, p. 406. But Osculati -describes them as tall and fine-looking, with small mustaches. -_Esplorazione delle Regioni Equatoriali_, p. 164, sq. (Milano, 1850). - -[432] This opinion is supported by Hamy, Villavicencio, and other good -authorities. - -[433] Hervas, _Catal. de las Lenguas Conocidas_, Tom. I., p. 262. The -term _Encabellados_ was applied to the tribe from their custom of -allowing the hair to grow to their waist. (_Lettres Edifiantes_, Tom. -II., p. 112). The _Pater Noster_ in the Encabellada dialect is printed by -E. Teza in his _Saggi Inediti di Lingue Americane_, p. 53 (Pisa, 1868). - -[434] In the closing chapters of his _Esplorazione_, above quoted. - -[435] An excellent article on the ethnography of this tribe is the -“Osservazioni Ethnografiche sui Givari,” by G. A. Colini in _Real. Accad. -dei Lincei_, Roma, 1883. See also Alfred Simpson, _Travels in the Wilds -of Ecuador_, p. 91, sq. (London, 1886). - -[436] Ed. André, in _Le Tour du Monde_, 1883, p. 406. - -[437] Prof. Raimondi, in the _Anthropological Review_, Vol. I., p. 33, sq. - -[438] “La comunauté d’origine entre les Jivaros et les tribus du grand -groupe guaranien se trouvera etablie avec assurance.” Dr. Hamy, “Nouveaux -Renseignements sur les Indiens Jivaros,” in the _Revue d’Anthropologie_, -1873, p. 390. - -[439] The _Mithridates_ (Bd. III., Ab. II., s. 592) gives from Hervas -the Pater Noster in the Maina dialect. Professor Teza (_Saggi inediti di -Lingue Americane_, pp. 54-57) has published the Pater Noster, Ave, Credo -and Salve in the Cahuapana dialect. They differ but little. - -[440] See E. Pöppig, “Die Indiervölker des obern Huallaga,” in his _Reise -in Chile und Peru_, Bd. II., ss. 320, 321, 400, etc. - -[441] _Literature of American Aboriginal Languages_, p. 12. - -[442] Olivier Ordinaire, “Les Sauvages du Perou,” in the _Revue -d’Ethnologie_, 1887, p. 320. - -[443] For example: - - YAHUA. PEBA. - Bow, _cano_, _canou_. - Ear, _on-tisiu_, _mi-tiwi_. - Hair, _rinoncay_, _rainosay_. - Head, _fi-rignio_, _raino_. - Heart, _hu-iachai_, _ca-iishi_. - Forehead, _uno_, _nimo_. - Nose, _unirou_, _vinerro_. - Woman, _huata_, _uatoa_. - -The Yahua has more Kechua elements than the Peba. - -[444] _Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses_, Tome II., p. 112. - -[445] Von Martius, _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas_, Bd. I., s. -445. - -[446] _Reise in Chile und Peru_, Bd. II., s. 415. - -[447] Jose Amich, _Compendio Historico de la Serafica Religion_, etc., -pp. 77, 78. - -[448] E. Pöppig, _Reise in Chile und Peru_, Bd. II., s. 328 (Leipzig, -1836). - -[449] Cf. Olivier Ordinaire, “Les Sauvages du Perou,” in _Revue -d’Ethnologie_, 1887, pp. 316, 317. - -[450] Von Martius, _Ethnog. und Sprach. Amerikas_, Bd. I., s. 435. - -[451] _Compte-Rendu du Cong. Internat. des Américanistes_, 1888, p. 438. - -[452] See Dr. L. F. Galt, “The Indians of Peru,” in _Report of the -Smithsonian Institution_, 1877, p. 308, sq. - -[453] Professor Antonio Raimondi, _Apuntes sobre la Provincia de Loreto_ -(Lima, 1862), trans. by Bollaert, in _Jour. Anthrop. Institute_. He -states that they speak a dialect of Pano. - -[454] D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Tome II., p. 262. - -[455] W. Chandless, in _Jour. of the Royal Geog. Soc._, Vol. XXXIX., p. -302; Vol. XXXVI., p. 118. - -[456] _Ibid._, Vol. XXXVI., p. 123, note. - -[457] The Callisecas are now no longer known by that name; but J. Amich -has given sufficient reasons to identify them as the ancestors of the -tribe later known as the Setibos. See his _Compendio Historico de la -Serafica Religion en las Montañas de los Andes_, p. 29 (Paris, 1854). -Lieutenant Herndon, however, who describes them as wearing beards, -believed they were the ancient Cashibos (_Exploration of the Valley of -the Amazon_, p. 209. Washington, 1853). - -[458] According to Veigl. See _Mithridates, III._, II. 580, 581, 583. - -[459] Called also _Mananaguas_, “mountaineers,” and believed by Waitz to -have been the _Manoas_ among whom an old missionary found an elder of -the tribe rehearsing the annals of the nation from a hieroglyphic scroll -(_Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, Bd. III., s. 541). The real Manoas or -Manaos belong to the Arawak stock. - -[460] W. Chandless, in _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, Vol. -XXXVI., p. 118; Vol. XXXIX., p. 311. - -[461] _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde_, Bd. I., s. 414. - -[462] Von Martius, _Ibid._, p. 422. - -[463] _Scottish Geographical Magazine_, 1890, p. 242. - -[464] _Proceedings of the Royal Geog. Society_, 1889, p. 501. - -[465] Muratori, _Il Cristianesimo Felice_, p. 27 (Venezia, 1743). -Father Fernandez gives the names of 69 bands of the Manacicas (_Lettres -Edifiantes et Curieuses_, Tom. II., p. 174). - -[466] A grammar of it has been edited by MM. Adam and Henry, _Arte de la -lengua Chiquita_, Paris, 1880. (_Bibliothèque Linguistique Américaine_, -Tom. VI.) The sub-divisions of the Chiquitos are so numerous that I -refrain from encumbering my pages with them. See D’Orbigny, _L’Homme -Américain_, Tom. II., p. 154, and authorities there quoted. - -[467] Hervas, _Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas_, Tom. I., p. 159. - -[468] Alcide D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Vol. I., p. 356, sq. Among -the D’Orbigny MSS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale, I found an inedited -grammar and dictionary of the Yurucari language. It would be very -desirable to have this published, as our present knowledge of the tongue -rests on a few imperfect vocabularies. The work is doubtless that by P. -la Cueva, mentioned in H. Ludewig, _Lit. of Amer. Aborig. Languages_, p. -206; but the author and editor of that work were in error in classing -the Tacana and Maropa as members of the Yurucari stock. They belong to a -different family. - -[469] _L’Homme Américain_, Tom. I., p. 374. - -[470] _Scottish Geographical Magazine_, 1890. - -[471] E. Heath, _Kansas City Review_, April, 1883. He gives vocabularies -of Tacana and Maropa. A devotional work has been printed in Tacana. - -[472] _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, 1889, p. 498. - -[473] De Laet, quoted in _Mithridates_, Th. III., Ab. II., s. 577. - -[474] “En Aten se habla la Leca por ser este pueblo de Indios Lecos.” -_Descripcion de las Misiones de Apolobamba_ (Lima, 1771). - -[475] Weddell, _Voyage dans la Bolivie_, p. 453 (quoted by Waitz). - -[476] Most of the Samucus were gathered at the mission of St. Ignatius. -Father Chomé remarks, “Les Zamucos, Cuculados, Tapios et Ugaronos parlent -à peu prés la même langue.” _Lettres Edifiantes_, Tome II., p. 191. See -also D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Tom. II., p. 142. - -[477] D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Tome II., p. 247. - -[478] Professor E. Teza gives some texts in his _Saggi Inediti di -Lingue Americane_, pp. 40, 41; and Mr. E. Heath has supplied a careful -vocabulary of recent date (_Kansas City Review_, April, 1883). - -[479] Texts of the Pater, Ave and Credo are given by