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diff --git a/old/55092-0.txt b/old/55092-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2317146..0000000 --- a/old/55092-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8401 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits, with Memoirs. Vol -2 (of 7), by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The Gallery of Portraits, with Memoirs. Vol 2 (of 7) - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: July 11, 2017 [EBook #55092] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GALLERY OF PORTRAITS *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL - KNOWLEDGE. - - - - - THE - GALLERY OF PORTRAITS: - WITH - MEMOIRS. - - VOLUME II. - - - LONDON: - CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE-STREET, AND 13, PALL-MALL EAST. - - - 1833. - - - [PRICE ONE GUINEA, BOUND IN CLOTH.] - - - - - LONDON: - PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES, - Duke-Street, Lambeth. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PORTRAITS, AND BIOGRAPHIES - CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME. - - - Page - - 1. Lord Somers 1 - - 2. Smeaton 13 - - 3. Buffon 19 - - 4. Sir Thomas More 25 - - 5. La Place 34 - - 6. Handel 40 - - 7. Pascal 49 - - 8. Erasmus 56 - - 9. Titian 63 - - 10. Luther 73 - - 11. Rodney 82 - - 12. Lagrange 88 - - 13. Voltaire 93 - - 14. Rubens 99 - - 15. Richelieu 107 - - 16. Wollaston 121 - - 17. Boccaccio 126 - - 18. Claude 136 - - 19. Nelson 141 - - 20. Cuvier 150 - - 21. Ray 160 - - 22. Cook 165 - - 23. Turgot 175 - - 24. Peter the Great 183 - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by T. A. Dean._ - - LORD CHANCELLOR SOMERS. - - _From a Picture by Sir G. Kneller, - in the possession of the Royal Society._ - - Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - - GALLERY OF PORTRAITS. - - - - -[Illustration] - - SOMERS. - - -John Somers was born at Worcester, in an ancient house called the White -Ladies, which, as its name seems to import, had formerly been part of a -monastery or convent. The exact date of his birth cannot be ascertained, -as the parish registers at Worcester, during the civil wars between -Charles I. and his Parliament, were either wholly lost, or so -inaccurately kept as not to furnish any authentic information. It -appears probable, however, from several concurring accounts, that he was -born about the year 1650. The family of Somers was respectable, though -not wealthy, and had for several generations been possessed of an estate -at Clifton, in the parish of Severnstoke, in Gloucestershire. Admiral -Sir George Somers, who in the reign of James I. was shipwrecked on the -Bermudas, and afterwards died there, leaving his name to that cluster of -islands, is said by Horace Walpole, in his ‘Catalogue of Royal and Noble -Authors,’ to have been a member of the same family. The father of Somers -was an attorney, in respectable practice at Worcester; who, in the civil -wars, became a zealous Parliamentarian, and commanded a troop in -Cromwell’s army. - -Of the early education of Somers, we have only a meagre and -unsatisfactory account. The house called the White Ladies, in which he -was born, was occupied by a Mr. Blurton, an eminent clothier of -Worcester, who had married his father’s sister. This lady, having no son -of her own, adopted Somers from his birth, and brought him up in her -house, which he always considered as his home till he went to the -university. He appears for some years to have been a day-scholar in the -college-school at Worcester, which before his time had attained a high -character for classical education, under the superintendence of Dr. -Bright, a clergyman of great learning and eminence. At a subsequent -period, we find him at a private school at Walsall in Staffordshire: he -is described by a school-fellow as being then “a weakly boy, wearing a -black cap, and never so much as looking out when the other boys were at -play.” He seems indeed to have been a remarkably reserved and -“sober-blooded” boy. At a somewhat later period Sir F. Winnington says -of him, that “by the exactness of his knowledge and behaviour, he -discouraged his father and all the young men that knew him. They were -afraid to be in his company.” In what manner his time was occupied from -the period of his leaving school until he went to the university, is -unknown. It has been suggested that he was employed for several years in -his father’s office, who designed him for his own department of the -profession of the law. There is no positive evidence of this -circumstance, though the conjecture is by no means improbable. It -cannot, however, be doubted that, during this period, he devoted much of -his time to the study of history and the civil law, and laid in a -portion of that abundant store of constitutional learning which -afterwards rendered him the ornament of his profession, and of the age -in which he lived. About this time also he formed several connexions, -which had great influence upon his subsequent success in life. The -estates of the Earl of Shrewsbury were managed by Somers’s father; and -as that young nobleman had no convenient residence of his own in -Worcestershire, he spent much of his time at the White Ladies, and -formed an intimate friendship and familiarity with young Somers. In 1672 -he was also fortunate enough to be favourably noticed by Sir Francis -Winnington, then a distinguished practitioner at the English bar, who -was under obligations to his father for his active services in promoting -his election as a Member of Parliament for the city of Worcester. -Winnington is described by Burnet as a lawyer who had “risen from small -beginnings, and from as small a proportion of learning in his -profession, in which he was rather bold and ready, than able.” It is -natural to suppose that such a man, feeling his own deficiencies, would -readily perceive with what advantage he might employ the talents and -industry of Somers in assisting him both in Westminster Hall and in -Parliament. It was probably with this intention that Winnington advised -him to go to the university, and to prosecute his studies with a view to -being called to the bar. - -In 1674 Somers was entered as a Commoner of Trinity College, Oxford, -being then about three and twenty years of age. The particulars of his -progress through the university are not recorded; but here, as at -school, his contemporaries could perceive few indications of those -splendid talents which afterwards raised him to such extraordinary -eminence. His college exercises, some of which are still extant, are -said to have been in no respect remarkable; and he quitted the -university without acquiring any academical honours beyond his -Bachelor’s degree. Mr. Somers was called to the bar in 1676, by the -Society of the Middle Temple; but he continued his residence at the -university for several years afterwards, and did not remove to London -until the year after his father’s death, in 1681, upon which event he -succeeded to his paternal estate at Severnstoke. During his residence at -Oxford he had the advantage of being introduced by the Earl of -Shrewsbury and Sir F. Winnington to many of the patriotic opponents of -the arbitrary measures of the Court. At this time he published several -tracts, which sufficiently displayed to the world his familiar and -accurate knowledge of constitutional history. His first acknowledged -work was the Report of an Election Case, and is entitled ‘The Memorable -Case of Denzil Onslow, Esq., tried at the Assizes in Surrey, July 20, -1681, touching his election at Haslemere in Surrey.’ His next -performance was ‘A Brief History of the Succession, collected out of the -Records and the most authentic Historians.’ This work was written at the -time when the proposal to bring in a Bill to exclude the Duke of York -from the succession occupied universal attention, and excited the most -intense interest. The object of Mr. Somers’s tract was to exhibit the -principles upon which the Parliament of England has authority to alter, -restrain, and qualify the right of succession to the Crown; and he -places the historical arguments in support of this proposition in a -forcible and convincing light. Indeed, though it might be difficult to -justify such a proposition by abstract arguments upon what is called the -theory of the British Constitution, it has been so repeatedly acted upon -in several periods of our history, that even in the time of Charles II. -the practice had, as Somers justly contended, to all intents and -purposes established and sanctioned the principle. An excellent tract -upon the same subject, entitled ‘A just and modest Vindication of the -two last Parliaments,’ which appeared shortly after the breaking up of -the Oxford Parliament in March, 1681, has been partly ascribed to -Somers. Burnet says that this tract, which he characterizes as “the best -writ paper in all that time,” was at first penned by Algernon Sidney, -but that a new draught was made by Somers, which was corrected by Sir -William Jones. Upon occasion of the attempt of the Court party in 1681, -by the illegal examination of witnesses under the direction of the -King’s Counsel in open court, to induce a grand jury at the Old Bailey -to find a true bill for high treason against the Earl of Shaftsbury, Mr. -Somers wrote his celebrated tract entitled ‘The Security of Englishmen’s -Lives, or the Trust, Power, and Duty of the Grand Juries of England -explained.’ Of this work, Bishop Burnet says, “It passed as writ by Lord -Essex, though I understood afterwards it was writ by Somers, who was -much esteemed, and often visited by Lord Essex, and who trusted himself -to him, and writ the best papers that came out in that time.” In later -times, this work has been universally ascribed to Somers. During his -residence at Oxford, Somers was not inattentive to polite literature; he -published a translation of some of Ovid’s Epistles into English verse, -which at the same time that it shows that he could never have borne so -distinguished a rank as a poet, as he afterwards attained as a lawyer -and statesman, is by no means a contemptible performance. His -translations from Ovid, and a version of Plutarch’s Life of Alcibiades, -are the only published proofs of his classical studies at Oxford. - -In the year 1682 he removed to London, and immediately commenced an -assiduous attendance upon the courts of law, which at that time was -considered as the highway of the legal profession. Under the powerful -patronage of Sir Francis Winnington, who had been Solicitor-General, and -was then in the full stream of business, he rose with considerable -rapidity into good practice at the bar. In 1683 he appeared as junior -counsel to Winnington in the defence to an important political -prosecution instituted against Pilkington and Shute, with several other -persons, for a riot at the election of sheriffs for the city of London. -His employment in a case of so much public expectation may be taken as a -proof that at that time his professional merits were in some degree -appreciated; and in the reign of James II. his practice is said to have -produced £700 a-year, which at that time was a very large income for a -common lawyer of five years’ standing. But such was the character for -research and industry which he had attained within a very few years from -the commencement of his professional career, that on the trial of the -Seven Bishops in 1688, he was introduced as counsel into that momentous -cause at the express and peremptory recommendation of Pollexfen, one of -the greatest lawyers of that day. The rank of the defendants, the -personal interest of the King in the question at issue, the general -expectation excited by this conflict amongst all classes of the people, -and above all, the event of the prosecution which drove James from his -throne and kingdom, and immediately introduced the Revolution of 1688, -render the trial of the Seven Bishops one of the most important judicial -proceedings that ever occurred in Westminster Hall. It was no trifling -testimony, therefore, to the high estimation in which Somers was held by -experienced judges of professional merit, that he should be expressly -selected by the counsel for the defendants to bear a part in the -defence. We are told that upon the first suggestion of Somers’s name, -“objection was made amongst the Bishops to him, as too young and obscure -a man; but old Pollexfen insisted upon him, and would not be himself -retained without the other; representing him as the man who would take -most pains and go deepest into all that depended on precedents and -records[1].” How far the leading counsel for the Bishops were indebted -to the industry and research of Somers, for the extent of learning -displayed in their admirable arguments on that occasion, cannot now be -ascertained; his own speech, as reported in the State Trials, contains a -summary of the constitutional reasons against the existence of a -dispensing power in the King, expressed in clear and unaffected -language, and applied with peculiar skill and judgment to the defence of -his clients. - -Footnote 1: - - Kennett’s Complete History, vol. iii. p. 513, n. - -The intimate connexion of Somers with the leaders of that political -party by whom the Revolution was effected, and in particular with his -early friend Lord Shrewsbury, leaves little room for doubt that he was -actively employed in devising the means by which that important event -was brought about. It is said by Tindal that he was admitted into the -most secret councils of the Prince of Orange, and was one of those who -planned the measure of bringing him over to England. Immediately upon -the flight of James II., the Prince of Orange, by the advice of the -temporary assembly which he had convened as the most proper -representative of the people in the emergency of the time, issued -circular letters to the several counties, cities, and boroughs of -England, directing them to summon a Parliamentary Convention. On this -occasion Mr. Somers was returned as a representative by his native city -of Worcester. We find him taking a conspicuous part in the long and -laborious debates which took place in that assembly respecting the -settlement of the government. Upon a conference with the Lords upon the -resolution, “that James II. having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom -had abdicated the government, and that the throne had thereby become -vacant,” Mr. Somers spoke at great length, and with much learning, in -support of the original resolution against some amendments proposed by -the Lords. This resolution having been ultimately adopted by both Houses -of Parliament, and the Prince and Princess of Orange having been -declared King and Queen of England, a committee was appointed, of which -Somers was a member, to bring in heads of such things as were necessary -for securing the Protestant religion, the laws of the land, and the -liberties of the people. The Report of this Committee, which was a most -elaborate performance, having been submitted to the examination of a -second committee, of which Somers was chairman, formed the substance of -the Declaration of Rights which was afterwards assented to by the King -and Queen and both Houses of Parliament, and thus adopted as the basis -of the Constitution. - -It is impossible to ascertain with precision the particular services -rendered by Somers in the accomplishment of this great measure. There -was perhaps no individual at that moment in existence who was so well -qualified to lend important aid in conducting his country with safety -through the difficulties and dangers of a change of government, and in -placing the interests of the nation upon a secure and solid foundation. -Fortunate was it for the people of England and their posterity that the -services of a man of his industry and settled principles, of his sound -constitutional information, and his rational and enlightened views of -the relative rights and duties of kings and subjects, were at that -critical juncture available to his country; and that, at the instant of -the occurrence of this momentous revolution, his character was -sufficiently known and appreciated to render those services fully -effective. - -Shortly after the accession of William and Mary, Somers was appointed -Solicitor-General, and received the honour of knighthood. Bishop Burnet -says, that in the warm debates which took place in Parliament on the -bill respecting the recognition of the King and Queen, and the validity -of the new settlement of the government, it was strongly objected by the -Tories that the convention, not being summoned by the King’s writ, had -no legal sanction; and that Somers distinguished himself by the spirited -and able manner in which he answered the objection. “He spoke,” says -Burnet, “with such zeal and such an ascendant of authority that none -were prepared to answer it; so that the bill passed without more -opposition. This was a great service done in a very critical time, and -contributed not a little to raise Somers’s character.” - -In April, 1692, Sir John Somers became Attorney-General, and in the -month of March following was appointed Lord-Keeper of the Great Seal. -While he presided in the Court of Chancery as Lord-Keeper, he delivered -his celebrated judgment in the Bankers’ case, which Mr. Hargrave -describes as “one of the most elaborate arguments ever delivered in -Westminster Hall.” It is said that Lord Somers expended several hundred -pounds in collecting books and pamphlets for this argument. In 1697 he -was appointed Lord Chancellor, and raised to the peerage, with the title -of Baron Somers of Evesham. - -In the year immediately succeeding his elevation to the peerage, it was -the fate of Lord Somers to experience the virulence of party animosity, -and the selfishness and instability of royal favour. His influence with -the King, and the moderation and good sense with which he had restrained -the impetuosity of his own party, had been long the means of preserving -the Whig administration; and the Tories saw plainly that there were no -hopes for the attainment of their objects so long as Lord Somers -retained the confidence of the King. William had been, from the -commencement of his reign, continually vacillating between the two -parties according to the circumstances of his affairs; at this period he -was so incensed and embarrassed by the conduct of the contending parties -in the House of Commons, that he readily listened to the leaders of the -Tories, who assured him that they would undertake to manage the -Parliament as he pleased, if he would dismiss from his councils the Lord -Chancellor Somers, whom they represented to be peculiarly odious to the -Commons. In fact, the Tory party in the House of Commons had, in the -course of the stormy session of Parliament which commenced in November, -1699, made several violent but ineffectual attacks upon the Lord -Chancellor. The first charge brought against him was, that he had -improperly dismissed many gentlemen from the commission of the peace: -upon a full explanation of all the circumstances, this charge was proved -to be so utterly groundless that it was abandoned by those who had -introduced it. The second accusation had no better foundation than the -first. Great complaints having been made of certain English pirates in -the West Indies, who had plundered several merchant ships, it was -determined to send out a ship of war for the purpose of destroying them. -But as there was no fund to bear the charge of such an expedition, the -King proposed to his ministers that it should be carried on as a private -undertaking, and promised to subscribe £3,000 on his own account. In -compliance with this recommendation, Lord Somers, the Duke of -Shrewsbury, the Earls of Romney, Oxford, Bellamont, and several others, -contributed a sufficient sum to defray the whole expense of the -armament. Unfortunately one Captain Kidd was appointed to command the -expedition, who was unprincipled enough to turn pirate himself, and -having committed various acts of robbery on the high seas, was -eventually captured, brought to England, and some time afterwards tried -and executed for his offences. It was then insinuated that the Lord -Chancellor and the other individuals who had subscribed towards the -expedition were engaged as partners in Kidd’s piratical scheme; so that -an undertaking, which was not only innocent, but meritorious and -patriotic, was construed by the blindness of party prejudice into a -design for robbery and piracy. A resolution in the House of Commons, -founded upon this absurd imputation, was rejected by a great majority. -Shortly afterwards, after ordering a list of the Privy Council to be -laid before the House, a question was moved in the House of Commons, -“that an address should be made to his Majesty to remove John Lord -Somers, Chancellor of England, from his presence and councils for ever.” -This motion, however, was also negatived by a large majority. The -prosecution of these frivolous charges against Lord Somers was a source -of perpetual irritation to the King, in consequence of the vexatious -delay it occasioned to the public service, and the virulent party spirit -which it introduced into the House of Commons; and it was under the -influence of this feeling, and in order to deliver himself from a -temporary embarrassment, that he selfishly determined to adopt the -interested advice of the Tory leaders, and to remove the Lord Chancellor -from his office. He accordingly intimated to Lord Somers that it was -necessary for his service that he should resign the seals, but wished -him to make the resignation himself, in order that it might appear as if -it was his own act. The Chancellor declined to make a voluntary -surrender of the seals, as such a course might indicate a fear of his -enemies, or a consciousness of misconduct in his office; upon which Lord -Jersey was sent with an express warrant for the seals, and Lord Somers -delivered them to him without hesitation. - -The malignity of party spirit was not satisfied by the dismissal of Lord -Somers from his office, and from all participation in the government. -Soon after his retirement, namely in the year 1701, the celebrated -Partition Treaties gave occasion to much angry debate in both Houses of -Parliament. His conduct, with respect to these treaties, seems to have -been entirely irreproachable; but it became the subject of much -misrepresentation, and the most unreserved invective and abuse in the -House of Commons. It appears that in 1698, when the King was in Holland, -a proposal was made to him by the French Government for arranging the -partition of some of the territories belonging to the crown of Spain -upon the expected death of Charles II. This partition was to be made in -certain defined proportions between the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, the -Dauphin of France, and the Archduke Charles, the second son of the -Emperor. The King entertained these proposals favourably, and wrote to -Lord Somers, who was at that time Lord Chancellor, desiring his opinion -upon them, and commanding him to forward to him a commission in blank -under the great seal, appointing persons to treat with the Commissioners -of the French Government. Lord Somers, after communicating with Lord -Orford, the Duke of Shrewsbury, and Mr. Mountague, as he had been -authorized to do, transmitted to the King their joint opinions, which -suggested several objections to the proposed treaty, together with the -required commission. This was the “head and front of his offending” in -this respect; for the treaty was afterwards negotiated abroad, and -finally signed without any further communication with Lord Somers. - -Understanding that he was accused in the House of Commons of having -advised and promoted the Partition Treaties, Lord Somers requested to be -heard in that House in his defence. His request being granted, he stated -to the House, in a calm and dignified manner, the history of his conduct -respecting the treaties, and contended, with much force and eloquence, -that in the whole course of that transaction he had correctly and -honestly discharged his duty both as Chancellor and as a Privy -Councillor. After he had withdrawn, a warm debate ensued, which -terminated in a resolution, carried by a small majority, “that John, -Lord Somers, by advising his Majesty to conclude the Treaty of -Partition, was guilty of a high crime and misdemeanour.” Similar -resolutions were passed against the Earl of Orford and Lord Halifax, and -all of them were impeached at the bar of the House of Lords. The -articles of impeachment against Lord Somers principally charged him with -having affixed the great seal to the blank commission sent to the King -in Holland, and afterwards to the treaties; with having encouraged and -promoted the piracies of Captain Kidd; and with having received grants -from the Crown for his own personal emolument. To each of these articles -Lord Somers answered promptly and fully; to the two first he replied the -facts of each case as above related; and in answer to the third, he -admitted that the King had been pleased to make certain grants to him, -but denied that they had been made in consequence of any solicitation on -his part. After many frivolous delays and repeated disputes between the -two Houses, a day was fixed for the trial of the impeachment; on which -day the Commons not appearing to prosecute their articles, the Lords, by -a considerable majority, acquitted Lord Somers of the charges and -dismissed the impeachment. - -The violence and folly exhibited in the conduct of these proceedings -opened the eyes of the King to his error in having changed his ministry -at so critical a time. He found to his infinite disquietude that instead -of enabling him to manage the Commons as they had promised, the Tory -leaders had rendered them more intractable and imperious than before; -and that instead of sincerely endeavouring to promote peace abroad and -quiet government at home, they were actuated entirely by motives of -private passion and revenge. In this state of affairs he again directed -his attention to Lord Somers, in consequence, probably, of the urgent -advice of Lord Sunderland, and wrote him a note from Loo, dated the 10th -of October, 1701, assuring him of the continuance of his friendship. By -the united exertions of Somers and Sunderland a negotiation was entered -into with a view to the formation of a Whig ministry; but after some -little progress had been made, the death of the King, in March 1702, put -an end to the project, and the succession of Queen Anne confirmed the -establishment of the Tory administration. - -The state of parties for some years after the accession of Queen Anne -excluded Somers from taking any active part in political affairs. It is -probable that at this period of his life he devoted his attention to -literature and science, as in 1702 he was elected President of the Royal -Society. He afterwards applied himself with diligence to the removal of -several gross defects in the practice of the Courts of Chancery and -Common Law. In 1706 he introduced into the House of Lords an extensive -and effectual bill for the correction of such abuses. In passing through -the House of Commons “it was found,” says Burnet, “that the interest of -under-officers, clerks, and attorneys, whose gains were to be lessened -by this bill, was more considered than the interest of the nation -itself. Several clauses, how beneficial soever to the subject, which -touched on their profit, were left out by the Commons.” Still the Act -“for the Amendment of the Law and the better advancement of Justice,” as -it now stands amongst the statutes of the realm, effected a very -important improvement in the administration of justice. - -Lord Somers is said to have had a chief hand in projecting the scheme of -the Union with Scotland; and in discussing and arranging the details of -this great measure in the House of Lords, he appears to have been one of -the most frequent and distinguished speakers, though he was then -labouring under great bodily infirmity. - -In the year 1708, on occasion of the temporary return of the Whigs to -power, Lord Somers again formed part of the administration and filled -the office of President of the Council. But the powers of his mind were -at this time much enfeebled by continual ill-health; and it was probably -with feelings of satisfaction that the change of parties in 1710, by -causing his dismissal from office, enabled him finally to retire into -private life. - -Of the mode in which the remaining period of his life was spent after -his removal from public business, little is known. There is, however, no -doubt that the concluding years of his existence were darkened by much -sickness and some degree of mental alienation on the accession of George -I. he formally took his seat at the Council-Board; but a paralytic -affection, which had destroyed his bodily health, had so impaired the -faculties of his mind as to incapacitate him entirely for business. At -intervals, however, when the pressure of disease was suspended, he -appears to have recurred with strong interest to passing events in which -the welfare of his country was involved. When the Septennial Bill was in -progress, Lord Townshend called upon him: Lord Somers embraced him, -congratulated him on the progress of the bill, and declared that “he -thought it would be the greatest support possible to the liberty of the -country.” On a subsequent occasion, when informed by the same nobleman -of the determination of George I. to adopt the advice of his ministry, -by executing the full rigour of the law against Lord Derwentwater, and -the other unfortunate persons concerned in the Rebellion of 1715, he is -said to have asked with great emotion, and shedding many tears, “whether -they meant to revive the proscriptions of Marius and Sylla?” - -He soon afterwards sunk into a state of total imbecility, from which, on -the 26th of April, 1716, he was happily released by death. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by R. Woodman._ - - JOHN SMEATON. - - _From an original Picture ascribed to Mortimer, - in the possession of the Royal Society._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society of the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - SMEATON. - - -John Smeaton will long be remembered as one of the most laborious and -most successful civil engineers whom Britain has produced: a class to -which our country is deeply indebted for its commercial greatness. He -was born at Austhorpe, near Leeds, May 28, 1724. His father was an -attorney, and intended to bring his son up to his own profession: but -the latter finding, to use his own words, “that the law did not suit the -bent of his genius,” obtained his parent’s consent that he should seek a -more congenial employment. - -From a very early age he had shown great fondness for mechanical -occupations. “His playthings,” it is said by one long acquainted with -him, “were not the playthings of children, but the tools men work with; -and he appeared to have greater entertainment in seeing the men in the -neighbourhood work, and asking them questions, than in any thing else.” -At the age of eighteen he was in the habit of forging iron and steel, -and melting metal for his own use: and he possessed tools of every sort -for working in wood, ivory, and metal. Some of these were of his own -construction; and among them an engine for rose-turning, and a lathe by -which he had cut a perpetual screw, a thing little known at that time. - -In the year 1750 he established himself in the Great Turnstile in -Holborn, as a philosophical instrument-maker. While he followed this -trade, he became known to the scientific circles by several ingenious -inventions; among which were a new kind of magnetic compass, and a -machine for measuring a ship’s way at sea. He was elected fellow of the -Royal Society in 1753; and contributed several papers to the -Philosophical Transactions, one of which, entitled ‘An Experimental -Enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn mills -and other machines, depending on a circular motion,’ obtained the gold -medal in 1759. - -In 1755 the Eddystone light-house was destroyed by fire. At this time -Smeaton had never practised as an architect or engineer. But the -proprietors, to use his own words, “considered that to reinstate it -would require, not so much a person who had been merely bred, or who had -rendered himself eminent in this or that given profession, but rather -one who from natural genius had a turn for contrivance in the mechanical -branches of science.” Thinking thus, they applied to the President of -the Royal Society to recommend a fitting person, and he without -hesitation named Smeaton. We shall speak hereafter of the difficulties -which attended this work, and the method of its execution; the nature of -it is familiar to every reader. Two light-houses had been destroyed -within half a century: his own, after the lapse of seventy-three years, -stands unimpaired;—a proud monument of the power of man to overcome the -elements. This building was finished in 1759, and established his -reputation as a civil engineer: but it was some time before he devoted -his attention solely to practising in that capacity. In 1764 he was -appointed one of the Receivers of the Greenwich Hospital Estates, and in -the discharge of his duty, he suggested various improvements which were -of material service to the property. He resigned that office about 1777, -in consequence of the increase of his other business. In 1766 he was -employed to furnish designs for new light-houses at the Spurn Head, at -the mouth of the Humber, and after considerable delay, was appointed -Surveyor of the Works in 1771. These were completed in April, 1777. -Among other undertakings he repaired and improved the navigation of the -river Calder; he built the bridge over the Tay, at Perth, and some -others on the Highland road, north of Inverness; he laid out the line, -and superintended the execution of a considerable portion of the great -canal connecting the Forth and Clyde. His high reputation was shown -shortly after the two centre arches of old London bridge had been thrown -into one. The foundations of the piers were discovered to be damaged, -and the danger of the bridge was esteemed so imminent that few persons -would venture to pass over it. The opinions of the architects on the -spot were deemed unsatisfactory; and Smeaton, being at the time in -Yorkshire, was summoned by express, to say what should be done. He found -that the increased volume of water passing through the centre arch had -undermined the piers; and removed the danger by the simple expedient, -the success of which he had proved on the river Calder, of throwing in a -large quantity of rough stone about them. The interstices of the heap -soon are filled up by sand and mud, and the whole is consolidated almost -into one mass, and forms a secure and lasting barrier. The best known of -Smeaton’s works, after the Eddystone light-house, is the magnificent -pier and harbour of Ramsgate. This undertaking was commenced in 1749, -and prosecuted for some time with very imperfect success. In 1774 -Smeaton was called in; and he continued to superintend the progress of -the works till their completion in 1791. The harbour is now enclosed by -two piers, the eastern nearly 2000, the western 1500 feet in length, and -affords a safe and a much needed refuge to ships lying in the Downs, -even of five and six hundred tons, which before, when driven from their -anchors by stress of weather, were almost certain to be cast ashore and -wrecked. - -It would be vain to enumerate all the projects in which he was -consulted, or the schemes which he executed. The variety and extent of -his employments may be best estimated from his Reports, of which a -complete collection has been published by the Society of Civil -Engineers, in consequence of the liberality of Sir Joseph Banks, who had -purchased, and presented them to the Society for this purpose. They fill -three quarto volumes, and constitute a most interesting and valuable -series of treatises on every branch of engineering; as draining, -bridge-building, making and improving canals and navigable rivers, -planning docks and harbours, the improvement of mill-work, and the -application of mechanical improvements to different manufactures. His -papers in the Philosophical Transactions are published separately, and -fill another quarto volume. They contain descriptions of those early -inventions which we have mentioned, and of an improved air-pump, and a -new hygrometer and pyrometer; together with his treatise on Mill-work, -and some papers which show that he was fond of the science of astronomy, -and practically skilled in it. - -His health began to decline about 1785, and he endeavoured to withdraw -from business, and to devote his attention to publishing an account of -his own inventions and works; for as he often said, “he thought he could -not render so much service to his country as by doing that.” He -succeeded in bringing out his elaborate account of the Eddystone -Light-house, published in 1791. But he found it impossible to withdraw -entirely from business: and it appears that over-exertion and anxiety -did actually bring on an attack of paralysis, to which his family were -constitutionally liable. He was taken ill at his residence at Austhorpe, -in September, 1792, and died October 28, in the sixty-ninth year of his -age. He had long looked to this disease as the probable termination of -his life, and felt some anxiety concerning the likelihood of out-living -his faculties, and in his own words, of “lingering over the dregs after -the spirit had evaporated.” This calamity was spared him: in the -interval between his first attack and his death, his mind was unclouded, -and he continued to take his usual interest in the occupations of his -domestic circle. Sometimes only he would complain, with a smile, of his -slowness of apprehension, and say, “It cannot be otherwise: the shadow -must lengthen as the sun goes down.” - -His character was marked by undeviating uprightness, industry, and -moderation in pursuit of riches. His gains might have been far larger; -but he relinquished more than one appointment which brought in a -considerable income, to devote his attention to other objects which he -had more at heart; and he declined the magnificent offers of Catharine -II. of Russia, who would have bought his services at any price. His -industry was unwearied, and the distribution of his hours and -employments strictly laid down by rule. In his family and by his friends -he was singularly beloved, though his demeanour sometimes appeared harsh -to strangers. A brief, but very interesting and affectionate account of -him, written by his daughter, is prefixed to his Reports, from which -many of the anecdotes here related have been derived. - -Of the many great undertakings in which Smeaton was engaged, the most -original, and the most celebrated, is the Eddystone light-house. The -reef of rocks known by the name of the Eddystone lies about nine miles -and a half from the Ram Head, at the entrance of Plymouth Sound, exposed -to the full swell of the Atlantic, which, with a very moderate gale, -breaks upon it with the utmost fury. The situation, directly between the -Lizard and Start points, makes it of the utmost importance to have a -light-house on it; and in 1698 Mr. Winstanley succeeded in completing -one. This stood till 1703, but was entirely carried away in the -memorable storm of November 26, in that year. It chanced, by a singular -coincidence, that shortly before, on a doubt of the stability of the -building being uttered, the architect expressed himself so entirely -satisfied on that point, that “he should only wish to be there in the -greatest storm that ever blew under the face of the heavens.” He was -gratified in his wish; and perished with every person in the building. -This building was chiefly, if not wholly of timber. In 1706 Mr. Rudyerd -commenced a new light-house, partly of stone and partly of wood, which -stood till 1755, when it was burnt down to the very rock. Warned by this -accident, Smeaton resolved that his should be entirely of stone. He -spent much time in considering the best methods of grafting his work -securely on the solid rock, and giving it the form best suited to secure -stability; and one of the most interesting parts of his interesting -account, is that in which he narrates how he was led to choose the shape -which he adopted, by considering the means employed by nature to produce -stability in her works. The building is modelled on the trunk of an oak, -which spreads out in a sweeping curve near the roots, so as to give -breadth and strength to its base, diminishes as it rises, and again -swells out as it approaches to the bushy head, to give room for the -strong insertion of the principal boughs. The latter is represented by a -curved cornice, the effect of which is to throw off the heavy seas, -which being suddenly checked fly up, it is said, from fifty to a hundred -feet above the very top of the building, and thus to prevent their -striking the lantern, even when they seem entirely to enclose it. The -efficacy of this construction is such, that after a storm and spring -tide of unequalled violence in 1762, in which the greatest fears were -entertained at Plymouth for the safety of the light-house, the only -article requisite to repair it was a pot of putty, to replace some that -had been washed from the lantern. - -To prepare a fit base for the reception of the column, the shelving rock -was cut into six steps, which were filled up with masonry, firmly -dovetailed, and pinned with oaken trenails to the living stone, so that -the upper course presented a level circular surface. This part of the -work was attended with the greatest difficulty; the rock being -accessible only at low water, and in calm weather. The building is faced -with the Cornish granite, called in the country, moorstone; a material -selected on account of its durability and hardness, which bids defiance -to the depredations of marine animals, which have been known to do -serious injury by perforating Portland stone when placed under water. -The interior is built of Portland stone, which is more easily obtained -in large blocks, and is less expensive in the working. It is an -instructive lesson, not only to the young engineer, but to all persons, -to see the diligence which Smeaton used to ascertain what kind of stone -was best fitted for his purposes, and from what materials the firmest -and most lasting cement could be obtained. He well knew that in novel -and great undertakings no precaution can be deemed superfluous which may -contribute to success; and that it is wrong to trust implicitly to -common methods, even where experience has shown them to be sufficient in -common cases. For the height of twelve feet from the rock the building -is solid. Every course of masonry is composed of stones firmly jointed -and dovetailed into each other, and secured to the course below by -_joggles_, or solid plugs of stone, which being let into both, -effectually resist the lateral pressure of the waves, which tends to -push off the upper from the under course. The interior, which is -accessible by a moveable ladder, consists of four rooms, one over the -other, surmounted by a glass lantern, in which the lights are placed. -The height from the lowest point of the foundation to the floor of the -lantern is seventy feet; the height of the lantern is twenty-one feet -more. The building was commenced August 3, 1756, and finished October 8, -1759; and having braved uninjured the storms of seventy-three winters, -is likely long to remain a monument almost as elegant, and far more -useful, than the most splendid column ever raised to commemorate -imperial victories. Its erection forms an era in the history of -light-houses, a subject of great importance to a maritime nation. It -came perfect from the mind of the artist; and has left nothing to be -added or improved. After such an example no accessible rock can be -considered impracticable: and in the more recent erection of a -light-house on the dangerous Bell-rock, lying off the coast of -Forfarshire, between the Frith of Tay and the Frith of Forth, which is -built exactly in the same manner, and almost on the same model, we see -the best proof of the value of an impulse, such as was given to this -subject by Smeaton. - -[Illustration: Light-houses of (1) Winstanley, (2) Smeaton, and (3) -Rudyerd.] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by Robert Hart._ - - BUFFON. - - _From an original Picture by Drouais in the - collection of the Institute of France._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - BUFFON. - - -Buffon is reported to have said—and the vanity which was his predominant -foible may have given some colour to the assertion—“I know but five -great geniuses, Newton, Bacon, Leibnitz, Montesquieu, and myself.” -Probably no author ever received from his contemporaries so many -excitements to such an exhibition of presumption and self-consequence. -Lewis XV. conferred upon him a title of nobility; the Empress of Russia -was his correspondent; Prince Henry of Prussia addressed him in the -language of the most exaggerated compliment; and his statue was set up -during his life-time in the cabinet of Lewis XVI., with such an -inscription as is rarely bestowed even upon the most illustrious of past -ages[2]. After the lapse of half a century we may examine the personal -character, and the literary merits, of this celebrated man with a more -sober judgment. - -Footnote 2: - - Majestati naturæ par ingenium. - -The history of Buffon is singularly barren of incident. At an early age -he devoted himself to those studies of natural history which have -rendered his name so famous; and at eighty years old he was still -labouring at the completion of the great plan to which he had dedicated -his life. - -George Lewis le Clerc Buffon was born at Montbar, in Burgundy, on the -7th September, 1707. His father, Benjamin le Clerc, was a man of -fortune, who could afford to bestow the most careful education upon his -children, and leave them unfettered in the choice of an occupation. The -young Buffon had formed an acquaintance at Dijon with an Englishman of -his own age, the Duke of Kingston. The tutor of this nobleman was, -fortunately, an accomplished student of the physical sciences; and he -gave a powerful impulse to the talents of Buffon, by leading them -forward in their natural direction. Without the assistance of this -judicious friend, the inclination of his mind towards honourable and -useful exertion might have been suppressed by the temptations which too -easily beset those who have an ample command of the goods of fortune. It -was not so with Buffon. Although he succeeded, at the age of twenty-one, -to the estate of his mother, which produced him an annual income of -12,000_l._, he devoted himself with unremitting assiduity to the -acquisition of knowledge. Having travelled in Italy, and resided some -little time in England, he returned to his own country, to dedicate -himself to the constant labours of a man of letters. His first -productions were translations of two English works of very different -character—‘Hales’ Vegetable Statics,’ and ‘Newton’s Fluxions;’ and, -following up the pursuits for which he exhibited his love in these -translations, he carried on a series of experiments on the strength of -timber, and constructed a burning mirror, in imitation of that of -Archimedes. - -The devotion to science which Buffon had thus manifested marked him out -for an appointment which determined the course of his future life. His -friend, Du Fay, who was the Intendant of the ‘_Jardin du Roi_’ (now -called the ‘_Jardin des Plantes_’), on his death-bed recommended Buffon -as the person best calculated to give a right direction to this -establishment for the cultivation of natural history. Buffon seized upon -the opportunities which this appointment afforded him of prosecuting his -favourite studies, with that energetic perseverance for which he was -remarkable. He saw that natural history had to be written in a manner -that might render it the most attractive species of knowledge; and that -philosophical views, and eloquent descriptions, might supersede the dry -nomenclatures, and the loose, contradictory, and too-often fabulous -narratives which resulted from the crude labours of ill-informed -compilers. To carry forward his favourite object, it was necessary that -the museum, over which he had now the control, should be put in order -and rendered more complete. He obtained from the government considerable -funds for the erection of proper buildings; and the galleries of the -‘_Jardin des Plantes_,’ which now hold the fine collection of mammals -and birds, were raised under his superintendence. Possessing, therefore, -the most complete means which Europe afforded, he applied himself to the -great task of describing the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms of -nature. A large portion of this immense undertaking was left -unperformed, although, to use his own words, he laboured fifty years at -his desk; and much of what he accomplished was greatly diminished in -value by his determination to see natural objects only through the -clouded medium of his own theories. But, nevertheless, he has produced a -work which, with all its faults, is an extraordinary monument of genius -and industry, and which will long entitle him to the gratitude of -mankind. “We read Buffon,” says Condorcet, “to be interested as well as -instructed. He will continue to excite a useful enthusiasm for the -natural sciences; and the world will long be indebted to him for the -pleasures with which a young mind for the first time looks into nature -and the consolations with which a soul weary of the storms of life -reposes upon the sight of the immensity of beings peaceably submitted to -necessary and eternal laws.” - -Buffon was in some particulars unqualified for the laborious duty he had -undertaken. He delighted to indulge in broad and general views, and to -permit his imagination to luxuriate in striking descriptions. But he had -neither the patience, nor the love of accuracy, which would have carried -him into those minute details which give to natural history its highest -value. He, however, had the merit and the good fortune, in the early -stages of his undertaking, to associate himself with a fellow-labourer -who possessed those qualities in which he was deficient. The first -fifteen volumes of ‘_L’Histoire Naturelle_,’ which treat of the theory -of the earth, the nature of animals, and the history of man and -viviparous quadrupeds, were published between 1749 and 1767, as the -joint work of Buffon and Daubenton. The general theories, the -descriptions of the phenomena of nature, and the pictures of the habits -of animals, were by Buffon. Daubenton confined himself to the precise -delineation of their physical character, both in their external forms -and their anatomy. But Daubenton refused to continue his assistance in -the ‘History of Birds;’ for Buffon, unwilling that the fame which he had -acquired should be partaken by one whom he considered only as a humble -and subordinate labourer, allowed an edition of the History of -Quadrupeds to be published, of which the descriptive and anatomical -parts had been greatly abridged. In the History of Birds, therefore, -Buffon had to seek for other associates; and the form of the work was -greatly changed from that of the previous volumes. The particular -descriptions are here very meagre, and anatomical details are almost -entirely excluded. In some of the volumes, Buffon was assisted by -Guéneau de Montbeillard, who, instead of endeavouring to attain the -accuracy of Daubenton, affected to imitate the style of his employer. To -the three last volumes of the Birds the Abbé Bexon lent his aid. The -nine volumes of Birds appeared between 1770 and 1783. Buffon published -alone his ‘History of Minerals,’ which appeared in five volumes, between -1783 and 1788. Seven volumes of Supplements complete the Natural -History. The first appeared in 1773; the last was not published till the -year after its author’s death, in 1789. The fifth volume of these -Supplements is a distinct work, the Epochs of Nature[3]. - -Footnote 3: - - The best edition of the works of Buffon is the first, of 36 vols. 4to. - -The study of natural history, and the composition of his great work, -occupied the mind of Buffon from his first appointment as Intendant of -the ‘_Jardin du Roi_,’ to within a few days of his death. In the -prosecution of the plan he had laid down, he never permitted the -slightest interruption. Pleasure and indolence had their -attractions;—but they never held him for many hours from his favourite -pursuits. Buffon spent the greater part of his time at Montbar, where, -during some years, his friend Daubenton also resided. It was here that -Buffon composed nearly the whole of his works. Many interesting details -have been preserved of his habits of life, and his mode of composition. -He was, like all men who have accomplished great literary undertakings, -a severe economist of his time. The employment of every day was fixed -with the greatest exactness. He used almost invariably to rise at five -o’clock, compelling his man-servant to drag him out of bed whenever he -was unwilling to get up. “I owe to poor Joseph,” he used to say, “ten or -twelve volumes of my works.” At the end of his garden was a pavilion -which served him as a study. Here he was seated for many hours of every -day, in an old leathern chair, before a table of black birch, with his -papers arranged in a large walnut-tree escritoire. Before he began to -write he was accustomed to meditate for a long time upon his subject. -Composition was to him a real delight; and he used to declare that he -had spent twelve or fourteen hours successively at his desk, continuing -to the last in a state of pleasure. His endeavours to obtain the utmost -correctness of expression furnished a remarkable proof of the -persevering quality of his mind. He composed, and copied, and read his -works to friends, and re-copied, till he was entirely satisfied. It is -said that he made eleven transcripts of the Epochs of Nature. In his -domestic habits there was little to admire in the character of Buffon. -His conversation was trifling and licentious, and the grossness which -too often discloses itself in his writings was ill-concealed in his own -conduct. He paid the most minute attention to dress, and delighted in -walking to church to exhibit his finery to his wondering neighbours. -Although he was entirely devoid of religious principle, and constantly -endeavoured in his writings to throw discredit upon the belief of a -great First Cause, he regularly attended high mass, received the -communion, and distributed alms to pious beggars. In his whole character -there appears a total absence of that simplicity which is the -distinguishing attribute of men of the very highest genius. - -The literary glory of Buffon, although surpassed, or even equalled, -during his life, by none of his contemporaries, with the exception -perhaps of Voltaire and Rousseau, has not increased, and is perhaps -materially diminished, after having been tried by the opinions of half a -century. In literature, as well as in politics, as we have learnt to -attach a greater value to accurate facts, have we become less captivated -by the force of eloquence alone. Buffon gave an extraordinary impulse to -the love of natural history, by surrounding its details with splendid -images, and escaping from its rigid investigations by bold and dazzling -theories. He rejected classification; and took no pains to distinguish -by precise names the objects which he described, because such accuracy -would have impeded the progress of his magnificent generalizations. -Without classification, and an accurate nomenclature, natural history is -a mere chaos. Buffon saw the productions of nature only in masses. He -made no endeavour to delineate with perfect accuracy any individual of -that immense body, nor to trace the relations of an individual to all -the various forms of being by which it is surrounded. Although he was a -profound admirer of Newton, and classed Bacon amongst the most -illustrious of men, he constantly deviated from the principle of that -philosophy upon which all modern discovery has been founded. He carried -onward his hypotheses with little calculation and less experiment. And -yet, although they are often misapplied, he has collected an astonishing -number of facts; and even many of his boldest generalities have been -based upon a sufficient foundation of truth, to furnish important -assistance to the investigations of more accurate inquirers. The -persevering obliquity with which he turns away from the evidence of -Design in the creation, to rest upon some vague notions of a -self-creative power, both in animate and inanimate existence, is one of -the most unpleasant features of his writings. How much higher services -might Buffon have rendered to natural history had he been imbued not -only with a spirit of accurate and comprehensive classification, but -with a perception of the constant agency of a Creator, of both of which -merits he had so admirable an example in our own Ray. - -The style of Buffon, viewed as an elaborate work of art, and without -regard to the great object of style, that of conveying thoughts in the -clearest and simplest manner, is captivating from its sustained harmony -and occasional grandeur. But it is a style of a past age. Even in his -own day, it was a theme for ridicule with those who knew the real force -of conciseness and simplicity. Voltaire described it as ‘_empoulé_;’ and -when some one talked to him of ‘_L’Histoire Naturelle_,’ he drily -replied, ‘_Pas si naturelle_.’ But Buffon was not carried away by the -mere love of fine writing. He knew his own power; and, looking at the -state of science in his day, he seized upon the instrument which was -best calculated to elevate him amongst his contemporaries. The very -exaggerations of his style were perhaps necessary to render natural -history at once attractive to all descriptions of people. Up to his time -it had been a dry and repulsive study. He first clothed it with the -picturesque and poetical; threw a moral sentiment around its commonest -details; exhibited animals in connection with man, in his mightiest and -most useful works; and described the great phenomena of nature with a -pomp of language which had never before been called to the service of -philosophical investigation. The publication of his works carried the -study of natural history out of the closets of the few, to become a -source of delight and instruction to all men. - -Buffon died at Paris on the 16th April, 1788, aged 81. He was married, -in 1762, to Mademoiselle de St. Bélin; and he left an only son, who -succeeded to his title. This unfortunate young man perished on the -scaffold, in 1795, almost one of the last victims of the fury of the -revolution. When he ascended to the guillotine he exclaimed, with great -composure, “My name is Buffon.” - -A succinct and clear memoir of Buffon, by Cuvier, in the _Biographie -Universelle_, may be advantageously consulted. Nearly all the details of -his private life are derived from a curious work by Rénault de -Séchelles, entitled _Voyage à Montbar_, which, like many other domestic -histories of eminent men, has the disgrace of being founded upon a -violation of the laws of hospitality. