NormalizeHEADmain

73 files changed, 17 insertions, 17149 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7b82bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+*.txt text eol=lf
+*.htm text eol=lf
+*.html text eol=lf
+*.md text eol=lf
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a53799e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #55092 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55092)
diff --git a/old/55092-0.txt b/old/55092-0.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index 2317146..0000000
--- a/old/55092-0.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8401 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits, with Memoirs. Vol
-2 (of 7), by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-Title: The Gallery of Portraits, with Memoirs. Vol 2 (of 7)
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: July 11, 2017 [EBook #55092]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GALLERY OF PORTRAITS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-  UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL
-                               KNOWLEDGE.
-
-
-
-
-                                  THE
-                         GALLERY OF PORTRAITS:
-                                  WITH
-                                MEMOIRS.
-
-                               VOLUME II.
-
-
-                                LONDON:
-      CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE-STREET, AND 13, PALL-MALL EAST.
-
-
-                                 1833.
-
-
-                  [PRICE ONE GUINEA, BOUND IN CLOTH.]
-
-
-
-
-                                LONDON:
-                       PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES,
-                         Duke-Street, Lambeth.
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                       PORTRAITS, AND BIOGRAPHIES
-                       CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME.
-
-
-                                            Page
-
-                         1. Lord Somers        1
-
-                         2. Smeaton           13
-
-                         3. Buffon            19
-
-                         4. Sir Thomas More   25
-
-                         5. La Place          34
-
-                         6. Handel            40
-
-                         7. Pascal            49
-
-                         8. Erasmus           56
-
-                         9. Titian            63
-
-                        10. Luther            73
-
-                        11. Rodney            82
-
-                        12. Lagrange          88
-
-                        13. Voltaire          93
-
-                        14. Rubens            99
-
-                        15. Richelieu        107
-
-                        16. Wollaston        121
-
-                        17. Boccaccio        126
-
-                        18. Claude           136
-
-                        19. Nelson           141
-
-                        20. Cuvier           150
-
-                        21. Ray              160
-
-                        22. Cook             165
-
-                        23. Turgot           175
-
-                        24. Peter the Great  183
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by T. A. Dean._
-
-  LORD CHANCELLOR SOMERS.
-
-  _From a Picture by Sir G. Kneller,
-  in the possession of the Royal Society._
-
-  Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-                         GALLERY OF PORTRAITS.
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                SOMERS.
-
-
-John Somers was born at Worcester, in an ancient house called the White
-Ladies, which, as its name seems to import, had formerly been part of a
-monastery or convent. The exact date of his birth cannot be ascertained,
-as the parish registers at Worcester, during the civil wars between
-Charles I. and his Parliament, were either wholly lost, or so
-inaccurately kept as not to furnish any authentic information. It
-appears probable, however, from several concurring accounts, that he was
-born about the year 1650. The family of Somers was respectable, though
-not wealthy, and had for several generations been possessed of an estate
-at Clifton, in the parish of Severnstoke, in Gloucestershire. Admiral
-Sir George Somers, who in the reign of James I. was shipwrecked on the
-Bermudas, and afterwards died there, leaving his name to that cluster of
-islands, is said by Horace Walpole, in his ‘Catalogue of Royal and Noble
-Authors,’ to have been a member of the same family. The father of Somers
-was an attorney, in respectable practice at Worcester; who, in the civil
-wars, became a zealous Parliamentarian, and commanded a troop in
-Cromwell’s army.
-
-Of the early education of Somers, we have only a meagre and
-unsatisfactory account. The house called the White Ladies, in which he
-was born, was occupied by a Mr. Blurton, an eminent clothier of
-Worcester, who had married his father’s sister. This lady, having no son
-of her own, adopted Somers from his birth, and brought him up in her
-house, which he always considered as his home till he went to the
-university. He appears for some years to have been a day-scholar in the
-college-school at Worcester, which before his time had attained a high
-character for classical education, under the superintendence of Dr.
-Bright, a clergyman of great learning and eminence. At a subsequent
-period, we find him at a private school at Walsall in Staffordshire: he
-is described by a school-fellow as being then “a weakly boy, wearing a
-black cap, and never so much as looking out when the other boys were at
-play.” He seems indeed to have been a remarkably reserved and
-“sober-blooded” boy. At a somewhat later period Sir F. Winnington says
-of him, that “by the exactness of his knowledge and behaviour, he
-discouraged his father and all the young men that knew him. They were
-afraid to be in his company.” In what manner his time was occupied from
-the period of his leaving school until he went to the university, is
-unknown. It has been suggested that he was employed for several years in
-his father’s office, who designed him for his own department of the
-profession of the law. There is no positive evidence of this
-circumstance, though the conjecture is by no means improbable. It
-cannot, however, be doubted that, during this period, he devoted much of
-his time to the study of history and the civil law, and laid in a
-portion of that abundant store of constitutional learning which
-afterwards rendered him the ornament of his profession, and of the age
-in which he lived. About this time also he formed several connexions,
-which had great influence upon his subsequent success in life. The
-estates of the Earl of Shrewsbury were managed by Somers’s father; and
-as that young nobleman had no convenient residence of his own in
-Worcestershire, he spent much of his time at the White Ladies, and
-formed an intimate friendship and familiarity with young Somers. In 1672
-he was also fortunate enough to be favourably noticed by Sir Francis
-Winnington, then a distinguished practitioner at the English bar, who
-was under obligations to his father for his active services in promoting
-his election as a Member of Parliament for the city of Worcester.
-Winnington is described by Burnet as a lawyer who had “risen from small
-beginnings, and from as small a proportion of learning in his
-profession, in which he was rather bold and ready, than able.” It is
-natural to suppose that such a man, feeling his own deficiencies, would
-readily perceive with what advantage he might employ the talents and
-industry of Somers in assisting him both in Westminster Hall and in
-Parliament. It was probably with this intention that Winnington advised
-him to go to the university, and to prosecute his studies with a view to
-being called to the bar.
-
-In 1674 Somers was entered as a Commoner of Trinity College, Oxford,
-being then about three and twenty years of age. The particulars of his
-progress through the university are not recorded; but here, as at
-school, his contemporaries could perceive few indications of those
-splendid talents which afterwards raised him to such extraordinary
-eminence. His college exercises, some of which are still extant, are
-said to have been in no respect remarkable; and he quitted the
-university without acquiring any academical honours beyond his
-Bachelor’s degree. Mr. Somers was called to the bar in 1676, by the
-Society of the Middle Temple; but he continued his residence at the
-university for several years afterwards, and did not remove to London
-until the year after his father’s death, in 1681, upon which event he
-succeeded to his paternal estate at Severnstoke. During his residence at
-Oxford he had the advantage of being introduced by the Earl of
-Shrewsbury and Sir F. Winnington to many of the patriotic opponents of
-the arbitrary measures of the Court. At this time he published several
-tracts, which sufficiently displayed to the world his familiar and
-accurate knowledge of constitutional history. His first acknowledged
-work was the Report of an Election Case, and is entitled ‘The Memorable
-Case of Denzil Onslow, Esq., tried at the Assizes in Surrey, July 20,
-1681, touching his election at Haslemere in Surrey.’ His next
-performance was ‘A Brief History of the Succession, collected out of the
-Records and the most authentic Historians.’ This work was written at the
-time when the proposal to bring in a Bill to exclude the Duke of York
-from the succession occupied universal attention, and excited the most
-intense interest. The object of Mr. Somers’s tract was to exhibit the
-principles upon which the Parliament of England has authority to alter,
-restrain, and qualify the right of succession to the Crown; and he
-places the historical arguments in support of this proposition in a
-forcible and convincing light. Indeed, though it might be difficult to
-justify such a proposition by abstract arguments upon what is called the
-theory of the British Constitution, it has been so repeatedly acted upon
-in several periods of our history, that even in the time of Charles II.
-the practice had, as Somers justly contended, to all intents and
-purposes established and sanctioned the principle. An excellent tract
-upon the same subject, entitled ‘A just and modest Vindication of the
-two last Parliaments,’ which appeared shortly after the breaking up of
-the Oxford Parliament in March, 1681, has been partly ascribed to
-Somers. Burnet says that this tract, which he characterizes as “the best
-writ paper in all that time,” was at first penned by Algernon Sidney,
-but that a new draught was made by Somers, which was corrected by Sir
-William Jones. Upon occasion of the attempt of the Court party in 1681,
-by the illegal examination of witnesses under the direction of the
-King’s Counsel in open court, to induce a grand jury at the Old Bailey
-to find a true bill for high treason against the Earl of Shaftsbury, Mr.
-Somers wrote his celebrated tract entitled ‘The Security of Englishmen’s
-Lives, or the Trust, Power, and Duty of the Grand Juries of England
-explained.’ Of this work, Bishop Burnet says, “It passed as writ by Lord
-Essex, though I understood afterwards it was writ by Somers, who was
-much esteemed, and often visited by Lord Essex, and who trusted himself
-to him, and writ the best papers that came out in that time.” In later
-times, this work has been universally ascribed to Somers. During his
-residence at Oxford, Somers was not inattentive to polite literature; he
-published a translation of some of Ovid’s Epistles into English verse,
-which at the same time that it shows that he could never have borne so
-distinguished a rank as a poet, as he afterwards attained as a lawyer
-and statesman, is by no means a contemptible performance. His
-translations from Ovid, and a version of Plutarch’s Life of Alcibiades,
-are the only published proofs of his classical studies at Oxford.
-
-In the year 1682 he removed to London, and immediately commenced an
-assiduous attendance upon the courts of law, which at that time was
-considered as the highway of the legal profession. Under the powerful
-patronage of Sir Francis Winnington, who had been Solicitor-General, and
-was then in the full stream of business, he rose with considerable
-rapidity into good practice at the bar. In 1683 he appeared as junior
-counsel to Winnington in the defence to an important political
-prosecution instituted against Pilkington and Shute, with several other
-persons, for a riot at the election of sheriffs for the city of London.
-His employment in a case of so much public expectation may be taken as a
-proof that at that time his professional merits were in some degree
-appreciated; and in the reign of James II. his practice is said to have
-produced £700 a-year, which at that time was a very large income for a
-common lawyer of five years’ standing. But such was the character for
-research and industry which he had attained within a very few years from
-the commencement of his professional career, that on the trial of the
-Seven Bishops in 1688, he was introduced as counsel into that momentous
-cause at the express and peremptory recommendation of Pollexfen, one of
-the greatest lawyers of that day. The rank of the defendants, the
-personal interest of the King in the question at issue, the general
-expectation excited by this conflict amongst all classes of the people,
-and above all, the event of the prosecution which drove James from his
-throne and kingdom, and immediately introduced the Revolution of 1688,
-render the trial of the Seven Bishops one of the most important judicial
-proceedings that ever occurred in Westminster Hall. It was no trifling
-testimony, therefore, to the high estimation in which Somers was held by
-experienced judges of professional merit, that he should be expressly
-selected by the counsel for the defendants to bear a part in the
-defence. We are told that upon the first suggestion of Somers’s name,
-“objection was made amongst the Bishops to him, as too young and obscure
-a man; but old Pollexfen insisted upon him, and would not be himself
-retained without the other; representing him as the man who would take
-most pains and go deepest into all that depended on precedents and
-records[1].” How far the leading counsel for the Bishops were indebted
-to the industry and research of Somers, for the extent of learning
-displayed in their admirable arguments on that occasion, cannot now be
-ascertained; his own speech, as reported in the State Trials, contains a
-summary of the constitutional reasons against the existence of a
-dispensing power in the King, expressed in clear and unaffected
-language, and applied with peculiar skill and judgment to the defence of
-his clients.
-
-Footnote 1:
-
-  Kennett’s Complete History, vol. iii. p. 513, n.
-
-The intimate connexion of Somers with the leaders of that political
-party by whom the Revolution was effected, and in particular with his
-early friend Lord Shrewsbury, leaves little room for doubt that he was
-actively employed in devising the means by which that important event
-was brought about. It is said by Tindal that he was admitted into the
-most secret councils of the Prince of Orange, and was one of those who
-planned the measure of bringing him over to England. Immediately upon
-the flight of James II., the Prince of Orange, by the advice of the
-temporary assembly which he had convened as the most proper
-representative of the people in the emergency of the time, issued
-circular letters to the several counties, cities, and boroughs of
-England, directing them to summon a Parliamentary Convention. On this
-occasion Mr. Somers was returned as a representative by his native city
-of Worcester. We find him taking a conspicuous part in the long and
-laborious debates which took place in that assembly respecting the
-settlement of the government. Upon a conference with the Lords upon the
-resolution, “that James II. having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom
-had abdicated the government, and that the throne had thereby become
-vacant,” Mr. Somers spoke at great length, and with much learning, in
-support of the original resolution against some amendments proposed by
-the Lords. This resolution having been ultimately adopted by both Houses
-of Parliament, and the Prince and Princess of Orange having been
-declared King and Queen of England, a committee was appointed, of which
-Somers was a member, to bring in heads of such things as were necessary
-for securing the Protestant religion, the laws of the land, and the
-liberties of the people. The Report of this Committee, which was a most
-elaborate performance, having been submitted to the examination of a
-second committee, of which Somers was chairman, formed the substance of
-the Declaration of Rights which was afterwards assented to by the King
-and Queen and both Houses of Parliament, and thus adopted as the basis
-of the Constitution.
-
-It is impossible to ascertain with precision the particular services
-rendered by Somers in the accomplishment of this great measure. There
-was perhaps no individual at that moment in existence who was so well
-qualified to lend important aid in conducting his country with safety
-through the difficulties and dangers of a change of government, and in
-placing the interests of the nation upon a secure and solid foundation.
-Fortunate was it for the people of England and their posterity that the
-services of a man of his industry and settled principles, of his sound
-constitutional information, and his rational and enlightened views of
-the relative rights and duties of kings and subjects, were at that
-critical juncture available to his country; and that, at the instant of
-the occurrence of this momentous revolution, his character was
-sufficiently known and appreciated to render those services fully
-effective.
-
-Shortly after the accession of William and Mary, Somers was appointed
-Solicitor-General, and received the honour of knighthood. Bishop Burnet
-says, that in the warm debates which took place in Parliament on the
-bill respecting the recognition of the King and Queen, and the validity
-of the new settlement of the government, it was strongly objected by the
-Tories that the convention, not being summoned by the King’s writ, had
-no legal sanction; and that Somers distinguished himself by the spirited
-and able manner in which he answered the objection. “He spoke,” says
-Burnet, “with such zeal and such an ascendant of authority that none
-were prepared to answer it; so that the bill passed without more
-opposition. This was a great service done in a very critical time, and
-contributed not a little to raise Somers’s character.”
-
-In April, 1692, Sir John Somers became Attorney-General, and in the
-month of March following was appointed Lord-Keeper of the Great Seal.
-While he presided in the Court of Chancery as Lord-Keeper, he delivered
-his celebrated judgment in the Bankers’ case, which Mr. Hargrave
-describes as “one of the most elaborate arguments ever delivered in
-Westminster Hall.” It is said that Lord Somers expended several hundred
-pounds in collecting books and pamphlets for this argument. In 1697 he
-was appointed Lord Chancellor, and raised to the peerage, with the title
-of Baron Somers of Evesham.
-
-In the year immediately succeeding his elevation to the peerage, it was
-the fate of Lord Somers to experience the virulence of party animosity,
-and the selfishness and instability of royal favour. His influence with
-the King, and the moderation and good sense with which he had restrained
-the impetuosity of his own party, had been long the means of preserving
-the Whig administration; and the Tories saw plainly that there were no
-hopes for the attainment of their objects so long as Lord Somers
-retained the confidence of the King. William had been, from the
-commencement of his reign, continually vacillating between the two
-parties according to the circumstances of his affairs; at this period he
-was so incensed and embarrassed by the conduct of the contending parties
-in the House of Commons, that he readily listened to the leaders of the
-Tories, who assured him that they would undertake to manage the
-Parliament as he pleased, if he would dismiss from his councils the Lord
-Chancellor Somers, whom they represented to be peculiarly odious to the
-Commons. In fact, the Tory party in the House of Commons had, in the
-course of the stormy session of Parliament which commenced in November,
-1699, made several violent but ineffectual attacks upon the Lord
-Chancellor. The first charge brought against him was, that he had
-improperly dismissed many gentlemen from the commission of the peace:
-upon a full explanation of all the circumstances, this charge was proved
-to be so utterly groundless that it was abandoned by those who had
-introduced it. The second accusation had no better foundation than the
-first. Great complaints having been made of certain English pirates in
-the West Indies, who had plundered several merchant ships, it was
-determined to send out a ship of war for the purpose of destroying them.
-But as there was no fund to bear the charge of such an expedition, the
-King proposed to his ministers that it should be carried on as a private
-undertaking, and promised to subscribe £3,000 on his own account. In
-compliance with this recommendation, Lord Somers, the Duke of
-Shrewsbury, the Earls of Romney, Oxford, Bellamont, and several others,
-contributed a sufficient sum to defray the whole expense of the
-armament. Unfortunately one Captain Kidd was appointed to command the
-expedition, who was unprincipled enough to turn pirate himself, and
-having committed various acts of robbery on the high seas, was
-eventually captured, brought to England, and some time afterwards tried
-and executed for his offences. It was then insinuated that the Lord
-Chancellor and the other individuals who had subscribed towards the
-expedition were engaged as partners in Kidd’s piratical scheme; so that
-an undertaking, which was not only innocent, but meritorious and
-patriotic, was construed by the blindness of party prejudice into a
-design for robbery and piracy. A resolution in the House of Commons,
-founded upon this absurd imputation, was rejected by a great majority.
-Shortly afterwards, after ordering a list of the Privy Council to be
-laid before the House, a question was moved in the House of Commons,
-“that an address should be made to his Majesty to remove John Lord
-Somers, Chancellor of England, from his presence and councils for ever.”
-This motion, however, was also negatived by a large majority. The
-prosecution of these frivolous charges against Lord Somers was a source
-of perpetual irritation to the King, in consequence of the vexatious
-delay it occasioned to the public service, and the virulent party spirit
-which it introduced into the House of Commons; and it was under the
-influence of this feeling, and in order to deliver himself from a
-temporary embarrassment, that he selfishly determined to adopt the
-interested advice of the Tory leaders, and to remove the Lord Chancellor
-from his office. He accordingly intimated to Lord Somers that it was
-necessary for his service that he should resign the seals, but wished
-him to make the resignation himself, in order that it might appear as if
-it was his own act. The Chancellor declined to make a voluntary
-surrender of the seals, as such a course might indicate a fear of his
-enemies, or a consciousness of misconduct in his office; upon which Lord
-Jersey was sent with an express warrant for the seals, and Lord Somers
-delivered them to him without hesitation.
-
-The malignity of party spirit was not satisfied by the dismissal of Lord
-Somers from his office, and from all participation in the government.
-Soon after his retirement, namely in the year 1701, the celebrated
-Partition Treaties gave occasion to much angry debate in both Houses of
-Parliament. His conduct, with respect to these treaties, seems to have
-been entirely irreproachable; but it became the subject of much
-misrepresentation, and the most unreserved invective and abuse in the
-House of Commons. It appears that in 1698, when the King was in Holland,
-a proposal was made to him by the French Government for arranging the
-partition of some of the territories belonging to the crown of Spain
-upon the expected death of Charles II. This partition was to be made in
-certain defined proportions between the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, the
-Dauphin of France, and the Archduke Charles, the second son of the
-Emperor. The King entertained these proposals favourably, and wrote to
-Lord Somers, who was at that time Lord Chancellor, desiring his opinion
-upon them, and commanding him to forward to him a commission in blank
-under the great seal, appointing persons to treat with the Commissioners
-of the French Government. Lord Somers, after communicating with Lord
-Orford, the Duke of Shrewsbury, and Mr. Mountague, as he had been
-authorized to do, transmitted to the King their joint opinions, which
-suggested several objections to the proposed treaty, together with the
-required commission. This was the “head and front of his offending” in
-this respect; for the treaty was afterwards negotiated abroad, and
-finally signed without any further communication with Lord Somers.
-
-Understanding that he was accused in the House of Commons of having
-advised and promoted the Partition Treaties, Lord Somers requested to be
-heard in that House in his defence. His request being granted, he stated
-to the House, in a calm and dignified manner, the history of his conduct
-respecting the treaties, and contended, with much force and eloquence,
-that in the whole course of that transaction he had correctly and
-honestly discharged his duty both as Chancellor and as a Privy
-Councillor. After he had withdrawn, a warm debate ensued, which
-terminated in a resolution, carried by a small majority, “that John,
-Lord Somers, by advising his Majesty to conclude the Treaty of
-Partition, was guilty of a high crime and misdemeanour.” Similar
-resolutions were passed against the Earl of Orford and Lord Halifax, and
-all of them were impeached at the bar of the House of Lords. The
-articles of impeachment against Lord Somers principally charged him with
-having affixed the great seal to the blank commission sent to the King
-in Holland, and afterwards to the treaties; with having encouraged and
-promoted the piracies of Captain Kidd; and with having received grants
-from the Crown for his own personal emolument. To each of these articles
-Lord Somers answered promptly and fully; to the two first he replied the
-facts of each case as above related; and in answer to the third, he
-admitted that the King had been pleased to make certain grants to him,
-but denied that they had been made in consequence of any solicitation on
-his part. After many frivolous delays and repeated disputes between the
-two Houses, a day was fixed for the trial of the impeachment; on which
-day the Commons not appearing to prosecute their articles, the Lords, by
-a considerable majority, acquitted Lord Somers of the charges and
-dismissed the impeachment.
-
-The violence and folly exhibited in the conduct of these proceedings
-opened the eyes of the King to his error in having changed his ministry
-at so critical a time. He found to his infinite disquietude that instead
-of enabling him to manage the Commons as they had promised, the Tory
-leaders had rendered them more intractable and imperious than before;
-and that instead of sincerely endeavouring to promote peace abroad and
-quiet government at home, they were actuated entirely by motives of
-private passion and revenge. In this state of affairs he again directed
-his attention to Lord Somers, in consequence, probably, of the urgent
-advice of Lord Sunderland, and wrote him a note from Loo, dated the 10th
-of October, 1701, assuring him of the continuance of his friendship. By
-the united exertions of Somers and Sunderland a negotiation was entered
-into with a view to the formation of a Whig ministry; but after some
-little progress had been made, the death of the King, in March 1702, put
-an end to the project, and the succession of Queen Anne confirmed the
-establishment of the Tory administration.
-
-The state of parties for some years after the accession of Queen Anne
-excluded Somers from taking any active part in political affairs. It is
-probable that at this period of his life he devoted his attention to
-literature and science, as in 1702 he was elected President of the Royal
-Society. He afterwards applied himself with diligence to the removal of
-several gross defects in the practice of the Courts of Chancery and
-Common Law. In 1706 he introduced into the House of Lords an extensive
-and effectual bill for the correction of such abuses. In passing through
-the House of Commons “it was found,” says Burnet, “that the interest of
-under-officers, clerks, and attorneys, whose gains were to be lessened
-by this bill, was more considered than the interest of the nation
-itself. Several clauses, how beneficial soever to the subject, which
-touched on their profit, were left out by the Commons.” Still the Act
-“for the Amendment of the Law and the better advancement of Justice,” as
-it now stands amongst the statutes of the realm, effected a very
-important improvement in the administration of justice.
-
-Lord Somers is said to have had a chief hand in projecting the scheme of
-the Union with Scotland; and in discussing and arranging the details of
-this great measure in the House of Lords, he appears to have been one of
-the most frequent and distinguished speakers, though he was then
-labouring under great bodily infirmity.
-
-In the year 1708, on occasion of the temporary return of the Whigs to
-power, Lord Somers again formed part of the administration and filled
-the office of President of the Council. But the powers of his mind were
-at this time much enfeebled by continual ill-health; and it was probably
-with feelings of satisfaction that the change of parties in 1710, by
-causing his dismissal from office, enabled him finally to retire into
-private life.
-
-Of the mode in which the remaining period of his life was spent after
-his removal from public business, little is known. There is, however, no
-doubt that the concluding years of his existence were darkened by much
-sickness and some degree of mental alienation on the accession of George
-I. he formally took his seat at the Council-Board; but a paralytic
-affection, which had destroyed his bodily health, had so impaired the
-faculties of his mind as to incapacitate him entirely for business. At
-intervals, however, when the pressure of disease was suspended, he
-appears to have recurred with strong interest to passing events in which
-the welfare of his country was involved. When the Septennial Bill was in
-progress, Lord Townshend called upon him: Lord Somers embraced him,
-congratulated him on the progress of the bill, and declared that “he
-thought it would be the greatest support possible to the liberty of the
-country.” On a subsequent occasion, when informed by the same nobleman
-of the determination of George I. to adopt the advice of his ministry,
-by executing the full rigour of the law against Lord Derwentwater, and
-the other unfortunate persons concerned in the Rebellion of 1715, he is
-said to have asked with great emotion, and shedding many tears, “whether
-they meant to revive the proscriptions of Marius and Sylla?”
-
-He soon afterwards sunk into a state of total imbecility, from which, on
-the 26th of April, 1716, he was happily released by death.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by R. Woodman._
-
-  JOHN SMEATON.
-
-  _From an original Picture ascribed to Mortimer,
-  in the possession of the Royal Society._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society of the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                SMEATON.
-
-
-John Smeaton will long be remembered as one of the most laborious and
-most successful civil engineers whom Britain has produced: a class to
-which our country is deeply indebted for its commercial greatness. He
-was born at Austhorpe, near Leeds, May 28, 1724. His father was an
-attorney, and intended to bring his son up to his own profession: but
-the latter finding, to use his own words, “that the law did not suit the
-bent of his genius,” obtained his parent’s consent that he should seek a
-more congenial employment.
-
-From a very early age he had shown great fondness for mechanical
-occupations. “His playthings,” it is said by one long acquainted with
-him, “were not the playthings of children, but the tools men work with;
-and he appeared to have greater entertainment in seeing the men in the
-neighbourhood work, and asking them questions, than in any thing else.”
-At the age of eighteen he was in the habit of forging iron and steel,
-and melting metal for his own use: and he possessed tools of every sort
-for working in wood, ivory, and metal. Some of these were of his own
-construction; and among them an engine for rose-turning, and a lathe by
-which he had cut a perpetual screw, a thing little known at that time.
-
-In the year 1750 he established himself in the Great Turnstile in
-Holborn, as a philosophical instrument-maker. While he followed this
-trade, he became known to the scientific circles by several ingenious
-inventions; among which were a new kind of magnetic compass, and a
-machine for measuring a ship’s way at sea. He was elected fellow of the
-Royal Society in 1753; and contributed several papers to the
-Philosophical Transactions, one of which, entitled ‘An Experimental
-Enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn mills
-and other machines, depending on a circular motion,’ obtained the gold
-medal in 1759.
-
-In 1755 the Eddystone light-house was destroyed by fire. At this time
-Smeaton had never practised as an architect or engineer. But the
-proprietors, to use his own words, “considered that to reinstate it
-would require, not so much a person who had been merely bred, or who had
-rendered himself eminent in this or that given profession, but rather
-one who from natural genius had a turn for contrivance in the mechanical
-branches of science.” Thinking thus, they applied to the President of
-the Royal Society to recommend a fitting person, and he without
-hesitation named Smeaton. We shall speak hereafter of the difficulties
-which attended this work, and the method of its execution; the nature of
-it is familiar to every reader. Two light-houses had been destroyed
-within half a century: his own, after the lapse of seventy-three years,
-stands unimpaired;—a proud monument of the power of man to overcome the
-elements. This building was finished in 1759, and established his
-reputation as a civil engineer: but it was some time before he devoted
-his attention solely to practising in that capacity. In 1764 he was
-appointed one of the Receivers of the Greenwich Hospital Estates, and in
-the discharge of his duty, he suggested various improvements which were
-of material service to the property. He resigned that office about 1777,
-in consequence of the increase of his other business. In 1766 he was
-employed to furnish designs for new light-houses at the Spurn Head, at
-the mouth of the Humber, and after considerable delay, was appointed
-Surveyor of the Works in 1771. These were completed in April, 1777.
-Among other undertakings he repaired and improved the navigation of the
-river Calder; he built the bridge over the Tay, at Perth, and some
-others on the Highland road, north of Inverness; he laid out the line,
-and superintended the execution of a considerable portion of the great
-canal connecting the Forth and Clyde. His high reputation was shown
-shortly after the two centre arches of old London bridge had been thrown
-into one. The foundations of the piers were discovered to be damaged,
-and the danger of the bridge was esteemed so imminent that few persons
-would venture to pass over it. The opinions of the architects on the
-spot were deemed unsatisfactory; and Smeaton, being at the time in
-Yorkshire, was summoned by express, to say what should be done. He found
-that the increased volume of water passing through the centre arch had
-undermined the piers; and removed the danger by the simple expedient,
-the success of which he had proved on the river Calder, of throwing in a
-large quantity of rough stone about them. The interstices of the heap
-soon are filled up by sand and mud, and the whole is consolidated almost
-into one mass, and forms a secure and lasting barrier. The best known of
-Smeaton’s works, after the Eddystone light-house, is the magnificent
-pier and harbour of Ramsgate. This undertaking was commenced in 1749,
-and prosecuted for some time with very imperfect success. In 1774
-Smeaton was called in; and he continued to superintend the progress of
-the works till their completion in 1791. The harbour is now enclosed by
-two piers, the eastern nearly 2000, the western 1500 feet in length, and
-affords a safe and a much needed refuge to ships lying in the Downs,
-even of five and six hundred tons, which before, when driven from their
-anchors by stress of weather, were almost certain to be cast ashore and
-wrecked.
-
-It would be vain to enumerate all the projects in which he was
-consulted, or the schemes which he executed. The variety and extent of
-his employments may be best estimated from his Reports, of which a
-complete collection has been published by the Society of Civil
-Engineers, in consequence of the liberality of Sir Joseph Banks, who had
-purchased, and presented them to the Society for this purpose. They fill
-three quarto volumes, and constitute a most interesting and valuable
-series of treatises on every branch of engineering; as draining,
-bridge-building, making and improving canals and navigable rivers,
-planning docks and harbours, the improvement of mill-work, and the
-application of mechanical improvements to different manufactures. His
-papers in the Philosophical Transactions are published separately, and
-fill another quarto volume. They contain descriptions of those early
-inventions which we have mentioned, and of an improved air-pump, and a
-new hygrometer and pyrometer; together with his treatise on Mill-work,
-and some papers which show that he was fond of the science of astronomy,
-and practically skilled in it.
-
-His health began to decline about 1785, and he endeavoured to withdraw
-from business, and to devote his attention to publishing an account of
-his own inventions and works; for as he often said, “he thought he could
-not render so much service to his country as by doing that.” He
-succeeded in bringing out his elaborate account of the Eddystone
-Light-house, published in 1791. But he found it impossible to withdraw
-entirely from business: and it appears that over-exertion and anxiety
-did actually bring on an attack of paralysis, to which his family were
-constitutionally liable. He was taken ill at his residence at Austhorpe,
-in September, 1792, and died October 28, in the sixty-ninth year of his
-age. He had long looked to this disease as the probable termination of
-his life, and felt some anxiety concerning the likelihood of out-living
-his faculties, and in his own words, of “lingering over the dregs after
-the spirit had evaporated.” This calamity was spared him: in the
-interval between his first attack and his death, his mind was unclouded,
-and he continued to take his usual interest in the occupations of his
-domestic circle. Sometimes only he would complain, with a smile, of his
-slowness of apprehension, and say, “It cannot be otherwise: the shadow
-must lengthen as the sun goes down.”
-
-His character was marked by undeviating uprightness, industry, and
-moderation in pursuit of riches. His gains might have been far larger;
-but he relinquished more than one appointment which brought in a
-considerable income, to devote his attention to other objects which he
-had more at heart; and he declined the magnificent offers of Catharine
-II. of Russia, who would have bought his services at any price. His
-industry was unwearied, and the distribution of his hours and
-employments strictly laid down by rule. In his family and by his friends
-he was singularly beloved, though his demeanour sometimes appeared harsh
-to strangers. A brief, but very interesting and affectionate account of
-him, written by his daughter, is prefixed to his Reports, from which
-many of the anecdotes here related have been derived.
-
-Of the many great undertakings in which Smeaton was engaged, the most
-original, and the most celebrated, is the Eddystone light-house. The
-reef of rocks known by the name of the Eddystone lies about nine miles
-and a half from the Ram Head, at the entrance of Plymouth Sound, exposed
-to the full swell of the Atlantic, which, with a very moderate gale,
-breaks upon it with the utmost fury. The situation, directly between the
-Lizard and Start points, makes it of the utmost importance to have a
-light-house on it; and in 1698 Mr. Winstanley succeeded in completing
-one. This stood till 1703, but was entirely carried away in the
-memorable storm of November 26, in that year. It chanced, by a singular
-coincidence, that shortly before, on a doubt of the stability of the
-building being uttered, the architect expressed himself so entirely
-satisfied on that point, that “he should only wish to be there in the
-greatest storm that ever blew under the face of the heavens.” He was
-gratified in his wish; and perished with every person in the building.
-This building was chiefly, if not wholly of timber. In 1706 Mr. Rudyerd
-commenced a new light-house, partly of stone and partly of wood, which
-stood till 1755, when it was burnt down to the very rock. Warned by this
-accident, Smeaton resolved that his should be entirely of stone. He
-spent much time in considering the best methods of grafting his work
-securely on the solid rock, and giving it the form best suited to secure
-stability; and one of the most interesting parts of his interesting
-account, is that in which he narrates how he was led to choose the shape
-which he adopted, by considering the means employed by nature to produce
-stability in her works. The building is modelled on the trunk of an oak,
-which spreads out in a sweeping curve near the roots, so as to give
-breadth and strength to its base, diminishes as it rises, and again
-swells out as it approaches to the bushy head, to give room for the
-strong insertion of the principal boughs. The latter is represented by a
-curved cornice, the effect of which is to throw off the heavy seas,
-which being suddenly checked fly up, it is said, from fifty to a hundred
-feet above the very top of the building, and thus to prevent their
-striking the lantern, even when they seem entirely to enclose it. The
-efficacy of this construction is such, that after a storm and spring
-tide of unequalled violence in 1762, in which the greatest fears were
-entertained at Plymouth for the safety of the light-house, the only
-article requisite to repair it was a pot of putty, to replace some that
-had been washed from the lantern.
-
-To prepare a fit base for the reception of the column, the shelving rock
-was cut into six steps, which were filled up with masonry, firmly
-dovetailed, and pinned with oaken trenails to the living stone, so that
-the upper course presented a level circular surface. This part of the
-work was attended with the greatest difficulty; the rock being
-accessible only at low water, and in calm weather. The building is faced
-with the Cornish granite, called in the country, moorstone; a material
-selected on account of its durability and hardness, which bids defiance
-to the depredations of marine animals, which have been known to do
-serious injury by perforating Portland stone when placed under water.
-The interior is built of Portland stone, which is more easily obtained
-in large blocks, and is less expensive in the working. It is an
-instructive lesson, not only to the young engineer, but to all persons,
-to see the diligence which Smeaton used to ascertain what kind of stone
-was best fitted for his purposes, and from what materials the firmest
-and most lasting cement could be obtained. He well knew that in novel
-and great undertakings no precaution can be deemed superfluous which may
-contribute to success; and that it is wrong to trust implicitly to
-common methods, even where experience has shown them to be sufficient in
-common cases. For the height of twelve feet from the rock the building
-is solid. Every course of masonry is composed of stones firmly jointed
-and dovetailed into each other, and secured to the course below by
-_joggles_, or solid plugs of stone, which being let into both,
-effectually resist the lateral pressure of the waves, which tends to
-push off the upper from the under course. The interior, which is
-accessible by a moveable ladder, consists of four rooms, one over the
-other, surmounted by a glass lantern, in which the lights are placed.
-The height from the lowest point of the foundation to the floor of the
-lantern is seventy feet; the height of the lantern is twenty-one feet
-more. The building was commenced August 3, 1756, and finished October 8,
-1759; and having braved uninjured the storms of seventy-three winters,
-is likely long to remain a monument almost as elegant, and far more
-useful, than the most splendid column ever raised to commemorate
-imperial victories. Its erection forms an era in the history of
-light-houses, a subject of great importance to a maritime nation. It
-came perfect from the mind of the artist; and has left nothing to be
-added or improved. After such an example no accessible rock can be
-considered impracticable: and in the more recent erection of a
-light-house on the dangerous Bell-rock, lying off the coast of
-Forfarshire, between the Frith of Tay and the Frith of Forth, which is
-built exactly in the same manner, and almost on the same model, we see
-the best proof of the value of an impulse, such as was given to this
-subject by Smeaton.
-
-[Illustration: Light-houses of (1) Winstanley, (2) Smeaton, and (3)
-Rudyerd.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by Robert Hart._
-
-  BUFFON.
-
-  _From an original Picture by Drouais in the
-  collection of the Institute of France._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                BUFFON.
-
-
-Buffon is reported to have said—and the vanity which was his predominant
-foible may have given some colour to the assertion—“I know but five
-great geniuses, Newton, Bacon, Leibnitz, Montesquieu, and myself.”
-Probably no author ever received from his contemporaries so many
-excitements to such an exhibition of presumption and self-consequence.
-Lewis XV. conferred upon him a title of nobility; the Empress of Russia
-was his correspondent; Prince Henry of Prussia addressed him in the
-language of the most exaggerated compliment; and his statue was set up
-during his life-time in the cabinet of Lewis XVI., with such an
-inscription as is rarely bestowed even upon the most illustrious of past
-ages[2]. After the lapse of half a century we may examine the personal
-character, and the literary merits, of this celebrated man with a more
-sober judgment.
-
-Footnote 2:
-
-  Majestati naturæ par ingenium.
-
-The history of Buffon is singularly barren of incident. At an early age
-he devoted himself to those studies of natural history which have
-rendered his name so famous; and at eighty years old he was still
-labouring at the completion of the great plan to which he had dedicated
-his life.
-
-George Lewis le Clerc Buffon was born at Montbar, in Burgundy, on the
-7th September, 1707. His father, Benjamin le Clerc, was a man of
-fortune, who could afford to bestow the most careful education upon his
-children, and leave them unfettered in the choice of an occupation. The
-young Buffon had formed an acquaintance at Dijon with an Englishman of
-his own age, the Duke of Kingston. The tutor of this nobleman was,
-fortunately, an accomplished student of the physical sciences; and he
-gave a powerful impulse to the talents of Buffon, by leading them
-forward in their natural direction. Without the assistance of this
-judicious friend, the inclination of his mind towards honourable and
-useful exertion might have been suppressed by the temptations which too
-easily beset those who have an ample command of the goods of fortune. It
-was not so with Buffon. Although he succeeded, at the age of twenty-one,
-to the estate of his mother, which produced him an annual income of
-12,000_l._, he devoted himself with unremitting assiduity to the
-acquisition of knowledge. Having travelled in Italy, and resided some
-little time in England, he returned to his own country, to dedicate
-himself to the constant labours of a man of letters. His first
-productions were translations of two English works of very different
-character—‘Hales’ Vegetable Statics,’ and ‘Newton’s Fluxions;’ and,
-following up the pursuits for which he exhibited his love in these
-translations, he carried on a series of experiments on the strength of
-timber, and constructed a burning mirror, in imitation of that of
-Archimedes.
-
-The devotion to science which Buffon had thus manifested marked him out
-for an appointment which determined the course of his future life. His
-friend, Du Fay, who was the Intendant of the ‘_Jardin du Roi_’ (now
-called the ‘_Jardin des Plantes_’), on his death-bed recommended Buffon
-as the person best calculated to give a right direction to this
-establishment for the cultivation of natural history. Buffon seized upon
-the opportunities which this appointment afforded him of prosecuting his
-favourite studies, with that energetic perseverance for which he was
-remarkable. He saw that natural history had to be written in a manner
-that might render it the most attractive species of knowledge; and that
-philosophical views, and eloquent descriptions, might supersede the dry
-nomenclatures, and the loose, contradictory, and too-often fabulous
-narratives which resulted from the crude labours of ill-informed
-compilers. To carry forward his favourite object, it was necessary that
-the museum, over which he had now the control, should be put in order
-and rendered more complete. He obtained from the government considerable
-funds for the erection of proper buildings; and the galleries of the
-‘_Jardin des Plantes_,’ which now hold the fine collection of mammals
-and birds, were raised under his superintendence. Possessing, therefore,
-the most complete means which Europe afforded, he applied himself to the
-great task of describing the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms of
-nature. A large portion of this immense undertaking was left
-unperformed, although, to use his own words, he laboured fifty years at
-his desk; and much of what he accomplished was greatly diminished in
-value by his determination to see natural objects only through the
-clouded medium of his own theories. But, nevertheless, he has produced a
-work which, with all its faults, is an extraordinary monument of genius
-and industry, and which will long entitle him to the gratitude of
-mankind. “We read Buffon,” says Condorcet, “to be interested as well as
-instructed. He will continue to excite a useful enthusiasm for the
-natural sciences; and the world will long be indebted to him for the
-pleasures with which a young mind for the first time looks into nature
-and the consolations with which a soul weary of the storms of life
-reposes upon the sight of the immensity of beings peaceably submitted to
-necessary and eternal laws.”
-
-Buffon was in some particulars unqualified for the laborious duty he had
-undertaken. He delighted to indulge in broad and general views, and to
-permit his imagination to luxuriate in striking descriptions. But he had
-neither the patience, nor the love of accuracy, which would have carried
-him into those minute details which give to natural history its highest
-value. He, however, had the merit and the good fortune, in the early
-stages of his undertaking, to associate himself with a fellow-labourer
-who possessed those qualities in which he was deficient. The first
-fifteen volumes of ‘_L’Histoire Naturelle_,’ which treat of the theory
-of the earth, the nature of animals, and the history of man and
-viviparous quadrupeds, were published between 1749 and 1767, as the
-joint work of Buffon and Daubenton. The general theories, the
-descriptions of the phenomena of nature, and the pictures of the habits
-of animals, were by Buffon. Daubenton confined himself to the precise
-delineation of their physical character, both in their external forms
-and their anatomy. But Daubenton refused to continue his assistance in
-the ‘History of Birds;’ for Buffon, unwilling that the fame which he had
-acquired should be partaken by one whom he considered only as a humble
-and subordinate labourer, allowed an edition of the History of
-Quadrupeds to be published, of which the descriptive and anatomical
-parts had been greatly abridged. In the History of Birds, therefore,
-Buffon had to seek for other associates; and the form of the work was
-greatly changed from that of the previous volumes. The particular
-descriptions are here very meagre, and anatomical details are almost
-entirely excluded. In some of the volumes, Buffon was assisted by
-Guéneau de Montbeillard, who, instead of endeavouring to attain the
-accuracy of Daubenton, affected to imitate the style of his employer. To
-the three last volumes of the Birds the Abbé Bexon lent his aid. The
-nine volumes of Birds appeared between 1770 and 1783. Buffon published
-alone his ‘History of Minerals,’ which appeared in five volumes, between
-1783 and 1788. Seven volumes of Supplements complete the Natural
-History. The first appeared in 1773; the last was not published till the
-year after its author’s death, in 1789. The fifth volume of these
-Supplements is a distinct work, the Epochs of Nature[3].
-
-Footnote 3:
-
-  The best edition of the works of Buffon is the first, of 36 vols. 4to.
-
-The study of natural history, and the composition of his great work,
-occupied the mind of Buffon from his first appointment as Intendant of
-the ‘_Jardin du Roi_,’ to within a few days of his death. In the
-prosecution of the plan he had laid down, he never permitted the
-slightest interruption. Pleasure and indolence had their
-attractions;—but they never held him for many hours from his favourite
-pursuits. Buffon spent the greater part of his time at Montbar, where,
-during some years, his friend Daubenton also resided. It was here that
-Buffon composed nearly the whole of his works. Many interesting details
-have been preserved of his habits of life, and his mode of composition.
-He was, like all men who have accomplished great literary undertakings,
-a severe economist of his time. The employment of every day was fixed
-with the greatest exactness. He used almost invariably to rise at five
-o’clock, compelling his man-servant to drag him out of bed whenever he
-was unwilling to get up. “I owe to poor Joseph,” he used to say, “ten or
-twelve volumes of my works.” At the end of his garden was a pavilion
-which served him as a study. Here he was seated for many hours of every
-day, in an old leathern chair, before a table of black birch, with his
-papers arranged in a large walnut-tree escritoire. Before he began to
-write he was accustomed to meditate for a long time upon his subject.
-Composition was to him a real delight; and he used to declare that he
-had spent twelve or fourteen hours successively at his desk, continuing
-to the last in a state of pleasure. His endeavours to obtain the utmost
-correctness of expression furnished a remarkable proof of the
-persevering quality of his mind. He composed, and copied, and read his
-works to friends, and re-copied, till he was entirely satisfied. It is
-said that he made eleven transcripts of the Epochs of Nature. In his
-domestic habits there was little to admire in the character of Buffon.
-His conversation was trifling and licentious, and the grossness which
-too often discloses itself in his writings was ill-concealed in his own
-conduct. He paid the most minute attention to dress, and delighted in
-walking to church to exhibit his finery to his wondering neighbours.
-Although he was entirely devoid of religious principle, and constantly
-endeavoured in his writings to throw discredit upon the belief of a
-great First Cause, he regularly attended high mass, received the
-communion, and distributed alms to pious beggars. In his whole character
-there appears a total absence of that simplicity which is the
-distinguishing attribute of men of the very highest genius.
-
-The literary glory of Buffon, although surpassed, or even equalled,
-during his life, by none of his contemporaries, with the exception
-perhaps of Voltaire and Rousseau, has not increased, and is perhaps
-materially diminished, after having been tried by the opinions of half a
-century. In literature, as well as in politics, as we have learnt to
-attach a greater value to accurate facts, have we become less captivated
-by the force of eloquence alone. Buffon gave an extraordinary impulse to
-the love of natural history, by surrounding its details with splendid
-images, and escaping from its rigid investigations by bold and dazzling
-theories. He rejected classification; and took no pains to distinguish
-by precise names the objects which he described, because such accuracy
-would have impeded the progress of his magnificent generalizations.
-Without classification, and an accurate nomenclature, natural history is
-a mere chaos. Buffon saw the productions of nature only in masses. He
-made no endeavour to delineate with perfect accuracy any individual of
-that immense body, nor to trace the relations of an individual to all
-the various forms of being by which it is surrounded. Although he was a
-profound admirer of Newton, and classed Bacon amongst the most
-illustrious of men, he constantly deviated from the principle of that
-philosophy upon which all modern discovery has been founded. He carried
-onward his hypotheses with little calculation and less experiment. And
-yet, although they are often misapplied, he has collected an astonishing
-number of facts; and even many of his boldest generalities have been
-based upon a sufficient foundation of truth, to furnish important
-assistance to the investigations of more accurate inquirers. The
-persevering obliquity with which he turns away from the evidence of
-Design in the creation, to rest upon some vague notions of a
-self-creative power, both in animate and inanimate existence, is one of
-the most unpleasant features of his writings. How much higher services
-might Buffon have rendered to natural history had he been imbued not
-only with a spirit of accurate and comprehensive classification, but
-with a perception of the constant agency of a Creator, of both of which
-merits he had so admirable an example in our own Ray.
-
-The style of Buffon, viewed as an elaborate work of art, and without
-regard to the great object of style, that of conveying thoughts in the
-clearest and simplest manner, is captivating from its sustained harmony
-and occasional grandeur. But it is a style of a past age. Even in his
-own day, it was a theme for ridicule with those who knew the real force
-of conciseness and simplicity. Voltaire described it as ‘_empoulé_;’ and
-when some one talked to him of ‘_L’Histoire Naturelle_,’ he drily
-replied, ‘_Pas si naturelle_.’ But Buffon was not carried away by the
-mere love of fine writing. He knew his own power; and, looking at the
-state of science in his day, he seized upon the instrument which was
-best calculated to elevate him amongst his contemporaries. The very
-exaggerations of his style were perhaps necessary to render natural
-history at once attractive to all descriptions of people. Up to his time
-it had been a dry and repulsive study. He first clothed it with the
-picturesque and poetical; threw a moral sentiment around its commonest
-details; exhibited animals in connection with man, in his mightiest and
-most useful works; and described the great phenomena of nature with a
-pomp of language which had never before been called to the service of
-philosophical investigation. The publication of his works carried the
-study of natural history out of the closets of the few, to become a
-source of delight and instruction to all men.
-
-Buffon died at Paris on the 16th April, 1788, aged 81. He was married,
-in 1762, to Mademoiselle de St. Bélin; and he left an only son, who
-succeeded to his title. This unfortunate young man perished on the
-scaffold, in 1795, almost one of the last victims of the fury of the
-revolution. When he ascended to the guillotine he exclaimed, with great
-composure, “My name is Buffon.”