E. Teza, _Saggi -Inediti di Lingue Americane_, p. 51. - -[480] D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Tome II., p. 257. - -[481] _Descripcion de las Misiones del Alto Peru_, 12mo, Lima, 1771. The -only copy of this work which I have seen, and that an imperfect one, is -in the Collection Angrand, in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Among -the MSS. of this great library is a _Confessionario_ in Itonama, which -should be published as perhaps the only text of the language extant. Some -remarks on its phonetics may be found in D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, -Tome II., p. 239. - -[482] According to Father Fernandez there were, in 1726, 30,000 converts -under the care of the Moxos Mission, and fifteen different languages were -spoken, “qui ne se ressemblent nullement.” _Lettres Edifiantes_, Tom. -II., p. 161. - -[483] See von Martius, _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde_, Bd. I., s. 412. -Professor Teza gives the Pater, Ave and Credo in the Mura dialect of -Bolivia (_Saggi inediti di Lingue Americane_, p. 43). - -[484] Pater, an Ave and a Credo. _Saggi inediti di Lingue Americane_, pp. -48, 49. The author of the _Descripcion_, however, distinguishes between -the _Ocoronos_ and the _Rotoroños_, both at the Moxos Mission. - -[485] See _Mithridates_, Th. II., s. 577. - -[486] The Capesacos and Menepes were others. Nicolas del Techo, _Historia -Provinciæ Paraquariæ_, Lib. XII., cap. 33. - -[487] The word _chaco_, properly _chacu_, in Kechua is applied to game -driven into pens. Lozano says it was used metaphorically in reference to -the numerous tribes driven from their homes into the forests (_Descrip. -Chronograph. del Gran Chaco_, p. 1). - -[488] Del Techo, _ubi suprá_, Lib. I., cap. 41. - -[489] _Historia de Abiponibus_, Vienna, 1784. An English translation, -London, 1822. - -[490] Pedro Lozano, _Descripcion del Gran Chaco_, pp. 62-65. - -[491] “C’est _à_ peine s’il en reste aujourd’hui trois ou quatre -individus.” D’Orbigny MS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale. This was written -about 1834. - -[492] A. J. Carranza, _Expedicion al Chaco Austral_, p. 422 (Buenos -Aires, 1884). This author gives a useful vocabulary of the Toba, together -with a number of familiar phrases. - -[493] A comparison of their tongue is instituted by Martius, -_Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde_, Bd. II., s. 131. See also _Ibid._, Bd. -I., s. 244. - -[494] Lozano, _Descripcion Chorographica del Gran Chaco_, p. 83. - -[495] Richard Rohde, in _Orig. Mitt. Eth. Abth. König. Mus._, 1885, -s. 13. Von Martius identified the Cadioéos with the Cadigues of the -Payaguas, which is open to doubt (_Ethnographie_, Bd. I., 226). - -[496] _Descripcion del Gran Chaco_, pp. 73, 76, 77. - -[497] _Compte-Rendu du Cong. Internat. des Américanistes_, 1888, p. 510, -quoted by M. Lucien Adam. - -[498] _Arte y Vocabulario de la Lengua Lule y Tonicote_ (Madrid, 1732). - -[499] Printed in Gilii, _Saggio di Storia Americana_, Tom. III., p. 363. - -[500] _Catalogo de las Lenguas Conocidas_, Tom. I., pp. 165-173. - -[501] Pedro Lozano, _Descripcion Chorographica del Gran Chaco_, pp. 94-97 -(Cordoba, 1733). - -[502] As shown by Adelung, _Mithridates_, Bd. II., s. 508. - -[503] S. A. L. Quevede has undertaken to show that the real Lule were -the hill tribes of the Anconquija range and their tongue the Cacana -(_American Anthropologist_, 1890, p. 64). - -[504] Del Techo, _Historia Provinciæ Paraquariæ_, Lib. II., cap. 20. - -[505] _Otto Mesi nel Gran Ciacco_ (Firenze, 1881). - -[506] “Nacion la mas vil del Chaco.” Hervas, _Catalogo de las Lenguas -Conocidas_, Tom. I., p. 164. - -[507] Lozano, _Descripcion del Gran Chaco_, pp. 75, 76. - -[508] _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde_, Bd. I., s. 225-6. - -[509] _Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses_, Tome II., pp. 96, 97. - -[510] _Viage del P. F. Pedro Parras desde Aragon á Indias en 1748_, MS. - -[511] Printed in the _Revista de la Sociedad Geografica Argentina_, -1887, p. 352. I have compared this with the Payagua text given in the -_Mithridates_, Bd. III., 490, but the latter is so obscure that I derived -no data for a decision as to the identity of the dialects. - -[512] _L’Homme Américain_, Tom. II., p. 116. - -[513] _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde_, Bd. I., 226. - -[514] _Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses_, Tome II., p. 165. - -[515] _Catalogo de las Lenguas_, Tom. I., p. 185. - -[516] Pedro Lozano, _Historia de la Conquista de Paraguay_, Tom. I., p. -407 (Ed. Buenos Aires, 1873). - -[517] D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Tom. II., p. 83. - -[518] _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1889, s. 658. - -[519] _Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses_, Tome II., p. 107. - -[520] _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde_, Bd. I., s. 245, 246. A good -vocabulary is supplied by Castelnau, _Expédition_, Tome V., Appendix. - -[521] Richard Rohde, in the _Orig. Mittheil. der Ethnol. Abtheil d. Mus. -zu Berlin_, 1885, s. 15. - -[522] On the ruins of their fortresses and tombs, see Vincente G. -Quesada, _Estudios Historicos_, pp. 45-48 (Buenos Aires, 1864). - -[523] Nicolas del Techo, _Hist. Prov. Paraquariæ_, Lib. V., cap. 23. - -[524] See Von Tschudi, in _Verhand. der Berlin. Anthrop. Gesell._, 1885, -s. 184, sqq. This traveler could find no relics of the tongue in the -ancient Calchaqui district, which he visited in 1858. The only languages -then were Spanish and Kechua (_Reisen_, Bd. V., s. 84). - -[525] Virchow, in _Verhand. der Berlin. Anthrop. Gesell._, 1884, s. 375. - -[526] D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Vol. II., p. 11. - -[527] Barcena’s report is published in the _Relaciones Geograficas de -Indias_, Peru, Tom. II. - -[528] Dr. Darapsky remarks that the Araucanians first crossed the Andes -into the Pampas about 300 years ago (_La Lengua Araucana_, p. 4, Santiago -de Chile, 1888). This is true, but the tribes they found there were -members of their own stock. - -[529] Some have derived these names from the Kechua, _aucca_, enemy; but -I am convinced by the examples of Federico Barbara, _Manuel de la Lengua -Pampa_, p. 6 (Buenos Aires, 1879), that at any rate the same root belongs -to the Araucanian. - -[530] Dr. Martin de Moussy gives an interesting sketch of these people in -the _Annuaire du Comité d’Archæologie Américaine_, 1865, p. 218, sq. - -[531] The chief source of information on this tribe is Col. Lucio de -Mansilla, _Una Escursion á los Indios Ranqueles_, Vol. II. (Buenos Aires, -1870). The name Ranqueles means “thistle people,” from the abundance of -that plant in their country. - -[532] G. Coleti, _Dizionario dell’ America Meridionale_, s. v., _Cuyo_. - -[533] Valdivia, _Arte de la Lengua Chilena_. Ed. Lima, 1607. - -[534] Lt. Musters, “On the Races of Patagonia,” in _Journal of the -Anthropological Institute_, Vol. I., p. 205. - -[535] Paolo Riccardi, in _Memoire della Soc. Ethnograf. di Firenze_, -1879, p. 139; also the estimable work of Jose