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by R. Woodman._ - - SIR THOMAS MORE. - - _From an Enamel after Holbein, - in the possession of Thomas Clarke Esq._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - MORE. - - -This great man was born in London, in the year 1480. His father was Sir -John More, one of the Judges of the King’s Bench, a gentleman of -established reputation. He was early placed in the family of Cardinal -Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Lord Chancellor of England. The -sons of the gentry were at this time sent into the families of the first -nobility and leading statesmen, on an equivocal footing; partly for the -finishing of their education, and partly in a menial capacity. The -Cardinal said more than once to the nobility who were dining with him, -“This boy waiting at table, whosoever lives to see it, will one day -prove a marvellous man.” His eminent patron was highly delighted with -that vivacity and wit which appeared in his childhood, and did not -desert him on the scaffold. Plays were performed in the archiepiscopal -household at Christmas. On these occasions young More would play the -improvisatore, and introduce an extempore part of his own, more amusing -to the spectators than all the rest of the performance. In due time -Morton sent him to Oxford, where he heard the lectures of Linacer and -Grocyn on the Greek and Latin languages. The epigrams and translations -printed in his works evince his skill in both. After a regular course of -rhetoric, logic, and philosophy, at Oxford, he removed to London, where -he became a law student, first in New Inn, and afterwards in Lincoln’s -Inn. He gained considerable reputation by reading public lectures on -Saint Augustine, De Civitate Dei, at Saint Lawrence’s church in the Old -Jewry. The most learned men in the city of London attended him; among -the rest Grocyn, his lecturer in Greek at Oxford, and a writer against -the doctrines of Wickliff. The object of More’s prolusions was not so -much to discuss points in theology, as to explain the precepts of moral -philosophy, and clear up difficulties in history. For more than three -years after this he was Law-reader at Furnival’s Inn. He next removed to -the Charter-House, where he lived in devotion and prayer; and it is -stated that from the age of twenty he wore a hair-shirt next his skin. -He remained there about four years, without taking the vows, although he -performed all the spiritual exercises of the society, and had a strong -inclination to enter the priesthood. But his spiritual adviser, Dr. -Colet, Dean of St. Paul’s, recommended him to adopt a different course. -On a visit to a gentleman of Essex, by name Colt, he was introduced to -his three daughters, and became attached to the second, who was the -handsomest of the family. But he bethought him that it would be both a -grief and a scandal to the eldest to see her younger sister married -before her. He therefore reconsidered his passion, and from motives of -pity prevailed with himself to be in love with the elder, or at all -events to marry her. Erasmus says that she was young and uneducated, for -which her husband liked her the better, as being more capable of -conforming to his own model of a wife. He had her instructed in -literature, and especially in music. - -He continued his study of the law at Lincoln’s Inn, but resided in -Bucklersbury after his marriage. His first wife lived about seven years. -By her he had three daughters and one son; and we are informed by his -son-in-law, Roper, that he brought them up with the most sedulous -attention to their intellectual and moral improvement. It was a quaint -exhortation of his, that they should take virtue and learning for their -meat, and pleasure for their sauce. - -In the latter part of King Henry the Seventh’s time, and at a very early -age, More distinguished himself in parliament. The King had demanded a -subsidy for the marriage of his eldest daughter, who was to be the -Scottish Queen. The demand was not complied with. On being told that his -purpose had been frustrated by the opposition of a beardless boy, Henry -was greatly incensed, and determined on revenge. He knew that the actual -offender, not possessing anything, could not lose anything; he therefore -devised a groundless charge against the father, and confined him to the -Tower till he had extorted a fine of £100 for his alleged offence. Fox, -Bishop of Winchester, a privy councillor, insidiously undertook to -reinstate young More in the King’s favour: but the Bishop’s Chaplain -warned him not to listen to any such proposals; and gave a pithy reason -for the advice, highly illustrative of Fox’s real character. “To serve -the King’s purposes, my lord and master will not hesitate to consent to -his own father’s death.” To avoid evil consequences, More determined to -go abroad. With this view, he made himself master of the French -language, and cultivated the liberal sciences, as astronomy, geometry, -arithmetic, and music; he also made himself thoroughly acquainted with -history: but in the mean time the King’s death rendered it safe to -remain in England, and he abandoned all thoughts of foreign travel. - -Notwithstanding his practice at the bar, and his lectures, which were -quoted by Lord Coke as undisputed authority, he found leisure for the -pursuits of philosophy and polite literature. In 1516 he wrote his -Utopia, the only one of his works which has commanded much of public -attention in after times. In general they were chiefly of a polemic -kind, in defence of a cause which even his abilities could not make -good. But in this extraordinary work he allowed his powerful mind fair -play, and considered both mankind and religion with the freedom of a -true philosopher. He represents Utopia as one of those countries lately -discovered in America, and the account of it is feigned to be given by a -Portuguese, who sailed in company with the first discoverer of that part -of the world. Under the character of this Portuguese he delivers his own -opinions. His History of Richard III. was never finished, but it is -inserted in Kennet’s Complete History of England. Among his other -eminent acquaintance, he was particularly attached to Erasmus. They had -long corresponded before they were personally known to each other. -Erasmus came to England for the purpose of seeing his friend; and it was -contrived that they should meet at the Lord Mayor’s table before they -were introduced to each other. At dinner they engaged in argument. -Erasmus felt the keenness of his antagonist’s wit; and when hard -pressed, exclaimed, “You are More, or nobody;” the reply was, “You are -Erasmus, or the Devil.” - -Before More entered definitively into the service of Henry VIII. his -learning, wisdom, and experience were held in such high estimation, that -he was twice sent on important commercial embassies. His discretion in -those employments made the King desirous of securing him for the service -of the court; and he commissioned Wolsey, then Lord Chancellor, to -engage him. But so little inclined was he to involve himself in -political intrigues, that the King’s wish was not at the time -accomplished. Soon after, More was retained as counsel for the Pope, for -the purpose of reclaiming the forfeiture of a ship. His argument was so -learned, and his conduct in the cause so judicious and upright, that the -ship was restored. The King upon this insisted on having him in his -service; and, as the first step to preferment, made him Master of the -Requests, a Knight and Privy Councillor. - -In 1520 he was made Treasurer of the Exchequer: he then bought a house -by the river-side at Chelsea, where he had settled with his family. He -had at that time buried his first wife and was married to a second. He -continued in the King’s service full twenty years, during which time his -royal master conferred with him on various subjects, including -astronomy, geometry, and divinity; and frequently consulted him on his -private concerns. More’s pleasant temper and witty conversation made him -such a favourite at the palace, as almost to estrange him from his own -family; and under these circumstances his peculiar humour manifested -itself; for he so restrained the natural bias of his freedom and mirth -as to render himself a less amusing companion, and at length to be -seldom sent for but on occasions of business. - -A more important circumstance gave More much consequence with the King. -The latter was preparing his answer to Luther, and Sir Thomas assisted -him in the controversy. While this was going on, the King one day came -to dine with him; and after dinner walked with him in the garden with -his arm round his neck. After Henry’s departure, Mr. Roper, Sir Thomas’s -son-in-law, remarked on the King’s familiarity, as exceeding even that -used towards Cardinal Wolsey, with whom he had only once been seen to -walk arm in arm. The answer of Sir Thomas was shrewd and almost -prophetic. “I find his Grace my very good lord indeed, and I believe he -doth as singularly favour me as any subject within this realm. However, -Son Roper, I may tell thee, I have no cause to be proud thereof; for if -my head would win him a castle in France it should not fail to go.” - -In 1523 he was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons, and displayed -great intrepidity in the discharge of that office. Wolsey was afraid -lest this parliament should refuse a great subsidy about to be demanded, -and announced his intention of being present at the debate. He had -previously expressed his indignation at the publicity given to the -proceedings of the house, which he had compared to the gossip of an -ale-house. Sir Thomas More therefore persuaded the members to admit not -only the Cardinal, but all his pomp; his maces, poll-axes, crosses, hat, -and great seal. The reason he assigned was, that should the like fault -be imputed to them hereafter, they might be able to shift the blame on -the shoulders of his Grace’s attendants. The proposal of the subsidy was -met with the negative of profound silence; and the Speaker declared that -“except every member could put into his one head all their several wits, -he alone in so weighty a matter was unmeet to make his Grace answer.” -After the parliament had broken up, Wolsey expressed his displeasure -against the Speaker in his own gallery at Whitehall; but More, with his -usual quiet humour, parried the attack by a ready compliment to the -taste and splendour of the room in which they were conversing. - -On the death of Sir Richard Wingfield, the King promoted Sir Thomas to -the Chancellorship of the Duchy of Lancaster. At this time the see of -Rome became vacant, and Wolsey aspired to the Papacy; but Charles V. -disappointed him, and procured the election of Cardinal Adrian. In -revenge, Wolsey contrived to persuade Henry that Catharine was not his -lawful wife, and endeavoured to turn his affections towards one of the -French King’s sisters. The case was referred to More, who was assisted -by the most learned of the Privy Council; and he managed, difficult as -it must have been to do so, to extricate both himself and his colleagues -from the dilemma. His conduct as ambassador at Cambray, where a treaty -of peace was negotiated between the Emperor, France, and England, so -confirmed the favour of his master towards him, that on the fall of the -Cardinal he was made Lord Chancellor. The great seal was delivered to -him on the 25th of October, 1530. This favour was the more -extraordinary, as he was the first layman on whom it was bestowed: but -it may reasonably be suspected that the private motive was to engage him -in the approval of the meditated divorce. This he probably suspected, -and entered on the office with a full knowledge of the danger to which -it exposed him. He performed the duties of his function for nearly three -years with exemplary diligence, great ability, and uncorrupted -integrity. His resignation took place on the 16th May, 1533. His motive -was supposed to be a regard to his own safety, as he was sensible that a -confirmation of the divorce would be officially required from him, and -he was too conscientious to comply with the mandate of power, against -his own moral and legal convictions. - -While Chancellor some of his injunctions were disapproved by the common -law judges. He therefore invited them to dine with him in the council -chamber, and proved to them by professional arguments that their -complaints were unfounded. He then proposed that they should themselves -mitigate the rigour of the law by their own conscientious discretion; in -which case, he would grant no more injunctions. This they refused; and -the consequence was, that he continued that practice in equity which has -come down to the present day. - -It was through the intervention of his friend the Duke of Norfolk that -he procured his discharge from the laborious, and under the -circumstances of the time, the dangerous eminence of the chancellorship, -which he quitted in honourable poverty. After the payment of his debts -he had not the value of one hundred pounds in gold and silver, nor more -than twenty marks a year in land. On this occasion his love of a jest -did not desert him. While Chancellor, as soon as the church service was -over, one of his train used to go to his lady’s pew, and say, “Madam, my -Lord is gone!” On the first holiday after his train had been dismissed, -he performed that ceremony himself, and by saying at the end of the -service, “Madam, my Lord is gone,” gave his wife the first intimation -that he had surrendered the great seal. - -He had resolved never again to engage in public business; but the -divorce, and still more the subsequent marriage with Anne Boleyn, which -nothing could induce him to favour, with the King’s alienation from the -see of Rome, raised a storm over his head from which his voluntary -seclusion at Chelsea, in study and devotion, could not shelter him. When -tempting offers proved ineffectual to win him over to sanction Anne -Boleyn’s coronation by his high legal authority, threats and terrors -were resorted to: his firmness was not to be shaken, but his ruin was -determined, and ultimately accomplished. In the next parliament he, and -his friend Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, were attainted of treason and -misprision of treason for listening to the ravings of Elizabeth Barton, -considered by the vulgar as the Holy Maid of Kent, and countenancing her -treasonable practices. His innocence was so clearly established, that -his name was erased from the bill; and it was supposed to have been -introduced into it only for the purpose of shaking his resolution -touching the divorce and marriage. But though he had escaped this snare -his firmness occasioned him to be devoted as a victim. Anne Boleyn took -pains to exasperate the King against him, and when the Act of Supremacy -was passed in 1534, the oath required by it was tendered to him. The -refusal to take it, which his principles compelled him to give, was -expressed in discreet and qualified terms; he was nevertheless taken -into the custody of the Abbot of Westminster, and upon a second refusal -four days after was committed prisoner to the Tower of London. - -Our limits will not allow us to detail many particulars of his life -while in confinement, marked as it was by firmness, resignation, and -cheerfulness, resulting from a conscience, however much mistaken, yet -void of intentional offence. His reputation and credit were very great -in the kingdom, and much was supposed to depend on his conduct at this -critical juncture. Archbishop Cranmer, therefore, urged every argument -that could be devised to persuade him to compliance, and promises were -profusely made to him from the King; but neither argument nor promises -could prevail. We will give the last of these attempts to shake his -determination, in the words of his son-in-law, Mr. Roper:— - -“Mr. Rich, pretending friendly talk with him, among other things of a -set course, said this unto him: ‘Forasmuch as is well known, Master -More, that you are a man both wise and well learned, as well in the laws -of the realm as otherwise, I pray you, therefore, sir, let me be so bold -as of good-will to put unto you this case. Admit there were, sir, an act -of parliament that the realm should take me for King; would not you, Mr. -More, take me for King?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ quoth Sir Thomas More, ‘that would -I.’ ‘I put the case further,’ quoth Mr. Rich, ‘that there were an act of -parliament that all the realm should take me for Pope; would not you -then, Master More, take me for Pope?’ ‘For answer, sir,’ quoth Sir -Thomas More, ‘to your first case the parliament may well, Master Rich, -meddle with the state of temporal princes; but to make answer to your -other case, I will put you this case. Suppose the parliament would make -a law that God should not be God; would you then, Master Rich, say that -God were not God?’ ‘No, sir,’ quoth he, ‘that would I not; sith no -parliament may make any such law.’ ‘No more,’ quoth Sir Thomas More, -‘could the parliament make the King supreme head of the Church.’ Upon -whose only report was Sir Thomas indicted of high treason on the statute -to deny the King to be supreme head of the Church, into which indictment -were put these heinous words, _maliciously_, _traitorously_, and -_diabolically_.” - -Sir Thomas More in his defence alleged many arguments to the discredit -of Rich’s evidence, and in proof of the clearness of his own conscience; -but all this was of no avail, and the jury found him guilty. When asked -in the usual manner why judgment should not be passed against him, he -argued against the indictment as grounded on an Act of Parliament -repugnant to the laws of God and the Church, the government of which -belonged to the see of Rome, and could not lawfully be assumed by any -temporal prince. The Lord Chancellor, however, and the other -Commissioners gave judgment against him. - -He remained in the Tower a week after his sentence, and during that time -he was uniformly firm and composed, and even his peculiar vein of -cheerfulness remained unimpaired. It accompanied him even to the -scaffold, on going up to which, he said to the Lieutenant of the Tower, -“I pray you, Master Lieutenant, see me safe up, and for my coming down -let me shift for myself.” After his prayers were ended he turned to the -executioner and said, with a cheerful countenance, “Pluck up thy -spirits, man, and be not afraid to do thine office. My neck is very -short, take heed, therefore, thou strike not awry for thine own credit’s -sake.” Then laying his head upon the block, he bid the executioner stay -till he had removed his beard, saying, “My beard has never committed any -treason;” and immediately the fatal blow was given. These witticisms -have so repeatedly run the gauntlet through all the jest-books that it -would hardly have been worth while to repeat them here, were it not for -the purpose of introducing the comment of Mr. Addison on Sir Thomas’s -behaviour on this solemn occasion. “What was only philosophy in this -extraordinary man would be frenzy in one who does not resemble him as -well in the cheerfulness of his temper as in the sanctity of his -manners.” - -He was executed on St. Thomas’s eve in the year 1555. The barbarous part -of the sentence, so disgraceful to the Statute-book, was remitted. Lest -serious-minded persons should suppose that his conduct on the scaffold -was mere levity, it should be added that he addressed the people, -desiring them to pray for him, and to bear witness that he was going to -suffer death in and for the faith of the holy Catholic Church. The -Emperor Charles V. said, on hearing of his execution, “Had we been -master of such a servant, we would rather have lost the best city of our -dominions than such a worthy councillor.” - -No one was more capable of appreciating the character of Sir Thomas More -than Erasmus, who represents him as more pure and white than the whitest -snow, with such wit as England never had before, and was never likely to -have again. He also says, that in theological discussions the most -eminent divines were not unfrequently worsted by him; but he adds a wish -that he had never meddled with the subject. Sir Thomas More was -peculiarly happy in extempore speaking, the result of a well-stored and -ready memory, suggesting without delay whatever the occasion required. -Thuanus also mentions him with much respect, as a man of strict -integrity and profound learning. - -His life has been written by his son-in-law, Roper, and is the principal -source whence this narrative is taken. Erasmus has also been consulted, -through whose epistolary works there is much information about his -friend. There is also a life of him by Ferdinando Warner, LL.D., with a -translation of his Utopia, in an octavo volume, published in 1758. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Posselwhite._ - - LA PLACE. - - _From an original Picture by Nedeone, - in the possession of the Marchioness De la Place._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - LAPLACE. - - -Pierre Simon Laplace was born at Beaumont en Auge, a small town of -Normandy, not far from Honfleur, in March, 1749. His father was a small -farmer of sufficient substance to give him the benefit of a learned -education, for we are told[4] that the future philosopher gained his -first distinctions in theology. It does not appear by what means his -attention was turned to mathematical science, but he must have commenced -that study when very young, as, on visiting Paris at the age of about -eighteen, he attracted the notice of D’Alembert by his knowledge of the -subject. He had previously taught mathematics in his native place; and, -on visiting the metropolis, was furnished with letters of recommendation -to several of the most distinguished men of the day. Finding, however, -that D’Alembert took no notice of him on this account, he wrote that -geometer a letter on the first principles of mechanics, which produced -an immediate effect. D’Alembert sent for him the same day, and said, -“You see, sir, how little I care for introductions, but you have no need -of any. You have a better way of making yourself known, and you have a -right to my assistance.” Through the recommendation of D’Alembert, -Laplace was in a few days named Professor of Mathematics in the Military -School of Paris. From this moment he applied himself to the one great -object of his life. It was not till the year 1799 that he was called to -assume a public character. Bonaparte, then First Consul, who was himself -a tolerable mathematician, and always cultivated the friendship of men -of science, made him Minister of the Interior; but very soon found his -mistake in supposing that talents for philosophical investigation were -necessarily accompanied by those of a statesman. He is reported to have -expressed himself of Laplace in the following way:—“Géometre du premier -rang, il ne tarda pas a se montrer administrateur plus que médiocre. Dés -son premier travail, les consuls s’aperçurent qu’ils s’étoient trompés. -Laplace ne saisissait aucune question sous son vrai point de vue. Il -cherchait des subtilités partout, n’avait que des idées problématiques -et portait aufin _l’esprit des infiniments petits_ dans -l’administration.” Bonaparte removed him accordingly to the _Sénat -Conservateur_, of which he was successively Vice-President and -Chancellor. The latter office he received in 1813, about which time he -was created Count. In 1814 he voted for the deposition of Napoleon, for -which he has been charged with ingratitude and meanness. This is yet a -party question; and the present generation need not be hasty in forming -a decision which posterity may see reason to reverse. After the first -restoration Laplace received the title of Marquis, and did not appear at -the Court of Napoleon during the hundred days. He continued his usual -pursuits until the year 1827, when he was seized with the disorder which -terminated his life on the 5th of May, in the seventy-eighth year of his -age. His last words were, “Ce que nous connoissons est peu de chose; ce -que nous ignorons est immense.” He has left a successor to his name and -title, but none to his transcendent powers of investigation. - -Footnote 4: - - A scanty account in the _Biographie des Contemporains_, and the Eloge - read to the Institute by M. Fourier, form our only materials for the - personal life of LAPLACE. - -The name of Laplace is spread to the utmost limits of civilization, as -the successor, almost the equal, of Newton. No one, however, who is -acquainted with the discoveries of the two, will think there is so much -common ground for comparison as is generally supposed. Those of Laplace -are all essentially mathematical: whatever could be done by analysis he -was sure to achieve. The labours of Newton, on the other hand, show a -sagacity in conjecturing which would almost lead us to think that he -laid the mathematics on one side, and used some faculty of perception -denied to other men, to deduce these results which he afterwards -condescended to put into a geometrical form, for the information of more -common minds. In the Principia of Newton, the mathematics are not the -instruments of discovery but of demonstration; and, though that work -contains much which is new in a mathematical point of view, its -principal merit is of quite another character. The mind of Laplace was -cast in a different mould; and this perhaps is fortunate for science, -for while we may safely assert that Laplace would never have been Newton -had he been placed in similar circumstances, there is also reason to -doubt whether a second Newton would have been better qualified to follow -that particular path which was so successfully traversed by Laplace. We -shall proceed to give such an idea of the labours of the latter as our -limits will allow. - -The solution of every mechanical problem, in which the acting forces -were known, as in the motions of the solar system, had been reduced by -D’Alembert and Lagrange to such a state that the difficulties were only -mathematical; that is, no farther advances could be made, except in pure -analysis. We cannot expect the general reader to know what is meant by -the words, _solution of a Differential Equation_; but he may be made -aware that there is a process so called, which, if it could be -successfully and exactly performed in all cases, would give the key to -every motion of the solar system, and render the determination of its -present, and the prediction of its future state, a matter of -mathematical certainty. Unfortunately, in the present state of analysis, -such precision is unattainable; and its place is supplied by slow and -tedious approximations. These were begun by Newton, whose object being -to establish the existence of universal gravitation, he was content to -show that all the phenomena which might be expected to result, if that -theory were true, did actually take place in the solar system. But here, -owing to the comparatively imperfect state of mathematical analysis, he -could do little more than indicate the cause of some of the principal -irregularities of that system. His successors added considerably to the -number of phenomena which were capable of explanation, and thereby -increased the probability of the hypothesis. Lagrange, the great rival -of Laplace, if we consider his discoveries, and his superior in the -originality of his views, and the beauty of his analysis, added greatly -to the fund; but it was reserved for the latter to complete the system, -and, extending his views beyond the point to which Newton directed his -attention, to show that there is no marked phenomenon yet observed by -astronomers, regarding the relative motions of the planets or their -satellites, but what must necessarily follow, if the law of gravitation -be true. We shall select a few instances of the success of his analysis. -The average motions of Jupiter and Saturn had been observed to vary; -that of the former being accelerated, and of the latter retarded. This -fact, which Euler had attempted in vain to explain, was linked by -Laplace to the general law, and shown to follow from it. A somewhat -similar acceleration in the moon’s mean motion was demonstrated, as we -have observed more fully in the life of Halley, to arise from a small -alteration in the form of the earth’s orbit, caused by the attraction of -the planets. A remarkable law attending the motions of the satellites of -Jupiter, viz.—that the mean motion of the first satellite, together with -double that of the second, is always very nearly equal to three times -that of the third—was so far connected with the general law, that if, in -the original formation of the system, that relation had been nearly -kept, the mutual attractions, instead of altering it, would tend to -bring it nearer the truth. We can here do no more than mention the -analysis of the phenomena of the tides, one of the most important and -most brilliant of Laplace’s performances. Indeed there is no branch of -Physical Astronomy, we might almost say of physics in general, which is -not materially indebted to him. Superior to Euler in the power of -conquering analytical difficulties, he is almost his equal in the -universality of his labours. - -The great work of Laplace is the ‘Mécanique Céleste,’ a collection of -all that had been done by himself or others, concerning the theory of -the universe. It is far above the reach even of the mathematical reader, -unless he has given a degree of attention to the subject, which few, at -least in our day, will exert. But Laplace was an elegant and -clear-headed writer, as well as a profound analyst. He has left, we will -not say for the common reader, but for those who possess the first -elements of geometry, a compendium of the Mécanique Céleste, in the -‘Système du Monde.’ This work is free from mathematical details, and, -were it his only production, would rank him high among French writers. -We recommend it as the best exposition of the present state of our -knowledge of the solar system. - -But if it be said that Laplace was much indebted to the labours of -Lagrange and others, for the methods which form the basis of the -Mécanique Céleste, which is undoubtedly true, we have a splendid -instance of what might have been expected from him under any -circumstances, in the ‘Théorie des Probabilités.’ The field was here -open, for though the leading principles of the science had been laid -down, and many difficult problems solved, yet some method was still -wanting by which sufficient approximation might be made to problems -involving high numbers. In the theory of chances the great complexity of -the operations required, soon renders the application of the clearest -principles practically impossible; or, we should rather say, would have -done so had it not been for the researches of Laplace. His work on this -subject is, in our opinion, even superior to the Mécanique Céleste, as a -proof of the genius of the author. The difficulties above described -disappear under an analysis more refined and artificial than any other -which has ever been used. The mathematician may or may not read the -Mécanique Céleste, according to whether he would wish or not to turn his -attention to physical astronomy; but the analyst must study the Théorie -des Probabilités, before he can be said to know of what his art is -capable. The philosophical part of his work, with its principal results, -was collected by the author in the ‘Essai Philosophique sur les -Probabilités,’ in the same manner as those of the Mécanique Céleste were -exhibited in the Système du Monde. - -The mathematical style of Laplace is entirely destitute of the -simplicity of that of Euler, or the exquisite symmetry and attention to -the principles of notation, which distinguishes that of Lagrange. We may -almost imagine that we see the first rough form in which his thoughts -were committed to paper; and that, when by attention to a particular -case, he had hit upon a wider method, which embraced that and others, he -was content to leave the first nearly as it stood before the -generalization opened upon him. His writings abound with parts in which -the immediate train of investigation is dropped, either not to be -resumed at all, or at a much later period of the subject. He seems, like -the discoverer of a new channel, to have explored every inlet which came -in his way, and the chart of his labours consequently shows the -unfinished surveys on either side of the main track. This habit is no -fault, but quite the reverse, in a work intended for finished -mathematicians, to be the storehouse of all that could be useful in -future operations: but it makes both the Mécanique Céleste and the -Théorie des Probabilités present almost unconquerable difficulties to -the student. These are increased by the very wide steps left to be -filled up by the reader, which are numerous enough to justify us in -saying, that what is left out in these writings would constitute a mass -four times as great as that which is put in, and this exclusive of -numerical calculations. When we add that those two works are contained -in six quarto volumes, which hold more than two thousand five hundred -pages, some notion may be formed of the extent of Laplace’s labours. - -It will be perceived that this slight sketch is intended only for those -who are not mathematicians. In conclusion, we may take the opportunity -of expressing a hope, that at no distant period analytical knowledge -will have become so general, and the public mind be so far informed upon -the great theory first propounded by Newton, and reduced to -demonstration by Lagrange and Laplace, that the evidence furnished by -the two last shall possess equal weight with the authority of the first. - - - - -[Illustration] - - HANDEL. - - -George Frederic Handel, whom we will venture to call the greatest of -musicians, considering the state in which he found his art, and the -means at his command, was born at Halle, in the Duchy of Magdeburg, -February 24, 1684. He was intended, almost from his cradle, for the -profession of the civil law; but, at the early age of seven, he -manifested so uncontrollable an inclination, and so decided a talent for -the study of music, that his father, an eminent physician, wisely -consented to change his destination, and suffered him to continue under -the direction of a master those studies, which he had been secretly -pursuing with no other guide than his own genius. - -Friedrich Zachau, organist of the cathedral church of Halle, was the -first and indeed the chief instructor of Handel. He discharged the -duties of his office so well, that his pupil, when not nine years old, -had become competent to officiate for his teacher, and had composed, it -is said, many motets for the service of the church. A set of sonatas, -written by him when only ten years old, was in the possession of George -III., and probably forms part of the musical library of our present -sovereign. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Thomson._ - - HANDEL. - - _From a Picture in the Collection of - His Majesty at Windsor._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - -In 1703 Handel went to Hamburg, where the opera was then flourishing -under the direction of Reinhard Keiser, a master of deserved celebrity, -but whose gaiety and expensive habits often compelled him to absent -himself from the theatre. On one of these occasions Handel was appointed -to fill his place as conductor. This preference of a junior roused the -jealousy of a fellow-performer, named Mattheson, to such a degree that a -rencontre took place between the rivals in the street: and Handel was -saved from a sword-thrust, which probably would have taken fatal effect, -only by the interposition of a music-score, which he carried buttoned up -under his coat. Till this time he had occupied but a very subordinate -situation in the orchestra, that of second _ripieno_ violin; for from -the period of his father’s death he had depended wholly on his own -exertions, nobly determining not to diminish his mother’s rather -straitened income by any demands on her for pecuniary assistance. But -now an opportunity for making known his powers was arrived; for the -continued absence of the conductor Keiser from his post induced the -manager to employ Handel in setting to music a drama called Almeria. So -great was the success of this piece, that it was performed thirty nights -without interruption. The year following he composed Florinda; and soon -after, Nerone, both of which were received in as favourable a manner as -his first dramatic effort; but not one of these is to be found in the -collection formed by George III., and they seem quite unknown to all -writers on music, except by their titles. - -The success of his operas at Hamburg produced a sum which enabled him to -visit Italy. Florence was the first city in which he made any stay. He -was there received in the kindest manner by the Grand Duke Giovanni -Gaston de Medicis, and produced the opera of Rodrigo in 1709, for which -he was presented with a hundred sequins, and a service of plate. Thence -he proceeded to Venice, where he brought out Agrippina, which was -received with acclamation, and performed twenty-seven nights -successively. It seems that horns and other wind-instruments were in -this opera first used in Italy as accompaniments to the voice. Here the -charms of his music made an impression on the famous beauty and singer, -Signora Vittoria, a lady particularly distinguished by the Grand Duke; -but in this, as in every instance of a similar kind, Handel showed no -disposition to avail himself of any partialities exhibited in his -favour. His thoughts were nearly all absorbed by his art, and it is but -just to conclude that he was also influenced by those sentiments of -moral propriety which so distinctly marked his conduct through life. It -is to be admitted, however, that he was too much inclined to indulge in -the pleasures of the table. - -On visiting Rome he was hospitably and kindly entertained by the -Cardinal Ottoboni, a person of the most refined taste and princely -magnificence. Besides his splendid collection of pictures and statues, -he possessed a library of music of great extent, and kept in his service -an excellent band of performers, which was under the direction of the -celebrated Corelli. At one of the parties made by the Cardinal, Handel -produced the overture to Il Trionfo del Tempo, which was attempted by -the band so unsuccessfully, that the composer, in his hasty manner, -snatched the violin from Corelli, and played the most difficult passages -with his own hand. The Italian, who was all modesty and meekness, -ingenuously confessed that he did not understand the kind of music; and, -when Handel still appeared impatient, only said, “Ma, caro Sassone, -questa musica è nel stilo Francese, di ch’io non m’intendo”—(“But, my -dear Saxon, this music is in the French style, which I do not -understand”). And so far Corelli was perfectly right; Handel’s overtures -are formed after the model of Lully, though, it is hardly necessary to -add, he improved what he imitated. This anecdote indicates the vast -superiority in point of execution possessed by the moderns. A learner of -two years’ standing would now play the violin part of any of Handel’s -overtures at first sight, without a fault. - -At Rome Handel composed his Trionfo del Tempo, the words of which were -written for him by the Cardinal Pamphilii, and a kind of _mystery_, or -oratorio, La Resurrezione. The former he afterwards brought out in -London, with English words by Dr. Morell, under the title of the Triumph -of Time and Truth. From Rome he went to Naples, where he was treated -with every mark of distinction. But he now resolved, notwithstanding the -many attempts made to keep him in Italy, to return to Germany; and in -1710 reached Hanover, where he found a generous patron in the Elector, -who subsequently ascended the English throne as George I. Here he met -the learned composer, Steffani, who, having arrived at a time of life -when retirement becomes desirable, resigned his office of Maestro di -Capella to the Elector, and Handel was appointed his successor, with a -salary of 1500 crowns, upon condition that he would return to the court -of Hanover at the termination of his travels. - -Towards the end of 1710 Handel arrived in London. He was soon introduced -at court, and honoured with marks of Queen Anne’s favour. Aaron Hill was -then manager of the Italian opera, and immediately sketched a drama from -Tasso’s Jerusalem, which Rossi worked into an opera under the name of -Rinaldo, and Handel set to music. This was brought out in March, 1711; -and it is stated in the preface that it was composed in a fortnight, a -strong recommendation of a work to those who delight in the wonderful -rather than in the excellent: but in fact there is nothing in this which -could have put the composer to much expense either of time or thought. -Handel undoubtedly wrote better operas than any of his contemporaries or -predecessors; but he was controlled by the habits and taste of the day, -and knew by experience that two or three good pieces were as much as the -fashionable frequenters of the Italian theatre would listen to, in his -time. - -At the close of 1711 he returned to Hanover, but revisited London late -in 1712; and shortly after was selected, not without many murmurs from -English musicians, to compose a Te Deum and Jubilate on occasion of the -peace of Utrecht. The Queen settled on him a pension of two hundred -pounds as the reward of his labour,—and as he was solicited to write -again for the Italian stage, he never thought of returning to his -engagement at Hanover, till the accession of the Elector to the British -throne reminded him of his neglect of his royal employer and patron. On -the arrival of George I. in London, Handel wanted the courage to present -himself at court; but his friend, Baron Kilmansegge, had the address to -get him restored to royal favour. The pleasing _Water-Music_, performed -during an excursion made up the river by the King, was the means by -which the German baron brought about the reconciliation; and this was -accompanied by an addition of two hundred pounds to the pension granted -by Queen Anne. - -From the year 1715 to 1720, Handel composed only three operas. The three -first years of this period he passed at the Earl of Burlington’s, where -he was constantly in the habit of meeting Pope, who, though devoid of -any taste for music, always spoke and wrote in a flattering manner of -the German composer. The other two years he devoted to the Duke of -Chandos, Pope’s Timon; and at Cannons, the Duke’s seat, he produced many -of his anthems, which must be classed among the finest of his works, -together with the greater number of his hautbois concertos, sonatas, -lessons, and organ fugues. - -A project was now formed by several of the English nobility for erecting -the Italian theatre into an Academy of Music, and Handel was chosen as -manager, with a condition that he should supply a certain number of -operas. In pursuance of this, he went to Dresden to engage singers, and -brought back with him several of great celebrity, Senesino among the -number. His first opera under the new system was Radamisto, the success -of which was astonishing. But there were at that time two Italian -composers in London, Bononcini and Attilio, who till then had been -attached to the opera-house, and were not without powerful supporters. -These persons did not passively notice the ascendancy of Handel, and the -insignificance into which they were in danger of falling; they persuaded -several weak and some factious people of noble rank to espouse their -cause, and to oppose the German intruder, as they called the new -manager. Hence arose those feuds to which Swift has given immortality by -his well-known epigram; and hence may be traced Handel’s retirement from -a scene of cabal, persecution, and loss. The final result of this, -however, was fortunate, for it led to the production of his greatest -works, his oratorios, which not only amply compensated him for all the -injury which his fortune sustained in this contest, but raised him to a -height of fame which he could never have gained by his Italian operas. - -The two contending parties, wishing to appear reasonable, proposed -something like terms of accommodation: these were, that an opera in -three acts should be composed by the three rivals, one act by each, and -that he who best succeeded should for ever after take the precedence. -The drama chosen was Muzio Scevola, of which Bononcini set the first -act, Handel the second, and Attilio the third. Handel’s “won the cause,” -and Bononcini’s was pronounced the next in merit. But, strange to say, -though each no doubt strained his ability to the utmost in this -struggle, not a single piece in the whole opera is known in the present -day, or is, perhaps, to be found, except in the libraries of curious -collectors. - -This victory left Handel master of the field for some years, and the -academy prospered. During this period he brought out about fifteen of -his best operas. But the genius of discord must always have a seat in -the temple of harmony, and a dispute between the German manager and the -Italian soprano, Senesino, renewed former quarrels, broke up the -academy, materially damaged the fortune of the great composer, and was -the cause of infinite vexation to him during much of his future life. - -Dr. Arbuthnot, always a staunch friend of Handel, now became his -champion, and his ridicule had more weight with the sensible portion of -the public than the futile arguments, if they deserve the name, advanced -by the noble supporters of Senesino. But fashion and prejudice were, as -usual, too strong for reason: a rival opera-house was opened in -Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and after having composed several new operas, -comprising some of his best, and having sacrificed nearly the whole of -his property and injured his health, in a spirited attempt to support -the cause of the lyric stage against the presumption of singers, and the -folly of their abettors, Handel was at last compelled to terminate his -ineffectual labours, and stop his ruinous expenses, by abandoning the -contest and the Italian opera together. - -The sacred musical drama, or oratorio, was ultimately destined to repair -his all but ruined fortune, and to establish his fame beyond the reach -of cavil, and for ever. Esther, the words of which it is said were the -joint production of Pope and Arbuthnot, was composed for the Duke of -Chandos in 1720. In 1732 it was performed ten nights at the Haymarket, -or King’s Theatre. Deborah was produced in 1733, and in the same year -Athalia was brought out at Oxford. These three oratorios were performed -at Covent Garden, in the Lent of 1734. Acis and Galatea, and Alexander’s -Feast, were brought out in 1735; Israel in Egypt, in 1738; L’Allegro ed -il Penseroso, in 1739. Saul was produced at the theatre in Lincoln’s Inn -Fields in 1740. But up to this period his oratorios failed to reimburse -him for the expenses incurred; and even the Messiah, that sublime and -matchless work, was, as Dr. Burney, Sir John Hawkins, and Handel’s first -biographer, Mr. Mainwaring, all agree in stating, not only ill attended, -but ill received, when first given to the public, in the capital of the -empire, in 1741. - -Such miscarriages, and a severe fit of illness, the supposed consequence -of them, determined him to try his oratorios in the sister kingdom, -where he hoped to be out of the reach of prejudice, envy, and hostility. -Dublin was at that time noted for the gaiety and splendour of its court, -and the opulence and spirit of its principal inhabitants. Handel, -therefore, judged wisely in appealing to such a people. Pope in his -Dunciad alludes to this part of his history, introducing a poor phantom -as representative of the Italian opera, who thus instructs Dullness:— - - But soon, ah soon, rebellion will commence, - If Music meanly borrows aid from sense: - Strong in new arms, lo! giant Handel stands, - Like bold Briareus, with a hundred hands: - To stir, to rouse, to shake the soul he comes, - And Jove’s own thunders follow Mars’s drums. - Arrest him, empress, or you sleep no more.— - She heard—and drove him to th’ Hibernian shore. - -“On his arrival in Dublin,” we are told by Dr. Burney, in his -Commemoration of Handel, “he, with equal judgment and humanity, began by -performing the Messiah for the benefit of the city prison. This act of -generosity and benevolence met with universal approbation, as well as -his music, which was admirably performed.” He remained in Ireland about -nine months, where his finances began to mend, an earnest, as it were, -of the more favourable reception which he experienced on returning to -London in 1742. He then recommenced his oratorios at Covent Garden; -Sampson was the first performed. And now fortune seemed to wait on all -his undertakings; and he took the tide at the flood. His last oratorio -became most popular, and the Messiah was now received with universal -admiration and applause. Dr. Burney remarks, “From that time to the -present, this great work has been heard in all parts of the kingdom with -increasing reverence and delight; it has fed the hungry, clothed the -naked, fostered the orphan,” and, he might have added, healed the sick. -Influenced by the most disinterested motives of humanity, Handel -resolved to perform his Messiah annually for the benefit of the -Foundling Hospital, and, under his own direction and that of his -successors, it added to the funds of that charity alone the sum of -£10,300. How much it has produced to other benevolent institutions, it -is impossible to calculate; the amount must be enormous. - -He continued his oratorios till almost the moment of his death, and -derived considerable pecuniary advantage from them, though a -considerable portion of the nobility persevered in their opposition to -him. George II., however, was his steady patron, and constantly attended -his performances, when they were abandoned by most of his court. - -In the close of life, Handel had the misfortune to lose his sight, from -an attack of gutta serena, in 1751. This evil for a time plunged him -into deep despondency; but when the event was no longer doubtful, an -earnest and sincere sense of religion enabled him to bear his affliction -with fortitude, and he not only continued to perform, but even to -compose. For this purpose, he employed as his amanuensis Mr. John -Christian Smith, a good musician, who furnished materials for a life of -his employer and friend, and succeeded him in the management of the -oratorios. “To see him, however,” Dr. Burney feelingly observes, “led to -the organ after this calamity, at upwards of seventy years of age, and -then conducted towards the audience to make his accustomed obeisance, -was a sight so truly afflicting to persons of sensibility, as greatly -diminished their pleasure in hearing him perform.” - -His last appearance in public was on the 6th of April, 1759. He died -that day week, on Good-Friday, thus realizing a hope which he expressed -a very few days before his decease, when aware that his last hours were -approaching. He was buried in Westminster Abbey; the Dean, Dr. Pearce, -Bishop of Rochester, assisted by all the officers of the choir, -performed the ceremony. A fine monument, executed by Roubiliac, is -placed in Poet’s Corner, above the spot where his mortal remains are -deposited; but a still more honourable tribute to his memory was paid in -the year 1784, by the performances which took place under the roof which -covers his dust. A century having then elapsed from the time of his -birth, it was proposed that a Commemoration of Handel should take place. -The management of it was intrusted to the directors of the ancient -concert, and eight of the most distinguished members of the musical -profession. The King, George III., zealously patronised the undertaking, -and nearly all the upper classes of the kingdom seconded the royal -views. A vocal and instrumental band of 525 persons was collected from -all parts, for the purpose of performing in a manner never before even -imagined, the choicest works of the master. The great aisle in -Westminster Abbey was fitted up for the occasion, with boxes for the -Royal Family, the Directors, the Bench of Bishops, and the Dean and -Prebendaries of the Church; galleries were erected on each side, and a -grand orchestra was built over the great west door, extending from -within a few feet of the ground, to nearly half-way up the great window. -There were four morning performances in the church: the tickets of -admission were one guinea each; and the gross receipts (including an -evening concert at the Pantheon) amounted to £12,736. The disbursements -rather exceeded £6,000, and the profits were given to the Society for -Decayed Musicians and the Westminster Hospital; £6,000 to the former, -and £1,000 to the latter. Such was the success of this great enterprise, -that similar performances, increasing each year in magnitude, took place -annually till the period of the French Revolution, when the state of -public affairs did not encourage their longer continuance. - -As a composer, Handel was great in all styles—from the familiar and airy -to the grand and sublime. His instinctive taste for melody, and the high -value he set on it, are obvious in all his works; but he felt no less -strongly the charms of harmony, in fulness and richness of which he far -surpassed even the greatest musicians who preceded him. And had he been -able to employ the variety of instruments now in use, some of which have -been invented since his death, and to command that orchestral talent, -which probably has had some share in stimulating the inventive faculty -of modern composers, it is reasonable to suppose that the field of his -conceptions would have expanded with the means at his command. -Unrivalled in sublimity, he might then have anticipated the variety and -brilliance of later masters. - -Generally speaking, Handel set his words with deep feeling and strong -sense. Now and then he certainly betrayed a wish to imitate by sounds -what sounds are incapable of imitating; and occasionally attempted to -express the meaning of an isolated word, without due reference to the -context. And sometimes, though not often, his want of a complete -knowledge of our language led him into errors of accentuation. But these -defects, though great in little men, dwindle almost to nothing in this -“giant of the art:” and every competent judge, who contemplates the -grandeur, beauty, science, variety, and number of Handel’s productions, -will feel for him that admiration which Haydn, and still more Mozart, -was proud to avow, and be ready to exclaim in the words of Beethoven, -“Handel is the unequalled master of all masters! Go, turn to him, and -learn, with such scanty means, how to produce such effects!” - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by H. Meyer._ - - PASCAL. - - _From the original Picture by Philippe de Champagne, - in the possession of M. Lenoir at Paris._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - PASCAL. - - -Blaise Pascal was born June 19, 1623, at Clermont, the capital of -Auvergne, where his father, Stephen Pascal, held a high legal office. On -the death of his wife in 1626, Stephen resigned his professional -engagements, that he might devote himself entirely to the education of -his family, which consisted only of Blaise, and of two daughters. With -this view he removed to Paris. - -The elder Pascal was a man of great moral worth, and of a highly -cultivated mind. He was known as an active member of a small society of -philosophers, to which the Academie Royale des Sciences, established in -1666, owed its origin. Though himself an ardent mathematician, he was in -no haste to initiate his son in his own favourite pursuits; but having a -notion, not very uncommon, that the cultivation of the exact sciences is -unfriendly to a taste for general literature, he began with the study of -languages; and notwithstanding many plain indications of the natural -bent of his son’s genius, he forbad him to meddle, even in thought, with -the mathematics. Nature was too strong for parental authority. The boy -having extracted from his father some hints as to the subject matter of -geometry, went to work by himself, drawing circles and lines, or, as he -called them in his ignorance of the received nomenclature, rounds and -bars, and investigating and proving the properties of his various -figures, till, without help of a book or oral instruction of any kind, -he had advanced as far as the thirty-second proposition of the first -book of Euclid. He had perceived that the three angles of a triangle are -together equal to two right ones, and was searching for a satisfactory -proof, when his father surprised him in his forbidden speculations. The -figures drawn on the walls of his bed-chamber told the tale, and a few -questions proved that his head had been employed as well as his fingers. -He was at this time twelve years old. All attempts at restriction were -now abandoned. A copy of Euclid’s Elements was put into his hands by his -father himself, and Blaise became a confirmed geometrician. At sixteen -he composed a treatise on the Conic Sections, which had sufficient merit -to induce Descartes obstinately to attribute the authorship to the elder -Pascal or Desargues. - -Such was his progress in a study which was admitted only as the -amusement of his idle hours. His labours under his father’s direction -were given to the ancient classics. - -Some years after this, the elder Pascal had occasion to employ his son -in making calculations for him. To facilitate his labour, Blaise Pascal, -then in his nineteenth year, invented his famous arithmetical machine, -which is said to have fully answered its purpose. He sent this machine -with a letter to Christina, the celebrated Queen of Sweden. The -possibility of rendering such inventions generally useful has been -stoutly disputed since the days of Pascal. This question will soon -perhaps be set at rest, if it may not be considered as already answered, -by the scientific labours of an accomplished mathematician of our own -time and country. - -It should be remarked that Pascal, whilst he regarded geometry as -affording the highest exercise of the powers of the human mind, held in -very low estimation the importance of its practical results. Hence his -speculations were irregularly turned to various unconnected subjects, as -his curiosity might happen to be excited by them. The late creation of a -sound system of experimental philosophy by Galileo had roused an -irresistible spirit of inquiry, which was every day exhibiting new -marvels; but time was wanted to develope the valuable fruits of its -discoveries, which have since connected the most abstruse speculations -of the philosopher with the affairs of common life. - -There is no doubt that his studious hours produced much that has been -lost to the world; but many proofs remain of his persevering activity in -the course which he had chosen. Amongst them may be mentioned his -Arithmetical Triangle, with the treatises arising out of it, and his -investigations of certain problems relating to the curve called by -mathematicians the Cycloid, to which he turned his mind, towards the -close of his life, to divert his thoughts in a season of severe -suffering. For the solution of these problems, according to the fashion -of the times, he publicly offered a prize, for which La Loubère and our -own countryman Wallis contended. It was adjudged that neither had -fulfilled the proposed conditions; and Pascal published his own -solutions, which raised the admiration of the scientific world. The -Arithmetical Triangle owed its existence to questions proposed to him by -a friend respecting the calculation of probabilities in games of chance. -Under this name is denoted a peculiar arrangement of numbers in certain -proportions, from which the answers to various questions of chances, the -involution of binomials, and other algebraical problems, may be readily -obtained. This invention led him to inquire further into the theory of -chances; and he may be considered as one of the founders of that branch -of analysis, which has grown into such importance in the hands of La -Place. - -His fame as a man of science does not rest solely on his labours in -geometry. As an experimentalist he has earned no vulgar celebrity. He -was a young man