-
-A succinct and clear memoir of Buffon, by Cuvier, in the _Biographie
-Universelle_, may be advantageously consulted. Nearly all the details of
-his private life are derived from a curious work by Rénault de
-Séchelles, entitled _Voyage à Montbar_, which, like many other domestic
-histories of eminent men, has the disgrace of being founded upon a
-violation of the laws of hospitality.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by R. Woodman._
-
-  SIR THOMAS MORE.
-
-  _From an Enamel after Holbein,
-  in the possession of Thomas Clarke Esq._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                 MORE.
-
-
-This great man was born in London, in the year 1480. His father was Sir
-John More, one of the Judges of the King’s Bench, a gentleman of
-established reputation. He was early placed in the family of Cardinal
-Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Lord Chancellor of England. The
-sons of the gentry were at this time sent into the families of the first
-nobility and leading statesmen, on an equivocal footing; partly for the
-finishing of their education, and partly in a menial capacity. The
-Cardinal said more than once to the nobility who were dining with him,
-“This boy waiting at table, whosoever lives to see it, will one day
-prove a marvellous man.” His eminent patron was highly delighted with
-that vivacity and wit which appeared in his childhood, and did not
-desert him on the scaffold. Plays were performed in the archiepiscopal
-household at Christmas. On these occasions young More would play the
-improvisatore, and introduce an extempore part of his own, more amusing
-to the spectators than all the rest of the performance. In due time
-Morton sent him to Oxford, where he heard the lectures of Linacer and
-Grocyn on the Greek and Latin languages. The epigrams and translations
-printed in his works evince his skill in both. After a regular course of
-rhetoric, logic, and philosophy, at Oxford, he removed to London, where
-he became a law student, first in New Inn, and afterwards in Lincoln’s
-Inn. He gained considerable reputation by reading public lectures on
-Saint Augustine, De Civitate Dei, at Saint Lawrence’s church in the Old
-Jewry. The most learned men in the city of London attended him; among
-the rest Grocyn, his lecturer in Greek at Oxford, and a writer against
-the doctrines of Wickliff. The object of More’s prolusions was not so
-much to discuss points in theology, as to explain the precepts of moral
-philosophy, and clear up difficulties in history. For more than three
-years after this he was Law-reader at Furnival’s Inn. He next removed to
-the Charter-House, where he lived in devotion and prayer; and it is
-stated that from the age of twenty he wore a hair-shirt next his skin.
-He remained there about four years, without taking the vows, although he
-performed all the spiritual exercises of the society, and had a strong
-inclination to enter the priesthood. But his spiritual adviser, Dr.
-Colet, Dean of St. Paul’s, recommended him to adopt a different course.
-On a visit to a gentleman of Essex, by name Colt, he was introduced to
-his three daughters, and became attached to the second, who was the
-handsomest of the family. But he bethought him that it would be both a
-grief and a scandal to the eldest to see her younger sister married
-before her. He therefore reconsidered his passion, and from motives of
-pity prevailed with himself to be in love with the elder, or at all
-events to marry her. Erasmus says that she was young and uneducated, for
-which her husband liked her the better, as being more capable of
-conforming to his own model of a wife. He had her instructed in
-literature, and especially in music.
-
-He continued his study of the law at Lincoln’s Inn, but resided in
-Bucklersbury after his marriage. His first wife lived about seven years.
-By her he had three daughters and one son; and we are informed by his
-son-in-law, Roper, that he brought them up with the most sedulous
-attention to their intellectual and moral improvement. It was a quaint
-exhortation of his, that they should take virtue and learning for their
-meat, and pleasure for their sauce.
-
-In the latter part of King Henry the Seventh’s time, and at a very early
-age, More distinguished himself in parliament. The King had demanded a
-subsidy for the marriage of his eldest daughter, who was to be the
-Scottish Queen. The demand was not complied with. On being told that his
-purpose had been frustrated by the opposition of a beardless boy, Henry
-was greatly incensed, and determined on revenge. He knew that the actual
-offender, not possessing anything, could not lose anything; he therefore
-devised a groundless charge against the father, and confined him to the
-Tower till he had extorted a fine of £100 for his alleged offence. Fox,
-Bishop of Winchester, a privy councillor, insidiously undertook to
-reinstate young More in the King’s favour: but the Bishop’s Chaplain
-warned him not to listen to any such proposals; and gave a pithy reason
-for the advice, highly illustrative of Fox’s real character. “To serve
-the King’s purposes, my lord and master will not hesitate to consent to
-his own father’s death.” To avoid evil consequences, More determined to
-go abroad. With this view, he made himself master of the French
-language, and cultivated the liberal sciences, as astronomy, geometry,
-arithmetic, and music; he also made himself thoroughly acquainted with
-history: but in the mean time the King’s death rendered it safe to
-remain in England, and he abandoned all thoughts of foreign travel.
-
-Notwithstanding his practice at the bar, and his lectures, which were
-quoted by Lord Coke as undisputed authority, he found leisure for the
-pursuits of philosophy and polite literature. In 1516 he wrote his
-Utopia, the only one of his works which has commanded much of public
-attention in after times. In general they were chiefly of a polemic
-kind, in defence of a cause which even his abilities could not make
-good. But in this extraordinary work he allowed his powerful mind fair
-play, and considered both mankind and religion with the freedom of a
-true philosopher. He represents Utopia as one of those countries lately
-discovered in America, and the account of it is feigned to be given by a
-Portuguese, who sailed in company with the first discoverer of that part
-of the world. Under the character of this Portuguese he delivers his own
-opinions. His History of Richard III. was never finished, but it is
-inserted in Kennet’s Complete History of England. Among his other
-eminent acquaintance, he was particularly attached to Erasmus. They had
-long corresponded before they were personally known to each other.
-Erasmus came to England for the purpose of seeing his friend; and it was
-contrived that they should meet at the Lord Mayor’s table before they
-were introduced to each other. At dinner they engaged in argument.
-Erasmus felt the keenness of his antagonist’s wit; and when hard
-pressed, exclaimed, “You are More, or nobody;” the reply was, “You are
-Erasmus, or the Devil.”
-
-Before More entered definitively into the service of Henry VIII. his
-learning, wisdom, and experience were held in such high estimation, that
-he was twice sent on important commercial embassies. His discretion in
-those employments made the King desirous of securing him for the service
-of the court; and he commissioned Wolsey, then Lord Chancellor, to
-engage him. But so little inclined was he to involve himself in
-political intrigues, that the King’s wish was not at the time
-accomplished. Soon after, More was retained as counsel for the Pope, for
-the purpose of reclaiming the forfeiture of a ship. His argument was so
-learned, and his conduct in the cause so judicious and upright, that the
-ship was restored. The King upon this insisted on having him in his
-service; and, as the first step to preferment, made him Master of the
-Requests, a Knight and Privy Councillor.
-
-In 1520 he was made Treasurer of the Exchequer: he then bought a house
-by the river-side at Chelsea, where he had settled with his family. He
-had at that time buried his first wife and was married to a second. He
-continued in the King’s service full twenty years, during which time his
-royal master conferred with him on various subjects, including
-astronomy, geometry, and divinity; and frequently consulted him on his
-private concerns. More’s pleasant temper and witty conversation made him
-such a favourite at the palace, as almost to estrange him from his own
-family; and under these circumstances his peculiar humour manifested
-itself; for he so restrained the natural bias of his freedom and mirth
-as to render himself a less amusing companion, and at length to be
-seldom sent for but on occasions of business.
-
-A more important circumstance gave More much consequence with the King.
-The latter was preparing his answer to Luther, and Sir Thomas assisted
-him in the controversy. While this was going on, the King one day came
-to dine with him; and after dinner walked with him in the garden with
-his arm round his neck. After Henry’s departure, Mr. Roper, Sir Thomas’s
-son-in-law, remarked on the King’s familiarity, as exceeding even that
-used towards Cardinal Wolsey, with whom he had only once been seen to
-walk arm in arm. The answer of Sir Thomas was shrewd and almost
-prophetic. “I find his Grace my very good lord indeed, and I believe he
-doth as singularly favour me as any subject within this realm. However,
-Son Roper, I may tell thee, I have no cause to be proud thereof; for if
-my head would win him a castle in France it should not fail to go.”
-
-In 1523 he was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons, and displayed
-great intrepidity in the discharge of that office. Wolsey was afraid
-lest this parliament should refuse a great subsidy about to be demanded,
-and announced his intention of being present at the debate. He had
-previously expressed his indignation at the publicity given to the
-proceedings of the house, which he had compared to the gossip of an
-ale-house. Sir Thomas More therefore persuaded the members to admit not
-only the Cardinal, but all his pomp; his maces, poll-axes, crosses, hat,
-and great seal. The reason he assigned was, that should the like fault
-be imputed to them hereafter, they might be able to shift the blame on
-the shoulders of his Grace’s attendants. The proposal of the subsidy was
-met with the negative of profound silence; and the Speaker declared that
-“except every member could put into his one head all their several wits,
-he alone in so weighty a matter was unmeet to make his Grace answer.”
-After the parliament had broken up, Wolsey expressed his displeasure
-against the Speaker in his own gallery at Whitehall; but More, with his
-usual quiet humour, parried the attack by a ready compliment to the
-taste and splendour of the room in which they were conversing.
-
-On the death of Sir Richard Wingfield, the King promoted Sir Thomas to
-the Chancellorship of the Duchy of Lancaster. At this time the see of
-Rome became vacant, and Wolsey aspired to the Papacy; but Charles V.
-disappointed him, and procured the election of Cardinal Adrian. In
-revenge, Wolsey contrived to persuade Henry that Catharine was not his
-lawful wife, and endeavoured to turn his affections towards one of the
-French King’s sisters. The case was referred to More, who was assisted
-by the most learned of the Privy Council; and he managed, difficult as
-it must have been to do so, to extricate both himself and his colleagues
-from the dilemma. His conduct as ambassador at Cambray, where a treaty
-of peace was negotiated between the Emperor, France, and England, so
-confirmed the favour of his master towards him, that on the fall of the
-Cardinal he was made Lord Chancellor. The great seal was delivered to
-him on the 25th of October, 1530. This favour was the more
-extraordinary, as he was the first layman on whom it was bestowed: but
-it may reasonably be suspected that the private motive was to engage him
-in the approval of the meditated divorce. This he probably suspected,
-and entered on the office with a full knowledge of the danger to which
-it exposed him. He performed the duties of his function for nearly three
-years with exemplary diligence, great ability, and uncorrupted
-integrity. His resignation took place on the 16th May, 1533. His motive
-was supposed to be a regard to his own safety, as he was sensible that a
-confirmation of the divorce would be officially required from him, and
-he was too conscientious to comply with the mandate of power, against
-his own moral and legal convictions.
-
-While Chancellor some of his injunctions were disapproved by the common
-law judges. He therefore invited them to dine with him in the council
-chamber, and proved to them by professional arguments that their
-complaints were unfounded. He then proposed that they should themselves
-mitigate the rigour of the law by their own conscientious discretion; in
-which case, he would grant no more injunctions. This they refused; and
-the consequence was, that he continued that practice in equity which has
-come down to the present day.
-
-It was through the intervention of his friend the Duke of Norfolk that
-he procured his discharge from the laborious, and under the
-circumstances of the time, the dangerous eminence of the chancellorship,
-which he quitted in honourable poverty. After the payment of his debts
-he had not the value of one hundred pounds in gold and silver, nor more
-than twenty marks a year in land. On this occasion his love of a jest
-did not desert him. While Chancellor, as soon as the church service was
-over, one of his train used to go to his lady’s pew, and say, “Madam, my
-Lord is gone!” On the first holiday after his train had been dismissed,
-he performed that ceremony himself, and by saying at the end of the
-service, “Madam, my Lord is gone,” gave his wife the first intimation
-that he had surrendered the great seal.
-
-He had resolved never again to engage in public business; but the
-divorce, and still more the subsequent marriage with Anne Boleyn, which
-nothing could induce him to favour, with the King’s alienation from the
-see of Rome, raised a storm over his head from which his voluntary
-seclusion at Chelsea, in study and devotion, could not shelter him. When
-tempting offers proved ineffectual to win him over to sanction Anne
-Boleyn’s coronation by his high legal authority, threats and terrors
-were resorted to: his firmness was not to be shaken, but his ruin was
-determined, and ultimately accomplished. In the next parliament he, and
-his friend Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, were attainted of treason and
-misprision of treason for listening to the ravings of Elizabeth Barton,
-considered by the vulgar as the Holy Maid of Kent, and countenancing her
-treasonable practices. His innocence was so clearly established, that
-his name was erased from the bill; and it was supposed to have been
-introduced into it only for the purpose of shaking his resolution
-touching the divorce and marriage. But though he had escaped this snare
-his firmness occasioned him to be devoted as a victim. Anne Boleyn took
-pains to exasperate the King against him, and when the Act of Supremacy
-was passed in 1534, the oath required by it was tendered to him. The
-refusal to take it, which his principles compelled him to give, was
-expressed in discreet and qualified terms; he was nevertheless taken
-into the custody of the Abbot of Westminster, and upon a second refusal
-four days after was committed prisoner to the Tower of London.
-
-Our limits will not allow us to detail many particulars of his life
-while in confinement, marked as it was by firmness, resignation, and
-cheerfulness, resulting from a conscience, however much mistaken, yet
-void of intentional offence. His reputation and credit were very great
-in the kingdom, and much was supposed to depend on his conduct at this
-critical juncture. Archbishop Cranmer, therefore, urged every argument
-that could be devised to persuade him to compliance, and promises were
-profusely made to him from the King; but neither argument nor promises
-could prevail. We will give the last of these attempts to shake his
-determination, in the words of his son-in-law, Mr. Roper:—
-
-“Mr. Rich, pretending friendly talk with him, among other things of a
-set course, said this unto him: ‘Forasmuch as is well known, Master
-More, that you are a man both wise and well learned, as well in the laws
-of the realm as otherwise, I pray you, therefore, sir, let me be so bold
-as of good-will to put unto you this case. Admit there were, sir, an act
-of parliament that the realm should take me for King; would not you, Mr.
-More, take me for King?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ quoth Sir Thomas More, ‘that would
-I.’ ‘I put the case further,’ quoth Mr. Rich, ‘that there were an act of
-parliament that all the realm should take me for Pope; would not you
-then, Master More, take me for Pope?’ ‘For answer, sir,’ quoth Sir
-Thomas More, ‘to your first case the parliament may well, Master Rich,
-meddle with the state of temporal princes; but to make answer to your
-other case, I will put you this case. Suppose the parliament would make
-a law that God should not be God; would you then, Master Rich, say that
-God were not God?’ ‘No, sir,’ quoth he, ‘that would I not; sith no
-parliament may make any such law.’ ‘No more,’ quoth Sir Thomas More,
-‘could the parliament make the King supreme head of the Church.’ Upon
-whose only report was Sir Thomas indicted of high treason on the statute
-to deny the King to be supreme head of the Church, into which indictment
-were put these heinous words, _maliciously_, _traitorously_, and
-_diabolically_.”
-
-Sir Thomas More in his defence alleged many arguments to the discredit
-of Rich’s evidence, and in proof of the clearness of his own conscience;
-but all this was of no avail, and the jury found him guilty. When asked
-in the usual manner why judgment should not be passed against him, he
-argued against the indictment as grounded on an Act of Parliament
-repugnant to the laws of God and the Church, the government of which
-belonged to the see of Rome, and could not lawfully be assumed by any
-temporal prince. The Lord Chancellor, however, and the other
-Commissioners gave judgment against him.
-
-He remained in the Tower a week after his sentence, and during that time
-he was uniformly firm and composed, and even his peculiar vein of
-cheerfulness remained unimpaired. It accompanied him even to the
-scaffold, on going up to which, he said to the Lieutenant of the Tower,
-“I pray you, Master Lieutenant, see me safe up, and for my coming down
-let me shift for myself.” After his prayers were ended he turned to the
-executioner and said, with a cheerful countenance, “Pluck up thy
-spirits, man, and be not afraid to do thine office. My neck is very
-short, take heed, therefore, thou strike not awry for thine own credit’s
-sake.” Then laying his head upon the block, he bid the executioner stay
-till he had removed his beard, saying, “My beard has never committed any
-treason;” and immediately the fatal blow was given. These witticisms
-have so repeatedly run the gauntlet through all the jest-books that it
-would hardly have been worth while to repeat them here, were it not for
-the purpose of introducing the comment of Mr. Addison on Sir Thomas’s
-behaviour on this solemn occasion. “What was only philosophy in this
-extraordinary man would be frenzy in one who does not resemble him as
-well in the cheerfulness of his temper as in the sanctity of his
-manners.”
-
-He was executed on St. Thomas’s eve in the year 1555. The barbarous part
-of the sentence, so disgraceful to the Statute-book, was remitted. Lest
-serious-minded persons should suppose that his conduct on the scaffold
-was mere levity, it should be added that he addressed the people,
-desiring them to pray for him, and to bear witness that he was going to
-suffer death in and for the faith of the holy Catholic Church. The
-Emperor Charles V. said, on hearing of his execution, “Had we been
-master of such a servant, we would rather have lost the best city of our
-dominions than such a worthy councillor.”
-
-No one was more capable of appreciating the character of Sir Thomas More
-than Erasmus, who represents him as more pure and white than the whitest
-snow, with such wit as England never had before, and was never likely to
-have again. He also says, that in theological discussions the most
-eminent divines were not unfrequently worsted by him; but he adds a wish
-that he had never meddled with the subject. Sir Thomas More was
-peculiarly happy in extempore speaking, the result of a well-stored and
-ready memory, suggesting without delay whatever the occasion required.
-Thuanus also mentions him with much respect, as a man of strict
-integrity and profound learning.
-
-His life has been written by his son-in-law, Roper, and is the principal
-source whence this narrative is taken. Erasmus has also been consulted,
-through whose epistolary works there is much information about his
-friend. There is also a life of him by Ferdinando Warner, LL.D., with a
-translation of his Utopia, in an octavo volume, published in 1758.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by J. Posselwhite._
-
-  LA PLACE.
-
-  _From an original Picture by Nedeone,
-  in the possession of the Marchioness De la Place._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                LAPLACE.
-
-
-Pierre Simon Laplace was born at Beaumont en Auge, a small town of
-Normandy, not far from Honfleur, in March, 1749. His father was a small
-farmer of sufficient substance to give him the benefit of a learned
-education, for we are told[4] that the future philosopher gained his
-first distinctions in theology. It does not appear by what means his
-attention was turned to mathematical science, but he must have commenced
-that study when very young, as, on visiting Paris at the age of about
-eighteen, he attracted the notice of D’Alembert by his knowledge of the
-subject. He had previously taught mathematics in his native place; and,
-on visiting the metropolis, was furnished with letters of recommendation
-to several of the most distinguished men of the day. Finding, however,
-that D’Alembert took no notice of him on this account, he wrote that
-geometer a letter on the first principles of mechanics, which produced
-an immediate effect. D’Alembert sent for him the same day, and said,
-“You see, sir, how little I care for introductions, but you have no need
-of any. You have a better way of making yourself known, and you have a
-right to my assistance.” Through the recommendation of D’Alembert,
-Laplace was in a few days named Professor of Mathematics in the Military
-School of Paris. From this moment he applied himself to the one great
-object of his life. It was not till the year 1799 that he was called to
-assume a public character. Bonaparte, then First Consul, who was himself
-a tolerable mathematician, and always cultivated the friendship of men
-of science, made him Minister of the Interior; but very soon found his
-mistake in supposing that talents for philosophical investigation were
-necessarily accompanied by those of a statesman. He is reported to have
-expressed himself of Laplace in the following way:—“Géometre du premier
-rang, il ne tarda pas a se montrer administrateur plus que médiocre. Dés
-son premier travail, les consuls s’aperçurent qu’ils s’étoient trompés.
-Laplace ne saisissait aucune question sous son vrai point de vue. Il
-cherchait des subtilités partout, n’avait que des idées problématiques
-et portait aufin _l’esprit des infiniments petits_ dans
-l’administration.” Bonaparte removed him accordingly to the _Sénat
-Conservateur_, of which he was successively Vice-President and
-Chancellor. The latter office he received in 1813, about which time he
-was created Count. In 1814 he voted for the deposition of Napoleon, for
-which he has been charged with ingratitude and meanness. This is yet a
-party question; and the present generation need not be hasty in forming
-a decision which posterity may see reason to reverse. After the first
-restoration Laplace received the title of Marquis, and did not appear at
-the Court of Napoleon during the hundred days. He continued his usual
-pursuits until the year 1827, when he was seized with the disorder which
-terminated his life on the 5th of May, in the seventy-eighth year of his
-age. His last words were, “Ce que nous connoissons est peu de chose; ce
-que nous ignorons est immense.” He has left a successor to his name and
-title, but none to his transcendent powers of investigation.
-
-Footnote 4:
-
-  A scanty account in the _Biographie des Contemporains_, and the Eloge
-  read to the Institute by M. Fourier, form our only materials for the
-  personal life of LAPLACE.
-
-The name of Laplace is spread to the utmost limits of civilization, as
-the successor, almost the equal, of Newton. No one, however, who is
-acquainted with the discoveries of the two, will think there is so much
-common ground for comparison as is generally supposed. Those of Laplace
-are all essentially mathematical: whatever could be done by analysis he
-was sure to achieve. The labours of Newton, on the other hand, show a
-sagacity in conjecturing which would almost lead us to think that he
-laid the mathematics on one side, and used some faculty of perception
-denied to other men, to deduce these results which he afterwards
-condescended to put into a geometrical form, for the information of more
-common minds. In the Principia of Newton, the mathematics are not the
-instruments of discovery but of demonstration; and, though that work
-contains much which is new in a mathematical point of view, its
-principal merit is of quite another character. The mind of Laplace was
-cast in a different mould; and this perhaps is fortunate for science,
-for while we may safely assert that Laplace would never have been Newton
-had he been placed in similar circumstances, there is also reason to
-doubt whether a second Newton would have been better qualified to follow
-that particular path which was so successfully traversed by Laplace. We
-shall proceed to give such an idea of the labours of the latter as our
-limits will allow.
-
-The solution of every mechanical problem, in which the acting forces
-were known, as in the motions of the solar system, had been reduced by
-D’Alembert and Lagrange to such a state that the difficulties were only
-mathematical; that is, no farther advances could be made, except in pure
-analysis. We cannot expect the general reader to know what is meant by
-the words, _solution of a Differential Equation_; but he may be made
-aware that there is a process so called, which, if it could be
-successfully and exactly performed in all cases, would give the key to
-every motion of the solar system, and render the determination of its
-present, and the prediction of its future state, a matter of
-mathematical certainty. Unfortunately, in the present state of analysis,
-such precision is unattainable; and its place is supplied by slow and
-tedious approximations. These were begun by Newton, whose object being
-to establish the existence of universal gravitation, he was content to
-show that all the phenomena which might be expected to result, if that
-theory were true, did actually take place in the solar system. But here,
-owing to the comparatively imperfect state of mathematical analysis, he
-could do little more than indicate the cause of some of the principal
-irregularities of that system. His successors added considerably to the
-number of phenomena which were capable of explanation, and thereby
-increased the probability of the hypothesis. Lagrange, the great rival
-of Laplace, if we consider his discoveries, and his superior in the
-originality of his views, and the beauty of his analysis, added greatly
-to the fund; but it was reserved for the latter to complete the system,
-and, extending his views beyond the point to which Newton directed his
-attention, to show that there is no marked phenomenon yet observed by
-astronomers, regarding the relative motions of the planets or their
-satellites, but what must necessarily follow, if the law of gravitation
-be true. We shall select a few instances of the success of his analysis.
-The average motions of Jupiter and Saturn had been observed to vary;
-that of the former being accelerated, and of the latter retarded. This
-fact, which Euler had attempted in vain to explain, was linked by
-Laplace to the general law, and shown to follow from it. A somewhat
-similar acceleration in the moon’s mean motion was demonstrated, as we
-have observed more fully in the life of Halley, to arise from a small
-alteration in the form of the earth’s orbit, caused by the attraction of
-the planets. A remarkable law attending the motions of the satellites of
-Jupiter, viz.—that the mean motion of the first satellite, together with
-double that of the second, is always very nearly equal to three times
-that of the third—was so far connected with the general law, that if, in
-the original formation of the system, that relation had been nearly
-kept, the mutual attractions, instead of altering it, would tend to
-bring it nearer the truth. We can here do no more than mention the
-analysis of the phenomena of the tides, one of the most important and
-most brilliant of Laplace’s performances. Indeed there is no branch of
-Physical Astronomy, we might almost say of physics in general, which is
-not materially indebted to him. Superior to Euler in the power of
-conquering analytical difficulties, he is almost his equal in the
-universality of his labours.
-
-The great work of Laplace is the ‘Mécanique Céleste,’ a collection of
-all that had been done by himself or others, concerning the theory of
-the universe. It is far above the reach even of the mathematical reader,
-unless he has given a degree of attention to the subject, which few, at
-least in our day, will exert. But Laplace was an elegant and
-clear-headed writer, as well as a profound analyst. He has left, we will
-not say for the common reader, but for those who possess the first
-elements of geometry, a compendium of the Mécanique Céleste, in the
-‘Système du Monde.’ This work is free from mathematical details, and,
-were it his only production, would rank him high among French writers.
-We recommend it as the best exposition of the present state of our
-knowledge of the solar system.
-
-But if it be said that Laplace was much indebted to the labours of
-Lagrange and others, for the methods which form the basis of the
-Mécanique Céleste, which is undoubtedly true, we have a splendid
-instance of what might have been expected from him under any
-circumstances, in the ‘Théorie des Probabilités.’ The field was here
-open, for though the leading principles of the science had been laid
-down, and many difficult problems solved, yet some method was still
-wanting by which sufficient approximation might be made to problems
-involving high numbers. In the theory of chances the great complexity of
-the operations required, soon renders the application of the clearest
-principles practically impossible; or, we should rather say, would have
-done so had it not been for the researches of Laplace. His work on this
-subject is, in our opinion, even superior to the Mécanique Céleste, as a
-proof of the genius of the author. The difficulties above described
-disappear under an analysis more refined and artificial than any other
-which has ever been used. The mathematician may or may not read the
-Mécanique Céleste, according to whether he would wish or not to turn his
-attention to physical astronomy; but the analyst must study the Théorie
-des Probabilités, before he can be said to know of what his art is
-capable. The philosophical part of his work, with its principal results,
-was collected by the author in the ‘Essai Philosophique sur les
-Probabilités,’ in the same manner as those of the Mécanique Céleste were
-exhibited in the Système du Monde.
-
-The mathematical style of Laplace is entirely destitute of the
-simplicity of that of Euler, or the exquisite symmetry and attention to
-the principles of notation, which distinguishes that of Lagrange. We may
-almost imagine that we see the first rough form in which his thoughts
-were committed to paper; and that, when by attention to a particular
-case, he had hit upon a wider method, which embraced that and others, he
-was content to leave the first nearly as it stood before the
-generalization opened upon him. His writings abound with parts in which
-the immediate train of investigation is dropped, either not to be
-resumed at all, or at a much later period of the subject. He seems, like
-the discoverer of a new channel, to have explored every inlet which came
-in his way, and the chart of his labours consequently shows the
-unfinished surveys on either side of the main track. This habit is no
-fault, but quite the reverse, in a work intended for finished
-mathematicians, to be the storehouse of all that could be useful in
-future operations: but it makes both the Mécanique Céleste and the
-Théorie des Probabilités present almost unconquerable difficulties to
-the student. These are increased by the very wide steps left to be
-filled up by the reader, which are numerous enough to justify us in
-saying, that what is left out in these writings would constitute a mass
-four times as great as that which is put in, and this exclusive of
-numerical calculations. When we add that those two works are contained
-in six quarto volumes, which hold more than two thousand five hundred
-pages, some notion may be formed of the extent of Laplace’s labours.
-
-It will be perceived that this slight sketch is intended only for those
-who are not mathematicians. In conclusion, we may take the opportunity
-of expressing a hope, that at no distant period analytical knowledge
-will have become so general, and the public mind be so far informed upon
-the great theory first propounded by Newton, and reduced to
-demonstration by Lagrange and Laplace, that the evidence furnished by
-the two last shall possess equal weight with the authority of the first.
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                HANDEL.
-
-
-George Frederic Handel, whom we will venture to call the greatest of
-musicians, considering the state in which he found his art, and the
-means at his command, was born at Halle, in the Duchy of Magdeburg,
-February 24, 1684. He was intended, almost from his cradle, for the
-profession of the civil law; but, at the early age of seven, he
-manifested so uncontrollable an inclination, and so decided a talent for
-the study of music, that his father, an eminent physician, wisely
-consented to change his destination, and suffered him to continue under
-the direction of a master those studies, which he had been secretly
-pursuing with no other guide than his own genius.
-
-Friedrich Zachau, organist of the cathedral church of Halle, was the
-first and indeed the chief instructor of Handel. He discharged the
-duties of his office so well, that his pupil, when not nine years old,
-had become competent to officiate for his teacher, and had composed, it
-is said, many motets for the service of the church. A set of sonatas,
-written by him when only ten years old, was in the possession of George
-III., and probably forms part of the musical library of our present
-sovereign.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by J. Thomson._
-
-  HANDEL.
-
-  _From a Picture in the Collection of
-  His Majesty at Windsor._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-In 1703 Handel went to Hamburg, where the opera was then flourishing
-under the direction of Reinhard Keiser, a master of deserved celebrity,
-but whose gaiety and expensive habits often compelled him to absent
-himself from the theatre. On one of these occasions Handel was appointed
-to fill his place as conductor. This preference of a junior roused the
-jealousy of a fellow-performer, named Mattheson, to such a degree that a
-rencontre took place between the rivals in the street: and Handel was
-saved from a sword-thrust, which probably would have taken fatal effect,
-only by the interposition of a music-score, which he carried buttoned up
-under his coat. Till this time he had occupied but a very subordinate
-situation in the orchestra, that of second _ripieno_ violin; for from
-the period of his father’s death he had depended wholly on his own
-exertions, nobly determining not to diminish his mother’s rather
-straitened income by any demands on her for pecuniary assistance. But
-now an opportunity for making known his powers was arrived; for the
-continued absence of the conductor Keiser from his post induced the
-manager to employ Handel in setting to music a drama called Almeria. So
-great was the success of this piece, that it was performed thirty nights
-without interruption. The year following he composed Florinda; and soon
-after, Nerone, both of which were received in as favourable a manner as
-his first dramatic effort; but not one of these is to be found in the
-collection formed by George III., and they seem quite unknown to all
-writers on music, except by their titles.
-
-The success of his operas at Hamburg produced a sum which enabled him to
-visit Italy. Florence was the first city in which he made any stay. He
-was there received in the kindest manner by the Grand Duke Giovanni
-Gaston de Medicis, and produced the opera of Rodrigo in 1709, for which
-he was presented with a hundred sequins, and a service of plate. Thence
-he proceeded to Venice, where he brought out Agrippina, which was
-received with acclamation, and performed twenty-seven nights
-successively. It seems that horns and other wind-instruments were in
-this opera first used in Italy as accompaniments to the voice. Here the
-charms of his music made an impression on the famous beauty and singer,
-Signora Vittoria, a lady particularly distinguished by the Grand Duke;
-but in this, as in every instance of a similar kind, Handel showed no
-disposition to avail himself of any partialities exhibited in his
-favour. His thoughts were nearly all absorbed by his art, and it is but
-just to conclude that he was also influenced by those sentiments of
-moral propriety which so distinctly marked his conduct through life. It
-is to be admitted, however, that he was too much inclined to indulge in
-the pleasures of the table.
-
-On visiting Rome he was hospitably and kindly entertained by the
-Cardinal Ottoboni, a person of the most refined taste and princely
-magnificence. Besides his splendid collection of pictures and statues,
-he possessed a library of music of great extent, and kept in his service
-an excellent band of performers, which was under the direction of the
-celebrated Corelli. At one of the parties made by the Cardinal, Handel
-produced the overture to Il Trionfo del Tempo, which was attempted by
-the band so unsuccessfully, that the composer, in his hasty manner,
-snatched the violin from Corelli, and played the most difficult passages
-with his own hand. The Italian, who was all modesty and meekness,
-ingenuously confessed that he did not understand the kind of music; and,
-when Handel still appeared impatient, only said, “Ma, caro Sassone,
-questa musica è nel stilo Francese, di ch’io non m’intendo”—(“But, my
-dear Saxon, this music is in the French style, which I do not
-understand”). And so far Corelli was perfectly right; Handel’s overtures
-are formed after the model of Lully, though, it is hardly necessary to
-add, he improved what he imitated. This anecdote indicates the vast
-superiority in point of execution possessed by the moderns. A learner of
-two years’ standing would now play the violin part of any of Handel’s
-overtures at first sight, without a fault.
-
-At Rome Handel composed his Trionfo del Tempo, the words of which were
-written for him by the Cardinal Pamphilii, and a kind of _mystery_, or
-oratorio, La Resurrezione. The former he afterwards brought out in
-London, with English words by Dr. Morell, under the title of the Triumph
-of Time and Truth. From Rome he went to Naples, where he was treated
-with every mark of distinction. But he now resolved, notwithstanding the
-many attempts made to keep him in Italy, to return to Germany; and in
-1710 reached Hanover, where he found a generous patron in the Elector,
-who subsequently ascended the English throne as George I. Here he met
-the learned composer, Steffani, who, having arrived at a time of life
-when retirement becomes desirable, resigned his office of Maestro di
-Capella to the Elector, and Handel was appointed his successor, with a
-salary of 1500 crowns, upon condition that he would return to the court
-of Hanover at the termination of his travels.
-
-Towards the end of 1710 Handel arrived in London. He was soon introduced
-at court, and honoured with marks of Queen Anne’s favour. Aaron Hill was
-then manager of the Italian opera, and immediately sketched a drama from
-Tasso’s Jerusalem, which Rossi worked into an opera under the name of
-Rinaldo, and Handel set to music. This was brought out in March, 1711;
-and it is stated in the preface that it was composed in a fortnight, a
-strong recommendation of a work to those who delight in the wonderful
-rather than in the excellent: but in fact there is nothing in this which
-could have put the composer to much expense either of time or thought.
-Handel undoubtedly wrote better operas than any of his contemporaries or
-predecessors; but he was controlled by the habits and taste of the day,
-and knew by experience that two or three good pieces were as much as the
-fashionable frequenters of the Italian theatre would listen to, in his
-time.
-
-At the close of 1711 he returned to Hanover, but revisited London late
-in 1712; and shortly after was selected, not without many murmurs from
-English musicians, to compose a Te Deum and Jubilate on occasion of the
-peace of Utrecht. The Queen settled on him a pension of two hundred
-pounds as the reward of his labour,—and as he was solicited to write
-again for the Italian stage, he never thought of returning to his
-engagement at Hanover, till the accession of the Elector to the British
-throne reminded him of his neglect of his royal employer and patron. On
-the arrival of George I. in London, Handel wanted the courage to present
-himself at court; but his friend, Baron Kilmansegge, had the address to
-get him restored to royal favour. The pleasing _Water-Music_, performed
-during an excursion made up the river by the King, was the means by
-which the German baron brought about the reconciliation; and this was
-accompanied by an addition of two hundred pounds to the pension granted
-by Queen Anne.
-
-From the year 1715 to 1720, Handel composed only three operas. The three
-first years of this period he passed at the Earl of Burlington’s, where
-he was constantly in the habit of meeting Pope, who, though devoid of
-any taste for music, always spoke and wrote in a flattering manner of
-the German composer. The other two years he devoted to the Duke of
-Chandos, Pope’s Timon; and at Cannons, the Duke’s seat, he produced many
-of his anthems, which must be classed among the finest of his works,
-together with the greater number of his hautbois concertos, sonatas,
-lessons, and organ fugues.
-
-A project was now formed by several of the English nobility for erecting
-the Italian theatre into an Academy of Music, and Handel was chosen as
-manager, with a condition that he should supply a certain number of
-operas. In pursuance of this, he went to Dresden to engage singers, and
-brought back with him several of great celebrity, Senesino among the
-number. His first opera under the new system was Radamisto, the success
-of which was astonishing. But there were at that time two Italian
-composers in London, Bononcini and Attilio, who till then had been
-attached to the opera-house, and were not without powerful supporters.
-These persons did not passively notice the ascendancy of Handel, and the
-insignificance into which they were in danger of falling; they persuaded
-several weak and some factious people of noble rank to espouse their
-cause, and to oppose the German intruder, as they called the new
-manager. Hence arose those feuds to which Swift has given immortality by
-his well-known epigram; and hence may be traced Handel’s retirement from
-a scene of cabal, persecution, and loss. The final result of this,
-however, was fortunate, for it led to the production of his greatest
-works, his oratorios, which not only amply compensated him for all the
-injury which his fortune sustained in this contest, but raised him to a
-height of fame which he could never have gained by his Italian operas.
-
-The two contending parties, wishing to appear reasonable, proposed
-something like terms of accommodation: these were, that an opera in
-three acts should be composed by the three rivals, one act by each, and
-that he who best succeeded should for ever after take the precedence.
-The drama chosen was Muzio Scevola, of which Bononcini set the first
-act, Handel the second, and Attilio the third. Handel’s “won the cause,”
-and Bononcini’s was pronounced the next in merit. But, strange to say,
-though each no doubt strained his ability to the utmost in this
-struggle, not a single piece in the whole opera is known in the present
-day, or is, perhaps, to be found, except in the libraries of curious
-collectors.
-
-This victory left Handel master of the field for some years, and the
-academy prospered. During this period he brought out about fifteen of
-his best operas. But the genius of discord must always have a seat in
-the temple of harmony, and a dispute between the German manager and the
-Italian soprano, Senesino, renewed former quarrels, broke up the
-academy, materially damaged the fortune of the great composer, and was
-the cause of infinite vexation to him during much of his future life.
-
-Dr. Arbuthnot, always a staunch friend of Handel, now became his
-champion, and his ridicule had more weight with the sensible portion of
-the public than the futile arguments, if they deserve the name, advanced
-by the noble supporters of Senesino. But fashion and prejudice were, as
-usual, too strong for reason: a rival opera-house was opened in
-Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and after having composed several new operas,
-comprising some of his best, and having sacrificed nearly the whole of
-his property and injured his health, in a spirited attempt to support
-the cause of the lyric stage against the presumption of singers, and the
-folly of their abettors, Handel was at last compelled to terminate his
-ineffectual labours, and stop his ruinous expenses, by abandoning the
-contest and the Italian opera together.
-
-The sacred musical drama, or oratorio, was ultimately destined to repair
-his all but ruined fortune, and to establish his fame beyond the reach
-of cavil, and for ever. Esther, the words of which it is said were the
-joint production of Pope and Arbuthnot, was composed for the Duke of
-Chandos in 1720. In 1732 it was performed ten nights at the Haymarket,
-or King’s Theatre. Deborah was produced in 1733, and in the same year
-Athalia was brought out at Oxford. These three oratorios were performed
-at Covent Garden, in the Lent of 1734. Acis and Galatea, and Alexander’s
-Feast, were brought out in 1735; Israel in Egypt, in 1738; L’Allegro ed
-il Penseroso, in 1739. Saul was produced at the theatre in Lincoln’s Inn
-Fields in 1740. But up to this period his oratorios failed to reimburse
-him for the expenses incurred; and even the Messiah, that sublime and
-matchless work, was, as Dr. Burney, Sir John Hawkins, and Handel’s first
-biographer, Mr. Mainwaring, all agree in stating, not only ill attended,
-but ill received, when first given to the public, in the capital of the
-empire, in 1741.
-
-Such miscarriages, and a severe fit of illness, the supposed consequence
-of them, determined him to try his oratorios in the sister kingdom,
-where he hoped to be out of the reach of prejudice, envy, and hostility.
-Dublin was at that time noted for the gaiety and splendour of its court,
-and the opulence and spirit of its principal inhabitants. Handel,
-therefore, judged wisely in appealing to such a people. Pope in his
-Dunciad alludes to this part of his history, introducing a poor phantom
-as representative of the Italian opera, who thus instructs Dullness:—
-
-            But soon, ah soon, rebellion will commence,
-            If Music meanly borrows aid from sense:
-            Strong in new arms, lo! giant Handel stands,
-            Like bold Briareus, with a hundred hands:
-            To stir, to rouse, to shake the soul he comes,
-            And Jove’s own thunders follow Mars’s drums.
-            Arrest him, empress, or you sleep no more.—
-            She heard—and drove him to th’ Hibernian shore.
-
-“On his arrival in Dublin,” we are told by Dr. Burney, in his
-Commemoration of Handel, “he, with equal judgment and humanity, began by
-performing the Messiah for the benefit of the city prison. This act of
-generosity and benevolence met with universal approbation, as well as
-his music, which was admirably performed.” He remained in Ireland about
-nine months, where his finances began to mend, an earnest, as it were,
-of the more favourable reception which he experienced on returning to
-London in 1742. He then recommenced his oratorios at Covent Garden;
-Sampson was the first performed. And now fortune seemed to wait on all
-his undertakings; and he took the tide at the flood. His last oratorio
-became most popular, and the Messiah was now received with universal
-admiration and applause. Dr. Burney remarks, “From that time to the
-present, this great work has been heard in all parts of the kingdom with
-increasing reverence and delight; it has fed the hungry, clothed the
-naked, fostered the orphan,” and, he might have added, healed the sick.
-Influenced by the most disinterested motives of humanity, Handel
-resolved to perform his Messiah annually for the benefit of the
-Foundling Hospital, and, under his own direction and that of his
-successors, it added to the funds of that charity alone the sum of
-£10,300. How much it has produced to other benevolent institutions, it
-is impossible to calculate; the amount must be enormous.
-
-He continued his oratorios till almost the moment of his death, and
-derived considerable pecuniary advantage from them, though a
-considerable portion of the nobility persevered in their opposition to
-him. George II., however, was his steady patron, and constantly attended
-his performances, when they were abandoned by most of his court.
-
-In the close of life, Handel had the misfortune to lose his sight, from
-an attack of gutta serena, in 1751. This evil for a time plunged him
-into deep despondency; but when the event was no longer doubtful, an
-earnest and sincere sense of religion enabled him to bear his affliction
-with fortitude, and he not only continued to perform, but even to
-compose. For this purpose, he employed as his amanuensis Mr. John
-Christian Smith, a good musician, who furnished materials for a life of
-his employer and friend, and succeeded him in the management of the
-oratorios. “To see him, however,” Dr. Burney feelingly observes, “led to
-the organ after this calamity, at upwards of seventy years of age, and
-then conducted towards the audience to make his accustomed obeisance,
-was a sight so truly afflicting to persons of sensibility, as greatly
-diminished their pleasure in hearing him perform.”
-
-His last appearance in public was on the 6th of April, 1759. He died
-that day week, on Good-Friday, thus realizing a hope which he expressed
-a very few days before his decease, when aware that his last hours were
-approaching. He was buried in Westminster Abbey; the Dean, Dr. Pearce,
-Bishop of Rochester, assisted by all the officers of the choir,
-performed the ceremony. A fine monument, executed by Roubiliac, is
-placed in Poet’s Corner, above the spot where his mortal remains are
-deposited; but a still more honourable tribute to his memory was paid in
-the year 1784, by the performances which took place under the roof which
-covers his dust. A century having then elapsed from the time of his
-birth, it was proposed that a Commemoration of Handel should take place.
-The management of it was intrusted to the directors of the ancient
-concert, and eight of the most distinguished members of the musical
-profession. The King, George III., zealously patronised the undertaking,
-and nearly all the upper classes of the kingdom seconded the royal
-views. A vocal and instrumental band of 525 persons was collected from
-all parts, for the purpose of performing in a manner never before even
-imagined, the choicest works of the master. The great aisle in
-Westminster Abbey was fitted up for the occasion, with boxes for the
-Royal Family, the Directors, the Bench of Bishops, and the Dean and
-Prebendaries of the Church; galleries were erected on each side, and a
-grand orchestra was built over the great west door, extending from
-within a few feet of the ground, to nearly half-way up the great window.
-There were four morning performances in the church: the tickets of
-admission were one guinea each; and the gross receipts (including an
-evening concert at the Pantheon) amounted to £12,736. The disbursements
-rather exceeded £6,000, and the profits were given to the Society for
-Decayed Musicians and the Westminster Hospital; £6,000 to the former,
-and £1,000 to the latter. Such was the success of this great enterprise,
-that similar performances, increasing each year in magnitude, took place
-annually till the period of the French Revolution, when the state of
-public affairs did not encourage their longer continuance.
-
-As a composer, Handel was great in all styles—from the familiar and airy
-to the grand and sublime. His instinctive taste for melody, and the high
-value he set on it, are obvious in all his works; but he felt no less
-strongly the charms of harmony, in fulness and richness of which he far
-surpassed even the greatest musicians who preceded him. And had he been
-able to employ the variety of instruments now in use, some of which have
-been invented since his death, and to command that orchestral talent,
-which probably has had some share in stimulating the inventive faculty
-of modern composers, it is reasonable to suppose that the field of his
-conceptions would have expanded with the means at his command.
-Unrivalled in sublimity, he might then have anticipated the variety and
-brilliance of later masters.
-
-Generally speaking, Handel set his words with deep feeling and strong
-sense. Now and then he certainly betrayed a wish to imitate by sounds
-what sounds are incapable of imitating; and occasionally attempted to
-express the meaning of an isolated word, without due reference to the
-context. And sometimes, though not often, his want of a complete
-knowledge of our language led him into errors of accentuation. But these
-defects, though great in little men, dwindle almost to nothing in this
-“giant of the art:” and every competent judge, who contemplates the
-grandeur, beauty, science, variety, and number of Handel’s productions,
-will feel for him that admiration which Haydn, and still more Mozart,
-was proud to avow, and be ready to exclaim in the words of Beethoven,
-“Handel is the unequalled master of all masters! Go, turn to him, and
-learn, with such scanty means, how to produce such effects!”
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by H. Meyer._
-
-  PASCAL.
-
-  _From the original Picture by Philippe de Champagne,
-  in the possession of M. Lenoir at Paris._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                PASCAL.
-
-
-Blaise Pascal was born June 19, 1623, at Clermont, the capital of
-Auvergne, where his father, Stephen Pascal, held a high legal office. On
-the death of his wife in 1626, Stephen resigned his professional
-engagements, that he might devote himself entirely to the education of
-his family, which consisted only of Blaise, and of two daughters. With
-this view he removed to Paris.
-
-The elder Pascal was a man of great moral worth, and of a highly
-cultivated mind. He was known as an active member of a small society of
-philosophers, to which the Academie Royale des Sciences, established in
-1666, owed its origin. Though himself an ardent mathematician, he was in
-no haste to initiate his son in his own favourite pursuits; but having a
-notion, not very uncommon, that the cultivation of the exact sciences is
-unfriendly to a taste for general literature, he began with the study of
-languages; and notwithstanding many plain indications of the natural
-bent of his son’s genius, he forbad him to meddle, even in thought, with
-the mathematics. Nature was too strong for parental authority. The boy
-having extracted from his father some hints as to the subject matter of
-geometry, went to work by himself, drawing circles and lines, or, as he
-called them in his ignorance of the received nomenclature, rounds and
-bars, and investigating and proving the properties of his various
-figures, till, without help of a book or oral instruction of any kind,
-he had advanced as far as the thirty-second proposition of the first
-book of Euclid. He had perceived that the three angles of a triangle are
-together equal to two right ones, and was searching for a satisfactory
-proof, when his father surprised him in his forbidden speculations. The
-figures drawn on the walls of his bed-chamber told the tale, and a few
-questions proved that his head had been employed as well as his fingers.
-He was at this time twelve years old. All attempts at restriction were
-now abandoned. A copy of Euclid’s Elements was put into his hands by his
-father himself, and Blaise became a confirmed geometrician. At sixteen
-he composed a treatise on the Conic Sections, which had sufficient merit
-to induce Descartes obstinately to attribute the authorship to the elder
-Pascal or Desargues.
-
-Such was his progress in a study which was admitted only as the
-amusement of his idle hours. His labours under his father’s direction
-were given to the ancient classics.
-
-Some years after this, the elder Pascal had occasion to employ his son
-in making calculations for him. To facilitate his labour, Blaise Pascal,
-then in his nineteenth year, invented his famous arithmetical machine,
-which is said to have fully answered its purpose. He sent this machine
-with a letter to Christina, the celebrated Queen of Sweden. The
-possibility of rendering such inventions generally useful has been
-stoutly disputed since the days of Pascal. This question will soon
-perhaps be set at rest, if it may not be considered as already answered,
-by the scientific labours of an accomplished mathematician of our own
-time and country.