T. Medina, _Los Aborijenes -de Chile_ (Santiago, 1882). - -[536] Bernard Havestadt, _Chilidugu, sive Res Chilenses_ (Westphalia, -1777. Reprint by Julius Platzmann, Leipzig, 1883). - -[537] Many of these are portrayed in the work of Medina, _Los Aborijenes -de Chile_, above referred to. - -[538] Nicolas del Techo, _Historia Provinciæ Paraquariæ_, Lib. VI., Cap. -IX. - -[539] The Boroas live on the Tolten river, and have blue eyes, a fair -complexion, and aquiline noses. Pablo Treuter, _La Provincia de Valdivia -y los Araucanos_, p. 52, note (Santiago de Chile, 1861). E. Pöppig, -_Reise in Chili und Peru_, Bd. I., s. 463 (Leipzig, 1836). - -[540] - - “Mi nombre es Glaura, en fuerte hora nacida, - Hija del buen cacique Quilacura - De la sangre de Frisio esclarecida.” - - Alonso de Ercilla, _La Araucana_, Canto XXVIII. - -Faulkner and others refer to these as the _Cessares_ (_Description of -Patagonia_, p. 113, Hereford, 1774). There was such a tribe, and it was -made the subject of a Utopian sketch, _An Account of the Cessares_, -London, 1764. - -[541] See Petermann’s _Mittheilungen_, 1883, s. 404, and compare the -same, 1878, s. 465. Dr. Martin elsewhere gives a vocabulary of the -Chauques of Chiloe. It is pure Araucanian (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, -1877, s. 168). - -[542] On the stature of the Patagonians, see the very complete study of -D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, Vol. II., pp. 26-70. - -[543] Lt. Musters, “On the Races of Patagonia,” u. s., p. 194, sq. - -[544] Ramon Lista, _Mis Esploraciones y Descubrimientos en Patagonia_, -p. 116 (Buenos Aires, 1880). This author gives, pp. 125-130, a full -vocabulary of the “Choonke” as it is in use to-day. - -[545] _Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde_, Bd. I., s. 313. - -[546] _Lettres Ed. et Curieuses_, Tome II., p. 88; Hervas, _Catalogo de -las Lenguas_, Tom. I., p. 136. - -[547] See Lucien Adam, _Grammaire de la Langue Jagane_ (Paris, 1885). Dr. -Darapsky thinks this tongue reveals a common point of divergence with -“los idiomas meso-Andinos.” _Boletin del Instituto Geog. Argentino_, -1889, p. 287. - -[548] See Dr. Hyades, in _Revue d’Ethnographie_, Tome IV., No. VI., -and the chapter “L’Ethnographie des Fuégiens,” in L. F. Martial, -_Mission Scientifique du Cap-Horn_, Tome I., Chap. VI. (Paris, 1888). -_Yakana-cunni_ means “foot people,” as they did not use horses. - -[549] Dr. Domenico Lovisato, in _Cosmos_, 1884, fas. IV. - -[550] Dr. Johann Seitz, in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1886, pp. 267, -268. - -[551] Domenico Lovisato, _ubi suprá_. - -[552] At the Congrès des Américanistes, Paris, 1890. - - - - -I. INDEX OF AUTHORS. - - - Abbott, C. C., 27, 77. - - Acosta, J., 172, 178, 187, 191. - - Acosta, Jos., 221. - - Adair, J., 18. - - Adelung, J. C., 165, 312. - - Adam, L., 56, 90, 146, 163, 169, 170, 184, 247, 257, 274, 296, 311, - 329, 341, 350, 352, 354. - - Albis, M. I., 199, 200, 254, 274, 275, 343. - - Alcedo, A., 182, 221. - - Ameghino, F., 28. - - Amich, J., 243, 288, 291. - - André, E., 197, 208, 280, 283. - - Angelis, P. de, 361. - - Angrand, L., 304. - - Anthony, A. S., 79. - - Araoz, J., 314. - - Araujo, J., 288. - - Armentia, N., 358. - - Aughey, Prof. 26. - - - Babbitt, F., 25. - - Baegert, J., 112. - - Balbi, A., 165. - - Baligny, W., 366. - - Bancroft, H. H., 138. - - Bandelier, A. F., 45, 72, 116, 141. - - Barbara, F., 322. - - Barber, E. A., 114. - - Barcena, A. de, 170, 311, 320, 321. - - Barcena, M., 27. - - Barnard, J. G., 143. - - Barreda, P., 144. - - Bartlett, J. R., 111. - - Bartram, W., 87. - - Bastian, A., 206, 221, 225, 348. - - Bates, H. W., 35. - - Beaumont, P. 138. - - Berendt, C. H., 144, 149, 151, 152, 186, 340-2. - - Beristain y Souza, 147. - - Bertonio, L., 217, 218. - - Bliss, J. P., 148. - - Boas, F., 47, 60, 104, 106, 366. - - Bollaert, W., 195, 198, 202, 206, 290. - - Bourke, J. G., 71, 115, 123, 125. - - Brackett, A. G., 120. - - Branner, J. C., 241. - - Bransford, J. F., 164. - - Brasseur de Bourbourg, 156, 158. - - Brinton, D. G., 17, 24, 38, 45, 78, 79, 88, 91, 135, 158, 161, 166, - 241, 256. - - Brühl, G., 45, 132, 211. - - Buckley, C., 209. - - Buelna, E., 127. - - Burmeister, 28, 321. - - Buschmann, J. C. E., 68, 116, 119, 128, 130, 337. - - - Carr, L., 39, 75, 211. - - Carranza, A. J., 309, 361. - - Carranza, D., 147. - - Carrera, F., 224, 348. - - Carver, J., 99. - - Cassani, J., 182, 267, 268, 270, 275. - - Castelnau, F., 244, 245, 260, 287, 310, 318. - - Castillo y Orozco, E., 192. - - Catlin, G., 98. - - Celedon, R., 183. - - Chaffanjon, J., 252, 264, 265, 266, 270, 272. - - Chandless, W., 290-3. - - Charencey, H. de, 136. - - Chomé, P., 301, 318. - - Clark, W. P., 102, 121, 122. - - Codazzi, V., 199, 264, 265. - - Coleti, G., 180, 181, 202, 232, 269, 287, 323. - - Colini, G. A., 283. - - Collinson, J., 163. - - Cope, E. D., 366. - - Corbusier, W. H., 49, 110. - - Cordova, J., 339. - - Coudreau, M., 257, 264, 266. - - Cresson, H. P., 25. - - Crévaux, J., 253, 257, 264, 272, 274, 278, 309. - - Croll, J., 28, 30. - - Cueva, P. la, 297. - - - Dall, W. H., 20, 61, 65, 66. - - Dana, J. D., 22, 23. - - Darapsky, L., 227, 322, 329. - - Darwin, C., 28, 47. - - Dawson, G. M., 22, 71, 106. - - Deniker, Dr., 332. - - D’Étré, G., 170. - - Dobrizhoffer, M., 308. - - D’Orbigny, A. de, 40, 166, 167, 220, 227, 243, 244, 245, 290, 297, 302, - 309, 316, 328, 359, 364. - - Dorsey, J. O., 98. - - Douay, L., 194. - - Dunbar, J. B., 95, 97. - - - Eastman, Mary, 100. - - Eder, F. X., 247. - - Ehrenreich, P., 237, 239, 253, 260, 261, 317, 328, 349. - - Enciso, M. F., 178. - - Ercilla, A. de, 327. - - Ernst, A., 176, 178, 179, 255, 343. - - Espada, 215. - - Ewbank, 102, 111. - - - Faulkner, T., 327. - - Faraud, F., 70. - - Fernandez, B., 151. - - Fernandez, J. P., 296, 305, 317. - - Fernandez, L., 164. - - Ferragut, P., 311. - - Figueredo, J., 205. - - Fletcher, Alice, 49. - - Fonseca, J. S., 311. - - Fontana, L. J., 308, 315. - - Forbes, D., 217, 218, 220. - - Förstemann, E., 157. - - Fritsch, H. 40. - - - Gabelentz, von, F., 259. - - Gagern, C. de, 55. - - Galt, L. F., 290. - - Garcia, B., 93. - - Garcia, G., 142, 145. - - Gatschet, A. S., 68, 90, 113. - - Geikie, J., 29. - - Gibbs, G., 121. - - Gilbert, G. K., 26, 32. - - Gilii, F. S., 250, 263-278, 311. - - Gilman, H., 37. - - Gonzaga, F., 150. - - Grasserie, R. de la, 90, 289, 290, 356. - - Greiffenstein, C., 175, 243. - - Grossman, F. E., 124. - - Gumilla, J., 267, 270, 272. - - Gutierrez, F., 288. - - - Habernicht, H., 29. - - Hale, H., 41, 79, 83, 84, 98, 107. - - Hamy, Dr., 281, 284. - - Harrisse, H., 151. - - Hartmann, J., 267. - - Hartt, C. F., 232. - - Havestadt, B., 325. - - Hayden, T., 97. - - Heath, E., 290, 299, 302, 304. - - Henderson, A., 162. - - Henry, V., 296. - - Hensel, R., 260. - - Hensell, Dr., 39. - - Hernandez, M., 187. - - Herndon, Lt., 40, 291. - - Herrera, A., 40, 140, 143, 145, 148, 154, 172, 183, 191, 194, 196. - - Hervas, L., 165, 194, 195, 222, 226, 243, 278-280, 287, 296, 306, - 311, 314, 317, 340. - - Heuzey, L., 201. - - Hoernes, R., 28. - - Hoffman, W. J., 62. - - Holm, G., 61, 