when the interesting discoveries in pneumatics were -working a grand revolution in natural philosophy. The experiments of -Torricelli had proved, what his great master Galileo had conjectured, -the weight and pressure of the air, and had given a rude shock to the -old doctrine of the schools that “Nature abhors a vacuum;” but many -still clung fondly to the old way, and when pressed with the fact that -fluids rise in an exhausted tube to a certain height, and will rise no -higher, though with a vacuum above them, still asserted that the fluids -rose because Nature abhors a vacuum, but qualified their assertion with -an admission that she had some moderation in her abhorrence. Having -satisfied himself by his own experiments of the truth of Torricelli’s -theory, Pascal with his usual sagacity devised the means of satisfying -all who were capable of being convinced. He reasoned that if, according -to the new theory, founded on the experiments made with mercury, the -weight and general pressure of the air forced up the mercury in the -tube, the height of the mercury would be in proportion to the height of -the column of incumbent air; in other words, that the mercury would be -lower at the top of a mountain than at the bottom of it: on the other -hand, that if the old answer were the right one, no difference would -appear from the change of situation. Accordingly, he directed the -experiment to be made on the Puy de Dôme, a lofty mountain in Auvergne, -and the height of the barometer at the top and bottom of the mountain -being taken at the same moment, a difference of more than three inches -was observed. This set the question at rest for ever. The particular -notice which we have taken of this celebrated experiment, made in his -twenty-fifth year, may be justified by the importance attached to it by -no mean authority. Sir W. Herschell observes, in his Discourse on the -Study of Natural Philosophy, page 230, that “it tended perhaps more -powerfully than any thing which had previously been done in science to -confirm in the minds of men that disposition to experimental -verification which had scarcely yet taken full and secure root.” - -Whatever may be the value of the fruits of Pascal’s genius, it should be -remembered that they were all produced within the space of a life which -did not number forty years, and that he was so miserably the victim of -disease that from the time of boyhood he never passed a day without -pain. - -His health had probably been impaired by his earlier exertions; but the -intense mental labour expended on the arithmetical machine appears to -have completely undermined his constitution, and to have laid the -foundation of those acute bodily sufferings which cruelly afflicted him -during the remainder of his life. His friends, with the hope of checking -the evil, sought to withdraw him from his studies, and tempted him into -various modes of relaxation. But the remedy was applied too late. The -death of his father in 1651, and the retirement of his unmarried sister -from the world to join the devout recluses of Port Royal-des-Champs, -released him from all restraint. He sadly abused this liberty, until the -frightful aggravation of his complaints obliged him to abandon -altogether his scientific pursuits, and reluctantly to follow the advice -of his physicians, to mix more freely in general society. He obtained -some relief from medicine and change of habits; but, in 1654, an -accident both made his recovery hopeless, and destroyed the relish which -he had begun to feel for social life. He was in his carriage on the Pont -de Neuilly, at a part of the bridge which was unprotected by a parapet, -when two of the horses became unruly, and plunged into the Seine. The -traces broke, and Pascal was thus saved from instant death. He -considered that he had received a providential warning of the -uncertainty of life, and retired finally from the world, to make more -earnest preparation for eternity. This accident gave the last shock to -his already shattered nerves, and to a certain extent disordered his -imagination. The image of his late danger was continually before him, -and at times he fancied himself on the brink of a precipice. The evil -probably was increased by the rigid seclusion to which from this time he -condemned himself, and by the austerities which he inflicted on his -exhausted frame. His powerful intellect survived the wreck of his -constitution, and he gave ample proof to the last that its vigour was -unimpaired. - -In his religious opinions he agreed with the Jansenists, and, without -being formally enrolled in their society, was on terms of intimate -friendship with those pious and learned members of the sect, who had -established themselves in the wilds of Port Royal. His advocacy of their -cause at a critical time was so important to his fame and to literature, -that a few words may be allowed on the circumstances which occasioned -it. - -The Jansenists, though they earnestly deprecated the name of heretics, -and were most fiercely opposed to the Huguenots and other Protestants, -did in fact nearly approach in many points the reformed churches, and -departed widely from the fashionable standard of orthodoxy in their own -communion. They were in the first instance brought into collision with -their great enemies the Jesuits by the opinions which they held on the -subjects of grace and free-will. As the controversy proceeded, the -points of difference between the contending parties became more marked -and more numerous. The rigid system of morals taught and observed by the -Jansenists, and the superior regard which they paid to personal holiness -in comparison with ceremonial worship, appeared in advantageous contrast -with the lax morality and formal religion of the Jesuits. Hence, though -there was much that was repulsive in their discipline, and latterly, not -a little that was exceptionable in their conduct, they could reckon in -their ranks many of the most enlightened as well as the most pious -Christians in France. It was natural that Pascal, who was early -impressed with the deepest reverence for religion, should be attracted -to a party which seemed at least to be in earnest, whilst others were -asleep; and it is more a matter of regret than of surprise, that -latterly, in his state of physical weakness and nervous excitement, he -should have been partially warped from his sobriety by intercourse with -men, whose Christian zeal was in too many instances disfigured by a -visionary and enthusiastic spirit. The Papal Court at first dealt with -them tenderly; for it was in truth no easy matter to condemn their -founder Jansenius, without condemning its own great doctor the -celebrated Augustin. But the vivacious doctors of the Sorbonne, on the -publication of a letter by the Jansenist Arnauld, took fire, and by -their eagerness kindled a flame that well nigh consumed their own -church. - -Whilst they were in deliberation on the misdoings of Arnauld, Pascal put -forth under the name of Louis de Montalte the first of that series of -letters to “a friend in the country”—à un provincial par un de ses -amis—which, when afterwards collected, received by an absurd misnomer, -the title of the Provincial Letters of Pascal. In these letters, after -having exhibited in a light irresistibly ludicrous, the disputes of the -Sorbonne, he proceeds with the same weapon of ridicule, all powerful in -his hand, to hold forth to derision and contempt the profligate -casuistry of the Jesuits. For much of his matter he was undoubtedly -indebted to his Jansenist friends, and it is commonly said that he was -taught by them to reproach unfairly the whole body of Jesuits, with the -faults of some obscure writers of their order. These writers, however, -were at least well known to the Jesuits, their writings had gone through -numerous editions with approbation, and had infused some portion of -their spirit into more modern and popular tracts. Moreover, the Society -of Jesuits, constituted as it was, had ready means of relieving itself -from the discredit of such infamous publications; yet amongst the many -works, which by their help found a place in the index of prohibited -books, Pascal might have looked in vain for the works of their own -Escobar. However this may be, it is universally acknowledged, that the -credit of the Jesuits sunk under the blow, that these letters are a -splendid monument of the genius of Pascal, and that as a literary work -they have placed him in the very first rank among the French classics. - -It seems that he had formed a design, even in the height of his -scientific ardour, of executing some great work for the benefit of -religion. This design took a more definite shape after his retirement, -and he communicated orally to his friends the sketch of a comprehensive -work on the Evidences of Christianity, which his early death, together -with his increasing bodily infirmities, prevented him from completing. -Nothing was left but unconnected fragments, containing for the most part -his thoughts on subjects apparently relating to his great design, -hastily written on small scraps of paper, without order or arrangement -of any kind. They were published in 1670, with some omissions, by his -friends of Port Royal, and were afterwards given to the world entire, -under the title of the Thoughts of Pascal. Many of the thoughts are such -as we should expect from a man who with a mind distinguished for its -originality, with an intimate knowledge of scripture, and lively piety, -had meditated much and earnestly on the subject of religion. In a book -so published, it is of course easy enough to find matter for censure and -minute criticism; but most Christian writers have been content to bear -testimony to its beauties and to borrow largely from its rich and varied -stores. Among the editors of the Thoughts of Pascal are found Condorcet -and Voltaire, who enriched their editions with a commentary. With what -sort of spirit they entered on their work may be guessed from Voltaire’s -well known advice to his brother philosopher. “Never be weary, my -friend, of repeating that the brain of Pascal was turned after his -accident on the Pont de Neuilly.” Condorcet was not the man to be weary -in such an employment; but here he had to deal with stubborn facts. The -brain of Pascal produced after the accident not only the Thoughts, but -also the Provincial Letters, and the various treatises on the Cycloid, -the last of which was written not long before his death. - -He died August 19th, 1662, aged thirty-nine years and two months. - -By those who knew him personally he is said to have been modest and -reserved in his manners, but withal, ready to enliven conversation with -that novelty of remark and variety of information which might be -expected from his well stored and original mind. That spirit of raillery -which should belong to the author of the Provincial Letters, showed -itself also occasionally in his talk, but always with a cautious desire -not to give needless pain or offence. - -He seemed to have constantly before his eyes the privations and -sufferings to which a large portion of the human race is exposed, and to -receive almost with trembling, those indulgences which were denied to -others. Thus, when curtailing his own comforts that he might perform -more largely the duties of charity, he seemed only to be disencumbering -himself of that which he could not safely retain. - -As a philosopher, it is the great glory of Pascal, that he is numbered -with that splendid phalanx, which in the seventeenth century, following -the path opened by Galileo, assisted to overthrow the tyranny of the -schools, and to break down the fences which for ages had obstructed the -progress of real knowledge; men who were indeed benefactors to science, -and who have also left behind them for general use an encouraging proof -that the most inveterate prejudices, the most obstinate attachment to -established errors, and hostility to improvement may be overcome by -resolute perseverance, and a bold reliance on the final victory of -truth. No one, however, will coldly measure the honour due to this -extraordinary man by his actual contributions to the cause of science or -literature. The genius of the child anticipated manhood: his more -matured intellect could only show promises of surpassing glory when it -escaped from the weak frame in which it was lodged. - -For further information the reader is referred to the discourse on the -life and works of Pascal, which first appeared in the complete edition -of his works in 1779, and has since been published separately at Paris; -to the Biographie Universelle; and to the life of Pascal, written by his -sister, Madame Perier, which is prefixed to her edition of his Thoughts. - - - - -[Illustration] - - ERASMUS. - - -Desiderius Erasmus was born at Rotterdam on the 28th of October, 1467. -The irregular lives of his parents are related by him in a letter to the -secretary of Pope Julius II. It is sufficient to state here, that this -great genius and restorer of letters was not born in wedlock. His -unsophisticated name, as well as that of his father, was Gerard. This -word in the Dutch language means _amiable_. According to the affectation -of the period, he translated it into the Latin term, Desiderius, and -superadded the Greek synonyme of Erasmus. Late in a life of vicissitude -and turmoil, he found leisure from greater evils to lament that he had -been so neglectful of grammatical accuracy as to call himself Erasmus, -and not Erasmius. - -In a passage of the life written by himself, he says that “in his early -years he made but little progress in those unpleasant studies to which -he was not born;” and this gave his countrymen a notion that as a boy he -was slow of understanding. Hereon Bayle observes that those unpleasant -studies cannot mean learning in general, for which of all men he was -born; but that the expression might apply to music, as he was a -chorister in the cathedral church of Utrecht. He was afterwards sent to -one of the best schools in the Netherlands, where his talents at once -shone forth, and were duly appreciated. His master was so well satisfied -with his progress, and so thoroughly convinced of his great abilities, -as to have foretold what the event confirmed, that he would prove the -envy and wonder of all Germany. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by E. Scriven._ - - ERASMUS. - - _From the original Picture by G. Penn, - in his Majesty’s Collection at Windsor._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - -At the age of fourteen Erasmus was removed from the school at Deventer -in consequence of the plague, of which his mother died, and his father -did not long survive her. With a view to possess themselves of his -patrimony, his guardians sent him to three several convents in -succession. At length, unable longer to sustain the conflict, he -reluctantly entered among the regular canons at Stein, near Tergou, in -1486. Much condescension to his peculiar humour was shown in dispensing -with established laws and customary ceremonies; but he was principally -led to make his profession by the arts of his guardians and the -dilapidation of his fortune. He describes monasteries, and his own in -particular, as destitute of learning and sound religion. “They are -places of impiety,” he says in his piece ‘De Contemptu Mundi,’ “where -every thing is done to which a depraved inclination can lead, under the -mask of religion; it is hardly possible for any one to keep himself pure -and unspotted.” Julius Scaliger and his other enemies assert that he -himself was deeply tainted by these impurities; but both himself and his -friends deny the charge. - -He escaped from the cloister in consequence of the accuracy with which -he could speak and write Latin. This rare accomplishment introduced him -to the Bishop of Cambray, with whom he lived till 1490. He then took -pupils, among whom was the Lord Mountjoy, with several other noble -Englishmen. He says of himself, that “he lived rather than studied” at -Paris, where he had no books, and often wanted the common comforts of -life. Bad lodgings and bad diet permanently impaired his constitution, -which had been a very strong one. The plague drove him from the capital -before he could profit as he wished by the instructions of the -university in theology. - -Some time after he left Paris, Erasmus came over to England, and resided -in Oxford, where he contracted friendship with all of any note in -literature. In a letter from London to a friend in Italy, he says, “What -is it, you will say, which captivates you so much in England? It is that -I have found a pleasant and salubrious air; I have met with humanity, -politeness, and learning; learning not trite and superficial, but deep -and accurate; true old Greek and Latin learning; and withal so much of -it, that but for mere curiosity, I have no occasion to visit Italy. When -Colet discourses, I seem to hear Plato himself. In Grocyn, I admire an -universal compass of learning. Linacre’s acuteness, depth, and accuracy -are not to be exceeded; nor did nature ever form any thing more elegant, -exquisite, and accomplished than More.” - -On leaving England, Erasmus had a fever at Orleans, which recurred every -Lent for five years together. He tells us that Saint Genevieve -interceded for his recovery; but not without the help of a good -physician. At this time he was applying diligently to the study of -Greek. He says, that if he could but get some money, he would first buy -Greek books, and then clothes. His mode of acquiring the language was by -making translations from Lucian, Plutarch, and other authors. Many of -these translations appear in his works, and answered a double purpose; -for while they familiarized him with the languages, the sentiments and -the philosophy of the originals, they also furnished him with happy -trains of thought and expression, when he dedicated his editions of the -Fathers, or his own treatises, to his patrons. - -We cannot follow him through his incessant journeys and change of places -during the first years of the sixteenth century. His fame was spread -over Europe, and his visits were solicited by popes, crowned heads, -prelates, and nobles; but much as the great coveted his society, they -suffered him to remain extremely poor. We learn from his ‘Enchiridion -Militis Christiani,’ published in 1503, that he had discovered many -errors in the Roman church, long before Luther appeared. His reception -at Rome was most flattering: his company was courted both by the learned -and by persons of the first rank and quality. After his visit to Italy, -he returned to England, which he preferred to all other countries. On -his arrival he took up his abode with his friend More, and within the -space of a week wrote his ‘Encomium Moriæ,’ the Praise of Folly, for -their mutual amusement. The general design is to show that there are -fools in all stations; and more particularly to expose the court of -Rome, with no great forbearance towards the Pope himself. Fisher, Bishop -of Rochester, Chancellor of the University, and Head of Queen’s College, -invited him to Cambridge, where he lived in the Lodge, was made Lady -Margaret’s Professor of Divinity, and afterwards Greek Professor. But -notwithstanding these academical honours and offices, he was still so -poor as to apply with importunity to Colet, Dean of St. Paul’s, for -fifteen angels as the price of a dedication. “Erasmus’s Walk” in the -grounds of Queen’s College still attests the honour conferred on the -university by the temporary residence of this great reviver of classical -learning. - -On his return to the Low Countries, he was nominated by Charles of -Austria to a vacant bishopric in Sicily; but the right of presentation -happened to belong to the Pope. Erasmus laughed heartily at the prospect -of this incongruous preferment; and said that as the Sicilians were -merry fellows, they might possibly have liked such a bishop. - -In the year 1516 he printed his edition, the first put forth in Greek, -of the New Testament. We learn from his letters, that there was one -college in Cambridge which would not suffer this work to be brought -within its walls: but the public voice spoke a different language; for -it went through three editions in less than twelve years. From 1516 to -1526 he was employed in publishing the works of Saint Jerome. Luther -blamed him for his partiality to this father. He says, “I prefer -Augustine to Jerome, as much as Erasmus prefers Jerome to Augustine.” As -far as this was a controversy of taste and criticism, the restorer of -letters was likely to have the better of the argument against the -apostle of the Reformation. - -The times were now become tempestuous. Erasmus was of a placid temper, -and of a timid character. He endeavoured to reconcile the conflicting -parties in the church; but with that infelicity commonly attendant on -mediators, he drew on himself the anger of both. Churchmen complained -that his censures of the monks, of their grimaces and superstitions, had -paved the way for Luther. On the other hand, Erasmus offended the -Lutherans, by protesting against identifying the cause of literature -with that of the Reformation. He took every opportunity of declaring his -adherence to the see of Rome. The monks, with whom he waged continual -war, would have been better pleased had he openly gone over to the -enemy: his caustic remarks would have galled them less proceeding from a -Lutheran than from a Catholic. But his motives for continuing in the -communion of the established church, are clearly indicated in the -following passage: “Wherein could I have assisted Luther, if I had -declared myself for him and shared his danger? Instead of one man, two -would have perished. I cannot conceive what he means by writing with -such a spirit: one thing I know too well, that he has brought great -odium on the lovers of literature. He has given many wholesome doctrines -and good counsels: but I wish he had not defeated the effect of them by -his intolerable faults. But even if he had written in the most -unexceptionable manner, I had no inclination to die for the sake of -truth. Every man has not the courage necessary to make a martyr: I am -afraid that, if I were put to the trial, I should imitate St. Peter.” - -In 1522 he published the works of Saint Hilary. About the same time he -published his Colloquies. In this work, among the strokes of satire, he -laughed at indulgences, auricular confession, and eating fish on -fast-days. The faculty of theology at Paris passed the following censure -on the book: “The fasts and abstinences of the church are slighted, the -suffrages of the holy virgin and of the saints are derided, virginity is -set below matrimony, Christians are discouraged from becoming monks, and -grammatical is preferred to theological erudition.” Pope Paul III. had -little better to propose to the cardinals and prelates commissioned to -consider about the reform of the church, than that young persons should -not be permitted to read Erasmus’s Colloquies. Colineus took a hint from -this prohibition: he reprinted them in 1527, and sold off an impression -of twenty-four thousand. - -In 1524 a rumour was spread abroad that Erasmus was going to write -against Luther, which produced the following characteristic letter from -the Great Reformer: “Grace and peace from the Lord Jesus. I shall not -complain of you for having behaved yourself as a man alienated from us, -for the sake of keeping fair with the Papists; nor was I much offended -that in your printed books, to gain their favour or soften their fury, -you censured us with too much acrimony. We saw that the Lord had not -conferred on you the discernment, courage, and resolution to join with -us in freely and openly opposing these monsters; therefore we did not -expect from you what greatly surpasseth your strength and capacity. We -have borne with your weakness, and honoured that portion of the gift of -God which is in you.... I never wished that deserting your own province -you should come over to our camp. You might indeed have favoured us not -a little by your wit and eloquence: but as you have not the courage -requisite, it is safer for you to serve the Lord in your own way. Only -we feared that our adversaries should entice you to write against us, in -which case necessity would have constrained us to oppose you to your -face. I am concerned that the resentment of so many eminent persons of -your party has been excited against you: this must have given you great -uneasiness; for virtue like yours, mere human virtue, cannot raise a man -above being affected by such trials. Our cause is in no peril, although -even Erasmus should attack it with all his might: so far are we from -dreading the keenest strokes of his wit. On the other hand, my dear -Erasmus, if you duly reflect on your own weakness, you will abstain from -those sharp, spiteful figures of rhetoric, and treat of subjects better -suited to your powers.” Erasmus’s answer is not found in the collection -of his letters; but he must have been touched to the quick. - -In 1527 he published two dialogues: the first, on ‘The pronunciation of -the Greek and Latin Languages;’ full of learning and curious research: -the second, entitled ‘Ciceronianus.’ In this lively piece he ridicules -those Italian pedants who banished every word or phrase unauthorized by -Cicero. His satire, however, is not directed against Cicero’s style, but -against the servility of mere imitation. In a subsequent preface to a -new edition of the Tusculan Questions, he almost canonizes Cicero, both -for his matter and expression. Julius Scaliger had launched more than -one philippic against him for his treatment of the Ciceronians; but he -considered this preface as a kind of penance for former blasphemies, and -admitted it as an atonement to the shade of the great Roman. Erasmus had -at this time fixed his residence at Bâsle. He was advancing in years, -and complained in his letters of poverty and sickness. Pope Paul III., -notwithstanding his Colloquies, professed high regard for him, and his -friends thought that he was likely to obtain high preferment. Of this -matter Erasmus writes thus: “The Pope had resolved to add some learned -men to the college of Cardinals, and I was named to be one. But to my -promotion it was objected, that my state of health would unfit me for -that function, and that my income was not sufficient.” - -In the summer of 1536 his state of exhaustion became alarming. His last -letter is dated June 20, and subscribed thus: “Erasmus Rot. ægra manu.” -He died July 12, in the 59th year of his age, and was buried in the -cathedral of Bâsle. His friend Beatus Rhenanus describes his person and -manners. He was low of stature, but not remarkably short, well-shaped, -of a fair complexion, grey eyes, a cheerful countenance, a low voice, -and an agreeable utterance. His memory was tenacious. He was a pleasant -companion, a constant friend, generous and charitable. Erasmus had one -peculiarity, humorously noticed by himself; namely, that he could not -endure even the smell of fish. On this he observed, that though a good -Catholic in other respects, he had a most heterodox and Lutheran -stomach. - -With many great and good qualities, Erasmus had obvious failings. Bayle -has censured his irritability when attacked by adversaries; his editor, -Le Clerc, condemns his lukewarmness and timidity in the business of the -Reformation. Jortin defends him with zeal, and extenuates what he cannot -defend. “Erasmus was fighting for his honour and his life; being accused -of nothing less than heterodoxy, impiety, and blasphemy, by men whose -forehead was a rock, and whose tongue was a razor. To be misrepresented -as a pedant and a dunce is no great matter; for time and truth put folly -to flight: to be accused of heresy by bigots, priests, politicians, and -infidels, is a serious affair; as they know too well who have had the -misfortune to feel the effects of it.” Dr. Jortin here speaks with -bitter fellow-feeling for Erasmus, as he himself had been similarly -attacked by the high church party of his day. He goes on to give his -opinion, that even for his lukewarmness in promoting the Reformation, -much may be said, and with truth. “Erasmus was not entirely free from -the prejudices of education. He had some indistinct and confused notions -about the authority of the Catholic Church, which made it not lawful to -depart from her, corrupted as he believed her to be. He was also much -shocked by the violent measures and personal quarrels of the Reformers. -Though, as Protestants, we are more obliged to Luther, Melancthon, and -others, than to him, yet we and all the nations in Europe are infinitely -indebted to Erasmus for spending a long and laborious life in opposing -ignorance and superstition, and in promoting literature and true piety.” -To us his character appears to be strongly illustrated by his own -declaration, “Had Luther written truly every thing that he wrote, his -seditious liberty would nevertheless have much displeased me. I would -rather even err in some matters, than contend for the truth with the -world in such a tumult.” A zealous advocate of peace at all times, it is -but just to believe that he sincerely dreaded the contests sure to rise -from open schism in the church. And it was no unpardonable frailty, if -this feeling were nourished by a temperament, which confessedly was not -desirous of the palm of martyrdom. - -It is impossible to give the contents of works occupying ten volumes in -folio. They have been printed under the inspection of the learned Mr. Le -Clerc. The biography of Erasmus is to be found at large in Bayle’s -Dictionary, and the copious lives of Knight and Jortin. - -[Illustration: From the bronze statue of Erasmus at Rotterdam.] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - TITIAN. - - _From the Picture of Titian & Aretin painted by Titian, - in his Majesty’s Collection at Windsor._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - TITIAN. - - -On looking back to the commencement of the sixteenth century, by far the -most brilliant epoch of modern art, we cannot but marvel at the -splendour and variety of talent concentrated within the brief space of -half a century, or less. Michael Angelo, Raphael, Correggio, Titian, all -fellow-labourers, with many others inferior to these mighty masters, yet -whose works are prized by kings and nobles as their most precious -treasures—by what strange prodigality of natural gifts, or happy -combination of circumstances was so rare an assemblage of genius -produced in so short a time? The most obvious explanation is to be found -in the princely patronage then afforded to the arts by princes and -churchmen. By this none profited more largely or more justly than the -great painter, whose life it is our task to relate. - -Tiziano Vecelli was born of an honourable family at Capo del Cadore, a -small town on the confines of Friuli, in 1480. He soon manifested the -bent of his genius, and at the age of ten was consigned to the care of -an uncle residing in Venice, who placed him under the tuition of -Giovanni Bellini, then in the zenith of his fame. The style of Bellini -though forcible is dry and hard, and little credit has been given to him -for his pupil’s success. It is probable, however, that Titian imbibed in -his school those habits of accurate imitation, which enabled him -afterwards to unite boldness and truth, and to indulge in the most -daring execution, without degenerating into mannerism. The elements of -his future style he found first indicated by Lionardo da Vinci, and more -developed in the works of Giorgione, who adopted the principles of -Lionardo, but with increased power, amenity, and splendour. As soon as -Titian became acquainted with this master’s paintings, he gave his whole -attention to the study of them; and with such success, that the portrait -of a noble Venetian named Barbarigo, which he painted at the age of -eighteen, was mistaken for the work of Giorgione. From that time, during -some years, these masters held an equal place in public esteem; but in -1507 a circumstance occurred which turned the balance in favour of -Titian. They were engaged conjointly in the decoration of a public -building, called the Fondaco de Tedeschi. Through some mistake that part -of the work which Titian had executed, was understood by a party of -connoisseurs to have been painted by Giorgione, whom they overwhelmed -with congratulations on his extraordinary improvement. It may be told to -his credit, that though he manifested some weakness in discontinuing his -intercourse with Titian, he never spoke of him without amply -acknowledging his merits. - -Anxious to gain improvement from every possible source, Titian is said -to have drawn the rudiments of his fine style of landscape painting from -some German artists who came to Venice about the time of this rupture. -He engaged them to reside in his house, and studied their mode of -practice until he had mastered their principles. His talents were now -exercised on several important works, and it is evident, from the -picture of the Angel and Tobias, that he had already acquired an -extraordinary breadth and grandeur of style. The Triumph of Faith, a -singular composition, manifesting great powers of invention, amid much -quaintness of character and costume, is known by a wood engraving -published in 1508. A fresco of the Judgment of Solomon, for the Hall of -Justice at Vicenza, was his next performance. After this he executed -several subjects in the church of St. Anthony, at Padua, taken from the -miracles attributed to that saint. - -These avocations had withdrawn him from Venice. On his return, in the -thirty-fourth year of his age, he was employed to finish a large picture -left imperfect by Bellini, or, according to some authorities, by -Giorgione, in the great Council Hall of Venice, representing the Emperor -Frederick Barbarossa on his knees before Pope Alexander III. at the -entrance of St. Mark’s. The Senate were so well satisfied with his -performance, that they appointed him to the office called La Senseria; -the conditions of which were, that it should be held by the best painter -in the city, with a salary of three hundred scudi, he engaging to paint -the portrait of each Doge on his election, at the price of eight scudi. -These portraits were hung in one of the public apartments of St. Mark. -At the close of 1514 Titian was invited to Ferrara by the Duke Alphonso. -For him he executed several splendid works; among them, portraits of the -Duke, and of his wife, and that celebrated picture of Bacchus and -Ariadne, now in our own National Gallery. - -The first works executed by Titian after his return to Venice, prove -that he had already accomplished that union of grand design with -brilliant colouring, which was designated by Tintoret as the highest -perfection of painting. His immense picture of the Assumption, formerly -in the church of Santa Maria Gloriosa, and now in the Academy of Venice, -exhibits, in the opinion of some first-rate judges, various excellences, -such as have never been combined in any single performance, but by -Titian himself[5]. The Virgin, whose figure relieves dark on the -irradiated back-ground, seems to ascend amid a flood of glory. She is -surrounded and sustained by angels of ineffable beauty, and the -disciples below are personifications of apostolic grandeur. It will -scarcely be credited that the Monks, for whom this picture was painted, -objected to it on account of its apparent reality; but the voice of -public admiration soon made them sensible of its merits, and they -refused a large sum offered for it by the Imperial Ambassador. Such a -report of this work was made to Leo X. by Cardinal Bembo, that Titian -received an invitation to Rome from the Pontiff, with the offer of -honourable appointments. A similar proposal from Francis I. of France, -whose portrait he painted in 1515, he had already declined; but he -yielded to the temptation of visiting Rome, being not less anxious to -see the great works of contemporary genius, than the wonders of ancient -art. He did not, however, carry his purpose into effect at this time, -but remained at Venice; and thus secured to her the possession of those -noble works, which, when they were produced, formed the brightest -ornament of her power, and even now, when her other glories are set, -confer upon her an imperishable distinction. - -Footnote 5: - - The writer has been informed by Canova that this was his own opinion, - and that of Sir Thomas Lawrence. - -To recompense in some degree his relinquishment of this invitation, -Titian was employed by the Senate to paint the Battle of Cadore, fought -between the Venetians and the Imperialists; a splendid production, which -perished when the Ducal Palace was burnt. About this time was painted -the fine altar-piece of the Pesari Family returning thanks to the Virgin -for a victory over the Turks. This picture, as an example of simple -grandeur, has been contrasted by Reynolds with the artificial splendour -of Rubens; and Fuseli alludes to it as constituting the due medium -between dry apposition and exuberant contrast. The sublime picture of S. -Pietro Martire was painted in 1523. Of this it is difficult to speak in -adequate terms, without the appearance of hyperbolical panegyric. The -composition is well known by engravings; but these convey only a faint -notion of the original, which unites the utmost magnificence of -historical design, with the finest style of landscape-painting. The -gorgeous hues of Titian’s colouring are attempered in this picture by an -impressive solemnity. The scene of violence and blood, though expressed -with energy, is free from contortion or extravagance; grandeur pervades -the whole, and even the figure of the flying friar has a character of -dignity rarely surpassed. Two pictures on the same subject, the one by -Domenichino, in the Academy of Bologna, the other by Giorgione, in our -National Gallery, if compared with that of Titian, convey a forcible -impression of the difference between first-rate genius and the finest -talents of a secondary order. The picture of Giorgione is, however, most -_Titianesque_ in colouring. - -In 1526 the celebrated satirist Aretine, and Sansovino the sculptor, -came to reside in Venice. With these distinguished men Titian contracted -an intimacy, which was the source of great pleasure to him, and ceased -only with their lives. When Charles V. visited Bologna in 1529, Titian -was invited to that city, where he painted an equestrian portrait of the -Emperor. Charles, not only an admirer but a judge of art, was astonished -at a style of painting of which he had formed no previous conception; he -remunerated the artist splendidly, and expressed his determination never -to sit to any other master. On returning to Bologna in 1532, he summoned -Titian again to his court, and engaged him in many important works, -treating him on all occasions with extraordinary respect and regard. It -is affirmed, that in riding through Bologna he kept upon the artist’s -right hand, an act of courtesy which excited such displeasure among the -courtiers that they ventured upon a remonstrance. The answer given by -Charles is well known, and has been since ascribed to other monarchs: “I -have many nobles in my empire, but only one Titian.” On leaving Bologna, -Titian accompanied Frederic Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, home to his own -state; where, besides painting portraits of the Duke and his brother the -Cardinal, he ornamented an apartment of the palace contiguous to the -rooms painted by Giulio Romano, with portraits of the twelve Cæsars, -taking his authorities from medals and antique marbles. - -In passing through Parma, on the way to Mantua, he first saw the works -of Correggio, who had been engaged in painting the dome of the -cathedral. So little was that great man’s genius appreciated, and such -was the ignorance of his employers, that they had actually dismissed him -as inadequate to the task he had undertaken; nor was he allowed to -resume it, until the lavish admiration bestowed on his work by Titian, -had taught them better how to estimate his talents. - -On returning to Venice, Titian found that a strong party had been raised -in favour of Pordenone. He expressed no slight indignation at the -attempt to exalt that painter to an equality with himself. Pordenone, -nevertheless, was an artist of considerable powers, although certainly -not qualified to compete with such an antagonist. The number of pictures -which Titian continued to execute, would far exceed our limits to -enumerate, and is so great as to excite astonishment; more especially as -there is little evidence in his works that he was much assisted by -inferior hands. In 1543, when Pope Paul III. visited Bologna, Titian -painted an admirable portrait of him, and received an invitation to -Rome. But he was unable to accept it, having engagements with the Duke -of Urbino, whose palace he accordingly enriched with portraits of -Charles V., Francis I., the Duke Guidobaldo, the Popes Sixtus IV., -Julius II., and Paul III., the Cardinal of Lorraine, and Solyman, -Emperor of the Turks. - -Truth, it appears, rather than embellishment, was sought for in the -portraits of those days. Titian’s portrait of Paul III. is executed with -uncompromising accuracy. The figure is diminutive and decrepit, but the -eyes have a look of penetrating sagacity. His Holiness was greatly -pleased with it; and, as a mark of his favour, made offer to the artist -of a valuable situation in a public department; which Titian declined, -upon finding that his emoluments were to be deducted from the income of -those who already held possession of it. He obtained, however, the -promise of a benefice for his son Pomponio. Aretine thought his friend -illiberally treated by Paul, and did not scruple to publish his opinion -on the subject. - -In 1545, when the Venetian Senate was compelled by the public exigencies -to lay a general tax on the city, Titian was the only person exempted -from the impost,—a noble homage to genius, which attests at once the -liberality and the wisdom of that government. In this year, Titian -having completed his engagements with the Duke of Urbino, and being, -through the Cardinal Farnese, again invited to Rome, determined on a -visit to that city; and he set out, accompanied by his son Orazio, -several pupils, and a considerable number of domestics. He was received -at Urbino by the Duke Guidobaldo II., and splendidly entertained for -some days. On his departure, the Duke accompanied him from Urbino to -Pesaro, and from thence sent forward with him a suite of horses and -servants, as far as the gates of Rome. Here he was greeted with -corresponding honours, and lodged in the Belvedere Palace. Vasari was, -at this time, in the employment of Cardinal Farnese, and had the -gratification of attending the great artist about the city. Titian was -now engaged to paint a whole length portrait of Paul III., with the -Cardinal Farnese and Duke Ottavio in one group. This picture is at -present in the Museo Borbonico; and is a fine example of that highest -style of portrait painting, which is scarce less difficult, or less -elevated as a branch of art, than historical composition. An “Ecce -homo,” painted at the same time, does not appear to have excited that -admiration which his works usually obtained. The taste of the Roman -artists and connoisseurs had been formed on the severe examples of -Michael Angelo, Raphael, Polidoro, and others; so that the style of -Titian was tried by a new and conventional standard, to which it was not -fairly amenable. It was insinuated that his chief excellence lay in -portrait-painting. Vasari relates that, in company with Michael Angelo, -he made a visit to Titian at the Belvedere, and found him employed on -the celebrated picture of Danae. Michael Angelo bestowed high -commendations on it; but, as they went away, remarked to Vasari on -Titian’s inaccurate style of design, observing, that if he had received -his elementary education in a better school, his works would have been -inimitable. Nothing, perhaps, has tended more than this anecdote to give -currency to a belief that Titian was an unskilful draughtsman; an -opinion which, if tried by the test of his best works, is utterly -erroneous. There is not perhaps extant on canvass a more exquisite -representation of female beauty, even in point of design, than this -figure of Danae; and, with due reverence to the high authority of -Michael Angelo, it may be doubted whether his notion of correct design -was not tinctured by the ideal grandeur of his own style; which, however -magnificent in itself, and appropriate to the scale of the Sistine -chapel, is by no means a just medium for the forms of actual nature, nor -adapted to the representation of beauty. Michael Angelo however -frequently returned to look at this Danae, and always with expressions -of increased admiration. - -After a residence of two years at Rome, Titian returned to Venice, -taking Florence in his route. The first work on which he engaged after -his return, was a picture of the Marquis del Vasto haranguing his -troops. He likewise began some altar-pieces, but finished little, being -summoned in 1550, by the Emperor Charles, to Vienna. The princes and -ministers assembled at the Imperial Court were astonished at the -confidence with which Titian was honoured by the Emperor, who gave him -free access to his presence at all times, a privilege extended only to -his most intimate friends. The large sums which the Emperor frequently -sent him, were always accompanied with the courteous assurance that they -were meant to testify the monarch’s sense of his merits, not in payment -for his works, those being beyond all price. On one occasion, while the -Emperor was sitting for his portrait, Titian dropt a pencil; the monarch -picked it up, and presented it to him, saying, on Titian’s apologizing -in some confusion, “Titian is worthy to be served by Cæsar.” The same -jealous feeling which had been evinced towards him at Bologna, again -manifested itself; but the artist, who amidst his loftier studies had -not neglected the cultivation of worldly knowledge, found means to -obviate envy, and to conciliate, by courtesy and presents, the good will -of the whole court. It was at this time that Charles, sated with glory -and feeling the advances of infirmity, began to meditate his retreat -from the world. This intention, it is said, he imparted to Titian, with -whom he delighted to confer concerning the arrangement of a large -picture, which he then commissioned the artist to paint, and which he -intended to be his companion in his retirement. The subject was an -apotheosis, in which Charles and his family were to be represented as -introduced by Religion into the presence of the Trinity. At Inspruck, -whither he accompanied the Emperor, Titian painted a superb picture, in -which Ferdinand, King of the Romans, and his Queen Anna Maria, are -represented with the attributes of Jupiter and Juno, and round them are -the seven princesses, their daughters. From each of these illustrious -ladies, Titian received a jewel each time they sat to him. Here also he -collected portraits for the apotheosis. - -On the Emperor’s departure for Flanders, Titian returned to Venice; -where, soon after his arrival, he offered to finish the works which were -wanting in the great hall of the council. This offer was cordially -accepted by the Senate; and he was empowered to select the artists whom -he thought best qualified to be his coadjutors. He nominated Paul -Veronese and Tintoret, nor did those great painters feel themselves -humiliated in working under his directions. In 1553 the Emperor Charles -returned to Spain, and being at Barcelona, nominated Titian a Count -Palatine of the empire, with all the privileges, authority, and powers -attached to that dignity. He also created him a Knight of the Golden -Spur, and a noble of the empire, transmitting the dignity to his -legitimate children and descendants. Crowned with these honours, and -with faculties scarcely impaired, Titian had now reached his -seventy-fifth year; and it would be difficult to select a man the -evening of whose life has been more fortunate and happy. He still found -in the practice of his art a source of undiminished pleasure; his works -were sought by princes with emulous avidity; he was considered the chief -ornament of the city in which he dwelt. He was surrounded by friends -distinguished by their worth or talents; he had acquired wealth and -honour sufficient to satisfy his utmost ambition; and he was secure of -immortal fame! - -But at this period, to most men one of secession from toil, Titian -engaged in new undertakings with as much alacrity as if life were still -beginning, and the race of fortune still to run. He enriched Serravalle, -Braganza, Milan, and Brescia, with splendid works, besides painting a -great number for the churches of Venice, for different noblemen, and for -his friends. Philip II. of Spain showed no less anxiety to possess his -works, than Charles, his father, had done: and nowhere perhaps, not even -in Venice, are so many of his pictures to be found, as in the palaces of -Madrid and the Escurial. When Rubens was in Spain, he copied Titian’s -picture of Eve tempting Adam with the fatal fruit, nobly acknowledging -that he had only made a Flemish translation of an elegant Italian poem. -It is said by some of Titian’s biographers, that he himself made a visit -to Spain; but this has been clearly disproved. The most important works -which he executed for Philip II. are the pictures of the Martyrdom of -St. Lorenzo, and the Last Supper. In the first, three different effects -of light are admirably expressed; the fire which consumes the saint, the -flame of a tripod placed before a pagan deity, and the glory of a -descending angel. This picture is said to be equal to any of his earlier -productions. The Last Supper betrays signs of a feebler execution, which -is, however, atoned for by more than usual purity of design. Titian in -this work partially imitated Lionardo da Vinci, but in the spirit of -congenial feeling, not as a plagiarist. To this picture, which he began -at the age of eighty, he devoted the labour of nearly seven years. For -Mary of England, Philip II.’s consort, he painted four mythological -subjects, Prometheus, Tityus, Sisiphus, and Tantalus, the figures as -large as life, and conceived in the highest style of grandeur. - -In 1570 died Sansovino the sculptor. Aretine had paid the debt of nature -some years before, an event which sensibly affected Titian; and this -second loss plunged him into such affliction, that his powers, it is -said, from that time perceptibly gave way. We learn, however, from -Ridolfi, that the Transfiguration on Mount Tabor, which he saw when in -good condition, was ably executed. Some visions from the Apocalypse, in -the monastery of St. John, painted about the same time, exhibit vivid -imagination and fine colouring. - -Henry III. of France, being in Venice in 1574, paid Titian a visit, -accompanied by a numerous train. The venerable artist, then in his -ninety-fifth year, received the monarch with dignified respect; his fine -person was scarcely touched by decrepitude, his manners were still noble -and prepossessing. In a long conversation with the King, he adverted, -with the complacency natural to an old man at the close of so splendid a -career, to honours which he had received from the Emperor Charles and -King Ferdinand. When Henry, in walking through the galleries, demanded -the prices of some of the pictures, he begged his Majesty’s acceptance -of them as a free gift. In the mean time the courtiers and attendants -were entertained with a magnificence, which might have become the -establishment of a great prince. - -Titian had nearly attained his hundredth year, when the plague, which -had been raging some time in Trent, made its appearance in Venice, and -swept him off, together with a third part of the inhabitants, within -three months. He was buried in the church of the Frari; but the -consternation and disorders prevalent at such a period, prevented his -receiving those funeral honours which would otherwise have attended him -to the tomb. - -In comparing Titian with the great artists of the Roman and Florentine -schools, it has been usual to describe him as the painter of physical -nature, while to those masters has been assigned the loftier and -exclusive praise of depicting the mind and passions. The works on which -Titian was most frequently employed, appertaining to public edifices and -the pomp of courts, were certainly of a class in which splendid effect -is the chief requisite; but can it be said that the painter of the -Ascension of the Virgin, and the S. Pietro Martire, was unequal to cope -with subjects of sublimity and pathos? May it not be asked with greater -justice, on the evidence of those pictures, whether any artist has -surpassed him in those qualities? Even in design, on which point his -capacity has been especially arraigned, Titian knew how to seize the -line of grandeur without swelling into exaggeration, and to unite truth -with ideality. Of all painters he was most above the ostentation of art; -like Nature herself, he worked with such consummate skill that we are -sensible of the process only by its effect. Rubens, Tintoret, Paul -Veronese, were proud of their execution; few painters are not,—but the -track of Titian’s pencil is scarcely ever discernable. His chiaroscuro, -or disposition of light and shade, is never artificially concentrated; -it is natural, as that of a summer’s day. His colouring, glorious as it -is, made up of vivid contrasts, and combining the last degree of -richness and depth with freshness and vivacity, is yet so graduated to -the modesty of nature, that a thought of the painter’s palette never -disturbs the illusion. Were it required to point out, amidst the whole -range of painting, one performance as a proof of what art is capable of -accomplishing, it is surely from among the works of Titian that such an -example would be selected. - -There is scarcely any large collection in which the works of Titian are -not to be found. The pictures of Actæon and Callisto in the possession -of Lord F. L. Gower, and the four subjects in the National Gallery, are -among the finest in this country. The Venus in the Dulwich Gallery must -have been fine; but the glazing, a very essential part of Titian’s -process, has flown. - -Details of the life of Titian will be found in Vasari, Lanzi, Ridolfi, -but more especially in Ticozzi, whose memoir is at once diffuse and -perspicuous. There is a life of Titian, in English, by Northcote. - -[Illustration: Titian and Francisco di Mosaico, from a picture by -Titian.] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff_ - - LUTHER. - - _From the original Picture by Holbein - in his Majesty’s Collection at Windsor._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - LUTHER. - - -Martin Luther was born at Eisleben in Saxony in the year 1483, on the -10th of November; and if in the histories of great men it is usual to -note with accuracy the day of their nativity, that of Luther has a -peculiar claim on the biographer, since it has been the especial object -of horoscopical calculations, and has even occasioned some serious -differences among very profound astrologers. Luther has been the subject -of unqualified admiration and eulogy: he has been assailed by the most -virulent calumnies; and, if any thing more were wanted to prove the -_personal_ consideration in which he was held by his contemporaries, it -would be sufficient to add, that he has also been made a mask for their -follies. - -He was of humble origin. At an early age he entered with zeal into the -Order of Augustinian Hermits, who were Monks and Mendicants. In the -schools of the Nominalists he pursued with acuteness and success the -science of sophistry. And he was presently raised to the theological -chair at Wittemberg: so that his first prejudices were enlisted in the -service of the worst portion of the Roman Catholic Church; his opening -reason was subjected to the most dangerous perversion; and a sure and -early path was opened to his professional ambition. Such was _not_ the -discipline which could prepare the mind for any independent exertion; -such were not the circumstances from which an ordinary mind could have -emerged into the clear atmosphere of truth. In dignity a Professor, in -theology an Augustinian, in philosophy a Nominalist, by education a -Mendicant Monk, Luther seemed destined to be a pillar of the Roman -Catholic Church, and a patron of all its corruptions. - -But he possessed a genius naturally vast and penetrating, a memory quick -and tenacious, patience inexhaustible, and a fund of learning very -considerable for that age: above all, he had an erect and daring spirit, -fraught with magnanimity and grandeur, and loving nothing so well as -truth; so that his understanding was ever prepared to expand with the -occasion, and his principles to change or rise, according to the -increase and elevation of his knowledge. Nature had endued him with an -ardent soul, a powerful and capacious understanding; education had -chilled the one and contracted the other; and when he came forth into -the fields of controversy, he had many of those trammels still hanging -about him, which patience, and a succession of exertions, and the -excitement of dispute, at length enabled him for the most part to cast -away. - -In the year 1517, John Tetzel, a Dominican Monk, was preaching in -Germany the indulgences of Pope Leo X.; that is, he was publicly selling -to all purchasers remission of all sins, past, present, or future, -however great their number, however enormous their nature. The -expressions with which Tetzel recommended his treasure appear to have -been marked with peculiar impudence and indecency. But the act had in -itself nothing novel or uncommon: the sale of indulgences had long been -recognized as the practice of the Roman Catholic Church, and even -sometimes censured by its more pious, or more prudent members. But the -crisis was at length arrived in which the iniquity could no longer be -repeated with impunity. The cup was at length full; and the hand of -Luther was destined to dash it to the ground. In the schools of -Wittemberg the Professor publicly censured, in ninety-five propositions, -not only the extortion of the Indulgence-mongers, but the co-operation -of the Pope in seducing the people from the true faith, and calling them -away from the only road to salvation. - -This first act of Luther’s evangelical life has been hastily ascribed by -at least three eminent writers of very different descriptions, (Bossuet, -Hume, and Voltaire,) to the narrowest monastic motive, the jealousy of a -rival order. It is asserted that the Augustinian Friars had usually been -invested in Saxony with the profitable commission, and that it only -became offensive to Luther when it was transferred to a Dominican. There -is no ground for that assertion. The Dominicans had been for nearly -three centuries the peculiar favourites of the Holy See, and objects of -all its partialities; and it is particularly remarkable, that, after the -middle of the fifteenth century, during a period scandalously fruitful -in the abuse in question, we very rarely meet with the name of any -Augustinian as employed in that service. Moreover, it is almost equally -important to add, that none of the contemporary adversaries of Luther -ever advanced the charge against him, even at the moment in which the -controversy was carried on with the most unscrupulous rancour. - -The matter in dispute between Luther and Tetzel went in the first -instance no farther than this—whether the Pope had authority to remit -the divine chastisements denounced against offenders in the present and -in a future state—or whether his power only extended to such human -punishments, as form a part of ecclesiastical discipline—for the latter -prerogative was not yet contested by Luther. Nevertheless, his office -and his talents drew very general attention to the controversy; the -German people, harassed by the exactions, and disgusted with the -insolence of the papal emissaries, declared themselves warmly in favour -of the Reformer; while on the other hand, the supporters of the abuse -were so violent and clamorous, that the sound of the altercation -speedily disturbed the festivities of the Vatican. - -Leo X., a luxurious, indolent, and secular, though literary pontiff, -would have disregarded the broil, and left it, like so many others, to -subside of itself, had not the Emperor Maximilian assured him of the -dangerous impression it had already made on the German people. -Accordingly he commanded Luther to appear at the approaching diet of -Augsburg, and justify himself before the papal legate. At the same time -he appointed the Cardinal Caietan, a Dominican and a professed enemy of -Luther, to be arbiter of the dispute. They met in October, 1518; the -legate was imperious; Luther was not submissive. He solicited reasons; -he was answered only with authority. He left the city in haste, and -appealed “to the Pope _better informed_,”—yet it was still to the Pope -that he appealed, he still recognized his sovereign supremacy. But in -the following month Leo published an edict, in which he claimed the -power of delivering sinners from _all_ punishments due to every sort of -transgression; and thereupon Luther, despairing of any reasonable -accommodation with the pontiff, published an appeal from the Pope to a -General Council. - -The Pope then saw the expediency of conciliatory measures, and -accordingly despatched a layman, named Miltitz, as his legate, with a -commission to compose the difference by private negotiations with -Luther. Miltitz united great dexterity and penetration with a temper -naturally moderate, and not inflamed by ecclesiastical prejudices. -Luther was still in the outset of his career. His opinions had not yet -made any great progress towards maturity; he had not fully ascertained -the foundations on which his principles were built; he had not proved by -any experience the firmness of his own character. He yielded—at least so -far as to express his perfect submission to the commands of the Pope, to -exhort his followers to persist in the same obedience, and to promise -silence on the subject of indulgences, provided it were also imposed -upon his adversaries. - -It is far too much to say (as some have said) that had Luther’s -concession been carried into effect, the Reformation would have been -stifled in its birth. The principles of the Reformation were too firmly -seated in reason and in truth, and too deeply ingrafted in the hearts of -the German people, to remain long suppressed through the infirmity of -any individual advocate. But its progress might have been somewhat -retarded, had not the violence of its enemies afforded it seasonable -aid. A doctor named Eckius, a zealous satellite of papacy, invited -Luther to a public disputation in the castle of Pleissenburg. The -subject on which they argued was the supremacy of the Roman pontiff; and -it was a substantial triumph for the Reformer, and no trifling insult to -papal despotism, that the appointed arbiters left the question -undecided. - -Eckius repaired to Rome, and appealed in person to the offended -authority of the Vatican. His remonstrances were reiterated and inflamed -by the furious zeal of the Dominicans, with Caietan at their head. And -thus Pope Leo, whose calmer and more indifferent judgment would probably -have led him to accept the submission of Luther, and thus put the -question for the moment at rest, was urged into measures of at least -unseasonable vigour. He published a bull on the 15th of June, 1520, in -which he solemnly condemned forty-one heresies extracted from the -writings of the Reformer, and condemned these to be publicly burnt. At -the same time he summoned the author, on pain of excommunication, to -confess and retract his pretended errors within the space of sixty days, -and to throw himself upon the mercy of the Vatican. - -Open to the influence of mildness and persuasion, the breast of Luther -only swelled more boldly when he was assailed by menace and insult. He -refused the act of humiliation required of him; more than that, he -determined to anticipate the anathema suspended over him, by at once -withdrawing himself from the communion of the church; and again, having -come to that resolution, he fixed upon the manner best suited to give it -efficacy and publicity. With this view, he caused a pile of wood to be -erected without the walls of Wittemberg, and there, in the presence of a -vast multitude of all ranks and orders, he committed the bull to the -flames; and with it, the Decree, the Decretals, the Clementines, the -Extravagants, the entire code of Romish jurisprudence. It is necessary -to observe, that he had prefaced this measure by a renewal of his former -appeal to a General Council; so that the extent of his resistance may be -accurately defined: he continued a faithful member of the Catholic -Church, but he rejected the despotism of the Pope, he refused obedience -to an unlimited and usurped authority. The bull of excommunication -immediately followed (January 6, 1521), but it fell without force; and -any dangerous effect, which it might otherwise have produced, was -obviated by the provident boldness of Luther. - -Here was the origin of the Reformation. This was the irreparable breach, -which gradually widened to absolute disruption. The Reformer was now -compromised, by his conduct, by his principles, perhaps even by his -passions. He had crossed the bounds which divided insubordination from -rebellion, and his banners were openly unfurled, and his legions pressed -forward on the march to Rome. Henceforward the champion of the Gospel -entered with more than his former courage on the pursuit of truth; and -having shaken off one of the greatest and earliest of the prejudices in -which he had been educated, he proceeded with fearless independence to -examine and dissipate the rest. - -Charles V. succeeded Maximilian in the empire in the year 1519; and -since Frederic of Saxony persisted in protecting the person of the -Reformer, Leo X. became the more anxious to arouse the imperial -indignation in defence of the injured majesty of the Church. In 1521 a -diet was assembled at Worms, and Luther was summoned to plead his cause -before it. A safe-conduct was granted him by the Emperor; and on the -17th of April he presented himself before the august aristocracy of -Germany. This audience gave occasion to the most splendid scene in his -history. His friends were yet few, and of no great influence; his -enemies were numerous, and powerful, and eager for his destruction: the -cause of truth, the hopes of religious regeneration, appeared to be -placed at that moment in the discretion and constancy of one man. The -faithful trembled. But Luther had then cast off the encumbrances of -early fears and prepossessions, and was prepared to give a free course -to his earnest and unyielding character. His manner and expressions -abounded with respect and humility; but in the matter of his public -apology he declined in no one particular from the fulness of his -conviction. Of the numerous opinions which he had by this time adopted -at variance with the injunctions of Rome, there was not one which in the -hour of danger he consented to compromise. The most violent exertions -were made by the papal party to effect his immediate ruin; and there -were some who were not ashamed to counsel a direct violation of the -imperial safe-conduct: it was designed to re-enact the crimes of -Constance, after the interval of a century, on another theatre. But the -infamous proposal was soon rejected; and it was on this occasion that -Charles is recorded to have replied with princely indignation, that if -honour were banished from every other residence, it ought to find refuge -in the breasts of kings. - -Luther was permitted to retire from the diet; but he had not proceeded -far on his return when he was surprised by a number of armed men, and -carried away into captivity. It was an act of friendly violence. A -temporary concealment was thought necessary for his present security, -and he was hastily conveyed to the solitary Castle of Wartenburg. In the -mean time the assembly issued the declaration known in history as the -“Edict of Worms,” in which the Reformer was denounced as an -excommunicated schismatic and heretic; and all his friends and -adherents, all who protected or conversed with him, were pursued by -censures and penalties. The cause of papacy obtained a momentary, -perhaps only a seeming triumph, for it was not followed by any -substantial consequences; and while the anathematized Reformer lay in -safety in his secret _Patmos_, as he used to call it, the Emperor -withdrew to other parts of Europe to prosecute schemes and interests -which then seemed far more important than the religious tenets of a -German Monk. - -While Luther was in retirement, his disciples at Wittemberg, under the -guidance of Carlostadt, a man of learning and piety, proceeded to put -into force some of the first principles of the Reformation. They would -have restrained by compulsion the superstition of private masses, and -torn away from the churches the proscribed images. Luther disapproved of -the violence of these measures; or it may also be, as some impartial -writers have insinuated, that he grudged to any other than himself the -glory of achieving them. Accordingly, after an exile of ten months, he -suddenly came forth from his place of refuge, and appeared at -Wittemberg. Had he then confined his influence to the introduction of a -more moderate policy among the reformers, many plausible arguments might -have been urged in his favour. But he also appears, unhappily, to have -been animated by a personal animosity against Carlostadt, which was -displayed both then and afterwards in some acts not very far removed -from persecution. - -The marriage of Luther, and his marriage to a nun, was the event of his -life which gave most triumph to his enemies, and perplexity to his -friends. It was in perfect conformity with his masculine and daring -mind, that having satisfied himself of the nullity of his monastic vows, -he should take the boldest method of displaying to the world how utterly -he rejected them. Others might have acted differently, and abstained, -either from conscientious scruples, or, being satisfied in their own -minds, from fear to give offence to their weaker brethren; and it would -be presumptuous to condemn either course of action. It is proper to -mention that this marriage did not take place till the year 1525, after -Luther had long formally rejected many of the observances of the Roman -Catholic Church; and that the nun whom he espoused had quitted her -convent, and renounced her profession some time before. - -The war of the peasants, and the fanaticism of Munster and his -followers, presently afterwards desolated Germany; and the papal party -did not lose that occasion to vilify the principles of the reformers, -and identify the revolt from a spiritual despotism with general -insurrection and massacre. It is therefore necessary here to observe, -that the false enthusiasm of Munster was perhaps first detected and -denounced by Luther; and that the pen of the latter was incessantly -employed in deprecating every act of civil insubordination. He was the -loudest in his condemnation of some acts of spoliation by laymen, who -appropriated the monastic revenues; and at a subsequent period so far -did he carry his principles, so averse was he, not only from the use of -offensive violence, but even from the employment of force in the defence -of his cause, that on some later occasions he exhorted the Elector of -Saxony by no means to oppose the imperial edicts by arms, but rather to -consign the persons and principles of the reformers to the protection of -Providence. For he was inspired with a holy confidence that Christ would -not desert his faithful followers; but rather find means to accomplish -his work without the agitation of civil disorders, or the intervention -of the sword. That confidence evinced the perfect earnestness of his -professions, and his entire devotion to the truth of his principles. It -also proved that he had given himself up to the cause in which he had -engaged, and that he was elevated above the consideration of personal -safety. This was no effeminate enthusiasm, no passionate aspiration -after the glory of martyrdom! It was the working of the Spirit of God -upon an ardent nature, impressed with the divine character of the -mission with which it was intrusted, and assured, against all obstacles, -of final and perfect success. - -As this is not a history of the Reformation, but only a sketch of the -life of an individual reformer, we shall at once proceed to an affair -strongly, though not very favourably, illustrating his character. The -subject of the Eucharist commanded, among the various doctrinal -differences, perhaps the greatest attention; and in this matter Luther -receded but a short space, and with unusual timidity, from the faith in -which he had been educated. He admitted the real corporeal presence in -the elements, and differed from the church only as to the manner of that -presence. He rejected the actual and perfect change of substance, but -supposed the flesh to subsist in, or with the bread, as fire subsists in -red-hot iron. Consequently, he renounced the term transubstantiation, -and substituted consubstantiation in its place. In the mean time, -Zuinglius, the reformer of Zuric, had examined the same question with -greater independence, and had reached the bolder conclusion, that the -bread and wine are no more than external signs, intended to revive our -recollections and animate our piety. This opinion was adopted by -Carlostadt, Œcolampadius, and other fathers of the Reformation, and -followed by the Swiss Protestants, and generally by the free cities of -the Empire. Those who held it were called Sacramentarians. The opinion -of Luther prevailed in Saxony, and in the more northern provinces of -Germany. - -The difference was important. It was felt to be so by the reformers -themselves; and the Lutheran party expressed that sentiment with too -little moderation. The Papists, or Papalins (Papalini), were alert in -perceiving the division, in exciting the dissension, and in inflaming -it, if possible, into absolute schism; and in this matter it must be -admitted, that Luther himself was too much disposed by his intemperate -vehemence to further their design. These discords were becoming -dangerous; and in 1529, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, the most ardent -among the protectors of the Reformation, assembled the leading doctors -of either party to a public disputation at Marpurg. The particulars of -this conference are singularly interesting to the theological reader; -but it is here sufficient to mention, without entering into the -doctrinal merits of the controversy, that whatever was imperious in -assertion and overbearing in authority, and unyielding and unsparing in -polemical altercation, proceeded from the mouth and party of Luther; -that every approach to humility, and self-distrust, and mutual -toleration, and common friendship, came from the side of Zuinglius and -the Sacramentarians. And we are bound to add, that the same -uncompromising spirit, which precluded Luther from all co-operation or -fellowship with those whom _he thought_ in error (it was the predominant -spirit of the church which he had deserted) continued on future -occasions to interrupt and even endanger the work of his own hands. But -that very spirit was the vice of a character, which endured no -moderation or concession in any matter wherein Christian truth was -concerned, but which too hastily assumed its own infallibility in -ascertaining that truth. Luther would have excommunicated the -Sacramentarians; and he did not perceive how precisely his _principle_ -was the same with that of the church which had excommunicated himself. - -Luther was not present at the celebrated Diet of Augsburg, held under -the superintendence of Charles V. in 1530; but he was in constant -correspondence with Melancthon during that fearful period, and in the -reproofs which he cast on the temporizing, though perhaps necessary, -negotiations of the latter, he at least exhibited his own uprightness -and impetuosity. The ‘Confession’ of the Protestants, there published, -was constructed on the basis of seventeen articles previously drawn up -by Luther; and it was not without his counsels that the faith, -permanently adopted by the church which bears his name, was finally -digested and matured. From that crisis the history of the Reformation -took more of a political, less of a religious character, and the name of -Luther is therefore less prominent than in the earlier proceedings. But -he still continued for sixteen years longer to exert his energies in the -cause which was peculiarly his own, and to influence by his advice and -authority the new ecclesiastical system. - -He died in the year 1546, the same, as it singularly happened, in which -the Council of Trent assembled, for the self-reformation and re-union of -the Roman Catholic Church. But that attempt, even had it been made with -judgment and sincerity, was then too late. During the twenty-nine years -which composed the public life of Luther, the principles of the Gospel, -having fallen upon hearts already prepared for their reception, were -rooted beyond the possibility of extirpation; and when the great -Reformer closed his eyes upon the scene of his earthly toils and glory, -he might depart in the peaceful confidence that the objects of his -mission were virtually accomplished, and the work of the Lord placed in -security by the same heaven-directed hand which had raised it from the -dust. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - - RODNEY. - - -This eminent officer was descended from a younger branch of an ancient -family, long resident in the county of Somerset. His father lived at -Walton upon Thames, where George Brydges Rodney, afterwards Lord Rodney, -was born, February 19, 1718. He received the rudiments of his education -at Harrow School, from which he was removed when only twelve years old, -and sent to sea. He gained promotion rapidly, being made Lieutenant in -February, 1739, and Captain in 1742. He was still farther fortunate in -being almost constantly employed for several years. In the Eagle, of -sixty guns, Captain Rodney bore a distinguished part in the action -fought by Admiral Hawke with the French fleet, off Cape Finisterre, -October 14, 1747. The year after he was sent out with the rank of -Commodore, as Governor and Commander-in-Chief on the Newfoundland -station, where he remained till October, 1752. - -Returning to England, he took his seat in Parliament for the borough of -Saltash, and was successively appointed to the Fougueux, of sixty-four -guns, the Prince George, of ninety, and the Dublin, of seventy-four -guns. In the last-named ship he served under Admiral Hawke in the -expedition against Rochefort in 1757, which failed entirely, after great -expense had been incurred, and great expectations raised; and he -assisted at the capture of Louisburg by Admiral Boscawen in 1758. He was -raised to the rank of Rear-Admiral, May 19, 1759, after twenty-eight -years of active and almost uninterrupted service. - -In July following he was ordered to take the command of a squadron -destined to attack Havre, and destroy a number of flat-bottomed boats, -prepared, it was supposed, to assist a meditated invasion of Great -Britain. This service he effectually performed. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by E. Scriven._ - - LORD RODNEY. - - _From a Picture by Sir Joshua Reynolds - in his Majesty’s Collection at S^{t.} James’s Palace._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - -He was soon raised to a more important sphere of action, being named -Commander-in-Chief at Barbadoes and the Leeward Islands, in the autumn -of 1761. No naval achievement of remarkable brilliance occurred during -the short period of his holding this command: but the capture of the -valuable islands of Martinique, St. Lucia, and Grenada, bears testimony -to the efficiency of the fleet under his orders, and the good -understanding between the land and sea forces employed in this service. -He was recalled on the conclusion of peace in 1763. Eight years elapsed -before he was again called into service; a period fruitful in marks of -favour from the crown, though barren of professional laurels. He was -created a Baronet soon after his return; he was raised by successive -steps to the rank of Vice-Admiral of the Red; and he was appointed -Governor of Greenwich Hospital. This office he was required to resign on -being again sent out to the West Indies as Commander-in-Chief at Jamaica -in 1771. This was a period of profound peace: but the duties of peace -are often more difficult, and require more moral courage for their -discharge, than those of war. It is one of Rodney’s best claims to -distinction, that he suffered none under his command, or within the -sphere of his influence, to neglect their duties with impunity: and in -the mode of carrying on naval affairs then practised in the West Indies, -he found much ground for immediate interference, as well as for -representation and remonstrance to his superiors at home. He earnestly -desired to obtain the government of Jamaica; but on a vacancy occurring -in 1773, another person was appointed; and he was recalled, and struck -his flag at Portsmouth, September 4, 1774. - -The next four years of Sir George Rodney’s life were much harassed by -pecuniary embarrassment. The habits of a sailor’s life are proverbially -unsuited to strict economy: and moving, when at home, in the most -fashionable society of London, it is no wonder that his expenses outran -his professional gains. He was compelled to retire to Paris, where he -remained until the American war afforded a prospect of his being called -into active service again. In May, 1778, he was promoted to the rank of -Admiral of the White: but it was not till the autumn of 1779 that he was -gratified by being re-appointed to the command on the Barbadoes station. -He sailed from Plymouth December 29, to enter on the final and crowning -scene of his glory. - -At this time Spain and France were at war with England. The memorable -siege of Gibraltar was in progress, and a Spanish fleet blockaded the -Straits. The British navy was reduced unwarrantably low in point of -disposable force; and was farther crippled by a spirit of disunion and -jealousy among its officers, arising partly perhaps from the virulence -of party politics, and partly from the misconduct of the Admiralty, -which threatened even worse consequences than the mere want of physical -force. By this spirit Sir George Rodney’s fleet was deeply tainted, to -his great mortification and the great injury of the country. At first, -however, every thing appeared to prosper. The fleet consisted of -twenty-two sail of the line, and eight frigates. Before Rodney had been -at sea ten days, he captured seven Spanish vessels of war, with a large -convoy of provisions and stores; and on January 16, near Cape St. -Vincent, afterwards made memorable by a more important action, he -encountered a Spanish fleet commanded by Don Juan de Langara, of eleven -ships of the line and two frigates. The superiority of the British force -rendered victory certain. Five Spanish ships were taken, and two -destroyed; and had not the action been in the night, and in tempestuous -weather, probably every ship would have been captured. These at least -are the reasons which Rodney gave in his despatches, for not having done -more: in private letters he hints that he was ill-supported by his -captains. Trifling as this success would have seemed in later times, it -was then very acceptable to the country; and the Admiral received the -thanks of both Houses of Parliament. The scandalous feeling of jealousy -of their commander, ill-will to the ministry, or whatever other -modification of party spirit it was, which could prevent brave men (and -such they were) from performing their duty to the utmost in the hour of -battle, broke out again with more violence when Rodney next came within -sight of the enemy. This was near Martinique, April 17, 1780, about a -month after his arrival in the West Indies. The French fleet, commanded -by the Comte de Guichen, was slightly superior in force. Rodney’s -intention was to attack the enemy’s rear in close order and with his -whole strength; but his captains disobeyed his orders, deranged his -plan, and careless of the signals for close action, repeatedly made, -kept for the most part at cautious distance from the enemy. His own -ship, the Sandwich, engaged for an hour and a half a seventy-four and -two eighty-gun ships, compelled them to bear away, and broke completely -through the enemy’s line. Not more than five or six ships did their -duty. Had all done it, the victory over De Grasse might have been -anticipated, and the end of the war accelerated perhaps by two years. In -his despatches Rodney censured the conduct of his captains; but the -Admiralty thought proper to suppress the passage. In his private letters -to Lady Rodney, he complains bitterly. One only of his captains was -brought to trial, and he was broken. That ampler justice was not done on -the delinquents, is to be explained by the difficulty of finding -officers to form courts martial, where almost all were equally guilty. -But this partial severity, with the vigorous measures which the Admiral -took to recall others to their duty, produced due effect, and we hear no -more of want of discipline, or reluctance to engage. For this action -Rodney received the thanks of the House of Commons, with a pension for -himself and his family of £2000 per annum. - -Nothing of importance occurred during the rest of the spring; and De -Guichen having returned to Europe, Rodney sailed to New York, to -co-operate, during the rainy season in the West Indies, with the British -forces engaged in the American war. In November he returned to his -station. In the course of the autumn he had been chosen to represent -Westminster without expense, and had received the Order of the Bath. The -commencement of the following year was signalized by acts of more -importance. The British ministry had been induced to declare war against -Holland; and they sent out immediate instructions to Rodney, to attack -the possessions of the states in the West Indies. St. Eustatius was -selected for the first blow, and it surrendered without firing a shot. -Small and barren, yet this island was of great importance for the -support which it had long afforded to the French and Americans under -colour of neutrality, and for the vast wealth which was captured in it. -In the course of the spring, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, with the -French island of St. Bartholomew, were also taken. - -In the autumn, Rodney returned to Europe for the recovery of his health. -He was received with distinguished favour by the King, and with -enthusiasm by the people, and during his stay, was created Vice-Admiral -of Great Britain, in the place of Lord Hawke, deceased. He returned in -the middle of January, being invested with the command of the whole West -Indies, not merely the Barbadoes station, as before. The situation of -affairs at this time was very critical. The French fleet, commanded by -the Comte de Grasse, consisted of thirty-three sail[6] of the line, two -fifty-gun ships and frigates, with a large body of troops, and a train -of heavy cannon on board. A powerful Spanish fleet was also in the West -Indies. It was intended to form a junction, and then with an -overwhelming force of near fifty sail of the line, to proceed to -Jamaica, conquer that important island, and one by one to reduce all the -British colonies. - -Footnote 6: - - Or thirty-four, according to the official list found on board the - Ville de Paris after the engagement. - -The French quitted Fort Royal Bay, in Martinique, April 8, 1782. -Intelligence was immediately brought to the British fleet at St. Lucia, -which lost no time in following them. In a partial action on the 9th, -two of the French ships were, disabled. A third was crippled by accident -on the night of the 11th. Thus, on the morning of the 12th, the decisive -day, the French line was reduced to thirty or thirty-one ships, and -numerically the British fleet was stronger: but this difference was more -than compensated by the greater weight of metal in the French broadside, -which was calculated by Sir Charles Douglas to have exceeded the British -by 4396 pounds. On that morning, about seven o’clock, Rodney bore down -obliquely on the French line, and passed to leeward of it on the -opposite tack. His own ship was the eighteenth from the van: and the -seventeen leading ships having pushed on and taken their position each -abreast of an enemy, Rodney, in the Formidable, broke through the line -between the seventeenth and eighteenth ships, engaged the Ville de -Paris, De Grasse’s flag-ship, and compelled her to strike. The battle -was obstinately fought, and lasted till half-past six in the evening. -The loss of the British in killed and wounded was severe, but -disproportionately less than that of the French. Seven ships of the line -and two frigates fell into the hands of the victors. - -This battle ruined the power of the allied fleets in the West Indies, -and materially contributed to the re-establishment of peace, which was -concluded in January, 1783. Many other circumstances have combined to -confer celebrity upon it. It restored to Britain the dominion of the -ocean, after that dominion had been some time in abeyance; it proved the -commencement of a long series of most brilliant victories, untarnished -by any defeat on a large scale; and it was the first instance in which -the manœuvre of breaking through the enemy’s line, and attacking him on -both sides, had been practised. The question to whom the merit of this -invention, which for many years rested with Lord Rodney, is due, has of -late been much canvassed before the public. It has been claimed for Mr. -Clerk, of Eldin, author of a treatise on Naval Tactics, and for Sir -Charles Douglas, Captain of the Fleet, who served on board the -Formidable, and is said to have suggested it, as a sudden thought, -during the action. The claim of Mr. Clerk appears now to be generally -disallowed. The evidence in favour of each of the other parties is -strong and conflicting; and as we have not space to discuss it, we may -be excused for not expressing any opinion upon it. The claims of Sir -Charles Douglas have been advanced by his son, Sir Howard Douglas, in -some recent publications: the opposite side of the question has been -argued in the Quarterly Review, No. 83. It has also been repeatedly -discussed in the United Service Magazine. It would appear, however, at -all events, that as the final judgment and responsibility rested with -the Admiral, so also should the chief honour of the measure: and it is -certain that the gallant and generous officer for whom this claim has -been advanced, rejected all praise which seemed to him in the least to -derogate from the glory of his commanding officer. - -A change of ministry had taken place in the spring; and one of the first -acts of the Whigs, on coming into office, was to recall Rodney, who had -always been opposed to them in politics. The officer appointed to -succeed him had but just sailed, when news of his decisive and glorious -victory arrived in England. The Admiralty sent an express, to endeavour -to recall their unlucky step; but it was too late. Rodney landed at -Bristol, and closed his career of service, September 21, 1782. He was -received with enthusiasm, raised to the peerage by the title of Baron -Rodney, and presented with an additional pension of £2000 per annum. -From this time he lived chiefly in the country, and died May 23, 1792, -in the seventy-fifth year of his age. He was twice married, and left a -numerous family to inherit his well-earned honours and rewards. - -The life of Lord Rodney, published by General Mundy, is valuable, as -containing much of his official and private correspondence. The former -proves that his views as a Commander-in-Chief were enlarged, judicious, -and patriotic; the latter is lively and affectionate, and shows him to -have been most amiable in domestic life. Memoirs of his life and -principal actions will be found in most works on naval history and -biography. - -[Illustration: Monument of Lord Rodney in St. Paul’s Cathedral.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - LAGRANGE. - - -Joseph Louis Lagrange was born at Turin, January 25th, 1736. His -great-grandfather was a Frenchman, who entered into the service of the -then Duke of Savoy; and from this circumstance, as well as his -subsequent settlement in France, and his always writing in their -language, the French claim him as their countryman: an honour which the -Italians are far from conceding to them. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by Rob^t. Hart._ - - LA GRANGE. - - _From a Bust in the Library of the - Institute of France._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - -The father of Lagrange, luckily perhaps for the fame of his son, was -ruined by some unfortunate speculation. The latter used to say, that had -he possessed fortune, he should probably never have turned his attention -to the science in which he excelled. He was placed at the College of -Turin, and applied himself diligently and with enthusiasm to classical -literature, showing no taste at first for mathematics. In about a year -he began to attend to the geometry of the ancients. A memoir of Halley -in the Philosophical Transactions, on the superiority of modern -analysis, produced consequences of which the author little dreamed. -Lagrange met with it, before his views upon the subject had settled: and -immediately, being then only seventeen years old, applied himself to the -study of the modern mathematics. Before this change in his studies, -according to Delambre[7], after it, according to others, but certainly -while very young, he was elected professor at the Royal School of -Artillery at Turin. We may best convey some notion of his early -proficiency, by stating without detail, that at the age of twenty-three -we find him—the founder of an Academy of Sciences at Turin, whose -volumes yield in interest to none, and owe that interest principally to -his productions,—a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, an -honour obtained through the medium of Euler, who shortly after announced -him to Frederic of Prussia as the fittest man in Europe to succeed -himself,—and settling, finally, a most intricate question[8] of -mathematics, which had given rise to long discussions between Euler and -D’Alembert, then perhaps the two first mathematicians in Europe. He had -previously extended the method of Euler for the solution of what are -called _isoperimetrical problems_, and laid the foundation for the -_Calculus of Variations_, the most decided advance, in our opinion, -which any one has made since the death of Newton. - -Footnote 7: - - Éloge de Lagrange, Mémoires de l’Institut. 1812. - -Footnote 8: - - The admissibility of discontinuous functions into the integrals of - partial differential equations. - -In 1764 he gained the prize proposed by the Academy of Sciences for an -Essay on the Libration of the Moon; and in 1766, that for an Essay on -the Theory of the Satellites of Jupiter. In the former of these we find -him, for the first time, using the _principle of virtual velocities_, -which had hitherto remained almost a barren truth, but which he -afterwards made, in conjunction with the principle known after the name -of D’Alembert, the foundation of the whole of mechanical science. - -In 1766, Euler, intending to return to St. Petersburg, resigned the -situation which he held at the Court of Berlin, that of director of the -physico-mathematical class of the Academy of Sciences. Frederic offered -this place to D’Alembert, who refused it for himself, but joined with -Euler in recommending Lagrange. The King of Prussia acceded to their -suggestion, and Lagrange was invited to establish himself at Berlin, -with a salary equivalent to 6,000 francs. - -Lagrange remained at Berlin till after the death of Frederic. He here -married a lady who was related to him, and who came from Turin at his -request. She died after a lingering illness of several years, marked by -the most unceasing attention on the part of her husband, who abandoned -his pursuits to devote himself entirely to her during her illness. -Nevertheless the period of his sojourn at Berlin is perhaps the -brightest of a life, most years of which, from the age of eighteen to -that of seventy, were sufficient to ensure a lasting reputation. He here -laid the foundation of his Theory of Functions, of his general method -for determining the secular variations of the planetary orbits; and here -he wrote his _Mécanique Analytique_. - -At the death of Frederic, he found that science was no longer treated -with the same respect at the Court of Berlin. He had found from the -commencement of his stay there, that foreigners were looked upon with -dislike, and his spirits had not recovered the loss of his wife. Many -advantageous offers were made to him by different courts, and among the -rest by that of France. Mirabeau, who was then at Berlin, first pointed -out to the ministers of Louis XVI. the acquisition which was in their -power. Lagrange removed to Paris in 1787, and remained there till his -death. - -He was then weary of his pursuits, and it is said that his _Mécanique -Analytique_, which he had sent from Berlin to be printed in Paris, lay -unopened by himself for more than two years after its publication in -1788. He employed himself in the study of ecclesiastical and other -history, of medicine, botany, and metaphysics. When the discoveries of -the chemists changed the theory and notation of their science, or rather -created a science where none existed before, he threw himself upon the -new study with avidity, and declared that they had made it easy; _as -easy as algebra_. - -In 1792, being then fifty-six years of age, he married Mlle. Lemonnier, -daughter of the astronomer of that name, and daughter, grand-daughter, -and niece of members of the Academy of Sciences. This lady well deserves -honourable mention in every memoir of Lagrange, for the affectionate -care which she took of his declining years. - -When, after the subversion of the monarchy, a commission was appointed -to examine into the system of weights and measures, Lagrange was placed -at its head. In this post he continued, not being included in the -_purification_, which three months after its formation, deprived the -commission of the services of Laplace, Coulomb, Brisson, Borda, and -Delambre. He took no part in politics, and appears to have given no -offence to any party; hence, when the government of Robespierre -commanded all foreigners to quit France, an exception was made in his -favour by the committee of public safety. All his friends had advised -him to retire from the country; and the fate of Lavoisier and Bailly was -sufficient to show that scientific talents of the most useful character -were no protection. He now regretted that he had not followed their -advice, and even meditated returning to Berlin. He did not, however, put -this scheme in execution; and as the Normal and Polytechnic Schools were -successively founded, he was appointed to professorships in both. His -_Leçons_, delivered to the former institution, appear in their published -series, and among them we find the _Leçons sur la Théorie des -Fonctions_, which has since appeared as a separate work. - -It is almost needless to say, so well as the public know how science was -encouraged under the Consulate and the Empire, that Lagrange received -from Napoleon every possible respect and distinction. The titles of -senator, count of the empire, grand cordon of the legion of honour, &c. -were given to him. It is also gratifying to be able to add that his -abstinence from political engagements has left his memory unstained by -such imputations as, we know not how justly, rest upon that of Laplace. -We might have omitted to state that he belonged to all the scientific -academies of Europe; but that it is necessary, for the sake of the -scientific reputation of this country, to correct an inadvertence into -which the able author of the ‘Life of Lagrange,’ in the _Biographie -Universelle_, appears to have fallen. He states that Lagrange was not a -member of the Royal Society of London[9]. The fact is, that he was -elected in 1798, and his name continued on the list of foreign members -all the remainder of his life. - -Footnote 9: - - Les principales sociétés savantes de L’Europe, _celle de Londres - exceptée_, s’empressèrent de décorer de son nom la liste de leurs - membres. - -About the end of March, 1813, Lagrange was seized with a fever, which -caused his death. He had previously been subject to fits of fainting, in -the last of which he was found by Madame Lagrange, having fallen against -the corner of a table. He preserved his senses to the last, and on the -8th of April conversed for more than two hours with M.M. Monge, -Lacepède, and Chaptal, who were commissioned by the Emperor to carry him -the grand cordon of the order of the _Réunion_. He then promised them, -not thinking himself so near his end, full details of his early life. -Unfortunately this promise remains unfulfilled, as he died on the 10th -of April, in his seventy-eighth year. His father had died some years -before him at the age of ninety-five, having had eleven children, all of -whom, except the subject of this memoir, and one other, died young. -Lagrange himself had no children. His private character, as all accounts -agree in stating, was most exemplary. His manners were peculiarly mild, -and though occasionally abstracted and absent, he was fond of society, -particularly that of the young. In the earlier part of his life he was -attacked in an unworthy manner by Fontaine, who at the same time boasted -of some discovery which he attributed to himself. Lagrange replied with -the urbanity which always accompanied his dealings with others, and -while he overthrew the claim of his opponent, he repaid his incivility -by the compliment of admitting that his talents were such as would have -enabled him to attain the discovery, if it had not been previously made. -Such moderation is rare, and as might be expected, it was accompanied by -the utmost modesty in speaking of himself. In the latter half of his -life, it would have been affectation in him to have denied his own -powers, or spoken slightingly of his own discoveries; nor do we find -that he ever did so. In giving opinions or explanations, he broke off -the moment he found that his ideas were not as clear or his knowledge as -definite, as he had thought when he begun; concluding abruptly with _Je -ne sais pas, Je ne sais pas_. Among his studies, music found a place; -but, though pleased with the art, he used to assert that he never heard -more than three bars: the fourth found him wrapped in meditation, and by -his own account, he solved very difficult problems in these -circumstances. He would, therefore, as M. Delambre remarks, measure the -beauty of a piece of music by the mathematical suggestions which he -derived from it; and his arrangement of the great masters would be not a -little curious. - -He never would allow a portrait of himself to be taken. A very well -executed bust, which is now in the Library of the Institute, was made -from a sketch by a young Italian artist, sent by the Academy of Turin. -From this bust our portrait is engraved. - -Of the character of Lagrange as a philosopher, no description, in so few -words, can be better than that of M. Laplace: “Among the discoverers who -have most enlarged the bounds of our knowledge, Newton and Lagrange -appear to me to have possessed in the highest degree that happy tact, -which leads to the discovery of general principles, and which -constitutes true genius for science. This tact, united with a rare -degree of elegance in the manner of explaining the most abstract -theories, is the characteristic of Lagrange.” This power of -generalization distinguishes all that he has written, and the student of -the _Mécanique Analytique_ is amazed when he comes to a chapter headed -“Equations Différentielles pour la solution de tous les problèmes de -Dynamique,” which, on examination, he finds equally applicable, and -equally applied, to the vibrations of a pendulum or the motion of a -planet. On the exquisite symmetry of his notation and style, we need not -enlarge: the mathematician either is acquainted with it, or should -become so with all speed; and others will perhaps only smile at the -notion of one set of algebraical symbols possessing more elegance or -beauty than another. - -The separate works of Lagrange are—1. _Mécanique Analytique_, the second -edition of which he was engaged upon when he died; the first edition was -published in 1788. 2. _Théorie des Fonctions Analytiques_, a system of -Fluxions on purely algebraical principles; first edition, 1797; second -edition, 1813. 3. _Leçons sur le Calcul des Fonctions_; first published -separately in 1806. 4. _Résolution des Equations numériques_; three -editions, in 1798, 1808, and 1826. To give only a list of his separate -memoirs would double the length of this life: they will be found in the -_Miscellanea Taurinensia_, tom. i.-v., and 1784–5; _Memoirs of the -Berlin Academy_, 1765–1803; _Recueils de l’Académie des Sciences de -Paris_, 1773–4, and tom. ix.; _Mémoires des Savans Etrangers_, tom. vii. -and x.; _Mémoires de l’Institut_, 1808–9; _Journal de l’École -Polytechnique_, tom. ii. _cahiers_ 5, 6, tom. viii. _cahier_ 15; -_Seánces des Écoles Normales_; and _Connoissance des Tems_, 1814, 1817. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by Ja^s. Mollison._ - - VOLTAIRE. - - _From an original Picture by Largillière - in the collection of the Institute of France._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - VOLTAIRE. - - -François Marie Arouet, who is commonly known by his assumed name, De -Voltaire, was born at Châtenay, near Sceaux, February 20, 1694. He soon -distinguished himself as a child of extraordinary abilities. The Abbé de -Châteauneuf, his godfather, took charge of the elements of his -education, and laboured successfully to improve the talents of his ready -pupil without much regard to his morals. At three years old the future -champion of infidelity had learned by heart the Moisade, an irreligious -poem of J. B. Rousseau. These lessons were not forgotten at college, -where he passed rapidly through the usual courses of study, and alarmed -his Jesuit preceptors by the undisguised licence of his opinions. About -this time some of his first attempts at poetry obtained for him the -notice of Ninon de l’Enclos; and when the Abbé de Châteauneuf, who had -been the last in her long list of favourites, introduced him at her -house, she was so pleased with the promising talents of the boy, that -she left him by will a legacy of 2,000 francs to purchase books. The -Ecole de Droit, where Arouet next studied, was much less suited to his -disposition than the College of Louis le Grand. In vain his father urged -him to undertake the drudgery of a profession: the Abbé was a more -agreeable monitor, and under his auspices the young man sought with -eagerness the best Parisian society. At the suppers of the Prince de -Conti, he became acquainted with wits and poets, acquired the easy tone -of familiar politeness, and distinguished himself by the delicacy of his -flatteries, and the liveliness of his repartee. In 1713 he went to -Holland as page to the French ambassador, the Marquis de Châteauneuf. -This place had been solicited by his father in the hope of detaching him -from dissipated habits. But little was gained by the step, for in a -short time he was sent back to his family, in consequence of an intrigue -with a M^{lle.} Du Noyer, whose mother, a Protestant refugee at the -Hague, gained her living by scandal and libels, and on this occasion -thought something might be got by complaining to the ambassador, and -printing young Arouet’s love-letters. He was, however, not easily -discouraged. He endeavoured to interest the Jesuits in his affairs, by -representing M^{lle.} Du Noyer as a ready convert, whom it would be -Catholic charity to snatch from the influence of an apostate mother. -This manœuvre having failed, he sought a reconciliation with his father, -who remained a long while implacable; but touched at last by his son’s -entreaties to be permitted to see him once more, on condition of leaving -the country immediately afterwards for America, he consented to receive -him into favour. Arouet again attempted legal studies, but soon -abandoned them in disgust. The Regency had now commenced; and among the -numerous satires directed against the memory of Louis XIV., one was -attributed to him. The report caused him a year’s imprisonment in the -Bastille. Soon afterwards he changed the name of Arouet for that of -Voltaire. “I have been unhappy,” he said, “so long as I bore the first: -let us see if the other will bring better fortune.” It seemed indeed -that it did so, for in 1718 the tragedy of Œdipe was represented, and -established the reputation of its author. It had been principally -composed in the Bastille, where he also laid the foundation of his -Henriade, which occupied the time he could spare from amorous and -political intrigue, until 1724. Desiring to publish it, he submitted the -poem to some select friends, men of severe taste, who met at the house -of the President de Maisons. They found so many faults that the author -threw the manuscript into the fire. The President Hénault rescued it -with difficulty, and said, “Young man, your haste has cost me a pair of -best lace ruffles: why should your poem be better than its hero, who was -full of faults, yet none of us like him the worse?” Surreptitious copies -spread rapidly, and gained for the author much both of celebrity and -envy. But it displeased two powerful classes: the priests were -apprehensive of its religious, the courtiers of its political, tendency; -insomuch that the publication was prohibited by government, and the -young king refused to accept the dedication. Soon after this, Voltaire -was sent again to the Bastille, in consequence of a quarrel with the -Chevalier de Rohan: and on his liberation, he was banished to England. -There he remained three years, perhaps the most important era of his -life, for it gave an entirely new direction to his lively mind. Hitherto -a wit, and a writer of agreeable verse, he became in England a -philosopher. Returning to France in 1726, he brought with him an -admiration of our manners, and a knowledge of our best writers, which -visibly influenced his own compositions and those of his contemporaries. -He now published several poetical and dramatic pieces with variable -success; but he was more than once forced to quit Paris by the clamour -and persecution of his enemies. After the failure of one of his plays, -Fontenelle and some other literary associates seriously advised him to -abandon the drama, as less suited to his talent than the light style of -fugitive poetry in which he had uniformly succeeded. He answered them by -writing Zaire, which was acted with great applause in 1732. He had -already published his history of Charles XII.: that of Peter the Great -was written much later in life. The Lettres Philosophiques, secretly -printed at Rouen, and rapidly circulating, increased his popularity, and -the zeal of his enemies. This work was burnt by the common hangman. -About this time commenced that celebrated intimacy with Emilie Marquise -du Châtelet, which for nearly twenty years stimulated and guided his -genius. Love made him a mathematician. In the studious leisure of Cirey, -under the auspices of “la sublime Emilie,” he plunged himself into the -most abstract speculations, and acquired a new title to fame by -publishing the Elements of Newton in 1738, and contending for a prize -proposed by the Academy of Sciences. At the same time he produced in -rapid succession Alzire, Mahomet, and Merope. His fame was now become -European. Frederic of Prussia, Stanislaus, and other sovereigns honoured -him, or were honoured by his correspondence. But the perpetual intrigues -of his enemies at home deprived him of repose, and even at Cirey he was -not always free from troubles and altercations. Upon the death of Madame -du Châtelet, in 1749, he accepted the often urged invitation of -Frederic, and took up his residence at the Court of Berlin. But the -friendship of the king and the philosopher was not of long duration. A -violent quarrel with the geometrician, Maupertuis, who was also living -under the protection of Frederic, ended, after some ineffectual attempts -at accommodation, in Voltaire’s departure from Frederic’s society and -dominions (1753). He had just published his Siècle de Louis XIV., which -was shortly followed by the Essai sur les Mœurs. After a few more -wanderings, for the versatility of his talent seemed to require a -corresponding variety of abode, Voltaire finally fixed himself at -Ferney, near Geneva, in the sixty-fifth year of his eventful life, and -began to enjoy at leisure his vast reputation. From all parts of Europe -strangers undertook pilgrimages to this philosophic shrine. Sovereigns -took pride in corresponding with the Patriarch, as he was called by the -numerous sect of free-thinkers, and self-styled _philosophers_, who -looked up to him as their teacher and leader. The Society of -Philosophers at Paris, now employed in their great work, the -Encyclopædia, which, from the moment of its ill-judged prohibition by -the government had assumed the character of an antichristian manifesto, -looked up to Voltaire as the acknowledged chief of their party. He -furnished some of the most important articles in the work. His whole -mind seemed now to be bent on one object, the subversion of the -Christian religion. Innumerable miscellaneous compositions, different in -form, and generally anonymous, indeed often disavowed, were marked by -this pernicious tendency. “I am tired,” he is reported to have said, “of -hearing it repeated that twelve men were sufficient to found -Christianity: I will show the world that _one_ is sufficient to destroy -it!” Half a century has elapsed, and the event has not justified the -truth of this boast: he mistook his own strength, as many other -unbelievers have done. These impious extravagances were not, however, -the only occupation of the twenty years which intervened between -Voltaire’s establishment at Ferney and his death. In the defence of -Sirven, Lally, Labarre, Calas, and others, who at several times were -objects of unjust condemnation by the judicial tribunals, he exerted -himself with a zeal as indefatigable as it was meritorious. Ferney, -under his protection, grew to a considerable village, and the -inhabitants learned to bless the liberalities of their patron. His mind -continued to be embittered by literary quarrels, the most memorable -being that with J. J. Rousseau, commemorated in his poem, entitled -‘Guerre Civile de Genève’ (1768). He hated this unfortunate exile, as a -rival, as an enthusiast, and as a friend, comparatively speaking, to -Christianity. Nor were these his only disquietudes. The publication of -the infamous poem of La Pucelle, which he suffered in strict confidence -to circulate among his intimate friends, and which was printed by the -treachery of some of them, gave him much uneasiness. For its indecency -and impiety he might not have cared: but all who had offended him, -authors, courtiers, even the king and his mistress, were abused in it in -the grossest manner, and Voltaire had no wish to provoke the arm of -power. He had recourse to his usual process of disavowal, and as he -could not deny the whole, he asserted that the offensive parts had been -intercalated by his enemies. In other instances his zeal outran -discretion, and affected his comforts by producing apprehension for his -safety. Sometimes a panic terror of assassination took possession of -him, and it needed all the gentleness and assiduities of his adopted -daughter, Madame de Varicourt, to whom he was tenderly attached, to -bring back his usual levity of mind. At length, in 1778, Voltaire -yielding to the entreaties of his favourite niece, Madame Denis, came to -Paris, where at the theatre he was greeted by a numerous assemblage in a -manner resembling the crowning of an Athenian dramatic poet, more than -any modern exhibition of popular favour. Borne back to his hotel amidst -the acclamations of thousands, the aged man said feebly, “You are -suffocating me with roses.” He did not indeed long survive this -festival. Continued study, and the immoderate use of coffee, renewed a -strangury to which he had been subject, and he died May 30, 1778. He was -interred with the rites of Christian worship, a point concerning which -he had shown some solicitude, in the Abbaye de Scellières. In 1791 his -remains were removed by the Revolutionists, and deposited with great -pomp in the Pantheon. - -It is difficult within our contracted limits to give an accurate -character of Voltaire. In versatility of powers, and in variety of -knowledge, he stands unrivalled: but he might have earned a better and -more lasting name, had he concentrated his talents and exertions on -fewer subjects, and studied them more deeply. It has been truly and -wittily observed that “he _half knew_ every thing, from the cedar of -Lebanon to the hyssop on the wall; and he wrote of them all, and laughed -at them all.” Of the feeling of veneration, either for God or man, he -seems to have been incapable. He thought too highly of himself to look -up to any thing. Capricious, passionate, and generally selfish, he was -yet accessible to sudden impulses of generosity. He was an acute rather -than a subtle thinker. Perhaps in the whole compass of his philosophical -works there is not to be found one original opinion, or entirely new -argument; but no man ever was endowed with so happy a facility for -illustrating the thoughts of others, and imparting a lively clearness to -the most abstruse speculations. He brought philosophy from the closet -into the drawing-room. Eminently skilled to detect and satirize the -faults and follies of mankind, his love of ridicule was too strong for -his love of truth. He saw the ludicrous side of opinions in a moment, -and often unfortunately could see nothing else. His alchymy was directed -towards transmuting the imperfect metals into dross. All enthusiasm, -eagerness of belief, magnifying of probabilities through the medium of -excited feeling, all that makes a sect as well in its author as its -followers, these things were simply foolish in his estimation. It is -impossible to gather from his works any connected system of philosophy: -they are full of contradictions; but the pervading principle which gives -them some form of coherence is a rancorous aversion to Christianity. As -a Deist believing in a God, “rémunérateur vengeur,” but proscribing all -established worship, Voltaire occupies a middle position between -Rousseau on the one hand, who, while he avowed scepticism as to the -proofs, professed reverence for the characteristics of Revealed -Religion, and Diderot on the other, with his fanatical crew of Atheists, -who laughed not without reason at their Patriarch of Ferney, for -imagining that he, whose life had been spent in trying to unsettle the -religious opinions of mankind, could fix the point at which unbelief -should stop. The dramatic poems of Voltaire retain their place among the -first in their language, but his other poetical works have lost much of -the reputation they once enjoyed. He paints with fidelity and vividness -the broad lineaments of passion, and excels in that light, allusive -style, which brings no image or sentiment into strong relief, and is -therefore totally unlike the analytic and picturesque mode of -delineation, to which in this country, and especially in this age, we -are apt to limit the name and prerogatives of imagination. As a -novelist, he has seldom been equalled in wit and profligacy. As an -historian, he may be considered one of the first who authorized the -modern philosophizing manner, treating history rather as a reservoir of -facts for the illustration of moral science, than as a department of -descriptive art. He is often inaccurate, and seldom profound, but always -lively and interesting. On the whole, however the general reputation of -Voltaire may rise or fall with the fluctuations of public opinion, he -must continue to deserve admiration as - - “The wonder of a learned age; the line - Which none could pass; the wittiest, clearest pen; - _The voice most echoed by consenting men; - The soul, which answered best to all well said - By others, and which most requital made_.”