-
-It should be remarked that Pascal, whilst he regarded geometry as
-affording the highest exercise of the powers of the human mind, held in
-very low estimation the importance of its practical results. Hence his
-speculations were irregularly turned to various unconnected subjects, as
-his curiosity might happen to be excited by them. The late creation of a
-sound system of experimental philosophy by Galileo had roused an
-irresistible spirit of inquiry, which was every day exhibiting new
-marvels; but time was wanted to develope the valuable fruits of its
-discoveries, which have since connected the most abstruse speculations
-of the philosopher with the affairs of common life.
-
-There is no doubt that his studious hours produced much that has been
-lost to the world; but many proofs remain of his persevering activity in
-the course which he had chosen. Amongst them may be mentioned his
-Arithmetical Triangle, with the treatises arising out of it, and his
-investigations of certain problems relating to the curve called by
-mathematicians the Cycloid, to which he turned his mind, towards the
-close of his life, to divert his thoughts in a season of severe
-suffering. For the solution of these problems, according to the fashion
-of the times, he publicly offered a prize, for which La Loubère and our
-own countryman Wallis contended. It was adjudged that neither had
-fulfilled the proposed conditions; and Pascal published his own
-solutions, which raised the admiration of the scientific world. The
-Arithmetical Triangle owed its existence to questions proposed to him by
-a friend respecting the calculation of probabilities in games of chance.
-Under this name is denoted a peculiar arrangement of numbers in certain
-proportions, from which the answers to various questions of chances, the
-involution of binomials, and other algebraical problems, may be readily
-obtained. This invention led him to inquire further into the theory of
-chances; and he may be considered as one of the founders of that branch
-of analysis, which has grown into such importance in the hands of La
-Place.
-
-His fame as a man of science does not rest solely on his labours in
-geometry. As an experimentalist he has earned no vulgar celebrity. He
-was a young man when the interesting discoveries in pneumatics were
-working a grand revolution in natural philosophy. The experiments of
-Torricelli had proved, what his great master Galileo had conjectured,
-the weight and pressure of the air, and had given a rude shock to the
-old doctrine of the schools that “Nature abhors a vacuum;” but many
-still clung fondly to the old way, and when pressed with the fact that
-fluids rise in an exhausted tube to a certain height, and will rise no
-higher, though with a vacuum above them, still asserted that the fluids
-rose because Nature abhors a vacuum, but qualified their assertion with
-an admission that she had some moderation in her abhorrence. Having
-satisfied himself by his own experiments of the truth of Torricelli’s
-theory, Pascal with his usual sagacity devised the means of satisfying
-all who were capable of being convinced. He reasoned that if, according
-to the new theory, founded on the experiments made with mercury, the
-weight and general pressure of the air forced up the mercury in the
-tube, the height of the mercury would be in proportion to the height of
-the column of incumbent air; in other words, that the mercury would be
-lower at the top of a mountain than at the bottom of it: on the other
-hand, that if the old answer were the right one, no difference would
-appear from the change of situation. Accordingly, he directed the
-experiment to be made on the Puy de Dôme, a lofty mountain in Auvergne,
-and the height of the barometer at the top and bottom of the mountain
-being taken at the same moment, a difference of more than three inches
-was observed. This set the question at rest for ever. The particular
-notice which we have taken of this celebrated experiment, made in his
-twenty-fifth year, may be justified by the importance attached to it by
-no mean authority. Sir W. Herschell observes, in his Discourse on the
-Study of Natural Philosophy, page 230, that “it tended perhaps more
-powerfully than any thing which had previously been done in science to
-confirm in the minds of men that disposition to experimental
-verification which had scarcely yet taken full and secure root.”
-
-Whatever may be the value of the fruits of Pascal’s genius, it should be
-remembered that they were all produced within the space of a life which
-did not number forty years, and that he was so miserably the victim of
-disease that from the time of boyhood he never passed a day without
-pain.
-
-His health had probably been impaired by his earlier exertions; but the
-intense mental labour expended on the arithmetical machine appears to
-have completely undermined his constitution, and to have laid the
-foundation of those acute bodily sufferings which cruelly afflicted him
-during the remainder of his life. His friends, with the hope of checking
-the evil, sought to withdraw him from his studies, and tempted him into
-various modes of relaxation. But the remedy was applied too late. The
-death of his father in 1651, and the retirement of his unmarried sister
-from the world to join the devout recluses of Port Royal-des-Champs,
-released him from all restraint. He sadly abused this liberty, until the
-frightful aggravation of his complaints obliged him to abandon
-altogether his scientific pursuits, and reluctantly to follow the advice
-of his physicians, to mix more freely in general society. He obtained
-some relief from medicine and change of habits; but, in 1654, an
-accident both made his recovery hopeless, and destroyed the relish which
-he had begun to feel for social life. He was in his carriage on the Pont
-de Neuilly, at a part of the bridge which was unprotected by a parapet,
-when two of the horses became unruly, and plunged into the Seine. The
-traces broke, and Pascal was thus saved from instant death. He
-considered that he had received a providential warning of the
-uncertainty of life, and retired finally from the world, to make more
-earnest preparation for eternity. This accident gave the last shock to
-his already shattered nerves, and to a certain extent disordered his
-imagination. The image of his late danger was continually before him,
-and at times he fancied himself on the brink of a precipice. The evil
-probably was increased by the rigid seclusion to which from this time he
-condemned himself, and by the austerities which he inflicted on his
-exhausted frame. His powerful intellect survived the wreck of his
-constitution, and he gave ample proof to the last that its vigour was
-unimpaired.
-
-In his religious opinions he agreed with the Jansenists, and, without
-being formally enrolled in their society, was on terms of intimate
-friendship with those pious and learned members of the sect, who had
-established themselves in the wilds of Port Royal. His advocacy of their
-cause at a critical time was so important to his fame and to literature,
-that a few words may be allowed on the circumstances which occasioned
-it.
-
-The Jansenists, though they earnestly deprecated the name of heretics,
-and were most fiercely opposed to the Huguenots and other Protestants,
-did in fact nearly approach in many points the reformed churches, and
-departed widely from the fashionable standard of orthodoxy in their own
-communion. They were in the first instance brought into collision with
-their great enemies the Jesuits by the opinions which they held on the
-subjects of grace and free-will. As the controversy proceeded, the
-points of difference between the contending parties became more marked
-and more numerous. The rigid system of morals taught and observed by the
-Jansenists, and the superior regard which they paid to personal holiness
-in comparison with ceremonial worship, appeared in advantageous contrast
-with the lax morality and formal religion of the Jesuits. Hence, though
-there was much that was repulsive in their discipline, and latterly, not
-a little that was exceptionable in their conduct, they could reckon in
-their ranks many of the most enlightened as well as the most pious
-Christians in France. It was natural that Pascal, who was early
-impressed with the deepest reverence for religion, should be attracted
-to a party which seemed at least to be in earnest, whilst others were
-asleep; and it is more a matter of regret than of surprise, that
-latterly, in his state of physical weakness and nervous excitement, he
-should have been partially warped from his sobriety by intercourse with
-men, whose Christian zeal was in too many instances disfigured by a
-visionary and enthusiastic spirit. The Papal Court at first dealt with
-them tenderly; for it was in truth no easy matter to condemn their
-founder Jansenius, without condemning its own great doctor the
-celebrated Augustin. But the vivacious doctors of the Sorbonne, on the
-publication of a letter by the Jansenist Arnauld, took fire, and by
-their eagerness kindled a flame that well nigh consumed their own
-church.
-
-Whilst they were in deliberation on the misdoings of Arnauld, Pascal put
-forth under the name of Louis de Montalte the first of that series of
-letters to “a friend in the country”—à un provincial par un de ses
-amis—which, when afterwards collected, received by an absurd misnomer,
-the title of the Provincial Letters of Pascal. In these letters, after
-having exhibited in a light irresistibly ludicrous, the disputes of the
-Sorbonne, he proceeds with the same weapon of ridicule, all powerful in
-his hand, to hold forth to derision and contempt the profligate
-casuistry of the Jesuits. For much of his matter he was undoubtedly
-indebted to his Jansenist friends, and it is commonly said that he was
-taught by them to reproach unfairly the whole body of Jesuits, with the
-faults of some obscure writers of their order. These writers, however,
-were at least well known to the Jesuits, their writings had gone through
-numerous editions with approbation, and had infused some portion of
-their spirit into more modern and popular tracts. Moreover, the Society
-of Jesuits, constituted as it was, had ready means of relieving itself
-from the discredit of such infamous publications; yet amongst the many
-works, which by their help found a place in the index of prohibited
-books, Pascal might have looked in vain for the works of their own
-Escobar. However this may be, it is universally acknowledged, that the
-credit of the Jesuits sunk under the blow, that these letters are a
-splendid monument of the genius of Pascal, and that as a literary work
-they have placed him in the very first rank among the French classics.
-
-It seems that he had formed a design, even in the height of his
-scientific ardour, of executing some great work for the benefit of
-religion. This design took a more definite shape after his retirement,
-and he communicated orally to his friends the sketch of a comprehensive
-work on the Evidences of Christianity, which his early death, together
-with his increasing bodily infirmities, prevented him from completing.
-Nothing was left but unconnected fragments, containing for the most part
-his thoughts on subjects apparently relating to his great design,
-hastily written on small scraps of paper, without order or arrangement
-of any kind. They were published in 1670, with some omissions, by his
-friends of Port Royal, and were afterwards given to the world entire,
-under the title of the Thoughts of Pascal. Many of the thoughts are such
-as we should expect from a man who with a mind distinguished for its
-originality, with an intimate knowledge of scripture, and lively piety,
-had meditated much and earnestly on the subject of religion. In a book
-so published, it is of course easy enough to find matter for censure and
-minute criticism; but most Christian writers have been content to bear
-testimony to its beauties and to borrow largely from its rich and varied
-stores. Among the editors of the Thoughts of Pascal are found Condorcet
-and Voltaire, who enriched their editions with a commentary. With what
-sort of spirit they entered on their work may be guessed from Voltaire’s
-well known advice to his brother philosopher. “Never be weary, my
-friend, of repeating that the brain of Pascal was turned after his
-accident on the Pont de Neuilly.” Condorcet was not the man to be weary
-in such an employment; but here he had to deal with stubborn facts. The
-brain of Pascal produced after the accident not only the Thoughts, but
-also the Provincial Letters, and the various treatises on the Cycloid,
-the last of which was written not long before his death.
-
-He died August 19th, 1662, aged thirty-nine years and two months.
-
-By those who knew him personally he is said to have been modest and
-reserved in his manners, but withal, ready to enliven conversation with
-that novelty of remark and variety of information which might be
-expected from his well stored and original mind. That spirit of raillery
-which should belong to the author of the Provincial Letters, showed
-itself also occasionally in his talk, but always with a cautious desire
-not to give needless pain or offence.
-
-He seemed to have constantly before his eyes the privations and
-sufferings to which a large portion of the human race is exposed, and to
-receive almost with trembling, those indulgences which were denied to
-others. Thus, when curtailing his own comforts that he might perform
-more largely the duties of charity, he seemed only to be disencumbering
-himself of that which he could not safely retain.
-
-As a philosopher, it is the great glory of Pascal, that he is numbered
-with that splendid phalanx, which in the seventeenth century, following
-the path opened by Galileo, assisted to overthrow the tyranny of the
-schools, and to break down the fences which for ages had obstructed the
-progress of real knowledge; men who were indeed benefactors to science,
-and who have also left behind them for general use an encouraging proof
-that the most inveterate prejudices, the most obstinate attachment to
-established errors, and hostility to improvement may be overcome by
-resolute perseverance, and a bold reliance on the final victory of
-truth. No one, however, will coldly measure the honour due to this
-extraordinary man by his actual contributions to the cause of science or
-literature. The genius of the child anticipated manhood: his more
-matured intellect could only show promises of surpassing glory when it
-escaped from the weak frame in which it was lodged.
-
-For further information the reader is referred to the discourse on the
-life and works of Pascal, which first appeared in the complete edition
-of his works in 1779, and has since been published separately at Paris;
-to the Biographie Universelle; and to the life of Pascal, written by his
-sister, Madame Perier, which is prefixed to her edition of his Thoughts.
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                ERASMUS.
-
-
-Desiderius Erasmus was born at Rotterdam on the 28th of October, 1467.
-The irregular lives of his parents are related by him in a letter to the
-secretary of Pope Julius II. It is sufficient to state here, that this
-great genius and restorer of letters was not born in wedlock. His
-unsophisticated name, as well as that of his father, was Gerard. This
-word in the Dutch language means _amiable_. According to the affectation
-of the period, he translated it into the Latin term, Desiderius, and
-superadded the Greek synonyme of Erasmus. Late in a life of vicissitude
-and turmoil, he found leisure from greater evils to lament that he had
-been so neglectful of grammatical accuracy as to call himself Erasmus,
-and not Erasmius.
-
-In a passage of the life written by himself, he says that “in his early
-years he made but little progress in those unpleasant studies to which
-he was not born;” and this gave his countrymen a notion that as a boy he
-was slow of understanding. Hereon Bayle observes that those unpleasant
-studies cannot mean learning in general, for which of all men he was
-born; but that the expression might apply to music, as he was a
-chorister in the cathedral church of Utrecht. He was afterwards sent to
-one of the best schools in the Netherlands, where his talents at once
-shone forth, and were duly appreciated. His master was so well satisfied
-with his progress, and so thoroughly convinced of his great abilities,
-as to have foretold what the event confirmed, that he would prove the
-envy and wonder of all Germany.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by E. Scriven._
-
-  ERASMUS.
-
-  _From the original Picture by G. Penn,
-  in his Majesty’s Collection at Windsor._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-At the age of fourteen Erasmus was removed from the school at Deventer
-in consequence of the plague, of which his mother died, and his father
-did not long survive her. With a view to possess themselves of his
-patrimony, his guardians sent him to three several convents in
-succession. At length, unable longer to sustain the conflict, he
-reluctantly entered among the regular canons at Stein, near Tergou, in
-1486. Much condescension to his peculiar humour was shown in dispensing
-with established laws and customary ceremonies; but he was principally
-led to make his profession by the arts of his guardians and the
-dilapidation of his fortune. He describes monasteries, and his own in
-particular, as destitute of learning and sound religion. “They are
-places of impiety,” he says in his piece ‘De Contemptu Mundi,’ “where
-every thing is done to which a depraved inclination can lead, under the
-mask of religion; it is hardly possible for any one to keep himself pure
-and unspotted.” Julius Scaliger and his other enemies assert that he
-himself was deeply tainted by these impurities; but both himself and his
-friends deny the charge.
-
-He escaped from the cloister in consequence of the accuracy with which
-he could speak and write Latin. This rare accomplishment introduced him
-to the Bishop of Cambray, with whom he lived till 1490. He then took
-pupils, among whom was the Lord Mountjoy, with several other noble
-Englishmen. He says of himself, that “he lived rather than studied” at
-Paris, where he had no books, and often wanted the common comforts of
-life. Bad lodgings and bad diet permanently impaired his constitution,
-which had been a very strong one. The plague drove him from the capital
-before he could profit as he wished by the instructions of the
-university in theology.
-
-Some time after he left Paris, Erasmus came over to England, and resided
-in Oxford, where he contracted friendship with all of any note in
-literature. In a letter from London to a friend in Italy, he says, “What
-is it, you will say, which captivates you so much in England? It is that
-I have found a pleasant and salubrious air; I have met with humanity,
-politeness, and learning; learning not trite and superficial, but deep
-and accurate; true old Greek and Latin learning; and withal so much of
-it, that but for mere curiosity, I have no occasion to visit Italy. When
-Colet discourses, I seem to hear Plato himself. In Grocyn, I admire an
-universal compass of learning. Linacre’s acuteness, depth, and accuracy
-are not to be exceeded; nor did nature ever form any thing more elegant,
-exquisite, and accomplished than More.”
-
-On leaving England, Erasmus had a fever at Orleans, which recurred every
-Lent for five years together. He tells us that Saint Genevieve
-interceded for his recovery; but not without the help of a good
-physician. At this time he was applying diligently to the study of
-Greek. He says, that if he could but get some money, he would first buy
-Greek books, and then clothes. His mode of acquiring the language was by
-making translations from Lucian, Plutarch, and other authors. Many of
-these translations appear in his works, and answered a double purpose;
-for while they familiarized him with the languages, the sentiments and
-the philosophy of the originals, they also furnished him with happy
-trains of thought and expression, when he dedicated his editions of the
-Fathers, or his own treatises, to his patrons.
-
-We cannot follow him through his incessant journeys and change of places
-during the first years of the sixteenth century. His fame was spread
-over Europe, and his visits were solicited by popes, crowned heads,
-prelates, and nobles; but much as the great coveted his society, they
-suffered him to remain extremely poor. We learn from his ‘Enchiridion
-Militis Christiani,’ published in 1503, that he had discovered many
-errors in the Roman church, long before Luther appeared. His reception
-at Rome was most flattering: his company was courted both by the learned
-and by persons of the first rank and quality. After his visit to Italy,
-he returned to England, which he preferred to all other countries. On
-his arrival he took up his abode with his friend More, and within the
-space of a week wrote his ‘Encomium Moriæ,’ the Praise of Folly, for
-their mutual amusement. The general design is to show that there are
-fools in all stations; and more particularly to expose the court of
-Rome, with no great forbearance towards the Pope himself. Fisher, Bishop
-of Rochester, Chancellor of the University, and Head of Queen’s College,
-invited him to Cambridge, where he lived in the Lodge, was made Lady
-Margaret’s Professor of Divinity, and afterwards Greek Professor. But
-notwithstanding these academical honours and offices, he was still so
-poor as to apply with importunity to Colet, Dean of St. Paul’s, for
-fifteen angels as the price of a dedication. “Erasmus’s Walk” in the
-grounds of Queen’s College still attests the honour conferred on the
-university by the temporary residence of this great reviver of classical
-learning.
-
-On his return to the Low Countries, he was nominated by Charles of
-Austria to a vacant bishopric in Sicily; but the right of presentation
-happened to belong to the Pope. Erasmus laughed heartily at the prospect
-of this incongruous preferment; and said that as the Sicilians were
-merry fellows, they might possibly have liked such a bishop.
-
-In the year 1516 he printed his edition, the first put forth in Greek,
-of the New Testament. We learn from his letters, that there was one
-college in Cambridge which would not suffer this work to be brought
-within its walls: but the public voice spoke a different language; for
-it went through three editions in less than twelve years. From 1516 to
-1526 he was employed in publishing the works of Saint Jerome. Luther
-blamed him for his partiality to this father. He says, “I prefer
-Augustine to Jerome, as much as Erasmus prefers Jerome to Augustine.” As
-far as this was a controversy of taste and criticism, the restorer of
-letters was likely to have the better of the argument against the
-apostle of the Reformation.
-
-The times were now become tempestuous. Erasmus was of a placid temper,
-and of a timid character. He endeavoured to reconcile the conflicting
-parties in the church; but with that infelicity commonly attendant on
-mediators, he drew on himself the anger of both. Churchmen complained
-that his censures of the monks, of their grimaces and superstitions, had
-paved the way for Luther. On the other hand, Erasmus offended the
-Lutherans, by protesting against identifying the cause of literature
-with that of the Reformation. He took every opportunity of declaring his
-adherence to the see of Rome. The monks, with whom he waged continual
-war, would have been better pleased had he openly gone over to the
-enemy: his caustic remarks would have galled them less proceeding from a
-Lutheran than from a Catholic. But his motives for continuing in the
-communion of the established church, are clearly indicated in the
-following passage: “Wherein could I have assisted Luther, if I had
-declared myself for him and shared his danger? Instead of one man, two
-would have perished. I cannot conceive what he means by writing with
-such a spirit: one thing I know too well, that he has brought great
-odium on the lovers of literature. He has given many wholesome doctrines
-and good counsels: but I wish he had not defeated the effect of them by
-his intolerable faults. But even if he had written in the most
-unexceptionable manner, I had no inclination to die for the sake of
-truth. Every man has not the courage necessary to make a martyr: I am
-afraid that, if I were put to the trial, I should imitate St. Peter.”
-
-In 1522 he published the works of Saint Hilary. About the same time he
-published his Colloquies. In this work, among the strokes of satire, he
-laughed at indulgences, auricular confession, and eating fish on
-fast-days. The faculty of theology at Paris passed the following censure
-on the book: “The fasts and abstinences of the church are slighted, the
-suffrages of the holy virgin and of the saints are derided, virginity is
-set below matrimony, Christians are discouraged from becoming monks, and
-grammatical is preferred to theological erudition.” Pope Paul III. had
-little better to propose to the cardinals and prelates commissioned to
-consider about the reform of the church, than that young persons should
-not be permitted to read Erasmus’s Colloquies. Colineus took a hint from
-this prohibition: he reprinted them in 1527, and sold off an impression
-of twenty-four thousand.
-
-In 1524 a rumour was spread abroad that Erasmus was going to write
-against Luther, which produced the following characteristic letter from
-the Great Reformer: “Grace and peace from the Lord Jesus. I shall not
-complain of you for having behaved yourself as a man alienated from us,
-for the sake of keeping fair with the Papists; nor was I much offended
-that in your printed books, to gain their favour or soften their fury,
-you censured us with too much acrimony. We saw that the Lord had not
-conferred on you the discernment, courage, and resolution to join with
-us in freely and openly opposing these monsters; therefore we did not
-expect from you what greatly surpasseth your strength and capacity. We
-have borne with your weakness, and honoured that portion of the gift of
-God which is in you.... I never wished that deserting your own province
-you should come over to our camp. You might indeed have favoured us not
-a little by your wit and eloquence: but as you have not the courage
-requisite, it is safer for you to serve the Lord in your own way. Only
-we feared that our adversaries should entice you to write against us, in
-which case necessity would have constrained us to oppose you to your
-face. I am concerned that the resentment of so many eminent persons of
-your party has been excited against you: this must have given you great
-uneasiness; for virtue like yours, mere human virtue, cannot raise a man
-above being affected by such trials. Our cause is in no peril, although
-even Erasmus should attack it with all his might: so far are we from
-dreading the keenest strokes of his wit. On the other hand, my dear
-Erasmus, if you duly reflect on your own weakness, you will abstain from
-those sharp, spiteful figures of rhetoric, and treat of subjects better
-suited to your powers.” Erasmus’s answer is not found in the collection
-of his letters; but he must have been touched to the quick.
-
-In 1527 he published two dialogues: the first, on ‘The pronunciation of
-the Greek and Latin Languages;’ full of learning and curious research:
-the second, entitled ‘Ciceronianus.’ In this lively piece he ridicules
-those Italian pedants who banished every word or phrase unauthorized by
-Cicero. His satire, however, is not directed against Cicero’s style, but
-against the servility of mere imitation. In a subsequent preface to a
-new edition of the Tusculan Questions, he almost canonizes Cicero, both
-for his matter and expression. Julius Scaliger had launched more than
-one philippic against him for his treatment of the Ciceronians; but he
-considered this preface as a kind of penance for former blasphemies, and
-admitted it as an atonement to the shade of the great Roman. Erasmus had
-at this time fixed his residence at Bâsle. He was advancing in years,
-and complained in his letters of poverty and sickness. Pope Paul III.,
-notwithstanding his Colloquies, professed high regard for him, and his
-friends thought that he was likely to obtain high preferment. Of this
-matter Erasmus writes thus: “The Pope had resolved to add some learned
-men to the college of Cardinals, and I was named to be one. But to my
-promotion it was objected, that my state of health would unfit me for
-that function, and that my income was not sufficient.”
-
-In the summer of 1536 his state of exhaustion became alarming. His last
-letter is dated June 20, and subscribed thus: “Erasmus Rot. ægra manu.”
-He died July 12, in the 59th year of his age, and was buried in the
-cathedral of Bâsle. His friend Beatus Rhenanus describes his person and
-manners. He was low of stature, but not remarkably short, well-shaped,
-of a fair complexion, grey eyes, a cheerful countenance, a low voice,
-and an agreeable utterance. His memory was tenacious. He was a pleasant
-companion, a constant friend, generous and charitable. Erasmus had one
-peculiarity, humorously noticed by himself; namely, that he could not
-endure even the smell of fish. On this he observed, that though a good
-Catholic in other respects, he had a most heterodox and Lutheran
-stomach.
-
-With many great and good qualities, Erasmus had obvious failings. Bayle
-has censured his irritability when attacked by adversaries; his editor,
-Le Clerc, condemns his lukewarmness and timidity in the business of the
-Reformation. Jortin defends him with zeal, and extenuates what he cannot
-defend. “Erasmus was fighting for his honour and his life; being accused
-of nothing less than heterodoxy, impiety, and blasphemy, by men whose
-forehead was a rock, and whose tongue was a razor. To be misrepresented
-as a pedant and a dunce is no great matter; for time and truth put folly
-to flight: to be accused of heresy by bigots, priests, politicians, and
-infidels, is a serious affair; as they know too well who have had the
-misfortune to feel the effects of it.” Dr. Jortin here speaks with
-bitter fellow-feeling for Erasmus, as he himself had been similarly
-attacked by the high church party of his day. He goes on to give his
-opinion, that even for his lukewarmness in promoting the Reformation,
-much may be said, and with truth. “Erasmus was not entirely free from
-the prejudices of education. He had some indistinct and confused notions
-about the authority of the Catholic Church, which made it not lawful to
-depart from her, corrupted as he believed her to be. He was also much
-shocked by the violent measures and personal quarrels of the Reformers.
-Though, as Protestants, we are more obliged to Luther, Melancthon, and
-others, than to him, yet we and all the nations in Europe are infinitely
-indebted to Erasmus for spending a long and laborious life in opposing
-ignorance and superstition, and in promoting literature and true piety.”
-To us his character appears to be strongly illustrated by his own
-declaration, “Had Luther written truly every thing that he wrote, his
-seditious liberty would nevertheless have much displeased me. I would
-rather even err in some matters, than contend for the truth with the
-world in such a tumult.” A zealous advocate of peace at all times, it is
-but just to believe that he sincerely dreaded the contests sure to rise
-from open schism in the church. And it was no unpardonable frailty, if
-this feeling were nourished by a temperament, which confessedly was not
-desirous of the palm of martyrdom.
-
-It is impossible to give the contents of works occupying ten volumes in
-folio. They have been printed under the inspection of the learned Mr. Le
-Clerc. The biography of Erasmus is to be found at large in Bayle’s
-Dictionary, and the copious lives of Knight and Jortin.
-
-[Illustration: From the bronze statue of Erasmus at Rotterdam.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by W. Holl._
-
-  TITIAN.
-
-  _From the Picture of Titian & Aretin painted by Titian,
-  in his Majesty’s Collection at Windsor._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                TITIAN.
-
-
-On looking back to the commencement of the sixteenth century, by far the
-most brilliant epoch of modern art, we cannot but marvel at the
-splendour and variety of talent concentrated within the brief space of
-half a century, or less. Michael Angelo, Raphael, Correggio, Titian, all
-fellow-labourers, with many others inferior to these mighty masters, yet
-whose works are prized by kings and nobles as their most precious
-treasures—by what strange prodigality of natural gifts, or happy
-combination of circumstances was so rare an assemblage of genius
-produced in so short a time? The most obvious explanation is to be found
-in the princely patronage then afforded to the arts by princes and
-churchmen. By this none profited more largely or more justly than the
-great painter, whose life it is our task to relate.
-
-Tiziano Vecelli was born of an honourable family at Capo del Cadore, a
-small town on the confines of Friuli, in 1480. He soon manifested the
-bent of his genius, and at the age of ten was consigned to the care of
-an uncle residing in Venice, who placed him under the tuition of
-Giovanni Bellini, then in the zenith of his fame. The style of Bellini
-though forcible is dry and hard, and little credit has been given to him
-for his pupil’s success. It is probable, however, that Titian imbibed in
-his school those habits of accurate imitation, which enabled him
-afterwards to unite boldness and truth, and to indulge in the most
-daring execution, without degenerating into mannerism. The elements of
-his future style he found first indicated by Lionardo da Vinci, and more
-developed in the works of Giorgione, who adopted the principles of
-Lionardo, but with increased power, amenity, and splendour. As soon as
-Titian became acquainted with this master’s paintings, he gave his whole
-attention to the study of them; and with such success, that the portrait
-of a noble Venetian named Barbarigo, which he painted at the age of
-eighteen, was mistaken for the work of Giorgione. From that time, during
-some years, these masters held an equal place in public esteem; but in
-1507 a circumstance occurred which turned the balance in favour of
-Titian. They were engaged conjointly in the decoration of a public
-building, called the Fondaco de Tedeschi. Through some mistake that part
-of the work which Titian had executed, was understood by a party of
-connoisseurs to have been painted by Giorgione, whom they overwhelmed
-with congratulations on his extraordinary improvement. It may be told to
-his credit, that though he manifested some weakness in discontinuing his
-intercourse with Titian, he never spoke of him without amply
-acknowledging his merits.
-
-Anxious to gain improvement from every possible source, Titian is said
-to have drawn the rudiments of his fine style of landscape painting from
-some German artists who came to Venice about the time of this rupture.
-He engaged them to reside in his house, and studied their mode of
-practice until he had mastered their principles. His talents were now
-exercised on several important works, and it is evident, from the
-picture of the Angel and Tobias, that he had already acquired an
-extraordinary breadth and grandeur of style. The Triumph of Faith, a
-singular composition, manifesting great powers of invention, amid much
-quaintness of character and costume, is known by a wood engraving
-published in 1508. A fresco of the Judgment of Solomon, for the Hall of
-Justice at Vicenza, was his next performance. After this he executed
-several subjects in the church of St. Anthony, at Padua, taken from the
-miracles attributed to that saint.
-
-These avocations had withdrawn him from Venice. On his return, in the
-thirty-fourth year of his age, he was employed to finish a large picture
-left imperfect by Bellini, or, according to some authorities, by
-Giorgione, in the great Council Hall of Venice, representing the Emperor
-Frederick Barbarossa on his knees before Pope Alexander III. at the
-entrance of St. Mark’s. The Senate were so well satisfied with his
-performance, that they appointed him to the office called La Senseria;
-the conditions of which were, that it should be held by the best painter
-in the city, with a salary of three hundred scudi, he engaging to paint
-the portrait of each Doge on his election, at the price of eight scudi.
-These portraits were hung in one of the public apartments of St. Mark.
-At the close of 1514 Titian was invited to Ferrara by the Duke Alphonso.
-For him he executed several splendid works; among them, portraits of the
-Duke, and of his wife, and that celebrated picture of Bacchus and
-Ariadne, now in our own National Gallery.
-
-The first works executed by Titian after his return to Venice, prove
-that he had already accomplished that union of grand design with
-brilliant colouring, which was designated by Tintoret as the highest
-perfection of painting. His immense picture of the Assumption, formerly
-in the church of Santa Maria Gloriosa, and now in the Academy of Venice,
-exhibits, in the opinion of some first-rate judges, various excellences,
-such as have never been combined in any single performance, but by
-Titian himself[5]. The Virgin, whose figure relieves dark on the
-irradiated back-ground, seems to ascend amid a flood of glory. She is
-surrounded and sustained by angels of ineffable beauty, and the
-disciples below are personifications of apostolic grandeur. It will
-scarcely be credited that the Monks, for whom this picture was painted,
-objected to it on account of its apparent reality; but the voice of
-public admiration soon made them sensible of its merits, and they
-refused a large sum offered for it by the Imperial Ambassador. Such a
-report of this work was made to Leo X. by Cardinal Bembo, that Titian
-received an invitation to Rome from the Pontiff, with the offer of
-honourable appointments. A similar proposal from Francis I. of France,
-whose portrait he painted in 1515, he had already declined; but he
-yielded to the temptation of visiting Rome, being not less anxious to
-see the great works of contemporary genius, than the wonders of ancient
-art. He did not, however, carry his purpose into effect at this time,
-but remained at Venice; and thus secured to her the possession of those
-noble works, which, when they were produced, formed the brightest
-ornament of her power, and even now, when her other glories are set,
-confer upon her an imperishable distinction.
-
-Footnote 5:
-
-  The writer has been informed by Canova that this was his own opinion,
-  and that of Sir Thomas Lawrence.
-
-To recompense in some degree his relinquishment of this invitation,
-Titian was employed by the Senate to paint the Battle of Cadore, fought
-between the Venetians and the Imperialists; a splendid production, which
-perished when the Ducal Palace was burnt. About this time was painted
-the fine altar-piece of the Pesari Family returning thanks to the Virgin
-for a victory over the Turks. This picture, as an example of simple
-grandeur, has been contrasted by Reynolds with the artificial splendour
-of Rubens; and Fuseli alludes to it as constituting the due medium
-between dry apposition and exuberant contrast. The sublime picture of S.
-Pietro Martire was painted in 1523. Of this it is difficult to speak in
-adequate terms, without the appearance of hyperbolical panegyric. The
-composition is well known by engravings; but these convey only a faint
-notion of the original, which unites the utmost magnificence of
-historical design, with the finest style of landscape-painting. The
-gorgeous hues of Titian’s colouring are attempered in this picture by an
-impressive solemnity. The scene of violence and blood, though expressed
-with energy, is free from contortion or extravagance; grandeur pervades
-the whole, and even the figure of the flying friar has a character of
-dignity rarely surpassed. Two pictures on the same subject, the one by
-Domenichino, in the Academy of Bologna, the other by Giorgione, in our
-National Gallery, if compared with that of Titian, convey a forcible
-impression of the difference between first-rate genius and the finest
-talents of a secondary order. The picture of Giorgione is, however, most
-_Titianesque_ in colouring.
-
-In 1526 the celebrated satirist Aretine, and Sansovino the sculptor,
-came to reside in Venice. With these distinguished men Titian contracted
-an intimacy, which was the source of great pleasure to him, and ceased
-only with their lives. When Charles V. visited Bologna in 1529, Titian
-was invited to that city, where he painted an equestrian portrait of the
-Emperor. Charles, not only an admirer but a judge of art, was astonished
-at a style of painting of which he had formed no previous conception; he
-remunerated the artist splendidly, and expressed his determination never
-to sit to any other master. On returning to Bologna in 1532, he summoned
-Titian again to his court, and engaged him in many important works,
-treating him on all occasions with extraordinary respect and regard. It
-is affirmed, that in riding through Bologna he kept upon the artist’s
-right hand, an act of courtesy which excited such displeasure among the
-courtiers that they ventured upon a remonstrance. The answer given by
-Charles is well known, and has been since ascribed to other monarchs: “I
-have many nobles in my empire, but only one Titian.” On leaving Bologna,
-Titian accompanied Frederic Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, home to his own
-state; where, besides painting portraits of the Duke and his brother the
-Cardinal, he ornamented an apartment of the palace contiguous to the
-rooms painted by Giulio Romano, with portraits of the twelve Cæsars,
-taking his authorities from medals and antique marbles.
-
-In passing through Parma, on the way to Mantua, he first saw the works
-of Correggio, who had been engaged in painting the dome of the
-cathedral. So little was that great man’s genius appreciated, and such
-was the ignorance of his employers, that they had actually dismissed him
-as inadequate to the task he had undertaken; nor was he allowed to
-resume it, until the lavish admiration bestowed on his work by Titian,
-had taught them better how to estimate his talents.
-
-On returning to Venice, Titian found that a strong party had been raised
-in favour of Pordenone. He expressed no slight indignation at the
-attempt to exalt that painter to an equality with himself. Pordenone,
-nevertheless, was an artist of considerable powers, although certainly
-not qualified to compete with such an antagonist. The number of pictures
-which Titian continued to execute, would far exceed our limits to
-enumerate, and is so great as to excite astonishment; more especially as
-there is little evidence in his works that he was much assisted by
-inferior hands. In 1543, when Pope Paul III. visited Bologna, Titian
-painted an admirable portrait of him, and received an invitation to
-Rome. But he was unable to accept it, having engagements with the Duke
-of Urbino, whose palace he accordingly enriched with portraits of
-Charles V., Francis I., the Duke Guidobaldo, the Popes Sixtus IV.,
-Julius II., and Paul III., the Cardinal of Lorraine, and Solyman,
-Emperor of the Turks.
-
-Truth, it appears, rather than embellishment, was sought for in the
-portraits of those days. Titian’s portrait of Paul III. is executed with
-uncompromising accuracy. The figure is diminutive and decrepit, but the
-eyes have a look of penetrating sagacity. His Holiness was greatly
-pleased with it; and, as a mark of his favour, made offer to the artist
-of a valuable situation in a public department; which Titian declined,
-upon finding that his emoluments were to be deducted from the income of
-those who already held possession of it. He obtained, however, the
-promise of a benefice for his son Pomponio. Aretine thought his friend
-illiberally treated by Paul, and did not scruple to publish his opinion
-on the subject.
-
-In 1545, when the Venetian Senate was compelled by the public exigencies
-to lay a general tax on the city, Titian was the only person exempted
-from the impost,—a noble homage to genius, which attests at once the
-liberality and the wisdom of that government. In this year, Titian
-having completed his engagements with the Duke of Urbino, and being,
-through the Cardinal Farnese, again invited to Rome, determined on a
-visit to that city; and he set out, accompanied by his son Orazio,
-several pupils, and a considerable number of domestics. He was received
-at Urbino by the Duke Guidobaldo II., and splendidly entertained for
-some days. On his departure, the Duke accompanied him from Urbino to
-Pesaro, and from thence sent forward with him a suite of horses and
-servants, as far as the gates of Rome. Here he was greeted with
-corresponding honours, and lodged in the Belvedere Palace. Vasari was,
-at this time, in the employment of Cardinal Farnese, and had the
-gratification of attending the great artist about the city. Titian was
-now engaged to paint a whole length portrait of Paul III., with the
-Cardinal Farnese and Duke Ottavio in one group. This picture is at
-present in the Museo Borbonico; and is a fine example of that highest
-style of portrait painting, which is scarce less difficult, or less
-elevated as a branch of art, than historical composition. An “Ecce
-homo,” painted at the same time, does not appear to have excited that
-admiration which his works usually obtained. The taste of the Roman
-artists and connoisseurs had been formed on the severe examples of
-Michael Angelo, Raphael, Polidoro, and others; so that the style of
-Titian was tried by a new and conventional standard, to which it was not
-fairly amenable. It was insinuated that his chief excellence lay in
-portrait-painting. Vasari relates that, in company with Michael Angelo,
-he made a visit to Titian at the Belvedere, and found him employed on
-the celebrated picture of Danae. Michael Angelo bestowed high
-commendations on it; but, as they went away, remarked to Vasari on
-Titian’s inaccurate style of design, observing, that if he had received
-his elementary education in a better school, his works would have been
-inimitable. Nothing, perhaps, has tended more than this anecdote to give
-currency to a belief that Titian was an unskilful draughtsman; an
-opinion which, if tried by the test of his best works, is utterly
-erroneous. There is not perhaps extant on canvass a more exquisite
-representation of female beauty, even in point of design, than this
-figure of Danae; and, with due reverence to the high authority of
-Michael Angelo, it may be doubted whether his notion of correct design
-was not tinctured by the ideal grandeur of his own style; which, however
-magnificent in itself, and appropriate to the scale of the Sistine
-chapel, is by no means a just medium for the forms of actual nature, nor
-adapted to the representation of beauty. Michael Angelo however
-frequently returned to look at this Danae, and always with expressions
-of increased admiration.
-
-After a residence of two years at Rome, Titian returned to Venice,
-taking Florence in his route. The first work on which he engaged after
-his return, was a picture of the Marquis del Vasto haranguing his
-troops. He likewise began some altar-pieces, but finished little, being
-summoned in 1550, by the Emperor Charles, to Vienna. The princes and
-ministers assembled at the Imperial Court were astonished at the
-confidence with which Titian was honoured by the Emperor, who gave him
-free access to his presence at all times, a privilege extended only to
-his most intimate friends. The large sums which the Emperor frequently
-sent him, were always accompanied with the courteous assurance that they
-were meant to testify the monarch’s sense of his merits, not in payment
-for his works, those being beyond all price. On one occasion, while the
-Emperor was sitting for his portrait, Titian dropt a pencil; the monarch
-picked it up, and presented it to him, saying, on Titian’s apologizing
-in some confusion, “Titian is worthy to be served by Cæsar.” The same
-jealous feeling which had been evinced towards him at Bologna, again
-manifested itself; but the artist, who amidst his loftier studies had
-not neglected the cultivation of worldly knowledge, found means to
-obviate envy, and to conciliate, by courtesy and presents, the good will
-of the whole court. It was at this time that Charles, sated with glory
-and feeling the advances of infirmity, began to meditate his retreat
-from the world. This intention, it is said, he imparted to Titian, with
-whom he delighted to confer concerning the arrangement of a large
-picture, which he then commissioned the artist to paint, and which he
-intended to be his companion in his retirement. The subject was an
-apotheosis, in which Charles and his family were to be represented as
-introduced by Religion into the presence of the Trinity. At Inspruck,
-whither he accompanied the Emperor, Titian painted a superb picture, in
-which Ferdinand, King of the Romans, and his Queen Anna Maria, are
-represented with the attributes of Jupiter and Juno, and round them are
-the seven princesses, their daughters. From each of these illustrious
-ladies, Titian received a jewel each time they sat to him. Here also he
-collected portraits for the apotheosis.
-
-On the Emperor’s departure for Flanders, Titian returned to Venice;
-where, soon after his arrival, he offered to finish the works which were
-wanting in the great hall of the council. This offer was cordially
-accepted by the Senate; and he was empowered to select the artists whom
-he thought best qualified to be his coadjutors. He nominated Paul
-Veronese and Tintoret, nor did those great painters feel themselves
-humiliated in working under his directions. In 1553 the Emperor Charles
-returned to Spain, and being at Barcelona, nominated Titian a Count
-Palatine of the empire, with all the privileges, authority, and powers
-attached to that dignity. He also created him a Knight of the Golden
-Spur, and a noble of the empire, transmitting the dignity to his
-legitimate children and descendants. Crowned with these honours, and
-with faculties scarcely impaired, Titian had now reached his
-seventy-fifth year; and it would be difficult to select a man the
-evening of whose life has been more fortunate and happy. He still found
-in the practice of his art a source of undiminished pleasure; his works
-were sought by princes with emulous avidity; he was considered the chief
-ornament of the city in which he dwelt. He was surrounded by friends
-distinguished by their worth or talents; he had acquired wealth and
-honour sufficient to satisfy his utmost ambition; and he was secure of
-immortal fame!
-
-But at this period, to most men one of secession from toil, Titian
-engaged in new undertakings with as much alacrity as if life were still
-beginning, and the race of fortune still to run. He enriched Serravalle,
-Braganza, Milan, and Brescia, with splendid works, besides painting a
-great number for the churches of Venice, for different noblemen, and for
-his friends. Philip II. of Spain showed no less anxiety to possess his
-works, than Charles, his father, had done: and nowhere perhaps, not even
-in Venice, are so many of his pictures to be found, as in the palaces of
-Madrid and the Escurial. When Rubens was in Spain, he copied Titian’s
-picture of Eve tempting Adam with the fatal fruit, nobly acknowledging
-that he had only made a Flemish translation of an elegant Italian poem.
-It is said by some of Titian’s biographers, that he himself made a visit
-to Spain; but this has been clearly disproved. The most important works
-which he executed for Philip II. are the pictures of the Martyrdom of
-St. Lorenzo, and the Last Supper. In the first, three different effects
-of light are admirably expressed; the fire which consumes the saint, the
-flame of a tripod placed before a pagan deity, and the glory of a
-descending angel. This picture is said to be equal to any of his earlier
-productions. The Last Supper betrays signs of a feebler execution, which
-is, however, atoned for by more than usual purity of design. Titian in
-this work partially imitated Lionardo da Vinci, but in the spirit of
-congenial feeling, not as a plagiarist. To this picture, which he began
-at the age of eighty, he devoted the labour of nearly seven years. For
-Mary of England, Philip II.’s consort, he painted four mythological
-subjects, Prometheus, Tityus, Sisiphus, and Tantalus, the figures as
-large as life, and conceived in the highest style of grandeur.
-
-In 1570 died Sansovino the sculptor. Aretine had paid the debt of nature
-some years before, an event which sensibly affected Titian; and this
-second loss plunged him into such affliction, that his powers, it is
-said, from that time perceptibly gave way. We learn, however, from
-Ridolfi, that the Transfiguration on Mount Tabor, which he saw when in
-good condition, was ably executed. Some visions from the Apocalypse, in
-the monastery of St. John, painted about the same time, exhibit vivid
-imagination and fine colouring.
-
-Henry III. of France, being in Venice in 1574, paid Titian a visit,
-accompanied by a numerous train. The venerable artist, then in his
-ninety-fifth year, received the monarch with dignified respect; his fine
-person was scarcely touched by decrepitude, his manners were still noble
-and prepossessing. In a long conversation with the King, he adverted,
-with the complacency natural to an old man at the close of so splendid a
-career, to honours which he had received from the Emperor Charles and
-King Ferdinand. When Henry, in walking through the galleries, demanded
-the prices of some of the pictures, he begged his Majesty’s acceptance
-of them as a free gift. In the mean time the courtiers and attendants
-were entertained with a magnificence, which might have become the
-establishment of a great prince.
-
-Titian had nearly attained his hundredth year, when the plague, which
-had been raging some time in Trent, made its appearance in Venice, and
-swept him off, together with a third part of the inhabitants, within
-three months. He was buried in the church of the Frari; but the
-consternation and disorders prevalent at such a period, prevented his
-receiving those funeral honours which would otherwise have attended him
-to the tomb.
-
-In comparing Titian with the great artists of the Roman and Florentine
-schools, it has been usual to describe him as the painter of physical
-nature, while to those masters has been assigned the loftier and
-exclusive praise of depicting the mind and passions. The works on which
-Titian was most frequently employed, appertaining to public edifices and
-the pomp of courts, were certainly of a class in which splendid effect
-is the chief requisite; but can it be said that the painter of the
-Ascension of the Virgin, and the S. Pietro Martire, was unequal to cope
-with subjects of sublimity and pathos? May it not be asked with greater
-justice, on the evidence of those pictures, whether any artist has
-surpassed him in those qualities? Even in design, on which point his
-capacity has been especially arraigned, Titian knew how to seize the
-line of grandeur without swelling into exaggeration, and to unite truth
-with ideality. Of all painters he was most above the ostentation of art;
-like Nature herself, he worked with such consummate skill that we are
-sensible of the process only by its effect. Rubens, Tintoret, Paul
-Veronese, were proud of their execution; few painters are not,—but the
-track of Titian’s pencil is scarcely ever discernable. His chiaroscuro,
-or disposition of light and shade, is never artificially concentrated;
-it is natural, as that of a summer’s day. His colouring, glorious as it
-is, made up of vivid contrasts, and combining the last degree of
-richness and depth with freshness and vivacity, is yet so graduated to
-the modesty of nature, that a thought of the painter’s palette never
-disturbs the illusion. Were it required to point out, amidst the whole
-range of painting, one performance as a proof of what art is capable of
-accomplishing, it is surely from among the works of Titian that such an
-example would be selected.
-
-There is scarcely any large collection in which the works of Titian are
-not to be found. The pictures of Actæon and Callisto in the possession
-of Lord F. L. Gower, and the four subjects in the National Gallery, are
-among the finest in this country. The Venus in the Dulwich Gallery must
-have been fine; but the glazing, a very essential part of Titian’s
-process, has flown.
-
-Details of the life of Titian will be found in Vasari, Lanzi, Ridolfi,
-but more especially in Ticozzi, whose memoir is at once diffuse and
-perspicuous. There is a life of Titian, in English, by Northcote.
-
-[Illustration: Titian and Francisco di Mosaico, from a picture by
-Titian.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff_
-
-  LUTHER.
-
-  _From the original Picture by Holbein
-  in his Majesty’s Collection at Windsor._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                LUTHER.
-
-
-Martin Luther was born at Eisleben in Saxony in the year 1483, on the
-10th of November; and if in the histories of great men it is usual to
-note with accuracy the day of their nativity, that of Luther has a
-peculiar claim on the biographer, since it has been the especial object
-of horoscopical calculations, and has even occasioned some serious
-differences among very profound astrologers. Luther has been the subject
-of unqualified admiration and eulogy: he has been assailed by the most
-virulent calumnies; and, if any thing more were wanted to prove the
-_personal_ consideration in which he was held by his contemporaries, it
-would be sufficient to add, that he has also been made a mask for their
-follies.
-
-He was of humble origin. At an early age he entered with zeal into the
-Order of Augustinian Hermits, who were Monks and Mendicants. In the
-schools of the Nominalists he pursued with acuteness and success the
-science of sophistry. And he was presently raised to the theological
-chair at Wittemberg: so that his first prejudices were enlisted in the
-service of the worst portion of the Roman Catholic Church; his opening
-reason was subjected to the most dangerous perversion; and a sure and
-early path was opened to his professional ambition. Such was _not_ the
-discipline which could prepare the mind for any independent exertion;
-such were not the circumstances from which an ordinary mind could have
-emerged into the clear atmosphere of truth. In dignity a Professor, in
-theology an Augustinian, in philosophy a Nominalist, by education a
-Mendicant Monk, Luther seemed destined to be a pillar of the Roman
-Catholic Church, and a patron of all its corruptions.