63. - - Holmes, W. H., 25, 154, 186. - - Humboldt, A. von, 43, 165, 263, 270, 272. - - Humboldt, W. von, 56, 166. - - Hyades, Dr., 329. - - - Im Thurn, E. F., 35, 245-48, 251, 272. - - Icazbalceta, J. G., 151. - - - Juarros, D., 152. - - Jukes-Browne, A. J., 31. - - - Kingsborough, Lord, 18. - - Kelly, J. W., 65. - - Kollmann, J., 35, 36. - - Krause, A., 106. - - - Labré, Col., 294, 299. - - Laet, de, J., 150, 299. - - Landa, D., 156. - - Lares, J. I., 178, 179, 180. - - Latham, R. G., 278. - - Le Conte, J. L., 104. - - Lengerke, H., 252. - - Leon, C. de, 202, 206, 207, 210. - - Leon, N., 137, 138, 338, 339. - - Level, M., 272. - - Lista, R., 328, 364. - - Lovisato, D., 330, 331. - - Lozano, P., 233, 307, 310, 312, 314, 317. - - Ludewig, H., 286, 297. - - Lund, Dr., 237. - - - MacCauley, C., 89. - - McGee, W. J., 26, 34. - - Machoni, A., 311. - - Mamiani, L. V., 259, 349. - - Mansilla, L., 323. - - Marcano, G., 180. - - Marcoy, P., 233, 245. - - Markham, C. G., 65, 204, 205, 206, 207, 215, 216, 217, 222, 226, 286. - - Martin, C., 327. - - Martial, L. F., 329. - - Martius, C. F., von, 46, 168, 169, 230, 232, 240, 246, 250, 257, 258, - 262, 288, 289, 293, 310, 314, 316, 318, 328. - - Matthews, W., 38, 71, 73, 247. - - Medina, J. T., 324, 325. - - Meigs, J. A., 36, 37, 82. - - Mendieta, G., 150. - - Michelena y Rojas, F., 255, 266, 271, 272. - - Middendorf, Dr., 204, 208, 211, 215. - - Molina, A., 130. - - Moore, T. H., 227. - - Morgan, L. H., 45, 83, 99, 149. - - Mortillet, G. de, 19, 27, 30. - - Morton, S. G., 36. - - Mosquera, Gen., 195, 200. - - Moure, A., 42, 49. - - Moussy, M., 323. - - Müller, Fr., 56, 146, 184, 215, 339, 346, 348. - - Müller, H., 237. - - Muratori, P., 296. - - Murdoch, J., 60. - - Musters, Lt., 324, 328, 364. - - - Natterer, J., 170, 250, 310. - - Navarrete, 178. - - Navas, F., 150. - - Nehring, Dr., 212. - - Noguera, V., 149, 342. - - - Ojeda, A. de, 178. - - Ordinaire, O., 242, 286, 289. - - Ore, G., 222, 224. - - Orozco y Berra, 69, 93, 94, 130, 148, 152. - - Osculati, 280, 281. - - Oviedo y Baños, 177. - - Oviedo, 145. - - - Pajeken, C. A., 111, 126. - - Parker, O. J., 164. - - Parras, P., 315. - - Payne, F. F., 61. - - Pector, D., 149. - - Pelleschi, G., 313. - - Peralta, M. de, 146. - - Perez, F., 175, 193, 199, 268, 269, 276. - - Perez, J. T., 183. - - Petitot, E., 70, 73. - - Petroff, I., 61, 66, 67. - - Pfizmaier, A., 64, 65, 66. - - Philippi, R. A., 227. - - Piedrahita, 191. - - Pimentel, F., 93, 94, 140. - - Pinart, A., 66, 115, 127, 174, 185, 253, 254, 343. - - Platzmann, J., 325. - - Ploix, C., 19. - - Posada-Arango, Dr., 193. - - Pöppig, E., 231, 286, 288, 326, 327. - - Powell, J. W., 45, 83. - - Powers, S., 73. - - Prestwich, J., 22. - - - Quatrefages, de, 19, 32. - - Quesada, V. G., 319. - - Quetelet, 75. - - Quevede, A. L., 312. - - - Ragueneau, P., 49. - - Raimondi, Prof., 284, 290. - - Rey, P. M., 237-239. - - Ribas, P., 119, 125-127. - - Ribera, J. de, 195. - - Riccardi, P., 324. - - Rink, H., 30, 60. - - Rodrigues, J. B., 252-3. - - Rohde, R., 310, 319. - - Rojas, A., 177, 267. - - Roldan, P., 151. - - Rosny, L. de, 157. - - Rosse, I. C., 21. - - - Saenz, N., 276, 277. - - Sahagun, B., 128, 132, 135, 136, 139, 142, 154. - - Sanborn, J. W., 48. - - San-Roman, J., 227, 228. - - Schellhas, Dr., 157. - - Scherzer, J., 153. - - Schlosser, Max, 50. - - Schomburgk, R. F., 246, 254. - - Schweinitz, de, 64. - - Seitz, J., 331. - - Seler, E., 157, 196, 198. - - Simpson, A., 274, 283. - - Spencer, J. W., 30. - - Spix, von, 262. - - Spruce, R., 169, 226, 250, 291. - - Squier, E. G., 149, 152, 159, 160, 220, 225, 341. - - Steinen, K. von den, 169, 205, 241, 245, 258, 259, 260, 350, 351. - - Steinthal, H., 217. - - Stoll, O., 152, 340. - - Strebel, H., 140. - - Stübel, Dr., 206. - - Suarez, F. G., 201. - - - Tarayre, E. G., 136, 336. - - Tauste, F., 252. - - Techo, N., 230, 231, 307, 311, 320, 326. - - Ten-Kate, Dr., 110, 113. - - Teza, E., 232, 281, 285, 302, 306. - - Thiel, B. A., 164, 196, 197, 342. - - Thomas, C., 157. - - Tolmie, C., 106. - - Topinard, P., 39, 211. - - Toral, F., 150, 151. - - Torquemada, 126. - - Torres-Rubio, 205. - - Treuter, P., 326. - - Tschudi, J. J. von, 51, 168, 170, 203, 204, 205, 206, 212, 215, 222, - 224, 227, 238, 243, 320. - - Turner, 102, 111. - - - Uhde, A., 93, 94. - - Uhle, M., 174, 184, 185. - - Uricoechea, E., 192. - - - Valdivia, 209, 323. - - Vega, G. de la, 201, 202, 203, 204, 221, 225, 227. - - Veigl, 292. - - Velasco, J. de, 207. - - Vergara y Vergara, 267. - - Villavicencio, M., 208, 281. - - Virchow, R., 36, 103, 121, 247, 320. - - Vinson, J., 90. - - - Wagner, M., 48. - - Waitz, T., 209, 233, 292, 300. - - Wallace, A. R., 229, 278. - - Weddell, 300. - - Whipple, Lt., 102, 111. - - White, R. B., 193. - - Wiener, C., 225. - - Wilcszynski, H., 197. - - Wilson, J. S., 25. - - Winkler, H., 66. - - Wright, G. F., 27, 29, 30, 31. - - - Zegarra, G. P., 215. - - - - -II. INDEX OF SUBJECTS. - - - Ababas, 235. - - Abipones, 308, 309, 315. - - Abnakis, 74, 80. - - Acalianes, 320. - - Acaxees, 127, 134. - - Accawai, 254. - _See_ Akavais, Accowoios. - - Achaguas, 268. - - Achis, 158. - - Achomawi, 108. - - Achuales, 282. - - Acroas, 239. - - Adaize, 91. - - Agaces, 316. - - Agapicos, 282. - - Agriculture, 50. - - Aguanos, 285. - - Aguanteas, 289. - - Aguarunas, 284. - - Aguatecas, 158. - - Aguilotes, 315. - - Ahomes, 134. - - Aht, 108. - - Aicores, 282. - - Aimores, 239. - - Airicos, 273. - - Alabonos, 285. - - Alaguilacs, 128. - - Alaska, 65, 71. - - Alazapas, 94. - - Aleutians, 65. - - Aleutian Islands, 20. - - Algonkins, 44, 74-80. - - Alikulufs, 329, 331, 364. - - Allentiac dialect, 323. - - Almaguereños, 200. - - Amaguages, 273. - - Amaonos, 285. - - Amarapas, 249. - - Amarisanes, 264, 266. - - Amarizonas, 264. - - Amazon stones, 234. - - Amazonas, 235. - - Amoruas, 268. - - Amusgos, 142. - - Anaboli, 276. - - Anaddakkas, 97. - - Anambes, 235. - - Anaptomorphus, the, 29. - - Ancon, 210. - - Andaquis, 199, 343. - - Andastes, 81. - - Andoa, 279, 280. - - Andoas, 282. - - Angaguedas, 176. - - Angekoks, 63. - - Anguteris, 282. - - Anibalis, 273. - - Antipas, 284. - - Antires, 282. - - Antis, 242, 249. - - Aonik, 329, 331. - - Apaches, 69, 71, 73, 102, 109, 115, 214. - - Apache-Mohaves, 110. - - Apache-Tontos, 110, 125. - - Apache-Yumas, 110. - - Apalais, 257. - - Apiacas, 235, 253. - - Apina-gês, 239. - - Apolistas, 303. - - Aponegi-crens, 239. - - Aratines, 94. - - Arauca, 276. - - Araguagus, 235. - - Araicus, 249, 293. - - Arapahoes, 80. - - Araros, 282. - - Araua stock, 293, 358. - - Araucanians, 321, sq., 363. - - Araunas, 298, 299. - - Arawaks, 241, sq., 266, 267, 291, 295, 349, 350. - - Arawak sub-stock, 268. - - Araya, peninsula, 272. - - Arbacos, 180. - - Ardas, 286. - - Arecunas, 254, 257, 264. - - Aricaguas, 179. - - Aricoris, 257. - - Ariguas, 264. - - Arikaris, 95. - - Ariquipas, 73. - - Arkansas, 100. - - Aroacos, 182-189, 345. - - Aruacas, 264, 273. - - Arubas, 253. - - Assinais, 97. - - Assiniboins, 98-100. - - Atabaca, 276. - - Atacameños, 226, 227, 320, 348. - - Atenes, 298, 299. - - Athabascans, 68. - - Atkan dialect, 66. - - Atlantis, the, 18. - - Atnahs, 