—CLEVELAND. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Posselwhite._ - - RUBENS. - - _From the original Picture by himself, - in His Majesty’s Collection._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - RUBENS. - - -The father of this great painter was a magistrate of Antwerp, who, -during the desperate struggle of the Netherlands to shake off the -dominion of Spain, retired from his own city to Cologne, to escape from -the miseries of war. There, in the year 1577, Peter Paul Rubens was -born. At an early age he gave indications of superior abilities, and his -education was conducted with suitable care. The elder Rubens returned to -Antwerp with his family, when that city passed again into the hands of -Spain. It was the custom of that age to domesticate the sons of -honourable families in the houses of the nobility, where they were -instructed in all the accomplishments becoming a gentleman: and in -conformity with it, young Rubens entered as a page into the service of -the Countess of Lalain. The restraint and formality of this life ill -suited his warm imagination and active mind: and on his father’s death, -he obtained permission from his mother to commence his studies as a -painter under Tobias Verhaecht, by whom he was taught the principles of -landscape painting, and of architecture. But Rubens wished to become an -historical painter, and he entered the school of Adam Van Oort, who was -then eminent in that branch of art. This man possessed great talents, -but they were degraded by a brutal temper and profligate habits, and -Rubens soon left him in disgust. His next master was Otho Van Veen, or -Venius, an artist in almost every respect the opposite of Van Oort, -distinguished by scholastic acquirements as well as professional skill, -of refined manners, and amiable disposition. Rubens was always -accustomed to speak of him with great respect and affection, nor was it -extraordinary that he should have conceived a cordial esteem for a man -whose character bore so strong a resemblance to his own. From Venius, -Rubens imbibed his fondness for allegory; which, though in many respects -objectionable, certainly contributes to the magnificence of his style. -In 1600, after having studied four years under this master, he visited -Italy, bearing letters of recommendation from Albert, governor of the -Netherlands, by whom he had already been employed, to Vincenzio Gonzaga, -duke of Mantua. He was received by that prince with marked distinction, -and appointed one of the gentlemen of his chamber. He remained at Mantua -two years, during which time he executed several original pictures, and -devoted himself attentively to the study of the works of Giulio Romano. - -In passing through Venice, Rubens had been deeply impressed with the -great works of art which he saw there. He had determined to revisit that -city on the first opportunity, and at length obtained permission from -his patron to do so. In the Venetian school his genius found its proper -aliment; but it is perhaps to Paul Veronese that he is principally -indebted. He looked at Titian, no doubt, with unqualified admiration; -but Titian has on all occasions, a dignity and sedateness not congenial -to the gay temperament of Rubens. In Paul Veronese he found all the -elements of his subsequent style; gaiety, magnificence, fancy disdainful -of restraint, brilliant colouring, and that masterly execution by which -an almost endless variety of objects are blended into one harmonious -whole. Three pictures painted for the church of the Jesuits immediately -after his return to Mantua, attested how effectually he had prosecuted -his studies at Venice. He then developed those powers which afterwards -established his reputation, and secured to him a distinction which he -still holds without a competitor, that of being the best imitator, and -most formidable rival of the Venetian school. - -Rome, with its exhaustless treasures of art, was still before him, and -he was soon gratified with an opportunity of visiting that capital. The -Duke of Mantua wished to obtain copies of some of the finest pictures -there, and he engaged Rubens to make them, with the double motive of -availing himself of his talents and facilitating his studies. This task -was doubtless rendered light to Rubens, as well by gratitude towards his -patron as by his own great facility of execution. In this respect Sir J. -Reynolds considers him superior to all other painters; and says that he -was “perhaps the greatest master in the mechanical part of his art, the -best workman with his tools, that ever handled a pencil.” He executed -for the Duke copies of several great works, which could scarcely be -distinguished from the originals. Among his own compositions, painted -while at Rome, the most conspicuous are three in the church of S. Croce -in Gerusalemme, two of which, Christ bearing the Cross, and the -Crucifixion, are considered to rank among his finest productions. There -is also, in the Campidoglio, a picture painted by him at this time, of -the finding of Romulus and Remus, a work of remarkable spirit and -beauty. - -Rubens, however, had formed his style at Venice, and was not induced by -the contemplation of the great works at Rome to alter it in any -essential particular. It is not thence to be inferred that he was -insensible to the wonders which surrounded him at Rome; that he did not -appreciate the epic sublimity of Michael Angelo, the pure intelligence -of Raphael; his admiration of ancient sculpture is attested by his -written precepts. Of the antique, certainly, no trace of imitation is to -be found in his works; but perhaps the bold style of design, which he -had adopted in opposition to the meagre taste of his German -predecessors, was confirmed by the swelling outlines of Michael Angelo. -If he imitated Raphael in any thing, it was in composition; and if in -that great quality of art he has any superior, it is in Raphael alone. - -The opinion which the Duke of Mantua had formed of Rubens’s general -powers was now evinced in an extraordinary manner. Having occasion, in -1605, to send an envoy to Spain, he selected Rubens for the purpose, and -directed him to return immediately from Rome to Mantua, in order to set -out on his embassy. The young artist succeeded equally well as a -diplomatist, and as a painter. He executed a portrait of the King, who -honoured him with flattering marks of distinction, and he fully -accomplished the object of his mission. Shortly after his return to -Mantua he revisited Rome, where he contributed three pictures to the -church of S. Maria in Vallicella. In these the imitation of Paul -Veronese is particularly conspicuous. He next went to Genoa, where he -executed several important works, and was regarded in that city with an -interest and respect commensurate to his high reputation. In the midst -of this splendid career, Rubens received intelligence that his mother, -from whom he had been absent eight years, lay dangerously ill. He -hastened to Antwerp, but she had expired before his arrival. The death -of this affectionate parent afflicted him so severely, that he -determined to quit a city fraught with painful associations, and to take -up his future residence in Italy. But the Duke Albert, and the Infanta -Isabella, being anxious to retain him in their own territory, he was -induced to relinquish his intention, and finally settled at Antwerp. - -There he continued to practise during several years, and enriched -Europe, the Low Countries especially, with a surprising number of -pictures almost uniform in excellence. His style, indeed, with all its -admirable qualities, was one in which the delicacies of form and -expression were never allowed to stand in the way of despatch. His mode -of working was to make small sketches, slightly but distinctly; these -were delivered to his scholars, who executed pictures from them on a -larger scale, which they carried forward almost to the final stage, at -which Rubens took them up himself. Thus his own labour was given only to -invention and finishing, the only parts of the art in which the -painter’s genius is essentially exercised. Wherever his works were -dispersed, the demand for them increased, and fortune poured in on him -in a golden flood. Rubens’s mode of living at Antwerp was the _beau -idéal_ of a painter’s existence. His house was embellished with such a -collection of works of art, pictures, statues, busts, vases, and other -objects of curiosity and elegance, as gave it the air of a princely -museum. In the midst of these he pursued his labours, and it was his -constant practice while painting to have read to him works of ancient or -modern literature in various languages. It is a strong testimony to the -variety of his powers, and the cultivation of his mind, that he was well -skilled in seven different tongues. His splendid establishment -comprehended a collection of wild beasts, which he kept as living models -for those hunting pieces, and other representations of savage animals, -which have never been surpassed. Such talents and such success could not -fail of exciting envy; a cabal headed by Schut, Jansens, and Rombouts, -endeavoured to detract from his reputation, and it is amusing to find -him accused, among other deficiencies, of wanting invention! His great -picture of the Descent from the Cross, painted for the Cathedral of -Antwerp, and exhibited while the outcry against him was at its height, -effectually allayed it. Snyders and Wildens were answered in a similar -manner. They had insinuated that the chief credit of Rubens’s landscapes -and animals was due to their assistance. Rubens painted several lion and -tiger hunts, and other similar works, entirely with his own hand, which -he did not permit to be seen until they were completed. In these works -he even surpassed his former productions; they were executed with a -truth power, and energy, which excited universal astonishment, and -effectually put his adversaries to silence. Rubens condescended to give -no other reply to his calumniators; and he showed his own goodness of -heart, by finding employment for those among them whom he understood to -be in want of it. - -In 1628 he was commissioned by Mary de Medici, Queen of France, to adorn -the gallery of the Luxembourg with a set of pictures, twenty-four in -number, illustrative of the events of her life. Within three years he -completed this magnificent series, in which allegory mingles with -history, and the immense variety of actors, human and superhuman, with -appropriate accompaniments, lays open a boundless field to the -imagination of the artist. The largest of these pictures, which is the -Coronation of Mary de Medici, combines with the gorgeous colouring -proper to the subject, a correctness and chastity of design seldom -attained by Rubens, and is consequently an example of that high -excellence which might be expected from his style when divested of its -imperfections. The gallery of the Luxembourg, as long as it possessed -those ornaments, was considered one of the wonders of Europe. The -pictures are now removed to the Louvre, and are seen perhaps with -diminished effect, among the mass of miscellaneous works with which they -are surrounded. - -The two last of the Luxembourg series Rubens finished in Paris. On his -return to the Netherlands his political talents were again called into -requisition, and he was despatched by the Infanta Isabella to Madrid, to -receive instructions preparatory to a negotiation for peace between -Spain and England. Philip IV., and the Duke de Olivarez, his minister, -received him with every demonstration of regard, nor did they neglect to -avail themselves of his professional skill. The King engaged him to -paint four pictures of large dimensions for the Convent of Carmelites, -near Madrid, recently founded by Olivarez, to whom Philip presented -those magnificent works. The subjects were the Triumph of the New Law, -Abraham and Melchizedec, the four Evangelists, and the four Doctors of -the Church, with their distinctive emblems. He also painted a series of -pictures for the great Saloon of the Palace at Madrid, which represent -the Rape of the Sabines, the Battle between the Romans and Sabines, the -Bath of Diana, Perseus and Andromeda, the Rape of Helen, the Judgment of -Paris, and the Triumph of Bacchus. The Judgment of Paris is now in the -possession of Mr. Penrice, of Great Yarmouth, and may be considered one -of the finest of Rubens’s smaller pictures; the figures being half the -size of life. The King rewarded him munificently, and conferred on him -the honour of knighthood. - -Rubens returned to Flanders in 1627, and had no sooner rendered an -account of his mission to the Infanta, than he was sent by that princess -to England in order to sound the Government on the subject of a peace -with Spain, the chief obstacle to which had been removed by the death of -the Duke of Buckingham. It is probable that Rubens’s extraordinary -powers as an artist formed one motive for employing him in those -diplomatic functions. The monarchs to whose courts he was sent were -passionate admirers of art; and the frequent visits which they made to -Rubens in his painting room, and the confidence with which they honoured -him, gave him opportunities, perhaps, in his double capacity, of -obviating political difficulties, which might not otherwise have been so -easily overcome. This was certainly the case in his negotiations with -Charles I. He was not, it appears, formally presented in the character -of an envoy. But the monarch received him with all the consideration due -to his distinguished character; and it was while he was engaged on the -paintings at Whitehall, the progress of which the King delighted to -inspect, that he disclosed the object of his visit, and produced his -credentials. This he did with infinite delicacy and address; and the -King was by no means indisposed to listen to his proposals. A council -was appointed to negotiate with him on the subject of a pacification, -which was soon after concluded. It was on this occasion that Rubens -painted and presented to the King the picture of Peace and War, which is -now in our National Gallery. The relation of that work to the object of -his mission is obvious: the blessings of peace in contradistinction to -the miseries of war are beautifully illustrated; and whether Rubens paid -this compliment to the King while his negotiations were in progress, or -after they were terminated, a more elegant and appropriate gift was -never addressed by a minister to a monarch. The painter was splendidly -remunerated, and honoured with knighthood by Charles in 1630. The object -of his mission being happily accomplished, he returned to the -Netherlands, where he was received with the distinction due to his -splendid genius and successful services. - -His various and incessant labours appear to have prematurely broken his -constitution; he had scarcely attained his fifty-eighth year when he was -attacked by gout with more than usual severity. This painful disease was -succeeded by a general debility, which obliged him to desist from the -execution of large works, to relinquish all public business, and even to -limit his correspondence to his particular friends, and a few -distinguished artists. His letters, however, when he touches on the -subject of art, rise into a strain of animated enthusiasm. He continued -to work, but chiefly on small subjects, till the year 1640, when he died -at the age of sixty-three. He was interred with great splendour in the -church of St. James, under the altar of his private chapel, which he had -ornamented with one of his finest pictures. A monument was erected to -his memory by his widow and children, with an epitaph descriptive of his -distinguished talents, the functions he had filled, and the honours with -which he had been rewarded. - -In extent of range the pencil of Rubens is unrivalled. History, -portrait, landscape under the aspect of every season, animal life in -every form, are equally familiar to him. His hunting pieces especially, -wherein lions, tigers, and other wild animals, with men, dogs, and -horses, are depicted under all the circumstances of fierce excitement, -momentary action, and complicated foreshortenings, are wonderful. Rubens -wanted only a purer style in designing the human figure, to have been a -perfect, as well as a universal painter. His taste in this particular is -singularly unlike that which the habits of his life seemed likely to -produce. He had been bred up in scenes of courtly elegance, and he was -acquainted with whatever was beautiful in art; yet his conception of -character, especially in relation to feminine beauty, betrays a singular -want of refinement. His goddesses, nymphs, and heroines are usually fat, -middle-aged ladies, sometimes even old and ugly; and they always retain -the peculiarities of individual models. His men too, though not without -an air of portly grandeur, want mental dignity. Faults of such magnitude -would have ruined the fame of almost any other painter; but while the -pictures of Rubens are before us, it is hard to criticise severely their -defects. If, as a colourist, he is inferior to Titian, it is, perhaps, -rather in kind than in degree: Titian’s colouring may be compared to the -splendour of the summer sun; that of Rubens excites the exhilarating -sensations of a spring morning. It is true that the artifice of his -system is sometimes too apparent, whereas, in Titian, it is wholly -concealed; Rubens, however, painted for a darker atmosphere, and adapted -the effect of his pictures to the light in which they were likely to be -seen. Inferior to Raphael in elegance and purity of composition, he -competes with him in fertility and clearness of arrangement. He drew -from Paul Veronese a general idea of diffused and splendid effect, but -he superadded powers of pathos and expression, to which that artist was -a stranger. It is, as Reynolds justly observes, only in his large works -that the genius of Rubens is fully developed; in these he appears as the -Homer of his art, dazzling and astonishing with poetic conception, with -grandeur, and energy, and executive power. - -Of Rubens’s personal character we may speak in terms of high praise. He -bore his great reputation without pride or presumption; he was amiable -in his domestic relations, courteous and affable to all. He was the -liberal encourager of merit, especially in his own art, and he repaid -those among his contemporaries who aspersed him, by endeavouring to -serve them. His own mind was uncontaminated by envy, for which perhaps -little credit will be given him, conscious, as he must have been, of his -own most extraordinary endowments. His noble admission, however, of -Titian’s superiority, when he copied one of his works at Madrid, attests -the magnanimity of his disposition; and his almost parental kindness to -his pupil, Vandyke, shows that he was equally willing to recognize the -claims, and to promote the success of living genius. - -Rubens’s greatest works are at Antwerp, Cologne, Paris, Munich, and -Madrid. The paintings at Whitehall might have formed a noble monument of -his powers, but they have suffered both from neglect and reparation. -There are smaller works of his in the National Gallery, the Dulwich -Gallery, and in almost every private collection in this country. - -The best memoir of Rubens with which we are acquainted is in La Vie des -Peintres Flamands, par Descamps. Notices may also be found in the Abrégé -de la Vie des Peintres, par De Piles. There is an English life in -Bryan’s Dictionary of Painters. - -[Illustration: Entrance to Rubens’ Garden, from a design by himself.] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by T. Woolnoth._ - - RICHELIEU. - - _From a Picture, - in his Majesty’s Collection._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - RICHELIEU. - - -The name of Du Plessis was borne by an ancient family of Poitou, which -subsequently acquired by marriage the property and title of Richelieu. -Francois Du Plessis was attached to King Henry III. while he was yet -Duke of Anjou; accompanied him when he became King of Poland; and was -made Grand Provost of his Court, after his accession to the throne of -France. In this capacity he arrested the followers of Guise, when that -duke was assassinated at Blois, in 1588. - -Armand Jean Du Plessis, the future cardinal, was the third son of this -dignitary, and was born on the 5th of September, 1585, at Paris, say his -biographers, Aubery and Leclerc; whilst tradition claims this honour for -the family château in Poitou. He received the elements of education at -home, from the Prior of St. Florent; but soon quitted the paternal -mansion, first for the College of Navarre, subsequently for that of -Lisieux. From thence he removed to a military academy, being intended -for the profession of arms. But on his brother, who was Bishop of Luçon, -resolving to quit the world for the cloister, young Armand was advised -to abandon the sword for the gown, in order that he might succeed to his -brother’s bishopric. - -He adopted the advice, entered with zeal into the study of theology, and -soon qualified himself to pass creditably through the exercises -necessary to obtain the degree of Doctor in Theology. He already wore -the insignia of his bishopric. But the Pope’s sanction was still -wanting, and was withheld on account of the extreme youth of the -expectant. Resolved to overcome this difficulty, he set off to Rome, -addressed the Pontiff in a Latin oration, and gave such proofs of talent -and acquirements above his age, that he was consecrated at Rome on the -Easter of 1607, being as yet but twenty-two years of age. - -This position attained, Richelieu endeavoured to make the utmost -advantage of it. He acquired the good-will of his diocese by rigid -attention to the affairs that fell under his jurisdiction; whilst in -frequent visits to the capital, he sought to acquire reputation by -preaching. In the Estates General of 1614, he was chosen deputy by his -diocese, and was afterwards selected by the clergy of the states to -present their _cahier_ or vote of grievances to the monarch. It was an -opportunity not to be thrown away by the ambition of Richelieu, who -instantly put himself forward as the champion of the Queen Mother -against the cabal of the high noblesse. He at the same time adroitly -pointed out where she might find auxiliaries, by complaining that -ecclesiastics had no longer a place in the public administration, and -were thus degraded from their ancient and legitimate share of influence. -Richelieu was rewarded with the place of Almoner to the Queen; and he -was soon admitted to her confidence, as well as to that of her favourite -the Maréchal D’Ancre. - -In 1616 he was appointed Secretary of State; but aware by what slender -tenure the office was held, he refused to give up his bishopric. This -excited not only the animadversions of the public, but the anger of the -favourite. Richelieu offered to give up his secretaryship, but the Queen -could not dispense with his talents. The assassination of the favourite, -however, soon overthrew the influence of the Queen herself. Still -Richelieu remained attached to her, and followed her to Blois: but the -triumphant party dreading his talents for intrigue, ordered him to quit -the Queen, and repair to one of his priories in Anjou. He was -subsequently commanded to retire to his bishopric, and at last exiled to -Avignon. Here he sought to avert suspicion by affecting to devote -himself once more to theological pursuits. During this period he -published one or two polemical tracts, the mediocrity of which proves -either that his genius lay not in this path, or, as is probable, that -his interest and thoughts were elsewhere. - -The escape of the Queen Mother from her place of confinement, excited -the fears of her enemies, and the hopes of Richelieu. He wrote instantly -to Court, to proffer his services towards bringing about an -accommodation. In the difficulty of the moment, the King and his -favourite accepted the offer. Richelieu was released from exile, and -allowed to join the Queen at Angoulême, where he laboured certainly to -bring about a reconciliation. This was not, however, such as the Court -could have wished. De Luynes, the favourite, accused the Bishop of Luçon -of betraying him. The Queen sought to regain her ancient authority; the -Court wished to quiet and content her without this sacrifice; and both -parties, accordingly, after seeming and nominal agreements, fell off -again from each other. De Luynes sought a support in the family of -Condé; whilst Mary de Medici, refusing to repair to Paris, and keeping -in her towns of surety on the Loire, flattered the Huguenots, and -endeavoured to bind them to her party. On this occasion Richelieu became -intimately acquainted with the designs and intrigues and spirit of the -Reformers. - -The division betwixt the King and his mother still continued. The -discontented nobles joined the latter, and flew to arms. This state of -things did not please Richelieu, since defeat ruined his party, and -success brought honour rather to those who fought than to him. He -therefore exerted himself, first to keep away the chief of the nobility -from the Queen, secondly, to bring about an accommodation. The -difficulties were got over by the defeat of the Queen’s forces owing to -surprise, and by the promotion of Richelieu to the rank of Cardinal. The -malevolent coupled the two circumstances together; and even the -impartial must descry a singular coincidence. The event, at least, -proves his address; for when the agreement was finally concluded, it was -found that Richelieu, the negotiator, had himself reaped all the -benefits. He received the cardinal’s hat from the King’s hand at Lyons, -towards the close of the year 1622. - -Not content with this advancement of her counsellor, Mary de Medici -continued to press the King to admit Richelieu to his cabinet. Louis -long resisted her solicitations, such was his instinctive dread of the -man destined to rule him. Nor was it until 1624, after the lapse of -sixteen months, and when embarrassed with difficult state questions, -which no one then in office was capable of managing, that the royal will -was declared admitting Richelieu to the council. Even this grace was -accompanied by the drawback, that the Cardinal was allowed to give -merely his opinion, not his vote. - -Once, however, seated at the council table, the colleagues of the -Cardinal shrunk before him into ciphers. The marriage of the Princess -Henrietta with the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I., was then in -agitation. Richelieu undertook to conduct it, and overcame the delays of -etiquette and the repugnance of Rome. De Vieville, the King’s favourite -and minister, venturing to show jealousy of Richelieu, was speedily -removed. The affair of the Valteline had given rise to endless -negotiations. The matter in dispute was the attempt of the House of -Austria to procure a passage across the Grisons to connect their Italian -and German dominions. France and the Italian powers had opposed this by -protests. Richelieu boldly marched an army, and avowed in council his -determination to adopt the policy and resume the scheme of Henry IV., -for the humiliation of the House of Austria. The King and his Council -were terrified at such a gigantic proposal: instead of being awed by the -genius of Richelieu, as yet they mistrusted it. Peace was concluded with -Spain; on no unfavourable conditions indeed, but not on such as -flattered the new minister’s pride. - -Whilst these negotiations with Spain were yet in progress, the Huguenots -menaced a renewal of the civil war. Richelieu advised in the council -that their demands should be granted, urging that whilst a foreign foe -was in the field, domestic enemies were better quieted than irritated. -His enemies took advantage of this, and represented the Cardinal as a -favourer of heresy. This charge is continually brought against those who -are indifferent to religious dissensions; but it is probable that -Richelieu did seek at this time to gain the support of the Protestant -party, attacked as he was by a strong band of malcontent nobles, envious -of his rise, and intolerant of his authority. - -The whole Court, indeed, became leagued against the superiority and -arrogance of the Minister; the most _qualified_ of the noblesse, to use -Aubery’s expression, joined with the Duke of Orleans, the monarch’s -brother, and with the Queen, to overthrow Richelieu. As the Maréchal -D’Ancre had been made away with by assassination, so the same means were -again meditated. The Comte de Chalais offered himself as the instrument: -but the mingled good fortune and address of Richelieu enabled him to -discover the plot, and avoid this, and every future peril. - -His anchor of safety was in the confidence reposed in him by Louis XIII. -This prince, although of most feeble will, was not without the just -pride of a monarch; he could not but perceive that his former ministers -or favourites were but the instruments or slaves of the noblesse, who -consulted but their own interests, and provided but for the difficulties -of the moment. Richelieu, on the contrary, though eager for power, -sought it as an instrument to great ends, to the consolidation of the -monarchy, and to its ascendancy in Europe. He was in the habit of -unfolding these high views to Louis, who, though himself incapable of -putting them into effect, nevertheless had the spirit to admire and -approve them. Richelieu proposed to render his reign illustrious abroad, -and at home to convert the chief of a turbulent aristocracy into a real -monarch. It forms indeed the noblest part of this great statesman’s -character, that he won upon the royal mind, not by vulgar flattery, but -by exciting within it a love of glory and of greatness, to which, at the -same time, he pointed the way. - -Accordingly, through all the plots formed against him, Louis XIII. -remained firmly attached to Richelieu, sacrificing to this minister’s -preeminence his nobility, his brother Gaston, Duke of Orleans, his -Queen, and finally the Queen Mother herself, when she too became jealous -of the man whom she had raised. As yet however Mary de Medici was his -friend, and Richelieu succeeded in sending his enemies to prison or to -the scaffold. Gaston was obliged to bow the knee before the Cardinal. -And Anne of Austria, who was accused of having consented to espouse -Gaston in case of the King’s death, was for ever exiled from the -affections of the monarch, and from any influence over him. If this -latter triumph over the young wife of Louis, whose enmity certainly the -Cardinal had most to fear, was excited by coldly invented falsehoods, -history has scarcely recorded a more odious crime. - -It is said that Richelieu himself was enamoured of Anne of Austria, and -that he found himself outrivalled by the Duke of Buckingham. What credit -should be assigned to the existence and influence of such feelings it is -difficult to determine. But certainly a strong and personal jealousy of -Buckingham is to be perceived in the conduct of Richelieu. Policy would -have recommended the minister to cajole rather than affront the English -favourite at a time when the Huguenot party was menacing and the -nobility still indignant. The Cardinal had not long before concluded the -marriage of the Princess Henrietta with Charles, in order to secure the -English alliance, and thus deprive the Huguenots of a dangerous support. -Now he ran counter to these prudent measures, defied Buckingham, whom he -forbade to visit Paris, and thus united against himself and against the -monarchy, two most powerful enemies, one foreign, one domestic. - -If Richelieu thus imprudently indulged his passion or his pique, he -redeemed the error by activity and exertion unusual to the age. He at -once formed the project of attacking the Huguenots in their chief -strong-hold of La Rochelle. Buckingham could not fail to attempt the -relief of this sea-port; and the Cardinal anticipated the triumph of -personally defeating a rival. He accordingly himself proceeded to -preside over the operation of the siege. To render the blockade -effectual, it was requisite to stop up the port. The military officers -whom he employed could suggest no means of doing this. Richelieu took -counsel of his classic reading; and having learned from Quintus Curtius -how Alexander the Great reduced Tyre, by carrying out a mole against it -through the sea, he was encouraged to undertake a similar work. The -great mound was accordingly commenced, and well-nigh finished, when a -storm arose and destroyed it in a single night. But Richelieu was only -rendered more obstinate: he recommenced the mole, and was seen with the -volume of Alexander’s History in his hand, encouraging the workmen and -overruling the objections of the tacticians of the army. The second -attempt succeeded, the harbour was blocked up, and the promised aid of -England rendered fruitless. The Cardinal triumphed, for La Rochelle -surrendered. In his treatment of the vanquished, Richelieu showed a -moderation seldom observable in his conduct. He was lenient, and even -tolerant towards the Huguenots, content with having humbled the pride of -his rival, Buckingham. - -La Rochelle was no sooner taken, and Richelieu rewarded by the title of -Prime Minister, than he resumed those projects of humbling the House of -Austria, in which he had previously been interrupted. A quarrel about -the succession to Mantua afforded him a pretext to interfere; and he did -so, after his fashion, not by mere negotiations, but by an army. This -expedition proved a source of quarrel between him and the Queen Mother, -Mary de Medici, who hitherto had been his firm and efficient friend. -Private and family reasons rendered Mary averse to the war. Both the -French Queens of the House of Medici had shown the reverence of their -family for the princes of the blood of Austria. Mary, on her accession -to the regency, had interrupted Henry IV.’s plans for humbling the -influence of that house. Richelieu’s endeavour to revive this scheme -called forth her opposition. He was obstinate from high motives; she -from petty ones. But she could not forgive the ingratitude of him whom -she had fostered, and who now dared to thwart and counteract her. The -voice of the conqueror of La Rochelle triumphed in council, and his -project in the field. The French were victorious in Italy, and the -minister equally so over the mind of the monarch. - -But Mary de Medici could not forgive; and she now openly showed her -hatred of Richelieu, and exerted herself to the utmost to injure him -with the King. Though daily defeating her intrigues, the Cardinal -dreaded her perseverance, and resolved to drag the King with him to -another Italian campaign. Louis obeyed, and the court set out for the -south, the Queen Mother herself accompanying it. Richelieu, however, did -not tarry for the slow motions of the monarch. He flew to the army, took -upon him the command, and displayed all the abilities of a great general -in out-manœuvring and worsting the generals and armies of Savoy. In the -mean time Louis fell dangerously ill at Lyons. His mother, an -affectionate attendant on his sick couch, resumed her former empire over -him. At one moment his imminent death seemed to threaten the Cardinal -with ruin. Louis recovered, however; and his first act was to compel a -reconciliation, in form at least, between the Cardinal and the Queen -Mother. - -The King’s illness, although not so immediately fatal to Richelieu as -his enemies had hoped, was still attended with serious consequences to -him. The French army had met with ill success through the treachery of -the general, Marillac, who was secretly attached to the Queen’s party: -and the failure was attributed to Richelieu. - -Mary de Medici renewed her solicitations to her son, that he would -dismiss his minister. Louis, it appears, made a promise to that effect; -a reluctant promise, given to get rid of her importunity. Mary -calculated too securely upon his keeping it; she broke forth in bitter -contumely against Richelieu; deprived him of his superintendence over -her household; and treated Madame de Combalet, the Cardinal’s niece, who -had sunk on her knees to entreat her to moderate her anger, almost with -insult. The King was present, and seemed to sanction her violence; so -that Richelieu withdrew to make his preparations for exile. Louis, -dissatisfied and irresolute, retired to Versailles; whilst Mary remained -triumphant at the Luxembourg, receiving the congratulations of her -party. Richelieu in the mean time, ere taking his departure, repaired to -Versailles, and, once there, resumed the ascendant over the monarch. The -tidings of this was a thunderstroke to Mary and her party, who became -instantly the victims of the Cardinal’s revenge. Marillac was beheaded; -and Mary de Medici, herself at length completely vanquished by her -rival, was driven out of France to spend the rest of her days in exile. - -Richelieu had thus triumphed over every interest and every personage -that was, or was likely to be, inimical to his sway. The young Queen, -Anne of Austria, and the Queen Mother, Mary de Medici, had alike been -sacrificed to his preeminence; and it appears that he employed the same -means to ruin both. One of the weak points of Louis XIII. was jealousy -of his brother, Gaston, Duke of Orleans, whom he could never abide. -Notwithstanding his sloth, the King assumed the direction of the Italian -army, and went through the campaign, to prevent Gaston from earning -honour, by filling the place of command. Richelieu made effectual use of -this foible; he overcame Anne of Austria, by bringing proofs that she -preferred Gaston to the King; and he overcame Mary de Medici by a -similar story, that she favoured Gaston, and was paving the way for his -succession. - -The Duke of Orleans was now indignant at his mother’s exile, and -espoused her interest with heat. He intruded upon Richelieu, menacing -him personally; nor did the latter refrain from returning both menace -and insult. Gaston fled to Lorraine, and formed a league with its duke, -and with the majority of the French noblesse, for the purpose of -avenging the wrongs of his mother, and driving from authority the -upstart and tyrannical minister. - -The trial of Marillac had roused the spirit and indignation even of -those nobles, who had previously respected and bowed to the minister of -the royal choice. This nobleman and maréchal was seized at the head of -his army, and conveyed, not to a prison, but to Richelieu’s own -country-house at Ruel. Instead of being tried by his Peers or in -Parliament, he was here brought before a Commission of Judges, chosen by -his enemy. He was tried in the Cardinal’s own hall, condemned, and -executed in the Place de Grève. - -The iniquity of such a proceeding offered a popular pretext for the -nobility to withstand the Cardinal: and they were not without other -reasons. Richelieu not only threatened their order with the scaffold, -but his measures of administration were directed to deprive them of -their ancient privileges, and means of wealth and domination. One of -these was the right of governors of provinces to raise the revenue -within their jurisdiction, and to employ or divert no small portion of -it to their use. Richelieu to remedy this transferred the office of -collecting the revenue to new officers, called the _Elect_. He tried -this in Languedoc, then governed by the Duc de Montmorenci, a noble of -the first rank, whose example consequently would have weight, and who -had always proved himself obedient and loyal. Moved, however, by his -private wrongs, as well as that of his order, he now joined the party of -the Duke of Orleans. That weak prince, after forming his alliance with -the Duke of Lorraine, had raised an army. Richelieu lost not a moment in -despatching a force which reduced Lorraine, and humbled its hitherto -independent duke almost to the rank of a subject. Gaston then marched -his army to Languedoc, and joined Montmorenci. The Maréchal de Brezé, -Richelieu’s brother-in-law, led the royal troops against them, defeated -Gaston at Castelnaudari, and took Montmorenci prisoner. This noble had -been the friend and supporter of Richelieu, who even called him his son; -yet the Cardinal’s cruel policy determined that he should die. There was -difficulty in proving before the Judges that he had actually borne arms -against the King. - -“The smoke and dust,” said St. Reuil, the witness, “rendered it -impossible to recognize any combatant distinctly. But when I saw one -advance alone, and cut his way through five ranks of gens-d’armes, I -knew that it must be Montmorenci.” - -This gallant descendant of five Constables of France perished on the -scaffold at Toulouse. Richelieu deemed the example necessary, to strike -terror into the nobility. And he immediately took advantage of that -terror, by removing all the governors of provinces, and replacing them -throughout with officers personally attached to his interests. - -Having thus made, as it were, a clear stage for the fulfilment of his -great political schemes, Richelieu turned his exertions to his original -plan of humbling the House of Austria, and extending the territories of -France at its expense. He formed an alliance with the great Gustavus -Adolphus, who then victoriously supported the course of religious -liberty in Germany. Richelieu drew more advantage from the death than -from the victories of his ally; since, as the price of his renewing his -alliance with the Swedes, he acquired the possession of Philipsburg, and -opened the way towards completing that darling project of France and -every French statesman, the acquisition of the Rhine as a frontier. - -The French having manifested their design to get possession of Treves, -the Spaniards anticipated them; and open war ensued betwixt the two -monarchies. The Cardinal allied with the Dutch, and drew up a treaty “to -free the Low Countries from the cruel servitude in which they are held -by the Spaniards.” In order to effect this, the French and Dutch were to -capture the fortresses of the country, and finally divide it between -them. - -But Richelieu’s views or means were not mature enough to produce a -successful plan of conquest. Surrounded as France was by the dominions -of her rival, she was obliged to divide her forces, attack on many -sides, and make conquests on none. The generals, whom he was obliged to -employ, were remarkable but for servility to him, and jealousy of each -other. The Cardinal de la Valette headed one of his armies, but with no -better success than his lay colleagues. Instead of crushing Spain, -Richelieu endured the mortification of witnessing the irruption of her -troops into the centre of the kingdom, where they took Corbie, and -menaced the very capital. - -This was a critical moment for Richelieu, who is said to have lost -courage amidst these reverses, and to have been roused to confidence by -the exhortations of his Capuchin friend and confidant, Father Joseph. He -was obliged on this occasion to relax his severity and pride, to own -that the generals of his choice were little worthy of their trust, and -to call on the old noblesse and the princes of the blood to lead the -French troops to the defence of the country. Both obeyed the summons, -and exerted themselves to prove their worth by the recapture of Corbie, -and the repulse of the Spaniards. The enemies of the Cardinal were aware -how much the ignominy of these reverses, as the result of his mighty -plans, must have abated the King’s confidence in him. They endeavoured -to take advantage of the moment, and Louis seemed not averse to shake -off his minister. There was no trusting the King’s intentions, however, -and it was agreed to assassinate Richelieu at Amiens. The Comte de -Soissons had his hand on his sword for the purpose, awaiting but the -signal from Gaston; but the latter wanted resolution to give it, and -Richelieu again escaped the murderous designs of his foes. - -The character of Louis XIII. left his courtiers without hope. It was -such a general mass of weakness, as to offer no particular weak point of -which they could take advantage. Too cold to be enamoured of either wife -or mistress, his gallantries offered no means of captivating his favour; -nor was he bigot enough to be ruled through his conscience by priestly -confessors. It is singular that the gallant, peremptory, and able Louis -XIV. was governed and influenced by those means which had no hold upon -his weak sire. Still as these were the received ways for undermining the -influence of a dominant minister, Louis XIII. was assailed through his -supposed mistresses, and through his confessors, to induce him to shake -off Richelieu. But all attempts were vain. The ladies Hauteville and -Lafayette, who had pleased Louis, retired to a convent. His confessors, -who had hinted the impiety of supporting the Dutch and German -Protestants, were turned out of the palace. And the Queen, Anne of -Austria, with whom Louis made a late reconciliation, the fruit of which -was the birth of the future Louis XIV., was exposed to disrespect and -insult. Her apartments and papers were searched by order of the -Cardinal, a letter was torn from her bosom, she was confined to her -room, and menaced with being sent back to Spain. - -Richelieu in his wars was one of those scientific combatants who seek to -weary out an enemy, and who husband their strength in order not to crush -at once, but to ruin in the end. Such at least were the tactics by which -he came triumphant out of the struggle with Spain. He made no conquests -at first, gained no striking victories; but he compensated for his -apparent want of success by perseverance, by taking advantage of defeat -to improve the army, and by labouring to transfer to the crown the -financial and other resources which had been previously absorbed by the -aristocracy. Thus the war, though little brilliant at first, produced at -last these very important results. Arras in the north, Turin in the -south, Alsace in the east, fell into the hands of the French; Rousillon -was annexed to the monarchy; and Catalonia revolted from Spain. -Richelieu might boast that he had achieved the great purposes of Henry -IV., not so gloriously indeed as that heroic prince might have done, but -no less effectually. This was effected not so much by arms as by -administration. The foundation was laid for that martial preeminence -which Louis XIV. long enjoyed; and which he might have retained, had the -virtue of moderation been known to him. - -It was not without incurring great personal perils, with proportionate -address and good fortune, that Cardinal Richelieu arrived at such great -results. The rebellion of the Comte de Soissons, the same whose project -of assassination had failed, menaced the Minister seriously. In a battle -against the royal army, the Count was completely victorious, an event -that might have caused a revolution in the government, had not fortune -neutralized it by his death. He fell by a pistol-shot, whilst -contemplating the scene of victory. His friends asserted that he was -murdered by an emissary of the Cardinal: according to others, the bullet -was accidentally discharged from his own pistol. - -But the most remarkable plot which assailed Richelieu, was that of -Cinq-Mars, a young nobleman selected to be the King’s favourite, on -account of his presumed frivolity. But he was capable of deep thoughts -and passions; and wearied by the solitude in which the monarch lived, -and to which he was reduced by the Minister’s monopoly of all power, he -dared to plot the Cardinal’s overthrow. This bold attempt was sanctioned -by the King himself, who at intervals complained of the yoke put upon -him. - -Great interests were at stake, for Richelieu, reckoning upon the -monarch’s weak health, meditated procuring the regency for himself. Anne -of Austria, aware of this intention, approved of the project of -Cinq-Mars, which of course implied the assassination of the Cardinal. No -other mode of defying his power and talent could have been contemplated. -But Richelieu was on the watch. The Court was then in the south of -France, engaged in the conquest of Roussillon, a situation favourable -for the relation of the conspirators with Spain. The Minister surprised -one of the emissaries, had the fortune to seize a treaty concluded -between them and the enemies of France; and with this flagrant proof of -their treason, he repaired to Louis, and forced from him an order for -their arrest. It was tantamount to their condemnation. Cinq-Mars and his -friends perished on the scaffold; Anne of Austria was again humbled; and -every enemy of the Cardinal shrunk in awe and submission before his -ascendency. Amongst them was the King himself, whom Richelieu looked -upon as an equal in dignity, an inferior in mind and in power. The -guards of the Cardinal were numerous as the Monarch’s, and independent -of any authority save that of their immediate master. A treaty was even -drawn up between king and minister, as between two potentates. But the -power and the pride of Richelieu reached at once their height and their -termination. A mortal illness seized him in the latter days of 1642, a -few months after the execution of Cinq-Mars. No remorse for his cruelty -or abatement of his pride marked his last moments. He summoned the -monarch like a servant to his couch, instructed him what policy to -follow, and appointed the minister who was to be his own successor. Even -in the last religious duties, the same character and the same spirit -were observable. As his cardinal’s robe was a covering and excuse for -all crimes in life, he seemed to think that it exempted him from the -common lot of mortals after death. - -Such was the career of this supereminent statesman, who, although in the -position of Damocles all his life, with the sword of the assassin -suspended over his head, surrounded with enemies, and with insecure and -treacherous support even from the monarch whom he served, still not only -maintained his own station, but possessed time and zeal to frame and -execute gigantic projects for the advancement of his country and of his -age. It makes no small part of Henry IV.’s glory that he conceived a -plan for diminishing the power of the House of Austria. Richelieu, -without either the security or the advantages of the king and the -warrior, achieved it. Not only this, but he dared to enter upon the war -at the very same time when he was humbling that aristocracy which had -hitherto composed the martial force of the country. - -The effects of his domestic policy were indeed more durable than those -of what he most prided himself upon, his foreign policy. The latter was -his end, the former his means; but the means were the more important of -the two. For half a century previous, kings had been acquiring a -sacro-sanctity, a power founded on respect, which equalled that of -Asiatic despots; whilst at the same time their real sources of power -remained in the hands of the aristocracy. From this contradiction, this -want of harmony betwixt the theoretic and the real power of monarchs, -proceeded a state of licence liable at all times to produce the most -serious convulsions. To this state of things Richelieu put an end for -ever. He crushed the power of the great nobility, as Henry VII., by very -different means, had done before him in England. He made Louis a -sovereign in the most absolute sense; he reformed and changed the whole -system of administration, destroyed all local authorities, and -centralized them, as the term is, in the capital and the court. We see, -accordingly, that it was only the capital which could oppose Mazarin; -all provincial force was destroyed by Richelieu. He it was, in fact, who -founded the French monarchy, such as it existed until near the end of -the eighteenth century, a grand, indeed, rather than a happy result. He -was a man of penetrating and commanding intellect, who visibly -influenced the fortunes of Europe to an extent which few princes or -ministers have equalled. Unscrupulous in his purposes, he was no less so -in the means by which he effected them. But so long as men are honoured, -not for their moral excellences, but for the great things which they -have done for themselves, or their country, the name of Richelieu will -be recollected with respect, as that of one of the most successful -statesmen that ever lived. - -His measures with respect to commerce were very remarkable. He proposed -to render the French marine as formidable as the French armies, and -chose the wisest means in favouring colonization and commercial -companies for the purpose. The chief part of their successful -settlements in the east and west the French owe to Richelieu. In -financial measures he showed least sagacity, and the disordered state in -which he left this branch of the administration was the principal cause -of the difficulties of his successor. - -As a patron of letters, Richelieu has acquired a reputation almost -rivalling that of his statesmanship. His first and earliest success in -life had been as a scholar supporting his theses; and, as it is -continually observed that great men form very erroneous judgments of -their own excellences, he ever prided himself especially in his powers -as a penman: it was a complete mistake on his part. He has left a -considerable quantity of theological tracts of trifling merit. - -Not content with his own sphere of greatness, he aspired to the minor -praise of being skilled in the fashionable literature of the day; and -amused himself by composing dramatic pieces, some of which Corneille was -employed to correct. The independence of the poet, and the pride of the -patron, led to a quarrel of which we have given some account in the life -of the great tragedian. In 1635 Richelieu founded the French Academy. We -should expect to find in his political writings traces of the -master-hand of one, who, with a mind of unusual power, had long studied -the subject of which he wrote. But those which are ascribed to him, for -none, we believe are avowed, or absolutely known to be his, are of -unequal merit. The ‘Mémoires de la Mère, et du Fils,’ are mediocre, and -unworthy of him. The ‘Testament Politique du Cardinal de Richelieu’ (the -authenticity of which is strongly contested by Voltaire) bears a much -higher reputation as a work upon Government. La Bruyere has said of it, -that the man who had done such things ought never to have written, or to -have written in the style in which it is written. - -There are several English lives of Cardinal Richelieu, most of them -published in the seventeenth century, but none which we know to be of -authority. In French, we may recommend the reader to the life of Aubery. -The best account of Richelieu, however, is said to be contained in the -‘Histoire de Louis XIII.’ by P. Griffet. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - J. H. WOLLASTON. - - _From the original Picture by J. Jackson - in the possession of the Royal Society._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - WOLLASTON. - - -No record of this eminent philosopher has yet appeared, except his -scientific papers, and a few meagre biographical sketches published -shortly after his death. It is to be hoped that some one duly qualified -for the task will become the historian of his life and labours before it -is too late. - -William Hyde Wollaston was born August 6, 1766. His grandfather was well -known as the author of a work, entitled ‘The Religion of Nature -Delineated.’ He completed his education at Caius College, Cambridge. It -has been said, in most of the memoirs of him, that he obtained the -honour of being senior wrangler. This is a mistake, arising from Francis -Wollaston, of Sidney, having gained the first place in 1783. It appears -from the Cantabrigienses Graduati that he did not graduate in Arts; but, -with a view to practising medicine, proceeded to the degrees of M.B. in -1787, and M.D. in 1793. He was not unversed, however, in mathematical -studies. He first established himself as a physician at Bury St. -Edmunds, in Suffolk; but meeting with little encouragement, removed to -London. Soon after this change of abode, he became a candidate for the -office of physician to St. George’s Hospital, in opposition to Dr. -Pemberton. The latter was elected, and Wollaston, in a fit of pique, -declared that he would abandon the profession, and never more write a -prescription, were it for his own father. - -He kept to his resolution, hasty and unwise as it may seem; and from -this time forward devoted himself solely to the cultivation of science. -Even in an economical view he had no cause to regret this, for he -acquired wealth by the exercise of his inventive genius. One single -discovery, that of a method by which platinum can be made ductile and -malleable, is said to have produced him about thirty thousand pounds. It -has been objected that he derogated from the dignity of the philosophic -character by too keen an eye towards making his experiments profitable: -but in this field, if in any, the labourer is surely worthy of his -reward; and unless it can be shown that he turned away from any train of -discovery, because it did not promise pecuniary gain, surely not a -shadow of blame can be attached to him for profiting by the legitimate -earnings of his industry and talents. That he was fond of acquiring -money, there is good reason to believe; but there is a story, which has -been before told, and which we have ourselves some reason to consider -authentic, which proves that he could use nobly that which he had gained -frugally. A gentleman, in embarrassed circumstances, requested his -interference to procure some place under government. He replied, “I have -lived to sixty without asking a single favour from men in office, and it -is not, after that age, that I shall be induced to do it, were it even -to serve a brother. If the enclosed can be of any use to you, in your -present difficulties, pray accept it; for it is much at your service.” -The enclosure was a cheque for ten thousand pounds. - -One of Wollaston’s peculiarities was an exceeding jealousy of any person -entering his laboratory. “Do you see that furnace?” he once said to a -friend, who had penetrated unbidden to this sacred ground. “Yes.” “Then -make a profound bow to it, for this is the first, and will be the last -time of your seeing it.” It is not a necessary inference, that this -dislike to having his processes observed arose from jealousy either of -his fame or his profit: it may have been merely the result of a somewhat -saturnine and reserved temper, which seems to have shunned unnecessary -publicity on all occasions. - -Wollaston was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1793. He was -appointed one of its Secretaries, November 6, 1806. His first paper, -which is on medical subjects, is published in the Philosophical -Transactions for 1797; and, until his death, he continued to be a -frequent contributor. His papers amount in number to thirty-nine, and -must be well examined before a just idea can be formed of the extent and -variety of his scientific knowledge. They embrace various subjects -connected with Pathology, Optics, Electricity, Chemistry, -Crystallography, and mechanical contrivances of various sorts. He -contributed a few papers to other philosophical works. Of the Geological -Society he was an active member, though he sent no memoirs to its -Transactions; and on the first annual meeting of that body after his -death, the president, Dr. Fitton, bore testimony to the high value of -his services to the science of Geology. - -The lives of Wollaston and Davy began and ended nearly at the same time, -and ran parallel to each other; they never crossed. Each was original, -and independent of the other; their minds were unlike, their processes -different, and the discoveries of one never interfered with those of the -other. “The chemical manipulations of Wollaston and Davy,” we quote from -Dr. Paris, “offered a singular contrast to each other, and might be -considered as highly characteristic of the temperaments and intellectual -qualities of these remarkable men. Every process of the former was -regulated with the most scrupulous regard to microscopic accuracy, and -conducted with the utmost neatness of detail. It has been already stated -with what turbulence and apparent confusion the experiments of the -latter were conducted; and yet each was equally excellent in his own -style; and as artists, they have not unaptly been compared to Teniers -and Michael Angelo. By long discipline, Wollaston acquired such power in -commanding and fixing his attention upon minute objects, that he was -able to recognize resemblances, and to distinguish differences, between -precipitates produced by re-agents, which were invisible to ordinary -observers, and which enabled him to submit to analysis the smallest -particle of matter with success. Davy on the other hand obtained his -results by an intellectual process, which may be said to have consisted -in the extreme rapidity with which he seized upon, and applied, -appropriate means at appropriate moments. - -“To this faculty of minute observation, which Dr. Wollaston applied with -so much advantage, the chemical world is indebted for the introduction -of more simple methods of experimenting: for the substitution of a few -glass tubes and plates of glass for capacious retorts and receivers, and -for the art of making grains give the results which previously required -pounds. A foreign philosopher once called on Dr. Wollaston with letters -of introduction, and expressed an anxious desire to see his laboratory. -‘Certainly,’ we replied; and immediately produced a small tray -containing some glass tubes, a blow-pipe, two or three watch-glasses, a -slip of platinum, and a few test bottles.” We may conclude, however, -that this was not the whole of Wollaston’s apparatus, nor he in this -quite ingenuous; and the anecdote forms another illustration of his -dislike to admitting any one into his workroom. - -To this ingenious turn of mind and love of minute accuracy we owe -several valuable instruments. Of these the most important is his -reflective Goniometer, or angle-measurer, which by calling in the -unerring laws of optics, enables the observer to ascertain within a -small limit of error, the angle contained between two faces of a -crystal, and introduced, in the words of Dr. Fitton, “into -crystallography a certainty and precision, which the most skilful -observers were before unable to attain.” Another of his contrivances is -the sliding Scale of chemical equivalents, an instrument highly useful -to the practical chemist. We also owe to him the Camera Lucida, which -enables persons unacquainted with drawing, to take accurate sketches of -any objects presented to their view. An amusing and characteristic -anecdote of his fondness for producing great results by small means, is -told by Dr. Paris. Shortly after he had witnessed Davy’s brilliant -experiments with the galvanic battery, he met a brother chemist in the -street, and taking him aside, pulled a tailor’s thimble and a small -phial out of his pocket, and poured the contents of the one into the -other. The thimble was a small galvanic battery, with which he instantly -heated a platinum wire to a white heat. - -We have already spoken of the profits which he derived from the -manufacture of platinum. This intractable metal, most valuable in the -arts from its extreme difficulty of fusion, and power of resisting -almost all agents, was rendered by these very qualities almost incapable -of being reduced into that malleable form, in which alone it would be -made extensively useful. His method of working it is detailed at length -in his last Bakerian Lecture, published in the Philosophical -Transactions for 1829, and must be read before a person unacquainted -with metallurgy can imagine how tedious and laborious were the processes -by which he succeeded in bringing platinum to bear the hammer. By an -ingenious contrivance, described in the Transactions of 1813, he drew -platinum into wire 1/5000 of an inch in diameter, highly valuable for -the construction of telescopes; and even reduced some portions to the -inconceivable tenuity of 1/30,000. Several of his papers are devoted to -the consideration of platinum, and of the two new metals, palladium and -rhodium, which, in the course of his inquiries, he discovered in small -quantities in the ores of platinum. These also he succeeded in rendering -malleable. Rhodium is remarkable for its hardness, which has caused it -to be used to point the nibs of metallic pens. - -During the autumn of 1828 Dr. Wollaston suffered from an affection of -the brain, of which he died, December 22, 1828, retaining his faculties -to the last. During the period of his illness, feeling that his life was -precarious, he devoted himself to communicating, by dictation, his -various discoveries and improvements to the world. Five papers by him -were read during the last session of the Royal Society during that year, -in one of which he alludes affectingly to his illness, as obliging him -to commit his observations to writing more hastily than he was wont. -Another is the Bakerian Lecture on the manufacture of platinum, already -mentioned. - -Previous to his death he invested 1000_l._ stock in the name of the -Royal Society, the interest of which he directed to be employed for the -encouragement of experiments in Natural Philosophy. He was never -married, and was Senior Fellow of Caius at his death. He was privately -buried at Chiselhurst in Kent; of which parish his father had been -rector. - -Dr. Wollaston’s philosophical character is thus described in the preface -to a late edition of Dr. Henry’s ‘Elements of Experimental -Chemistry:’—“Dr. Wollaston was endowed with bodily senses of -extraordinary acuteness and accuracy, and with great vigour of -understanding. Trained in the discipline of the exact sciences, he had -acquired a powerful command over his attention, and had habituated -himself to the most rigid correctness both of thought and language. He -was sufficiently provided with the resources of the mathematics, to be -enabled to pursue with success profound inquiries in mechanical and -optical philosophy, the results of which enabled him to unfold the -causes of phenomena not before understood, and to enrich the arts -connected with those sciences by the invention of ingenious and valuable -instruments. In chemistry he was distinguished by the extreme nicety and -delicacy of his observations; by the quickness and precision with which -he marked resemblances and discriminated differences; the sagacity with -which he devised experiments and anticipated their results; and the -skill with which he executed the analysis of fragments of new -substances, often so minute as to be scarcely perceptible by ordinary -eyes. He was remarkable, too, for the caution with which he advanced -from facts to general conclusions: a caution which, if it sometimes -prevented him from reaching at once to the most sublime truths, yet -rendered every step of his ascent a secure station from which it was -easy to rise to higher and more enlarged inductions. Thus these -illustrious men, Wollaston and Davy, though differing essentially in -their natural powers and acquired habits, and moving independently of -each other, in different paths, contributed to accomplish the same great -ends, the evolving new elements; the combining matter into new forms; -the increase of human happiness by the improvement of the arts of -civilized life; and the establishment of general laws that will serve to -guide other philosophers onwards through vast and unexplored regions of -scientific discovery.” - - - - -[Illustration] - - BOCCACCIO. - - -The family of this celebrated writer, who claims a distinguished place -among the founders of Italian literature, came from the village of -Certaldo, in the valley of the Elsa, about twenty miles south-west of -Florence. His father, Boccaccio di Chellino, was a Florentine merchant, -who, in his visits to Paris, became acquainted with a Frenchwoman, of -whom Giovanni Boccaccio, the subject of this memoir, was born, A. D. -1313. It is uncertain whether Paris or Florence was the place of his -nativity. He commenced his studies at Florence, under Giovanni da -Strada, a celebrated grammarian; but was apprenticed by his father, when -hardly ten years old, to another merchant, with whom he spent six years -in Paris. Attached to literature, he felt a strong distaste to his -mercantile life. He manifested the same temper after his return to -Florence; upon which his father sent him to Naples, partly upon -business, partly because he thought that mingling in the pleasures of -that gay city might neutralize his son’s distaste to the laborious -profession in which he was engaged. Robert of Anjou, the reigning king -of Naples, encouraged learning, and his court was the most polished of -the age: and during an abode of eight years in that capital, Boccaccio -became acquainted with most of the learned men of Italy, especially -Petrarch, with whom he contracted a friendship, broken only by death. -There also he fell in love with a lady of rank, whose real name he has -concealed under that of Fiametta. Three persons have been mentioned as -the object of his passion: the celebrated Joanna of Naples, -grand-daughter of Robert; Mary, the sister of Joanna; and another Mary, -the illegitimate daughter of Robert, who seems to have the best claim to -this distinction. It was at Naples, that Boccaccio, inspired by a visit -to Virgil’s tomb, conceived his first longings after literary fame. He -determined to give up commerce, and devote himself entirely to study; -and his father consented to this change, but only on condition that he -should apply himself to the canon law. This was a new source of -annoyance. For several years he pored over “dry decisions and barren -commentaries,” as he expresses himself; until he obtained his doctor’s -degree, and was left at liberty to follow his own pursuits. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Hopwood._ - - BOCCACCIO. - - _From a Print by Cornelius Van Dalen._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - -After remaining some time at Florence he returned to Naples; where he -employed himself in writing prose and verse, the Decameron and the -Teseide. His father died in 1349: and having turned his inheritance into -money, he travelled to Sicily, Venice, and other parts of Italy, -collecting manuscripts, frequenting universities and libraries, studying -Greek under Leontius Pilatus of Thessalonica, astronomy under Andalone -del Negro, and Roman literature and antiquities. Manuscripts at this -time were very costly; and he soon exhausted his patrimony in these -pursuits. He then applied himself to transcribing works; and, by dint of -expense and labour, collected a considerable library, which he -bequeathed to the Augustine friars of Santo Spirito, at Florence. But -his means were inadequate to gratify his liberal tastes: and at times he -found himself in very straitened circumstances. It is said that he -sometimes availed himself of his skill as a copyist, to eke out his -resources. In Petrarch he found a generous friend and a wise counsellor. - -Boccaccio enjoyed a high reputation among his countrymen for learning -and ability; and he was several times employed by them on embassies and -affairs of state. But of all his missions, the most pleasing was that of -repairing to Padua, to communicate to Petrarch the solemn revocation of -the sentence of exile passed on his father during the factions of 1302; -and to inform him that the Florentines, proud of such a countryman, had -redeemed his paternal property, and earnestly invited him to dwell in -his own land, and confer honour on its then rising university. Though -much affected by this honourable reparation, Petrarch did not at the -time comply with their request. - -About 1361, a singular circumstance wrought a total change in -Boccaccio’s feelings and mode of life. A Carthusian monk came to him one -day, and stated that father Petroni of Sienna, a monk of the same order, -who had died not long before in the odour of sanctity, had commissioned -him to exhort Boccaccio to forsake his studies, reform his loose life, -and prepare for death. To prove the truth of his mission, he revealed -several secrets, known only to Boccaccio and Petrarch, to both of whom -both the monks were totally unknown. Terrified at this mysterious -communication, Boccaccio wrote to Petrarch, expressing his resolution to -comply with the advice, and shut himself up in a Carthusian cloister. -Petrarch’s answer, which may be found among his Latin epistles, is full -of sound sense. He tells his friend, that though this disclosure of -secrets, supposed to be unknown to any living soul, appeared a mystery, -yet “there is such a thing as artifice in imposture which may at times -assume the language of supernatural inspiration; that those who practise -arts of this kind examine attentively the age, the aspect, the looks, -the habits of the man they mean to delude, his theories, his motions, -his voice, his conversation, his feelings, and opinions: and from all -these derive their oracles.” He adds, that as to the prediction of -approaching death, there was no occasion for a message from the next -world to say, that a man past the middle age, and infirm of body, could -not expect to have many years to live: and, in conclusion, advises his -friend to tranquillize his imagination, and to avail himself of the -warning towards leading a more regular life; retaining at the same time -his liberty, his house, and his library, and making a good use even of -the heathen authors in the latter, as many holy men, and the fathers of -the church themselves, had done before him. This letter restored -Boccaccio to reason. He gave up his intention of retiring from the -world, and contented himself with assuming the ecclesiastical dress; and -being admitted to the first gradation of holy orders, he adopted a -regular and studious course of life, and turned his attention to the -study of the Scriptures. - -About the following year he again visited Naples, but he was disgusted -by the neglect which he experienced; and, in 1363, he went to Venice, -and abode three months with Petrarch. He was sent twice, in 1365 and -1367, to Pope Urban V. upon affairs of the republic. In 1373, the -Florentines determined to appoint a lecturer to explain the Divina -Commedia of Dante, much of which was even then obscure or unintelligible -without the aid of a comment. Boccaccio was chosen for this honourable -office, with the annual stipend of one hundred florins. He had long and -deeply studied, and knew by heart almost the whole of that sublime poem, -which he had several times transcribed. He left his written comment on -the Inferno, and also a life of Dante, both of which have been published -among his works. But illness interrupted his lectures, and induced him -to resort again to his favourite country residence at Certaldo. A -disorder of the stomach, aggravated by intense application, terminated -his existence, Dec. 21, 1375, at the age of sixty-two. He was buried in -the parish church of Certaldo, and the following modest inscription, -which he had himself composed, was placed over his tomb:— - - “Hac sub mole jacent cineres ac ossa Johannis. - Mens sedet ante Deum, meritis ornata laborum - Mortalis vitæ. Genitor Bocchaccius illi, - Patria Certaldum, studium fuit alma poesis.” - -A monument was also raised to him in the same church, with an -inscription by Coluccio Salutati, secretary to the republic, an intimate -friend of the deceased. This monument was restored, in 1503, by Tedaldo, -Podestà, or justice, of Certaldo, who placed another inscription under -the bust of the deceased. The republic of Florence, in 1396, voted -monuments to be raised in their capital to Boccaccio, Dante, and -Petrarch, but this resolution was not carried into effect. - -By a will, which was dated the year preceding that of his death, and -which is published among his Latin works, Boccaccio constituted his two -nephews, the sons of his brother Jacopo, his heirs. His library he left -to his confessor, Father Martin of Signa, an Augustin friar, whom he -also appointed his executor, directing, that after the father’s death it -should revert to the convent of Santo Spirito at Florence, for the use -of students. A fire which broke out in the convent, in the year 1471, -destroyed this valuable collection, which had cost the proprietor so -many years of labour and care, and in which he had expended the greater -part of his patrimony. Boccaccio having, in his book _De Genealogia -Deorum_, quoted several ancient authors whose works have not reached us, -it is supposed that some of these must have been included in the -catastrophe that befel his library. He has been accused, however, of -quoting fictitious authors in this treatise. - -Boccaccio’s private character was stained by licentiousness. Besides his -Fiammetta, he had several mistresses whom he mentions in his Ameto. A -natural daughter, whose name was Violante, he lost while she was an -infant, and he mourns over her in his eclogues under the name of -Olympia. He had also an illegitimate son who survived him, but who is -not mentioned in his testament. - -In the latter years of his life, Boccaccio was poor, though not in -absolute want, and his friend Petrarch, who died little more than one -year before him, left him by his will fifty golden florins, “to buy him -a winter pelisse to protect him from cold while in his study at night,” -adding, that if he did no more for Boccaccio, it was not through want of -inclination but want of means. Boccaccio, on his part, had given -Petrarch several works copied by his own hand, among others, a Latin -translation of Homer, Dante, and some works of St. Augustine. - -His modest dwelling at Certaldo, in which he died, still remains. The -Princes of the House of Medici protected it by affixing their armorial -ensigns on the outside, with an inscription. A Florentine lady, of the -name of Medici Lenzoni, purchased it in 1822, in order to preserve it -from dilapidation as a relic of departed genius. The appearance of the -house is exactly similar to the sketch given by Manni a century since, -in his life of Boccaccio. It is built of brick, according to the fashion -of the fourteenth century, with a square turret on one side of it -commanding a fine view of the surrounding hills; one of which is still -called by the country people, “the hill of Boccaccio,” from a tradition -that this was his favourite place of resort for meditation and study in -the summer heats. The grove which crowned its summit was cut down not -long ago. A curious circumstance is said by Professor Rosellini to have -happened some years before the purchase of the house by the Signora -Lenzoni. An old woman, who tenanted the premises, was busy weaving in a -small room next to the sitting apartment, when the repeated shaking of -her loom brought down part of the wall, and laid open a small recess -hollowed in the thickness of it, from which a large bundle of written -papers tumbled down. The old woman, through ignorance or superstition, -or both, thought it a pious duty to consign the whole of the MSS. to the -flames. Probably many interesting autographs of Boccaccio have thus been -lost. - -Much has been said about Boccaccio’s tomb being “torn up and desecrated -by bigots;” and Lord Byron has made this the subject of his eloquent -invective. The story seems, however, to have originated in mistake. -Rosellini has given an authentic account of the whole transaction. It -appears that many years since, after a law had been passed by the Grand -Duke Leopold in 1783, forbidding the burial of the dead under church -pavements, the tomb of Boccaccio, which lay in the centre of the church -of St. James and St. Michael at Certaldo, covered by a stone bearing his -family escutcheon, his effigy, and the four lines above quoted, was -opened. Nothing was found, except a skull, and a tin tube containing -several written parchments, which the persons present could not -understand. What became of these is not known, perhaps they were -destroyed like the MSS. found by the old woman. The tombstone was -purchased by some one on the spot, and having since been broken, one -fragment alone remains, which the Signora Lenzoni has recovered and -placed inside Boccaccio’s house. All this is asserted in a notarial -document drawn up at Certaldo in 1825, and certified by ocular witnesses -then surviving, who were present at the opening of the vault. But, -besides this gravestone, there was a monument placed high on one of the -side-walls of the church, consisting of Boccaccio’s bust, which is a -good likeness, holding with both his arms against his breast a book, on -which is written ‘Decameron,’ and under the bust are the two -inscriptions by Salutati and Tedaldo, such as Manni transcribed them. To -this monument, and not to the tomb, Byron’s reproach partly applies, for -it was of late years removed by some fanatics from its place, and thrown -in a corner at the end of the church. But the authorities interfered and -caused it to be restored in a more conspicuous position, facing the -pulpit, where it is now to be seen. - -Boccaccio wrote both in Latin and in Italian, in prose and in verse. His -Latin works are now mostly forgotten, although the author evidently -thought more of them than of his Italian novels. Petrarch fell into the -same mistake with regard to his own productions in both languages. The -language of the country, especially in prose composition, was then -esteemed below the dignity of learned men, and suited only to works of -recreation and amusement. Boccaccio wrote a book on mythology (De -Genealogia Deorum, lib. xv.) which he dedicated to Hugo, King of Cyprus -and Jerusalem, at whose request he had composed it. He acknowledges that -he had derived much information on the subject from Pietro Perugino, -librarian to King Robert of Naples, an assiduous inquirer after ancient -and especially Greek lore, and who had availed himself in his researches -of his intimacy with the Monk Barlaam, a learned Greek emigrant, -residing in Calabria. Boccaccio’s other Latin works are ‘De montium, -sylvarum, lacuum, fluviorum, stagnorum, et marium nominibus, liber,’ a -sort of gazetteer. ‘De casibus virorum et fæminarum illustrium, libri -ix.’ where he eloquently relates, in the last book, the tragic -catastrophe of the unfortunate Templars who were executed at Paris in -1310–14; at which his father was present. ‘De claris mulieribus -opus,’—and lastly, sixteen ‘Eclogæ,’ amounting to about three thousand -lines, which have been published with those of Petrarch and others at -Florence in 1504. Boccaccio left a key to the real personages of these -eclogues in a long letter written to the already-mentioned father Martin -of Signa. Both he and Petrarch allude in these poems to the vices and -corruptions of the Papal Court. - -Of Boccaccio’s Italian works, the Decameron is that by which his memory -has been immortalized. This book consists of a series of tales, one -hundred in number, ten of which are told on each afternoon for ten -successive days, by a society of seven young women and three young men, -who having fled from the dangers of the plague which afflicted Florence -in 1348, assembled at a villa a short distance from the town. The -stories turn chiefly on amorous intrigues and devices, disappointments -and enjoyments, very broadly narrated; and can by no means be -recommended for indiscriminate perusal. They are admirably told, and are -full of wit and humour; but the pleasantry is for the most part of a -nature which modern manners cannot tolerate. There are, however, better -things than mere loose tales in the Decameron: several of the stories -are unexceptionable; some highly pathetic. They have furnished many -subjects for poetry, and especially for the drama; as, for instance, the -tale of Ginevra, the ninth of the second day, and the affecting story of -Griselda, the last of all. With regard to the merit of the invention, it -is true that some of Boccaccio’s tales are taken from the ‘Cento Novelle -Antiche,’ one of the oldest books in the Italian language. But the -greater number are original: and many refer to persons and events well -known in Italy, especially in Tuscany at that time, as is demonstrated -by Manni. The skill with which this multitude of tales is arranged and -brought forward, constitutes one of the chief merits of the work. It has -been remarked that out of a hundred introductions with which he prefaces -them, no two are alike. His narrative is clear; free from metaphors and -repetition; avoiding superfluity as well as monotony, and engaging -without tiring the attention. His descriptions, though minute, are -graceful and lively. Generally humorous, not to say broad, he can, at -pleasure, be pathetic; at pleasure, grave and dignified. - -Here our praise of this celebrated work must stop. Of its indecencies we -have already spoken. The narrative, though clothed in decent words, -frequently runs in such a strain as no company of women above the lowest -grade of shame would now listen to, much less indulge in. Bad as this -is, a still deeper stain is to be found in the utter absence of all -moral principle, and callousness to all good feeling. Long planned -seduction, breach of hospitality, betrayal of friendship, all these are -painted as fortunate and spirited adventures, and as desirable objects -of attainment. Unlucky husbands are sneered at; jealousy of honour is -censured as stupidity or tyranny. Some of the female characters are even -worse than the male; and the world of the Decameron is one which no man -of common decency or honour could bear to live in. Boccaccio saw the -mischief he had done, and was sorry when it was too late. In a letter to -Mainardo de’ Cavalcanti, Marshal of Sicily, he entreated him not to -suffer the females of his family to read the Decameron; because, -“although education and honour would keep them above temptation, yet -their minds could not but be tainted by such obscene stories.” - -He is fond of introducing monks and friars engaged in licentious -pursuits, and exposed to ludicrous and humiliating adventures. He also -at times speaks of the rites of the church in a profane or sarcastic -manner. From this it has been inferred that he was a sceptic or heretic. -The conclusion is erroneous. Like other wits of that ignorant, -superstitious, and debauched age, Boccaccio sneered, reviled, and yet -feared: and while he ridiculed the ministers and usages of the church, -he was employed in collecting relics, and ended his loose tales with -invocations of heaven and the saints. Besides, the secular clergy -themselves bore no love towards the monks and mendicant friars: they -were jealous of the former, and they hated and despised the latter. From -Dante down to Leo X. the dignitaries of the church spoke of friars in -terms nearly as opprobrious as Boccaccio himself. Leo made public jest -of them. Bembo, the secretary of Leo, and a cardinal himself, and Berni, -the secretary to several cardinals, give no more quarter to them than is -given in the Decameron. No wonder then that laymen should take similar -liberties, and that a friar should be regarded, as Ugo Foscolo observes, -as a sort of scape-goat for the sins of the whole clergy. These -considerations may explain how the Decameron went through several -editions, both at Venice and Florence, without attracting the censures -of the Court of Rome. The earliest editions bear the dates of 1471–2, -but these became extremely scarce, since the fanatic Savanarola had a -heap of them burnt in the public square of Florence in 1497. Of the -Valdarfer edition of 1471, only one copy is known to exist. This has -long been an object of interest to book collectors; and was purchased, -at the Roxburgh sale, by the Marquis of Blandford, for the enormous sum -of £2260. After the reformation in Germany, a more watchful censorship -was established, and the Decameron was placed in the list of proscribed -books. An expurgated edition however was allowed to appear, under the -_imprimatur_ of Pope Gregory XIII. in 1573, in which many passages -marked by the Inquisition were expunged, and laymen were made to take -the places of the clergy in the more indecorous adventures. The MS. from -which this and most of the subsequent editions are taken, was written by -Mannelli, the godson, and friend of Boccaccio, in 1384, nine years after -the author’s death. It is now in the Laurentian library at Florence. -Mannelli has copied scrupulously what he calls “the text,” whether an -autograph of Boccaccio, or an earlier copy, even to its errors and -omissions, noting from time to time in the margin “sic textus,” or -“deficiebat,” or “superfluum.” It may therefore be presumed that the -author had not put the last finish to his work. - -Boccaccio began the Decameron soon after the plague of 1348, and seems -to have circulated the days, or parts, among his friends as he completed -them. He was a long time in completing the work, which he seems to have -laid aside, and resumed at leisure; and it is believed that he was eight -years employed upon it, and that he wrote the latter tales about 1356. -From that time he seems to have taken no more notice of it. He never -sent it to Petrarch, to whom he was in the habit of transmitting all his -other compositions; and it was only by accident, many years after, that -the poet saw a copy of it. This he mentions in one of his letters to -Boccaccio, and says that he “supposes it to be one of his juvenile -productions.” Petrarch praised only the description of the plague, and -the story of Griselda. This he translated into Latin. - -Boccaccio’s other Italian prose works are ‘Il Filocopo,’ a prose -romance, written at the request of his Fiammetta. It is a dull -composition, far inferior to the Decameron in style, and displaying an -anomalous mixture of Christian and Pagan images and sentiments. -‘L’Amorosa Fiammetta’ is also a prose romance, in which the lady relates -her passion and grief for the absence of Pamfilo, by which name the -author is supposed to have designated himself. ‘Il Corbaccio,’ or the -‘Labyrinth of Love,’ in which he relates his adventures with a certain -widow, the same probably as he has introduced in the seventh tale of the -eighth day of the Decameron. ‘Ameto,’ a drama of mixed prose and verse. -‘Origine, vita, e costumi di Dante Alighieri,’ the life of Dante already -mentioned. Several letters remain, but the bulk of his correspondence is -lost. A life of Petrarch by Boccaccio, written originally in Latin, has -been recently discovered, and published in 1828 by Domenico Rossetti, of -Trieste. - -Boccaccio wrote a quantity of Italian verse, of which he himself thought -little, after seeing those of Petrarch; and posterity has confirmed his -judgment. His Teseide, a heroic poem, in ottava rima, may be excepted. -This metre, generally adopted by the Italian epic and romantic poets, he -has the merit of having invented. Though imperfect, and little -attractive as an epic poem, the Teseide is not destitute of minor -beauties. Chaucer is indebted to it for his Knight’s Tale, remodelled by -Dryden under the name of Palamon and Arcite. - -An edition of Boccaccio’s Italian prose works was printed at Naples, -with the date of Florence, in 1723–4, in 6 vols. 8vo.; but a better -edition has been lately published at Florence, corrected after the best -approved MSS. in 13 vols. 8vo. 1827–32. - -The editions of the Decameron are almost innumerable. The best and most -recent ones are those of Poggiali, 1789–90, in 5 vols. 8vo.; that of -Ferrario, Milan, 1803; that of Colombo, Parma, 1812; all with copious -notes and comments; a small one by Molini, Florence, 1820; and the one -by Pickering, London, to which the late Ugo Foscolo prefixed an -elaborate and interesting historical dissertation. Domenico Maria Manni -wrote a ‘History of the Decameron,’ Florence, 1742, in which he has -collected a store of curious information concerning that work and its -author. - -The principal biographers of Boccaccio are Filippo Villani, who may be -considered as a contemporary of our author; Giannozzo Mannetti, -Francesco Sansovino, Giuseppe Betussi, Count Mazzuchelli, and lastly, -the Count G. Battista Baldelli, who published a new life of Boccaccio in -1806 at Florence. - -[Illustration: [Scene from the Introduction to the Decameron, after a -design by Stothard.]] - - - - -[Illustration] - - CLAUDE. - - -Claude Gelée, commonly called Claude Lorraine, was born in 1600, at the -village of Chamagne in Lorraine, of very indigent parents. He was -apprenticed to a pastry-cook; but at the end of his term of service, -whether from disgust at his employment, desire of change, or perhaps -influenced by the love of art, he engaged himself as a domestic to some -young painters who were going to Italy. On arriving at Rome he was -employed as a colour-grinder by Agostino Tassi, an artist then in high -repute whose landscapes are spirited and free, and particularly -distinguished by the taste displayed in the architectural -accompaniments. Tassi first induced him to try his abilities in -painting. His earliest essays were implicit imitations of his master’s -manner, and evinced no symptom of original genius; perhaps even in his -matured style some indications of Tassi’s influence may be traced. He -continued, as opportunity occurred, to exercise his pencil, obtaining -little notice and still less reward. By degrees however he succeeded -sufficiently to venture on giving up his menial employment; and having -acquired from Tassi a tolerable expertness in the mechanical part of his -profession, he appears from thenceforth to have given little attention -to the works of other painters, relying on his own discernment and -diligent observation of nature. Many years elapsed, however, before the -talents of Claude reached their full maturity, whence his biographers -have inferred that he owed his excellence rather to industry than -genius: as if such excellence were within the reach of mere application. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - CLAUDE. - - _From the original - in the Musée Royale, Paris._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - -He drew with indefatigable diligence, both from antique sculpture and -from the living model, but to little purpose; and he was so conscious of -his incapacity, that he used to observe, “I sell the landscapes, and -throw the figures into the bargain:” and sometimes he employed Filippo -Lauri and Courtois to insert them. But his figures, however faulty in -themselves, are always well adapted to promote the harmony of the whole -composition; being judiciously placed, and shaded, illuminated, -sharpened out, or rendered indistinct, with nearly as much skill as is -shown in the other parts of the picture. And not unfrequently, however -feebly drawn, they partake of that classical and poetic air, which -Claude, beyond every other landscape painter, has diffused over his -works. - -It is said, and the circumstances of his early life render it probable, -that he was very deficient in general acquirements. Assuredly he had no -opportunities of becoming a profound scholar, nor in relation to his art -was it necessary that he should; why should he have sought through the -medium of books that imagery which lay before him in reality? Rome, and -its environs, the banks of the Tiber, and the broad Campagna, supplied -his imagination with the best food, and his pencil with inexhaustible -materials. He was accustomed to spend whole days in the open air, not -only studying Nature in her permanent aspects, but making memorandums of -every accidental and fleeting effect which presented itself to his -observation. Sandrart, who sometimes accompanied Claude in his -excursions, relates that he was accustomed to discourse on the visible -phenomena of nature with the intelligence of a philosopher; not only -noting effects, but explaining their causes with precision and -correctness, whether produced by reflection or refraction of light, by -dew, vapour, or other agencies of the atmosphere. Broad as is his style, -he entered minutely into detail, and made drawings of trees, shrubs, and -herbage, marking all their peculiarities of shape, growth, and foliage. -By this practice he was enabled to represent those objects with -undeviating accuracy, and to express, by a few decided touches, their -general character. - -Amidst the splendour of his general effects, the distinguishing -qualities of objects are never neglected; fidelity is never merged in -manner; and hence it is, that the longer we look at his pictures, the -more vivid is the illusion, the more strongly is the reality of the -represented scene impressed upon us. Combining with his fine imagination -the results of observation thus long and intensely exercised, he -accomplished in his works that union of poetic feeling with accurate -representation of nature, which forms the highest excellence of art, and -in which, as a landscape painter, he stands unrivalled. - -Claude found in Rome and its neighbourhood the materials of his scenery, -but the combination of them was his own: he selected and copied -portions, but he seldom or never painted individual views from nature. -His favourite effects are those of sunrise and sunset, the periods at -which nature puts on her most gorgeous colouring. Beauty and -magnificence are the characteristics of his compositions: he seldom aims -at sublimity, but he never sinks into dulness. Above all he never brings -mean or offensive objects into prominent view, as is so often the case -in the Dutch pictures. His fore-grounds are usually occupied by trees of -large size and noble character, and temples and palaces, or with ruins -august in their decay. Groves and towers, broad lakes, and the -continuous lines of arched aqueducts enrich the middle space; or a -boundless expanse of Arcadian scenery sweeps away into the blue -mountainous horizon. In his admirable pictures of seaports, he carries -us back into antiquity; there is nothing in the style of the buildings, -the shape of the vessels, or the character of any of the accompaniments -which, by suggesting homely associations, injures the general grandeur -of the effect. The gilded galleys, the lofty quays, and the buildings -which they support, all belong to other times, and all have the stamp of -opulence, magnificence, and power. - -As Claude’s subjects are almost uniformly those of morning or evening, -it might naturally be supposed that his works possess an air of -sameness. To remove such an impression, it is only necessary to look at -his pictures side by side. We then perceive that he scarcely ever -repeats himself. The pictures of St. Ursula and the Queen of Sheba, in -the National Gallery, are striking instances of that endless variety -which he could communicate to similar subjects. In each of these -pictures there is a procession of females issuing from a palace, and an -embarkation. The extremities of the canvas are occupied by buildings, -the middle space being assigned to the sea and shipping, over which the -sun is ascending. After the first glance, there is no resemblance in -these pictures. The objects introduced in each are essentially different -in character; in that of the Queen of Sheba they are much fewer in -number; the masses are more broad and unbroken, and the picture has -altogether more grandeur and simplicity than its companion. Its -atmosphere too is different: it is less clear and golden, and there is a -swell on the waves, as if they were subsiding from the agitation of a -recent storm. The picture of St. Ursula is characterized by beauty. -Summer appears to be in its meridian, and the whole picture seems -gladdened by the freshening influence of morning. The vapoury haze which -is just dispersing, the long cool shadows thrown by the buildings and -shipping, the glancing of the sun-beams on the water, and the admirable -perspective, all exhibit the highest perfection of art. It was thus that -Claude, although he painted only the most beautiful appearances of -nature, diversified his effects by the finest discrimination. Sea-ports -such as these were among his most favourite subjects; and there are none -in which he more excelled: yet perhaps it is with his pastoral subjects -that we are most completely gratified. The Arcadia of the poets seems to -be renewed in the pictures of Claude. - -In the general character of his genius, Claude bears a strong affinity -to Titian. He resembles him in power of generalization, in unaffected -breadth of light and shadow, and in that unostentatious execution which -is never needlessly displayed to excite wonder, and which does its exact -office, and nothing more. But the similitude in colour is still more -striking. The pictures of both are pervaded by the same glowing warmth; -and exhibit the true brilliancy of nature, in which the hues of the -brightest objects are graduated and softened by the atmosphere which -surrounds them. The colours by which both produced their wonderful -effects were for the most part simple earths, without any mixture of -factitious compounds, the use of which has been always prevalent in the -infancy, and the decline of art, administering as it does to that -unformed or degenerate taste which prefers gaudiness to truth. - -Claude’s success raised a host of imitators. He was accustomed, on -sending home the works which he had been commissioned to paint to make a -drawing of each, which he inscribed with the name of the purchaser, as a -means by which the originality of his productions might be traced and -authenticated. He left six volumes of these drawings at the time of his -death, which he called his Libri di Verità. One containing two hundred -designs is in possession of the Duke of Devonshire; these have been -engraved by Earlom, and published by Boydell under the title of Liber -Veritatis. Another of these books was purchased a few years since in -Spain, and brought into this country; where it came into the possession -of Mr. Payne Knight, and was bequeathed by him to the British Museum. -Some of Claude’s pictures have been finely engraved by Woollet. There -are twenty-eight etchings extant of landscapes and seaports, by Claude’s -own hand, executed with the taste, spirit, and feeling which we should -naturally expect. - -England is rich in the pictures of Claude, some of the finest of which -were imported from the Altieri Palace at Rome, and from the collection -of the Duc de Bouillon at Paris. There are ten in the National Gallery: -the two to which we have adverted, that of St. Ursula especially, he has -perhaps never surpassed. The little picture of the Death of Procris is -also singularly beautiful. The Earl of Radnor’s Evening, or Decline of -the Roman Empire, is one of the most exquisite of Claude’s works. The -Marquis of Bute’s collection at Luton, is also enriched by some of the -finest specimens of this artist in England. - -His private history is entirely devoid of incident. From the time of his -arrival in Italy he never quitted it: and though claimed by the French -as a French artist, he was really, in all but birth, an Italian. He -lived absorbed in his art, and never married, that his devotion to it -might not be interrupted by domestic cares. His disposition was mild and -amiable. He died in 1682, aged eighty-two. - -For more detailed information we may refer to Sandrart ‘Academia Artis -Pictoriæ.’ It is extraordinary that in Felibien’s elaborate work, “sur -les Vies et sur les Ouvrages des plus excellens Peintres anciens et -modernes,” Claude is entirely omitted. The English reader will find the -substance of the information given by Sandrart, in Bryan and Pilkington. - -[Illustration: [From a Picture by Claude.]] - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by T. Woolnoth._ - - LORD NELSON. - - _From an original Picture by Hoppner - in his Majesty’s Collection at S^{t.} James’s._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - NELSON. - - -The services of our great naval Captain need no long description. The -recollection of them is still fondly cherished by his countrymen, and -they have been worthily commemorated by Mr. Southey, with whose Life of -Nelson few readers are unacquainted. To that most animated and -interesting work, which by its late re-publication in the Family Library -is placed within the reach of every one, we must refer those who desire -fuller information concerning the hero of the Nile, Copenhagen, and -Trafalgar, than is contained in this memoir. - -Horatio Nelson was born at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, September 29, -1758. His father, the rector of that parish, was burthened with a -numerous family: and it is said to have been more with a view to lighten -that burden than from predilection for the service, that at the age of -twelve he expressed a wish to go to sea, under the care of his uncle, -Captain Suckling. Of his early adventures it is unnecessary to speak in -detail. In 1773 he served in Captain Phipps’s voyage of discovery in the -Northern Polar seas. His next station was the East Indies; from which, -at the end of eighteen months, he was compelled to return by a very -severe and dangerous illness. In April, 1777, he passed his examination, -and was immediately commissioned as second lieutenant of the Lowestoffe -frigate, then fitting out for Jamaica. - -Fortunate in conciliating the good-will and esteem of those with whom he -served, he passed rapidly through the lower ranks of his profession, and -was made post-captain, with the command of the Hinchinbrook, of -twenty-eight guns, June 11, 1779, when not yet of age. In 1782 he was -appointed to the Albemarle, twenty-eight; and in 1784 to the Boreas, -twenty-eight, in which he served for three years in the West Indies, and -though in time of peace, gave signal proof of his resolution and strict -sense of duty, by being the first to insist on the exclusion of the -Americans from direct trade with our colonies, agreeably to the terms of -the Navigation Act. He had no small difficulties to contend with; for -the planters and the colonial authorities were united against him, and -even the Admiral on the station coincided with their views, and gave -orders that the Americans should be allowed free access to the islands. -Still Nelson persevered. Transmitting a respectful remonstrance to the -Admiral, he seized four of the American ships, which, after due notice, -refused to quit the island of Nevis; and after a long and tedious -process at law, in which he incurred much anxiety and expense, he -succeeded in procuring their condemnation by the Admiralty Court. Many -other ships were condemned on the same ground. Neither his services in -this matter, nor his efforts to expose and remedy the peculations and -dishonesty of the government agents, in almost all matters connected -with naval affairs in the West Indies, were duly acknowledged by the -Government at home; and in moments of spleen, when suffering under -inconveniences which a conscientious discharge of his duty had brought -on him, he talked of quitting the service of an ungrateful country. In -March, 1787, he married Mrs. Nisbet, a West-Indian lady, and in the same -year returned to England. He continued unemployed till January, 1793; -when, on the breaking out of the revolutionary war, he was appointed to -the Agamemnon, sixty-four, and ordered to serve in the Mediterranean -under the command of Lord Hood. - -An ample field for action was now open to him. Lord Hood, who had known -him in the West Indies, and appreciated his merits, employed him to -co-operate with Paoli in delivering Corsica from its subjection to -France; and most laboriously and ably did he perform the duty intrusted -to him. The siege and capture of Bastia was entirely owing to his -efforts; and at the siege of Calvi, during which he lost an eye, and -throughout the train of successes which brought about the temporary -annexation of Corsica to the British crown, his services, and those of -the brave crew of the Agamemnon, were conspicuous. In 1795 Nelson was -selected to co-operate with the Austrian and Sardinian troops in -opposing the progress of the French in the north of Italy. The -incapacity, if not dishonesty, and the bad success of those with whom he -had to act, rendered this service irksome and inglorious; and his -mortification was heightened when orders were sent out to withdraw the -fleet from the Mediterranean, and evacuate Corsica and Elba. These -reverses, however, were the prelude to a day of glory. On February 13, -1797, the British fleet, commanded by Sir John Jervis, fell in with the -Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent. In the battle which ensued, Nelson, -who had been raised to the rank of Commodore, and removed to the -Captain, seventy-four, bore a most distinguished part. Apprehensive lest -the enemy might be enabled to escape without fighting, he did not -hesitate to disobey signals; and executed a manœuvre which brought the -Captain into close action at once with four first-rates, an eighty, and -two seventy-four-gun ships. Captain Trowbridge, in the Culloden, -immediately came to his support, and they maintained the contest for -near an hour against this immense disparity of force. One first-rate and -one seventy-four dropped astern disabled; but the Culloden was also -crippled, and the Captain was fired on by five ships of the line at -once; when Captain Collingwood, in the Excellent, came up and engaged -the huge Santissima Trinidad, of one hundred and thirty-six guns. By -this time the Captain’s rigging was all shot away; and she lay -unmanageable abreast of the eighty-gun ship, the S. Nicolas. Nelson -seized the opportunity to board, and was himself among the first to -enter the Spanish ship. She struck after a short struggle; and, sending -for fresh men, he led the way from his prize to board the S. Josef, of -one hundred and twelve guns, exclaiming, “Westminster Abbey or victory.” -The ship immediately surrendered. Nelson received the most lively and -public thanks for his services from the Admiral, who was raised to the -peerage by the title of Earl St. Vincent. Nelson received the Order of -the Bath; he had already been made Rear-Admiral, before tidings of the -battle reached England. - -During the spring, Sir Horatio Nelson commanded the inner squadron -employed in the blockade of Cadiz. He was afterwards despatched on an -expedition against Teneriffe, which was defeated with considerable loss -to the assailants. The Admiral himself lost his right arm, and was -obliged to return to England, where he languished more than four months -before the cure of his wound was completed. His services were rewarded -by a pension of £1,000. On this occasion he was required by official -forms to present a memorial of the services in which he had been -engaged; and as our brief account can convey no notion of the constant -activity of his early life, we quote the abstract of this paper given by -Mr. Southey. “It stated that he had been in four actions with the fleets -of the enemy, and in three actions with boats employed in cutting out of -harbour, in destroying vessels, and in taking three towns; he had served -on shore with the army four months, and commanded the batteries at the -sieges of Bastia and Calvi; he had assisted at the capture of seven sail -of the line, six frigates, four corvettes, and eleven privateers; taken -and destroyed near fifty sail of merchant vessels, and actually been -engaged against the enemy upwards of a hundred and twenty times; in -which service he had lost his right eye and right arm, and been severely -wounded and bruised in his body.” - -Early in 1798 Nelson went out in the Vanguard to rejoin Lord St. Vincent -off Cadiz. He was immediately despatched with a squadron into the -Mediterranean, to watch an armament known to be fitting out at Toulon; -the destination of which excited much anxiety. It sailed May 20, -attacked and took Malta, and then proceeded, as Nelson supposed, to -Egypt. Strengthened by a powerful reinforcement, he made all sail for -Alexandria; but there no enemy had been seen or heard of. He returned in -haste along the north coast of the Mediterranean to Sicily, refreshed -the fleet, and again sailed to the eastward. On nearing Alexandria the -second time, August 1, he had the pleasure of seeing the object of his -toilsome cruise moored in Aboukir Bay, in line of battle. It appeared -afterwards that the two fleets must have crossed each other on the night -of June 22. - -The French fleet consisted of thirteen ships of the line and four -frigates; the British of the same number of ships of the line, and one -fifty-gun ship. In number of guns and men the French had a decided -superiority. It was evening before the British fleet came up. The battle -began at half-past six; night closed in at seven, and the struggle was -continued through the darkness, a magnificent and awful spectacle to -thousands who watched the engagement with eager anxiety. Victory was not -long doubtful. The two first ships of the French line were dismasted in -a quarter of an hour; the third, fourth, and fifth were taken by -half-past eight; about ten, the L’Orient, Admiral Bruey’s flag-ship, -blew up. By day-break the two rear ships, which had not been engaged, -cut their cables and stood out to sea, in company with two frigates, -leaving nine ships of the line in the hands of the British, who were too -much crippled to engage in pursuit. Two ships of the line and two -frigates were burnt or sunk. Three out of the four ships which escaped -were subsequently taken; and thus, of the whole armament, only a single -frigate returned to France. - -This victory, the most complete and most important then known in naval -warfare, raised Nelson to the summit of glory; and presents and honours -were showered on him from all quarters. The gratitude of his country was -expressed, inadequately in comparison with the rewards bestowed on -others for less important services, by raising him to the peerage, by -the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile, with a pension of £2,000. The -Court of Naples, to which the battle of Aboukir was as a reprieve from -destruction, testified a due sense of their obligation by bestowing on -him the dukedom and domain of Bronte, in Sicily. From Alexandria Nelson -went to Naples, much shattered in health by the fatigue and intense -anxiety which he had experienced during his long cruise, and suffering -from a severe wound in the head, received in the recent battle. He was -most kindly received by Sir William Hamilton, the British ambassador; -and here commenced that fatal intimacy with the celebrated Lady -Hamilton, which ruined his domestic peace, and led to the only stains -upon his public life. Her influence ruled him in all transactions in -which the Neapolitan Court was interested: and as she sought in all -things to gratify the Queen, to whom she was devotedly attached, the -passions and follies of a court corrupt and childish beyond example, -were too often allowed to warp the conduct of a British Admiral, who -hitherto had sought the welfare of his country, even in preference to -his own honour and prospects of advancement. His best friends saw and -lamented the consequences of his weakness, and remonstrated, but to no -purpose; and he himself, unable to control this passion, or to stifle -the uneasy feelings to which it gave birth, appears from his private -letters to have been thoroughly unhappy. Overpowering that influence -must have been, when it could induce the gallant and generous Nelson to -annul a treaty of surrender concluded with the Neapolitan -revolutionists, under the joint authority of the Neapolitan Royalist -General, and the British Captain commanding in the Bay of Naples, and to -deliver up the prisoners to the vengeance of the court, on the sole plea -that he would grant no terms to rebels but those of unconditional -submission. - -The autumn of 1798, the whole of 1799, and part of 1800, Nelson spent in -the Mediterranean, employed in the recovery of Malta, in protecting -Sicily, and in co-operating to expel the French from the Neapolitan -continental dominions. In 1800 various causes of discontent led him to -solicit leave to return to England, where he was received with the -enthusiasm due to his services. - -Soon afterwards, still mastered by his passion, he separated himself -formally from Lady Nelson. In March, 1801, he sailed as second in -command of the expedition against Copenhagen, led by Sir Hyde Parker. -The dilatoriness with which it was conducted increased the difficulties -of this enterprise; and might have caused it to fail, had not Nelson’s -energy and talent been at hand to overcome the obstacles occasioned by -this delay. The attack was intrusted to him by Sir Hyde Parker, and -executed April 2, with his usual promptitude and success. After a fierce -engagement, with great slaughter on both sides, the greater part of the -Danish line of defence was captured or silenced. Nelson then sent a flag -of truce on shore, and an armistice was concluded. He bore honourable -testimony to the gallantry of his opponents. “The French,” he said, -“fought bravely, but they could not have supported for one hour the -fight which the Danes had supported for four.” May 5, Sir Hyde Parker -was recalled, and Nelson appointed Commander-in-Chief: but no further -hostilities occurred, and suffering greatly from the climate, he almost -immediately returned home. For this battle he was raised to the rank of -Viscount. - -At this time much alarm prevailed with respect to the meditated invasion -of England; and the command of the coast from Orfordness to Beachy Head -was offered to him, and accepted. But he thought the alarm idle; he felt -the service to be irksome; and gladly retired from it at the peace of -Amiens. When war was renewed in 1803, he took the command of the -Mediterranean fleet. For more than a year he kept his station off -Toulon, eagerly watching for the French fleet. In January, 1805, it put -to sea, and escaped the observation of his look-out ships. He made for -Egypt, and failing to meet with them, returned to Malta, where he found -information that they had been dispersed in a gale, and forced to put -back to Toulon. Villeneuve put to sea again, March 31, formed a junction -with the Spanish fleet in Cadiz, and sailed for the West Indies. Thither -Nelson followed him, after considerable delay for want of information -and from contrary winds; but the enemy still eluded his pursuit, and he -was obliged to retrace his anxious course to Europe, without the -longed-for meeting, and with no other satisfaction than that of having -frustrated by his diligence their designs on our colonies. June 20, -1805, he landed at Gibraltar, that being the first time that he had set -foot ashore since June 16, 1803. After cruising in search of the enemy -till the middle of August, he was ordered to Portsmouth, where he -learned that an indecisive action had taken place between the combined -fleets returning from the West Indies, and the British under Sir Robert -Calder. - -He had not been many days established at home before certain news -arrived that the French and Spanish fleets had entered Cadiz. Eager to -gain the reward of his long watchings, and laborious pursuit, he again -offered his services, which were gladly accepted. He embarked at -Portsmouth, September 14, 1805, on board the Victory, to take the -command of the fleet lying off Cadiz under Admiral Collingwood, his -early friend and companion in the race of fame. The last battle in which -Nelson was engaged was fought off Cape Trafalgar, October 21, 1805. The -enemy were superior in number of ships, and still more in size and -weight of metal. Nelson bore down on them in two lines; heading one -himself, while Collingwood in the Royal Sovereign led the other, which -first entered into action. “See,” cried Nelson, as the Royal Sovereign -cut through the centre of the enemy’s line, and muzzle to muzzle engaged -a three-decker; “see how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship -into action.” Collingwood on the other hand said to his Captain, -“Rotherham, what would Nelson give to be here.” As the Victory -approached an incessant raking fire was directed against her, by which -fifty of her men were killed and wounded before a single gun was -returned. Nelson steered for his old opponent at Cape St. Vincent, the -Santissima Trinidad, distinguished by her size, and opened his fire at -four minutes after twelve, engaging the Redoutable with his starboard, -the Santissima Trinidad and Bucentaur with his larboard guns. - -About a quarter past one, a musket-ball, fired from the mizen-top of the -Redoutable, struck him on the left shoulder, and he fell. From the first -he felt the wound to be mortal. He suffered intense pain, yet still -preserved the liveliest interest in the fate of the action; and the joy -visible in his countenance as often as the hurrahs of the crew announced -that an enemy had struck, testified how near his heart, even in the -agonies of death, was the accomplishment of the great work to which his -life had been devoted. He lived to know that his victory was complete -and glorious, and expired tranquilly at half-past four. His last words -were, “Thank God, I have done my duty.” - -He had indeed done his duty, and completed his task; for thenceforth no -hostile fleet presumed to contest the dominion of the sea. It may seem -mournful, that he did not survive to enjoy the thanks and honours with -which a grateful country would have rejoiced to recompense this crowning -triumph. But he had reached the pinnacle of fame; and his death in the -hour of victory has tended far more than a few years of peaceful life, -to keep alive his memory in the hearts of a people which loved, and a -navy which adored him. In the eloquent words of the distinguished author -from whom this sketch is compiled, “He cannot be said to have fallen -prematurely whose work was done; nor ought he to be lamented, who died -so full of honours, and at the height of human fame. The most triumphant -death is that of the martyr: the most awful, that of the martyred -patriot: the most splendid, that of the hero in the hour of victory. He -has left us a name and an example which are at this hour inspiring -thousands of the youth of England: a name which is our pride, and an -example which will continue to be our shield and our strength.” - -A few words, before we conclude, on those points which appear to us to -have constituted the peculiar excellence of Nelson’s character, the real -source of his greatness. We cannot attribute it solely to personal -courage, or professional skill: fearless as he was, the navy contained -thousands of hearts as fearless as his own; skilful as he was, there may -have been other officers not less skilful than himself. But to courage, -talent, and a thorough knowledge of nautical affairs, he joined a degree -of political and moral courage, and disinterestedness rarely equalled. -To do his duty seems always to have been his first object: not to do all -that was required, but all that could be done. With this view he never -hesitated to run the risk of professional censure when the emergency -seemed to demand it. Many instances are on record in which he acted -contrary to orders: some, when he knew that strict obedience would have -been mischievous, in circumstances which the framers of the orders could -not have foreseen: others where he disobeyed the commands of a superior -on the spot, because he knew them to be illegal, or prejudicial to the -interests of his country. The most remarkable of these is his conduct in -the West Indies, because he had then no established reputation to -support him. But Nelson was well aware that this is a course which no -officer can be justified in pursuing, except under the full and clear -conviction, not only that his own views are just, but that the occasion -is of sufficient importance to justify such a deviation from the rules -of service; and that, even when the transgression is justified by the -event, it yet involves a most serious degree of responsibility. “Well,” -he said, after the battle of Copenhagen, “I have fought contrary to -orders, and I shall perhaps be hanged. Never mind, let them.” The -feeling which prompted these words, though uttered half in jest, can -hardly be mistaken. Another of the most admirable qualities of his -character is the extraordinary power which he possessed of attaching all -who served under him. His sailors adored him; and many touching -anecdotes might be told of their affection. “Our Nel,” they used to say, -“is as brave as a lion, and as gentle as a lamb.” To his officers he was -equally kind and considerate. Happy was the midshipman who in Nelson’s -younger days could obtain a berth in his ship. He himself attended to -their instruction, and was diligent in so training them, as to become -ornaments to the service by their gentlemanly feeling and deportment, as -well as by their professional skill. Humane as brave, it was ever his -object to avoid needless bloodshed: and though the virulence of national -enmity led him into the most bitter expressions of hatred to the French, -he was ever eager to rescue a drowning, or afford hospitality and -protection to a beaten enemy. “May humanity after victory be the -predominant feature in the British fleet,” was part of the prayer which -he composed on the morning of Trafalgar. There is indeed one stain on -his humanity, one stain on his good faith;—the deliverance of the -Neapolitan revolutionists to the vengeance of a cowardly and cruel -court. Of this we have already spoken; and far from excusing, we do not -even wish to palliate it. It was the result of his fatal attachment to -Lady Hamilton: and it is the duty of the biographer to point out that -the one great blot on his domestic, led to the one great blot upon his -public character. He has added another to the list of great men, who, -proof against other temptations, have yielded to female influence; and -we may add (for it is a valuable lesson) that in so doing he not only -blemished his fame, but ruined his happiness. - -Towards his country, however, Nelson was faultless; and its gratitude -has been worthily shown by heaping honours on his memory. His brother -was made an earl, and an estate was purchased for the family, and a -pension granted to support the title. His remains were brought to -England, and interred with the utmost pomp of funeral ceremony in the -cemetery of St. Paul’s. His ship, the Victory, is still preserved at -Portsmouth, and will long continue to be a chief object of interest to -the visitors of that mighty arsenal. - -[Illustration: Nelson’s Pillar, at Yarmouth.