-
-But he possessed a genius naturally vast and penetrating, a memory quick
-and tenacious, patience inexhaustible, and a fund of learning very
-considerable for that age: above all, he had an erect and daring spirit,
-fraught with magnanimity and grandeur, and loving nothing so well as
-truth; so that his understanding was ever prepared to expand with the
-occasion, and his principles to change or rise, according to the
-increase and elevation of his knowledge. Nature had endued him with an
-ardent soul, a powerful and capacious understanding; education had
-chilled the one and contracted the other; and when he came forth into
-the fields of controversy, he had many of those trammels still hanging
-about him, which patience, and a succession of exertions, and the
-excitement of dispute, at length enabled him for the most part to cast
-away.
-
-In the year 1517, John Tetzel, a Dominican Monk, was preaching in
-Germany the indulgences of Pope Leo X.; that is, he was publicly selling
-to all purchasers remission of all sins, past, present, or future,
-however great their number, however enormous their nature. The
-expressions with which Tetzel recommended his treasure appear to have
-been marked with peculiar impudence and indecency. But the act had in
-itself nothing novel or uncommon: the sale of indulgences had long been
-recognized as the practice of the Roman Catholic Church, and even
-sometimes censured by its more pious, or more prudent members. But the
-crisis was at length arrived in which the iniquity could no longer be
-repeated with impunity. The cup was at length full; and the hand of
-Luther was destined to dash it to the ground. In the schools of
-Wittemberg the Professor publicly censured, in ninety-five propositions,
-not only the extortion of the Indulgence-mongers, but the co-operation
-of the Pope in seducing the people from the true faith, and calling them
-away from the only road to salvation.
-
-This first act of Luther’s evangelical life has been hastily ascribed by
-at least three eminent writers of very different descriptions, (Bossuet,
-Hume, and Voltaire,) to the narrowest monastic motive, the jealousy of a
-rival order. It is asserted that the Augustinian Friars had usually been
-invested in Saxony with the profitable commission, and that it only
-became offensive to Luther when it was transferred to a Dominican. There
-is no ground for that assertion. The Dominicans had been for nearly
-three centuries the peculiar favourites of the Holy See, and objects of
-all its partialities; and it is particularly remarkable, that, after the
-middle of the fifteenth century, during a period scandalously fruitful
-in the abuse in question, we very rarely meet with the name of any
-Augustinian as employed in that service. Moreover, it is almost equally
-important to add, that none of the contemporary adversaries of Luther
-ever advanced the charge against him, even at the moment in which the
-controversy was carried on with the most unscrupulous rancour.
-
-The matter in dispute between Luther and Tetzel went in the first
-instance no farther than this—whether the Pope had authority to remit
-the divine chastisements denounced against offenders in the present and
-in a future state—or whether his power only extended to such human
-punishments, as form a part of ecclesiastical discipline—for the latter
-prerogative was not yet contested by Luther. Nevertheless, his office
-and his talents drew very general attention to the controversy; the
-German people, harassed by the exactions, and disgusted with the
-insolence of the papal emissaries, declared themselves warmly in favour
-of the Reformer; while on the other hand, the supporters of the abuse
-were so violent and clamorous, that the sound of the altercation
-speedily disturbed the festivities of the Vatican.
-
-Leo X., a luxurious, indolent, and secular, though literary pontiff,
-would have disregarded the broil, and left it, like so many others, to
-subside of itself, had not the Emperor Maximilian assured him of the
-dangerous impression it had already made on the German people.
-Accordingly he commanded Luther to appear at the approaching diet of
-Augsburg, and justify himself before the papal legate. At the same time
-he appointed the Cardinal Caietan, a Dominican and a professed enemy of
-Luther, to be arbiter of the dispute. They met in October, 1518; the
-legate was imperious; Luther was not submissive. He solicited reasons;
-he was answered only with authority. He left the city in haste, and
-appealed “to the Pope _better informed_,”—yet it was still to the Pope
-that he appealed, he still recognized his sovereign supremacy. But in
-the following month Leo published an edict, in which he claimed the
-power of delivering sinners from _all_ punishments due to every sort of
-transgression; and thereupon Luther, despairing of any reasonable
-accommodation with the pontiff, published an appeal from the Pope to a
-General Council.
-
-The Pope then saw the expediency of conciliatory measures, and
-accordingly despatched a layman, named Miltitz, as his legate, with a
-commission to compose the difference by private negotiations with
-Luther. Miltitz united great dexterity and penetration with a temper
-naturally moderate, and not inflamed by ecclesiastical prejudices.
-Luther was still in the outset of his career. His opinions had not yet
-made any great progress towards maturity; he had not fully ascertained
-the foundations on which his principles were built; he had not proved by
-any experience the firmness of his own character. He yielded—at least so
-far as to express his perfect submission to the commands of the Pope, to
-exhort his followers to persist in the same obedience, and to promise
-silence on the subject of indulgences, provided it were also imposed
-upon his adversaries.
-
-It is far too much to say (as some have said) that had Luther’s
-concession been carried into effect, the Reformation would have been
-stifled in its birth. The principles of the Reformation were too firmly
-seated in reason and in truth, and too deeply ingrafted in the hearts of
-the German people, to remain long suppressed through the infirmity of
-any individual advocate. But its progress might have been somewhat
-retarded, had not the violence of its enemies afforded it seasonable
-aid. A doctor named Eckius, a zealous satellite of papacy, invited
-Luther to a public disputation in the castle of Pleissenburg. The
-subject on which they argued was the supremacy of the Roman pontiff; and
-it was a substantial triumph for the Reformer, and no trifling insult to
-papal despotism, that the appointed arbiters left the question
-undecided.
-
-Eckius repaired to Rome, and appealed in person to the offended
-authority of the Vatican. His remonstrances were reiterated and inflamed
-by the furious zeal of the Dominicans, with Caietan at their head. And
-thus Pope Leo, whose calmer and more indifferent judgment would probably
-have led him to accept the submission of Luther, and thus put the
-question for the moment at rest, was urged into measures of at least
-unseasonable vigour. He published a bull on the 15th of June, 1520, in
-which he solemnly condemned forty-one heresies extracted from the
-writings of the Reformer, and condemned these to be publicly burnt. At
-the same time he summoned the author, on pain of excommunication, to
-confess and retract his pretended errors within the space of sixty days,
-and to throw himself upon the mercy of the Vatican.
-
-Open to the influence of mildness and persuasion, the breast of Luther
-only swelled more boldly when he was assailed by menace and insult. He
-refused the act of humiliation required of him; more than that, he
-determined to anticipate the anathema suspended over him, by at once
-withdrawing himself from the communion of the church; and again, having
-come to that resolution, he fixed upon the manner best suited to give it
-efficacy and publicity. With this view, he caused a pile of wood to be
-erected without the walls of Wittemberg, and there, in the presence of a
-vast multitude of all ranks and orders, he committed the bull to the
-flames; and with it, the Decree, the Decretals, the Clementines, the
-Extravagants, the entire code of Romish jurisprudence. It is necessary
-to observe, that he had prefaced this measure by a renewal of his former
-appeal to a General Council; so that the extent of his resistance may be
-accurately defined: he continued a faithful member of the Catholic
-Church, but he rejected the despotism of the Pope, he refused obedience
-to an unlimited and usurped authority. The bull of excommunication
-immediately followed (January 6, 1521), but it fell without force; and
-any dangerous effect, which it might otherwise have produced, was
-obviated by the provident boldness of Luther.
-
-Here was the origin of the Reformation. This was the irreparable breach,
-which gradually widened to absolute disruption. The Reformer was now
-compromised, by his conduct, by his principles, perhaps even by his
-passions. He had crossed the bounds which divided insubordination from
-rebellion, and his banners were openly unfurled, and his legions pressed
-forward on the march to Rome. Henceforward the champion of the Gospel
-entered with more than his former courage on the pursuit of truth; and
-having shaken off one of the greatest and earliest of the prejudices in
-which he had been educated, he proceeded with fearless independence to
-examine and dissipate the rest.
-
-Charles V. succeeded Maximilian in the empire in the year 1519; and
-since Frederic of Saxony persisted in protecting the person of the
-Reformer, Leo X. became the more anxious to arouse the imperial
-indignation in defence of the injured majesty of the Church. In 1521 a
-diet was assembled at Worms, and Luther was summoned to plead his cause
-before it. A safe-conduct was granted him by the Emperor; and on the
-17th of April he presented himself before the august aristocracy of
-Germany. This audience gave occasion to the most splendid scene in his
-history. His friends were yet few, and of no great influence; his
-enemies were numerous, and powerful, and eager for his destruction: the
-cause of truth, the hopes of religious regeneration, appeared to be
-placed at that moment in the discretion and constancy of one man. The
-faithful trembled. But Luther had then cast off the encumbrances of
-early fears and prepossessions, and was prepared to give a free course
-to his earnest and unyielding character. His manner and expressions
-abounded with respect and humility; but in the matter of his public
-apology he declined in no one particular from the fulness of his
-conviction. Of the numerous opinions which he had by this time adopted
-at variance with the injunctions of Rome, there was not one which in the
-hour of danger he consented to compromise. The most violent exertions
-were made by the papal party to effect his immediate ruin; and there
-were some who were not ashamed to counsel a direct violation of the
-imperial safe-conduct: it was designed to re-enact the crimes of
-Constance, after the interval of a century, on another theatre. But the
-infamous proposal was soon rejected; and it was on this occasion that
-Charles is recorded to have replied with princely indignation, that if
-honour were banished from every other residence, it ought to find refuge
-in the breasts of kings.
-
-Luther was permitted to retire from the diet; but he had not proceeded
-far on his return when he was surprised by a number of armed men, and
-carried away into captivity. It was an act of friendly violence. A
-temporary concealment was thought necessary for his present security,
-and he was hastily conveyed to the solitary Castle of Wartenburg. In the
-mean time the assembly issued the declaration known in history as the
-“Edict of Worms,” in which the Reformer was denounced as an
-excommunicated schismatic and heretic; and all his friends and
-adherents, all who protected or conversed with him, were pursued by
-censures and penalties. The cause of papacy obtained a momentary,
-perhaps only a seeming triumph, for it was not followed by any
-substantial consequences; and while the anathematized Reformer lay in
-safety in his secret _Patmos_, as he used to call it, the Emperor
-withdrew to other parts of Europe to prosecute schemes and interests
-which then seemed far more important than the religious tenets of a
-German Monk.
-
-While Luther was in retirement, his disciples at Wittemberg, under the
-guidance of Carlostadt, a man of learning and piety, proceeded to put
-into force some of the first principles of the Reformation. They would
-have restrained by compulsion the superstition of private masses, and
-torn away from the churches the proscribed images. Luther disapproved of
-the violence of these measures; or it may also be, as some impartial
-writers have insinuated, that he grudged to any other than himself the
-glory of achieving them. Accordingly, after an exile of ten months, he
-suddenly came forth from his place of refuge, and appeared at
-Wittemberg. Had he then confined his influence to the introduction of a
-more moderate policy among the reformers, many plausible arguments might
-have been urged in his favour. But he also appears, unhappily, to have
-been animated by a personal animosity against Carlostadt, which was
-displayed both then and afterwards in some acts not very far removed
-from persecution.
-
-The marriage of Luther, and his marriage to a nun, was the event of his
-life which gave most triumph to his enemies, and perplexity to his
-friends. It was in perfect conformity with his masculine and daring
-mind, that having satisfied himself of the nullity of his monastic vows,
-he should take the boldest method of displaying to the world how utterly
-he rejected them. Others might have acted differently, and abstained,
-either from conscientious scruples, or, being satisfied in their own
-minds, from fear to give offence to their weaker brethren; and it would
-be presumptuous to condemn either course of action. It is proper to
-mention that this marriage did not take place till the year 1525, after
-Luther had long formally rejected many of the observances of the Roman
-Catholic Church; and that the nun whom he espoused had quitted her
-convent, and renounced her profession some time before.
-
-The war of the peasants, and the fanaticism of Munster and his
-followers, presently afterwards desolated Germany; and the papal party
-did not lose that occasion to vilify the principles of the reformers,
-and identify the revolt from a spiritual despotism with general
-insurrection and massacre. It is therefore necessary here to observe,
-that the false enthusiasm of Munster was perhaps first detected and
-denounced by Luther; and that the pen of the latter was incessantly
-employed in deprecating every act of civil insubordination. He was the
-loudest in his condemnation of some acts of spoliation by laymen, who
-appropriated the monastic revenues; and at a subsequent period so far
-did he carry his principles, so averse was he, not only from the use of
-offensive violence, but even from the employment of force in the defence
-of his cause, that on some later occasions he exhorted the Elector of
-Saxony by no means to oppose the imperial edicts by arms, but rather to
-consign the persons and principles of the reformers to the protection of
-Providence. For he was inspired with a holy confidence that Christ would
-not desert his faithful followers; but rather find means to accomplish
-his work without the agitation of civil disorders, or the intervention
-of the sword. That confidence evinced the perfect earnestness of his
-professions, and his entire devotion to the truth of his principles. It
-also proved that he had given himself up to the cause in which he had
-engaged, and that he was elevated above the consideration of personal
-safety. This was no effeminate enthusiasm, no passionate aspiration
-after the glory of martyrdom! It was the working of the Spirit of God
-upon an ardent nature, impressed with the divine character of the
-mission with which it was intrusted, and assured, against all obstacles,
-of final and perfect success.
-
-As this is not a history of the Reformation, but only a sketch of the
-life of an individual reformer, we shall at once proceed to an affair
-strongly, though not very favourably, illustrating his character. The
-subject of the Eucharist commanded, among the various doctrinal
-differences, perhaps the greatest attention; and in this matter Luther
-receded but a short space, and with unusual timidity, from the faith in
-which he had been educated. He admitted the real corporeal presence in
-the elements, and differed from the church only as to the manner of that
-presence. He rejected the actual and perfect change of substance, but
-supposed the flesh to subsist in, or with the bread, as fire subsists in
-red-hot iron. Consequently, he renounced the term transubstantiation,
-and substituted consubstantiation in its place. In the mean time,
-Zuinglius, the reformer of Zuric, had examined the same question with
-greater independence, and had reached the bolder conclusion, that the
-bread and wine are no more than external signs, intended to revive our
-recollections and animate our piety. This opinion was adopted by
-Carlostadt, Œcolampadius, and other fathers of the Reformation, and
-followed by the Swiss Protestants, and generally by the free cities of
-the Empire. Those who held it were called Sacramentarians. The opinion
-of Luther prevailed in Saxony, and in the more northern provinces of
-Germany.
-
-The difference was important. It was felt to be so by the reformers
-themselves; and the Lutheran party expressed that sentiment with too
-little moderation. The Papists, or Papalins (Papalini), were alert in
-perceiving the division, in exciting the dissension, and in inflaming
-it, if possible, into absolute schism; and in this matter it must be
-admitted, that Luther himself was too much disposed by his intemperate
-vehemence to further their design. These discords were becoming
-dangerous; and in 1529, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, the most ardent
-among the protectors of the Reformation, assembled the leading doctors
-of either party to a public disputation at Marpurg. The particulars of
-this conference are singularly interesting to the theological reader;
-but it is here sufficient to mention, without entering into the
-doctrinal merits of the controversy, that whatever was imperious in
-assertion and overbearing in authority, and unyielding and unsparing in
-polemical altercation, proceeded from the mouth and party of Luther;
-that every approach to humility, and self-distrust, and mutual
-toleration, and common friendship, came from the side of Zuinglius and
-the Sacramentarians. And we are bound to add, that the same
-uncompromising spirit, which precluded Luther from all co-operation or
-fellowship with those whom _he thought_ in error (it was the predominant
-spirit of the church which he had deserted) continued on future
-occasions to interrupt and even endanger the work of his own hands. But
-that very spirit was the vice of a character, which endured no
-moderation or concession in any matter wherein Christian truth was
-concerned, but which too hastily assumed its own infallibility in
-ascertaining that truth. Luther would have excommunicated the
-Sacramentarians; and he did not perceive how precisely his _principle_
-was the same with that of the church which had excommunicated himself.
-
-Luther was not present at the celebrated Diet of Augsburg, held under
-the superintendence of Charles V. in 1530; but he was in constant
-correspondence with Melancthon during that fearful period, and in the
-reproofs which he cast on the temporizing, though perhaps necessary,
-negotiations of the latter, he at least exhibited his own uprightness
-and impetuosity. The ‘Confession’ of the Protestants, there published,
-was constructed on the basis of seventeen articles previously drawn up
-by Luther; and it was not without his counsels that the faith,
-permanently adopted by the church which bears his name, was finally
-digested and matured. From that crisis the history of the Reformation
-took more of a political, less of a religious character, and the name of
-Luther is therefore less prominent than in the earlier proceedings. But
-he still continued for sixteen years longer to exert his energies in the
-cause which was peculiarly his own, and to influence by his advice and
-authority the new ecclesiastical system.
-
-He died in the year 1546, the same, as it singularly happened, in which
-the Council of Trent assembled, for the self-reformation and re-union of
-the Roman Catholic Church. But that attempt, even had it been made with
-judgment and sincerity, was then too late. During the twenty-nine years
-which composed the public life of Luther, the principles of the Gospel,
-having fallen upon hearts already prepared for their reception, were
-rooted beyond the possibility of extirpation; and when the great
-Reformer closed his eyes upon the scene of his earthly toils and glory,
-he might depart in the peaceful confidence that the objects of his
-mission were virtually accomplished, and the work of the Lord placed in
-security by the same heaven-directed hand which had raised it from the
-dust.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                RODNEY.
-
-
-This eminent officer was descended from a younger branch of an ancient
-family, long resident in the county of Somerset. His father lived at
-Walton upon Thames, where George Brydges Rodney, afterwards Lord Rodney,
-was born, February 19, 1718. He received the rudiments of his education
-at Harrow School, from which he was removed when only twelve years old,
-and sent to sea. He gained promotion rapidly, being made Lieutenant in
-February, 1739, and Captain in 1742. He was still farther fortunate in
-being almost constantly employed for several years. In the Eagle, of
-sixty guns, Captain Rodney bore a distinguished part in the action
-fought by Admiral Hawke with the French fleet, off Cape Finisterre,
-October 14, 1747. The year after he was sent out with the rank of
-Commodore, as Governor and Commander-in-Chief on the Newfoundland
-station, where he remained till October, 1752.
-
-Returning to England, he took his seat in Parliament for the borough of
-Saltash, and was successively appointed to the Fougueux, of sixty-four
-guns, the Prince George, of ninety, and the Dublin, of seventy-four
-guns. In the last-named ship he served under Admiral Hawke in the
-expedition against Rochefort in 1757, which failed entirely, after great
-expense had been incurred, and great expectations raised; and he
-assisted at the capture of Louisburg by Admiral Boscawen in 1758. He was
-raised to the rank of Rear-Admiral, May 19, 1759, after twenty-eight
-years of active and almost uninterrupted service.
-
-In July following he was ordered to take the command of a squadron
-destined to attack Havre, and destroy a number of flat-bottomed boats,
-prepared, it was supposed, to assist a meditated invasion of Great
-Britain. This service he effectually performed.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by E. Scriven._
-
-  LORD RODNEY.
-
-  _From a Picture by Sir Joshua Reynolds
-  in his Majesty’s Collection at S^{t.} James’s Palace._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-He was soon raised to a more important sphere of action, being named
-Commander-in-Chief at Barbadoes and the Leeward Islands, in the autumn
-of 1761. No naval achievement of remarkable brilliance occurred during
-the short period of his holding this command: but the capture of the
-valuable islands of Martinique, St. Lucia, and Grenada, bears testimony
-to the efficiency of the fleet under his orders, and the good
-understanding between the land and sea forces employed in this service.
-He was recalled on the conclusion of peace in 1763. Eight years elapsed
-before he was again called into service; a period fruitful in marks of
-favour from the crown, though barren of professional laurels. He was
-created a Baronet soon after his return; he was raised by successive
-steps to the rank of Vice-Admiral of the Red; and he was appointed
-Governor of Greenwich Hospital. This office he was required to resign on
-being again sent out to the West Indies as Commander-in-Chief at Jamaica
-in 1771. This was a period of profound peace: but the duties of peace
-are often more difficult, and require more moral courage for their
-discharge, than those of war. It is one of Rodney’s best claims to
-distinction, that he suffered none under his command, or within the
-sphere of his influence, to neglect their duties with impunity: and in
-the mode of carrying on naval affairs then practised in the West Indies,
-he found much ground for immediate interference, as well as for
-representation and remonstrance to his superiors at home. He earnestly
-desired to obtain the government of Jamaica; but on a vacancy occurring
-in 1773, another person was appointed; and he was recalled, and struck
-his flag at Portsmouth, September 4, 1774.
-
-The next four years of Sir George Rodney’s life were much harassed by
-pecuniary embarrassment. The habits of a sailor’s life are proverbially
-unsuited to strict economy: and moving, when at home, in the most
-fashionable society of London, it is no wonder that his expenses outran
-his professional gains. He was compelled to retire to Paris, where he
-remained until the American war afforded a prospect of his being called
-into active service again. In May, 1778, he was promoted to the rank of
-Admiral of the White: but it was not till the autumn of 1779 that he was
-gratified by being re-appointed to the command on the Barbadoes station.
-He sailed from Plymouth December 29, to enter on the final and crowning
-scene of his glory.
-
-At this time Spain and France were at war with England. The memorable
-siege of Gibraltar was in progress, and a Spanish fleet blockaded the
-Straits. The British navy was reduced unwarrantably low in point of
-disposable force; and was farther crippled by a spirit of disunion and
-jealousy among its officers, arising partly perhaps from the virulence
-of party politics, and partly from the misconduct of the Admiralty,
-which threatened even worse consequences than the mere want of physical
-force. By this spirit Sir George Rodney’s fleet was deeply tainted, to
-his great mortification and the great injury of the country. At first,
-however, every thing appeared to prosper. The fleet consisted of
-twenty-two sail of the line, and eight frigates. Before Rodney had been
-at sea ten days, he captured seven Spanish vessels of war, with a large
-convoy of provisions and stores; and on January 16, near Cape St.
-Vincent, afterwards made memorable by a more important action, he
-encountered a Spanish fleet commanded by Don Juan de Langara, of eleven
-ships of the line and two frigates. The superiority of the British force
-rendered victory certain. Five Spanish ships were taken, and two
-destroyed; and had not the action been in the night, and in tempestuous
-weather, probably every ship would have been captured. These at least
-are the reasons which Rodney gave in his despatches, for not having done
-more: in private letters he hints that he was ill-supported by his
-captains. Trifling as this success would have seemed in later times, it
-was then very acceptable to the country; and the Admiral received the
-thanks of both Houses of Parliament. The scandalous feeling of jealousy
-of their commander, ill-will to the ministry, or whatever other
-modification of party spirit it was, which could prevent brave men (and
-such they were) from performing their duty to the utmost in the hour of
-battle, broke out again with more violence when Rodney next came within
-sight of the enemy. This was near Martinique, April 17, 1780, about a
-month after his arrival in the West Indies. The French fleet, commanded
-by the Comte de Guichen, was slightly superior in force. Rodney’s
-intention was to attack the enemy’s rear in close order and with his
-whole strength; but his captains disobeyed his orders, deranged his
-plan, and careless of the signals for close action, repeatedly made,
-kept for the most part at cautious distance from the enemy. His own
-ship, the Sandwich, engaged for an hour and a half a seventy-four and
-two eighty-gun ships, compelled them to bear away, and broke completely
-through the enemy’s line. Not more than five or six ships did their
-duty. Had all done it, the victory over De Grasse might have been
-anticipated, and the end of the war accelerated perhaps by two years. In
-his despatches Rodney censured the conduct of his captains; but the
-Admiralty thought proper to suppress the passage. In his private letters
-to Lady Rodney, he complains bitterly. One only of his captains was
-brought to trial, and he was broken. That ampler justice was not done on
-the delinquents, is to be explained by the difficulty of finding
-officers to form courts martial, where almost all were equally guilty.
-But this partial severity, with the vigorous measures which the Admiral
-took to recall others to their duty, produced due effect, and we hear no
-more of want of discipline, or reluctance to engage. For this action
-Rodney received the thanks of the House of Commons, with a pension for
-himself and his family of £2000 per annum.
-
-Nothing of importance occurred during the rest of the spring; and De
-Guichen having returned to Europe, Rodney sailed to New York, to
-co-operate, during the rainy season in the West Indies, with the British
-forces engaged in the American war. In November he returned to his
-station. In the course of the autumn he had been chosen to represent
-Westminster without expense, and had received the Order of the Bath. The
-commencement of the following year was signalized by acts of more
-importance. The British ministry had been induced to declare war against
-Holland; and they sent out immediate instructions to Rodney, to attack
-the possessions of the states in the West Indies. St. Eustatius was
-selected for the first blow, and it surrendered without firing a shot.
-Small and barren, yet this island was of great importance for the
-support which it had long afforded to the French and Americans under
-colour of neutrality, and for the vast wealth which was captured in it.
-In the course of the spring, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, with the
-French island of St. Bartholomew, were also taken.
-
-In the autumn, Rodney returned to Europe for the recovery of his health.
-He was received with distinguished favour by the King, and with
-enthusiasm by the people, and during his stay, was created Vice-Admiral
-of Great Britain, in the place of Lord Hawke, deceased. He returned in
-the middle of January, being invested with the command of the whole West
-Indies, not merely the Barbadoes station, as before. The situation of
-affairs at this time was very critical. The French fleet, commanded by
-the Comte de Grasse, consisted of thirty-three sail[6] of the line, two
-fifty-gun ships and frigates, with a large body of troops, and a train
-of heavy cannon on board. A powerful Spanish fleet was also in the West
-Indies. It was intended to form a junction, and then with an
-overwhelming force of near fifty sail of the line, to proceed to
-Jamaica, conquer that important island, and one by one to reduce all the
-British colonies.
-
-Footnote 6:
-
-  Or thirty-four, according to the official list found on board the
-  Ville de Paris after the engagement.
-
-The French quitted Fort Royal Bay, in Martinique, April 8, 1782.
-Intelligence was immediately brought to the British fleet at St. Lucia,
-which lost no time in following them. In a partial action on the 9th,
-two of the French ships were, disabled. A third was crippled by accident
-on the night of the 11th. Thus, on the morning of the 12th, the decisive
-day, the French line was reduced to thirty or thirty-one ships, and
-numerically the British fleet was stronger: but this difference was more
-than compensated by the greater weight of metal in the French broadside,
-which was calculated by Sir Charles Douglas to have exceeded the British
-by 4396 pounds. On that morning, about seven o’clock, Rodney bore down
-obliquely on the French line, and passed to leeward of it on the
-opposite tack. His own ship was the eighteenth from the van: and the
-seventeen leading ships having pushed on and taken their position each
-abreast of an enemy, Rodney, in the Formidable, broke through the line
-between the seventeenth and eighteenth ships, engaged the Ville de
-Paris, De Grasse’s flag-ship, and compelled her to strike. The battle
-was obstinately fought, and lasted till half-past six in the evening.
-The loss of the British in killed and wounded was severe, but
-disproportionately less than that of the French. Seven ships of the line
-and two frigates fell into the hands of the victors.
-
-This battle ruined the power of the allied fleets in the West Indies,
-and materially contributed to the re-establishment of peace, which was
-concluded in January, 1783. Many other circumstances have combined to
-confer celebrity upon it. It restored to Britain the dominion of the
-ocean, after that dominion had been some time in abeyance; it proved the
-commencement of a long series of most brilliant victories, untarnished
-by any defeat on a large scale; and it was the first instance in which
-the manœuvre of breaking through the enemy’s line, and attacking him on
-both sides, had been practised. The question to whom the merit of this
-invention, which for many years rested with Lord Rodney, is due, has of
-late been much canvassed before the public. It has been claimed for Mr.
-Clerk, of Eldin, author of a treatise on Naval Tactics, and for Sir
-Charles Douglas, Captain of the Fleet, who served on board the
-Formidable, and is said to have suggested it, as a sudden thought,
-during the action. The claim of Mr. Clerk appears now to be generally
-disallowed. The evidence in favour of each of the other parties is
-strong and conflicting; and as we have not space to discuss it, we may
-be excused for not expressing any opinion upon it. The claims of Sir
-Charles Douglas have been advanced by his son, Sir Howard Douglas, in
-some recent publications: the opposite side of the question has been
-argued in the Quarterly Review, No. 83. It has also been repeatedly
-discussed in the United Service Magazine. It would appear, however, at
-all events, that as the final judgment and responsibility rested with
-the Admiral, so also should the chief honour of the measure: and it is
-certain that the gallant and generous officer for whom this claim has
-been advanced, rejected all praise which seemed to him in the least to
-derogate from the glory of his commanding officer.
-
-A change of ministry had taken place in the spring; and one of the first
-acts of the Whigs, on coming into office, was to recall Rodney, who had
-always been opposed to them in politics. The officer appointed to
-succeed him had but just sailed, when news of his decisive and glorious
-victory arrived in England. The Admiralty sent an express, to endeavour
-to recall their unlucky step; but it was too late. Rodney landed at
-Bristol, and closed his career of service, September 21, 1782. He was
-received with enthusiasm, raised to the peerage by the title of Baron
-Rodney, and presented with an additional pension of £2000 per annum.
-From this time he lived chiefly in the country, and died May 23, 1792,
-in the seventy-fifth year of his age. He was twice married, and left a
-numerous family to inherit his well-earned honours and rewards.
-
-The life of Lord Rodney, published by General Mundy, is valuable, as
-containing much of his official and private correspondence. The former
-proves that his views as a Commander-in-Chief were enlarged, judicious,
-and patriotic; the latter is lively and affectionate, and shows him to
-have been most amiable in domestic life. Memoirs of his life and
-principal actions will be found in most works on naval history and
-biography.
-
-[Illustration: Monument of Lord Rodney in St. Paul’s Cathedral.]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                               LAGRANGE.
-
-
-Joseph Louis Lagrange was born at Turin, January 25th, 1736. His
-great-grandfather was a Frenchman, who entered into the service of the
-then Duke of Savoy; and from this circumstance, as well as his
-subsequent settlement in France, and his always writing in their
-language, the French claim him as their countryman: an honour which the
-Italians are far from conceding to them.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by Rob^t. Hart._
-
-  LA GRANGE.
-
-  _From a Bust in the Library of the
-  Institute of France._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-The father of Lagrange, luckily perhaps for the fame of his son, was
-ruined by some unfortunate speculation. The latter used to say, that had
-he possessed fortune, he should probably never have turned his attention
-to the science in which he excelled. He was placed at the College of
-Turin, and applied himself diligently and with enthusiasm to classical
-literature, showing no taste at first for mathematics. In about a year
-he began to attend to the geometry of the ancients. A memoir of Halley
-in the Philosophical Transactions, on the superiority of modern
-analysis, produced consequences of which the author little dreamed.
-Lagrange met with it, before his views upon the subject had settled: and
-immediately, being then only seventeen years old, applied himself to the
-study of the modern mathematics. Before this change in his studies,
-according to Delambre[7], after it, according to others, but certainly
-while very young, he was elected professor at the Royal School of
-Artillery at Turin. We may best convey some notion of his early
-proficiency, by stating without detail, that at the age of twenty-three
-we find him—the founder of an Academy of Sciences at Turin, whose
-volumes yield in interest to none, and owe that interest principally to
-his productions,—a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, an
-honour obtained through the medium of Euler, who shortly after announced
-him to Frederic of Prussia as the fittest man in Europe to succeed
-himself,—and settling, finally, a most intricate question[8] of
-mathematics, which had given rise to long discussions between Euler and
-D’Alembert, then perhaps the two first mathematicians in Europe. He had
-previously extended the method of Euler for the solution of what are
-called _isoperimetrical problems_, and laid the foundation for the
-_Calculus of Variations_, the most decided advance, in our opinion,
-which any one has made since the death of Newton.
-
-Footnote 7:
-
-  Éloge de Lagrange, Mémoires de l’Institut. 1812.
-
-Footnote 8:
-
-  The admissibility of discontinuous functions into the integrals of
-  partial differential equations.
-
-In 1764 he gained the prize proposed by the Academy of Sciences for an
-Essay on the Libration of the Moon; and in 1766, that for an Essay on
-the Theory of the Satellites of Jupiter. In the former of these we find
-him, for the first time, using the _principle of virtual velocities_,
-which had hitherto remained almost a barren truth, but which he
-afterwards made, in conjunction with the principle known after the name
-of D’Alembert, the foundation of the whole of mechanical science.
-
-In 1766, Euler, intending to return to St. Petersburg, resigned the
-situation which he held at the Court of Berlin, that of director of the
-physico-mathematical class of the Academy of Sciences. Frederic offered
-this place to D’Alembert, who refused it for himself, but joined with
-Euler in recommending Lagrange. The King of Prussia acceded to their
-suggestion, and Lagrange was invited to establish himself at Berlin,
-with a salary equivalent to 6,000 francs.
-
-Lagrange remained at Berlin till after the death of Frederic. He here
-married a lady who was related to him, and who came from Turin at his
-request. She died after a lingering illness of several years, marked by
-the most unceasing attention on the part of her husband, who abandoned
-his pursuits to devote himself entirely to her during her illness.
-Nevertheless the period of his sojourn at Berlin is perhaps the
-brightest of a life, most years of which, from the age of eighteen to
-that of seventy, were sufficient to ensure a lasting reputation. He here
-laid the foundation of his Theory of Functions, of his general method
-for determining the secular variations of the planetary orbits; and here
-he wrote his _Mécanique Analytique_.
-
-At the death of Frederic, he found that science was no longer treated
-with the same respect at the Court of Berlin. He had found from the
-commencement of his stay there, that foreigners were looked upon with
-dislike, and his spirits had not recovered the loss of his wife. Many
-advantageous offers were made to him by different courts, and among the
-rest by that of France. Mirabeau, who was then at Berlin, first pointed
-out to the ministers of Louis XVI. the acquisition which was in their
-power. Lagrange removed to Paris in 1787, and remained there till his
-death.
-
-He was then weary of his pursuits, and it is said that his _Mécanique
-Analytique_, which he had sent from Berlin to be printed in Paris, lay
-unopened by himself for more than two years after its publication in
-1788. He employed himself in the study of ecclesiastical and other
-history, of medicine, botany, and metaphysics. When the discoveries of
-the chemists changed the theory and notation of their science, or rather
-created a science where none existed before, he threw himself upon the
-new study with avidity, and declared that they had made it easy; _as
-easy as algebra_.
-
-In 1792, being then fifty-six years of age, he married Mlle. Lemonnier,
-daughter of the astronomer of that name, and daughter, grand-daughter,
-and niece of members of the Academy of Sciences. This lady well deserves
-honourable mention in every memoir of Lagrange, for the affectionate
-care which she took of his declining years.
-
-When, after the subversion of the monarchy, a commission was appointed
-to examine into the system of weights and measures, Lagrange was placed
-at its head. In this post he continued, not being included in the
-_purification_, which three months after its formation, deprived the
-commission of the services of Laplace, Coulomb, Brisson, Borda, and
-Delambre. He took no part in politics, and appears to have given no
-offence to any party; hence, when the government of Robespierre
-commanded all foreigners to quit France, an exception was made in his
-favour by the committee of public safety. All his friends had advised
-him to retire from the country; and the fate of Lavoisier and Bailly was
-sufficient to show that scientific talents of the most useful character
-were no protection. He now regretted that he had not followed their
-advice, and even meditated returning to Berlin. He did not, however, put
-this scheme in execution; and as the Normal and Polytechnic Schools were
-successively founded, he was appointed to professorships in both. His
-_Leçons_, delivered to the former institution, appear in their published
-series, and among them we find the _Leçons sur la Théorie des
-Fonctions_, which has since appeared as a separate work.
-
-It is almost needless to say, so well as the public know how science was
-encouraged under the Consulate and the Empire, that Lagrange received
-from Napoleon every possible respect and distinction. The titles of
-senator, count of the empire, grand cordon of the legion of honour, &c.
-were given to him. It is also gratifying to be able to add that his
-abstinence from political engagements has left his memory unstained by
-such imputations as, we know not how justly, rest upon that of Laplace.
-We might have omitted to state that he belonged to all the scientific
-academies of Europe; but that it is necessary, for the sake of the
-scientific reputation of this country, to correct an inadvertence into
-which the able author of the ‘Life of Lagrange,’ in the _Biographie
-Universelle_, appears to have fallen. He states that Lagrange was not a
-member of the Royal Society of London[9]. The fact is, that he was
-elected in 1798, and his name continued on the list of foreign members
-all the remainder of his life.
-
-Footnote 9:
-
-  Les principales sociétés savantes de L’Europe, _celle de Londres
-  exceptée_, s’empressèrent de décorer de son nom la liste de leurs
-  membres.
-
-About the end of March, 1813, Lagrange was seized with a fever, which
-caused his death. He had previously been subject to fits of fainting, in
-the last of which he was found by Madame Lagrange, having fallen against
-the corner of a table. He preserved his senses to the last, and on the
-8th of April conversed for more than two hours with M.M. Monge,
-Lacepède, and Chaptal, who were commissioned by the Emperor to carry him
-the grand cordon of the order of the _Réunion_. He then promised them,
-not thinking himself so near his end, full details of his early life.
-Unfortunately this promise remains unfulfilled, as he died on the 10th
-of April, in his seventy-eighth year. His father had died some years
-before him at the age of ninety-five, having had eleven children, all of
-whom, except the subject of this memoir, and one other, died young.
-Lagrange himself had no children. His private character, as all accounts
-agree in stating, was most exemplary. His manners were peculiarly mild,
-and though occasionally abstracted and absent, he was fond of society,
-particularly that of the young. In the earlier part of his life he was
-attacked in an unworthy manner by Fontaine, who at the same time boasted
-of some discovery which he attributed to himself. Lagrange replied with
-the urbanity which always accompanied his dealings with others, and
-while he overthrew the claim of his opponent, he repaid his incivility
-by the compliment of admitting that his talents were such as would have
-enabled him to attain the discovery, if it had not been previously made.
-Such moderation is rare, and as might be expected, it was accompanied by
-the utmost modesty in speaking of himself. In the latter half of his
-life, it would have been affectation in him to have denied his own
-powers, or spoken slightingly of his own discoveries; nor do we find
-that he ever did so. In giving opinions or explanations, he broke off
-the moment he found that his ideas were not as clear or his knowledge as
-definite, as he had thought when he begun; concluding abruptly with _Je
-ne sais pas, Je ne sais pas_. Among his studies, music found a place;
-but, though pleased with the art, he used to assert that he never heard
-more than three bars: the fourth found him wrapped in meditation, and by
-his own account, he solved very difficult problems in these
-circumstances. He would, therefore, as M. Delambre remarks, measure the
-beauty of a piece of music by the mathematical suggestions which he
-derived from it; and his arrangement of the great masters would be not a
-little curious.
-
-He never would allow a portrait of himself to be taken. A very well
-executed bust, which is now in the Library of the Institute, was made
-from a sketch by a young Italian artist, sent by the Academy of Turin.
-From this bust our portrait is engraved.
-
-Of the character of Lagrange as a philosopher, no description, in so few
-words, can be better than that of M. Laplace: “Among the discoverers who
-have most enlarged the bounds of our knowledge, Newton and Lagrange
-appear to me to have possessed in the highest degree that happy tact,
-which leads to the discovery of general principles, and which
-constitutes true genius for science. This tact, united with a rare
-degree of elegance in the manner of explaining the most abstract
-theories, is the characteristic of Lagrange.” This power of
-generalization distinguishes all that he has written, and the student of
-the _Mécanique Analytique_ is amazed when he comes to a chapter headed
-“Equations Différentielles pour la solution de tous les problèmes de
-Dynamique,” which, on examination, he finds equally applicable, and
-equally applied, to the vibrations of a pendulum or the motion of a
-planet. On the exquisite symmetry of his notation and style, we need not
-enlarge: the mathematician either is acquainted with it, or should
-become so with all speed; and others will perhaps only smile at the
-notion of one set of algebraical symbols possessing more elegance or
-beauty than another.
-
-The separate works of Lagrange are—1. _Mécanique Analytique_, the second
-edition of which he was engaged upon when he died; the first edition was
-published in 1788. 2. _Théorie des Fonctions Analytiques_, a system of
-Fluxions on purely algebraical principles; first edition, 1797; second
-edition, 1813. 3. _Leçons sur le Calcul des Fonctions_; first published
-separately in 1806. 4. _Résolution des Equations numériques_; three
-editions, in 1798, 1808, and 1826. To give only a list of his separate
-memoirs would double the length of this life: they will be found in the
-_Miscellanea Taurinensia_, tom. i.-v., and 1784–5; _Memoirs of the
-Berlin Academy_, 1765–1803; _Recueils de l’Académie des Sciences de
-Paris_, 1773–4, and tom. ix.; _Mémoires des Savans Etrangers_, tom. vii.
-and x.; _Mémoires de l’Institut_, 1808–9; _Journal de l’École
-Polytechnique_, tom. ii. _cahiers_ 5, 6, tom. viii. _cahier_ 15;
-_Seánces des Écoles Normales_; and _Connoissance des Tems_, 1814, 1817.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by Ja^s. Mollison._
-
-  VOLTAIRE.
-
-  _From an original Picture by Largillière
-  in the collection of the Institute of France._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                               VOLTAIRE.
-
-
-François Marie Arouet, who is commonly known by his assumed name, De
-Voltaire, was born at Châtenay, near Sceaux, February 20, 1694. He soon
-distinguished himself as a child of extraordinary abilities. The Abbé de
-Châteauneuf, his godfather, took charge of the elements of his
-education, and laboured successfully to improve the talents of his ready
-pupil without much regard to his morals. At three years old the future
-champion of infidelity had learned by heart the Moisade, an irreligious
-poem of J. B. Rousseau. These lessons were not forgotten at college,
-where he passed rapidly through the usual courses of study, and alarmed
-his Jesuit preceptors by the undisguised licence of his opinions. About
-this time some of his first attempts at poetry obtained for him the
-notice of Ninon de l’Enclos; and when the Abbé de Châteauneuf, who had
-been the last in her long list of favourites, introduced him at her
-house, she was so pleased with the promising talents of the boy, that
-she left him by will a legacy of 2,000 francs to purchase books. The
-Ecole de Droit, where Arouet next studied, was much less suited to his
-disposition than the College of Louis le Grand. In vain his father urged
-him to undertake the drudgery of a profession: the Abbé was a more
-agreeable monitor, and under his auspices the young man sought with
-eagerness the best Parisian society. At the suppers of the Prince de
-Conti, he became acquainted with wits and poets, acquired the easy tone
-of familiar politeness, and distinguished himself by the delicacy of his
-flatteries, and the liveliness of his repartee. In 1713 he went to
-Holland as page to the French ambassador, the Marquis de Châteauneuf.
-This place had been solicited by his father in the hope of detaching him
-from dissipated habits. But little was gained by the step, for in a
-short time he was sent back to his family, in consequence of an intrigue
-with a M^{lle.} Du Noyer, whose mother, a Protestant refugee at the
-Hague, gained her living by scandal and libels, and on this occasion
-thought something might be got by complaining to the ambassador, and
-printing young Arouet’s love-letters. He was, however, not easily
-discouraged. He endeavoured to interest the Jesuits in his affairs, by
-representing M^{lle.} Du Noyer as a ready convert, whom it would be
-Catholic charity to snatch from the influence of an apostate mother.
-This manœuvre having failed, he sought a reconciliation with his father,
-who remained a long while implacable; but touched at last by his son’s
-entreaties to be permitted to see him once more, on condition of leaving
-the country immediately afterwards for America, he consented to receive
-him into favour. Arouet again attempted legal studies, but soon
-abandoned them in disgust. The Regency had now commenced; and among the
-numerous satires directed against the memory of Louis XIV., one was
-attributed to him. The report caused him a year’s imprisonment in the
-Bastille. Soon afterwards he changed the name of Arouet for that of
-Voltaire. “I have been unhappy,” he said, “so long as I bore the first:
-let us see if the other will bring better fortune.” It seemed indeed
-that it did so, for in 1718 the tragedy of Œdipe was represented, and
-established the reputation of its author. It had been principally
-composed in the Bastille, where he also laid the foundation of his
-Henriade, which occupied the time he could spare from amorous and
-political intrigue, until 1724. Desiring to publish it, he submitted the
-poem to some select friends, men of severe taste, who met at the house
-of the President de Maisons. They found so many faults that the author
-threw the manuscript into the fire. The President Hénault rescued it
-with difficulty, and said, “Young man, your haste has cost me a pair of
-best lace ruffles: why should your poem be better than its hero, who was
-full of faults, yet none of us like him the worse?” Surreptitious copies
-spread rapidly, and gained for the author much both of celebrity and
-envy. But it displeased two powerful classes: the priests were
-apprehensive of its religious, the courtiers of its political, tendency;
-insomuch that the publication was prohibited by government, and the
-young king refused to accept the dedication. Soon after this, Voltaire
-was sent again to the Bastille, in consequence of a quarrel with the
-Chevalier de Rohan: and on his liberation, he was banished to England.
-There he remained three years, perhaps the most important era of his
-life, for it gave an entirely new direction to his lively mind. Hitherto
-a wit, and a writer of agreeable verse, he became in England a
-philosopher. Returning to France in 1726, he brought with him an
-admiration of our manners, and a knowledge of our best writers, which
-visibly influenced his own compositions and those of his contemporaries.
-He now published several poetical and dramatic pieces with variable
-success; but he was more than once forced to quit Paris by the clamour
-and persecution of his enemies. After the failure of one of his plays,
-Fontenelle and some other literary associates seriously advised him to
-abandon the drama, as less suited to his talent than the light style of
-fugitive poetry in which he had uniformly succeeded. He answered them by
-writing Zaire, which was acted with great applause in 1732. He had
-already published his history of Charles XII.: that of Peter the Great
-was written much later in life. The Lettres Philosophiques, secretly
-printed at Rouen, and rapidly circulating, increased his popularity, and
-the zeal of his enemies. This work was burnt by the common hangman.
-About this time commenced that celebrated intimacy with Emilie Marquise
-du Châtelet, which for nearly twenty years stimulated and guided his
-genius. Love made him a mathematician. In the studious leisure of Cirey,
-under the auspices of “la sublime Emilie,” he plunged himself into the
-most abstract speculations, and acquired a new title to fame by
-publishing the Elements of Newton in 1738, and contending for a prize
-proposed by the Academy of Sciences. At the same time he produced in
-rapid succession Alzire, Mahomet, and Merope. His fame was now become
-European. Frederic of Prussia, Stanislaus, and other sovereigns honoured
-him, or were honoured by his correspondence. But the perpetual intrigues
-of his enemies at home deprived him of repose, and even at Cirey he was
-not always free from troubles and altercations. Upon the death of Madame
-du Châtelet, in 1749, he accepted the often urged invitation of
-Frederic, and took up his residence at the Court of Berlin. But the
-friendship of the king and the philosopher was not of long duration. A
-violent quarrel with the geometrician, Maupertuis, who was also living
-under the protection of Frederic, ended, after some ineffectual attempts
-at accommodation, in Voltaire’s departure from Frederic’s society and
-dominions (1753). He had just published his Siècle de Louis XIV., which
-was shortly followed by the Essai sur les Mœurs. After a few more
-wanderings, for the versatility of his talent seemed to require a
-corresponding variety of abode, Voltaire finally fixed himself at
-Ferney, near Geneva, in the sixty-fifth year of his eventful life, and
-began to enjoy at leisure his vast reputation. From all parts of Europe
-strangers undertook pilgrimages to this philosophic shrine. Sovereigns
-took pride in corresponding with the Patriarch, as he was called by the
-numerous sect of free-thinkers, and self-styled _philosophers_, who
-looked up to him as their teacher and leader. The Society of
-Philosophers at Paris, now employed in their great work, the
-Encyclopædia, which, from the moment of its ill-judged prohibition by
-the government had assumed the character of an antichristian manifesto,
-looked up to Voltaire as the acknowledged chief of their party. He
-furnished some of the most important articles in the work. His whole
-mind seemed now to be bent on one object, the subversion of the
-Christian religion. Innumerable miscellaneous compositions, different in
-form, and generally anonymous, indeed often disavowed, were marked by
-this pernicious tendency. “I am tired,” he is reported to have said, “of
-hearing it repeated that twelve men were sufficient to found
-Christianity: I will show the world that _one_ is sufficient to destroy
-it!” Half a century has elapsed, and the event has not justified the
-truth of this boast: he mistook his own strength, as many other
-unbelievers have done. These impious extravagances were not, however,
-the only occupation of the twenty years which intervened between
-Voltaire’s establishment at Ferney and his death. In the defence of
-Sirven, Lally, Labarre, Calas, and others, who at several times were
-objects of unjust condemnation by the judicial tribunals, he exerted
-himself with a zeal as indefatigable as it was meritorious. Ferney,
-under his protection, grew to a considerable village, and the
-inhabitants learned to bless the liberalities of their patron. His mind
-continued to be embittered by literary quarrels, the most memorable
-being that with J. J. Rousseau, commemorated in his poem, entitled
-‘Guerre Civile de Genève’ (1768). He hated this unfortunate exile, as a
-rival, as an enthusiast, and as a friend, comparatively speaking, to
-Christianity. Nor were these his only disquietudes. The publication of
-the infamous poem of La Pucelle, which he suffered in strict confidence
-to circulate among his intimate friends, and which was printed by the
-treachery of some of them, gave him much uneasiness. For its indecency
-and impiety he might not have cared: but all who had offended him,
-authors, courtiers, even the king and his mistress, were abused in it in
-the grossest manner, and Voltaire had no wish to provoke the arm of
-power. He had recourse to his usual process of disavowal, and as he
-could not deny the whole, he asserted that the offensive parts had been
-intercalated by his enemies. In other instances his zeal outran
-discretion, and affected his comforts by producing apprehension for his
-safety. Sometimes a panic terror of assassination took possession of
-him, and it needed all the gentleness and assiduities of his adopted
-daughter, Madame de Varicourt, to whom he was tenderly attached, to
-bring back his usual levity of mind. At length, in 1778, Voltaire
-yielding to the entreaties of his favourite niece, Madame Denis, came to
-Paris, where at the theatre he was greeted by a numerous assemblage in a
-manner resembling the crowning of an Athenian dramatic poet, more than
-any modern exhibition of popular favour. Borne back to his hotel amidst
-the acclamations of thousands, the aged man said feebly, “You are
-suffocating me with roses.” He did not indeed long survive this
-festival. Continued study, and the immoderate use of coffee, renewed a
-strangury to which he had been subject, and he died May 30, 1778. He was
-interred with the rites of Christian worship, a point concerning which
-he had shown some solicitude, in the Abbaye de Scellières. In 1791 his
-remains were removed by the Revolutionists, and deposited with great
-pomp in the Pantheon.