73. - - Atorai, 245, 249. - - Atakapas, 92. - - Atures, 264, 266. - - Aucanos, 322. - - Aucas, 303, 322. - - Avanes, 264, 268. - - Aviamos, 179. - - Ayacares, 282. - - Ayahucas, 215. - - Aymara dialect, 217, 223. - - Aymaras, 210, 216, sq., 227, 303, 348. - - Ayrica, 276. - - Ayulis, 284. - - Aztecs, 118, sq., 128, sq., 336. - - - Bacorehuis, 127. - - Bailadores, 179. - - Bakairis, 253, 257, 351. - - Banivas, 249, 250, 268, 278, 350. - - Bannocks, 120. - - Barbacoas, 196-8, 347. - - Barbudos, 291. - - Barés, 250, 268, 356. - - Baures, 247, 249, 295, 305. - - Bayanos, 173. - - Beaver Indians, 73. - - Beothuks, 67. - - Betoya stock, 273, 344, 355. - - Bilcoola, 108. - - Biloxis, 99. - - Bintucuas, 189. - - Bisaniguas, 276. - - Black Caribs, 162. - - Blackfeet, 42, 74, 79, 80. - - Blood Indians, 79. - - Bobonazos, 282. - - Bobures, 178. - - Bocobis, 315. - - Bohanes, 317. - - Bones, sacred, 54. - - Boni-Ouyana, 257. - - Boroas, 326. - - Borisques, 187. - - Bororos, 235. - - Borucas, 189, 346. - - Botocudos, 237-239, 260, 261. - - Brazilian tribes, 46. - - Bribris, 189. - - Bruncas, 189. - - Bugabaes, 187. - - Bulbuls, 162. - - Burial rites, 54. - - - Cabacabas, 268. - - Cabecars, 189. - - Cabiunes, 264. - - Cabres, 268. - - Cacalotes, 94. - - Cacana, 311-313, 320. - - Cacas, 320. - - Cacchararis, 294. - - Caddoes, 91, 95. - - Cadioéos, 310, 315. - - Cafuanas, 268. - - Cahitas, 125, 134. - - Cahuaches, 282, 285. - - Cahuapanas, 285. - - Cahuillos, 133. - - Caimanes, 178. - - Cakchiquels, 43, 153, 158. - - Calaveras skull, 24, 33, 365. - - Calchaquis, 227, 319, sq. - - California gravels, 23, 33, 365. - - Callisecas, 291. - - Camacans, 239. - - Camaguras, 235. - - Cambevas, 235. - - Cambocas, 235. - - Cames, 262. - - Campa, 279. - - Campas, 242, 243, 249. - - Canaguaes, 179. - - Canamirim, 249. - - Canamarys, 290. - - Canapeis, 190. - - Cañaris, 201. - - Canas, 215, 221. - - Cañasgordas, 176. - - Canawarys, 290, 291. - - Canchis, 221. - - Canelos, 208. - - Canichanas, 301, 360. - - Canisianas, 301. - - Cannibals, 256. - - Capesacos, 307. - - Capochos, 240. - - Caquetios, 177. - - Caracaras, 307. - - Caracatas, 235. - - Carahos, 239. - - Carai, 230. - - Carajahis, 262. - - Carajas, 260, 261, 363. - - Caramantas, 176. - - Carancas, 221. - - Carankaways, 92. - - Carare, 252, 353. - - Caras, 207. - - Carataimas, 264. - - Carchas, 162. - - Careras, 301. - - Cariayos, 249. - - Caribisis, 254, 257. - - Caribs, 52, 161, 174, 242, 251-8, 264, 267, 272, 292, 295, 351-3. - - Carib sub-stocks, 264. - - Carijonas, 255, 258, 351. - - Cariniacos, 257. - - Cariris, 258. - - Carnijos, 241. - - Carrizos, 93. - - Carusanas, 268. - - Casamarcas, 215. - - Casas grandes, 114, 123. - - Cashibos, 40, 290, 292. - - Catacoas, 226. - - Catajanos, 94. - - Catamarcas, 320. - - Catauxis, 294. - - Catawbas, 89. - - Catios, 193. - - Catoquina, 262, 357. - - Catoxa, 262. - - Cauiris, 268. - - Cauixanas, 249. - - Caumaris, 286. - - Cauqui dialect, 216. - - Cauwachis, 286. - - Caveres, 264, 267, 268. - - Cavinas, 298. - - Cayapas, 197-8, 208, 347. - - Cayapos, 239. - - Cayovas, 235. - - Cayporotades, 301. - - Cayubabas, 302, 360. - - Cempoalla, 139. - - Cenis, 97. - - Ceris, 110, 113. - - Cerro de Sal, 243. - - Cessares, 327. - - Chachapuyas, 215. - - Chaco, the, 307. - - Chaco tribes, 49, 307, sq. - - Chacobos, 294. - - Chagaragotos, 177. - - Chagres, 187. - - Chahta-Muskokis, 85-89. - - Chalivas, 175. - - Chamas, 180. - - Chamicuros, 292. - - Chamis, 175, 176, 344. - - Champlain period, 23. - - Chancas, 216. - - Chancos, 226. - - Chaneabals, 158, 340. - - Chanes, 317. - - Chaneses, 235. - - Changos, 226-227. - - Changuinas, 174, 343, 367. - - Chapacuras, 303. - - Chapanecs, 143, 145, 340. - - Chapos, 285. - - Charcas, 221. - - Charrua stock, 317. - - Chatinos, 142. - - Chauques, 325, 327. - - Chavantes, 239. - - Chayavitas, 279, 284, 285. - - Chaymas, 252, 264. - - Chemehuevis, 133. - - Chepewyans, 68, 73. - - Cherembos, 284. - - Cherentes, 239. - - Cherokees, 81-85. - - Chetimachas, 91. - - Cheyennes, 80. - - Chiamus, 176. - - Chiapas, 143, 340. - - Chibchas, 181, sq., 345, 346. - - Chicamochas, 189. - - Chichas Orejones, 310, 315. - - Chichimecs, 129. - - Chicomoztoc, 142. - - Chicriabas, 239. - - Chiglit dialect, 60. - - Chickasaws, 86-89. - - Chilan Balam, 158. - - Chinantecos, 158, 340. - - Chimakuan, 108. - - Chimalapas, 144. - - Chimanis, 298. - - Chimarikan, 109. - - Chimbioas, 262. - - Chimilas, 182, 183, 189, 345. - - Chimmessyan, 108. - - Chimus, 225. - - Chinantecs, 144. - - Chinchasuyu dialect, 205. - - Chinchas, 226. - - Chinooks, 106, 107, 108. - - Chipeways, 74, 80. - - Chiquitos, 244, 295, 305, 316. - - Chirapas, 284. - - Chiricahuas, 73. - - Chiricoas, 264, 270. - - Chirigotos, 177. - - Chiriguanos, 230, 235. - - Chiriqui, 129, 148, 186-187. - - Chirupas, 264, 268. - - Chitas, 182, 189. - - Choco affinities, 274-275, 344. - - Chocos, 175, 343, 344. - - Choctaws, 85, sq. - - Chogurus, 235. - - Choles, 158. - - Cholones, 243, 288. - - Chonos, 326. - - Chontals, 112, 146, sq., 342. - - Chontal-lencas, 149. - - Chontaquiro, _see_ Chuntaquiros. - - Choonke, 328. - - Chorotegans, 145, 160. - - Choroyas, 276. - - Chorti, 149. - - Choseosos, 243. - - Chualas, 244. - - Chuchonas, 142, 151. - - Chucunacos, 173. - - Chudavinos, 282. - - Chukchis, 64, 65. - - Chumashan, 109. - - Chumulus, 175. - - Chunchas, 243, 288. - - Chunipi, 308, 362. - - Chuntaquiros, 245, 249, 350. - - Churitunas, 282. - - Churoya stock, 276. - - Churumatas, 310, 315. - - Citaraes, 176. - - Ciulipis, 313. - - Cliff-houses, 115. - - Coahuiltecan, 93. - - Coaquilenes, 94. - - Cobeus, 240. - - Cocamas, 231-235. - - Cocamillas, 235, 289. - - Cochimis, 112, 113, 335. - - Cochivuinas, 292. - - Coconucos, 194-196, 347. - - Cocopas, 113. - - Coco-Maricopas, 113. - - Coco stem, 258. - - Cocos, 162. - - Cofanes, 276. - - Colanes, 226. - - Colimas, 190. - - Collas, 217, 221. - - Color, 39. - - Colorados, 196, 208, 226, 347. - - Columbian gravels, 25. - region, 172. - stocks, 346. - - Comaba, 279. - - Comacoris, 282. - - Comanches, 101, 118, 120, sq., 133. - - Comecrudos, 94. - - Comeyas, 113. - - Comoparis, 127. - - Conchucos, 196, 216. - - Conejoris, 282. - - Conestogas, 81, 83. - - Conibos, 289, 290, 291, 292. - - Coninos, 113. - - Conis, 298. - - Copan, 153, 155. - - Copatasas, 282. - - Copehan, 109. - - Corabecas, 303. - - Coras, 126, 134, 337. - - Cores, 252. - - Coroados, 39, 259, 260. - - Coretus, 239. - - Coroinos, 301. - - Coronados, 285. - - Coromochos, 178. - - Coropos, 240. - - Correguages, 273, 355. - - Coshattas, 89. - - Costanoan, 109. - - Cothos, 187. - - Cotonames, 94. - - Cotoxos, 237, 262. - - Couvade, the, 248, 256. - - Covarecas, 303. - - Coviscas, 151. - - Coybas, 173. - - Coyoteros, 73. - - Cranial capacity, 39. - - Craniology, 36, 37. - - Creeks, 86, sq. - - Crees, 74, 80. - - Crens, 236. - - Crichanas, 252. - - Cross, the, 54. - - Crows, 98, 100. - - Cuaiqueres, 197. - - Cucciveros, 265. - - Cuchan, 109, 113. - - Cuchis, 298. - - Cuchiuaras, 235. - - Cuculados, 301. - - Cuenca, 201. - - Cuevas, 173. - - Cuicatecos, 142. - - Cuitlatecos, 128, 130, 134, 152. - - Cukras, 162. - - Culinos, 