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - CUVIER. - - -George Leopold Christian Frederic Dagobert Cuvier was born August 23, -1769, at Montbeliard, a small town in Alsace, which then formed part of -the territory of the Duke of Wurtemburg. His father was a retired -officer, living upon his pension, who had formerly held a commission in -a Swiss regiment in the service of France. He had the inestimable -advantage of possessing a very sensible mother who even in infancy -attended with sedulous care to the formation of his character, and the -development of his mind. He gave early indications that nature had -endowed him with her choicest intellectual gifts. A memory of -extraordinary strength, joined to industry, and to the power of fixing -his attention steadily upon whatever he was engaged in, enabled him to -master all the ordinary studies of youth with facility; and by the time -he was fourteen years of age he had acquired a fair knowledge of the -ancient, and of several modern languages, and had made considerable -progress in the mathematics, besides having stored his mind by a wide -range of historical reading. He very early gave proofs of a talent for -drawing, which in after-life proved of material service in his -researches into natural history. When he was twelve years old he read -the works of Buffon with avidity, and he no doubt received from the -writings of that accomplished and elegant historian of nature an early -bias towards the study of zoology. While he was at school he instituted -a little academy of sciences among his companions, of which he was -elected the president: his sleeping-room was their hall of meeting, and -the bottom of his bed the president’s chair. They read extracts from -books of history, travels, and natural philosophy, which they discussed; -and the debate was usually followed by an opinion on the merits of the -question, pronounced from the chair. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by J. Thomson._ - - CUVIER. - - _From an original Drawing in the possession of - the Baroness Cuvier, at Paris._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - -In 1783 the reigning Duke of Wurtemburg visited Montbeliard; and became -acquainted with the unusual attainments of young Cuvier, who had then -reached the fourteenth year of his age. Struck by the early promise of -future eminence, he offered to take him under his own protection. The -proposal was readily accepted, and the future philosopher went to -Stutgard to prosecute his studies in the university of that place. He -continued there four years, and did not fail to turn to good account the -excellent opportunities which were afforded to him, of laying the -foundation of that extensive acquaintance with every great department of -human knowledge, for which he was in after-life so eminently -distinguished. The universality of his genius was as remarkable as the -depth and accuracy of his learning in that particular field of science, -with which his name is more especially associated. He not only gained -the highest academical prizes, but was decorated by the Duke with an -order; a distinction which was only conferred upon five or six out of -the four hundred students at the university. - -He had now arrived at an age when it was necessary for him to choose a -profession, and his inclination led him to seek employment in one of the -public offices in the country of his patron. This he would probably have -obtained; but, happily for science, the circumstances of his parents -made it impossible for him to linger in expectation, and he changed his -views. In July, 1788, being then in his nineteenth year, he accepted the -office of tutor in a Protestant family in Normandy, having been himself -brought up in that faith. - -The family lived in a very retired situation near the sea; and Cuvier -was not so constantly engaged with his pupils as to prevent him from -cultivating those branches of science, for which he had imbibed a -decided taste while listening to the lectures of Abel, the professor of -natural history at Stutgard. He devoted himself especially to the study -of the Mollusca, for which his vicinity to the sea afforded him good -opportunities; and continued his researches uninterruptedly for six -years in this retirement. The reign of terror at Paris, which spared -neither virtue nor talent, drove M. Tessier, a member of the Academy of -Sciences, to seek refuge in Normandy. He became acquainted with the -young naturalist, and soon learned to appreciate his talents; and he -introduced him to the correspondence of several of the more eminent men -of science in Paris, among whom were Lametheric, Olivier, and Lacepède. -The impression which Cuvier made upon his correspondents was so great, -that when tranquillity was restored, they invited him to come to the -capital. He accepted the invitation, and in the spring of 1795 removed -to Paris. He was soon afterwards appointed Professor of Natural History -in the central school of the Pantheon. - -Being very desirous of obtaining some official connexion with the Museum -of Natural History at the Jardin des Plantes, with the view of gaining -free access to the valuable collections there deposited, he solicited -the aid of his scientific friends, and by their exertions, particularly -those of De Jussieu, Geoffroy, and Lacepède, he was nominated assistant -to Mertrud, the professor of comparative anatomy, a chair which had been -recently instituted. Here he had free scope to indulge his passion for -that branch of science, and by his indefatigable exertions he speedily -brought together a very copious supply of illustrations for his -lectures. He never ceased to make the museum a primary object of his -care, and at last formed the most perfect and the most splendid -collection of comparative anatomy which exists in the world. The -excellence of his lectures, in which the interest of the subject was -heightened by his eloquence and easy delivery, attracted a crowd of -auditors; and while he thus excited and extended a taste for a -department of science previously but little cultivated, those who -listened to him spread the fame of the young professor. - -At the establishment of the Institute in 1796 he was chosen one of the -original members; and the papers which he read before that body, giving -an account of his researches and discoveries in comparative anatomy, -enriched their memoirs, and procured for him a high and widely extended -reputation at an early period of life. In 1800 he was appointed -Secretary to the Institute. In the same year Bonaparte was appointed -President. Cuvier thus, by virtue of his office, was brought into -immediate and frequent communication with that extraordinary man; an -event which had a material influence upon his future destiny, and opened -to him new and wide fields of usefulness and distinction. Such were the -powers of his mind, and so great was the versatility of his genius, that -in whatever situation he was placed his superiority was soon -acknowledged by his associates. - -In the year 1802 the attention of the First Consul was directed to the -subject of public instruction, and six inspectors-general were -commissioned to organize lyceums or colleges in thirty towns of France. -Cuvier was one of them, and he left Paris to execute the duties which -had been assigned to him in the provinces. From this period his -attention was always particularly directed to the subject of education; -and his labours in that cause have had the most important influence upon -every institution for public instruction in France, from the University -of Paris down to the most humble village school. At the foundation of -the Imperial University in 1808, Cuvier was named a member of its -council for life. When Italy was annexed to the French empire, he was -charged at three different times with missions to that country, for the -purpose of re-organizing the old academies and colleges, and of -establishing new ones: and in the last of those missions in 1813, -although a Protestant, he was sent to form the University at Rome. In -1811 he went into Belgium and Holland to perform the same duties; and -the reports which he drew up on that occasion, which were afterwards -printed, possess great interest, especially in those parts where he -speaks of the schools in Holland for the lower classes. He felt how -important it is to the welfare of a nation, that good education should -be within reach even of the poor: and there is no country in Europe -where that subject is attended to with more enlightened views than in -Holland, where excellent primary schools have been in operation for -nearly half a century. When the great measure for the general -introduction of schools for the lower orders throughout France, was -brought forward in 1821, the duty of drawing up the plan upon which they -were to be established was confided to Cuvier; and his enlightened -benevolence and practical good sense are equally conspicuous in the -system which on his recommendation was adopted. It has proved admirably -adapted to the ends in view. The direction of the Protestant schools was -more particularly intrusted to him, and he introduced into all those -which had previously existed many important improvements. - -In February, 1815, the university was remodelled by the Bourbon -government, and Cuvier was appointed a member of the Royal Council of -Public Instruction. Shortly afterwards came the events of the Hundred -Days, and among them the restoration of the Imperial University. Cuvier -was re-appointed to his seat in the Council, for they felt that they -could not do there without him. In four months another revolution took -place in the university, as in other public establishments; and as it -was found that the system of the Royal University could not be resumed, -a commission was appointed to execute the functions of the Grand Master, -the Chancellor, and the Treasurer. In this commission the duties which -had belonged to the Chancellor were assigned to Cuvier. In this station -he was eminently useful in maintaining the rights of the university -under circumstances of no ordinary difficulty. He was twice President of -the Commission, and each time for a year; but on account of his being a -Protestant he could not retain that place permanently. But the Bishop, -who, as a member of the commission, had discharged the duties which -belonged to the Grand Master of the University, was appointed minister -for ecclesiastical affairs; and Cuvier was nominated as his successor, -so far as concerned the Protestant faculty of theology, and continued to -act in this capacity for the rest of his life. As a member of the -Council of State, and attached to the department of the Minister of the -Interior, he had the direction of all matters relating to Protestant, -and other religious congregations, not Catholic. - -During his mission to Rome in 1813 he was appointed by Napoleon a member -of the Council of State; and on the restoration of the Bourbons his -political opinions formed no obstacle to his continuing in that place. -Although he was left undisturbed in his situation at the university, he -was removed from the Council of State during the Hundred Days; but -resumed his seat when the fate of his former patron and master was -sealed. It is to be regretted that a mind so powerful as that of Cuvier -should not have felt the paramount importance of having settled opinions -on the great principles of government; and the facility with which he -made himself acceptable to the despotic Emperor, the weak and bigoted -Bourbons, and the liberal government of Louis Philippe, showed a want of -fixed public principle which casts a shade upon the memory of this great -man. - -As a member of the Council of State he took a distinguished lead, which -indeed he never failed to do wherever he was placed, and he was -eminently useful by his extraordinary talent for the despatch of -business. He was a patient listener, and was never forward with his -opinion; he allowed the useless talkers to have their course, and, while -he appeared indifferent to what was going on, he was often drawing up a -resolution, which his colleagues usually adopted without farther -discussion, after he had given a short and luminous exposition of his -views. For thirteen years previous to his death he was chairman of the -Committee of the Council of State, to which the affairs of the interior -belong; and the quantity of business which passed through his hands was -wonderful. It was accomplished by his great skill in making those useful -with whom he acted; by his talent in keeping his colleagues to the point -in their discussions; and by his prodigious readiness of memory, which -enabled him to go back at once to former decisions where the principle -of the question under deliberation had been already settled. His reading -in history had been very extensive, and his attention was ever alive to -what was passing around him, as well in other countries as in France; so -that he brought to bear on the matter in debate, not speculative -opinions merely, but maxims drawn from the experience of past and -present times. In the Chamber of Deputies, of which he was a member for -several years, he took an active part, and often originated measures. -His manner as a speaker was very impressive, and the rich stores of his -mind, and his ready and natural eloquence commanded attention. At the -end of 1831 he was created a peer; and during the short time he sat in -the Upper Chamber, he took a prominent part in its business, and drew up -some important reports of committees to which he belonged. - -But his reputation as a statesman was confined to France: his -achievements in science have spread his fame over the civilized world. -We can in this place do little more than mention the titles of the most -important of Cuvier’s works; even to name all would carry us beyond our -limits. His earliest production was a memoir read before the Natural -History Society of Paris, in 1795, and published in the Décade -Philosophique. In this paper he objects to the divisions of certain of -the lower animals adopted by Linnæus, and proposes a more scientific -classification of the mollusca, crustacea, worms, insects, and other -invertebrate animals. His attention had been long directed to that -branch of natural history, and his subsequent researches in the same -department, most of which have been communicated to the world through -the medium of the ‘Annales du Museum,’ have thrown great light on that -obscure and curious part of the creation. Three years afterwards, he -published his Elementary View of the Natural History of Animals, which -contains an outline of the lectures he delivered at the Pantheon. In -this work he displayed the vast extent of his acquaintance with the -works of his predecessors, and, at the same time, the originality of his -own mind, by introducing a new arrangement of the animal kingdom, -founded on more exact investigation and comparison of the varieties -which exist in anatomical structure. With the assistance of his friends, -Dumeril and Duvernay, he published, in 1802, his ‘Leçons d’Anatomie -Comparée,’ in two volumes, octavo, afterwards extended to five. These -are singularly lucid and exact, and form the most complete work on the -subject which has yet appeared. - -The next important publication we have to notice, is one in which he -embodied the results of his extensive researches in a very interesting -field of inquiry, concerning the remains of extinct species of animals -which are found enveloped in solid rocks, or buried in the beds of -gravel that cover the surface of the earth. We are disposed to think his -‘Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles’ the most important of his works, -the most illustrious and imperishable monument of his fame. The quarries -in the neighbourhood of Paris abound in fossil bones; and he had great -facilities for collecting the valuable specimens which were almost daily -discovered in the ordinary working of the quarry. When he went to Italy, -he had an opportunity of seeing animal remains of the same sort procured -by the naturalists of that country from their native soil, and preserved -in their museums. His attention became now specially attracted to the -subject; and having accumulated materials from all parts of the world, -he announced the important truths at which he had arrived in the work -above-mentioned, in four quarto volumes, in the year 1812. A new -edition, enlarged to five volumes, appeared in 1817, and in 1824 it was -extended to seven volumes, illustrated by two hundred engravings. No one -who was not profoundly skilled in comparative anatomy could have entered -upon the inquiry with any prospect of success; and Cuvier not only -possessed that qualification, but was singularly constituted by nature -for the task. His powerful memory was particularly susceptible of -retaining impressions conveyed to it by the eye: he saw at a glance the -most minute variations of form, and what he saw he not only never -forgot, but he had the power of representing upon paper with the utmost -accuracy and despatch. It is very seldom that the entire skeleton of an -animal is found in a fossil state: in most instances the bones have been -separated and scattered before they were entombed, and a tusk, a jaw, or -a single joint of the back-bone is very often all that is met with, and -frequently too in a mutilated state. But an instructed mind like that of -Cuvier was able to re-construct the whole animal from the inspection of -one fragment. He had discovered by his previous researches such a -connexion between the several bones, that a particular curvature, or a -small protuberance on a jaw, or a tooth, was sufficient to indicate a -particular species of animal, and to prove that the fragment could not -have belonged to any other. The ‘Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles’ -have made us acquainted with more than seventy species of animals before -unknown. - -The preliminary discourse in the first volume is a masterly exposition -of the revolutions which the crust of the earth has undergone: -revolutions to which the animal creation has been equally subject. It is -written with great clearness and elegance, and is so much calculated to -interest general readers as well as men of science, that it has been -translated into most of the European languages. The English translation, -by Professor Jameson, published under the title of ‘Essay on the Theory -of the Earth,’ has gone through several editions. - -In his examination of the fossil bones found near Paris, Cuvier was led -to inquire into the geological structure of the country around that -capital. He assumed M. Alexander Bronguiart as his associate, and the -result of their joint labours is contained in one of the volumes of the -work now under consideration, in an Essay on the Mineralogy of the -Environs of Paris. This essay formed a great epoch in geological -science, for it was then that the grand division of the tertiary -formations was first shown to form a distinct class. A new direction and -a fresh impulse was thus given to geological investigations; and many of -the most important general truths at which we have now arrived in this -science, have been established by discoveries to which the essay of -Cuvier and Bronguiart led the way. - -In 1817 appeared the first edition of the ‘Règne Animal,’ in four octavo -volumes, one of which was written by the celebrated naturalist -Latreille. This work gives an account of the structure and history of -all existing and extinct races of animals: it has subsequently been -enlarged. Cuvier began, in conjunction with M. Valenciennes, an -extensive general work on fishes, which it was calculated would extend -to twenty volumes. Eight only have appeared; for the embarrassments -among the Parisian booksellers, in 1830, suspended the publication, and -it has thus been left incomplete; but a great mass of materials was -collected, and we may hope that they will yet be published. In addition -to these great undertakings, he had been for years collecting materials -for a stupendous work, a complete system of comparative anatomy, to be -illustrated by drawings from nature, and chiefly from objects in the -Museum at the Jardin des Plantes. Above a thousand drawings, many -executed by his own hand, are said to have been made. Looking back to -what he had already accomplished, and considering his health and age, -for he was only in his sixty-third year, it was not unreasonable in him -to hope to see the great edifice erected, of which he had laid the -foundation and collected the materials. But unfortunately for the cause -of science it was ordered otherwise, and there is something particularly -touching in the last words he uttered to his friend the Baron Pasquier, -and in sounds, too, scarcely articulate, from the malady which so -suddenly cut short his career—“_Vous le voyez, il y a loin de l’homme du -Mardi (nous nous étions rencontrés ce jour là) à l’homme du Dimanche: et -tant de choses, cependant, qui me restaient à faire! trois ouvrages -importans à mettre au jour, les matériaux préparés, tout était disposé -dans ma tête, il ne me restait plus qu’à écrire._” “You see how it is, -how different the man of Tuesday (we had met on that day) from the man -of Sunday: and so many things too that remained for me to do! three -important works to bring out, the materials prepared, all disposed in -order in my head, I had nothing left to do but to write.” In four hours -afterwards that wonderfully organized head had become a mere mass of -insensible matter. - -Besides the works above enumerated, and many memoirs in the transactions -of the scientific bodies of Paris, he has given to the world, in four -octavo volumes, a History of the Progress of the Physical Sciences, from -1789 to 1827, which evince his genius and extensive erudition. The first -volume is a reprint of a report which he presented, as Perpetual -Secretary of the Institute, to Napoleon, in 1808, on the Progress of the -Physical Sciences from 1789 to 1807. In the same capacity, during -thirty-two years, he pronounced the customary Eloges upon deceased -members of the Institute. These are collected in three octavo volumes, -and bear witness to the versatility of his genius and the extent of his -attainments; for whether he is recording the merits of a mathematician, -a chemist, a botanist, a geologist, or the cultivator of any other -department of science, he shows himself equally conversant with his -subject. - -He lived at the Jardin des Plantes for nearly forty years, surrounded by -the objects which engrossed so great a portion of his thoughts, and -there received every Saturday the men of science of Paris, and all -others who visited that capital from any part of the world. Professors -and pupils met in his rooms to listen with instruction and delight to -his conversation, for he was accessible to all. Although compelled to be -a very rigid economist of his time, he was so goodnatured and -considerate, that if any person who had business to transact with him -called at an unexpected hour, he never sent him away; saying, that one -who lived so far off had no right to deny himself. Every thing in his -house was so arranged as to secure economy of time: his library -consisted of several apartments, and each great subject he attended to -had a separate room allotted to it; and he usually worked in the -apartment belonging to the subject he was at the moment engaged with, so -that he might be surrounded with his materials. His ordinary custom, -when he returned from attending public business in Paris, was to go at -once to his study, passing a few minutes by the way in the room where -his family sat; which latterly consisted of Madame Cuvier and her -daughter by a former marriage. He came back when dinner was announced, -usually with a book in his hand; and returned soon after dinner to his -study, where he remained till eleven. He then came to Madame Cuvier’s -room, and had generally some of the lighter literature of the day read -aloud to him. Sometimes the book selected was of a graver cast, for it -is said that during the last year of his life he had the greater part of -Cicero read to him. His manner was courteous, kind, and encouraging: -every one who took an interest in any subject with which Cuvier was -familiar, felt assured that he might approach him without fear of -meeting with a cold or discouraging reception. - -He had four children, but lost them all. The last taken from him was a -daughter, who was suddenly carried off by consumption on the eve of her -marriage. He was most tenderly attached to her, and it required all the -efforts of his powerful mind to prevent his sinking under the blow. He -found distraction by intense thought on other subjects, but not -consolation, for the wound never healed. - -On Tuesday, the 8th of May, 1832, he opened his usual course at the -College of France, with a particularly eloquent introductory lecture, -full of enthusiasm in his subject, to the delight of his numerous -audience. As he left the room he was attacked with the first symptoms of -the disease which was so soon to prove fatal: it was a paralytic -seizure. He was well enough, however, to preside the next day at the -Committee of the Council of State, but that was the last duty he -performed. He died on the following Sunday, leaving behind him an -imperishable name, which will be held in honour in the most advanced -state of human learning. - -[Illustration: Skeleton of the Megatherium.] - - - - -[Illustration] - - RAY. - - -John Ray, whom Haller describes as the greatest botanist in the memory -of man, and whose writings on animals are pronounced by Cuvier to be the -foundation of all modern zoology, was born on the 29th of November, -1628, at Black Notley, near Braintree, in Essex. His father was a -blacksmith, who availed himself of the advantages of a free grammar -school at Black Notley to bestow upon his son a liberal education. John -was designed for holy orders; and was accordingly entered at Catherine -Hall, Cambridge, in his sixteenth year. He subsequently removed to -Trinity, of which college he was elected a Fellow, in the same year with -the celebrated Isaac Barrow. In 1651 he was appointed Greek Lecturer of -his college; and afterwards Mathematical Lecturer and Humanity Reader. - -In the midst of his professional occupations Ray appears to have devoted -himself to that course of observation of the works of nature, which was -afterwards to constitute the business and pleasure of his life, and upon -which his enduring reputation was to be built. In 1660 he published his -‘Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium,’ which work he -states to be the result of ten years of research. He must, therefore, -have become a naturalist in the best sense of the word—he must have -observed as well as read—at the period when he was struggling for -university honours, and obtaining them in company with some of the most -eminent persons of his own day. Before the publication of his catalogue, -he had visited many parts of England and Wales, for the purpose chiefly -of collecting their native plants; and his Itineraries, which were first -published in 1760, under the title off ‘Select Remains of the learned -John Ray,’ show that he was a careful and diligent observer of every -matter that could enlarge his understanding and correct his taste. His -principal companion in his favourite studies was his friend and pupil, -Francis Willughby. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by H. Meyer._ - - RAY. - - _From an original Picture - in the British Museum._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - -In December, 1660, Ray was ordained Deacon and Priest at the same time. -But the chances of preferment in the church of England, which his -admirable talents and learning, as well as the purity of his life and -the genuine warmth of his piety, would probably have won for him, were -at once destroyed by his honest and inflexible resolution not to -subscribe to the conditions required by the Act of Uniformity of 1662, -by which divines were called upon to swear that the oath entitled the -Solemn League and Covenant was not binding upon those who had taken it. -Ray was in consequence deprived of his fellowship. The affection of his -pupil, Willughby, relieved him from the embarrassment which might have -been a consequence of this misfortune. The two friends from this time -appear to have dedicated themselves almost wholly to the study of -natural history. They travelled upon the Continent for three years, from -1663 to 1666; and during the remainder of Willughby’s life, which -unfortunately was terminated in 1672, their time was principally -occupied in observations which had for their object to examine and to -register the various productions of nature, upon some method which -should obviate the difficulty of those arbitrary and fanciful -classifications which had prevailed up to their day. In the preface to -his first botanical attempt, the Catalogue of Cambridge Plants, Ray -describes the obstacles which he found in the execution of such a -work;—he had no guide to consult, and he had to form a method of -arrangement, solely by his own sagacity and patience. At that period, as -he says in his ‘Wisdom of God in the Creation,’ “different colour, or -multiplicity of leaves in the flower, and the like accidents, were -sufficient to constitute a specific difference.” From a conversation -with Ray a short time before his death, Derham has described the object -which the two friends had in their agreeable but laborious pursuits. -“These two gentlemen, finding the history of nature very imperfect, had -agreed between themselves, before their travels beyond sea, to reduce -the several tribes of things to a method; and to give accurate -descriptions of the several species, from a strict view of them.” That -Ray entered upon his task, however perplexing it might be, with the -enthusiastic energy of a man really in love with his subject, we cannot -doubt. “Willughby,” says Derham, “prosecuted his design with as great -application as if he had been to get his bread thereby.” The good sense -of Ray saw distinctly the right path in such an undertaking. There is a -passage in his ‘Wisdom of God,’ which beautifully exhibits his own -conception of the proper character of a naturalist: “Let it not suffice -us to be book-learned, to read what others have written, and to take -upon trust more falsehood than truth. But let us ourselves examine -things as we have opportunity, and converse with nature as well as -books. Let us endeavour to promote and increase this knowledge, and make -new discoveries; not so much distrusting our own parts or despairing of -our own abilities, as to think that our industry can add nothing to the -invention of our ancestors, or correct any of their mistakes. Let us not -think that the bounds of science are fixed like Hercules’ pillars, and -inscribed with a _ne plus ultra_. Let us not think we have done when we -have learnt what they have delivered to us. The treasures of nature are -inexhaustible. Here is employment enough for the vastest parts, the most -indefatigable industries, the happiest opportunities, the most prolix -and undisturbed vacancies.” It is not difficult to imagine the two -friends encouraging each other in their laborious career by sentiments -such as these; which are as worthy to be held in remembrance now that we -are reaping the full advantage of their labours, and those of their many -illustrious successors, as in the days when natural history was, for the -most part, a tissue of extravagant fables and puerile conceits. - -In 1667 Ray was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society; and he executed, -about that time, a translation into Latin of his friend Bishop Wilkins’ -work, on a philosophical and universal language. In 1670 he published -the first edition of his ‘Catalogue of English Plants;’ and in 1672 -appeared his ‘Collection of English Proverbs;’ which he probably took up -as a relaxation from his more systematic pursuits. In this year he -suffered the irreparable loss of his friend Willughby. The history of -letters presents us with few more striking examples of the advantages to -the world, as well as to the individuals themselves, of such a cordial -union for a great object. The affection of Ray for Willughby was of the -noblest kind. He became the guardian and tutor of his children; and he -prepared his posthumous works for publication, with additions from his -own pen, for which he claimed no credit, with a diligence and accuracy -which showed that he considered the reputation of his friend as the most -sacred of all trusts. In 1673, being in his forty-fifth year, Ray -married. Willughby had left him an annuity of £60. He had three -daughters. During the remainder of his long life, which reached to his -77th year, he resided in or near his native village, living contentedly, -as a layman, upon very humble means, but indefatigably contributing to -the advancement of natural history, and directing the study of it to the -highest end,—the proof of the wisdom and goodness of the great Author of -Nature. - -The most celebrated of Ray’s botanical publications is his ‘Synopsis -Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum.’ Sir James Smith, in a memoir of Ray, -in Rees’s Encyclopædia, declares that of all the systematical and -practical Floras of any country, the second edition of Ray’s Synopsis is -the most perfect. The same writer, in the Transactions of the Linnæan -Society, vol. iv., says of this Synopsis, “he examined every plant -recorded in his work, and even gathered most of them himself. He -investigated their synonyms with consummate accuracy; and if the -clearness and precision of other authors had equalled his, he would -scarcely have committed an error.” Ray’s ‘Methodus Plantarum Nova,’ -first published in 1682, has been superseded by other systems; but the -accuracy of his observations, the precision of his language, and the -clearness of his general views, tended greatly to the advancement of -botanical science. His ‘Historia Plantarum,’ in three vols. folio, a -vast compilation, including all the botanical knowledge of his day, is -still in use, as a book of reference, by those who especially devote -themselves to this study. - -The zoological works of Ray have had a more direct and permanent -influence upon the advancement of natural history, than his botanical. -Amongst his zoological productions, the best authorities are agreed that -we ought to include the greater part of those edited by him as the -posthumous works of his friend Willughby. They are conceived upon the -same principle as his own History of Plants, and are arranged upon a -nearly similar plan; whilst the style of each is undoubtedly the same. -In the original division of their great subject, Ray had chosen the -vegetable kingdom, and Willughby the animal; and Ray, therefore, may -have felt himself compelled to forego some of his own proper claims, -that he might raise a complete monument to the memory of his friend. The -Ornithology appeared in 1676; the History of Fishes in 1686. Ray, -however, prepared several very important zoological works, of his entire -claims to which there can be no doubt. The chief of these are, ‘Synopsis -methodica animalium quadrupedum et serpentini generis,’ 1693, which he -published during his life; ‘Synopsis methodica avium,’ and ‘Synopsis -methodica piscium,’ edited by Derham, and published in 1713; and -‘Historia insectorum,’ printed at the expense of the Royal Society, in -1710. “The peculiar character of the zoological works of Ray,” says -Cuvier, “consists in clearer and more rigorous methods than those of any -of his predecessors, and applied with more constancy and precision.” The -divisions which he has introduced into the classes of quadrupeds and -birds have been followed by the English naturalists, almost to our own -day; and one finds very evident traces of his system of birds in -Linnæus, in Brisson, in Buffon, and in all the authors who are occupied -with this class of animals. The Ornithology of Salerne is little more -than a translation from the Synopsis; and Buffon has extracted from -Willughby almost all the anatomical part of his History of Birds. -Daubenton and Hauy have translated the History of Fishes, in great part, -for their Dictionary of Ichthyology, in the ‘Encyclopédie Methodique.’ - -‘The Wisdom of God in the Creation’ is the work upon which the popular -fame of Ray most deservedly rests. It is a book which perhaps more than -any other in our language unites the precision of science to the warmth -of devotion. It is delightful to see the ardour with which this good man -dedicated himself to the observation of nature entering into his views -of another state of existence, when our knowledge shall be made perfect, -and the dim light with which we grope amidst the beautiful and wondrous -objects by which we are surrounded, shall brighten into complete day. -“It is not likely,” says he, “that eternal life shall be a torpid and -inactive state, or that it shall consist only in an uninterrupted and -endless act of love; the other faculties shall be employed as well as -the will, in actions suitable to, and perfective of their natures: -especially the understanding, the supreme faculty of the soul, which -chiefly differs in us from brute beasts, and makes us capable of virtue -and vice, of rewards and punishments, shall be busied and employed in -contemplating the works of God, and observing the divine art and wisdom -manifested in the structure and composition of them; and reflecting upon -their Great Architect the praise and glory due to him. Then shall we -clearly see, to our great satisfaction and admiration, the ends and uses -of those things, which here were either too subtle for us to penetrate -and discover, or too remote and unaccessible for us to come to any -distinct view of, viz. the planets and fixed stars; those illustrious -bodies, whose contents and inhabitants, whose stores and furniture we -have here so longing a desire to know, as also their mutual subserviency -to each other. Now the mind of man being not capable at once to advert -to more than one thing, a particular view and examination of such an -innumerable number of vast bodies, and the great multitude of species, -both of animate and inanimate beings, which each of them contains, will -afford matter enough to exercise and employ our minds, I do not say to -all eternity, but to many ages, should we do nothing else[10].” - -Footnote 10: - - Wisdom of God in the Creation, p. 199, fifth edition. - -In addition to his ‘Wisdom of God,’ Ray published three -‘Physico-Theological Discourses, concerning the Chaos, Deluge, and -Dissolution of the World.’ “This last presents to us,” to use the words -of Cuvier, “a system of geology as plausible as any of those which had -appeared at this epoch, or for a long time afterwards.” He also printed -a work expressly of a theological character, ‘A Persuasive to a Holy -Life.’ - -Ray died on the 17th January, 1705, at his native place of Black Notley, -whither he had retired, at Midsummer, 1679, as he himself expressed, -“for the short pittance of time he had yet to live in this world.” His -memory has been done justice to by his countrymen. A most interesting -commemoration of him was held in London, on the 29th Nov., 1828, being -the two hundredth anniversary of his birth. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by E. Scriven._ - - CAPTAIN COOK. - - _From an original Picture by Dance - in the Gallery of Greenwich Hospital._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - COOK. - - -James Cook was born October 27, 1728, at Marton, a village in the North -Riding of Yorkshire, near Stockton-upon-Tees. His parents, who were -farm-servants, of good esteem in their rank of life, apprenticed him -when not thirteen years of age to a haberdasher at the fishing town of -Staith, near Whitby. The employment proved ill suited to his taste; and -he soon quitted it, and bound himself to a ship-owner at Whitby. In -course of time he became mate of one of his master’s vessels in the coal -trade; that best of schools for practical seamanship. - -In the spring of 1755 he was lying in the Thames, when war was declared -between England and France, and a hot press for seamen ensued. He -volunteered to serve on board the Eagle frigate, commanded by Captain, -afterwards Sir Hugh Palliser, and soon won the esteem of his officers by -his diligence and activity. In May, 1759, he was promoted to be master -of the Mercury, in which he was present at the celebrated siege of -Quebec. At the recommendation of Captain Palliser, he was employed to -take soundings of the river St. Lawrence, opposite to, and preparatory -to an attack on the French fortified camp; and in this hazardous service -he manifested so much sagacity and resolution, that he was afterwards -ordered to survey the river below Quebec. The accurate chart, which was -published as the result of his labours, furnishes a most satisfactory -proof of Cooke’s natural talents and steady industry; for he could have -derived little aid in such pursuits from the habits of his early life. -In the autumn he was removed into the Northumberland man-of-war, -stationed at Halifax, in Nova Scotia; and he employed his leisure during -the long winter in making up for the defects of his education, which had -been merely such as a village school could supply. He now read Euclid -for the first time, and applied himself to study those branches of -science, which promised to be most useful in his profession. Towards the -end of 1762 he returned to England, and married; but in 1763 he again -went out to make a survey of Newfoundland. In 1764, his steady friend, -Sir Hugh Palliser, being appointed Governor of Newfoundland, Cook was -made Marine Surveyor of Newfoundland and Labrador. He held this office -nearly four years, and his charts of those coasts remain in use up to -this day. - -In 1767 Government determined, at the request of the Royal Society, to -send out astronomers to the South Pacific Ocean to observe the transit -of Venus across the sun’s disc. Cook’s able discharge of his duties at -Newfoundland, and the skill with which he observed an eclipse of the sun -there, pointed him out to Mr. Stephens, Secretary to the Admiralty, as a -proper person to conduct the expedition: and at that gentleman’s -recommendation, backed by Sir Hugh Palliser, he was selected for this -purpose, and raised to the rank of Lieutenant. He sailed from Plymouth, -August 23, 1768, in the Endeavour, of three hundred and seventy tons, -accompanied by Mr. Green as astronomer, and by Mr. Banks. Passing round -Cape Horn, they anchored, April 11, 1769, at Otaheite, or Tahiti, as it -is named by the latest visitors, which had been discovered by Captain -Wallis, and was now selected as a proper place to observe the transit. -As it was necessary to remain some time on the island, and highly -expedient to be on good terms with the natives, Lieutenant Cook used -much precaution to place the traffic between them and the strangers on -an equitable footing; and to prevent the wanton injuries which the sense -of superior power, and an unjust contempt, too often induce Europeans to -inflict upon the rude inhabitants of newly-discovered regions. And we -may here mention, as one of the good points of Cook’s character, that he -always showed a scrupulous regard to the rights of property, taking no -articles from the natives except on fair terms of gift or barter; and -that he had a tender regard for human life, not only avoiding to use our -deadly weapons, as discoverers have too often done, in revenge for petty -depredations, harmless insults, and contemptible attacks, but even -restraining a natural curiosity, where the indulgence of it seemed -likely to shock prejudices, or to lead to collision and bloodshed. The -inhabitants of Otaheite are a gentle race, and no serious -misunderstandings occurred between them and their visitors. The transit -was satisfactorily observed June 3; and, July 13, the Endeavour resumed -her voyage, pursuant to Cook’s instructions, which were to prosecute his -discoveries in the Southern Ocean, after the astronomical purposes of -the expedition had been fulfilled. He cruised a month among the then -unknown group of the Society Islands, and afterwards proceeded in search -of the Terra Australis, the great southern continent, so long supposed -by geographers to exist, as a necessary counterpoise to the extensive -continents of the northern hemisphere. Land was seen October 6, -displaying lofty ranges of mountains; and it was generally supposed that -the long wished for discovery was made. It proved, however, to be New -Zealand, unvisited by Europeans since Tasman first approached its -shores, in 1642. Cook spent six months in circumnavigating this country, -and ascertained that it consisted of two large islands. March 31, 1770, -he commenced his voyage home. He directed his course along the eastern -coast of New Holland, then quite unknown; laid down a chart of it -through nearly its whole extent; and took every opportunity to increase -our stock of knowledge in natural history, as well as geographical -science. For more than 1300 miles he had safely navigated this most -dangerous shore, where the sharp coral reefs rise like a wall to the -surface of the water, when, on the night of June 10, the ship suddenly -struck. She was found to be aground on a coral reef, which rose around -her to within a few feet of the surface. Though lightened immediately by -every possible means, two tides elapsed before she could be got off; and -then with so much injury to her bottom, that she could only be kept -afloat by working three pumps night and day. When the men were all but -worn out by this labour, a midshipman suggested the expedient of -_fothering_ the ship, or passing a sail charged with oakum, and other -loose materials, under her keel: which succeeded so well, that the leak -was then kept under by a single pump; and the navigators proceeded in -comparative security till the 14th, when a harbour was discovered, -afterwards named Endeavour River, suitable for making the necessary -repairs. It was then found that a large fragment of coral rock had stuck -in the ship’s bottom, so as in great measure to close the leak, which -must otherwise have admitted a body of water sufficient to set the pumps -at defiance. To this providential occurrence they owed their safety; -for, had the ship foundered, the boats could not have contained the -whole crew. Among many dangers, Cook pursued his course through that -intricate tract of reefs and islands, which he named the Labyrinth, to -the northern point of New Holland: and having now explored the whole -eastern coast, from lat. 38° to 10° 30´, he took possession of it by the -name of New South Wales. He then made sail for New Guinea, having proved -that New Guinea and New Holland are separate islands, and from thence -proceeded to Batavia, which he reached October 9. Here they obtained -refreshments and repaired the ship, which was found to be in a most -perilous state: but these advantages were dearly bought by a sojourn in -that pestilential place. Seven persons died at Batavia, and twenty-three -more during the voyage to the Cape. June 12, 1771, the Endeavour dropped -anchor in the Downs, and terminated her long and adventurous voyage. - -The manner in which Lieutenant Cook had performed his task gave perfect -satisfaction, and he was promoted to the rank of Commander. The public -curiosity was strongly roused to know the particulars of his adventures; -and it was gratified by an account of the several expeditions to the -Southern Ocean, commanded by Byron, Wallis, and Cook, composed by Dr. -Hawkesworth from the original materials, and illustrated by charts and -plates, engraved at the expense of Government. Cook communicated to the -Royal Society an ‘Account of the flowing of the Tides in the South Sea,’ -published in their Transactions, vol. lxii. His voyage had proved two -things: first, that neither New Zealand or New Holland were parts of the -great southern continent, supposing it to exist; secondly, that no such -continent could exist to the northward of 40° S. lat. He had not, -however, ascertained its non-existence in higher latitudes, nor did it -enter into his commission to do so. Now, however, it was resolved to -send out a second expedition, to ascertain this point, under the command -of him who had so ably conducted the former one. Two ships were fitted -out with every thing conducive to the health and comfort of the -voyagers: the Resolution, of four hundred and sixty tons, and a smaller -vessel, the Adventure, Captain Furneaux; which, however, was separated -from her consort early in the second year of the voyage. They sailed -from Plymouth, July 13, 1772. Captain Cook’s instructions were, to -circumnavigate the globe in high southern latitudes, prosecuting his -discoveries as near to the South Pole as possible, using every exertion -to fall in with the supposed continent, or any islands which might exist -in those unknown seas; and endeavouring, by all proper means, to -cultivate a friendship and alliance with the inhabitants. The expedition -left the Cape of Good Hope Nov. 22, and cruised, for near four months, -between the Cape and New Zealand, from E. long. 20° to 170°, their -extreme point to the southward being lat. 67° 15´. Having satisfied -himself that no land of great extent could exist between these -longitudes, to the northward of 60° S. lat., Cook made sail for New -Zealand, to refresh his crew, and reached it March 26, 1773. The winter -months, corresponding to our midsummer, he spent at the Society Islands; -and returning to New Zealand, he again sailed, November 26, in quest of -a southern continent, inclining his course to the east. He first fell in -with ice in lat. 62° 10´, W. long. 172°, and continued to steer S.E. to -lat. 67° 31´, W. long. 142° 54´, when, finding it impossible at that -time to get farther south, he returned northwards, as far as lat. 50°, -that he might be certain that no extensive country had been left in that -direction. January 6, 1774, he again shaped his course southward, and on -the 30th reached his extreme point of southing, lat. 71° 10´, W. long. -106° 54´. Here he was stopped by ice, which it was the general opinion -might extend to the Pole, or join some land to which it had been fixed -from the earliest time. Returning northwards, during the winter months -he traversed nearly the whole extent of the Pacific Ocean between the -tropics, visiting Easter Island, the Marquesas, the Society and Friendly -Islands, the New Hebrides, and another island, the largest yet -discovered in the Pacific, except those of New Zealand, which he called -New Caledonia. He then returned to New Zealand, and having passed three -weeks in friendly intercourse with the natives, took his departure, -November 10. Having cruised in various latitudes between 43° and 56°, a -portion of the ocean which he had not yet explored, and being in W. -long. 138° 56´, he determined to steer direct for the western entrance -of the Straits of Magellan, and thence, along Tierra del Fuego, to the -Straits of Le Maire. December 29 he passed Cape Horn, and re-entered the -Atlantic Ocean, and standing southward, discovered Sandwich Land, a -desolate coast, the extreme point of which he named the Southern Thule, -lat. 59° 13´, as the most southern land that had then been discovered. -Later navigators have found land nearer to the Pole. “I concluded,” -Captain Cook observes, “that Sandwich Land was either a group of -islands, or else a point of the continent, for I firmly believe that -there is a tract of land near the Pole, which is the source of most of -the ice which is spread over this vast southern ocean. I also think it -probable that it extends farthest to the north, opposite the Southern -Atlantic and Indian Oceans, because ice was always found by us farther -to the north in these oceans than any where else.” Having now -encompassed the globe in a high latitude, and thinking it impossible to -prosecute further researches in those tempestuous seas with a worn-out -ship, and nearly exhausted provisions, Cook made sail for the Cape; and -arrived there March 22, 1774, having sailed 20,000 leagues since he had -left it, without so much injury to the ship as springing a mast or yard. -July 30 he anchored at