-
-It is difficult within our contracted limits to give an accurate
-character of Voltaire. In versatility of powers, and in variety of
-knowledge, he stands unrivalled: but he might have earned a better and
-more lasting name, had he concentrated his talents and exertions on
-fewer subjects, and studied them more deeply. It has been truly and
-wittily observed that “he _half knew_ every thing, from the cedar of
-Lebanon to the hyssop on the wall; and he wrote of them all, and laughed
-at them all.” Of the feeling of veneration, either for God or man, he
-seems to have been incapable. He thought too highly of himself to look
-up to any thing. Capricious, passionate, and generally selfish, he was
-yet accessible to sudden impulses of generosity. He was an acute rather
-than a subtle thinker. Perhaps in the whole compass of his philosophical
-works there is not to be found one original opinion, or entirely new
-argument; but no man ever was endowed with so happy a facility for
-illustrating the thoughts of others, and imparting a lively clearness to
-the most abstruse speculations. He brought philosophy from the closet
-into the drawing-room. Eminently skilled to detect and satirize the
-faults and follies of mankind, his love of ridicule was too strong for
-his love of truth. He saw the ludicrous side of opinions in a moment,
-and often unfortunately could see nothing else. His alchymy was directed
-towards transmuting the imperfect metals into dross. All enthusiasm,
-eagerness of belief, magnifying of probabilities through the medium of
-excited feeling, all that makes a sect as well in its author as its
-followers, these things were simply foolish in his estimation. It is
-impossible to gather from his works any connected system of philosophy:
-they are full of contradictions; but the pervading principle which gives
-them some form of coherence is a rancorous aversion to Christianity. As
-a Deist believing in a God, “rémunérateur vengeur,” but proscribing all
-established worship, Voltaire occupies a middle position between
-Rousseau on the one hand, who, while he avowed scepticism as to the
-proofs, professed reverence for the characteristics of Revealed
-Religion, and Diderot on the other, with his fanatical crew of Atheists,
-who laughed not without reason at their Patriarch of Ferney, for
-imagining that he, whose life had been spent in trying to unsettle the
-religious opinions of mankind, could fix the point at which unbelief
-should stop. The dramatic poems of Voltaire retain their place among the
-first in their language, but his other poetical works have lost much of
-the reputation they once enjoyed. He paints with fidelity and vividness
-the broad lineaments of passion, and excels in that light, allusive
-style, which brings no image or sentiment into strong relief, and is
-therefore totally unlike the analytic and picturesque mode of
-delineation, to which in this country, and especially in this age, we
-are apt to limit the name and prerogatives of imagination. As a
-novelist, he has seldom been equalled in wit and profligacy. As an
-historian, he may be considered one of the first who authorized the
-modern philosophizing manner, treating history rather as a reservoir of
-facts for the illustration of moral science, than as a department of
-descriptive art. He is often inaccurate, and seldom profound, but always
-lively and interesting. On the whole, however the general reputation of
-Voltaire may rise or fall with the fluctuations of public opinion, he
-must continue to deserve admiration as
-
-         “The wonder of a learned age; the line
-         Which none could pass; the wittiest, clearest pen;
-         _The voice most echoed by consenting men;
-         The soul, which answered best to all well said
-         By others, and which most requital made_.”—CLEVELAND.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by J. Posselwhite._
-
-  RUBENS.
-
-  _From the original Picture by himself,
-  in His Majesty’s Collection._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                RUBENS.
-
-
-The father of this great painter was a magistrate of Antwerp, who,
-during the desperate struggle of the Netherlands to shake off the
-dominion of Spain, retired from his own city to Cologne, to escape from
-the miseries of war. There, in the year 1577, Peter Paul Rubens was
-born. At an early age he gave indications of superior abilities, and his
-education was conducted with suitable care. The elder Rubens returned to
-Antwerp with his family, when that city passed again into the hands of
-Spain. It was the custom of that age to domesticate the sons of
-honourable families in the houses of the nobility, where they were
-instructed in all the accomplishments becoming a gentleman: and in
-conformity with it, young Rubens entered as a page into the service of
-the Countess of Lalain. The restraint and formality of this life ill
-suited his warm imagination and active mind: and on his father’s death,
-he obtained permission from his mother to commence his studies as a
-painter under Tobias Verhaecht, by whom he was taught the principles of
-landscape painting, and of architecture. But Rubens wished to become an
-historical painter, and he entered the school of Adam Van Oort, who was
-then eminent in that branch of art. This man possessed great talents,
-but they were degraded by a brutal temper and profligate habits, and
-Rubens soon left him in disgust. His next master was Otho Van Veen, or
-Venius, an artist in almost every respect the opposite of Van Oort,
-distinguished by scholastic acquirements as well as professional skill,
-of refined manners, and amiable disposition. Rubens was always
-accustomed to speak of him with great respect and affection, nor was it
-extraordinary that he should have conceived a cordial esteem for a man
-whose character bore so strong a resemblance to his own. From Venius,
-Rubens imbibed his fondness for allegory; which, though in many respects
-objectionable, certainly contributes to the magnificence of his style.
-In 1600, after having studied four years under this master, he visited
-Italy, bearing letters of recommendation from Albert, governor of the
-Netherlands, by whom he had already been employed, to Vincenzio Gonzaga,
-duke of Mantua. He was received by that prince with marked distinction,
-and appointed one of the gentlemen of his chamber. He remained at Mantua
-two years, during which time he executed several original pictures, and
-devoted himself attentively to the study of the works of Giulio Romano.
-
-In passing through Venice, Rubens had been deeply impressed with the
-great works of art which he saw there. He had determined to revisit that
-city on the first opportunity, and at length obtained permission from
-his patron to do so. In the Venetian school his genius found its proper
-aliment; but it is perhaps to Paul Veronese that he is principally
-indebted. He looked at Titian, no doubt, with unqualified admiration;
-but Titian has on all occasions, a dignity and sedateness not congenial
-to the gay temperament of Rubens. In Paul Veronese he found all the
-elements of his subsequent style; gaiety, magnificence, fancy disdainful
-of restraint, brilliant colouring, and that masterly execution by which
-an almost endless variety of objects are blended into one harmonious
-whole. Three pictures painted for the church of the Jesuits immediately
-after his return to Mantua, attested how effectually he had prosecuted
-his studies at Venice. He then developed those powers which afterwards
-established his reputation, and secured to him a distinction which he
-still holds without a competitor, that of being the best imitator, and
-most formidable rival of the Venetian school.
-
-Rome, with its exhaustless treasures of art, was still before him, and
-he was soon gratified with an opportunity of visiting that capital. The
-Duke of Mantua wished to obtain copies of some of the finest pictures
-there, and he engaged Rubens to make them, with the double motive of
-availing himself of his talents and facilitating his studies. This task
-was doubtless rendered light to Rubens, as well by gratitude towards his
-patron as by his own great facility of execution. In this respect Sir J.
-Reynolds considers him superior to all other painters; and says that he
-was “perhaps the greatest master in the mechanical part of his art, the
-best workman with his tools, that ever handled a pencil.” He executed
-for the Duke copies of several great works, which could scarcely be
-distinguished from the originals. Among his own compositions, painted
-while at Rome, the most conspicuous are three in the church of S. Croce
-in Gerusalemme, two of which, Christ bearing the Cross, and the
-Crucifixion, are considered to rank among his finest productions. There
-is also, in the Campidoglio, a picture painted by him at this time, of
-the finding of Romulus and Remus, a work of remarkable spirit and
-beauty.
-
-Rubens, however, had formed his style at Venice, and was not induced by
-the contemplation of the great works at Rome to alter it in any
-essential particular. It is not thence to be inferred that he was
-insensible to the wonders which surrounded him at Rome; that he did not
-appreciate the epic sublimity of Michael Angelo, the pure intelligence
-of Raphael; his admiration of ancient sculpture is attested by his
-written precepts. Of the antique, certainly, no trace of imitation is to
-be found in his works; but perhaps the bold style of design, which he
-had adopted in opposition to the meagre taste of his German
-predecessors, was confirmed by the swelling outlines of Michael Angelo.
-If he imitated Raphael in any thing, it was in composition; and if in
-that great quality of art he has any superior, it is in Raphael alone.
-
-The opinion which the Duke of Mantua had formed of Rubens’s general
-powers was now evinced in an extraordinary manner. Having occasion, in
-1605, to send an envoy to Spain, he selected Rubens for the purpose, and
-directed him to return immediately from Rome to Mantua, in order to set
-out on his embassy. The young artist succeeded equally well as a
-diplomatist, and as a painter. He executed a portrait of the King, who
-honoured him with flattering marks of distinction, and he fully
-accomplished the object of his mission. Shortly after his return to
-Mantua he revisited Rome, where he contributed three pictures to the
-church of S. Maria in Vallicella. In these the imitation of Paul
-Veronese is particularly conspicuous. He next went to Genoa, where he
-executed several important works, and was regarded in that city with an
-interest and respect commensurate to his high reputation. In the midst
-of this splendid career, Rubens received intelligence that his mother,
-from whom he had been absent eight years, lay dangerously ill. He
-hastened to Antwerp, but she had expired before his arrival. The death
-of this affectionate parent afflicted him so severely, that he
-determined to quit a city fraught with painful associations, and to take
-up his future residence in Italy. But the Duke Albert, and the Infanta
-Isabella, being anxious to retain him in their own territory, he was
-induced to relinquish his intention, and finally settled at Antwerp.
-
-There he continued to practise during several years, and enriched
-Europe, the Low Countries especially, with a surprising number of
-pictures almost uniform in excellence. His style, indeed, with all its
-admirable qualities, was one in which the delicacies of form and
-expression were never allowed to stand in the way of despatch. His mode
-of working was to make small sketches, slightly but distinctly; these
-were delivered to his scholars, who executed pictures from them on a
-larger scale, which they carried forward almost to the final stage, at
-which Rubens took them up himself. Thus his own labour was given only to
-invention and finishing, the only parts of the art in which the
-painter’s genius is essentially exercised. Wherever his works were
-dispersed, the demand for them increased, and fortune poured in on him
-in a golden flood. Rubens’s mode of living at Antwerp was the _beau
-idéal_ of a painter’s existence. His house was embellished with such a
-collection of works of art, pictures, statues, busts, vases, and other
-objects of curiosity and elegance, as gave it the air of a princely
-museum. In the midst of these he pursued his labours, and it was his
-constant practice while painting to have read to him works of ancient or
-modern literature in various languages. It is a strong testimony to the
-variety of his powers, and the cultivation of his mind, that he was well
-skilled in seven different tongues. His splendid establishment
-comprehended a collection of wild beasts, which he kept as living models
-for those hunting pieces, and other representations of savage animals,
-which have never been surpassed. Such talents and such success could not
-fail of exciting envy; a cabal headed by Schut, Jansens, and Rombouts,
-endeavoured to detract from his reputation, and it is amusing to find
-him accused, among other deficiencies, of wanting invention! His great
-picture of the Descent from the Cross, painted for the Cathedral of
-Antwerp, and exhibited while the outcry against him was at its height,
-effectually allayed it. Snyders and Wildens were answered in a similar
-manner. They had insinuated that the chief credit of Rubens’s landscapes
-and animals was due to their assistance. Rubens painted several lion and
-tiger hunts, and other similar works, entirely with his own hand, which
-he did not permit to be seen until they were completed. In these works
-he even surpassed his former productions; they were executed with a
-truth power, and energy, which excited universal astonishment, and
-effectually put his adversaries to silence. Rubens condescended to give
-no other reply to his calumniators; and he showed his own goodness of
-heart, by finding employment for those among them whom he understood to
-be in want of it.
-
-In 1628 he was commissioned by Mary de Medici, Queen of France, to adorn
-the gallery of the Luxembourg with a set of pictures, twenty-four in
-number, illustrative of the events of her life. Within three years he
-completed this magnificent series, in which allegory mingles with
-history, and the immense variety of actors, human and superhuman, with
-appropriate accompaniments, lays open a boundless field to the
-imagination of the artist. The largest of these pictures, which is the
-Coronation of Mary de Medici, combines with the gorgeous colouring
-proper to the subject, a correctness and chastity of design seldom
-attained by Rubens, and is consequently an example of that high
-excellence which might be expected from his style when divested of its
-imperfections. The gallery of the Luxembourg, as long as it possessed
-those ornaments, was considered one of the wonders of Europe. The
-pictures are now removed to the Louvre, and are seen perhaps with
-diminished effect, among the mass of miscellaneous works with which they
-are surrounded.
-
-The two last of the Luxembourg series Rubens finished in Paris. On his
-return to the Netherlands his political talents were again called into
-requisition, and he was despatched by the Infanta Isabella to Madrid, to
-receive instructions preparatory to a negotiation for peace between
-Spain and England. Philip IV., and the Duke de Olivarez, his minister,
-received him with every demonstration of regard, nor did they neglect to
-avail themselves of his professional skill. The King engaged him to
-paint four pictures of large dimensions for the Convent of Carmelites,
-near Madrid, recently founded by Olivarez, to whom Philip presented
-those magnificent works. The subjects were the Triumph of the New Law,
-Abraham and Melchizedec, the four Evangelists, and the four Doctors of
-the Church, with their distinctive emblems. He also painted a series of
-pictures for the great Saloon of the Palace at Madrid, which represent
-the Rape of the Sabines, the Battle between the Romans and Sabines, the
-Bath of Diana, Perseus and Andromeda, the Rape of Helen, the Judgment of
-Paris, and the Triumph of Bacchus. The Judgment of Paris is now in the
-possession of Mr. Penrice, of Great Yarmouth, and may be considered one
-of the finest of Rubens’s smaller pictures; the figures being half the
-size of life. The King rewarded him munificently, and conferred on him
-the honour of knighthood.
-
-Rubens returned to Flanders in 1627, and had no sooner rendered an
-account of his mission to the Infanta, than he was sent by that princess
-to England in order to sound the Government on the subject of a peace
-with Spain, the chief obstacle to which had been removed by the death of
-the Duke of Buckingham. It is probable that Rubens’s extraordinary
-powers as an artist formed one motive for employing him in those
-diplomatic functions. The monarchs to whose courts he was sent were
-passionate admirers of art; and the frequent visits which they made to
-Rubens in his painting room, and the confidence with which they honoured
-him, gave him opportunities, perhaps, in his double capacity, of
-obviating political difficulties, which might not otherwise have been so
-easily overcome. This was certainly the case in his negotiations with
-Charles I. He was not, it appears, formally presented in the character
-of an envoy. But the monarch received him with all the consideration due
-to his distinguished character; and it was while he was engaged on the
-paintings at Whitehall, the progress of which the King delighted to
-inspect, that he disclosed the object of his visit, and produced his
-credentials. This he did with infinite delicacy and address; and the
-King was by no means indisposed to listen to his proposals. A council
-was appointed to negotiate with him on the subject of a pacification,
-which was soon after concluded. It was on this occasion that Rubens
-painted and presented to the King the picture of Peace and War, which is
-now in our National Gallery. The relation of that work to the object of
-his mission is obvious: the blessings of peace in contradistinction to
-the miseries of war are beautifully illustrated; and whether Rubens paid
-this compliment to the King while his negotiations were in progress, or
-after they were terminated, a more elegant and appropriate gift was
-never addressed by a minister to a monarch. The painter was splendidly
-remunerated, and honoured with knighthood by Charles in 1630. The object
-of his mission being happily accomplished, he returned to the
-Netherlands, where he was received with the distinction due to his
-splendid genius and successful services.
-
-His various and incessant labours appear to have prematurely broken his
-constitution; he had scarcely attained his fifty-eighth year when he was
-attacked by gout with more than usual severity. This painful disease was
-succeeded by a general debility, which obliged him to desist from the
-execution of large works, to relinquish all public business, and even to
-limit his correspondence to his particular friends, and a few
-distinguished artists. His letters, however, when he touches on the
-subject of art, rise into a strain of animated enthusiasm. He continued
-to work, but chiefly on small subjects, till the year 1640, when he died
-at the age of sixty-three. He was interred with great splendour in the
-church of St. James, under the altar of his private chapel, which he had
-ornamented with one of his finest pictures. A monument was erected to
-his memory by his widow and children, with an epitaph descriptive of his
-distinguished talents, the functions he had filled, and the honours with
-which he had been rewarded.
-
-In extent of range the pencil of Rubens is unrivalled. History,
-portrait, landscape under the aspect of every season, animal life in
-every form, are equally familiar to him. His hunting pieces especially,
-wherein lions, tigers, and other wild animals, with men, dogs, and
-horses, are depicted under all the circumstances of fierce excitement,
-momentary action, and complicated foreshortenings, are wonderful. Rubens
-wanted only a purer style in designing the human figure, to have been a
-perfect, as well as a universal painter. His taste in this particular is
-singularly unlike that which the habits of his life seemed likely to
-produce. He had been bred up in scenes of courtly elegance, and he was
-acquainted with whatever was beautiful in art; yet his conception of
-character, especially in relation to feminine beauty, betrays a singular
-want of refinement. His goddesses, nymphs, and heroines are usually fat,
-middle-aged ladies, sometimes even old and ugly; and they always retain
-the peculiarities of individual models. His men too, though not without
-an air of portly grandeur, want mental dignity. Faults of such magnitude
-would have ruined the fame of almost any other painter; but while the
-pictures of Rubens are before us, it is hard to criticise severely their
-defects. If, as a colourist, he is inferior to Titian, it is, perhaps,
-rather in kind than in degree: Titian’s colouring may be compared to the
-splendour of the summer sun; that of Rubens excites the exhilarating
-sensations of a spring morning. It is true that the artifice of his
-system is sometimes too apparent, whereas, in Titian, it is wholly
-concealed; Rubens, however, painted for a darker atmosphere, and adapted
-the effect of his pictures to the light in which they were likely to be
-seen. Inferior to Raphael in elegance and purity of composition, he
-competes with him in fertility and clearness of arrangement. He drew
-from Paul Veronese a general idea of diffused and splendid effect, but
-he superadded powers of pathos and expression, to which that artist was
-a stranger. It is, as Reynolds justly observes, only in his large works
-that the genius of Rubens is fully developed; in these he appears as the
-Homer of his art, dazzling and astonishing with poetic conception, with
-grandeur, and energy, and executive power.
-
-Of Rubens’s personal character we may speak in terms of high praise. He
-bore his great reputation without pride or presumption; he was amiable
-in his domestic relations, courteous and affable to all. He was the
-liberal encourager of merit, especially in his own art, and he repaid
-those among his contemporaries who aspersed him, by endeavouring to
-serve them. His own mind was uncontaminated by envy, for which perhaps
-little credit will be given him, conscious, as he must have been, of his
-own most extraordinary endowments. His noble admission, however, of
-Titian’s superiority, when he copied one of his works at Madrid, attests
-the magnanimity of his disposition; and his almost parental kindness to
-his pupil, Vandyke, shows that he was equally willing to recognize the
-claims, and to promote the success of living genius.
-
-Rubens’s greatest works are at Antwerp, Cologne, Paris, Munich, and
-Madrid. The paintings at Whitehall might have formed a noble monument of
-his powers, but they have suffered both from neglect and reparation.
-There are smaller works of his in the National Gallery, the Dulwich
-Gallery, and in almost every private collection in this country.
-
-The best memoir of Rubens with which we are acquainted is in La Vie des
-Peintres Flamands, par Descamps. Notices may also be found in the Abrégé
-de la Vie des Peintres, par De Piles. There is an English life in
-Bryan’s Dictionary of Painters.
-
-[Illustration: Entrance to Rubens’ Garden, from a design by himself.]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by T. Woolnoth._
-
-  RICHELIEU.
-
-  _From a Picture,
-  in his Majesty’s Collection._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                               RICHELIEU.
-
-
-The name of Du Plessis was borne by an ancient family of Poitou, which
-subsequently acquired by marriage the property and title of Richelieu.
-Francois Du Plessis was attached to King Henry III. while he was yet
-Duke of Anjou; accompanied him when he became King of Poland; and was
-made Grand Provost of his Court, after his accession to the throne of
-France. In this capacity he arrested the followers of Guise, when that
-duke was assassinated at Blois, in 1588.
-
-Armand Jean Du Plessis, the future cardinal, was the third son of this
-dignitary, and was born on the 5th of September, 1585, at Paris, say his
-biographers, Aubery and Leclerc; whilst tradition claims this honour for
-the family château in Poitou. He received the elements of education at
-home, from the Prior of St. Florent; but soon quitted the paternal
-mansion, first for the College of Navarre, subsequently for that of
-Lisieux. From thence he removed to a military academy, being intended
-for the profession of arms. But on his brother, who was Bishop of Luçon,
-resolving to quit the world for the cloister, young Armand was advised
-to abandon the sword for the gown, in order that he might succeed to his
-brother’s bishopric.
-
-He adopted the advice, entered with zeal into the study of theology, and
-soon qualified himself to pass creditably through the exercises
-necessary to obtain the degree of Doctor in Theology. He already wore
-the insignia of his bishopric. But the Pope’s sanction was still
-wanting, and was withheld on account of the extreme youth of the
-expectant. Resolved to overcome this difficulty, he set off to Rome,
-addressed the Pontiff in a Latin oration, and gave such proofs of talent
-and acquirements above his age, that he was consecrated at Rome on the
-Easter of 1607, being as yet but twenty-two years of age.
-
-This position attained, Richelieu endeavoured to make the utmost
-advantage of it. He acquired the good-will of his diocese by rigid
-attention to the affairs that fell under his jurisdiction; whilst in
-frequent visits to the capital, he sought to acquire reputation by
-preaching. In the Estates General of 1614, he was chosen deputy by his
-diocese, and was afterwards selected by the clergy of the states to
-present their _cahier_ or vote of grievances to the monarch. It was an
-opportunity not to be thrown away by the ambition of Richelieu, who
-instantly put himself forward as the champion of the Queen Mother
-against the cabal of the high noblesse. He at the same time adroitly
-pointed out where she might find auxiliaries, by complaining that
-ecclesiastics had no longer a place in the public administration, and
-were thus degraded from their ancient and legitimate share of influence.
-Richelieu was rewarded with the place of Almoner to the Queen; and he
-was soon admitted to her confidence, as well as to that of her favourite
-the Maréchal D’Ancre.
-
-In 1616 he was appointed Secretary of State; but aware by what slender
-tenure the office was held, he refused to give up his bishopric. This
-excited not only the animadversions of the public, but the anger of the
-favourite. Richelieu offered to give up his secretaryship, but the Queen
-could not dispense with his talents. The assassination of the favourite,
-however, soon overthrew the influence of the Queen herself. Still
-Richelieu remained attached to her, and followed her to Blois: but the
-triumphant party dreading his talents for intrigue, ordered him to quit
-the Queen, and repair to one of his priories in Anjou. He was
-subsequently commanded to retire to his bishopric, and at last exiled to
-Avignon. Here he sought to avert suspicion by affecting to devote
-himself once more to theological pursuits. During this period he
-published one or two polemical tracts, the mediocrity of which proves
-either that his genius lay not in this path, or, as is probable, that
-his interest and thoughts were elsewhere.
-
-The escape of the Queen Mother from her place of confinement, excited
-the fears of her enemies, and the hopes of Richelieu. He wrote instantly
-to Court, to proffer his services towards bringing about an
-accommodation. In the difficulty of the moment, the King and his
-favourite accepted the offer. Richelieu was released from exile, and
-allowed to join the Queen at Angoulême, where he laboured certainly to
-bring about a reconciliation. This was not, however, such as the Court
-could have wished. De Luynes, the favourite, accused the Bishop of Luçon
-of betraying him. The Queen sought to regain her ancient authority; the
-Court wished to quiet and content her without this sacrifice; and both
-parties, accordingly, after seeming and nominal agreements, fell off
-again from each other. De Luynes sought a support in the family of
-Condé; whilst Mary de Medici, refusing to repair to Paris, and keeping
-in her towns of surety on the Loire, flattered the Huguenots, and
-endeavoured to bind them to her party. On this occasion Richelieu became
-intimately acquainted with the designs and intrigues and spirit of the
-Reformers.
-
-The division betwixt the King and his mother still continued. The
-discontented nobles joined the latter, and flew to arms. This state of
-things did not please Richelieu, since defeat ruined his party, and
-success brought honour rather to those who fought than to him. He
-therefore exerted himself, first to keep away the chief of the nobility
-from the Queen, secondly, to bring about an accommodation. The
-difficulties were got over by the defeat of the Queen’s forces owing to
-surprise, and by the promotion of Richelieu to the rank of Cardinal. The
-malevolent coupled the two circumstances together; and even the
-impartial must descry a singular coincidence. The event, at least,
-proves his address; for when the agreement was finally concluded, it was
-found that Richelieu, the negotiator, had himself reaped all the
-benefits. He received the cardinal’s hat from the King’s hand at Lyons,
-towards the close of the year 1622.
-
-Not content with this advancement of her counsellor, Mary de Medici
-continued to press the King to admit Richelieu to his cabinet. Louis
-long resisted her solicitations, such was his instinctive dread of the
-man destined to rule him. Nor was it until 1624, after the lapse of
-sixteen months, and when embarrassed with difficult state questions,
-which no one then in office was capable of managing, that the royal will
-was declared admitting Richelieu to the council. Even this grace was
-accompanied by the drawback, that the Cardinal was allowed to give
-merely his opinion, not his vote.
-
-Once, however, seated at the council table, the colleagues of the
-Cardinal shrunk before him into ciphers. The marriage of the Princess
-Henrietta with the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I., was then in
-agitation. Richelieu undertook to conduct it, and overcame the delays of
-etiquette and the repugnance of Rome. De Vieville, the King’s favourite
-and minister, venturing to show jealousy of Richelieu, was speedily
-removed. The affair of the Valteline had given rise to endless
-negotiations. The matter in dispute was the attempt of the House of
-Austria to procure a passage across the Grisons to connect their Italian
-and German dominions. France and the Italian powers had opposed this by
-protests. Richelieu boldly marched an army, and avowed in council his
-determination to adopt the policy and resume the scheme of Henry IV.,
-for the humiliation of the House of Austria. The King and his Council
-were terrified at such a gigantic proposal: instead of being awed by the
-genius of Richelieu, as yet they mistrusted it. Peace was concluded with
-Spain; on no unfavourable conditions indeed, but not on such as
-flattered the new minister’s pride.
-
-Whilst these negotiations with Spain were yet in progress, the Huguenots
-menaced a renewal of the civil war. Richelieu advised in the council
-that their demands should be granted, urging that whilst a foreign foe
-was in the field, domestic enemies were better quieted than irritated.
-His enemies took advantage of this, and represented the Cardinal as a
-favourer of heresy. This charge is continually brought against those who
-are indifferent to religious dissensions; but it is probable that
-Richelieu did seek at this time to gain the support of the Protestant
-party, attacked as he was by a strong band of malcontent nobles, envious
-of his rise, and intolerant of his authority.
-
-The whole Court, indeed, became leagued against the superiority and
-arrogance of the Minister; the most _qualified_ of the noblesse, to use
-Aubery’s expression, joined with the Duke of Orleans, the monarch’s
-brother, and with the Queen, to overthrow Richelieu. As the Maréchal
-D’Ancre had been made away with by assassination, so the same means were
-again meditated. The Comte de Chalais offered himself as the instrument:
-but the mingled good fortune and address of Richelieu enabled him to
-discover the plot, and avoid this, and every future peril.
-
-His anchor of safety was in the confidence reposed in him by Louis XIII.
-This prince, although of most feeble will, was not without the just
-pride of a monarch; he could not but perceive that his former ministers
-or favourites were but the instruments or slaves of the noblesse, who
-consulted but their own interests, and provided but for the difficulties
-of the moment. Richelieu, on the contrary, though eager for power,
-sought it as an instrument to great ends, to the consolidation of the
-monarchy, and to its ascendancy in Europe. He was in the habit of
-unfolding these high views to Louis, who, though himself incapable of
-putting them into effect, nevertheless had the spirit to admire and
-approve them. Richelieu proposed to render his reign illustrious abroad,
-and at home to convert the chief of a turbulent aristocracy into a real
-monarch. It forms indeed the noblest part of this great statesman’s
-character, that he won upon the royal mind, not by vulgar flattery, but
-by exciting within it a love of glory and of greatness, to which, at the
-same time, he pointed the way.
-
-Accordingly, through all the plots formed against him, Louis XIII.
-remained firmly attached to Richelieu, sacrificing to this minister’s
-preeminence his nobility, his brother Gaston, Duke of Orleans, his
-Queen, and finally the Queen Mother herself, when she too became jealous
-of the man whom she had raised. As yet however Mary de Medici was his
-friend, and Richelieu succeeded in sending his enemies to prison or to
-the scaffold. Gaston was obliged to bow the knee before the Cardinal.
-And Anne of Austria, who was accused of having consented to espouse
-Gaston in case of the King’s death, was for ever exiled from the
-affections of the monarch, and from any influence over him. If this
-latter triumph over the young wife of Louis, whose enmity certainly the
-Cardinal had most to fear, was excited by coldly invented falsehoods,
-history has scarcely recorded a more odious crime.
-
-It is said that Richelieu himself was enamoured of Anne of Austria, and
-that he found himself outrivalled by the Duke of Buckingham. What credit
-should be assigned to the existence and influence of such feelings it is
-difficult to determine. But certainly a strong and personal jealousy of
-Buckingham is to be perceived in the conduct of Richelieu. Policy would
-have recommended the minister to cajole rather than affront the English
-favourite at a time when the Huguenot party was menacing and the
-nobility still indignant. The Cardinal had not long before concluded the
-marriage of the Princess Henrietta with Charles, in order to secure the
-English alliance, and thus deprive the Huguenots of a dangerous support.
-Now he ran counter to these prudent measures, defied Buckingham, whom he
-forbade to visit Paris, and thus united against himself and against the
-monarchy, two most powerful enemies, one foreign, one domestic.
-
-If Richelieu thus imprudently indulged his passion or his pique, he
-redeemed the error by activity and exertion unusual to the age. He at
-once formed the project of attacking the Huguenots in their chief
-strong-hold of La Rochelle. Buckingham could not fail to attempt the
-relief of this sea-port; and the Cardinal anticipated the triumph of
-personally defeating a rival. He accordingly himself proceeded to
-preside over the operation of the siege. To render the blockade
-effectual, it was requisite to stop up the port. The military officers
-whom he employed could suggest no means of doing this. Richelieu took
-counsel of his classic reading; and having learned from Quintus Curtius
-how Alexander the Great reduced Tyre, by carrying out a mole against it
-through the sea, he was encouraged to undertake a similar work. The
-great mound was accordingly commenced, and well-nigh finished, when a
-storm arose and destroyed it in a single night. But Richelieu was only
-rendered more obstinate: he recommenced the mole, and was seen with the
-volume of Alexander’s History in his hand, encouraging the workmen and
-overruling the objections of the tacticians of the army. The second
-attempt succeeded, the harbour was blocked up, and the promised aid of
-England rendered fruitless. The Cardinal triumphed, for La Rochelle
-surrendered. In his treatment of the vanquished, Richelieu showed a
-moderation seldom observable in his conduct. He was lenient, and even
-tolerant towards the Huguenots, content with having humbled the pride of
-his rival, Buckingham.
-
-La Rochelle was no sooner taken, and Richelieu rewarded by the title of
-Prime Minister, than he resumed those projects of humbling the House of
-Austria, in which he had previously been interrupted. A quarrel about
-the succession to Mantua afforded him a pretext to interfere; and he did
-so, after his fashion, not by mere negotiations, but by an army. This
-expedition proved a source of quarrel between him and the Queen Mother,
-Mary de Medici, who hitherto had been his firm and efficient friend.
-Private and family reasons rendered Mary averse to the war. Both the
-French Queens of the House of Medici had shown the reverence of their
-family for the princes of the blood of Austria. Mary, on her accession
-to the regency, had interrupted Henry IV.’s plans for humbling the
-influence of that house. Richelieu’s endeavour to revive this scheme
-called forth her opposition. He was obstinate from high motives; she
-from petty ones. But she could not forgive the ingratitude of him whom
-she had fostered, and who now dared to thwart and counteract her. The
-voice of the conqueror of La Rochelle triumphed in council, and his
-project in the field. The French were victorious in Italy, and the
-minister equally so over the mind of the monarch.
-
-But Mary de Medici could not forgive; and she now openly showed her
-hatred of Richelieu, and exerted herself to the utmost to injure him
-with the King. Though daily defeating her intrigues, the Cardinal
-dreaded her perseverance, and resolved to drag the King with him to
-another Italian campaign. Louis obeyed, and the court set out for the
-south, the Queen Mother herself accompanying it. Richelieu, however, did
-not tarry for the slow motions of the monarch. He flew to the army, took
-upon him the command, and displayed all the abilities of a great general
-in out-manœuvring and worsting the generals and armies of Savoy. In the
-mean time Louis fell dangerously ill at Lyons. His mother, an
-affectionate attendant on his sick couch, resumed her former empire over
-him. At one moment his imminent death seemed to threaten the Cardinal
-with ruin. Louis recovered, however; and his first act was to compel a
-reconciliation, in form at least, between the Cardinal and the Queen
-Mother.
-
-The King’s illness, although not so immediately fatal to Richelieu as
-his enemies had hoped, was still attended with serious consequences to
-him. The French army had met with ill success through the treachery of
-the general, Marillac, who was secretly attached to the Queen’s party:
-and the failure was attributed to Richelieu.
-
-Mary de Medici renewed her solicitations to her son, that he would
-dismiss his minister. Louis, it appears, made a promise to that effect;
-a reluctant promise, given to get rid of her importunity. Mary
-calculated too securely upon his keeping it; she broke forth in bitter
-contumely against Richelieu; deprived him of his superintendence over
-her household; and treated Madame de Combalet, the Cardinal’s niece, who
-had sunk on her knees to entreat her to moderate her anger, almost with
-insult. The King was present, and seemed to sanction her violence; so
-that Richelieu withdrew to make his preparations for exile. Louis,
-dissatisfied and irresolute, retired to Versailles; whilst Mary remained
-triumphant at the Luxembourg, receiving the congratulations of her
-party. Richelieu in the mean time, ere taking his departure, repaired to
-Versailles, and, once there, resumed the ascendant over the monarch. The
-tidings of this was a thunderstroke to Mary and her party, who became
-instantly the victims of the Cardinal’s revenge. Marillac was beheaded;
-and Mary de Medici, herself at length completely vanquished by her
-rival, was driven out of France to spend the rest of her days in exile.
-
-Richelieu had thus triumphed over every interest and every personage
-that was, or was likely to be, inimical to his sway. The young Queen,
-Anne of Austria, and the Queen Mother, Mary de Medici, had alike been
-sacrificed to his preeminence; and it appears that he employed the same
-means to ruin both. One of the weak points of Louis XIII. was jealousy
-of his brother, Gaston, Duke of Orleans, whom he could never abide.
-Notwithstanding his sloth, the King assumed the direction of the Italian
-army, and went through the campaign, to prevent Gaston from earning
-honour, by filling the place of command. Richelieu made effectual use of
-this foible; he overcame Anne of Austria, by bringing proofs that she
-preferred Gaston to the King; and he overcame Mary de Medici by a
-similar story, that she favoured Gaston, and was paving the way for his
-succession.
-
-The Duke of Orleans was now indignant at his mother’s exile, and
-espoused her interest with heat. He intruded upon Richelieu, menacing
-him personally; nor did the latter refrain from returning both menace
-and insult. Gaston fled to Lorraine, and formed a league with its duke,
-and with the majority of the French noblesse, for the purpose of
-avenging the wrongs of his mother, and driving from authority the
-upstart and tyrannical minister.
-
-The trial of Marillac had roused the spirit and indignation even of
-those nobles, who had previously respected and bowed to the minister of
-the royal choice. This nobleman and maréchal was seized at the head of
-his army, and conveyed, not to a prison, but to Richelieu’s own
-country-house at Ruel. Instead of being tried by his Peers or in
-Parliament, he was here brought before a Commission of Judges, chosen by
-his enemy. He was tried in the Cardinal’s own hall, condemned, and
-executed in the Place de Grève.
-
-The iniquity of such a proceeding offered a popular pretext for the
-nobility to withstand the Cardinal: and they were not without other
-reasons. Richelieu not only threatened their order with the scaffold,
-but his measures of administration were directed to deprive them of
-their ancient privileges, and means of wealth and domination. One of
-these was the right of governors of provinces to raise the revenue
-within their jurisdiction, and to employ or divert no small portion of
-it to their use. Richelieu to remedy this transferred the office of
-collecting the revenue to new officers, called the _Elect_. He tried
-this in Languedoc, then governed by the Duc de Montmorenci, a noble of
-the first rank, whose example consequently would have weight, and who
-had always proved himself obedient and loyal. Moved, however, by his
-private wrongs, as well as that of his order, he now joined the party of
-the Duke of Orleans. That weak prince, after forming his alliance with
-the Duke of Lorraine, had raised an army. Richelieu lost not a moment in
-despatching a force which reduced Lorraine, and humbled its hitherto
-independent duke almost to the rank of a subject. Gaston then marched
-his army to Languedoc, and joined Montmorenci. The Maréchal de Brezé,
-Richelieu’s brother-in-law, led the royal troops against them, defeated
-Gaston at Castelnaudari, and took Montmorenci prisoner. This noble had
-been the friend and supporter of Richelieu, who even called him his son;
-yet the Cardinal’s cruel policy determined that he should die. There was
-difficulty in proving before the Judges that he had actually borne arms
-against the King.
-
-“The smoke and dust,” said St. Reuil, the witness, “rendered it
-impossible to recognize any combatant distinctly. But when I saw one
-advance alone, and cut his way through five ranks of gens-d’armes, I
-knew that it must be Montmorenci.”
-
-This gallant descendant of five Constables of France perished on the
-scaffold at Toulouse. Richelieu deemed the example necessary, to strike
-terror into the nobility. And he immediately took advantage of that
-terror, by removing all the governors of provinces, and replacing them
-throughout with officers personally attached to his interests.
-
-Having thus made, as it were, a clear stage for the fulfilment of his
-great political schemes, Richelieu turned his exertions to his original
-plan of humbling the House of Austria, and extending the territories of
-France at its expense. He formed an alliance with the great Gustavus
-Adolphus, who then victoriously supported the course of religious
-liberty in Germany. Richelieu drew more advantage from the death than
-from the victories of his ally; since, as the price of his renewing his
-alliance with the Swedes, he acquired the possession of Philipsburg, and
-opened the way towards completing that darling project of France and
-every French statesman, the acquisition of the Rhine as a frontier.
-
-The French having manifested their design to get possession of Treves,
-the Spaniards anticipated them; and open war ensued betwixt the two
-monarchies. The Cardinal allied with the Dutch, and drew up a treaty “to
-free the Low Countries from the cruel servitude in which they are held
-by the Spaniards.” In order to effect this, the French and Dutch were to
-capture the fortresses of the country, and finally divide it between
-them.
-
-But Richelieu’s views or means were not mature enough to produce a
-successful plan of conquest. Surrounded as France was by the dominions
-of her rival, she was obliged to divide her forces, attack on many
-sides, and make conquests on none. The generals, whom he was obliged to
-employ, were remarkable but for servility to him, and jealousy of each
-other. The Cardinal de la Valette headed one of his armies, but with no
-better success than his lay colleagues. Instead of crushing Spain,
-Richelieu endured the mortification of witnessing the irruption of her
-troops into the centre of the kingdom, where they took Corbie, and
-menaced the very capital.
-
-This was a critical moment for Richelieu, who is said to have lost
-courage amidst these reverses, and to have been roused to confidence by
-the exhortations of his Capuchin friend and confidant, Father Joseph. He
-was obliged on this occasion to relax his severity and pride, to own
-that the generals of his choice were little worthy of their trust, and
-to call on the old noblesse and the princes of the blood to lead the
-French troops to the defence of the country. Both obeyed the summons,
-and exerted themselves to prove their worth by the recapture of Corbie,
-and the repulse of the Spaniards. The enemies of the Cardinal were aware
-how much the ignominy of these reverses, as the result of his mighty
-plans, must have abated the King’s confidence in him. They endeavoured
-to take advantage of the moment, and Louis seemed not averse to shake
-off his minister. There was no trusting the King’s intentions, however,
-and it was agreed to assassinate Richelieu at Amiens. The Comte de
-Soissons had his hand on his sword for the purpose, awaiting but the
-signal from Gaston; but the latter wanted resolution to give it, and
-Richelieu again escaped the murderous designs of his foes.
-
-The character of Louis XIII. left his courtiers without hope. It was
-such a general mass of weakness, as to offer no particular weak point of
-which they could take advantage. Too cold to be enamoured of either wife
-or mistress, his gallantries offered no means of captivating his favour;
-nor was he bigot enough to be ruled through his conscience by priestly
-confessors. It is singular that the gallant, peremptory, and able Louis
-XIV. was governed and influenced by those means which had no hold upon
-his weak sire. Still as these were the received ways for undermining the
-influence of a dominant minister, Louis XIII. was assailed through his
-supposed mistresses, and through his confessors, to induce him to shake
-off Richelieu. But all attempts were vain. The ladies Hauteville and
-Lafayette, who had pleased Louis, retired to a convent. His confessors,
-who had hinted the impiety of supporting the Dutch and German
-Protestants, were turned out of the palace. And the Queen, Anne of
-Austria, with whom Louis made a late reconciliation, the fruit of which
-was the birth of the future Louis XIV., was exposed to disrespect and
-insult. Her apartments and papers were searched by order of the
-Cardinal, a letter was torn from her bosom, she was confined to her
-room, and menaced with being sent back to Spain.
-
-Richelieu in his wars was one of those scientific combatants who seek to
-weary out an enemy, and who husband their strength in order not to crush
-at once, but to ruin in the end. Such at least were the tactics by which
-he came triumphant out of the struggle with Spain. He made no conquests
-at first, gained no striking victories; but he compensated for his
-apparent want of success by perseverance, by taking advantage of defeat
-to improve the army, and by labouring to transfer to the crown the
-financial and other resources which had been previously absorbed by the
-aristocracy. Thus the war, though little brilliant at first, produced at
-last these very important results. Arras in the north, Turin in the
-south, Alsace in the east, fell into the hands of the French; Rousillon
-was annexed to the monarchy; and Catalonia revolted from Spain.
-Richelieu might boast that he had achieved the great purposes of Henry
-IV., not so gloriously indeed as that heroic prince might have done, but
-no less effectually. This was effected not so much by arms as by
-administration. The foundation was laid for that martial preeminence
-which Louis XIV. long enjoyed; and which he might have retained, had the
-virtue of moderation been known to him.
-
-It was not without incurring great personal perils, with proportionate
-address and good fortune, that Cardinal Richelieu arrived at such great
-results. The rebellion of the Comte de Soissons, the same whose project
-of assassination had failed, menaced the Minister seriously. In a battle
-against the royal army, the Count was completely victorious, an event
-that might have caused a revolution in the government, had not fortune
-neutralized it by his death. He fell by a pistol-shot, whilst
-contemplating the scene of victory. His friends asserted that he was
-murdered by an emissary of the Cardinal: according to others, the bullet
-was accidentally discharged from his own pistol.
-
-But the most remarkable plot which assailed Richelieu, was that of
-Cinq-Mars, a young nobleman selected to be the King’s favourite, on
-account of his presumed frivolity. But he was capable of deep thoughts
-and passions; and wearied by the solitude in which the monarch lived,
-and to which he was reduced by the Minister’s monopoly of all power, he
-dared to plot the Cardinal’s overthrow. This bold attempt was sanctioned
-by the King himself, who at intervals complained of the yoke put upon
-him.
-
-Great interests were at stake, for Richelieu, reckoning upon the
-monarch’s weak health, meditated procuring the regency for himself. Anne
-of Austria, aware of this intention, approved of the project of
-Cinq-Mars, which of course implied the assassination of the Cardinal. No
-other mode of defying his power and talent could have been contemplated.
-But Richelieu was on the watch. The Court was then in the south of
-France, engaged in the conquest of Roussillon, a situation favourable
-for the relation of the conspirators with Spain. The Minister surprised
-one of the emissaries, had the fortune to seize a treaty concluded
-between them and the enemies of France; and with this flagrant proof of
-their treason, he repaired to Louis, and forced from him an order for
-their arrest. It was tantamount to their condemnation. Cinq-Mars and his
-friends perished on the scaffold; Anne of Austria was again humbled; and
-every enemy of the Cardinal shrunk in awe and submission before his
-ascendency. Amongst them was the King himself, whom Richelieu looked
-upon as an equal in dignity, an inferior in mind and in power. The
-guards of the Cardinal were numerous as the Monarch’s, and independent
-of any authority save that of their immediate master. A treaty was even
-drawn up between king and minister, as between two potentates. But the
-power and the pride of Richelieu reached at once their height and their
-termination. A mortal illness seized him in the latter days of 1642, a
-few months after the execution of Cinq-Mars. No remorse for his cruelty
-or abatement of his pride marked his last moments. He summoned the
-monarch like a servant to his couch, instructed him what policy to
-follow, and appointed the minister who was to be his own successor. Even
-in the last religious duties, the same character and the same spirit
-were observable. As his cardinal’s robe was a covering and excuse for
-all crimes in life, he seemed to think that it exempted him from the
-common lot of mortals after death.
-
-Such was the career of this supereminent statesman, who, although in the
-position of Damocles all his life, with the sword of the assassin
-suspended over his head, surrounded with enemies, and with insecure and
-treacherous support even from the monarch whom he served, still not only
-maintained his own station, but possessed time and zeal to frame and
-execute gigantic projects for the advancement of his country and of his
-age. It makes no small part of Henry IV.’s glory that he conceived a
-plan for diminishing the power of the House of Austria. Richelieu,
-without either the security or the advantages of the king and the
-warrior, achieved it. Not only this, but he dared to enter upon the war
-at the very same time when he was humbling that aristocracy which had
-hitherto composed the martial force of the country.
-
-The effects of his domestic policy were indeed more durable than those
-of what he most prided himself upon, his foreign policy. The latter was
-his end, the former his means; but the means were the more important of
-the two. For half a century previous, kings had been acquiring a
-sacro-sanctity, a power founded on respect, which equalled that of
-Asiatic despots; whilst at the same time their real sources of power
-remained in the hands of the aristocracy. From this contradiction, this
-want of harmony betwixt the theoretic and the real power of monarchs,
-proceeded a state of licence liable at all times to produce the most
-serious convulsions. To this state of things Richelieu put an end for
-ever. He crushed the power of the great nobility, as Henry VII., by very
-different means, had done before him in England. He made Louis a
-sovereign in the most absolute sense; he reformed and changed the whole
-system of administration, destroyed all local authorities, and
-centralized them, as the term is, in the capital and the court. We see,
-accordingly, that it was only the capital which could oppose Mazarin;
-all provincial force was destroyed by Richelieu. He it was, in fact, who
-founded the French monarchy, such as it existed until near the end of
-the eighteenth century, a grand, indeed, rather than a happy result. He
-was a man of penetrating and commanding intellect, who visibly
-influenced the fortunes of Europe to an extent which few princes or
-ministers have equalled. Unscrupulous in his purposes, he was no less so
-in the means by which he effected them. But so long as men are honoured,
-not for their moral excellences, but for the great things which they
-have done for themselves, or their country, the name of Richelieu will
-be recollected with respect, as that of one of the most successful
-statesmen that ever lived.