292, 362. - - Cumanachos, 239, 240. - - Cumanagoto, 252, 352. - - Cumanas, 252. - - Cunacunas, 173. - - Cunas, 173, 178, 343. - - Cuncos, 325, 326. - - Cuneguaras, 265. - - Cuniba, 279, 280. - - Cunipusanas, 250. - - Cunza language, 227. - - Curarayes, 282. - - Curaves, 303. - - Curucanecas, 303. - - Curuminacas, 303. - - Curyies, 282. - - Custimanos, 282. - - Cutinanas, 282. - - - Dace, 240. - - Dakotas, 98, sq. - - Darien Indians, 173. - - Dauri, 245. - - Delawares, 80. - - Diagitas, 320. - - Diegueños, 213. - - Dirians, 146. - - Divie-ches, 325. - - Dogs, 51, 212. - - Dolegas, 187. - - Dorasques, 174, 175, 187, 343. - - Drachitas, 320. - - Duits, 189. - - Dures, 187. - - - Echemins, 74. - - Ehnek, 109. - - Ele, 276. - - Enaguas, 265. - - Encabellados, 279, 281, 282. - - Enetés, 298. - - Engaños, 200. - - Enimagas, 316. - - Equaris, 298. - - Eries, 81. - - Eriteynes, 282. - - Escagueyes, 180. - - Eskimos, 38, 49, 59-67, 74, 238. - - Esmeraldas river, 24. - - Esselenian, 109. - - Etenes, 225, 348. - - Eurafrica, 32. - - Eudeves or Heves, 134, 337. - - - Five Nations, 47, 81-85. - - Fornio, 241. - - Frascavinos, 282. - - Fuegians, 329, sq. - - Fu-sang, 19. - - - Gaes, 282. - - Galibis, 257. - - Gentile system, 45. - - Gês, 239. - - Ginoris, 282. - - Givaros, 282. - - Glacial Epoch, 21-23, 30. - - Goajiros, 178, 249, 255, 346. - - Gohunes, 113. - - Goyotacas, 239, 240. - - Gran Chimu, 224. - - Greenlanders, 61. - - Guachaguis, 233. - - Guaches, 303. - - Guachichiles, 129. - - Guachis, 233, 309, 315, 363. - - Guacicas, 182, 189. - - Guagues, 266. - - Guaharibos, 252, 258. - - Guahibos, 270, 354. - - Guaicurus, 112, 113, 335. - - Guajiqueros, 160. - - Gualacas, 175. - - Gualachos, 233. - - Gualaquizas, 282. - - Gualeas, 208. - - Guamacas, 189. - - Guamas, 264, 269. - - Guamaumas, 129. - - Guambianos, 196. - - Guanas, 241, 243, 249, 350. - - Guaneros, 264. - - Guanucos, 194-6. - - Guaques, 254, 257, 351. - - Guaquis, 180. - - Guaranis, 230, sq., 363. - - Guaranocas, 301. - - Guaraques, 180. - - Guaraunos, 264, 271, 354. - - Guarayos, 40, 235, 294-5. - - Guaripenis, 268. - - Guariquenas, 250. - - Guarives, 265. - - Guarpes, 323, 325. - - Guatos, 318, 363. - - Guatusos, 163, 342. - - Guayanas, 235. - - Guaybas, 264, 270. - - Guaycos, 196. - - Guaycurus, 244, 303, 308, 315, 361. - - Guaymas, 127, 134. - - Guaymies, 164. - - Guaymis, 173, 184, 189, 345. - - Guaypunavis, 268. - - Guayqueris, 258. - - Guayquiras, 264. - - Guayquiries, 272. - - Guayues, 276. - - Guazacas, 282. - - Guazapares, 127. - - “Guck” nations, 169, 258, 363. - - Guenoas, 317. - - Guerens, 236. - - Guetares, 146. - - Guianaus, 254. - - Guinaus, 249. - - Guipunavis, 268. - - Gujajaras, 235. - - - Haidahs, 77, 106, 108. - - Hair, 39, 40. - - Haytians, 248, 249. - - Heiltsuks, 47, 108. - - Hemenway expedition, 123, 125. - - Hero-gods, 52, 53. - - Herisebocona, 306. - - Heves, _see_ Eudeves. - - Hiawatha, 82. - - Hibitos, 288. - - Himuetacas, 282. - - Hitchitees, 89. - - Horse, American, 50. - - Huachis, 303. - - Huacrachucus, 216. - - Huaihuenes, 327. - - Hualapais, 113. - - Huamachucus, 216. - - Huambisas, 284. - - Huancapampas, 216. - - Huancas, 216. - - Huancavillcas, 216. - - Huanucus, 216. - - Huasimoas, 282. - - Huastecs, 135, 140, 153, sq. - - Huatanarys, 295. - - Huatusos, 163. - - Huaves, 159, 340. - - Huecos, 95. - - Huemuls, 331. - - Huiliches, 323, 325. - - Humuranos, 285. - - Hunos, 221. - - Hupas, 69, 73. - - Hurons, 48, 49, 81, 82, 85. - - Hypurinas, 294-5. - - Hyumas, 295. - - - Ibanomas, 282. - - Ibirayas, 301. - - Ice Age, 21-23, 30, 31. - - Iebera, 279. - - Iguiños, 179. - - Illinois, 80. - - Imacos, 314, 316. - - Inaken, 327. - - Incas, 216. - - Incorporation, 56. - - Incuris, 282. - - Indama dialect, 321. - - Inganos, 200. - - Inimacas, 314. - - Innies, 97. - - Innuit, 20, 59-66. - - Insumubies, 179. - - Intags, 208. - - Inter-glacial period, 25. - - Intipuca, 152. - - Iowas, 101. - - Ipurucotos, 252. - - Iquichanos, 216. - - Irees, 331. - - Iroquois, 42, 81-85. - - Irriacos, 173. - - Iscuandes, 196-9. - - Isistines, 312, 316. - - Island Caribs, 242, 257. - - Isuiamas, 298. - - Itenes, 303, 359. - - Ites, 303. - - Itonama, 305. - - Itremajoris, 282. - - Itucales, 287. - - Ixils, 159. - - - Jabaanas, 249, 250. - - Jabue, 276. - - Jacundas, 235. - - Jade, 65. - - Jajies, 179. - - Jamas, 273. - - Jamudas, 236. - - Janeros, 69. - - Janos, 69, 73. - - Japurin, 271. - - Jaruris, 264. - - Jauamerys, 252. - - Jauna, 240. - - Jaunavos, 292. - - Javahais, 262. - - Javis, 266. - - Jeberos, 280. - - Jemez, 117. - - Jicarillas, 73. - - Jinori, 279, 281. - - Jivaros, 208, 280, 282-4. - - Jonaz, 136. - - Jucunas, 249. - - Jumanas, 249. - - Jupua, 240. - - Jupurinas, 294. - - Juris, 249, 316. - - - Kadjak dialect, 60. - - Kalapooian, 108. - - Kansas, 98, 101. - - Karaikas, 331. - - Karifs, 162. - - Karina, 256. - - Kaskaskias, 80. - - Katamareño, 320. - - Katchan, 109. - - Katun, 157. - - Kauvuyas, 133. - - Kawitschin, 108. - - Kayaks, 62. - - Kechuas, 43, 203, sq., 348. - - Kenais, 69, 73, 79. - - Kennekas, 332. - - Keras, 116, 117. - - Kikapoos, 80. - - Kioways, 101. - - Kiriri, 258, 349. - - Kissing, 238. - - Kitunahan, 108. - - Kizh, 123, 133. - - Klikatats, 108. - - Köggabas, 183, 189. - - Kolosch, 39, 49, 104, 108. - - Kuchins, 69, 71, 73. - - Kulanapan, 109. - - Kusan, 108. - - Kustenaus, 246, 249. - - Kutenay, 108. - - Kwakiutls, 47, 106, 108, 366. - - - Lacandons, 153, 159, 161. - - Lagoa Santa, 237. - - Laguna, 117. - - Laianas, 244. - - Lama, the, 51. - - Lama stock, 285. - - Lamanos, 216. - - Lamas, 285. - - Lambayeque, 206. - - Lamistas, 216, 285. - - Lamps, 238. - - Languages, American, 55-57. - - Lecos, 298-9, 305. - - Lenâpés, 47, 75, 76, 79, 80. - - Lencas, 149, 152, 160, 341. - - Lenguas, 316. - - Lican-antais, 226-7. - - Light-myths, 78. - - Lineal measures, 51. - - Lingua geral, 229, 349. - - Linguistic stocks, 57. - - Lipans, 69, 73. - - Lipes, 227. - - Llameos, 285. - - Llanos, the, 262. - - Llipis, 227. - - Lojanos, 284. - - Lolaca, 276. - - Loucheux, 73. - - Luculia, 276. - - Lucumbia, 279. - - Lules, 311, 316, 362. - - Lummi, 108. - - Lupaca dialect, 218, 222. - - Lupacas, 217, 221. - - Lutuamian, 109. - - - Macaguages, 273, 275. - - Macarani, 298, 305. - - Macas, 208. - - Macavinas, 282. - - Machacalis, 240. - - Machigangas, 243. - - Macos, 276. - - Macuchis, 252, 352. - - Macuenis, 268. - - Macunis, 240. - - Macusis, 251, 254, 258. - - Magdalenos, 298. - - Mages, 298. - - Maidu, 109, 216. - - Maiongkong, 254. - - Maipures, 247, 250, 264, 267. - - Malabas, 197, 206. - - Malalalis, 239. - - Malalis, 239, 318. - - Malbalas, 310, 315. - - Mams, 153-8. - - Manacicas, 296. - - Mananaguas, 262. - - Manaos, 249. - - Manatenerys, 249. - - Mandauacas, 250. - - Mandans, 98-101. - - Mandingas, 173. - - Mangaches, 208. - - Mangues, 145. - - Manhattans, 80. - - Maniquies, 298. - - Manipos, 190. - - Manitenerys, 291. - - Manitivas, 268. - - Manitsauas, 236. - - Manivas, 249, 268. - - Manivis, 196-8. - - Manoas, 292. - - Mansiños, 298. - - Mantas, 207. - - Manzaneros, 324. - - Maopityans, 245. - - Mapuyas, 264. - - Maquiritares, 264, 265, 352. - - Maranhos, 