Spithead. - -He was received in England with high applause, posted, and made a -Captain of Greenwich Hospital. On this occasion he published his own -Journal, illustrated by maps and engravings; and the composition, -unpretending, but clear and manly, does honour to one whose education -had been so rude. Being elected Fellow of the Royal Society, he -contributed two papers to their Transactions, published in vol. lxvi., -one relating to the tides in the South Seas, the other containing an -account of the methods which he had taken to preserve the health of his -ship’s crew. The ravages of scurvy are now so much checked, that few -know from experience how dreadfully earlier navigators suffered from -that disease. It is one of Cook’s peculiar merits, that he attended to -the health of his seamen with such eminent success, that during this -long and painful voyage, not one man died of scurvy. Four only died, out -of a hundred and twelve persons on board the Resolution, and of these -but one was carried off by disease. That this was, in a great degree, -the merit of the Captain, is proved by the Adventure having suffered -much more, though fitted out exactly in the same way. Sailors usually -dislike changes in their mode of life; and it required judgment and -perseverance to induce them to adopt a healthy regimen. Cook, however, -succeeded in reconciling them to his innovations; of the utility of -which they were perfectly convinced, long before the end of the voyage. -The means which he used will be found fully detailed in his paper, which -was honoured by the Society with the gold medal: those on which he -chiefly relied were a large supply of antiscorbutic stores, as malt, -sour krout, and portable broth; the enforcement of a vegetable diet, -whenever vegetables could be procured; and great care not to expose the -crew unnecessarily to the weather, and to keep their persons, their -clothes, and their berths, clean, dry, and well aired. Cook was justly -proud of his success in this respect, and he closed the account of his -second voyage with words which show the humanity and modesty of his -temper. “Whatever may be the public judgment about other matters, it is -with real satisfaction, and without claiming any other merit but that of -attention to my duty, that I can conclude this account with an -observation, which facts enable me to make, that our having discovered -the possibility of preserving health among a numerous ship’s company for -such a length of time, in such varieties of climate, and amid such -continued hardships and fatigues, will make this voyage remarkable, in -the opinion of every benevolent person, when the disputes about the -southern continent shall have ceased to engage the attention and to -divide the judgment of philosophers.” - -Another geographical question, of still greater interest, engaged the -attention of the nation at this time; the practicability of a north-east -passage to China and the Indies. During Cook’s absence, one expedition -had been sent out, under Captain Phipps; it was now determined to send -out a second, reversing the usual order, and trying to find a passage -from the Pacific into the Atlantic Ocean. Cook volunteered to quit his -well-earned repose, and take the direction of this enterprise; and the -offer was gladly accepted. He was directed to proceed, by the Cape of -Good Hope, to New Zealand, thence through the chain of islands scattered -along the tropics, which he had already visited. This done, he was to -proceed northward, with all dispatch, to the latitude of 65°, and to -direct his attention to the discovery of a passage into the Atlantic; -and by the extension of an existing Act of Parliament, the ship’s -company, if successful, were entitled to a reward of £20,000. With a -most praiseworthy benevolence, the ships were charged with cattle, -sheep, and other useful animals, to be left, and naturalized, if -possible, in New Zealand, Otaheite, and other islands. The Resolution -and Discovery were fitted out for the voyage, with every attention to -the health and comfort of their crews. They sailed from Plymouth July -12, 1776, and touching at New Zealand, reached the Friendly Islands so -late in the spring of 1777, that Captain Cook thought it impossible to -visit the Polar Seas to any purpose that year. He therefore spent the -whole summer in this part of the ocean, where fresh provisions were -abundant; and his men were relieved from the hardships and sicknesses -commonly incident to a long voyage, while, at the same time, the ship’s -stores were economized. He remained therefore near three months among -the Friendly Islands, using all means of adding to the geographical -knowledge of this intricate archipelago, and acquiring information -relative to the natural history of the country, and the manners of the -inhabitants, with whom an uninterrupted friendship was maintained. July -17, Cook pursued his course to the Society Islands. Both here and at the -Friendly Islands, especially at Otaheite, he left a number of European -animals; and the prudence, as well as benevolence, of this conduct, is -evinced by the valuable supplies which whalers and other navigators of -the southern seas have since drawn from them. Early in December he took -a final leave of these regions; and, January 18, 1778, came in sight of -an unknown group, to which he gave the name of Sandwich Islands. March -7, the west coast of North America was seen; and after spending a month -in executing necessary repairs in Nootka Sound, the voyagers advanced to -the Aleutian Islands, and up Behring’s Strait. Here Cook ascertained the -continents of Asia and America to be only thirteen leagues apart; and -laid down the position of the most westerly point of America, just -without the Arctic Circle, which he named Cape Prince of Wales. August -18 he reached lat. 70° 44´, W. long. about 162°, his extreme point, and -continued to traverse those frozen regions till August 29, when, the ice -being daily increasing, it was time to seek a more genial climate. But -before proceeding to the south, he employed some time in examining the -coasts of Asia and America, and found reason to admire the correctness -of Behring, the discoverer of the strait which bears that name. He -passed the winter at the Sandwich Islands, intending to return northward -early enough to reach Kamtschatka by the middle of May in the ensuing -year. - -During this second visit was discovered the island of Owhyhee, the -largest and most important of the group, at which the strangers were -received with unusual generosity and confidence. Near ten weeks were -spent in sailing round it, without any serious disagreement arising with -the natives; and Cook ceased to regret that he had as yet failed in -meeting with a northern passage home. It is remarkable that his Journal -concludes with the following words: “To this disappointment we owed our -having it in our power to revisit the Sandwich Islands, and to enrich -our voyage with a discovery, which though the last, seemed in many -respects to be the most important that had hitherto been made by -Europeans, throughout the extent of the Pacific Ocean.” - -This island, which he had rejoiced so much to see, was the spot where -our great navigator’s life was prematurely closed. We have the testimony -of an eye-witness to his own belief, that no premeditated and -treacherous assault had been planned; but that the fatal affray was one -of those accidents which human foresight cannot always prevent. The -natives of these, as of all the South Sea Islands, were much addicted to -stealing the new and tempting articles presented to their view; a fault -for which Captain Cook, with the benevolence usually displayed in his -dealings with them, has offered a charitable and sensible apology. But -on the night of February 13, one of the ship’s boats was stolen. To -recover this was a matter of importance; and Cook went on shore, guarded -only by a small number of marines, hoping by amicable means to gain -possession of the person of the king of the district, which he had -always found the most effectual method of regaining stolen articles. The -king consented to go on board the Resolution; but a crowd collected, and -indications of alarm and hostility gradually increased, until blows were -made at Captain Cook, and he was obliged to fire in self-defence. A -shower of stones was then discharged at the marines, who returned it -with a volley, and this drew on the fire of the boats’ crews. Cook -turned round to stop the firing, and order the boats to come close in to -shore; but a rush had been made on the marines as soon as their muskets -were discharged, and they were driven into the water, where four were -killed, the rest escaping to the boats. Cook was the last person left on -shore; and he was making for the pinnace, when an Indian came behind him -and struck him with a club. He sunk on one knee, and as he rose was -stabbed by another Indian in the neck. He fell into shallow water within -five or six yards of one of the boats; but there all was confusion, and -no united effort was made to save him. He struggled vigorously, but was -overcome by numbers; and at last was struck down, not to rise again. His -body, with the other slain, was abandoned to the natives, and though -every exertion was subsequently made, nothing more than the bones, and -not all of them, were recovered. These were committed to the deep with -military honours; honoured more highly by the unfeigned sorrow of those -who sailed under his command. - -Captain Clerke, of the Discovery, succeeded to the command of the -expedition, and returned in the ensuing summer to the Polar Seas; but he -was unable to advance so far as in the former year. The chief object of -the voyage therefore failed. The ships returned along the coast of -Kamtschatka to Japan and China, and reached England in October, 1780. -Captain Clerke died of consumption in his second visit to the Polar -Seas, and Lieutenant King succeeded to the Discovery, whose name is -honourably associated with that of his great commander, in consequence -of his having continued the account of the voyage, from the period at -which Cook’s Journal ends. He has borne testimony to Cook’s virtues in -the following terms:— - -“The constitution of his body was robust, inured to labour, and capable -of undergoing the severest hardships. His stomach bore without -difficulty the coarsest and most ungrateful food. Great was the -indifference with which he submitted to every kind of self-denial. The -qualities of his mind were of the same hardy, vigorous kind with those -of his body. His understanding was strong and perspicacious. His -judgment, in whatever related to the services he was engaged in, quick -and sure. His designs were bold and manly; and both in the conception, -and in the mode of execution, bore evident marks of a great original -genius. His courage was cool and determined, and accompanied with an -admirable presence of mind in the moment of danger. His temper might, -perhaps, have been justly blamed as subject to hastiness and passion, -had not these been disarmed by a disposition the most benevolent and -humane. Such were the outlines of Captain Cook’s character; but its most -distinguishing feature was that unremitting perseverance in the pursuit -of his object, which was not only superior to the opposition of dangers, -and the pressure of hardships, but even exempt from the want of ordinary -relaxation. During the long and tedious voyages in which he was engaged, -his eagerness and activity were never in the least abated. No incidental -temptation could detain him for a moment: even those intervals of -recreation which sometimes unavoidably occurred, and were looked for by -us with a longing, that persons who have experienced the fatigues of -service will readily excuse, were submitted to by him with a certain -impatience, whenever they could not be employed in making a farther -provision for the more effectual prosecution of his designs.” - -The life of Captain Cook is, in effect, the history of his voyages, and -will best be found in the accounts of those works. But the memoir by Dr. -Kippis, the whole of which is printed in the Biographia Britannica, is -more adapted for general use. Samwell’s Narrative of the Death of -Captain Cook contains the fullest account of that lamentable event. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. T. Fry._ - - TURGOT. - - _From an original Picture in the - Gallery of the Louvre._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the diffusion of Useful - Knowledge - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - TURGOT. - - -Anne Robert James Turgot was born at Paris May 10, 1727. He was -descended from one of the oldest and most noble families of Normandy. - -Turgot’s childhood was passed under the superintendence of an -injudicious mother, whose affection for her son seems to have been much -lessened in consequence of his shy and awkward manners before strangers. -His father, on the contrary, was a man of sense and humanity. He was -Provost of the Corporation of Merchants, an office which he long filled -with deserved popularity. He lived till 1750, and by his example as well -as by his precepts exerted no small influence over the character of his -son. If Turgot’s reserved and silent manners are to be attributed to the -one parent, the uprightness, benevolence, and boldness of his conduct -may perhaps in an equal degree be ascribed to the other. At an early age -he was sent to the school of Louis le Grand, where he had little -opportunity of making progress; for the master though a kind-hearted -man, was not in other respects peculiarly qualified for his station. He -afterwards went to the school of Plessis. Here he was more fortunate in -meeting with two professors of superior abilities, Guérin and Sigorgne; -the latter honourably distinguished as being the first member of the -universities of France, who introduced the Newtonian philosophy into the -schools. Under their tuition, assisted by his own unremitting assiduity, -Turgot advanced rapidly, and the pupil soon acquired the respect and -friendship of his teachers. - -It was the custom in France, during the period of Turgot’s boyhood, that -parents should decide upon the profession to which their children should -be educated, even from the cradle; little voice in this most important -question being allowed to those who were most deeply interested in it. -Turgot was the youngest of three sons; of whom the eldest was destined -to the magistracy, the second to the army, the third, the subject of -this memoir, was set apart for the church. The premature determination -of his parents seemed amply justified as his character was gradually -developed. Great simplicity of manner, pensiveness of mind, extreme -diffidence and reserve, a distaste to dissipation of any kind, habits of -intense application, and an ardent love of knowledge, were his prominent -qualities, and well suited to the ecclesiastical life. Nevertheless he -had hardly reached the age of reflection, and become capable of -appreciating the objects of ambition, which, from the political -consideration in which his family was held, he might reasonably aspire -to, before he resolved to sacrifice all to an unfettered conscience; and -to follow that path in which he thought he could be most useful to his -fellow-citizens and mankind. Deeply impressed however with a sense of -what was due to the feelings of his parents, he waited till a favourable -opportunity should occur to disclose his secret determination; and was -in the mean time, at the age of twenty-one, admitted to the -establishment of the Sorbonne, as a student of theology. Here he -remained two years; prosecuting his studies with vigour, but without -confining them to a profession which he had resolved not to follow. -Nothing seemed too vast to discourage him, or too trifling to escape his -notice. Mathematics and natural philosophy, metaphysics, logic, morals, -legislation and law; history, belles lettres, poetry, Latin, Greek, -Hebrew, together with most of the modern languages, entered into the -comprehensive catalogue of his pursuits. So great an activity of mind, -joined to a memory so retentive that he could repeat two hundred lines -of verse after hearing them read twice, and sometimes only once, stored -his mind with an extent and variety of knowledge unusual at his, or -indeed at any age. After taking his degree, and being elected Prior of -the establishment, he could no longer conceal his intention of -relinquishing the profession of the church. His friends and associates, -amongst others the Abbés Bon, Morellet, and de Brienne, remonstrated -with him in vain on his determination. “Follow the advice,” he replied, -“which you offer, since you are able to do so: for my own part, it is -impossible for me to wear a mask all my life.” - -He had determined to pursue his fortune in the civil service of the -state; and his father’s death obviated the difficulties which might have -embarrassed him in carrying his resolution into effect. He obtained the -office of Procureur du Roi as a first step in his new career, and soon -after that of Master of Requests. In this situation he had to make -several reports, and to deliver them _vivâ voce_ before the King. Aware -of his extreme diffidence, he resolved to counteract it by writing out -and revising his speech with great attention. He did so; nothing was -omitted, and yet the subject was summed up with such severe conciseness -as greatly to fatigue the patience of his hearers. Some of them, -complimenting him on his performance, at the same time criticised its -length. “The next time,” they added, “try to abridge what you have to -say.” Turgot, who knew that it was impossible to have abridged more, -learnt by this remark that he had abridged too much; and on the next -occasion, profiting by his singularly acquired knowledge, he developed -his facts at length, repeated his arguments, and recapitulated all that -he had urged; and in doing so, fixed without fatiguing the attention of -his audience. When he had finished, the same friends, as he expected, -congratulated him warmly on having corrected his former defect, saying, -“This time you have told us a great deal and you have been very brief.” - -In 1761 he was made Intendant of Limoges; and on his appointment -Voltaire wrote to him, saying, “I have lately learnt from one of your -colleagues that an Intendant can do nothing but mischief: you, I trust, -will prove that he can do much good.” These anticipations were fully -realized. The inhabitants of his province, over-burthened at all times -by the oppressive imposts of the Taille, the Corvée, and the Militia -service, were then suffering under the added pressure of three -successive years of scarcity. The _Taille_ was in the nature of a -land-tax: which fell upon the landlords in those parts of the country -which were cultivated by farmers; but principally upon the labourers -themselves, wherever the _Métayer_ system was in force, as in Limousin. -A more equal distribution of this tax, and an improved method of -collection, relieved the peasant from the great injustice of the burden. -The _Corvée_ was an obligation to furnish labour in kind, twice every -year, for the construction and repair of public roads; for which the -peasantry received no remuneration. Turgot proposed that this task -should for the future be executed by hired labourers, whose wages were -to be paid by a rate levied upon the districts adjacent to the road. The -evils of the Militia service were obviated in a similar way; and the -people who had received their new Intendant with suspicion, as only a -new specimen of their former oppressors, now looked upon him as a -benefactor and a friend. Nevertheless his popularity could not overcome -all prejudices; and when he endeavoured to mitigate the evils occasioned -by the late scarcity, by introducing a free traffic in grain, both the -magistrates and the peasantry did all in their power to counteract his -wise and benevolent exertions. In spite of his new regulations, -supported by a clear explanation of the grounds upon which they rested, -the land-owners and corn-merchants could not transport their grain to -those places where the price was highest, the want therefore most -urgent, and the supply most beneficial, without exposing their persons -to insults, and their property to the pillage of the people, as well as -to the local taxes imposed by the magistrates. Turgot lost no time in -addressing a circular to the proper officers, in which he urged them, by -the pleas both of reason and authority, to put in force the laws, and -check the popular irritation. He showed that the difference of weather -often produces an abundant harvest in some districts, and a deficient -one in others; and that the only effectual way of relieving the -necessary distress in the latter, is to permit the free transport of the -surplus produce of the former: that if one town were to arrogate the -right of prohibiting the transit or export of grain, other towns would -justly pretend to the same privilege; and that what might be felt as a -benefit to the inhabitants of one spot in a year of external scarcity, -would be deprecated by the same persons as a curse in a year of internal -famine. The clearness and conciliatory tone with which the principle of -the freedom of trade was laid down, produced the desired effect; and the -writer had the satisfaction of seeing the wants of the people supplied, -without recurring to the demoralizing expedient of indiscriminate -charity. - -Soon after the success of this experiment, the Minister of Finance -consulted the Intendants of the kingdom upon the laws relating to the -commerce of grain. Turgot wrote seven letters in answer, in which he -developed at length his views on the subject of free trade; and not long -after he composed an essay on the Formation of Wealth, which, as his -celebrated biographer Condorcet observes, may be considered as the germ -of Smith’s Wealth of Nations. - -These unremitting exertions, joined to views so just and at that time so -original, attracted the attention of the public; and on the death of -Louis XV. Turgot was called to the first offices of the state, as the -only man who seemed likely to restore the failing credit of the nation, -do justice to the people, and prevent those political troubles which did -in fact ensue, and ended in confiscation and bloodshed. He undertook the -difficult task with cheerfulness, but not without some misgivings. The -aristocracy and the court could not long remain favourable to a minister -who would not cater to their luxuries; the clergy naturally viewed with -suspicion one who was devoted to the most rigid economy; public opinion -was not sufficiently advanced to appreciate the measures of a statesman -whose genius far surpassed the knowledge of his day; and even if it had -been more enlightened, it had not the means of expressing itself -powerfully and almost simultaneously as in England. Turgot therefore had -no support to rely on but that of the King; but while the monarch -remained firm, there was still a hope that the statesman might -accomplish his objects. After filling the post of Minister of Marine for -one month, he was raised to the office of Minister of Finance, August -24, 1774. Nothing could be more encouraging to him than his first -audience of the King; it was more like the confidential intercourse of -two friends considering in truth and sincerity the best means of -promoting the happiness of their common country, than a cold and formal -state conference. Turgot, with the permission of his sovereign, -recapitulated what had occurred at this meeting, in a letter which is -above all praise. In it he enforced the absolute necessity of the most -rigid economy, in order to prevent a national bankruptcy, any increase -of taxes, or any new loans. “No bankruptcy, either avowed, or disguised -under compulsory reductions. No increase of taxes. The reason your -Majesty will find in the situation of your people, and still more in -your own heart. No new loans; for every loan, by diminishing the free -revenue, necessarily leads at last to a bankruptcy or an increase of -taxes.” The means by which he proposed to bring about these ends were -the most rigid retrenchments. “But,” he adds, “it is asked, in what is -the retrenchment to be made? and every department will maintain that as -far as relates to itself there is scarcely a single expense which is not -indispensable. The reasons alleged may be very good; but as there can be -none for performing impossibilities, all these reasons must give way to -the irresistible necessity of economy. Your Majesty knows that one of -the greatest obstacles to economy is the multitude of solicitations to -which you are perpetually exposed. Your benevolence, Sir, must be the -shield against your bounty. Consider whence the money distributed -amongst your courtiers is drawn; and contrast the misery of those from -whom it is sometimes necessary to wrest it by the most rigorous -measures, with the situation of those who have the best title to your -liberality.” Such a course was sure to raise up enemies on every side. -He anticipates the calumnies which will be heaped upon him; he points -them out to the King, and then reminds him, “It is upon the faith of -your Majesty’s promises that I take upon myself a burthen which is -perhaps heavier than I can bear; it is to yourself personally, to the -honest, the just, and the good man, rather than to the King, that I -devote myself.” - -From this letter it might be supposed by those who are not acquainted -with all Turgot’s principles, that his first step would be to stop the -payment to every useless pensioner upon the state, and abrogate every -local tax which had been unjustly levied by individuals in times of -anarchy and oppression. But he respected the right of property; and the -more so, because he understood its full extent. Every unjust impost was -indeed taken off, and every monopoly destroyed; but not without first -giving to the possessors an indemnification equal to their loss: and two -years’ arrears of pensions, which had been stopped for three years -previous to his entering upon office, were punctually discharged without -loss of time where the amount was small, and the creditor therefore in -all probability not in affluent circumstances; whilst the payment of the -remaining ones was accelerated as much as possible. It was not therefore -by injustice that he endeavoured to relieve the people, but by enabling -them more easily to bear their burdens. The faithful discharge of all -claims upon the state, restored the credit of the country; the -destruction of monopolies, and of restrictions upon commerce and -manufactures, increased the wealth of the people, and thus rendered -comparatively light an amount of taxation which was before most -burdensome. Thus, his first regulations established a free trade in corn -throughout the kingdom, and took away the exclusive privileges of -bakers, the obligation to grind corn at particular mills, and several -market dues upon corn when sold. A similar edict permitted the free -circulation of wine; and brandy, cider, and perry were meant to have -been subsequently included in this law. The manufacturers of France were -also freed from the absurd and vexatious regulations which prescribed -the size of different stuffs, and the method of making and dying them, -under severe penalties and even corporal punishments; and ingenuity was -allowed to exert itself according to the taste and demand of the public. -Glass, powder, saltpetre, nitre, oil of poppies, and many other -articles, were either freed on the one hand from the exclusive -privileges in their manufacture, which enhanced their price and -interfered with their quality; or on the other, from restrictions upon -their free transport through the kingdom, which prevented the -manufacturer from obtaining the best price for his goods. - -These changes were brought about in little more than a year and a half, -during which his labours were interrupted by attacks of illness, and by -two events which could not be averted or foreseen. The first of these -was a contagious disorder which broke out among the cattle of Guienne, -and spread far and wide, until the salutary measures taken by Turgot -arrested the evil: the other was more serious, and required all the -decision and courage of the minister for its suppression. The season had -been unfavourable; and in times of scarcity the people had been -accustomed to vent their fury against the corn-merchants, whom the -government often weakly abandoned. A repetition of these scenes was -approaching. A few riots in the provincial towns were soon quelled, but -a heavier storm impended over the capital. A band of lawless insurgents, -after plundering the corn-markets upon the Seine and Oise, entered -Paris, rifled many bakers’ shops, and endeavoured to excite the people -to outrage and violence. The powers of government seemed paralysed. The -superintendents of the police were frightened and inactive; and the -parliament published a proclamation, promising that the King should be -petitioned for a reduction in the price of bread. Turgot lost no time in -sending troops to the disturbed district, who soon dispersed the -pillagers; the superintendents of the police were immediately dismissed -from office; and government proclamations were posted over those of the -parliament during the very night in which the latter were issued, -prohibiting the assembling of the people on pain of death. These -energetic and salutary measures soon restored tranquillity and -confidence; the property of the merchants was respected; and the price -of provisions found the lowest level which the nature of the case would -admit of. A month after, the King in passing through a district in which -these riots had prevailed, was cheered by subjects who blessed his -government. “It is Turgot and I alone who love the people,” was the -expression which fell from his lips; and the sentence was repeated and -confirmed by a nation’s voice. In spite, however, of Turgot’s -indefatigable and honest exertions in the cause of his country, his -dismission from office was soon demanded. The privileged orders insisted -upon remaining exempt from the payment of the taxes; the court parasites -upheld the necessity of sinecures and pensions; all who lived upon the -resources of the country without serving it, united in denouncing a -minister who was the friend of the people and of justice; nor had the -clergy any sympathy with one who laid down the most comprehensive -principles of toleration. The King had the culpable weakness of yielding -to this dishonest clamour. He sacrificed his minister, and not many -years after died himself upon the scaffold; that scaffold which was -destined to reek with the blood of his family, his friends, and his -subjects. - -Turgot had been in office only twenty months, but during that time he -had prepared the way for a new era of extensive happiness and prosperity -for his fellow-countrymen. A friend reproached him one day with being -too precipitate. “How can you say so,” he replied, “you who know so well -the pressing wants of the people, and are aware that none of my family -survive the gout beyond the age of fifty.” His prediction was but too -nearly fulfilled; he died of this hereditary disease a few years -afterwards, March 20, 1781, in the fifty-fourth year of his age. - -During the interval between his retiring from office, and his death, -Turgot devoted himself to literary and scientific pursuits. His works -are contained in nine volumes octavo, 1808–11; they are composed -principally of state papers connected with his administration, of some -articles written for the Encyclopédie, and a few translations from -classical and modern literature. - -Turgot was a great and a good man; endowed with depth and originality of -thought, he discovered and acted upon sound principles of political -economy, before the science had been even dignified with a name; and -whilst his predecessors in office were ever seeking for temporary -expedients to increase the revenue of the state by the oppression of the -people, he first endeavoured to unite the interests of both. Mild and -conciliating in his manners, just and benevolent in all his view’s, he -was the firm and uncompromising opponent of every species of injustice. -He was ambitious, but his ambition was of the highest order. He despised -the tinsel grandeur of office, the smiles of courtiers, or even the -applause of the multitude; but he courted the means of doing good to -mankind, and his reward has been the esteem of discerning friends and -the applause of a later and a more enlightened age. - -A disquisition on the life and opinions of Turgot, by Dupont de Nemours, -is prefixed to the edition of his works which we have already mentioned. -His life, written by Condorcet, is one of the best specimens of -biography in any language. Lacretelle’s ‘Histoire du dix-huitième -Siècle’ contains a short sketch of his ministry, well deserving -attention: and several interesting details of his character are to be -found in the Memoirs of the Abbé Morellet. - -[Illustration: - - _Engraved by W. Holl._ - - PETER THE GREAT. - - _From a Print by Smith after a Picture by Kneller._ - - Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful - Knowledge. - - _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._ -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - PETER THE GREAT. - - -At the close of the sixteenth century, the dominions of Russia, or -Muscovy, as it was then more generally called, were far thrown back from -the more civilized nations of southern Europe, by the intervention of -Lithuania, Livonia, and other provinces now incorporated in the Russian -empire, but then belonging either to Sweden or Poland. The Czar of -Muscovy therefore possessed no political weight in the affairs of -Europe; and little intercourse existed between the Court of Moscow and -the more polished potentates whom it affected to despise as barbarians, -even for some time after the accession of the reigning dynasty, the -house of Romanof, in 1613, and the establishment of a more regular -government than had previously been known. We only read occasionally of -embassies being sent to Moscow, in general for the purpose of arranging -commercial relations. From this state of insignificance, Peter, the -first Emperor of Russia, raised his country, by introducing into it the -arts of peace, by establishing a well organized and disciplined army in -the place of a lawless body of tumultuous mutineers, by creating a navy, -where scarce a merchant vessel existed before, and, as the natural -result of these changes, by important conquests on both the Asiatic and -European frontiers of his hereditary dominions. For these services his -countrymen bestowed on him, yet living, the title of Great: and it is -well deserved, whether we look to the magnitude of those services, the -difficulty of carrying into effect his benevolent designs, which -included nothing less than the remodelling a whole people, or the grasp -of mind, and the iron energy of will, which was necessary to conceive -such projects, and to overcome the difficulties which beset them. It -will not vitiate his claim to the epithet, that his manners were coarse -and boisterous, his amusements often ludicrous and revolting to a -polished taste: if that claim be questionable, it is because he who -aspired to be the reformer of others, was unable to control the violence -of his own passions. - -The Czar Alexis, Peter’s father, was actuated by somewhat of the spirit -which so distinguished the son. He endeavoured to introduce the European -discipline into his armies; he had it much at heart to turn the -attention of the Russians to maritime pursuits; and he added the fine -provinces of Plescow and Smolensko to his paternal dominions. At the -death of Alexis, in 1677, Peter was but five years old. His eldest -brother Theodore succeeded to the throne. Theodore died after a reign of -five years, and named Peter his successor. We pass in silence over the -intrigues and insurrections which troubled the young Czar’s minority. It -was not until the close of the year 1689, in the eighteenth year of his -age, that he finally shook off the trammels of an ambitious sister, and -assumed in reality, as well as in name, the direction of the state. How -he had been qualified for this task by education does not clearly -appear; but even setting aside the stories which attribute to his sister -the detestable design of leading him into all sorts of excess, and -especially drunkenness, with the hope of ruining both his constitution -and intellect, it is probable that no pains whatever had been taken to -form his intellect or manners for the station which he was to occupy. -One of the few anecdotes told of his early life is, that being struck by -the appearance of a boat on the river Yausa, which runs through Moscow, -which he noticed to be of different construction from the flat-bottomed -vessels commonly in use, he was led to inquire into the method of -navigating it. It had been built for the Czar Alexis by a Dutchman, who -was still in Moscow. He was immediately sent for; he rigged and repaired -the boat; and under his guidance the young prince learnt how to sail -her, and soon grew passionately fond of his new amusement. He had five -small vessels built at Plescow, on the lake Peipus; and not satisfied -with this fresh-water navigation, hired a ship at Archangel, in which he -made a voyage to the coast of Lapland. In these expeditions his love of -sailing was nourished into a passion which lasted through life. He -prided himself upon his practical skill as a seaman; and both at this -time and afterwards exposed himself and his friends to no small hazard -by his rashness in following this favourite pursuit. - -The first serious object of Peter’s attention was to reform the army. In -this he was materially assisted by a Swiss gentleman named Lefort; at -whose suggestion he raised a company of fifty men, who were clothed and -disciplined in the European manner; the Russian army at that time being -little better than a tribe of Tartars. As soon as the little corps was -formed, Peter caused himself to be enrolled in it as a private soldier. -It is a remarkable trait in the character of the man, that he thought no -condescension degrading, which forwarded any of his ends. In the army he -entered himself in the lowest rank, and performed successively the -duties of every other: in the navy he went still further, for he -insisted on performing the menial duties of the lowest cabin-boy, rising -step by step, till he was qualified to rate as an able seaman. Nor was -this done merely for the sake of singularity; he had resolved that every -officer of the sea or land service should enter in the lowest rank of -his profession, that he might obtain a practical knowledge of every task -or manœuvre which it was his duty to see properly executed: and he felt -that his nobility might scarcely be brought to submit to what in their -eyes would be a degradation, except by the personal example of the Czar -himself. By the help of Lefort and some veteran officers, several of -whom, and those the objects of his especial confidence, were Scotchmen, -he was enabled in a short time to command the services of a large body -of disciplined troops, composed, one corps principally of foreigners, -another of natives. Meanwhile he had not been negligent of the other arm -of war; for a number of Dutch and Venetian workmen were employed in -building gun-boats and small ships of war at Voronitz, on the river Don, -intended to secure the command of the sea of Asof, and to assist in -capturing the strong town of Asof, then held by the Turks. The -possession of this place was of great importance, from its situation at -the mouth of the Don, commanding access to the Mediterranean seas. His -first military attempts were accordingly directed against it, and he -succeeded in taking it in 1696. - -In the spring of the ensuing year, the empire being tranquil, and the -young Czar’s authority apparently established on a safe footing, he -determined to travel into foreign countries, to view with his own eyes, -and become personally and practically familiar with the arts and -institutions of refined nations. There was a grotesqueness in his manner -of executing this design, which has tended, more probably than even its -real merit, to make it one of the common places of history. Every child -knows how the Czar of Muscovy worked in the dock-yard of Saardam in -Holland, as a common carpenter. In most men this would have been -affectation; and perhaps there was some tinge of that weakness in the -earnestness with which Peter handled the axe, obeyed the officers of the -dock-yard, and, in all points of outward manners and appearance, put -himself on a level with the shipwrights who were earning their daily -bread. Most men too would have thought it unnecessary, that a prince, -intent upon creating a navy, should learn the mere mechanical art of -putting a ship together; and that his time would have been better -employed in studying the sciences connected with navigation, and the -discipline and details of the naval service as established in the best -schools. It seems, however, to have been the turn of Peter’s mind always -to begin at the beginning; a sound maxim, though here perhaps pushed -beyond reasonable bounds. We have said, that he scrupulously went -through the lowest services in the army and navy: probably he thought it -as necessary that one who aimed at creating and directing a navy should -not be ignorant of the practical art of ship-building, as that a general -should be capable of performing himself the movements which he directs -the private to execute. And his abode and occupations in Holland formed -only part of an extensive plan. On quitting Russia he sent sixty young -Russians to Venice and Leghorn to learn ship-building and navigation, -and especially the construction and management of the large galleys -moved by oars, which were so much used by the Venetian republic. Others -he sent into Holland, with similar instructions; others into Germany, to -study the art of war, and make themselves well acquainted with the -discipline and tactics of the German troops. So that while his personal -labour at Saardam may have been stimulated in part by affectation of -singularity, in part perhaps by a love of bodily exertion common in men -of his busy and ardent temper, it would be unjust not to give him credit -for higher motives; such as the desire to become thoroughly acquainted -with the art of ship-building, which he thought so important, and to set -a good example of diligence to those whom he had sent out on a similar -voyage of education. - -Peter remained nine months in Holland, the greatest part of which he -spent in the dock-yard of Saardam. He displayed unwearied zeal in -seeking out and endeavouring to comprehend every thing of interest in -science and art, especially in visiting manufactories. In January, 1698, -he sailed for London in an English man-of-war, sent out expressly to -bring him over. His chief object was to perfect himself in the higher -branches of ship-building. With this view he occupied Mr. Evelyn’s -house, adjoining the dock-yard of Deptford; and there remain in that -gentleman’s journal some curious notices of the manners of the Czar and -his household, which were of the least refined description. During his -stay he showed the same earnestness in inquiring into all things -connected with the maritime and commercial greatness of the country, as -before in Holland; and he took away near five hundred persons in his -suite, consisting of naval captains, pilots, gunners, surgeons, and -workmen in various trades, especially those connected with the naval -service. In England, without assuming his rank, he ceased to wear the -attire and adopt the habits of a common workman; and he had frequent -intercourse with William III., who is said to have conceived a strong -liking for him, notwithstanding the uncouthness of his manners. Kneller -painted a portrait of him for the King, said to be a good likeness, from -which our print is engraved. - -He left London in April, 1698, and proceeded to Vienna, principally to -inspect the Austrian troops, then esteemed among the best in Europe. He -had intended to visit Italy; but his return was hastened by the tidings -of a dangerous insurrection having broken out, which, though suppressed, -seemed to render a longer absence from the seat of government -inexpedient. The insurgents were chiefly composed of the Russian -soldiery, abetted by a large party who thought every thing Russian good, -and hated and dreaded the Czar’s innovating temper. Of those who had -taken up arms, many were slain in battle; the rest, with many persons of -more rank and consequence, suspected of being implicated in the revolt, -were retained in prison until the Czar himself should decide their fate. -Numerous stories of his extravagant cruelties on this occasion have been -told, which may safely be passed over as unworthy of credit. It is -certain, however, that considerable severity was shown. Many citizens -who had not borne arms were condemned to death as instigators of the -rebellion, and their frozen bodies exposed on the gibbets, or thrown by -the way-side, remained throughout the winter, a fearful spectacle to -passers by. In some accounts it is stated that two thousand of the -soldiery were put to death: but the absurd falsehoods told of Peter’s -conduct on this occasion afford opportunity for a doubt, which we gladly -entertain, whether justice was suffered to lead to such wholesale -butchery. This insurrection led to the complete remodelling of the -Russian army, on the same plan which had already been partially adopted. - -During the year 1699 the Czar was chiefly occupied by civil reforms. -According to his own account, as published in his journal, he regulated -the press, caused translations to be published of various treatises on -military and mechanical science, and history; he founded a school for -the navy; others for the study of the Latin, German, and other -languages; he encouraged his subjects to cultivate foreign trade, which -before they had absolutely been forbidden to do under pain of death; he -altered the Russian calendar, in which the year began on September 1, to -agree in that point with the practice of other nations; he broke through -the Oriental custom of not suffering women to mix in general society; -and he paid sedulous attention to the improvement of his navy on the -river Don. We have the testimony of Mr. Deane, an English ship-builder, -that the Czar had turned his manual labours to good account, who states -in a letter to England, that “the Czar has set up a ship of sixty guns, -where he is both foreman and master builder; and, not to flatter him, -I’ll assure your Lordship, it will be the best ship among them, and it -is all from his own draught: how he framed her together, and how he made -the moulds, and in so short a time as he did, is really wonderful.” - -He introduced an improved breed of sheep from Saxony and Silesia; -despatched engineers to survey the different provinces of his extensive -empire; sent persons skilled in metallurgy to the various districts in -which mines were to be found; established manufactories of arms, tools, -stuffs; and encouraged foreigners skilled in the useful arts to settle -in Russia, and enrich it by the produce of their industry. - -We cannot trace the progress of that protracted contest between Sweden -and Russia, in which the short-lived greatness of Sweden was broken: we -can only state the causes of the war, and the important results to which -it led. Peter’s principal motive for engaging in it was his leading wish -to make Russia a maritime and commercial nation. To this end it was -necessary that she should be possessed of ports, of which however she -had none but Archangel and Asof, both most inconveniently situated, as -well in respect of the Russian empire itself, as of the chief commercial -nations of Europe. On the waters of the Baltic Russia did not possess a -foot of coast. Both sides of the Baltic, both sides of the Gulf of -Finland, the country between the head of that gulf and the lake Ladoga, -including both sides of the river Neva, and the western side of lake -Ladoga itself, and the northern end of lake Peipus, belonged to Sweden. -In the year 1700, Charles XII. being but eighteen years of age, Denmark, -Poland, and Russia, which had all of them suffered from the ambition of -Sweden, formed a league to repair their losses, presuming on the -weakness usually inherent in a minority. The object of Russia was the -restoration of the provinces of Ingria, Carelia, and Wiborg, the country -round the head of the Gulf of Finland, which formerly had belonged to -her; that of Poland, was the recovery of Livonia and Esthonia, the -greater part of which had been ceded by her to Charles XI. of Sweden. -Denmark was to obtain Holstein and Sleswick. But Denmark and Poland very -soon withdrew, and left Russia to encounter Sweden single-handed. To -this she was entirely unequal; her army, the bulk of it undisciplined, -and even the disciplined part unpractised in the field, was no match for -the veteran troops of Sweden, the terror of Germany. In the battle of -Narva, a town on the river which runs out of the Peipus lake, fought -November 30, 1700, nine thousand Swedes defeated signally near forty -thousand Russians, strongly intrenched and with a numerous artillery. -Had Charles prosecuted his success with vigour, he might probably have -delayed for many years the rise of Russia; but whether from contempt or -mistake he devoted his whole attention to the war in Poland, and left -the Czar at liberty to recruit and discipline his army, and improve the -resources of his kingdom. In these labours he was most diligent. His -troops, practised in frequent skirmishes with the Swedes quartered in -Ingria and Livonia, rapidly improved, and on the celebrated field of -Pultowa broke for ever the power of Charles XII. This decisive action -did not take place until July 8, 1709. The interval was occupied by a -series of small, but important additions to the Russian territory. In -1701–2, great part of Livonia and Ingria were subdued, including the -banks of the Neva, where, on May 27, 1703, the city of St. Petersburg -was founded. It was not till 1710 that the conquest of Courland, with -the remainder of Livonia, including the important harbours of Riga and -Revel, gave to Russia that free navigation of the Baltic sea which Peter -had longed for as the greatest benefit which he could confer upon his -country. - -After the battle of Pultowa Charles fled to Turkey, where he continued -for some years, shut out from his own dominions, and intent chiefly on -spiriting the Porte to make war on Russia. In this he succeeded; but -hostilities were terminated almost at their beginning, by the battle of -the Pruth, fought July 20, 1711, in which the Russian army, not -mustering more than forty thousand men, and surrounded by five times -that number of Turks, owed its preservation to Catharine, first the -mistress, at this time the wife, and finally the acknowledged partner -and successor of Peter in the throne of Russia. By her coolness and -prudence, while the Czar, exhausted by fatigue, anxiety, and -self-reproach, was labouring under nervous convulsions, to which he was -liable throughout life, a treaty was concluded with the Vizier in -command of the Turkish army, by which the Russians preserved indeed -life, liberty, and honour, but were obliged to resign Asof, to give up -the forts and burn the vessels built to command the sea bearing that -name, and to consent to other stipulations, which must have been very -bitter to the hitherto successful conqueror. Returning to the seat of -government, his foreign policy for the next few years was directed to -breaking down the power of Sweden, and securing his new metropolis by -prosecuting his conquests on the northern side of the Gulf of Finland. -Here he was entirely successful; and the whole of Finland itself, and of -the gulf, fell into his hands. These provinces were secured to Russia by -the peace of Nieustadt, in 1721. Upon this occasion, the senate or state -assembly of Russia requested him to assume the title of Emperor of all -the Russias, with the adjuncts of Great, and Father of his Country. - -Of the private history and character of Peter, we have hitherto said -nothing. He was passionately fond of ardent spirits, and not only drank -very largely himself, but took a pleasure in compelling others to do the -same, until the royal banqueting-room became a scene of the most -revolting debauchery and intoxication. But towards the close of life, -his habits, when alone, were temperate even to abstemiousness. In his -domestic relations he was far from happy. At the age of seventeen he -married a Russian lady, named Eudoxia Lapouchin, whom he divorced in -less than three years. According to some accounts, this separation was -caused by her infidelities; according to others, by her obstinate -hostility to all his projects of improvement: a hostility inculcated and -encouraged by the priesthood, in whose eyes all change was an -abomination, and the worst of changes those made professedly in -imitation of the barbarous nations inhabiting the rest of Europe. By her -the Czar had one son, Alexis, heir to the throne; who, under the -guardianship of his weak and bigoted mother, grew up in the practice of -all low debauchery, and with the same deference to the priesthood, and -dislike to change, which had cost herself the society of her husband. -The degeneracy of this, his eldest, and long his only son, was a serious -affliction to Peter; the more so, if he reflected justly, because he -could not hold himself guiltless of it, in having intrusted the -education of his legitimate successor to one, of whose incapacity for -the charge he had ample proof. It appears from authentic documents that -even so early as the battle of the Pruth, Peter had contemplated the -necessity of excluding his son from the throne. In the close of the year -1716, he addressed a serious expostulation to Alexis, in which, after -reviewing the errors of his past life, he declared his fixed intention -of cutting off the prince from the succession, unless he should so far -amend as to afford a reasonable hope of his reigning for the good of his -people. He required him either to work a thorough reformation in his -life and manners, or to retire to a monastery; and allowed him six -months to deliberate upon this alternative. At the end of the time -Alexis quitted Russia, under pretence of going to his father at -Copenhagen; but instead of doing so he fled to Vienna. He was induced, -however, to return by promises of forgiveness, mixed with threats in the -event of his continued disobedience, and arrived at Moscow, February 13, -1718. On the following day the clergy, the chief officers of state, and -the chief nobility were convened, and Alexis, being brought before them -as a prisoner, acknowledged himself unworthy of the succession, which he -resigned, entreating only that his life might be spared. A declaration -was then read on the part of the Czar, reciting the various -delinquencies of which his son had been guilty, and ending with the -solemn exclusion of him from the throne, and the nomination of Peter, -his own infant son by Catharine, as the future emperor. To this solemn -act of renunciation Alexis set his hand. Thus far there is nothing to -blame in the parent’s conduct, unless it be considered that in the -promise of forgiveness, a reservation of his son’s hereditary right was -implied. His subsequent conduct was severe, if not faithless. Not -content with what had been done, Peter determined to extract from Alexis -a full confession of the plans which he had entertained, and of the -names of his advisers. For near five months the wretched young man was -harassed by constant interrogatories, in his replies to which -considerable prevarication took place. It was on the ground of this -prevarication that, in July, 1718, the Czar determined to bring his son -to trial. By the laws of Russia a father had power of life or death over -his child, and the Czar absolute power over the lives of his subjects. -Waving these rights, however, if such oppressive privileges deserve the -name, he submitted the question to an assembly of the chief personages -of the realm; and the document which he addressed to them on this -occasion bears strong evidence to the honesty of his purpose, unfeeling -as that purpose must appear. On July 5, that assembly unanimously -pronounced Alexis worthy of death, and on the next day but one Alexis -died. The manner of his death will never probably be entirely cleared -up. Rumour of course attributed it to violence; but there are many -circumstances which render this improbable. One argument against it is -to be found in the character of Peter himself, who would hardly have -hesitated to act this tragedy in the face of the world, had he thought -it necessary to act it at all. Why he should have incurred the guilt of -an action scarce one degree removed from midnight murder, when the -object might have been effected by legal means, and the odium was -already incurred, it is not easy to say. He courted publicity for his -conduct, and submitted himself to the judgment of Europe, by causing the -whole trial to be translated into several languages, and printed. His -own statement intimates that he had not intended to enforce the -sentence; and proceeds to say that on July 6, Alexis, after having heard -the judgment read, was seized by fits resembling apoplexy, and died the -following day; having seen his father and received his forgiveness, -together with the last rites of the Greek religion. This is the less -improbable, because intemperance had injured the prince’s constitution, -and a tendency to fits was hereditary in the family. - -If our sketch of the latter years of Peter’s life appear meagre and -unsatisfactory, it is to be recollected that the history of that life is -the history of a great empire, which it would be vain to condense within -our limits, were they greater than they are. Results are all that we are -competent to deal with. From the peace of Nieustadt, the exertions of -Peter, still unremitting, were directed more to consolidate and improve -the internal condition of the empire, by watching over the changes which -he had already made, than to effect farther conquests, or new -revolutions in policy or manners. He died February 8, 1725, leaving no -surviving male issue. Sometime before, he had caused the Empress -Catharine to be solemnly crowned and associated with him on the throne, -and to her he left the charge of fostering those schemes of civilization -which he had originated. - -Of the numerous works which treat wholly or in part of the history of -Peter the Great, that of Voltaire, not the most trustworthy, is probably -the most widely known. Fuller information will be found in the ‘Journal -de Pierre le Grand, ecrit par lui-même;’ in the memoirs published under -the name of Nestesuranoi, and the Anecdotes of M. Stæhlin. For English -works, we may refer to Tooke’s History of Russia, and the ‘Life of -Peter,’ in the Family Library. - -[Illustration] - - - END OF VOL. II. - - - Printed by WILLIAM CLOWES, Duke-Street, Lambeth. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Changed “Ecole” and “Ecoles” to “École” and “Écoles” on p. 92. - 2. Changed “Eloge” to “Éloge” on p. 88. - 3. Changed “Veritá” to “Verità” on p. 139. - 4. Silently corrected typographical errors. - 5. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - 6. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - 7. Superscripts are denoted by a carat before a single superscript - character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in - curly braces, e.g. M^r. or M^{ister}. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits, with -Memoirs. 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