-
-His measures with respect to commerce were very remarkable. He proposed
-to render the French marine as formidable as the French armies, and
-chose the wisest means in favouring colonization and commercial
-companies for the purpose. The chief part of their successful
-settlements in the east and west the French owe to Richelieu. In
-financial measures he showed least sagacity, and the disordered state in
-which he left this branch of the administration was the principal cause
-of the difficulties of his successor.
-
-As a patron of letters, Richelieu has acquired a reputation almost
-rivalling that of his statesmanship. His first and earliest success in
-life had been as a scholar supporting his theses; and, as it is
-continually observed that great men form very erroneous judgments of
-their own excellences, he ever prided himself especially in his powers
-as a penman: it was a complete mistake on his part. He has left a
-considerable quantity of theological tracts of trifling merit.
-
-Not content with his own sphere of greatness, he aspired to the minor
-praise of being skilled in the fashionable literature of the day; and
-amused himself by composing dramatic pieces, some of which Corneille was
-employed to correct. The independence of the poet, and the pride of the
-patron, led to a quarrel of which we have given some account in the life
-of the great tragedian. In 1635 Richelieu founded the French Academy. We
-should expect to find in his political writings traces of the
-master-hand of one, who, with a mind of unusual power, had long studied
-the subject of which he wrote. But those which are ascribed to him, for
-none, we believe are avowed, or absolutely known to be his, are of
-unequal merit. The ‘Mémoires de la Mère, et du Fils,’ are mediocre, and
-unworthy of him. The ‘Testament Politique du Cardinal de Richelieu’ (the
-authenticity of which is strongly contested by Voltaire) bears a much
-higher reputation as a work upon Government. La Bruyere has said of it,
-that the man who had done such things ought never to have written, or to
-have written in the style in which it is written.
-
-There are several English lives of Cardinal Richelieu, most of them
-published in the seventeenth century, but none which we know to be of
-authority. In French, we may recommend the reader to the life of Aubery.
-The best account of Richelieu, however, is said to be contained in the
-‘Histoire de Louis XIII.’ by P. Griffet.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by W. Holl._
-
-  J. H. WOLLASTON.
-
-  _From the original Picture by J. Jackson
-  in the possession of the Royal Society._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                               WOLLASTON.
-
-
-No record of this eminent philosopher has yet appeared, except his
-scientific papers, and a few meagre biographical sketches published
-shortly after his death. It is to be hoped that some one duly qualified
-for the task will become the historian of his life and labours before it
-is too late.
-
-William Hyde Wollaston was born August 6, 1766. His grandfather was well
-known as the author of a work, entitled ‘The Religion of Nature
-Delineated.’ He completed his education at Caius College, Cambridge. It
-has been said, in most of the memoirs of him, that he obtained the
-honour of being senior wrangler. This is a mistake, arising from Francis
-Wollaston, of Sidney, having gained the first place in 1783. It appears
-from the Cantabrigienses Graduati that he did not graduate in Arts; but,
-with a view to practising medicine, proceeded to the degrees of M.B. in
-1787, and M.D. in 1793. He was not unversed, however, in mathematical
-studies. He first established himself as a physician at Bury St.
-Edmunds, in Suffolk; but meeting with little encouragement, removed to
-London. Soon after this change of abode, he became a candidate for the
-office of physician to St. George’s Hospital, in opposition to Dr.
-Pemberton. The latter was elected, and Wollaston, in a fit of pique,
-declared that he would abandon the profession, and never more write a
-prescription, were it for his own father.
-
-He kept to his resolution, hasty and unwise as it may seem; and from
-this time forward devoted himself solely to the cultivation of science.
-Even in an economical view he had no cause to regret this, for he
-acquired wealth by the exercise of his inventive genius. One single
-discovery, that of a method by which platinum can be made ductile and
-malleable, is said to have produced him about thirty thousand pounds. It
-has been objected that he derogated from the dignity of the philosophic
-character by too keen an eye towards making his experiments profitable:
-but in this field, if in any, the labourer is surely worthy of his
-reward; and unless it can be shown that he turned away from any train of
-discovery, because it did not promise pecuniary gain, surely not a
-shadow of blame can be attached to him for profiting by the legitimate
-earnings of his industry and talents. That he was fond of acquiring
-money, there is good reason to believe; but there is a story, which has
-been before told, and which we have ourselves some reason to consider
-authentic, which proves that he could use nobly that which he had gained
-frugally. A gentleman, in embarrassed circumstances, requested his
-interference to procure some place under government. He replied, “I have
-lived to sixty without asking a single favour from men in office, and it
-is not, after that age, that I shall be induced to do it, were it even
-to serve a brother. If the enclosed can be of any use to you, in your
-present difficulties, pray accept it; for it is much at your service.”
-The enclosure was a cheque for ten thousand pounds.
-
-One of Wollaston’s peculiarities was an exceeding jealousy of any person
-entering his laboratory. “Do you see that furnace?” he once said to a
-friend, who had penetrated unbidden to this sacred ground. “Yes.” “Then
-make a profound bow to it, for this is the first, and will be the last
-time of your seeing it.” It is not a necessary inference, that this
-dislike to having his processes observed arose from jealousy either of
-his fame or his profit: it may have been merely the result of a somewhat
-saturnine and reserved temper, which seems to have shunned unnecessary
-publicity on all occasions.
-
-Wollaston was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1793. He was
-appointed one of its Secretaries, November 6, 1806. His first paper,
-which is on medical subjects, is published in the Philosophical
-Transactions for 1797; and, until his death, he continued to be a
-frequent contributor. His papers amount in number to thirty-nine, and
-must be well examined before a just idea can be formed of the extent and
-variety of his scientific knowledge. They embrace various subjects
-connected with Pathology, Optics, Electricity, Chemistry,
-Crystallography, and mechanical contrivances of various sorts. He
-contributed a few papers to other philosophical works. Of the Geological
-Society he was an active member, though he sent no memoirs to its
-Transactions; and on the first annual meeting of that body after his
-death, the president, Dr. Fitton, bore testimony to the high value of
-his services to the science of Geology.
-
-The lives of Wollaston and Davy began and ended nearly at the same time,
-and ran parallel to each other; they never crossed. Each was original,
-and independent of the other; their minds were unlike, their processes
-different, and the discoveries of one never interfered with those of the
-other. “The chemical manipulations of Wollaston and Davy,” we quote from
-Dr. Paris, “offered a singular contrast to each other, and might be
-considered as highly characteristic of the temperaments and intellectual
-qualities of these remarkable men. Every process of the former was
-regulated with the most scrupulous regard to microscopic accuracy, and
-conducted with the utmost neatness of detail. It has been already stated
-with what turbulence and apparent confusion the experiments of the
-latter were conducted; and yet each was equally excellent in his own
-style; and as artists, they have not unaptly been compared to Teniers
-and Michael Angelo. By long discipline, Wollaston acquired such power in
-commanding and fixing his attention upon minute objects, that he was
-able to recognize resemblances, and to distinguish differences, between
-precipitates produced by re-agents, which were invisible to ordinary
-observers, and which enabled him to submit to analysis the smallest
-particle of matter with success. Davy on the other hand obtained his
-results by an intellectual process, which may be said to have consisted
-in the extreme rapidity with which he seized upon, and applied,
-appropriate means at appropriate moments.
-
-“To this faculty of minute observation, which Dr. Wollaston applied with
-so much advantage, the chemical world is indebted for the introduction
-of more simple methods of experimenting: for the substitution of a few
-glass tubes and plates of glass for capacious retorts and receivers, and
-for the art of making grains give the results which previously required
-pounds. A foreign philosopher once called on Dr. Wollaston with letters
-of introduction, and expressed an anxious desire to see his laboratory.
-‘Certainly,’ we replied; and immediately produced a small tray
-containing some glass tubes, a blow-pipe, two or three watch-glasses, a
-slip of platinum, and a few test bottles.” We may conclude, however,
-that this was not the whole of Wollaston’s apparatus, nor he in this
-quite ingenuous; and the anecdote forms another illustration of his
-dislike to admitting any one into his workroom.
-
-To this ingenious turn of mind and love of minute accuracy we owe
-several valuable instruments. Of these the most important is his
-reflective Goniometer, or angle-measurer, which by calling in the
-unerring laws of optics, enables the observer to ascertain within a
-small limit of error, the angle contained between two faces of a
-crystal, and introduced, in the words of Dr. Fitton, “into
-crystallography a certainty and precision, which the most skilful
-observers were before unable to attain.” Another of his contrivances is
-the sliding Scale of chemical equivalents, an instrument highly useful
-to the practical chemist. We also owe to him the Camera Lucida, which
-enables persons unacquainted with drawing, to take accurate sketches of
-any objects presented to their view. An amusing and characteristic
-anecdote of his fondness for producing great results by small means, is
-told by Dr. Paris. Shortly after he had witnessed Davy’s brilliant
-experiments with the galvanic battery, he met a brother chemist in the
-street, and taking him aside, pulled a tailor’s thimble and a small
-phial out of his pocket, and poured the contents of the one into the
-other. The thimble was a small galvanic battery, with which he instantly
-heated a platinum wire to a white heat.
-
-We have already spoken of the profits which he derived from the
-manufacture of platinum. This intractable metal, most valuable in the
-arts from its extreme difficulty of fusion, and power of resisting
-almost all agents, was rendered by these very qualities almost incapable
-of being reduced into that malleable form, in which alone it would be
-made extensively useful. His method of working it is detailed at length
-in his last Bakerian Lecture, published in the Philosophical
-Transactions for 1829, and must be read before a person unacquainted
-with metallurgy can imagine how tedious and laborious were the processes
-by which he succeeded in bringing platinum to bear the hammer. By an
-ingenious contrivance, described in the Transactions of 1813, he drew
-platinum into wire 1/5000 of an inch in diameter, highly valuable for
-the construction of telescopes; and even reduced some portions to the
-inconceivable tenuity of 1/30,000. Several of his papers are devoted to
-the consideration of platinum, and of the two new metals, palladium and
-rhodium, which, in the course of his inquiries, he discovered in small
-quantities in the ores of platinum. These also he succeeded in rendering
-malleable. Rhodium is remarkable for its hardness, which has caused it
-to be used to point the nibs of metallic pens.
-
-During the autumn of 1828 Dr. Wollaston suffered from an affection of
-the brain, of which he died, December 22, 1828, retaining his faculties
-to the last. During the period of his illness, feeling that his life was
-precarious, he devoted himself to communicating, by dictation, his
-various discoveries and improvements to the world. Five papers by him
-were read during the last session of the Royal Society during that year,
-in one of which he alludes affectingly to his illness, as obliging him
-to commit his observations to writing more hastily than he was wont.
-Another is the Bakerian Lecture on the manufacture of platinum, already
-mentioned.
-
-Previous to his death he invested 1000_l._ stock in the name of the
-Royal Society, the interest of which he directed to be employed for the
-encouragement of experiments in Natural Philosophy. He was never
-married, and was Senior Fellow of Caius at his death. He was privately
-buried at Chiselhurst in Kent; of which parish his father had been
-rector.
-
-Dr. Wollaston’s philosophical character is thus described in the preface
-to a late edition of Dr. Henry’s ‘Elements of Experimental
-Chemistry:’—“Dr. Wollaston was endowed with bodily senses of
-extraordinary acuteness and accuracy, and with great vigour of
-understanding. Trained in the discipline of the exact sciences, he had
-acquired a powerful command over his attention, and had habituated
-himself to the most rigid correctness both of thought and language. He
-was sufficiently provided with the resources of the mathematics, to be
-enabled to pursue with success profound inquiries in mechanical and
-optical philosophy, the results of which enabled him to unfold the
-causes of phenomena not before understood, and to enrich the arts
-connected with those sciences by the invention of ingenious and valuable
-instruments. In chemistry he was distinguished by the extreme nicety and
-delicacy of his observations; by the quickness and precision with which
-he marked resemblances and discriminated differences; the sagacity with
-which he devised experiments and anticipated their results; and the
-skill with which he executed the analysis of fragments of new
-substances, often so minute as to be scarcely perceptible by ordinary
-eyes. He was remarkable, too, for the caution with which he advanced
-from facts to general conclusions: a caution which, if it sometimes
-prevented him from reaching at once to the most sublime truths, yet
-rendered every step of his ascent a secure station from which it was
-easy to rise to higher and more enlarged inductions. Thus these
-illustrious men, Wollaston and Davy, though differing essentially in
-their natural powers and acquired habits, and moving independently of
-each other, in different paths, contributed to accomplish the same great
-ends, the evolving new elements; the combining matter into new forms;
-the increase of human happiness by the improvement of the arts of
-civilized life; and the establishment of general laws that will serve to
-guide other philosophers onwards through vast and unexplored regions of
-scientific discovery.”
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                               BOCCACCIO.
-
-
-The family of this celebrated writer, who claims a distinguished place
-among the founders of Italian literature, came from the village of
-Certaldo, in the valley of the Elsa, about twenty miles south-west of
-Florence. His father, Boccaccio di Chellino, was a Florentine merchant,
-who, in his visits to Paris, became acquainted with a Frenchwoman, of
-whom Giovanni Boccaccio, the subject of this memoir, was born, A. D.
-1313. It is uncertain whether Paris or Florence was the place of his
-nativity. He commenced his studies at Florence, under Giovanni da
-Strada, a celebrated grammarian; but was apprenticed by his father, when
-hardly ten years old, to another merchant, with whom he spent six years
-in Paris. Attached to literature, he felt a strong distaste to his
-mercantile life. He manifested the same temper after his return to
-Florence; upon which his father sent him to Naples, partly upon
-business, partly because he thought that mingling in the pleasures of
-that gay city might neutralize his son’s distaste to the laborious
-profession in which he was engaged. Robert of Anjou, the reigning king
-of Naples, encouraged learning, and his court was the most polished of
-the age: and during an abode of eight years in that capital, Boccaccio
-became acquainted with most of the learned men of Italy, especially
-Petrarch, with whom he contracted a friendship, broken only by death.
-There also he fell in love with a lady of rank, whose real name he has
-concealed under that of Fiametta. Three persons have been mentioned as
-the object of his passion: the celebrated Joanna of Naples,
-grand-daughter of Robert; Mary, the sister of Joanna; and another Mary,
-the illegitimate daughter of Robert, who seems to have the best claim to
-this distinction. It was at Naples, that Boccaccio, inspired by a visit
-to Virgil’s tomb, conceived his first longings after literary fame. He
-determined to give up commerce, and devote himself entirely to study;
-and his father consented to this change, but only on condition that he
-should apply himself to the canon law. This was a new source of
-annoyance. For several years he pored over “dry decisions and barren
-commentaries,” as he expresses himself; until he obtained his doctor’s
-degree, and was left at liberty to follow his own pursuits.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by W. Hopwood._
-
-  BOCCACCIO.
-
-  _From a Print by Cornelius Van Dalen._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-After remaining some time at Florence he returned to Naples; where he
-employed himself in writing prose and verse, the Decameron and the
-Teseide. His father died in 1349: and having turned his inheritance into
-money, he travelled to Sicily, Venice, and other parts of Italy,
-collecting manuscripts, frequenting universities and libraries, studying
-Greek under Leontius Pilatus of Thessalonica, astronomy under Andalone
-del Negro, and Roman literature and antiquities. Manuscripts at this
-time were very costly; and he soon exhausted his patrimony in these
-pursuits. He then applied himself to transcribing works; and, by dint of
-expense and labour, collected a considerable library, which he
-bequeathed to the Augustine friars of Santo Spirito, at Florence. But
-his means were inadequate to gratify his liberal tastes: and at times he
-found himself in very straitened circumstances. It is said that he
-sometimes availed himself of his skill as a copyist, to eke out his
-resources. In Petrarch he found a generous friend and a wise counsellor.
-
-Boccaccio enjoyed a high reputation among his countrymen for learning
-and ability; and he was several times employed by them on embassies and
-affairs of state. But of all his missions, the most pleasing was that of
-repairing to Padua, to communicate to Petrarch the solemn revocation of
-the sentence of exile passed on his father during the factions of 1302;
-and to inform him that the Florentines, proud of such a countryman, had
-redeemed his paternal property, and earnestly invited him to dwell in
-his own land, and confer honour on its then rising university. Though
-much affected by this honourable reparation, Petrarch did not at the
-time comply with their request.
-
-About 1361, a singular circumstance wrought a total change in
-Boccaccio’s feelings and mode of life. A Carthusian monk came to him one
-day, and stated that father Petroni of Sienna, a monk of the same order,
-who had died not long before in the odour of sanctity, had commissioned
-him to exhort Boccaccio to forsake his studies, reform his loose life,
-and prepare for death. To prove the truth of his mission, he revealed
-several secrets, known only to Boccaccio and Petrarch, to both of whom
-both the monks were totally unknown. Terrified at this mysterious
-communication, Boccaccio wrote to Petrarch, expressing his resolution to
-comply with the advice, and shut himself up in a Carthusian cloister.
-Petrarch’s answer, which may be found among his Latin epistles, is full
-of sound sense. He tells his friend, that though this disclosure of
-secrets, supposed to be unknown to any living soul, appeared a mystery,
-yet “there is such a thing as artifice in imposture which may at times
-assume the language of supernatural inspiration; that those who practise
-arts of this kind examine attentively the age, the aspect, the looks,
-the habits of the man they mean to delude, his theories, his motions,
-his voice, his conversation, his feelings, and opinions: and from all
-these derive their oracles.” He adds, that as to the prediction of
-approaching death, there was no occasion for a message from the next
-world to say, that a man past the middle age, and infirm of body, could
-not expect to have many years to live: and, in conclusion, advises his
-friend to tranquillize his imagination, and to avail himself of the
-warning towards leading a more regular life; retaining at the same time
-his liberty, his house, and his library, and making a good use even of
-the heathen authors in the latter, as many holy men, and the fathers of
-the church themselves, had done before him. This letter restored
-Boccaccio to reason. He gave up his intention of retiring from the
-world, and contented himself with assuming the ecclesiastical dress; and
-being admitted to the first gradation of holy orders, he adopted a
-regular and studious course of life, and turned his attention to the
-study of the Scriptures.
-
-About the following year he again visited Naples, but he was disgusted
-by the neglect which he experienced; and, in 1363, he went to Venice,
-and abode three months with Petrarch. He was sent twice, in 1365 and
-1367, to Pope Urban V. upon affairs of the republic. In 1373, the
-Florentines determined to appoint a lecturer to explain the Divina
-Commedia of Dante, much of which was even then obscure or unintelligible
-without the aid of a comment. Boccaccio was chosen for this honourable
-office, with the annual stipend of one hundred florins. He had long and
-deeply studied, and knew by heart almost the whole of that sublime poem,
-which he had several times transcribed. He left his written comment on
-the Inferno, and also a life of Dante, both of which have been published
-among his works. But illness interrupted his lectures, and induced him
-to resort again to his favourite country residence at Certaldo. A
-disorder of the stomach, aggravated by intense application, terminated
-his existence, Dec. 21, 1375, at the age of sixty-two. He was buried in
-the parish church of Certaldo, and the following modest inscription,
-which he had himself composed, was placed over his tomb:—
-
-             “Hac sub mole jacent cineres ac ossa Johannis.
-             Mens sedet ante Deum, meritis ornata laborum
-             Mortalis vitæ. Genitor Bocchaccius illi,
-             Patria Certaldum, studium fuit alma poesis.”
-
-A monument was also raised to him in the same church, with an
-inscription by Coluccio Salutati, secretary to the republic, an intimate
-friend of the deceased. This monument was restored, in 1503, by Tedaldo,
-Podestà, or justice, of Certaldo, who placed another inscription under
-the bust of the deceased. The republic of Florence, in 1396, voted
-monuments to be raised in their capital to Boccaccio, Dante, and
-Petrarch, but this resolution was not carried into effect.
-
-By a will, which was dated the year preceding that of his death, and
-which is published among his Latin works, Boccaccio constituted his two
-nephews, the sons of his brother Jacopo, his heirs. His library he left
-to his confessor, Father Martin of Signa, an Augustin friar, whom he
-also appointed his executor, directing, that after the father’s death it
-should revert to the convent of Santo Spirito at Florence, for the use
-of students. A fire which broke out in the convent, in the year 1471,
-destroyed this valuable collection, which had cost the proprietor so
-many years of labour and care, and in which he had expended the greater
-part of his patrimony. Boccaccio having, in his book _De Genealogia
-Deorum_, quoted several ancient authors whose works have not reached us,
-it is supposed that some of these must have been included in the
-catastrophe that befel his library. He has been accused, however, of
-quoting fictitious authors in this treatise.
-
-Boccaccio’s private character was stained by licentiousness. Besides his
-Fiammetta, he had several mistresses whom he mentions in his Ameto. A
-natural daughter, whose name was Violante, he lost while she was an
-infant, and he mourns over her in his eclogues under the name of
-Olympia. He had also an illegitimate son who survived him, but who is
-not mentioned in his testament.
-
-In the latter years of his life, Boccaccio was poor, though not in
-absolute want, and his friend Petrarch, who died little more than one
-year before him, left him by his will fifty golden florins, “to buy him
-a winter pelisse to protect him from cold while in his study at night,”
-adding, that if he did no more for Boccaccio, it was not through want of
-inclination but want of means. Boccaccio, on his part, had given
-Petrarch several works copied by his own hand, among others, a Latin
-translation of Homer, Dante, and some works of St. Augustine.
-
-His modest dwelling at Certaldo, in which he died, still remains. The
-Princes of the House of Medici protected it by affixing their armorial
-ensigns on the outside, with an inscription. A Florentine lady, of the
-name of Medici Lenzoni, purchased it in 1822, in order to preserve it
-from dilapidation as a relic of departed genius. The appearance of the
-house is exactly similar to the sketch given by Manni a century since,
-in his life of Boccaccio. It is built of brick, according to the fashion
-of the fourteenth century, with a square turret on one side of it
-commanding a fine view of the surrounding hills; one of which is still
-called by the country people, “the hill of Boccaccio,” from a tradition
-that this was his favourite place of resort for meditation and study in
-the summer heats. The grove which crowned its summit was cut down not
-long ago. A curious circumstance is said by Professor Rosellini to have
-happened some years before the purchase of the house by the Signora
-Lenzoni. An old woman, who tenanted the premises, was busy weaving in a
-small room next to the sitting apartment, when the repeated shaking of
-her loom brought down part of the wall, and laid open a small recess
-hollowed in the thickness of it, from which a large bundle of written
-papers tumbled down. The old woman, through ignorance or superstition,
-or both, thought it a pious duty to consign the whole of the MSS. to the
-flames. Probably many interesting autographs of Boccaccio have thus been
-lost.
-
-Much has been said about Boccaccio’s tomb being “torn up and desecrated
-by bigots;” and Lord Byron has made this the subject of his eloquent
-invective. The story seems, however, to have originated in mistake.
-Rosellini has given an authentic account of the whole transaction. It
-appears that many years since, after a law had been passed by the Grand
-Duke Leopold in 1783, forbidding the burial of the dead under church
-pavements, the tomb of Boccaccio, which lay in the centre of the church
-of St. James and St. Michael at Certaldo, covered by a stone bearing his
-family escutcheon, his effigy, and the four lines above quoted, was
-opened. Nothing was found, except a skull, and a tin tube containing
-several written parchments, which the persons present could not
-understand. What became of these is not known, perhaps they were
-destroyed like the MSS. found by the old woman. The tombstone was
-purchased by some one on the spot, and having since been broken, one
-fragment alone remains, which the Signora Lenzoni has recovered and
-placed inside Boccaccio’s house. All this is asserted in a notarial
-document drawn up at Certaldo in 1825, and certified by ocular witnesses
-then surviving, who were present at the opening of the vault. But,
-besides this gravestone, there was a monument placed high on one of the
-side-walls of the church, consisting of Boccaccio’s bust, which is a
-good likeness, holding with both his arms against his breast a book, on
-which is written ‘Decameron,’ and under the bust are the two
-inscriptions by Salutati and Tedaldo, such as Manni transcribed them. To
-this monument, and not to the tomb, Byron’s reproach partly applies, for
-it was of late years removed by some fanatics from its place, and thrown
-in a corner at the end of the church. But the authorities interfered and
-caused it to be restored in a more conspicuous position, facing the
-pulpit, where it is now to be seen.
-
-Boccaccio wrote both in Latin and in Italian, in prose and in verse. His
-Latin works are now mostly forgotten, although the author evidently
-thought more of them than of his Italian novels. Petrarch fell into the
-same mistake with regard to his own productions in both languages. The
-language of the country, especially in prose composition, was then
-esteemed below the dignity of learned men, and suited only to works of
-recreation and amusement. Boccaccio wrote a book on mythology (De
-Genealogia Deorum, lib. xv.) which he dedicated to Hugo, King of Cyprus
-and Jerusalem, at whose request he had composed it. He acknowledges that
-he had derived much information on the subject from Pietro Perugino,
-librarian to King Robert of Naples, an assiduous inquirer after ancient
-and especially Greek lore, and who had availed himself in his researches
-of his intimacy with the Monk Barlaam, a learned Greek emigrant,
-residing in Calabria. Boccaccio’s other Latin works are ‘De montium,
-sylvarum, lacuum, fluviorum, stagnorum, et marium nominibus, liber,’ a
-sort of gazetteer. ‘De casibus virorum et fæminarum illustrium, libri
-ix.’ where he eloquently relates, in the last book, the tragic
-catastrophe of the unfortunate Templars who were executed at Paris in
-1310–14; at which his father was present. ‘De claris mulieribus
-opus,’—and lastly, sixteen ‘Eclogæ,’ amounting to about three thousand
-lines, which have been published with those of Petrarch and others at
-Florence in 1504. Boccaccio left a key to the real personages of these
-eclogues in a long letter written to the already-mentioned father Martin
-of Signa. Both he and Petrarch allude in these poems to the vices and
-corruptions of the Papal Court.
-
-Of Boccaccio’s Italian works, the Decameron is that by which his memory
-has been immortalized. This book consists of a series of tales, one
-hundred in number, ten of which are told on each afternoon for ten
-successive days, by a society of seven young women and three young men,
-who having fled from the dangers of the plague which afflicted Florence
-in 1348, assembled at a villa a short distance from the town. The
-stories turn chiefly on amorous intrigues and devices, disappointments
-and enjoyments, very broadly narrated; and can by no means be
-recommended for indiscriminate perusal. They are admirably told, and are
-full of wit and humour; but the pleasantry is for the most part of a
-nature which modern manners cannot tolerate. There are, however, better
-things than mere loose tales in the Decameron: several of the stories
-are unexceptionable; some highly pathetic. They have furnished many
-subjects for poetry, and especially for the drama; as, for instance, the
-tale of Ginevra, the ninth of the second day, and the affecting story of
-Griselda, the last of all. With regard to the merit of the invention, it
-is true that some of Boccaccio’s tales are taken from the ‘Cento Novelle
-Antiche,’ one of the oldest books in the Italian language. But the
-greater number are original: and many refer to persons and events well
-known in Italy, especially in Tuscany at that time, as is demonstrated
-by Manni. The skill with which this multitude of tales is arranged and
-brought forward, constitutes one of the chief merits of the work. It has
-been remarked that out of a hundred introductions with which he prefaces
-them, no two are alike. His narrative is clear; free from metaphors and
-repetition; avoiding superfluity as well as monotony, and engaging
-without tiring the attention. His descriptions, though minute, are
-graceful and lively. Generally humorous, not to say broad, he can, at
-pleasure, be pathetic; at pleasure, grave and dignified.
-
-Here our praise of this celebrated work must stop. Of its indecencies we
-have already spoken. The narrative, though clothed in decent words,
-frequently runs in such a strain as no company of women above the lowest
-grade of shame would now listen to, much less indulge in. Bad as this
-is, a still deeper stain is to be found in the utter absence of all
-moral principle, and callousness to all good feeling. Long planned
-seduction, breach of hospitality, betrayal of friendship, all these are
-painted as fortunate and spirited adventures, and as desirable objects
-of attainment. Unlucky husbands are sneered at; jealousy of honour is
-censured as stupidity or tyranny. Some of the female characters are even
-worse than the male; and the world of the Decameron is one which no man
-of common decency or honour could bear to live in. Boccaccio saw the
-mischief he had done, and was sorry when it was too late. In a letter to
-Mainardo de’ Cavalcanti, Marshal of Sicily, he entreated him not to
-suffer the females of his family to read the Decameron; because,
-“although education and honour would keep them above temptation, yet
-their minds could not but be tainted by such obscene stories.”
-
-He is fond of introducing monks and friars engaged in licentious
-pursuits, and exposed to ludicrous and humiliating adventures. He also
-at times speaks of the rites of the church in a profane or sarcastic
-manner. From this it has been inferred that he was a sceptic or heretic.
-The conclusion is erroneous. Like other wits of that ignorant,
-superstitious, and debauched age, Boccaccio sneered, reviled, and yet
-feared: and while he ridiculed the ministers and usages of the church,
-he was employed in collecting relics, and ended his loose tales with
-invocations of heaven and the saints. Besides, the secular clergy
-themselves bore no love towards the monks and mendicant friars: they
-were jealous of the former, and they hated and despised the latter. From
-Dante down to Leo X. the dignitaries of the church spoke of friars in
-terms nearly as opprobrious as Boccaccio himself. Leo made public jest
-of them. Bembo, the secretary of Leo, and a cardinal himself, and Berni,
-the secretary to several cardinals, give no more quarter to them than is
-given in the Decameron. No wonder then that laymen should take similar
-liberties, and that a friar should be regarded, as Ugo Foscolo observes,
-as a sort of scape-goat for the sins of the whole clergy. These
-considerations may explain how the Decameron went through several
-editions, both at Venice and Florence, without attracting the censures
-of the Court of Rome. The earliest editions bear the dates of 1471–2,
-but these became extremely scarce, since the fanatic Savanarola had a
-heap of them burnt in the public square of Florence in 1497. Of the
-Valdarfer edition of 1471, only one copy is known to exist. This has
-long been an object of interest to book collectors; and was purchased,
-at the Roxburgh sale, by the Marquis of Blandford, for the enormous sum
-of £2260. After the reformation in Germany, a more watchful censorship
-was established, and the Decameron was placed in the list of proscribed
-books. An expurgated edition however was allowed to appear, under the
-_imprimatur_ of Pope Gregory XIII. in 1573, in which many passages
-marked by the Inquisition were expunged, and laymen were made to take
-the places of the clergy in the more indecorous adventures. The MS. from
-which this and most of the subsequent editions are taken, was written by
-Mannelli, the godson, and friend of Boccaccio, in 1384, nine years after
-the author’s death. It is now in the Laurentian library at Florence.
-Mannelli has copied scrupulously what he calls “the text,” whether an
-autograph of Boccaccio, or an earlier copy, even to its errors and
-omissions, noting from time to time in the margin “sic textus,” or
-“deficiebat,” or “superfluum.” It may therefore be presumed that the
-author had not put the last finish to his work.
-
-Boccaccio began the Decameron soon after the plague of 1348, and seems
-to have circulated the days, or parts, among his friends as he completed
-them. He was a long time in completing the work, which he seems to have
-laid aside, and resumed at leisure; and it is believed that he was eight
-years employed upon it, and that he wrote the latter tales about 1356.
-From that time he seems to have taken no more notice of it. He never
-sent it to Petrarch, to whom he was in the habit of transmitting all his
-other compositions; and it was only by accident, many years after, that
-the poet saw a copy of it. This he mentions in one of his letters to
-Boccaccio, and says that he “supposes it to be one of his juvenile
-productions.” Petrarch praised only the description of the plague, and
-the story of Griselda. This he translated into Latin.
-
-Boccaccio’s other Italian prose works are ‘Il Filocopo,’ a prose
-romance, written at the request of his Fiammetta. It is a dull
-composition, far inferior to the Decameron in style, and displaying an
-anomalous mixture of Christian and Pagan images and sentiments.
-‘L’Amorosa Fiammetta’ is also a prose romance, in which the lady relates
-her passion and grief for the absence of Pamfilo, by which name the
-author is supposed to have designated himself. ‘Il Corbaccio,’ or the
-‘Labyrinth of Love,’ in which he relates his adventures with a certain
-widow, the same probably as he has introduced in the seventh tale of the
-eighth day of the Decameron. ‘Ameto,’ a drama of mixed prose and verse.
-‘Origine, vita, e costumi di Dante Alighieri,’ the life of Dante already
-mentioned. Several letters remain, but the bulk of his correspondence is
-lost. A life of Petrarch by Boccaccio, written originally in Latin, has
-been recently discovered, and published in 1828 by Domenico Rossetti, of
-Trieste.
-
-Boccaccio wrote a quantity of Italian verse, of which he himself thought
-little, after seeing those of Petrarch; and posterity has confirmed his
-judgment. His Teseide, a heroic poem, in ottava rima, may be excepted.
-This metre, generally adopted by the Italian epic and romantic poets, he
-has the merit of having invented. Though imperfect, and little
-attractive as an epic poem, the Teseide is not destitute of minor
-beauties. Chaucer is indebted to it for his Knight’s Tale, remodelled by
-Dryden under the name of Palamon and Arcite.
-
-An edition of Boccaccio’s Italian prose works was printed at Naples,
-with the date of Florence, in 1723–4, in 6 vols. 8vo.; but a better
-edition has been lately published at Florence, corrected after the best
-approved MSS. in 13 vols. 8vo. 1827–32.
-
-The editions of the Decameron are almost innumerable. The best and most
-recent ones are those of Poggiali, 1789–90, in 5 vols. 8vo.; that of
-Ferrario, Milan, 1803; that of Colombo, Parma, 1812; all with copious
-notes and comments; a small one by Molini, Florence, 1820; and the one
-by Pickering, London, to which the late Ugo Foscolo prefixed an
-elaborate and interesting historical dissertation. Domenico Maria Manni
-wrote a ‘History of the Decameron,’ Florence, 1742, in which he has
-collected a store of curious information concerning that work and its
-author.
-
-The principal biographers of Boccaccio are Filippo Villani, who may be
-considered as a contemporary of our author; Giannozzo Mannetti,
-Francesco Sansovino, Giuseppe Betussi, Count Mazzuchelli, and lastly,
-the Count G. Battista Baldelli, who published a new life of Boccaccio in
-1806 at Florence.
-
-[Illustration: [Scene from the Introduction to the Decameron, after a
-design by Stothard.]]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                CLAUDE.
-
-
-Claude Gelée, commonly called Claude Lorraine, was born in 1600, at the
-village of Chamagne in Lorraine, of very indigent parents. He was
-apprenticed to a pastry-cook; but at the end of his term of service,
-whether from disgust at his employment, desire of change, or perhaps
-influenced by the love of art, he engaged himself as a domestic to some
-young painters who were going to Italy. On arriving at Rome he was
-employed as a colour-grinder by Agostino Tassi, an artist then in high
-repute whose landscapes are spirited and free, and particularly
-distinguished by the taste displayed in the architectural
-accompaniments. Tassi first induced him to try his abilities in
-painting. His earliest essays were implicit imitations of his master’s
-manner, and evinced no symptom of original genius; perhaps even in his
-matured style some indications of Tassi’s influence may be traced. He
-continued, as opportunity occurred, to exercise his pencil, obtaining
-little notice and still less reward. By degrees however he succeeded
-sufficiently to venture on giving up his menial employment; and having
-acquired from Tassi a tolerable expertness in the mechanical part of his
-profession, he appears from thenceforth to have given little attention
-to the works of other painters, relying on his own discernment and
-diligent observation of nature. Many years elapsed, however, before the
-talents of Claude reached their full maturity, whence his biographers
-have inferred that he owed his excellence rather to industry than
-genius: as if such excellence were within the reach of mere application.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by W. Holl._
-
-  CLAUDE.
-
-  _From the original
-  in the Musée Royale, Paris._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-He drew with indefatigable diligence, both from antique sculpture and
-from the living model, but to little purpose; and he was so conscious of
-his incapacity, that he used to observe, “I sell the landscapes, and
-throw the figures into the bargain:” and sometimes he employed Filippo
-Lauri and Courtois to insert them. But his figures, however faulty in
-themselves, are always well adapted to promote the harmony of the whole
-composition; being judiciously placed, and shaded, illuminated,
-sharpened out, or rendered indistinct, with nearly as much skill as is
-shown in the other parts of the picture. And not unfrequently, however
-feebly drawn, they partake of that classical and poetic air, which
-Claude, beyond every other landscape painter, has diffused over his
-works.
-
-It is said, and the circumstances of his early life render it probable,
-that he was very deficient in general acquirements. Assuredly he had no
-opportunities of becoming a profound scholar, nor in relation to his art
-was it necessary that he should; why should he have sought through the
-medium of books that imagery which lay before him in reality? Rome, and
-its environs, the banks of the Tiber, and the broad Campagna, supplied
-his imagination with the best food, and his pencil with inexhaustible
-materials. He was accustomed to spend whole days in the open air, not
-only studying Nature in her permanent aspects, but making memorandums of
-every accidental and fleeting effect which presented itself to his
-observation. Sandrart, who sometimes accompanied Claude in his
-excursions, relates that he was accustomed to discourse on the visible
-phenomena of nature with the intelligence of a philosopher; not only
-noting effects, but explaining their causes with precision and
-correctness, whether produced by reflection or refraction of light, by
-dew, vapour, or other agencies of the atmosphere. Broad as is his style,
-he entered minutely into detail, and made drawings of trees, shrubs, and
-herbage, marking all their peculiarities of shape, growth, and foliage.
-By this practice he was enabled to represent those objects with
-undeviating accuracy, and to express, by a few decided touches, their
-general character.
-
-Amidst the splendour of his general effects, the distinguishing
-qualities of objects are never neglected; fidelity is never merged in
-manner; and hence it is, that the longer we look at his pictures, the
-more vivid is the illusion, the more strongly is the reality of the
-represented scene impressed upon us. Combining with his fine imagination
-the results of observation thus long and intensely exercised, he
-accomplished in his works that union of poetic feeling with accurate
-representation of nature, which forms the highest excellence of art, and
-in which, as a landscape painter, he stands unrivalled.
-
-Claude found in Rome and its neighbourhood the materials of his scenery,
-but the combination of them was his own: he selected and copied
-portions, but he seldom or never painted individual views from nature.
-His favourite effects are those of sunrise and sunset, the periods at
-which nature puts on her most gorgeous colouring. Beauty and
-magnificence are the characteristics of his compositions: he seldom aims
-at sublimity, but he never sinks into dulness. Above all he never brings
-mean or offensive objects into prominent view, as is so often the case
-in the Dutch pictures. His fore-grounds are usually occupied by trees of
-large size and noble character, and temples and palaces, or with ruins
-august in their decay. Groves and towers, broad lakes, and the
-continuous lines of arched aqueducts enrich the middle space; or a
-boundless expanse of Arcadian scenery sweeps away into the blue
-mountainous horizon. In his admirable pictures of seaports, he carries
-us back into antiquity; there is nothing in the style of the buildings,
-the shape of the vessels, or the character of any of the accompaniments
-which, by suggesting homely associations, injures the general grandeur
-of the effect. The gilded galleys, the lofty quays, and the buildings
-which they support, all belong to other times, and all have the stamp of
-opulence, magnificence, and power.
-
-As Claude’s subjects are almost uniformly those of morning or evening,
-it might naturally be supposed that his works possess an air of
-sameness. To remove such an impression, it is only necessary to look at
-his pictures side by side. We then perceive that he scarcely ever
-repeats himself. The pictures of St. Ursula and the Queen of Sheba, in
-the National Gallery, are striking instances of that endless variety
-which he could communicate to similar subjects. In each of these
-pictures there is a procession of females issuing from a palace, and an
-embarkation. The extremities of the canvas are occupied by buildings,
-the middle space being assigned to the sea and shipping, over which the
-sun is ascending. After the first glance, there is no resemblance in
-these pictures. The objects introduced in each are essentially different
-in character; in that of the Queen of Sheba they are much fewer in
-number; the masses are more broad and unbroken, and the picture has
-altogether more grandeur and simplicity than its companion. Its
-atmosphere too is different: it is less clear and golden, and there is a
-swell on the waves, as if they were subsiding from the agitation of a
-recent storm. The picture of St. Ursula is characterized by beauty.
-Summer appears to be in its meridian, and the whole picture seems
-gladdened by the freshening influence of morning. The vapoury haze which
-is just dispersing, the long cool shadows thrown by the buildings and
-shipping, the glancing of the sun-beams on the water, and the admirable
-perspective, all exhibit the highest perfection of art. It was thus that
-Claude, although he painted only the most beautiful appearances of
-nature, diversified his effects by the finest discrimination. Sea-ports
-such as these were among his most favourite subjects; and there are none
-in which he more excelled: yet perhaps it is with his pastoral subjects
-that we are most completely gratified. The Arcadia of the poets seems to
-be renewed in the pictures of Claude.
-
-In the general character of his genius, Claude bears a strong affinity
-to Titian. He resembles him in power of generalization, in unaffected
-breadth of light and shadow, and in that unostentatious execution which
-is never needlessly displayed to excite wonder, and which does its exact
-office, and nothing more. But the similitude in colour is still more
-striking. The pictures of both are pervaded by the same glowing warmth;
-and exhibit the true brilliancy of nature, in which the hues of the
-brightest objects are graduated and softened by the atmosphere which
-surrounds them. The colours by which both produced their wonderful
-effects were for the most part simple earths, without any mixture of
-factitious compounds, the use of which has been always prevalent in the
-infancy, and the decline of art, administering as it does to that
-unformed or degenerate taste which prefers gaudiness to truth.
-
-Claude’s success raised a host of imitators. He was accustomed, on
-sending home the works which he had been commissioned to paint to make a
-drawing of each, which he inscribed with the name of the purchaser, as a
-means by which the originality of his productions might be traced and
-authenticated. He left six volumes of these drawings at the time of his
-death, which he called his Libri di Verità. One containing two hundred
-designs is in possession of the Duke of Devonshire; these have been
-engraved by Earlom, and published by Boydell under the title of Liber
-Veritatis. Another of these books was purchased a few years since in
-Spain, and brought into this country; where it came into the possession
-of Mr. Payne Knight, and was bequeathed by him to the British Museum.
-Some of Claude’s pictures have been finely engraved by Woollet. There
-are twenty-eight etchings extant of landscapes and seaports, by Claude’s
-own hand, executed with the taste, spirit, and feeling which we should
-naturally expect.
-
-England is rich in the pictures of Claude, some of the finest of which
-were imported from the Altieri Palace at Rome, and from the collection
-of the Duc de Bouillon at Paris. There are ten in the National Gallery:
-the two to which we have adverted, that of St. Ursula especially, he has
-perhaps never surpassed. The little picture of the Death of Procris is
-also singularly beautiful. The Earl of Radnor’s Evening, or Decline of
-the Roman Empire, is one of the most exquisite of Claude’s works. The
-Marquis of Bute’s collection at Luton, is also enriched by some of the
-finest specimens of this artist in England.
-
-His private history is entirely devoid of incident. From the time of his
-arrival in Italy he never quitted it: and though claimed by the French
-as a French artist, he was really, in all but birth, an Italian. He
-lived absorbed in his art, and never married, that his devotion to it
-might not be interrupted by domestic cares. His disposition was mild and
-amiable. He died in 1682, aged eighty-two.
-
-For more detailed information we may refer to Sandrart ‘Academia Artis
-Pictoriæ.’ It is extraordinary that in Felibien’s elaborate work, “sur
-les Vies et sur les Ouvrages des plus excellens Peintres anciens et
-modernes,” Claude is entirely omitted. The English reader will find the
-substance of the information given by Sandrart, in Bryan and Pilkington.
-
-[Illustration: [From a Picture by Claude.]]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by T. Woolnoth._
-
-  LORD NELSON.
-
-  _From an original Picture by Hoppner
-  in his Majesty’s Collection at S^{t.} James’s._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                NELSON.
-
-
-The services of our great naval Captain need no long description. The
-recollection of them is still fondly cherished by his countrymen, and
-they have been worthily commemorated by Mr. Southey, with whose Life of
-Nelson few readers are unacquainted. To that most animated and
-interesting work, which by its late re-publication in the Family Library
-is placed within the reach of every one, we must refer those who desire
-fuller information concerning the hero of the Nile, Copenhagen, and
-Trafalgar, than is contained in this memoir.
-
-Horatio Nelson was born at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, September 29,
-1758. His father, the rector of that parish, was burthened with a
-numerous family: and it is said to have been more with a view to lighten
-that burden than from predilection for the service, that at the age of
-twelve he expressed a wish to go to sea, under the care of his uncle,
-Captain Suckling. Of his early adventures it is unnecessary to speak in
-detail. In 1773 he served in Captain Phipps’s voyage of discovery in the
-Northern Polar seas. His next station was the East Indies; from which,
-at the end of eighteen months, he was compelled to return by a very
-severe and dangerous illness. In April, 1777, he passed his examination,
-and was immediately commissioned as second lieutenant of the Lowestoffe
-frigate, then fitting out for Jamaica.
-
-Fortunate in conciliating the good-will and esteem of those with whom he
-served, he passed rapidly through the lower ranks of his profession, and
-was made post-captain, with the command of the Hinchinbrook, of
-twenty-eight guns, June 11, 1779, when not yet of age. In 1782 he was
-appointed to the Albemarle, twenty-eight; and in 1784 to the Boreas,
-twenty-eight, in which he served for three years in the West Indies, and
-though in time of peace, gave signal proof of his resolution and strict
-sense of duty, by being the first to insist on the exclusion of the
-Americans from direct trade with our colonies, agreeably to the terms of
-the Navigation Act. He had no small difficulties to contend with; for
-the planters and the colonial authorities were united against him, and
-even the Admiral on the station coincided with their views, and gave
-orders that the Americans should be allowed free access to the islands.
-Still Nelson persevered. Transmitting a respectful remonstrance to the
-Admiral, he seized four of the American ships, which, after due notice,
-refused to quit the island of Nevis; and after a long and tedious
-process at law, in which he incurred much anxiety and expense, he
-succeeded in procuring their condemnation by the Admiralty Court. Many
-other ships were condemned on the same ground. Neither his services in
-this matter, nor his efforts to expose and remedy the peculations and
-dishonesty of the government agents, in almost all matters connected
-with naval affairs in the West Indies, were duly acknowledged by the
-Government at home; and in moments of spleen, when suffering under
-inconveniences which a conscientious discharge of his duty had brought
-on him, he talked of quitting the service of an ungrateful country. In
-March, 1787, he married Mrs. Nisbet, a West-Indian lady, and in the same
-year returned to England. He continued unemployed till January, 1793;
-when, on the breaking out of the revolutionary war, he was appointed to
-the Agamemnon, sixty-four, and ordered to serve in the Mediterranean
-under the command of Lord Hood.
-
-An ample field for action was now open to him. Lord Hood, who had known
-him in the West Indies, and appreciated his merits, employed him to
-co-operate with Paoli in delivering Corsica from its subjection to
-France; and most laboriously and ably did he perform the duty intrusted
-to him. The siege and capture of Bastia was entirely owing to his
-efforts; and at the siege of Calvi, during which he lost an eye, and
-throughout the train of successes which brought about the temporary
-annexation of Corsica to the British crown, his services, and those of
-the brave crew of the Agamemnon, were conspicuous. In 1795 Nelson was
-selected to co-operate with the Austrian and Sardinian troops in
-opposing the progress of the French in the north of Italy. The
-incapacity, if not dishonesty, and the bad success of those with whom he
-had to act, rendered this service irksome and inglorious; and his
-mortification was heightened when orders were sent out to withdraw the
-fleet from the Mediterranean, and evacuate Corsica and Elba. These
-reverses, however, were the prelude to a day of glory. On February 13,
-1797, the British fleet, commanded by Sir John Jervis, fell in with the
-Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent. In the battle which ensued, Nelson,
-who had been raised to the rank of Commodore, and removed to the
-Captain, seventy-four, bore a most distinguished part. Apprehensive lest
-the enemy might be enabled to escape without fighting, he did not
-hesitate to disobey signals; and executed a manœuvre which brought the
-Captain into close action at once with four first-rates, an eighty, and
-two seventy-four-gun ships. Captain Trowbridge, in the Culloden,
-immediately came to his support, and they maintained the contest for
-near an hour against this immense disparity of force. One first-rate and
-one seventy-four dropped astern disabled; but the Culloden was also
-crippled, and the Captain was fired on by five ships of the line at
-once; when Captain Collingwood, in the Excellent, came up and engaged
-the huge Santissima Trinidad, of one hundred and thirty-six guns. By
-this time the Captain’s rigging was all shot away; and she lay
-unmanageable abreast of the eighty-gun ship, the S. Nicolas. Nelson
-seized the opportunity to board, and was himself among the first to
-enter the Spanish ship. She struck after a short struggle; and, sending
-for fresh men, he led the way from his prize to board the S. Josef, of
-one hundred and twelve guns, exclaiming, “Westminster Abbey or victory.”