249. - - Maratins, 94. - - Mariates, 249. - - Maribois, 160. - - Mariches, 180. - - Maricopas, 111, 113. - - Mariposan, 109. - - Maritzis, 267. - - Maropas, 298, 299, 358. - - Marriage, 46, 47, 48. - - Martidanes, 317. - - Masacaras, 239. - - Masacas, 250. - - Massamaes, 285, 286. - - Massets, 108. - - Matacos, 313, 316, 326, 362. - - Matagalpan, 149, 342. - - Mataguayos, 310, 315. - - Matanos, 265. - - Mataras, 316. - - Matlaltzincos, 136. - - Maues, 236. - - Mautas, 282. - - Mawakwas, 249, 254. - - Maxorunas, 292. - - Maya stock, 140. - - Mayas, 153-158, 340. - - Maynas, 279, 284. - - Mayongcong, 267. - - Mayorunas, 289, 292. - - Mayos, 125, 134. - - Mazauhas, 136. - - Mazatecos, 142. - - M’Mats, 113. - - Mbayas, 315. - - Mbeguas, 236. - - Mbocobis, 309, 315. - - Mecos, 136. - - Medicine men, 55. - - Meepure, 264. - - Mehinacus, 247. - - Melchoras, 163. - - Meliseets, 80. - - Menepes, 307. - - Meniens, 262. - - Menomonees, 80. - - Merigotos, 180. - - Mesayas, 200, 233. - - Mescaleros, 69, 74. - - Mexicans, 134. - - Meztitlatecas, 134. - - Miamis, 80. - - Michoacan, 137. - - Micmacs, 74, 80. - - Micos, 162. - - Miguries, 179. - - Milcocayac dialect, 323. - - Minnetarees, 99. - - Minuanes, 317. - - Miquianos, 285. - - Mirripuyas, 180. - - Mitandues, 236. - - Mitla, 141. - - Mituas, 269. - - Mixes, 40, 143, 339. - - Mixtecs, 140, sq., 142, 339. - - Mochicas, 225, 348. - - Mocoas, 200. - - Mocochies, 179-180. - - Mocombos, 180. - - Mocotos, 180. - - Modocs, 109. - - Mogana dialect, 321. - - Moguexes, 195, 347. - - Mohaves, 111, 113. - - Mohawks, 82. - - Mohegans, 74, 75, 80. - - Moluches, 323, 326. - - Mombunes, 179. - - Mongoloid type, 37. - - Monoxos, 240. - - Montagnais, 74. - - Mopans, 159. - - Moquelumnian, 109. - - Moquis, 116, 120, 123, 133. - - Morcotes, 182, 189. - - Morochucos, 216. - - Moronas, 282. - - Moroquenis, 269. - - Morotocos, 301. - - Moruas, 269. - - Mosetenas, 297-9, 360. - - Mosqueras, 196. - - Motilones, 178, 255, 258, 351. - - Mound-Builders, 88. - - Movimas, 303, 305, 360. - - Moxa dialect, 305. - - Moxos, 232, 233, 247, 249, 295. - - Mozcas, _see_ Muyscas. - - Muchanis, 298. - - Mucos, 265. - - Mucunchies, 179. - - Mucurabaes, 179. - - Mucurus, 264. - - Mucutuyes, 180. - - Mueganos, 282. - - Mummies, 54. - - Mundurucus, 231-236. - - Muniche, 279. - - Muois, 184, 189. - - Muras, 232, 236, 305. - - Muratos, 282, 284. - - Mure, 305, 306. - - Murindoes, 176. - - Murires, 184, 189. - - Muskokis, 85-89. - - Musimos, 287. - - Musos, 190, 191. - - Musquitos, 162, 341, 367. - - Mutsun, 109. - - Muyscas, 181, 189. - - - Nachitoches, 97. - - Nagrandans, 159. - - Nahaunies, 69, 74. - - Nahuapos, 285. - - Nahuas, 118, 128, sq., 135. - - Nahuatl language, 119, 152, 336. - - Namollos, 64. - - Nanegales, 208. - - Nani waya, 85. - - Nanticokes, 75, 80. - - Napeanos, 285. - - Napos, 208. - - Napotoas, 282. - - Nasqua, 108. - - Natacos, 97. - - Natchez, 90. - - Natixana dialect, 321. - - Nauras, 190. - - Navajos, 69, 71, 72, 74, 115, 117, 247. - - Nayerits, 126. - - Necodades, 176. - - Nepas, 282. - - Nerecamues, 282. - - Neocoyos, 282. - - Netela, 123, 133. - - Neutral nation, 81. - - Nevomes, 125. - - Newfoundland Indians, 67. - - Nez Percés, 107, 108. - - Niagara river, 26, 31. - - Nicaragua, 24, 145. - - Nicaraos, 128, 134. - - Niquirans, 134. - - Nnehengatus, 266. - - Noanamas, 176, 344. - - Nozi, 109. - - Nushinis, 282. - - Nutabes, 193. - - Nutka, 108, 366. - - - Oas, 282. - - Oaxaca, 140, 144. - - Ochozomas, 221. - - Ocoles, 316. - - Ocorona, 305, 306. - - Ogallalas, 101. - - Ojes, 264. - - Ojibways, 75. - - Olipes, 227. - - Olmecan, 144. - - Oluta, 151. - - Omagua dialect, 286, 355. - - Omaguas, 233-6, 269, 280, 289. - - Omahas, 98, 101. - - Omapachas, 216. - - Onas, 329, 331. - - Oneidas, 82. - - Onotes, 177. - - Opatas, 125, 134, 337. - - Opelousas, 99. - - Opone, 252, 353. - - Orejones, 94, 288. - - Orinoco basin, 262. - stocks, 264, 353. - - Oristines, 312, 316. - - Oromos, 298. - - Orotinans, 146. - - Osages, 98, 101. - - Os incæ, 38. - - Otomacos, 264, 269, 354. - - Otomis, 135, 338. - - Otuquis, 304. - - Ottawas, 74, 80. - - Ottoes, 101. - - Ouayéoué, 257. - - Oyampis, 236. - - - Pacaguaras, 290, 292, 298. - - Pacajas, 236. - - Pacaos, 94. - - Pacasas, 217-221. - - Pacavaras, 290. - - Pacayas, 286. - - Paezes, 189, sq. - - Pacimonarias, 250. - - Paiconecas, 167, 244, 249. - - Paiuras, 264. - - Pakawas, 94. - - Palæoliths, 27, 33, 365. - - Palaihnihan, 108. - - Palenque, 153, 155. - - Palenques, 252, 264. - - Palmellas, 251, 258, 295. - - Palomos, 316. - - Pamas, 292. - - Pames, 129, 136. - - Pammarys, 292, sq. - - Pampas, the, 321. - - Pampticokes, 75, 80. - - Pana, 279, 280. - - Panajoris, 282. - - Panares, 265. - - Pancas, 239. - - Panches, 190, 191. - - Panhames, 240. - - Pani stock, 95. - - Paniquitas, 189, sq., 346. - - Panos, 289, sq., 356. - - Pantagoros, 190, 191. - - Pantasmas, 163. - - Paos, 269. - - Papabucos, 142. - - Papamiento, 253. - - Paparos, 176. - - Papayos, 134. - - Paramonas, 258. - - Paranapuras, 282. - - Paravilhanas, 258. - - Parecas, 265. - - Parenes, 269. - - Pareni, 249. - - Parentintims, 236. - - Parias, 252. - - Paris, 231. - - Parisis, 249. - - Parranos, 285. - - Parrastahs, 163. - - Pascagoulas, 99. - - Passamaquoddies, 80. - - Passés, 249. - - Pastazas, 282. - - Patachos, 240. - - Patagonians, 327, 364. - - Patias, 200, 201. - - Patoes, 176. - - Paudacotos, 265. - - Paunacas, 244. - - Pautis, 284. - - Pa-vants, 133. - - Pavos, 282. - - Pawnees, 95, sq. - - Payaguas, 314, 316, 361. - - Payas, 163. - - Pebas, 286, 353. - - Pehuenches, 326. - - Penoquies, 296. - - Pericus, 112, 113. - - Peruvians, 38. - - Pescherees, 331. - - Peten, lake, 153. - - Phratries, 46. - - Pianagotos, 258. - - Piankishaws, 80. - - Pianochotto, 254. - - Piapocos, 269, 350. - - Piaroas, 264, 266, 354. - - Pictography, 62. - - Piegans, 79, 80. - - Pijaos, 190, 191. - - Pilcosumis, 243. - - Pimas, 117, 123, sq., 134, 336. - - Pindis, 282. - - Piñocos, 296. - - Piojes, 273, 274. - - Pipiles, 128, 134, 160. - - Pira, 279. - - Pirindas, 136. - - Piros, 117, 245, 249, 294. - - Pitilagas, 315. - - Piturunas, 236. - - Pi-utes, 134. - - Poignavis, 278. - - Pokomams, 159. - - Pokonchis, 159. - - Polindaras, 196. - - Pomo, 109. - - Poncas, 98, 101. - - Popolocas, 146, sq. - - Popol Vuh, 158. - - Potés, 239. - - Poton, 239. - - Pottawattomies, 80. - - Potureros, 301. - - Poyas, 329. - - Pubenanos, 195. - - Pueblo Indians, 113-117. - - Pueblos, 47. - - Puelches, 323, 326. - - Puinahuas, 289. - - Puinavis, 278, 356. - - Pujunan, 109. - - Pukapakaris, 298. - - Puquinas, 221, sq. - - Purigotos, 252, 258. - - Puris, 239, 259. - - Puru-purus, 292-3. - - Purus, 292, 294. - - Pastuzos, 200. - - Putumayos, 282. - - - Quacas, 252. - - Quaisla, 108. - - Quapaws, 98, 101. - - Quaquaros, 264, 269. - - Quaquas, 264, 266. - - Quekchis, 159. - - Querandies, 323, 326. - - Queres, 117. - - Quevacus, 267. - - Quiches, 153-8. - - Quilifay, 273, 276. - - Quillaguas, 221. - - Quilmes, 320. - - Quiniquinaux, 244, 311, 315. - - Quinos, 180. - - Quiri-quiripas, 264, 265. - - Quirivinas, 282. - - Quiroraes, 180. - - Quitus, 207, 216. - - Quivas, 265. - - Quoratean, 109. - - - Ramas, 163, 366. - - Ranqueles, 323, 326. - - Red Indians, 67. - - Remos, 292. - - Reyes, 329. - - Rio Verdes, 176. - - Roamainas, 285. - - Rocorona, 306. - - Rotoroños, 306. - - Rotunos, 282. - - Roucouyennes, 253, 258, 352. - - Rucanas, 216. - - Rurok, 109. - - Ryo-ba, 141. - - - Sabaguis, 124, 134. - - Sabuyas, 259. - - Sacchas, 196-8. - - Sacs and Foxes, 80. - - Sahaptins, 107, 108. - - Salinan, 109. - - Salish, 106, 107, 108. - - Salivas, 264, 266, 353. - - Sambaquis, 236. - - Sambos, 177, 344. - - Samie, 108. - - Samucus, 300, sq., 359, 363. - - Sanavirona dialect, 321. - - San Blas Indians, 173. - - Sapiboconas, 298, 299, 358. - - Saravecas, 167, 244, 249. - - Sarcees, 69, 71, 72, 74. - - Sarigues, 314, 316. - - Saskatchewan, R., 69. - - Sastean, 109. - - Satienos, 301. - - Sauteux, 80. - - Scyra dialect, 206. - - Sebondoyes, 200, 201. - - Sechuras, 226. - - Secoffies, 80. - - Seguas, 128, 134. - - Semigaes, 282. - - Seminoles, 86-89. - - Sencis, 292. - - Senecas, 82. - - Sepaunabos, 243. - - Seris, 110, 113, 127, 335. - - Setibos, 222. - - Shasta, 109. - - Shawnees, 75, 80. - - Shiripunas, 282. - - Shoshonees, 116, 118, 120, 134. - - Sicaunies, 74. - - Simigae, 279, 280. - - Simirenchis, 245, 249. - - Sinipis, 313, 316. - - Sinsigas, 189. - - Sioux, 98. - - Sipibos, 292. - - Siquias, 163. - - Sirineris, 298. - - Siquisiques, 183. - - Sirionos, 236. - - Sisikas, 79. - - Situfas, 273, 276. - - Six Nations, 81. - - Skidegates, 106, 108. - Ume Indians, 71, 74. - Uyaps, 162. - - Snakes, 120, 122. - - Sobaypuris, 124. - - Soerigong, 254. - - Solostos, 298. - - Soltecos, 142. - - Subironas, 163. - - Subtiabas, 159, 342. - - Sun worship, 72. - - Susquehannocks, 81. - - Suyas, 239. - - - Tabalosos, 282. - - Tabayones, 179. - - Tacanas, 297-299, 303, 304, 358. - - Tados, 177, 344. - - Taensas, 90. - - Tahamies, 193. - - Tainos, 249. - - Takanikas, 332. - - Takilman, 108. - - Takullies, 69, 70, 74. - - Talamancas, 164, 183-189, 346. - - Tamanacas, 258, 264, 265, 351. - - Tamanos, 320. - - Tamas, 273, 274. - - Tamoyos, 236. - - Tanos, 117. - - Taos, 117, 296. - - Tapacuras, 303. - - Tapaunas, 236. - - Taparros, 179, 180. - - Tapes, 231, 236. - - Tapijulapanes, 144. - - Tapios, 301. - - Tapirapes, 236. - - Tapuyas, 38, 236, 259, 262, 266, 318, 324, 328, 332, 349, 357. - - Tarahumaras, 125, 134, 336. - - Tarapita, 264, 269. - - Tarascos, 136, sq., 338. - - Tarianas, 250, 266. - - Tarumas, 245-250. - - Tatche, 109. - - Tatuyes, 179. - - Tauri, 245. - - Tawakonies, 97. - - Tayronas, 182, 183, 189. - - Tayunis, 314, 316. - - T’ho, 155. - - Tecamachcalco, 150. - - Tecoripas, 134. - - Tecos, 128, 151. - - Tecunas, 287. - - Tehuas, 116, 117. - - Tehuecos, 125, 134. - - Tehuel-che, 327, 364. - - Telame, 109. - - Telembis, 196-9. - - Teluskies, 175. - - Tenez, 145. - - Tenochtitlan, 128. - - Teotihuacan, 139. - - Tepeaca, 151. - - Tepehuanas, 126, 134, 337. - - Tepuzcolola, 151. - - Tequistlatecas, 112, 148. - - Terenos, 244, 310, 315. - - Terrabas, 189. - - Tetons, 101. - - Teutas, 314, 316. - - Teutecas, 145. - - Texas, 97. - - Tezcucans, 43, 128. - - Tiahuanuco, 219. - - Ticunas, 287, 357. - - Tiguinos, 179. - - Timotes, 178, 179, 346. - - Timucuas, 90. - - Tinné, 68, 74, 110. - - Tiputinis, 282. - - Tirribis, 189. - - Tirripis, 178. - - Tiverighotto, 254, 258. - - Tivilos, 282. - - Tlacopan, 128. - - Tlapanecos, 151. - - Tlascaltecs, 128, 134. - - Tlinkit, 104, 108. - - Tobas, 309, 315, 361. - - Tobosos, 69. - - Toltecs, 129. - - Tonicas, 91. - - Tonicotes, 311, 316. - - Tonkaways, 92. - - Tontos, 111, 113. - - Toquistines, 312, 316. - - Toromonas, 288. - - Totems, 45, 78. - - Totonacos, 139, 338. - - Totoros, 195, 347. - - Towachies, 97. - - Tremajoris, 282. - - Tricaguas, 180. - - Trios, 258. - - Triquis, 148. - - Tshimshians, 106, 108. - - Tsoneca, 364. - - Tuapocos, 265. - - Tubares, 126. - - Tucanos, 240, 266, 357. - - Tucas, 206. - - Tucunas, 287. - - Tucupis, 298. - - Tucuras, 176, 177, 343. - - Tucurriques, 189. - - Tucutis, 173. - - Tula, 129. - - Tules, 173. - - Tumupasas, 298. - - Tunebos, 182, 189, 273. - - Tunglas, 162. - - Tupi-Guarani, 257. - - Tupis, 229-236, 286, 307, 308, 349. - - Turas, 232, 236. - - Turbacos, 178. - - Tuscaroras, 81, 82. - - Tuski, 65. - - Tuteloes, 98. - - Tututenas, 69, 71, 14. - - Tuyumiris, 298. - - Twakas, 163. - - Tzendals, 149, 153-8. - - Tze-tinne, 115, 124. - - Tzintzuntan, 137. - - Tzoneca, 327. - - Tzotzils, 153-8. - - Tzutuhils, 159. - - - Uainambeus, 250. - - Uainumas, 250. - - Uambisas, 284. - - Uarunas, 287. - - Uaupes, 240, 269. - - Uchees, _see_ Yuchis. - - Ugaronos, 301. - - Uirinas, 250. - - Ulvas, 150, 161-163, 341. - - Umpquas, 69, 71, 74. - - Unalashkan, 66. - - Unangan, 66. - - Uraba, Gulf, 173. - - Urarina, 279, 280. - - Urus, 221. - - Uspantecas, 159. - - Utelaes, 187. - - Utes, 118, 120, sq., 134, 336. - - Utlateca, 159. - - Uto-Aztecan stock, 44, 118, sq., 336. - - Uyapas, 236. - - - Vaiyamaras, 258. - - Valientes, 164, 182, 189. - - Varinas, 287. - - Varogios, 127. - - Varrigones, 252. - - Vauras, 247. - - Vayamanos, 265. - - Vejosos, 316. - - Vilelas, 313, 316, 362. - - Viracocha, 214. - - Voyavois, 258. - - Vuatos, 318. - - - Waimiris, 252. - - Waiyamaras, 257, _see_ Vaiyamara. - - Wakash, 108. - - Wallawallas, 108. - - Walum Olum, the, 78. - - Wapisianas, 245, 250. - - Warraus, 271, 354. - - Wayilaptu, 108. - - Weas, 80. - - Weitspekan, 109. - - West Indians, 250. - - Wichitas, 95. - - Wihinashts, 134. - - Winnebagoes, 98-101. - - Wintuns, 109. - - Wishoskan, 109. - - Woolwas, 163. - - Woyawoi, 254, _see_ Voyavoi. - - Wyandots, 83. - - - Xeberos, 280. - - Xibitos, 288. - - Xicaques, 161, 341. - - Ximbioas, 262. - - Xincas, 160, 342. - - Xivaros, 282. - - Xolotes, 316. - - - Yacates, 137. - - Yaguas, 286, 293, 353. - - Yahgans, 329, 332, 364. - - Yahua, _see_ Yaguas. - - Yakama, 108. - - Yakana-cunni, 329. - - Yakonan, 108. - - Yamacies, 193. - - Yamassees, 89. - - Yameos, 279, 285. - - Yanan, 109. - - Yanktons, 101. - - Yaos, 258, 265. - - Yapitalaguas, 310, 315. - - Yapoos, 329-332. - - Yaquis, 125, 134. - - Yaros, 317. - - Yarrapos, 285. - - Yarura language, 275, 355. - - Yaruras, 264, 271. - - Yasunis, 282. - - Yatasses, 97. - - Yauyos, 216. - - Yavapais, 110, 113. - - Yaviteris, 269. - - Yeguas, 286. - - Yegueyos, 282. - - Yetes, 282. - - Yocunos, 265. - - Yoes, 316. - - Yokuts, 109. - - Yopes, 151. - - Yuchis, 89. - - Yuits, 64. - - Yukian, 109. - - Yumas, 38, 49, 109, sq., 148, 335. - - Yumbos, 208, 303. - - Yunca-cuna, 225. - - Yuncas, 224, sq., 348. - - Yuris, 250. - - Yurunas, 236. - - Yurucares, 39, 297-299. - - - Zamoros, 282, 284. - - Zamucas, 300. - - Zaparas, 180. - - Zaparos, 208, 279, 280, sq. - - Zapotecs, 43, 64, 140, sq., 339. - - Zaribas, 187. - - Zoques, 143, sq., 339. - - Zuaques, 125. - - Zunes, 187. - - Zuñis, 116, 117. - - Zurumutas, 258. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN RACE*** - - -******* This file should be named 55096-0.txt or 55096-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/5/0/9/55096 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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