-The ship immediately surrendered. Nelson received the most lively and
-public thanks for his services from the Admiral, who was raised to the
-peerage by the title of Earl St. Vincent. Nelson received the Order of
-the Bath; he had already been made Rear-Admiral, before tidings of the
-battle reached England.
-
-During the spring, Sir Horatio Nelson commanded the inner squadron
-employed in the blockade of Cadiz. He was afterwards despatched on an
-expedition against Teneriffe, which was defeated with considerable loss
-to the assailants. The Admiral himself lost his right arm, and was
-obliged to return to England, where he languished more than four months
-before the cure of his wound was completed. His services were rewarded
-by a pension of £1,000. On this occasion he was required by official
-forms to present a memorial of the services in which he had been
-engaged; and as our brief account can convey no notion of the constant
-activity of his early life, we quote the abstract of this paper given by
-Mr. Southey. “It stated that he had been in four actions with the fleets
-of the enemy, and in three actions with boats employed in cutting out of
-harbour, in destroying vessels, and in taking three towns; he had served
-on shore with the army four months, and commanded the batteries at the
-sieges of Bastia and Calvi; he had assisted at the capture of seven sail
-of the line, six frigates, four corvettes, and eleven privateers; taken
-and destroyed near fifty sail of merchant vessels, and actually been
-engaged against the enemy upwards of a hundred and twenty times; in
-which service he had lost his right eye and right arm, and been severely
-wounded and bruised in his body.”
-
-Early in 1798 Nelson went out in the Vanguard to rejoin Lord St. Vincent
-off Cadiz. He was immediately despatched with a squadron into the
-Mediterranean, to watch an armament known to be fitting out at Toulon;
-the destination of which excited much anxiety. It sailed May 20,
-attacked and took Malta, and then proceeded, as Nelson supposed, to
-Egypt. Strengthened by a powerful reinforcement, he made all sail for
-Alexandria; but there no enemy had been seen or heard of. He returned in
-haste along the north coast of the Mediterranean to Sicily, refreshed
-the fleet, and again sailed to the eastward. On nearing Alexandria the
-second time, August 1, he had the pleasure of seeing the object of his
-toilsome cruise moored in Aboukir Bay, in line of battle. It appeared
-afterwards that the two fleets must have crossed each other on the night
-of June 22.
-
-The French fleet consisted of thirteen ships of the line and four
-frigates; the British of the same number of ships of the line, and one
-fifty-gun ship. In number of guns and men the French had a decided
-superiority. It was evening before the British fleet came up. The battle
-began at half-past six; night closed in at seven, and the struggle was
-continued through the darkness, a magnificent and awful spectacle to
-thousands who watched the engagement with eager anxiety. Victory was not
-long doubtful. The two first ships of the French line were dismasted in
-a quarter of an hour; the third, fourth, and fifth were taken by
-half-past eight; about ten, the L’Orient, Admiral Bruey’s flag-ship,
-blew up. By day-break the two rear ships, which had not been engaged,
-cut their cables and stood out to sea, in company with two frigates,
-leaving nine ships of the line in the hands of the British, who were too
-much crippled to engage in pursuit. Two ships of the line and two
-frigates were burnt or sunk. Three out of the four ships which escaped
-were subsequently taken; and thus, of the whole armament, only a single
-frigate returned to France.
-
-This victory, the most complete and most important then known in naval
-warfare, raised Nelson to the summit of glory; and presents and honours
-were showered on him from all quarters. The gratitude of his country was
-expressed, inadequately in comparison with the rewards bestowed on
-others for less important services, by raising him to the peerage, by
-the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile, with a pension of £2,000. The
-Court of Naples, to which the battle of Aboukir was as a reprieve from
-destruction, testified a due sense of their obligation by bestowing on
-him the dukedom and domain of Bronte, in Sicily. From Alexandria Nelson
-went to Naples, much shattered in health by the fatigue and intense
-anxiety which he had experienced during his long cruise, and suffering
-from a severe wound in the head, received in the recent battle. He was
-most kindly received by Sir William Hamilton, the British ambassador;
-and here commenced that fatal intimacy with the celebrated Lady
-Hamilton, which ruined his domestic peace, and led to the only stains
-upon his public life. Her influence ruled him in all transactions in
-which the Neapolitan Court was interested: and as she sought in all
-things to gratify the Queen, to whom she was devotedly attached, the
-passions and follies of a court corrupt and childish beyond example,
-were too often allowed to warp the conduct of a British Admiral, who
-hitherto had sought the welfare of his country, even in preference to
-his own honour and prospects of advancement. His best friends saw and
-lamented the consequences of his weakness, and remonstrated, but to no
-purpose; and he himself, unable to control this passion, or to stifle
-the uneasy feelings to which it gave birth, appears from his private
-letters to have been thoroughly unhappy. Overpowering that influence
-must have been, when it could induce the gallant and generous Nelson to
-annul a treaty of surrender concluded with the Neapolitan
-revolutionists, under the joint authority of the Neapolitan Royalist
-General, and the British Captain commanding in the Bay of Naples, and to
-deliver up the prisoners to the vengeance of the court, on the sole plea
-that he would grant no terms to rebels but those of unconditional
-submission.
-
-The autumn of 1798, the whole of 1799, and part of 1800, Nelson spent in
-the Mediterranean, employed in the recovery of Malta, in protecting
-Sicily, and in co-operating to expel the French from the Neapolitan
-continental dominions. In 1800 various causes of discontent led him to
-solicit leave to return to England, where he was received with the
-enthusiasm due to his services.
-
-Soon afterwards, still mastered by his passion, he separated himself
-formally from Lady Nelson. In March, 1801, he sailed as second in
-command of the expedition against Copenhagen, led by Sir Hyde Parker.
-The dilatoriness with which it was conducted increased the difficulties
-of this enterprise; and might have caused it to fail, had not Nelson’s
-energy and talent been at hand to overcome the obstacles occasioned by
-this delay. The attack was intrusted to him by Sir Hyde Parker, and
-executed April 2, with his usual promptitude and success. After a fierce
-engagement, with great slaughter on both sides, the greater part of the
-Danish line of defence was captured or silenced. Nelson then sent a flag
-of truce on shore, and an armistice was concluded. He bore honourable
-testimony to the gallantry of his opponents. “The French,” he said,
-“fought bravely, but they could not have supported for one hour the
-fight which the Danes had supported for four.” May 5, Sir Hyde Parker
-was recalled, and Nelson appointed Commander-in-Chief: but no further
-hostilities occurred, and suffering greatly from the climate, he almost
-immediately returned home. For this battle he was raised to the rank of
-Viscount.
-
-At this time much alarm prevailed with respect to the meditated invasion
-of England; and the command of the coast from Orfordness to Beachy Head
-was offered to him, and accepted. But he thought the alarm idle; he felt
-the service to be irksome; and gladly retired from it at the peace of
-Amiens. When war was renewed in 1803, he took the command of the
-Mediterranean fleet. For more than a year he kept his station off
-Toulon, eagerly watching for the French fleet. In January, 1805, it put
-to sea, and escaped the observation of his look-out ships. He made for
-Egypt, and failing to meet with them, returned to Malta, where he found
-information that they had been dispersed in a gale, and forced to put
-back to Toulon. Villeneuve put to sea again, March 31, formed a junction
-with the Spanish fleet in Cadiz, and sailed for the West Indies. Thither
-Nelson followed him, after considerable delay for want of information
-and from contrary winds; but the enemy still eluded his pursuit, and he
-was obliged to retrace his anxious course to Europe, without the
-longed-for meeting, and with no other satisfaction than that of having
-frustrated by his diligence their designs on our colonies. June 20,
-1805, he landed at Gibraltar, that being the first time that he had set
-foot ashore since June 16, 1803. After cruising in search of the enemy
-till the middle of August, he was ordered to Portsmouth, where he
-learned that an indecisive action had taken place between the combined
-fleets returning from the West Indies, and the British under Sir Robert
-Calder.
-
-He had not been many days established at home before certain news
-arrived that the French and Spanish fleets had entered Cadiz. Eager to
-gain the reward of his long watchings, and laborious pursuit, he again
-offered his services, which were gladly accepted. He embarked at
-Portsmouth, September 14, 1805, on board the Victory, to take the
-command of the fleet lying off Cadiz under Admiral Collingwood, his
-early friend and companion in the race of fame. The last battle in which
-Nelson was engaged was fought off Cape Trafalgar, October 21, 1805. The
-enemy were superior in number of ships, and still more in size and
-weight of metal. Nelson bore down on them in two lines; heading one
-himself, while Collingwood in the Royal Sovereign led the other, which
-first entered into action. “See,” cried Nelson, as the Royal Sovereign
-cut through the centre of the enemy’s line, and muzzle to muzzle engaged
-a three-decker; “see how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship
-into action.” Collingwood on the other hand said to his Captain,
-“Rotherham, what would Nelson give to be here.” As the Victory
-approached an incessant raking fire was directed against her, by which
-fifty of her men were killed and wounded before a single gun was
-returned. Nelson steered for his old opponent at Cape St. Vincent, the
-Santissima Trinidad, distinguished by her size, and opened his fire at
-four minutes after twelve, engaging the Redoutable with his starboard,
-the Santissima Trinidad and Bucentaur with his larboard guns.
-
-About a quarter past one, a musket-ball, fired from the mizen-top of the
-Redoutable, struck him on the left shoulder, and he fell. From the first
-he felt the wound to be mortal. He suffered intense pain, yet still
-preserved the liveliest interest in the fate of the action; and the joy
-visible in his countenance as often as the hurrahs of the crew announced
-that an enemy had struck, testified how near his heart, even in the
-agonies of death, was the accomplishment of the great work to which his
-life had been devoted. He lived to know that his victory was complete
-and glorious, and expired tranquilly at half-past four. His last words
-were, “Thank God, I have done my duty.”
-
-He had indeed done his duty, and completed his task; for thenceforth no
-hostile fleet presumed to contest the dominion of the sea. It may seem
-mournful, that he did not survive to enjoy the thanks and honours with
-which a grateful country would have rejoiced to recompense this crowning
-triumph. But he had reached the pinnacle of fame; and his death in the
-hour of victory has tended far more than a few years of peaceful life,
-to keep alive his memory in the hearts of a people which loved, and a
-navy which adored him. In the eloquent words of the distinguished author
-from whom this sketch is compiled, “He cannot be said to have fallen
-prematurely whose work was done; nor ought he to be lamented, who died
-so full of honours, and at the height of human fame. The most triumphant
-death is that of the martyr: the most awful, that of the martyred
-patriot: the most splendid, that of the hero in the hour of victory. He
-has left us a name and an example which are at this hour inspiring
-thousands of the youth of England: a name which is our pride, and an
-example which will continue to be our shield and our strength.”
-
-A few words, before we conclude, on those points which appear to us to
-have constituted the peculiar excellence of Nelson’s character, the real
-source of his greatness. We cannot attribute it solely to personal
-courage, or professional skill: fearless as he was, the navy contained
-thousands of hearts as fearless as his own; skilful as he was, there may
-have been other officers not less skilful than himself. But to courage,
-talent, and a thorough knowledge of nautical affairs, he joined a degree
-of political and moral courage, and disinterestedness rarely equalled.
-To do his duty seems always to have been his first object: not to do all
-that was required, but all that could be done. With this view he never
-hesitated to run the risk of professional censure when the emergency
-seemed to demand it. Many instances are on record in which he acted
-contrary to orders: some, when he knew that strict obedience would have
-been mischievous, in circumstances which the framers of the orders could
-not have foreseen: others where he disobeyed the commands of a superior
-on the spot, because he knew them to be illegal, or prejudicial to the
-interests of his country. The most remarkable of these is his conduct in
-the West Indies, because he had then no established reputation to
-support him. But Nelson was well aware that this is a course which no
-officer can be justified in pursuing, except under the full and clear
-conviction, not only that his own views are just, but that the occasion
-is of sufficient importance to justify such a deviation from the rules
-of service; and that, even when the transgression is justified by the
-event, it yet involves a most serious degree of responsibility. “Well,”
-he said, after the battle of Copenhagen, “I have fought contrary to
-orders, and I shall perhaps be hanged. Never mind, let them.” The
-feeling which prompted these words, though uttered half in jest, can
-hardly be mistaken. Another of the most admirable qualities of his
-character is the extraordinary power which he possessed of attaching all
-who served under him. His sailors adored him; and many touching
-anecdotes might be told of their affection. “Our Nel,” they used to say,
-“is as brave as a lion, and as gentle as a lamb.” To his officers he was
-equally kind and considerate. Happy was the midshipman who in Nelson’s
-younger days could obtain a berth in his ship. He himself attended to
-their instruction, and was diligent in so training them, as to become
-ornaments to the service by their gentlemanly feeling and deportment, as
-well as by their professional skill. Humane as brave, it was ever his
-object to avoid needless bloodshed: and though the virulence of national
-enmity led him into the most bitter expressions of hatred to the French,
-he was ever eager to rescue a drowning, or afford hospitality and
-protection to a beaten enemy. “May humanity after victory be the
-predominant feature in the British fleet,” was part of the prayer which
-he composed on the morning of Trafalgar. There is indeed one stain on
-his humanity, one stain on his good faith;—the deliverance of the
-Neapolitan revolutionists to the vengeance of a cowardly and cruel
-court. Of this we have already spoken; and far from excusing, we do not
-even wish to palliate it. It was the result of his fatal attachment to
-Lady Hamilton: and it is the duty of the biographer to point out that
-the one great blot on his domestic, led to the one great blot upon his
-public character. He has added another to the list of great men, who,
-proof against other temptations, have yielded to female influence; and
-we may add (for it is a valuable lesson) that in so doing he not only
-blemished his fame, but ruined his happiness.
-
-Towards his country, however, Nelson was faultless; and its gratitude
-has been worthily shown by heaping honours on his memory. His brother
-was made an earl, and an estate was purchased for the family, and a
-pension granted to support the title. His remains were brought to
-England, and interred with the utmost pomp of funeral ceremony in the
-cemetery of St. Paul’s. His ship, the Victory, is still preserved at
-Portsmouth, and will long continue to be a chief object of interest to
-the visitors of that mighty arsenal.
-
-[Illustration: Nelson’s Pillar, at Yarmouth.]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                CUVIER.
-
-
-George Leopold Christian Frederic Dagobert Cuvier was born August 23,
-1769, at Montbeliard, a small town in Alsace, which then formed part of
-the territory of the Duke of Wurtemburg. His father was a retired
-officer, living upon his pension, who had formerly held a commission in
-a Swiss regiment in the service of France. He had the inestimable
-advantage of possessing a very sensible mother who even in infancy
-attended with sedulous care to the formation of his character, and the
-development of his mind. He gave early indications that nature had
-endowed him with her choicest intellectual gifts. A memory of
-extraordinary strength, joined to industry, and to the power of fixing
-his attention steadily upon whatever he was engaged in, enabled him to
-master all the ordinary studies of youth with facility; and by the time
-he was fourteen years of age he had acquired a fair knowledge of the
-ancient, and of several modern languages, and had made considerable
-progress in the mathematics, besides having stored his mind by a wide
-range of historical reading. He very early gave proofs of a talent for
-drawing, which in after-life proved of material service in his
-researches into natural history. When he was twelve years old he read
-the works of Buffon with avidity, and he no doubt received from the
-writings of that accomplished and elegant historian of nature an early
-bias towards the study of zoology. While he was at school he instituted
-a little academy of sciences among his companions, of which he was
-elected the president: his sleeping-room was their hall of meeting, and
-the bottom of his bed the president’s chair. They read extracts from
-books of history, travels, and natural philosophy, which they discussed;
-and the debate was usually followed by an opinion on the merits of the
-question, pronounced from the chair.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by J. Thomson._
-
-  CUVIER.
-
-  _From an original Drawing in the possession of
-  the Baroness Cuvier, at Paris._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-In 1783 the reigning Duke of Wurtemburg visited Montbeliard; and became
-acquainted with the unusual attainments of young Cuvier, who had then
-reached the fourteenth year of his age. Struck by the early promise of
-future eminence, he offered to take him under his own protection. The
-proposal was readily accepted, and the future philosopher went to
-Stutgard to prosecute his studies in the university of that place. He
-continued there four years, and did not fail to turn to good account the
-excellent opportunities which were afforded to him, of laying the
-foundation of that extensive acquaintance with every great department of
-human knowledge, for which he was in after-life so eminently
-distinguished. The universality of his genius was as remarkable as the
-depth and accuracy of his learning in that particular field of science,
-with which his name is more especially associated. He not only gained
-the highest academical prizes, but was decorated by the Duke with an
-order; a distinction which was only conferred upon five or six out of
-the four hundred students at the university.
-
-He had now arrived at an age when it was necessary for him to choose a
-profession, and his inclination led him to seek employment in one of the
-public offices in the country of his patron. This he would probably have
-obtained; but, happily for science, the circumstances of his parents
-made it impossible for him to linger in expectation, and he changed his
-views. In July, 1788, being then in his nineteenth year, he accepted the
-office of tutor in a Protestant family in Normandy, having been himself
-brought up in that faith.
-
-The family lived in a very retired situation near the sea; and Cuvier
-was not so constantly engaged with his pupils as to prevent him from
-cultivating those branches of science, for which he had imbibed a
-decided taste while listening to the lectures of Abel, the professor of
-natural history at Stutgard. He devoted himself especially to the study
-of the Mollusca, for which his vicinity to the sea afforded him good
-opportunities; and continued his researches uninterruptedly for six
-years in this retirement. The reign of terror at Paris, which spared
-neither virtue nor talent, drove M. Tessier, a member of the Academy of
-Sciences, to seek refuge in Normandy. He became acquainted with the
-young naturalist, and soon learned to appreciate his talents; and he
-introduced him to the correspondence of several of the more eminent men
-of science in Paris, among whom were Lametheric, Olivier, and Lacepède.
-The impression which Cuvier made upon his correspondents was so great,
-that when tranquillity was restored, they invited him to come to the
-capital. He accepted the invitation, and in the spring of 1795 removed
-to Paris. He was soon afterwards appointed Professor of Natural History
-in the central school of the Pantheon.
-
-Being very desirous of obtaining some official connexion with the Museum
-of Natural History at the Jardin des Plantes, with the view of gaining
-free access to the valuable collections there deposited, he solicited
-the aid of his scientific friends, and by their exertions, particularly
-those of De Jussieu, Geoffroy, and Lacepède, he was nominated assistant
-to Mertrud, the professor of comparative anatomy, a chair which had been
-recently instituted. Here he had free scope to indulge his passion for
-that branch of science, and by his indefatigable exertions he speedily
-brought together a very copious supply of illustrations for his
-lectures. He never ceased to make the museum a primary object of his
-care, and at last formed the most perfect and the most splendid
-collection of comparative anatomy which exists in the world. The
-excellence of his lectures, in which the interest of the subject was
-heightened by his eloquence and easy delivery, attracted a crowd of
-auditors; and while he thus excited and extended a taste for a
-department of science previously but little cultivated, those who
-listened to him spread the fame of the young professor.
-
-At the establishment of the Institute in 1796 he was chosen one of the
-original members; and the papers which he read before that body, giving
-an account of his researches and discoveries in comparative anatomy,
-enriched their memoirs, and procured for him a high and widely extended
-reputation at an early period of life. In 1800 he was appointed
-Secretary to the Institute. In the same year Bonaparte was appointed
-President. Cuvier thus, by virtue of his office, was brought into
-immediate and frequent communication with that extraordinary man; an
-event which had a material influence upon his future destiny, and opened
-to him new and wide fields of usefulness and distinction. Such were the
-powers of his mind, and so great was the versatility of his genius, that
-in whatever situation he was placed his superiority was soon
-acknowledged by his associates.
-
-In the year 1802 the attention of the First Consul was directed to the
-subject of public instruction, and six inspectors-general were
-commissioned to organize lyceums or colleges in thirty towns of France.
-Cuvier was one of them, and he left Paris to execute the duties which
-had been assigned to him in the provinces. From this period his
-attention was always particularly directed to the subject of education;
-and his labours in that cause have had the most important influence upon
-every institution for public instruction in France, from the University
-of Paris down to the most humble village school. At the foundation of
-the Imperial University in 1808, Cuvier was named a member of its
-council for life. When Italy was annexed to the French empire, he was
-charged at three different times with missions to that country, for the
-purpose of re-organizing the old academies and colleges, and of
-establishing new ones: and in the last of those missions in 1813,
-although a Protestant, he was sent to form the University at Rome. In
-1811 he went into Belgium and Holland to perform the same duties; and
-the reports which he drew up on that occasion, which were afterwards
-printed, possess great interest, especially in those parts where he
-speaks of the schools in Holland for the lower classes. He felt how
-important it is to the welfare of a nation, that good education should
-be within reach even of the poor: and there is no country in Europe
-where that subject is attended to with more enlightened views than in
-Holland, where excellent primary schools have been in operation for
-nearly half a century. When the great measure for the general
-introduction of schools for the lower orders throughout France, was
-brought forward in 1821, the duty of drawing up the plan upon which they
-were to be established was confided to Cuvier; and his enlightened
-benevolence and practical good sense are equally conspicuous in the
-system which on his recommendation was adopted. It has proved admirably
-adapted to the ends in view. The direction of the Protestant schools was
-more particularly intrusted to him, and he introduced into all those
-which had previously existed many important improvements.
-
-In February, 1815, the university was remodelled by the Bourbon
-government, and Cuvier was appointed a member of the Royal Council of
-Public Instruction. Shortly afterwards came the events of the Hundred
-Days, and among them the restoration of the Imperial University. Cuvier
-was re-appointed to his seat in the Council, for they felt that they
-could not do there without him. In four months another revolution took
-place in the university, as in other public establishments; and as it
-was found that the system of the Royal University could not be resumed,
-a commission was appointed to execute the functions of the Grand Master,
-the Chancellor, and the Treasurer. In this commission the duties which
-had belonged to the Chancellor were assigned to Cuvier. In this station
-he was eminently useful in maintaining the rights of the university
-under circumstances of no ordinary difficulty. He was twice President of
-the Commission, and each time for a year; but on account of his being a
-Protestant he could not retain that place permanently. But the Bishop,
-who, as a member of the commission, had discharged the duties which
-belonged to the Grand Master of the University, was appointed minister
-for ecclesiastical affairs; and Cuvier was nominated as his successor,
-so far as concerned the Protestant faculty of theology, and continued to
-act in this capacity for the rest of his life. As a member of the
-Council of State, and attached to the department of the Minister of the
-Interior, he had the direction of all matters relating to Protestant,
-and other religious congregations, not Catholic.
-
-During his mission to Rome in 1813 he was appointed by Napoleon a member
-of the Council of State; and on the restoration of the Bourbons his
-political opinions formed no obstacle to his continuing in that place.
-Although he was left undisturbed in his situation at the university, he
-was removed from the Council of State during the Hundred Days; but
-resumed his seat when the fate of his former patron and master was
-sealed. It is to be regretted that a mind so powerful as that of Cuvier
-should not have felt the paramount importance of having settled opinions
-on the great principles of government; and the facility with which he
-made himself acceptable to the despotic Emperor, the weak and bigoted
-Bourbons, and the liberal government of Louis Philippe, showed a want of
-fixed public principle which casts a shade upon the memory of this great
-man.
-
-As a member of the Council of State he took a distinguished lead, which
-indeed he never failed to do wherever he was placed, and he was
-eminently useful by his extraordinary talent for the despatch of
-business. He was a patient listener, and was never forward with his
-opinion; he allowed the useless talkers to have their course, and, while
-he appeared indifferent to what was going on, he was often drawing up a
-resolution, which his colleagues usually adopted without farther
-discussion, after he had given a short and luminous exposition of his
-views. For thirteen years previous to his death he was chairman of the
-Committee of the Council of State, to which the affairs of the interior
-belong; and the quantity of business which passed through his hands was
-wonderful. It was accomplished by his great skill in making those useful
-with whom he acted; by his talent in keeping his colleagues to the point
-in their discussions; and by his prodigious readiness of memory, which
-enabled him to go back at once to former decisions where the principle
-of the question under deliberation had been already settled. His reading
-in history had been very extensive, and his attention was ever alive to
-what was passing around him, as well in other countries as in France; so
-that he brought to bear on the matter in debate, not speculative
-opinions merely, but maxims drawn from the experience of past and
-present times. In the Chamber of Deputies, of which he was a member for
-several years, he took an active part, and often originated measures.
-His manner as a speaker was very impressive, and the rich stores of his
-mind, and his ready and natural eloquence commanded attention. At the
-end of 1831 he was created a peer; and during the short time he sat in
-the Upper Chamber, he took a prominent part in its business, and drew up
-some important reports of committees to which he belonged.
-
-But his reputation as a statesman was confined to France: his
-achievements in science have spread his fame over the civilized world.
-We can in this place do little more than mention the titles of the most
-important of Cuvier’s works; even to name all would carry us beyond our
-limits. His earliest production was a memoir read before the Natural
-History Society of Paris, in 1795, and published in the Décade
-Philosophique. In this paper he objects to the divisions of certain of
-the lower animals adopted by Linnæus, and proposes a more scientific
-classification of the mollusca, crustacea, worms, insects, and other
-invertebrate animals. His attention had been long directed to that
-branch of natural history, and his subsequent researches in the same
-department, most of which have been communicated to the world through
-the medium of the ‘Annales du Museum,’ have thrown great light on that
-obscure and curious part of the creation. Three years afterwards, he
-published his Elementary View of the Natural History of Animals, which
-contains an outline of the lectures he delivered at the Pantheon. In
-this work he displayed the vast extent of his acquaintance with the
-works of his predecessors, and, at the same time, the originality of his
-own mind, by introducing a new arrangement of the animal kingdom,
-founded on more exact investigation and comparison of the varieties
-which exist in anatomical structure. With the assistance of his friends,
-Dumeril and Duvernay, he published, in 1802, his ‘Leçons d’Anatomie
-Comparée,’ in two volumes, octavo, afterwards extended to five. These
-are singularly lucid and exact, and form the most complete work on the
-subject which has yet appeared.
-
-The next important publication we have to notice, is one in which he
-embodied the results of his extensive researches in a very interesting
-field of inquiry, concerning the remains of extinct species of animals
-which are found enveloped in solid rocks, or buried in the beds of
-gravel that cover the surface of the earth. We are disposed to think his
-‘Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles’ the most important of his works,
-the most illustrious and imperishable monument of his fame. The quarries
-in the neighbourhood of Paris abound in fossil bones; and he had great
-facilities for collecting the valuable specimens which were almost daily
-discovered in the ordinary working of the quarry. When he went to Italy,
-he had an opportunity of seeing animal remains of the same sort procured
-by the naturalists of that country from their native soil, and preserved
-in their museums. His attention became now specially attracted to the
-subject; and having accumulated materials from all parts of the world,
-he announced the important truths at which he had arrived in the work
-above-mentioned, in four quarto volumes, in the year 1812. A new
-edition, enlarged to five volumes, appeared in 1817, and in 1824 it was
-extended to seven volumes, illustrated by two hundred engravings. No one
-who was not profoundly skilled in comparative anatomy could have entered
-upon the inquiry with any prospect of success; and Cuvier not only
-possessed that qualification, but was singularly constituted by nature
-for the task. His powerful memory was particularly susceptible of
-retaining impressions conveyed to it by the eye: he saw at a glance the
-most minute variations of form, and what he saw he not only never
-forgot, but he had the power of representing upon paper with the utmost
-accuracy and despatch. It is very seldom that the entire skeleton of an
-animal is found in a fossil state: in most instances the bones have been
-separated and scattered before they were entombed, and a tusk, a jaw, or
-a single joint of the back-bone is very often all that is met with, and
-frequently too in a mutilated state. But an instructed mind like that of
-Cuvier was able to re-construct the whole animal from the inspection of
-one fragment. He had discovered by his previous researches such a
-connexion between the several bones, that a particular curvature, or a
-small protuberance on a jaw, or a tooth, was sufficient to indicate a
-particular species of animal, and to prove that the fragment could not
-have belonged to any other. The ‘Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles’
-have made us acquainted with more than seventy species of animals before
-unknown.
-
-The preliminary discourse in the first volume is a masterly exposition
-of the revolutions which the crust of the earth has undergone:
-revolutions to which the animal creation has been equally subject. It is
-written with great clearness and elegance, and is so much calculated to
-interest general readers as well as men of science, that it has been
-translated into most of the European languages. The English translation,
-by Professor Jameson, published under the title of ‘Essay on the Theory
-of the Earth,’ has gone through several editions.
-
-In his examination of the fossil bones found near Paris, Cuvier was led
-to inquire into the geological structure of the country around that
-capital. He assumed M. Alexander Bronguiart as his associate, and the
-result of their joint labours is contained in one of the volumes of the
-work now under consideration, in an Essay on the Mineralogy of the
-Environs of Paris. This essay formed a great epoch in geological
-science, for it was then that the grand division of the tertiary
-formations was first shown to form a distinct class. A new direction and
-a fresh impulse was thus given to geological investigations; and many of
-the most important general truths at which we have now arrived in this
-science, have been established by discoveries to which the essay of
-Cuvier and Bronguiart led the way.
-
-In 1817 appeared the first edition of the ‘Règne Animal,’ in four octavo
-volumes, one of which was written by the celebrated naturalist
-Latreille. This work gives an account of the structure and history of
-all existing and extinct races of animals: it has subsequently been
-enlarged. Cuvier began, in conjunction with M. Valenciennes, an
-extensive general work on fishes, which it was calculated would extend
-to twenty volumes. Eight only have appeared; for the embarrassments
-among the Parisian booksellers, in 1830, suspended the publication, and
-it has thus been left incomplete; but a great mass of materials was
-collected, and we may hope that they will yet be published. In addition
-to these great undertakings, he had been for years collecting materials
-for a stupendous work, a complete system of comparative anatomy, to be
-illustrated by drawings from nature, and chiefly from objects in the
-Museum at the Jardin des Plantes. Above a thousand drawings, many
-executed by his own hand, are said to have been made. Looking back to
-what he had already accomplished, and considering his health and age,
-for he was only in his sixty-third year, it was not unreasonable in him
-to hope to see the great edifice erected, of which he had laid the
-foundation and collected the materials. But unfortunately for the cause
-of science it was ordered otherwise, and there is something particularly
-touching in the last words he uttered to his friend the Baron Pasquier,
-and in sounds, too, scarcely articulate, from the malady which so
-suddenly cut short his career—“_Vous le voyez, il y a loin de l’homme du
-Mardi (nous nous étions rencontrés ce jour là) à l’homme du Dimanche: et
-tant de choses, cependant, qui me restaient à faire! trois ouvrages
-importans à mettre au jour, les matériaux préparés, tout était disposé
-dans ma tête, il ne me restait plus qu’à écrire._” “You see how it is,
-how different the man of Tuesday (we had met on that day) from the man
-of Sunday: and so many things too that remained for me to do! three
-important works to bring out, the materials prepared, all disposed in
-order in my head, I had nothing left to do but to write.” In four hours
-afterwards that wonderfully organized head had become a mere mass of
-insensible matter.
-
-Besides the works above enumerated, and many memoirs in the transactions
-of the scientific bodies of Paris, he has given to the world, in four
-octavo volumes, a History of the Progress of the Physical Sciences, from
-1789 to 1827, which evince his genius and extensive erudition. The first
-volume is a reprint of a report which he presented, as Perpetual
-Secretary of the Institute, to Napoleon, in 1808, on the Progress of the
-Physical Sciences from 1789 to 1807. In the same capacity, during
-thirty-two years, he pronounced the customary Eloges upon deceased
-members of the Institute. These are collected in three octavo volumes,
-and bear witness to the versatility of his genius and the extent of his
-attainments; for whether he is recording the merits of a mathematician,
-a chemist, a botanist, a geologist, or the cultivator of any other
-department of science, he shows himself equally conversant with his
-subject.
-
-He lived at the Jardin des Plantes for nearly forty years, surrounded by
-the objects which engrossed so great a portion of his thoughts, and
-there received every Saturday the men of science of Paris, and all
-others who visited that capital from any part of the world. Professors
-and pupils met in his rooms to listen with instruction and delight to
-his conversation, for he was accessible to all. Although compelled to be
-a very rigid economist of his time, he was so goodnatured and
-considerate, that if any person who had business to transact with him
-called at an unexpected hour, he never sent him away; saying, that one
-who lived so far off had no right to deny himself. Every thing in his
-house was so arranged as to secure economy of time: his library
-consisted of several apartments, and each great subject he attended to
-had a separate room allotted to it; and he usually worked in the
-apartment belonging to the subject he was at the moment engaged with, so
-that he might be surrounded with his materials. His ordinary custom,
-when he returned from attending public business in Paris, was to go at
-once to his study, passing a few minutes by the way in the room where
-his family sat; which latterly consisted of Madame Cuvier and her
-daughter by a former marriage. He came back when dinner was announced,
-usually with a book in his hand; and returned soon after dinner to his
-study, where he remained till eleven. He then came to Madame Cuvier’s
-room, and had generally some of the lighter literature of the day read
-aloud to him. Sometimes the book selected was of a graver cast, for it
-is said that during the last year of his life he had the greater part of
-Cicero read to him. His manner was courteous, kind, and encouraging:
-every one who took an interest in any subject with which Cuvier was
-familiar, felt assured that he might approach him without fear of
-meeting with a cold or discouraging reception.
-
-He had four children, but lost them all. The last taken from him was a
-daughter, who was suddenly carried off by consumption on the eve of her
-marriage. He was most tenderly attached to her, and it required all the
-efforts of his powerful mind to prevent his sinking under the blow. He
-found distraction by intense thought on other subjects, but not
-consolation, for the wound never healed.
-
-On Tuesday, the 8th of May, 1832, he opened his usual course at the
-College of France, with a particularly eloquent introductory lecture,
-full of enthusiasm in his subject, to the delight of his numerous
-audience. As he left the room he was attacked with the first symptoms of
-the disease which was so soon to prove fatal: it was a paralytic
-seizure. He was well enough, however, to preside the next day at the
-Committee of the Council of State, but that was the last duty he
-performed. He died on the following Sunday, leaving behind him an
-imperishable name, which will be held in honour in the most advanced
-state of human learning.
-
-[Illustration: Skeleton of the Megatherium.]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                  RAY.
-
-
-John Ray, whom Haller describes as the greatest botanist in the memory
-of man, and whose writings on animals are pronounced by Cuvier to be the
-foundation of all modern zoology, was born on the 29th of November,
-1628, at Black Notley, near Braintree, in Essex. His father was a
-blacksmith, who availed himself of the advantages of a free grammar
-school at Black Notley to bestow upon his son a liberal education. John
-was designed for holy orders; and was accordingly entered at Catherine
-Hall, Cambridge, in his sixteenth year. He subsequently removed to
-Trinity, of which college he was elected a Fellow, in the same year with
-the celebrated Isaac Barrow. In 1651 he was appointed Greek Lecturer of
-his college; and afterwards Mathematical Lecturer and Humanity Reader.
-
-In the midst of his professional occupations Ray appears to have devoted
-himself to that course of observation of the works of nature, which was
-afterwards to constitute the business and pleasure of his life, and upon
-which his enduring reputation was to be built. In 1660 he published his
-‘Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium,’ which work he
-states to be the result of ten years of research. He must, therefore,
-have become a naturalist in the best sense of the word—he must have
-observed as well as read—at the period when he was struggling for
-university honours, and obtaining them in company with some of the most
-eminent persons of his own day. Before the publication of his catalogue,
-he had visited many parts of England and Wales, for the purpose chiefly
-of collecting their native plants; and his Itineraries, which were first
-published in 1760, under the title off ‘Select Remains of the learned
-John Ray,’ show that he was a careful and diligent observer of every
-matter that could enlarge his understanding and correct his taste. His
-principal companion in his favourite studies was his friend and pupil,
-Francis Willughby.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by H. Meyer._
-
-  RAY.
-
-  _From an original Picture
-  in the British Museum._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-In December, 1660, Ray was ordained Deacon and Priest at the same time.
-But the chances of preferment in the church of England, which his
-admirable talents and learning, as well as the purity of his life and
-the genuine warmth of his piety, would probably have won for him, were
-at once destroyed by his honest and inflexible resolution not to
-subscribe to the conditions required by the Act of Uniformity of 1662,
-by which divines were called upon to swear that the oath entitled the
-Solemn League and Covenant was not binding upon those who had taken it.
-Ray was in consequence deprived of his fellowship. The affection of his
-pupil, Willughby, relieved him from the embarrassment which might have
-been a consequence of this misfortune. The two friends from this time
-appear to have dedicated themselves almost wholly to the study of
-natural history. They travelled upon the Continent for three years, from
-1663 to 1666; and during the remainder of Willughby’s life, which
-unfortunately was terminated in 1672, their time was principally
-occupied in observations which had for their object to examine and to
-register the various productions of nature, upon some method which
-should obviate the difficulty of those arbitrary and fanciful
-classifications which had prevailed up to their day. In the preface to
-his first botanical attempt, the Catalogue of Cambridge Plants, Ray
-describes the obstacles which he found in the execution of such a
-work;—he had no guide to consult, and he had to form a method of
-arrangement, solely by his own sagacity and patience. At that period, as
-he says in his ‘Wisdom of God in the Creation,’ “different colour, or
-multiplicity of leaves in the flower, and the like accidents, were
-sufficient to constitute a specific difference.” From a conversation
-with Ray a short time before his death, Derham has described the object
-which the two friends had in their agreeable but laborious pursuits.
-“These two gentlemen, finding the history of nature very imperfect, had
-agreed between themselves, before their travels beyond sea, to reduce
-the several tribes of things to a method; and to give accurate
-descriptions of the several species, from a strict view of them.” That
-Ray entered upon his task, however perplexing it might be, with the
-enthusiastic energy of a man really in love with his subject, we cannot
-doubt. “Willughby,” says Derham, “prosecuted his design with as great
-application as if he had been to get his bread thereby.” The good sense
-of Ray saw distinctly the right path in such an undertaking. There is a
-passage in his ‘Wisdom of God,’ which beautifully exhibits his own
-conception of the proper character of a naturalist: “Let it not suffice
-us to be book-learned, to read what others have written, and to take
-upon trust more falsehood than truth. But let us ourselves examine
-things as we have opportunity, and converse with nature as well as
-books. Let us endeavour to promote and increase this knowledge, and make
-new discoveries; not so much distrusting our own parts or despairing of
-our own abilities, as to think that our industry can add nothing to the
-invention of our ancestors, or correct any of their mistakes. Let us not
-think that the bounds of science are fixed like Hercules’ pillars, and
-inscribed with a _ne plus ultra_. Let us not think we have done when we
-have learnt what they have delivered to us. The treasures of nature are
-inexhaustible. Here is employment enough for the vastest parts, the most
-indefatigable industries, the happiest opportunities, the most prolix
-and undisturbed vacancies.” It is not difficult to imagine the two
-friends encouraging each other in their laborious career by sentiments
-such as these; which are as worthy to be held in remembrance now that we
-are reaping the full advantage of their labours, and those of their many
-illustrious successors, as in the days when natural history was, for the
-most part, a tissue of extravagant fables and puerile conceits.
-
-In 1667 Ray was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society; and he executed,
-about that time, a translation into Latin of his friend Bishop Wilkins’
-work, on a philosophical and universal language. In 1670 he published
-the first edition of his ‘Catalogue of English Plants;’ and in 1672
-appeared his ‘Collection of English Proverbs;’ which he probably took up
-as a relaxation from his more systematic pursuits. In this year he
-suffered the irreparable loss of his friend Willughby. The history of
-letters presents us with few more striking examples of the advantages to
-the world, as well as to the individuals themselves, of such a cordial
-union for a great object. The affection of Ray for Willughby was of the
-noblest kind. He became the guardian and tutor of his children; and he
-prepared his posthumous works for publication, with additions from his
-own pen, for which he claimed no credit, with a diligence and accuracy
-which showed that he considered the reputation of his friend as the most
-sacred of all trusts. In 1673, being in his forty-fifth year, Ray
-married. Willughby had left him an annuity of £60. He had three
-daughters. During the remainder of his long life, which reached to his
-77th year, he resided in or near his native village, living contentedly,
-as a layman, upon very humble means, but indefatigably contributing to
-the advancement of natural history, and directing the study of it to the
-highest end,—the proof of the wisdom and goodness of the great Author of
-Nature.
-
-The most celebrated of Ray’s botanical publications is his ‘Synopsis
-Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum.’ Sir James Smith, in a memoir of Ray,
-in Rees’s Encyclopædia, declares that of all the systematical and
-practical Floras of any country, the second edition of Ray’s Synopsis is
-the most perfect. The same writer, in the Transactions of the Linnæan
-Society, vol. iv., says of this Synopsis, “he examined every plant
-recorded in his work, and even gathered most of them himself. He
-investigated their synonyms with consummate accuracy; and if the
-clearness and precision of other authors had equalled his, he would
-scarcely have committed an error.” Ray’s ‘Methodus Plantarum Nova,’
-first published in 1682, has been superseded by other systems; but the
-accuracy of his observations, the precision of his language, and the
-clearness of his general views, tended greatly to the advancement of
-botanical science. His ‘Historia Plantarum,’ in three vols. folio, a
-vast compilation, including all the botanical knowledge of his day, is
-still in use, as a book of reference, by those who especially devote
-themselves to this study.
-
-The zoological works of Ray have had a more direct and permanent
-influence upon the advancement of natural history, than his botanical.
-Amongst his zoological productions, the best authorities are agreed that
-we ought to include the greater part of those edited by him as the
-posthumous works of his friend Willughby. They are conceived upon the
-same principle as his own History of Plants, and are arranged upon a
-nearly similar plan; whilst the style of each is undoubtedly the same.
-In the original division of their great subject, Ray had chosen the
-vegetable kingdom, and Willughby the animal; and Ray, therefore, may
-have felt himself compelled to forego some of his own proper claims,
-that he might raise a complete monument to the memory of his friend. The
-Ornithology appeared in 1676; the History of Fishes in 1686. Ray,
-however, prepared several very important zoological works, of his entire
-claims to which there can be no doubt. The chief of these are, ‘Synopsis
-methodica animalium quadrupedum et serpentini generis,’ 1693, which he
-published during his life; ‘Synopsis methodica avium,’ and ‘Synopsis
-methodica piscium,’ edited by Derham, and published in 1713; and
-‘Historia insectorum,’ printed at the expense of the Royal Society, in
-1710. “The peculiar character of the zoological works of Ray,” says
-Cuvier, “consists in clearer and more rigorous methods than those of any
-of his predecessors, and applied with more constancy and precision.” The
-divisions which he has introduced into the classes of quadrupeds and
-birds have been followed by the English naturalists, almost to our own
-day; and one finds very evident traces of his system of birds in
-Linnæus, in Brisson, in Buffon, and in all the authors who are occupied
-with this class of animals. The Ornithology of Salerne is little more
-than a translation from the Synopsis; and Buffon has extracted from
-Willughby almost all the anatomical part of his History of Birds.
-Daubenton and Hauy have translated the History of Fishes, in great part,
-for their Dictionary of Ichthyology, in the ‘Encyclopédie Methodique.’
-
-‘The Wisdom of God in the Creation’ is the work upon which the popular
-fame of Ray most deservedly rests. It is a book which perhaps more than
-any other in our language unites the precision of science to the warmth
-of devotion. It is delightful to see the ardour with which this good man
-dedicated himself to the observation of nature entering into his views
-of another state of existence, when our knowledge shall be made perfect,
-and the dim light with which we grope amidst the beautiful and wondrous
-objects by which we are surrounded, shall brighten into complete day.
-“It is not likely,” says he, “that eternal life shall be a torpid and
-inactive state, or that it shall consist only in an uninterrupted and
-endless act of love; the other faculties shall be employed as well as
-the will, in actions suitable to, and perfective of their natures:
-especially the understanding, the supreme faculty of the soul, which
-chiefly differs in us from brute beasts, and makes us capable of virtue
-and vice, of rewards and punishments, shall be busied and employed in
-contemplating the works of God, and observing the divine art and wisdom
-manifested in the structure and composition of them; and reflecting upon
-their Great Architect the praise and glory due to him. Then shall we
-clearly see, to our great satisfaction and admiration, the ends and uses
-of those things, which here were either too subtle for us to penetrate
-and discover, or too remote and unaccessible for us to come to any
-distinct view of, viz. the planets and fixed stars; those illustrious
-bodies, whose contents and inhabitants, whose stores and furniture we
-have here so longing a desire to know, as also their mutual subserviency
-to each other. Now the mind of man being not capable at once to advert
-to more than one thing, a particular view and examination of such an
-innumerable number of vast bodies, and the great multitude of species,
-both of animate and inanimate beings, which each of them contains, will
-afford matter enough to exercise and employ our minds, I do not say to
-all eternity, but to many ages, should we do nothing else[10].”
-
-Footnote 10:
-
-  Wisdom of God in the Creation, p. 199, fifth edition.
-
-In addition to his ‘Wisdom of God,’ Ray published three
-‘Physico-Theological Discourses, concerning the Chaos, Deluge, and
-Dissolution of the World.’ “This last presents to us,” to use the words
-of Cuvier, “a system of geology as plausible as any of those which had
-appeared at this epoch, or for a long time afterwards.” He also printed
-a work expressly of a theological character, ‘A Persuasive to a Holy
-Life.’
-
-Ray died on the 17th January, 1705, at his native place of Black Notley,
-whither he had retired, at Midsummer, 1679, as he himself expressed,
-“for the short pittance of time he had yet to live in this world.” His
-memory has been done justice to by his countrymen. A most interesting
-commemoration of him was held in London, on the 29th Nov., 1828, being
-the two hundredth anniversary of his birth.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by E. Scriven._
-
-  CAPTAIN COOK.
-
-  _From an original Picture by Dance
-  in the Gallery of Greenwich Hospital._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                 COOK.
-
-
-James Cook was born October 27, 1728, at Marton, a village in the North
-Riding of Yorkshire, near Stockton-upon-Tees. His parents, who were
-farm-servants, of good esteem in their rank of life, apprenticed him
-when not thirteen years of age to a haberdasher at the fishing town of
-Staith, near Whitby. The employment proved ill suited to his taste; and
-he soon quitted it, and bound himself to a ship-owner at Whitby. In
-course of time he became mate of one of his master’s vessels in the coal
-trade; that best of schools for practical seamanship.
-
-In the spring of 1755 he was lying in the Thames, when war was declared
-between England and France, and a hot press for seamen ensued. He
-volunteered to serve on board the Eagle frigate, commanded by Captain,
-afterwards Sir Hugh Palliser, and soon won the esteem of his officers by
-his diligence and activity. In May, 1759, he was promoted to be master
-of the Mercury, in which he was present at the celebrated siege of
-Quebec. At the recommendation of Captain Palliser, he was employed to
-take soundings of the river St. Lawrence, opposite to, and preparatory
-to an attack on the French fortified camp; and in this hazardous service
-he manifested so much sagacity and resolution, that he was afterwards
-ordered to survey the river below Quebec. The accurate chart, which was
-published as the result of his labours, furnishes a most satisfactory
-proof of Cooke’s natural talents and steady industry; for he could have
-derived little aid in such pursuits from the habits of his early life.
-In the autumn he was removed into the Northumberland man-of-war,
-stationed at Halifax, in Nova Scotia; and he employed his leisure during
-the long winter in making up for the defects of his education, which had
-been merely such as a village school could supply. He now read Euclid
-for the first time, and applied himself to study those branches of
-science, which promised to be most useful in his profession. Towards the
-end of 1762 he returned to England, and married; but in 1763 he again
-went out to make a survey of Newfoundland. In 1764, his steady friend,
-Sir Hugh Palliser, being appointed Governor of Newfoundland, Cook was
-made Marine Surveyor of Newfoundland and Labrador. He held this office
-nearly four years, and his charts of those coasts remain in use up to
-this day.
-
-In 1767 Government determined, at the request of the Royal Society, to
-send out astronomers to the South Pacific Ocean to observe the transit
-of Venus across the sun’s disc. Cook’s able discharge of his duties at
-Newfoundland, and the skill with which he observed an eclipse of the sun
-there, pointed him out to Mr. Stephens, Secretary to the Admiralty, as a
-proper person to conduct the expedition: and at that gentleman’s
-recommendation, backed by Sir Hugh Palliser, he was selected for this
-purpose, and raised to the rank of Lieutenant. He sailed from Plymouth,
-August 23, 1768, in the Endeavour, of three hundred and seventy tons,
-accompanied by Mr. Green as astronomer, and by Mr. Banks. Passing round
-Cape Horn, they anchored, April 11, 1769, at Otaheite, or Tahiti, as it
-is named by the latest visitors, which had been discovered by Captain
-Wallis, and was now selected as a proper place to observe the transit.
-As it was necessary to remain some time on the island, and highly
-expedient to be on good terms with the natives, Lieutenant Cook used
-much precaution to place the traffic between them and the strangers on
-an equitable footing; and to prevent the wanton injuries which the sense
-of superior power, and an unjust contempt, too often induce Europeans to
-inflict upon the rude inhabitants of newly-discovered regions. And we
-may here mention, as one of the good points of Cook’s character, that he
-always showed a scrupulous regard to the rights of property, taking no
-articles from the natives except on fair terms of gift or barter; and
-that he had a tender regard for human life, not only avoiding to use our
-deadly weapons, as discoverers have too often done, in revenge for petty
-depredations, harmless insults, and contemptible attacks, but even
-restraining a natural curiosity, where the indulgence of it seemed
-likely to shock prejudices, or to lead to collision and bloodshed. The
-inhabitants of Otaheite are a gentle race, and no serious
-misunderstandings occurred between them and their visitors. The transit
-was satisfactorily observed June 3; and, July 13, the Endeavour resumed
-her voyage, pursuant to Cook’s instructions, which were to prosecute his
-discoveries in the Southern Ocean, after the astronomical purposes of
-the expedition had been fulfilled. He cruised a month among the then
-unknown group of the Society Islands, and afterwards proceeded in search
-of the Terra Australis, the great southern continent, so long supposed
-by geographers to exist, as a necessary counterpoise to the extensive
-continents of the northern hemisphere. Land was seen October 6,
-displaying lofty ranges of mountains; and it was generally supposed that
-the long wished for discovery was made. It proved, however, to be New
-Zealand, unvisited by Europeans since Tasman first approached its
-shores, in 1642. Cook spent six months in circumnavigating this country,
-and ascertained that it consisted of two large islands. March 31, 1770,
-he commenced his voyage home. He directed his course along the eastern
-coast of New Holland, then quite unknown; laid down a chart of it
-through nearly its whole extent; and took every opportunity to increase
-our stock of knowledge in natural history, as well as geographical
-science. For more than 1300 miles he had safely navigated this most
-dangerous shore, where the sharp coral reefs rise like a wall to the
-surface of the water, when, on the night of June 10, the ship suddenly
-struck. She was found to be aground on a coral reef, which rose around
-her to within a few feet of the surface. Though lightened immediately by
-every possible means, two tides elapsed before she could be got off; and
-then with so much injury to her bottom, that she could only be kept
-afloat by working three pumps night and day. When the men were all but
-worn out by this labour, a midshipman suggested the expedient of
-_fothering_ the ship, or passing a sail charged with oakum, and other
-loose materials, under her keel: which succeeded so well, that the leak
-was then kept under by a single pump; and the navigators proceeded in
-comparative security till the 14th, when a harbour was discovered,
-afterwards named Endeavour River, suitable for making the necessary
-repairs. It was then found that a large fragment of coral rock had stuck
-in the ship’s bottom, so as in great measure to close the leak, which
-must otherwise have admitted a body of water sufficient to set the pumps
-at defiance. To this providential occurrence they owed their safety;
-for, had the ship foundered, the boats could not have contained the
-whole crew. Among many dangers, Cook pursued his course through that
-intricate tract of reefs and islands, which he named the Labyrinth, to
-the northern point of New Holland: and having now explored the whole
-eastern coast, from lat. 38° to 10° 30´, he took possession of it by the
-name of New South Wales. He then made sail for New Guinea, having proved
-that New Guinea and New Holland are separate islands, and from thence
-proceeded to Batavia, which he reached October 9. Here they obtained
-refreshments and repaired the ship, which was found to be in a most
-perilous state: but these advantages were dearly bought by a sojourn in
-that pestilential place. Seven persons died at Batavia, and twenty-three
-more during the voyage to the Cape. June 12, 1771, the Endeavour dropped
-anchor in the Downs, and terminated her long and adventurous voyage.
-
-The manner in which Lieutenant Cook had performed his task gave perfect
-satisfaction, and he was promoted to the rank of Commander. The public
-curiosity was strongly roused to know the particulars of his adventures;
-and it was gratified by an account of the several expeditions to the
-Southern Ocean, commanded by Byron, Wallis, and Cook, composed by Dr.
-Hawkesworth from the original materials, and illustrated by charts and
-plates, engraved at the expense of Government. Cook communicated to the
-Royal Society an ‘Account of the flowing of the Tides in the South Sea,’
-published in their Transactions, vol. lxii. His voyage had proved two
-things: first, that neither New Zealand or New Holland were parts of the
-great southern continent, supposing it to exist; secondly, that no such
-continent could exist to the northward of 40° S. lat. He had not,
-however, ascertained its non-existence in higher latitudes, nor did it
-enter into his commission to do so. Now, however, it was resolved to
-send out a second expedition, to ascertain this point, under the command
-of him who had so ably conducted the former one. Two ships were fitted
-out with every thing conducive to the health and comfort of the
-voyagers: the Resolution, of four hundred and sixty tons, and a smaller
-vessel, the Adventure, Captain Furneaux; which, however, was separated
-from her consort early in the second year of the voyage. They sailed
-from Plymouth, July 13, 1772. Captain Cook’s instructions were, to
-circumnavigate the globe in high southern latitudes, prosecuting his
-discoveries as near to the South Pole as possible, using every exertion
-to fall in with the supposed continent, or any islands which might exist
-in those unknown seas; and endeavouring, by all proper means, to
-cultivate a friendship and alliance with the inhabitants. The expedition
-left the Cape of Good Hope Nov. 22, and cruised, for near four months,
-between the Cape and New Zealand, from E. long. 20° to 170°, their
-extreme point to the southward being lat. 67° 15´. Having satisfied
-himself that no land of great extent could exist between these
-longitudes, to the northward of 60° S. lat., Cook made sail for New
-Zealand, to refresh his crew, and reached it March 26, 1773. The winter
-months, corresponding to our midsummer, he spent at the Society Islands;
-and returning to New Zealand, he again sailed, November 26, in quest of
-a southern continent, inclining his course to the east. He first fell in
-with ice in lat. 62° 10´, W. long. 172°, and continued to steer S.E. to
-lat. 67° 31´, W. long. 142° 54´, when, finding it impossible at that
-time to get farther south, he returned northwards, as far as lat. 50°,
-that he might be certain that no extensive country had been left in that
-direction. January 6, 1774, he again shaped his course southward, and on
-the 30th reached his extreme point of southing, lat. 71° 10´, W. long.
-106° 54´. Here he was stopped by ice, which it was the general opinion
-might extend to the Pole, or join some land to which it had been fixed
-from the earliest time. Returning northwards, during the winter months
-he traversed nearly the whole extent of the Pacific Ocean between the
-tropics, visiting Easter Island, the Marquesas, the Society and Friendly
-Islands, the New Hebrides, and another island, the largest yet
-discovered in the Pacific, except those of New Zealand, which he called
-New Caledonia. He then returned to New Zealand, and having passed three
-weeks in friendly intercourse with the natives, took his departure,
-November 10. Having cruised in various latitudes between 43° and 56°, a
-portion of the ocean which he had not yet explored, and being in W.
-long. 138° 56´, he determined to steer direct for the western entrance
-of the Straits of Magellan, and thence, along Tierra del Fuego, to the
-Straits of Le Maire. December 29 he passed Cape Horn, and re-entered the
-Atlantic Ocean, and standing southward, discovered Sandwich Land, a
-desolate coast, the extreme point of which he named the Southern Thule,
-lat. 59° 13´, as the most southern land that had then been discovered.
-Later navigators have found land nearer to the Pole. “I concluded,”
-Captain Cook observes, “that Sandwich Land was either a group of
-islands, or else a point of the continent, for I firmly believe that
-there is a tract of land near the Pole, which is the source of most of
-the ice which is spread over this vast southern ocean. I also think it
-probable that it extends farthest to the north, opposite the Southern
-Atlantic and Indian Oceans, because ice was always found by us farther
-to the north in these oceans than any where else.” Having now
-encompassed the globe in a high latitude, and thinking it impossible to
-prosecute further researches in those tempestuous seas with a worn-out
-ship, and nearly exhausted provisions, Cook made sail for the Cape; and
-arrived there March 22, 1774, having sailed 20,000 leagues since he had
-left it, without so much injury to the ship as springing a mast or yard.
-July 30 he anchored at Spithead.
-
-He was received in England with high applause, posted, and made a
-Captain of Greenwich Hospital. On this occasion he published his own
-Journal, illustrated by maps and engravings; and the composition,
-unpretending, but clear and manly, does honour to one whose education
-had been so rude. Being elected Fellow of the Royal Society, he
-contributed two papers to their Transactions, published in vol. lxvi.,
-one relating to the tides in the South Seas, the other containing an
-account of the methods which he had taken to preserve the health of his
-ship’s crew. The ravages of scurvy are now so much checked, that few
-know from experience how dreadfully earlier navigators suffered from
-that disease. It is one of Cook’s peculiar merits, that he attended to
-the health of his seamen with such eminent success, that during this
-long and painful voyage, not one man died of scurvy. Four only died, out
-of a hundred and twelve persons on board the Resolution, and of these
-but one was carried off by disease. That this was, in a great degree,
-the merit of the Captain, is proved by the Adventure having suffered
-much more, though fitted out exactly in the same way. Sailors usually
-dislike changes in their mode of life; and it required judgment and
-perseverance to induce them to adopt a healthy regimen. Cook, however,
-succeeded in reconciling them to his innovations; of the utility of
-which they were perfectly convinced, long before the end of the voyage.
-The means which he used will be found fully detailed in his paper, which
-was honoured by the Society with the gold medal: those on which he
-chiefly relied were a large supply of antiscorbutic stores, as malt,
-sour krout, and portable broth; the enforcement of a vegetable diet,
-whenever vegetables could be procured; and great care not to expose the
-crew unnecessarily to the weather, and to keep their persons, their
-clothes, and their berths, clean, dry, and well aired. Cook was justly
-proud of his success in this respect, and he closed the account of his
-second voyage with words which show the humanity and modesty of his
-temper. “Whatever may be the public judgment about other matters, it is
-with real satisfaction, and without claiming any other merit but that of
-attention to my duty, that I can conclude this account with an
-observation, which facts enable me to make, that our having discovered
-the possibility of preserving health among a numerous ship’s company for
-such a length of time, in such varieties of climate, and amid such
-continued hardships and fatigues, will make this voyage remarkable, in
-the opinion of every benevolent person, when the disputes about the
-southern continent shall have ceased to engage the attention and to
-divide the judgment of philosophers.”
-
-Another geographical question, of still greater interest, engaged the
-attention of the nation at this time; the practicability of a north-east
-passage to China and the Indies. During Cook’s absence, one expedition
-had been sent out, under Captain Phipps; it was now determined to send
-out a second, reversing the usual order, and trying to find a passage
-from the Pacific into the Atlantic Ocean. Cook volunteered to quit his
-well-earned repose, and take the direction of this enterprise; and the
-offer was gladly accepted. He was directed to proceed, by the Cape of
-Good Hope, to New Zealand, thence through the chain of islands scattered
-along the tropics, which he had already visited. This done, he was to
-proceed northward, with all dispatch, to the latitude of 65°, and to
-direct his attention to the discovery of a passage into the Atlantic;
-and by the extension of an existing Act of Parliament, the ship’s
-company, if successful, were entitled to a reward of £20,000. With a
-most praiseworthy benevolence, the ships were charged with cattle,
-sheep, and other useful animals, to be left, and naturalized, if
-possible, in New Zealand, Otaheite, and other islands. The Resolution
-and Discovery were fitted out for the voyage, with every attention to
-the health and comfort of their crews. They sailed from Plymouth July
-12, 1776, and touching at New Zealand, reached the Friendly Islands so
-late in the spring of 1777, that Captain Cook thought it impossible to
-visit the Polar Seas to any purpose that year. He therefore spent the
-whole summer in this part of the ocean, where fresh provisions were
-abundant; and his men were relieved from the hardships and sicknesses
-commonly incident to a long voyage, while, at the same time, the ship’s
-stores were economized. He remained therefore near three months among
-the Friendly Islands, using all means of adding to the geographical
-knowledge of this intricate archipelago, and acquiring information
-relative to the natural history of the country, and the manners of the
-inhabitants, with whom an uninterrupted friendship was maintained. July
-17, Cook pursued his course to the Society Islands. Both here and at the
-Friendly Islands, especially at Otaheite, he left a number of European
-animals; and the prudence, as well as benevolence, of this conduct, is
-evinced by the valuable supplies which whalers and other navigators of
-the southern seas have since drawn from them. Early in December he took
-a final leave of these regions; and, January 18, 1778, came in sight of
-an unknown group, to which he gave the name of Sandwich Islands. March
-7, the west coast of North America was seen; and after spending a month
-in executing necessary repairs in Nootka Sound, the voyagers advanced to
-the Aleutian Islands, and up Behring’s Strait. Here Cook ascertained the
-continents of Asia and America to be only thirteen leagues apart; and
-laid down the position of the most westerly point of America, just
-without the Arctic Circle, which he named Cape Prince of Wales. August
-18 he reached lat. 70° 44´, W. long. about 162°, his extreme point, and
-continued to traverse those frozen regions till August 29, when, the ice
-being daily increasing, it was time to seek a more genial climate. But
-before proceeding to the south, he employed some time in examining the
-coasts of Asia and America, and found reason to admire the correctness
-of Behring, the discoverer of the strait which bears that name. He
-passed the winter at the Sandwich Islands, intending to return northward
-early enough to reach Kamtschatka by the middle of May in the ensuing
-year.
-
-During this second visit was discovered the island of Owhyhee, the
-largest and most important of the group, at which the strangers were
-received with unusual generosity and confidence. Near ten weeks were
-spent in sailing round it, without any serious disagreement arising with
-the natives; and Cook ceased to regret that he had as yet failed in
-meeting with a northern passage home. It is remarkable that his Journal
-concludes with the following words: “To this disappointment we owed our
-having it in our power to revisit the Sandwich Islands, and to enrich
-our voyage with a discovery, which though the last, seemed in many
-respects to be the most important that had hitherto been made by
-Europeans, throughout the extent of the Pacific Ocean.”
-
-This island, which he had rejoiced so much to see, was the spot where
-our great navigator’s life was prematurely closed. We have the testimony
-of an eye-witness to his own belief, that no premeditated and
-treacherous assault had been planned; but that the fatal affray was one
-of those accidents which human foresight cannot always prevent. The
-natives of these, as of all the South Sea Islands, were much addicted to
-stealing the new and tempting articles presented to their view; a fault
-for which Captain Cook, with the benevolence usually displayed in his
-dealings with them, has offered a charitable and sensible apology. But
-on the night of February 13, one of the ship’s boats was stolen. To
-recover this was a matter of importance; and Cook went on shore, guarded
-only by a small number of marines, hoping by amicable means to gain
-possession of the person of the king of the district, which he had
-always found the most effectual method of regaining stolen articles. The
-king consented to go on board the Resolution; but a crowd collected, and
-indications of alarm and hostility gradually increased, until blows were
-made at Captain Cook, and he was obliged to fire in self-defence. A
-shower of stones was then discharged at the marines, who returned it
-with a volley, and this drew on the fire of the boats’ crews. Cook
-turned round to stop the firing, and order the boats to come close in to
-shore; but a rush had been made on the marines as soon as their muskets
-were discharged, and they were driven into the water, where four were
-killed, the rest escaping to the boats. Cook was the last person left on
-shore; and he was making for the pinnace, when an Indian came behind him
-and struck him with a club. He sunk on one knee, and as he rose was
-stabbed by another Indian in the neck. He fell into shallow water within
-five or six yards of one of the boats; but there all was confusion, and
-no united effort was made to save him. He struggled vigorously, but was
-overcome by numbers; and at last was struck down, not to rise again. His
-body, with the other slain, was abandoned to the natives, and though
-every exertion was subsequently made, nothing more than the bones, and
-not all of them, were recovered. These were committed to the deep with
-military honours; honoured more highly by the unfeigned sorrow of those
-who sailed under his command.
-
-Captain Clerke, of the Discovery, succeeded to the command of the
-expedition, and returned in the ensuing summer to the Polar Seas; but he
-was unable to advance so far as in the former year. The chief object of
-the voyage therefore failed. The ships returned along the coast of
-Kamtschatka to Japan and China, and reached England in October, 1780.
-Captain Clerke died of consumption in his second visit to the Polar
-Seas, and Lieutenant King succeeded to the Discovery, whose name is
-honourably associated with that of his great commander, in consequence
-of his having continued the account of the voyage, from the period at
-which Cook’s Journal ends. He has borne testimony to Cook’s virtues in
-the following terms:—
-
-“The constitution of his body was robust, inured to labour, and capable
-of undergoing the severest hardships. His stomach bore without
-difficulty the coarsest and most ungrateful food. Great was the
-indifference with which he submitted to every kind of self-denial. The
-qualities of his mind were of the same hardy, vigorous kind with those
-of his body. His understanding was strong and perspicacious. His
-judgment, in whatever related to the services he was engaged in, quick
-and sure. His designs were bold and manly; and both in the conception,
-and in the mode of execution, bore evident marks of a great original
-genius. His courage was cool and determined, and accompanied with an
-admirable presence of mind in the moment of danger. His temper might,
-perhaps, have been justly blamed as subject to hastiness and passion,
-had not these been disarmed by a disposition the most benevolent and
-humane. Such were the outlines of Captain Cook’s character; but its most
-distinguishing feature was that unremitting perseverance in the pursuit
-of his object, which was not only superior to the opposition of dangers,
-and the pressure of hardships, but even exempt from the want of ordinary
-relaxation. During the long and tedious voyages in which he was engaged,
-his eagerness and activity were never in the least abated. No incidental
-temptation could detain him for a moment: even those intervals of
-recreation which sometimes unavoidably occurred, and were looked for by
-us with a longing, that persons who have experienced the fatigues of
-service will readily excuse, were submitted to by him with a certain
-impatience, whenever they could not be employed in making a farther
-provision for the more effectual prosecution of his designs.”
-
-The life of Captain Cook is, in effect, the history of his voyages, and
-will best be found in the accounts of those works. But the memoir by Dr.
-Kippis, the whole of which is printed in the Biographia Britannica, is
-more adapted for general use. Samwell’s Narrative of the Death of
-Captain Cook contains the fullest account of that lamentable event.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by W. T. Fry._
-
-  TURGOT.
-
-  _From an original Picture in the
-  Gallery of the Louvre._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                TURGOT.
-
-
-Anne Robert James Turgot was born at Paris May 10, 1727. He was
-descended from one of the oldest and most noble families of Normandy.
-
-Turgot’s childhood was passed under the superintendence of an
-injudicious mother, whose affection for her son seems to have been much
-lessened in consequence of his shy and awkward manners before strangers.
-His father, on the contrary, was a man of sense and humanity. He was
-Provost of the Corporation of Merchants, an office which he long filled
-with deserved popularity. He lived till 1750, and by his example as well
-as by his precepts exerted no small influence over the character of his
-son. If Turgot’s reserved and silent manners are to be attributed to the
-one parent, the uprightness, benevolence, and boldness of his conduct
-may perhaps in an equal degree be ascribed to the other. At an early age
-he was sent to the school of Louis le Grand, where he had little
-opportunity of making progress; for the master though a kind-hearted
-man, was not in other respects peculiarly qualified for his station. He
-afterwards went to the school of Plessis. Here he was more fortunate in
-meeting with two professors of superior abilities, Guérin and Sigorgne;
-the latter honourably distinguished as being the first member of the
-universities of France, who introduced the Newtonian philosophy into the
-schools. Under their tuition, assisted by his own unremitting assiduity,
-Turgot advanced rapidly, and the pupil soon acquired the respect and
-friendship of his teachers.
-
-It was the custom in France, during the period of Turgot’s boyhood, that
-parents should decide upon the profession to which their children should
-be educated, even from the cradle; little voice in this most important
-question being allowed to those who were most deeply interested in it.
-Turgot was the youngest of three sons; of whom the eldest was destined
-to the magistracy, the second to the army, the third, the subject of
-this memoir, was set apart for the church. The premature determination
-of his parents seemed amply justified as his character was gradually
-developed. Great simplicity of manner, pensiveness of mind, extreme
-diffidence and reserve, a distaste to dissipation of any kind, habits of
-intense application, and an ardent love of knowledge, were his prominent
-qualities, and well suited to the ecclesiastical life. Nevertheless he
-had hardly reached the age of reflection, and become capable of
-appreciating the objects of ambition, which, from the political
-consideration in which his family was held, he might reasonably aspire
-to, before he resolved to sacrifice all to an unfettered conscience; and
-to follow that path in which he thought he could be most useful to his
-fellow-citizens and mankind. Deeply impressed however with a sense of
-what was due to the feelings of his parents, he waited till a favourable
-opportunity should occur to disclose his secret determination; and was
-in the mean time, at the age of twenty-one, admitted to the
-establishment of the Sorbonne, as a student of theology. Here he
-remained two years; prosecuting his studies with vigour, but without
-confining them to a profession which he had resolved not to follow.
-Nothing seemed too vast to discourage him, or too trifling to escape his
-notice. Mathematics and natural philosophy, metaphysics, logic, morals,
-legislation and law; history, belles lettres, poetry, Latin, Greek,
-Hebrew, together with most of the modern languages, entered into the
-comprehensive catalogue of his pursuits. So great an activity of mind,
-joined to a memory so retentive that he could repeat two hundred lines
-of verse after hearing them read twice, and sometimes only once, stored
-his mind with an extent and variety of knowledge unusual at his, or
-indeed at any age. After taking his degree, and being elected Prior of
-the establishment, he could no longer conceal his intention of
-relinquishing the profession of the church. His friends and associates,
-amongst others the Abbés Bon, Morellet, and de Brienne, remonstrated
-with him in vain on his determination. “Follow the advice,” he replied,
-“which you offer, since you are able to do so: for my own part, it is
-impossible for me to wear a mask all my life.”
-
-He had determined to pursue his fortune in the civil service of the
-state; and his father’s death obviated the difficulties which might have
-embarrassed him in carrying his resolution into effect. He obtained the
-office of Procureur du Roi as a first step in his new career, and soon
-after that of Master of Requests. In this situation he had to make
-several reports, and to deliver them _vivâ voce_ before the King. Aware
-of his extreme diffidence, he resolved to counteract it by writing out
-and revising his speech with great attention. He did so; nothing was
-omitted, and yet the subject was summed up with such severe conciseness
-as greatly to fatigue the patience of his hearers. Some of them,
-complimenting him on his performance, at the same time criticised its
-length. “The next time,” they added, “try to abridge what you have to
-say.” Turgot, who knew that it was impossible to have abridged more,
-learnt by this remark that he had abridged too much; and on the next
-occasion, profiting by his singularly acquired knowledge, he developed
-his facts at length, repeated his arguments, and recapitulated all that
-he had urged; and in doing so, fixed without fatiguing the attention of
-his audience. When he had finished, the same friends, as he expected,
-congratulated him warmly on having corrected his former defect, saying,
-“This time you have told us a great deal and you have been very brief.”
-
-In 1761 he was made Intendant of Limoges; and on his appointment
-Voltaire wrote to him, saying, “I have lately learnt from one of your
-colleagues that an Intendant can do nothing but mischief: you, I trust,
-will prove that he can do much good.” These anticipations were fully
-realized. The inhabitants of his province, over-burthened at all times
-by the oppressive imposts of the Taille, the Corvée, and the Militia
-service, were then suffering under the added pressure of three
-successive years of scarcity. The _Taille_ was in the nature of a
-land-tax: which fell upon the landlords in those parts of the country
-which were cultivated by farmers; but principally upon the labourers
-themselves, wherever the _Métayer_ system was in force, as in Limousin.
-A more equal distribution of this tax, and an improved method of
-collection, relieved the peasant from the great injustice of the burden.
-The _Corvée_ was an obligation to furnish labour in kind, twice every
-year, for the construction and repair of public roads; for which the
-peasantry received no remuneration. Turgot proposed that this task
-should for the future be executed by hired labourers, whose wages were
-to be paid by a rate levied upon the districts adjacent to the road. The
-evils of the Militia service were obviated in a similar way; and the
-people who had received their new Intendant with suspicion, as only a
-new specimen of their former oppressors, now looked upon him as a
-benefactor and a friend. Nevertheless his popularity could not overcome
-all prejudices; and when he endeavoured to mitigate the evils occasioned
-by the late scarcity, by introducing a free traffic in grain, both the
-magistrates and the peasantry did all in their power to counteract his
-wise and benevolent exertions. In spite of his new regulations,
-supported by a clear explanation of the grounds upon which they rested,
-the land-owners and corn-merchants could not transport their grain to
-those places where the price was highest, the want therefore most
-urgent, and the supply most beneficial, without exposing their persons
-to insults, and their property to the pillage of the people, as well as
-to the local taxes imposed by the magistrates. Turgot lost no time in
-addressing a circular to the proper officers, in which he urged them, by
-the pleas both of reason and authority, to put in force the laws, and
-check the popular irritation. He showed that the difference of weather
-often produces an abundant harvest in some districts, and a deficient
-one in others; and that the only effectual way of relieving the
-necessary distress in the latter, is to permit the free transport of the
-surplus produce of the former: that if one town were to arrogate the
-right of prohibiting the transit or export of grain, other towns would
-justly pretend to the same privilege; and that what might be felt as a
-benefit to the inhabitants of one spot in a year of external scarcity,
-would be deprecated by the same persons as a curse in a year of internal
-famine. The clearness and conciliatory tone with which the principle of
-the freedom of trade was laid down, produced the desired effect; and the
-writer had the satisfaction of seeing the wants of the people supplied,
-without recurring to the demoralizing expedient of indiscriminate
-charity.
-
-Soon after the success of this experiment, the Minister of Finance
-consulted the Intendants of the kingdom upon the laws relating to the
-commerce of grain. Turgot wrote seven letters in answer, in which he
-developed at length his views on the subject of free trade; and not long
-after he composed an essay on the Formation of Wealth, which, as his
-celebrated biographer Condorcet observes, may be considered as the germ
-of Smith’s Wealth of Nations.
-
-These unremitting exertions, joined to views so just and at that time so
-original, attracted the attention of the public; and on the death of
-Louis XV. Turgot was called to the first offices of the state, as the
-only man who seemed likely to restore the failing credit of the nation,
-do justice to the people, and prevent those political troubles which did
-in fact ensue, and ended in confiscation and bloodshed. He undertook the
-difficult task with cheerfulness, but not without some misgivings. The
-aristocracy and the court could not long remain favourable to a minister
-who would not cater to their luxuries; the clergy naturally viewed with
-suspicion one who was devoted to the most rigid economy; public opinion
-was not sufficiently advanced to appreciate the measures of a statesman
-whose genius far surpassed the knowledge of his day; and even if it had
-been more enlightened, it had not the means of expressing itself
-powerfully and almost simultaneously as in England. Turgot therefore had
-no support to rely on but that of the King; but while the monarch
-remained firm, there was still a hope that the statesman might
-accomplish his objects. After filling the post of Minister of Marine for
-one month, he was raised to the office of Minister of Finance, August
-24, 1774. Nothing could be more encouraging to him than his first
-audience of the King; it was more like the confidential intercourse of
-two friends considering in truth and sincerity the best means of
-promoting the happiness of their common country, than a cold and formal
-state conference. Turgot, with the permission of his sovereign,
-recapitulated what had occurred at this meeting, in a letter which is
-above all praise. In it he enforced the absolute necessity of the most
-rigid economy, in order to prevent a national bankruptcy, any increase
-of taxes, or any new loans. “No bankruptcy, either avowed, or disguised
-under compulsory reductions. No increase of taxes. The reason your
-Majesty will find in the situation of your people, and still more in
-your own heart. No new loans; for every loan, by diminishing the free
-revenue, necessarily leads at last to a bankruptcy or an increase of
-taxes.” The means by which he proposed to bring about these ends were
-the most rigid retrenchments. “But,” he adds, “it is asked, in what is
-the retrenchment to be made? and every department will maintain that as
-far as relates to itself there is scarcely a single expense which is not
-indispensable. The reasons alleged may be very good; but as there can be
-none for performing impossibilities, all these reasons must give way to
-the irresistible necessity of economy. Your Majesty knows that one of
-the greatest obstacles to economy is the multitude of solicitations to
-which you are perpetually exposed. Your benevolence, Sir, must be the
-shield against your bounty. Consider whence the money distributed
-amongst your courtiers is drawn; and contrast the misery of those from
-whom it is sometimes necessary to wrest it by the most rigorous
-measures, with the situation of those who have the best title to your
-liberality.” Such a course was sure to raise up enemies on every side.
-He anticipates the calumnies which will be heaped upon him; he points
-them out to the King, and then reminds him, “It is upon the faith of
-your Majesty’s promises that I take upon myself a burthen which is
-perhaps heavier than I can bear; it is to yourself personally, to the
-honest, the just, and the good man, rather than to the King, that I
-devote myself.”
-
-From this letter it might be supposed by those who are not acquainted
-with all Turgot’s principles, that his first step would be to stop the
-payment to every useless pensioner upon the state, and abrogate every
-local tax which had been unjustly levied by individuals in times of
-anarchy and oppression. But he respected the right of property; and the
-more so, because he understood its full extent. Every unjust impost was
-indeed taken off, and every monopoly destroyed; but not without first
-giving to the possessors an indemnification equal to their loss: and two
-years’ arrears of pensions, which had been stopped for three years
-previous to his entering upon office, were punctually discharged without
-loss of time where the amount was small, and the creditor therefore in
-all probability not in affluent circumstances; whilst the payment of the
-remaining ones was accelerated as much as possible. It was not therefore
-by injustice that he endeavoured to relieve the people, but by enabling
-them more easily to bear their burdens. The faithful discharge of all
-claims upon the state, restored the credit of the country; the
-destruction of monopolies, and of restrictions upon commerce and
-manufactures, increased the wealth of the people, and thus rendered
-comparatively light an amount of taxation which was before most
-burdensome. Thus, his first regulations established a free trade in corn
-throughout the kingdom, and took away the exclusive privileges of
-bakers, the obligation to grind corn at particular mills, and several
-market dues upon corn when sold. A similar edict permitted the free
-circulation of wine; and brandy, cider, and perry were meant to have
-been subsequently included in this law. The manufacturers of France were
-also freed from the absurd and vexatious regulations which prescribed
-the size of different stuffs, and the method of making and dying them,
-under severe penalties and even corporal punishments; and ingenuity was
-allowed to exert itself according to the taste and demand of the public.
-Glass, powder, saltpetre, nitre, oil of poppies, and many other
-articles, were either freed on the one hand from the exclusive
-privileges in their manufacture, which enhanced their price and
-interfered with their quality; or on the other, from restrictions upon
-their free transport through the kingdom, which prevented the
-manufacturer from obtaining the best price for his goods.
-
-These changes were brought about in little more than a year and a half,
-during which his labours were interrupted by attacks of illness, and by
-two events which could not be averted or foreseen. The first of these
-was a contagious disorder which broke out among the cattle of Guienne,
-and spread far and wide, until the salutary measures taken by Turgot
-arrested the evil: the other was more serious, and required all the
-decision and courage of the minister for its suppression. The season had
-been unfavourable; and in times of scarcity the people had been
-accustomed to vent their fury against the corn-merchants, whom the
-government often weakly abandoned. A repetition of these scenes was
-approaching. A few riots in the provincial towns were soon quelled, but
-a heavier storm impended over the capital. A band of lawless insurgents,
-after plundering the corn-markets upon the Seine and Oise, entered
-Paris, rifled many bakers’ shops, and endeavoured to excite the people
-to outrage and violence. The powers of government seemed paralysed. The
-superintendents of the police were frightened and inactive; and the
-parliament published a proclamation, promising that the King should be
-petitioned for a reduction in the price of bread. Turgot lost no time in
-sending troops to the disturbed district, who soon dispersed the
-pillagers; the superintendents of the police were immediately dismissed
-from office; and government proclamations were posted over those of the
-parliament during the very night in which the latter were issued,
-prohibiting the assembling of the people on pain of death. These
-energetic and salutary measures soon restored tranquillity and
-confidence; the property of the merchants was respected; and the price
-of provisions found the lowest level which the nature of the case would
-admit of. A month after, the King in passing through a district in which
-these riots had prevailed, was cheered by subjects who blessed his
-government. “It is Turgot and I alone who love the people,” was the
-expression which fell from his lips; and the sentence was repeated and
-confirmed by a nation’s voice. In spite, however, of Turgot’s
-indefatigable and honest exertions in the cause of his country, his
-dismission from office was soon demanded. The privileged orders insisted
-upon remaining exempt from the payment of the taxes; the court parasites
-upheld the necessity of sinecures and pensions; all who lived upon the
-resources of the country without serving it, united in denouncing a
-minister who was the friend of the people and of justice; nor had the
-clergy any sympathy with one who laid down the most comprehensive
-principles of toleration. The King had the culpable weakness of yielding
-to this dishonest clamour. He sacrificed his minister, and not many
-years after died himself upon the scaffold; that scaffold which was
-destined to reek with the blood of his family, his friends, and his
-subjects.
-
-Turgot had been in office only twenty months, but during that time he
-had prepared the way for a new era of extensive happiness and prosperity
-for his fellow-countrymen. A friend reproached him one day with being
-too precipitate. “How can you say so,” he replied, “you who know so well
-the pressing wants of the people, and are aware that none of my family
-survive the gout beyond the age of fifty.” His prediction was but too
-nearly fulfilled; he died of this hereditary disease a few years
-afterwards, March 20, 1781, in the fifty-fourth year of his age.
-
-During the interval between his retiring from office, and his death,
-Turgot devoted himself to literary and scientific pursuits. His works
-are contained in nine volumes octavo, 1808–11; they are composed
-principally of state papers connected with his administration, of some
-articles written for the Encyclopédie, and a few translations from
-classical and modern literature.
-
-Turgot was a great and a good man; endowed with depth and originality of
-thought, he discovered and acted upon sound principles of political
-economy, before the science had been even dignified with a name; and
-whilst his predecessors in office were ever seeking for temporary
-expedients to increase the revenue of the state by the oppression of the
-people, he first endeavoured to unite the interests of both. Mild and
-conciliating in his manners, just and benevolent in all his view’s, he
-was the firm and uncompromising opponent of every species of injustice.
-He was ambitious, but his ambition was of the highest order. He despised
-the tinsel grandeur of office, the smiles of courtiers, or even the
-applause of the multitude; but he courted the means of doing good to
-mankind, and his reward has been the esteem of discerning friends and
-the applause of a later and a more enlightened age.
-
-A disquisition on the life and opinions of Turgot, by Dupont de Nemours,
-is prefixed to the edition of his works which we have already mentioned.
-His life, written by Condorcet, is one of the best specimens of
-biography in any language. Lacretelle’s ‘Histoire du dix-huitième
-Siècle’ contains a short sketch of his ministry, well deserving
-attention: and several interesting details of his character are to be
-found in the Memoirs of the Abbé Morellet.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Engraved by W. Holl._
-
-  PETER THE GREAT.
-
-  _From a Print by Smith after a Picture by Kneller._
-
-  Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
-    Knowledge.
-
-  _London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East._
-]
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                            PETER THE GREAT.
-
-
-At the close of the sixteenth century, the dominions of Russia, or
-Muscovy, as it was then more generally called, were far thrown back from
-the more civilized nations of southern Europe, by the intervention of
-Lithuania, Livonia, and other provinces now incorporated in the Russian
-empire, but then belonging either to Sweden or Poland. The Czar of
-Muscovy therefore possessed no political weight in the affairs of
-Europe; and little intercourse existed between the Court of Moscow and
-the more polished potentates whom it affected to despise as barbarians,
-even for some time after the accession of the reigning dynasty, the
-house of Romanof, in 1613, and the establishment of a more regular
-government than had previously been known. We only read occasionally of
-embassies being sent to Moscow, in general for the purpose of arranging
-commercial relations. From this state of insignificance, Peter, the
-first Emperor of Russia, raised his country, by introducing into it the
-arts of peace, by establishing a well organized and disciplined army in
-the place of a lawless body of tumultuous mutineers, by creating a navy,
-where scarce a merchant vessel existed before, and, as the natural
-result of these changes, by important conquests on both the Asiatic and
-European frontiers of his hereditary dominions. For these services his
-countrymen bestowed on him, yet living, the title of Great: and it is
-well deserved, whether we look to the magnitude of those services, the
-difficulty of carrying into effect his benevolent designs, which
-included nothing less than the remodelling a whole people, or the grasp
-of mind, and the iron energy of will, which was necessary to conceive
-such projects, and to overcome the difficulties which beset them. It
-will not vitiate his claim to the epithet, that his manners were coarse
-and boisterous, his amusements often ludicrous and revolting to a
-polished taste: if that claim be questionable, it is because he who
-aspired to be the reformer of others, was unable to control the violence
-of his own passions.
-
-The Czar Alexis, Peter’s father, was actuated by somewhat of the spirit
-which so distinguished the son. He endeavoured to introduce the European
-discipline into his armies; he had it much at heart to turn the
-attention of the Russians to maritime pursuits; and he added the fine
-provinces of Plescow and Smolensko to his paternal dominions. At the
-death of Alexis, in 1677, Peter was but five years old. His eldest
-brother Theodore succeeded to the throne. Theodore died after a reign of
-five years, and named Peter his successor. We pass in silence over the
-intrigues and insurrections which troubled the young Czar’s minority. It
-was not until the close of the year 1689, in the eighteenth year of his
-age, that he finally shook off the trammels of an ambitious sister, and
-assumed in reality, as well as in name, the direction of the state. How
-he had been qualified for this task by education does not clearly
-appear; but even setting aside the stories which attribute to his sister
-the detestable design of leading him into all sorts of excess, and
-especially drunkenness, with the hope of ruining both his constitution
-and intellect, it is probable that no pains whatever had been taken to
-form his intellect or manners for the station which he was to occupy.
-One of the few anecdotes told of his early life is, that being struck by
-the appearance of a boat on the river Yausa, which runs through Moscow,
-which he noticed to be of different construction from the flat-bottomed
-vessels commonly in use, he was led to inquire into the method of
-navigating it. It had been built for the Czar Alexis by a Dutchman, who
-was still in Moscow. He was immediately sent for; he rigged and repaired
-the boat; and under his guidance the young prince learnt how to sail
-her, and soon grew passionately fond of his new amusement. He had five
-small vessels built at Plescow, on the lake Peipus; and not satisfied
-with this fresh-water navigation, hired a ship at Archangel, in which he
-made a voyage to the coast of Lapland. In these expeditions his love of
-sailing was nourished into a passion which lasted through life. He
-prided himself upon his practical skill as a seaman; and both at this
-time and afterwards exposed himself and his friends to no small hazard
-by his rashness in following this favourite pursuit.
-
-The first serious object of Peter’s attention was to reform the army. In
-this he was materially assisted by a Swiss gentleman named Lefort; at
-whose suggestion he raised a company of fifty men, who were clothed and
-disciplined in the European manner; the Russian army at that time being
-little better than a tribe of Tartars. As soon as the little corps was
-formed, Peter caused himself to be enrolled in it as a private soldier.
-It is a remarkable trait in the character of the man, that he thought no
-condescension degrading, which forwarded any of his ends. In the army he
-entered himself in the lowest rank, and performed successively the
-duties of every other: in the navy he went still further, for he
-insisted on performing the menial duties of the lowest cabin-boy, rising
-step by step, till he was qualified to rate as an able seaman. Nor was
-this done merely for the sake of singularity; he had resolved that every
-officer of the sea or land service should enter in the lowest rank of
-his profession, that he might obtain a practical knowledge of every task
-or manœuvre which it was his duty to see properly executed: and he felt
-that his nobility might scarcely be brought to submit to what in their
-eyes would be a degradation, except by the personal example of the Czar
-himself. By the help of Lefort and some veteran officers, several of
-whom, and those the objects of his especial confidence, were Scotchmen,
-he was enabled in a short time to command the services of a large body
-of disciplined troops, composed, one corps principally of foreigners,
-another of natives. Meanwhile he had not been negligent of the other arm
-of war; for a number of Dutch and Venetian workmen were employed in
-building gun-boats and small ships of war at Voronitz, on the river Don,
-intended to secure the command of the sea of Asof, and to assist in
-capturing the strong town of Asof, then held by the Turks. The
-possession of this place was of great importance, from its situation at
-the mouth of the Don, commanding access to the Mediterranean seas. His
-first military attempts were accordingly directed against it, and he
-succeeded in taking it in 1696.
-
-In the spring of the ensuing year, the empire being tranquil, and the
-young Czar’s authority apparently established on a safe footing, he
-determined to travel into foreign countries, to view with his own eyes,
-and become personally and practically familiar with the arts and
-institutions of refined nations. There was a grotesqueness in his manner
-of executing this design, which has tended, more probably than even its
-real merit, to make it one of the common places of history. Every child
-knows how the Czar of Muscovy worked in the dock-yard of Saardam in
-Holland, as a common carpenter. In most men this would have been
-affectation; and perhaps there was some tinge of that weakness in the
-earnestness with which Peter handled the axe, obeyed the officers of the
-dock-yard, and, in all points of outward manners and appearance, put
-himself on a level with the shipwrights who were earning their daily
-bread. Most men too would have thought it unnecessary, that a prince,
-intent upon creating a navy, should learn the mere mechanical art of
-putting a ship together; and that his time would have been better
-employed in studying the sciences connected with navigation, and the
-discipline and details of the naval service as established in the best
-schools. It seems, however, to have been the turn of Peter’s mind always
-to begin at the beginning; a sound maxim, though here perhaps pushed
-beyond reasonable bounds. We have said, that he scrupulously went
-through the lowest services in the army and navy: probably he thought it
-as necessary that one who aimed at creating and directing a navy should
-not be ignorant of the practical art of ship-building, as that a general
-should be capable of performing himself the movements which he directs
-the private to execute. And his abode and occupations in Holland formed
-only part of an extensive plan. On quitting Russia he sent sixty young
-Russians to Venice and Leghorn to learn ship-building and navigation,
-and especially the construction and management of the large galleys
-moved by oars, which were so much used by the Venetian republic. Others
-he sent into Holland, with similar instructions; others into Germany, to
-study the art of war, and make themselves well acquainted with the
-discipline and tactics of the German troops. So that while his personal
-labour at Saardam may have been stimulated in part by affectation of
-singularity, in part perhaps by a love of bodily exertion common in men
-of his busy and ardent temper, it would be unjust not to give him credit
-for higher motives; such as the desire to become thoroughly acquainted
-with the art of ship-building, which he thought so important, and to set
-a good example of diligence to those whom he had sent out on a similar
-voyage of education.
-
-Peter remained nine months in Holland, the greatest part of which he
-spent in the dock-yard of Saardam. He displayed unwearied zeal in
-seeking out and endeavouring to comprehend every thing of interest in
-science and art, especially in visiting manufactories. In January, 1698,
-he sailed for London in an English man-of-war, sent out expressly to
-bring him over. His chief object was to perfect himself in the higher
-branches of ship-building. With this view he occupied Mr. Evelyn’s
-house, adjoining the dock-yard of Deptford; and there remain in that
-gentleman’s journal some curious notices of the manners of the Czar and
-his household, which were of the least refined description. During his
-stay he showed the same earnestness in inquiring into all things
-connected with the maritime and commercial greatness of the country, as
-before in Holland; and he took away near five hundred persons in his
-suite, consisting of naval captains, pilots, gunners, surgeons, and
-workmen in various trades, especially those connected with the naval
-service. In England, without assuming his rank, he ceased to wear the
-attire and adopt the habits of a common workman; and he had frequent
-intercourse with William III., who is said to have conceived a strong
-liking for him, notwithstanding the uncouthness of his manners. Kneller
-painted a portrait of him for the King, said to be a good likeness, from
-which our print is engraved.
-
-He left London in April, 1698, and proceeded to Vienna, principally to
-inspect the Austrian troops, then esteemed among the best in Europe. He
-had intended to visit Italy; but his return was hastened by the tidings
-of a dangerous insurrection having broken out, which, though suppressed,
-seemed to render a longer absence from the seat of government
-inexpedient. The insurgents were chiefly composed of the Russian
-soldiery, abetted by a large party who thought every thing Russian good,
-and hated and dreaded the Czar’s innovating temper. Of those who had
-taken up arms, many were slain in battle; the rest, with many persons of
-more rank and consequence, suspected of being implicated in the revolt,
-were retained in prison until the Czar himself should decide their fate.
-Numerous stories of his extravagant cruelties on this occasion have been
-told, which may safely be passed over as unworthy of credit. It is
-certain, however, that considerable severity was shown. Many citizens
-who had not borne arms were condemned to death as instigators of the
-rebellion, and their frozen bodies exposed on the gibbets, or thrown by
-the way-side, remained throughout the winter, a fearful spectacle to
-passers by. In some accounts it is stated that two thousand of the
-soldiery were put to death: but the absurd falsehoods told of Peter’s
-conduct on this occasion afford opportunity for a doubt, which we gladly
-entertain, whether justice was suffered to lead to such wholesale
-butchery. This insurrection led to the complete remodelling of the
-Russian army, on the same plan which had already been partially adopted.
-
-During the year 1699 the Czar was chiefly occupied by civil reforms.
-According to his own account, as published in his journal, he regulated
-the press, caused translations to be published of various treatises on
-military and mechanical science, and history; he founded a school for
-the navy; others for the study of the Latin, German, and other
-languages; he encouraged his subjects to cultivate foreign trade, which
-before they had absolutely been forbidden to do under pain of death; he
-altered the Russian calendar, in which the year began on September 1, to
-agree in that point with the practice of other nations; he broke through
-the Oriental custom of not suffering women to mix in general society;
-and he paid sedulous attention to the improvement of his navy on the
-river Don. We have the testimony of Mr. Deane, an English ship-builder,
-that the Czar had turned his manual labours to good account, who states
-in a letter to England, that “the Czar has set up a ship of sixty guns,
-where he is both foreman and master builder; and, not to flatter him,
-I’ll assure your Lordship, it will be the best ship among them, and it
-is all from his own draught: how he framed her together, and how he made
-the moulds, and in so short a time as he did, is really wonderful.”
-
-He introduced an improved breed of sheep from Saxony and Silesia;
-despatched engineers to survey the different provinces of his extensive
-empire; sent persons skilled in metallurgy to the various districts in
-which mines were to be found; established manufactories of arms, tools,
-stuffs; and encouraged foreigners skilled in the useful arts to settle
-in Russia, and enrich it by the produce of their industry.
-
-We cannot trace the progress of that protracted contest between Sweden
-and Russia, in which the short-lived greatness of Sweden was broken: we
-can only state the causes of the war, and the important results to which
-it led. Peter’s principal motive for engaging in it was his leading wish
-to make Russia a maritime and commercial nation. To this end it was
-necessary that she should be possessed of ports, of which however she
-had none but Archangel and Asof, both most inconveniently situated, as
-well in respect of the Russian empire itself, as of the chief commercial
-nations of Europe. On the waters of the Baltic Russia did not possess a
-foot of coast. Both sides of the Baltic, both sides of the Gulf of
-Finland, the country between the head of that gulf and the lake Ladoga,
-including both sides of the river Neva, and the western side of lake
-Ladoga itself, and the northern end of lake Peipus, belonged to Sweden.
-In the year 1700, Charles XII. being but eighteen years of age, Denmark,
-Poland, and Russia, which had all of them suffered from the ambition of
-Sweden, formed a league to repair their losses, presuming on the
-weakness usually inherent in a minority. The object of Russia was the
-restoration of the provinces of Ingria, Carelia, and Wiborg, the country
-round the head of the Gulf of Finland, which formerly had belonged to
-her; that of Poland, was the recovery of Livonia and Esthonia, the
-greater part of which had been ceded by her to Charles XI. of Sweden.
-Denmark was to obtain Holstein and Sleswick. But Denmark and Poland very
-soon withdrew, and left Russia to encounter Sweden single-handed. To
-this she was entirely unequal; her army, the bulk of it undisciplined,
-and even the disciplined part unpractised in the field, was no match for
-the veteran troops of Sweden, the terror of Germany. In the battle of
-Narva, a town on the river which runs out of the Peipus lake, fought
-November 30, 1700, nine thousand Swedes defeated signally near forty
-thousand Russians, strongly intrenched and with a numerous artillery.
-Had Charles prosecuted his success with vigour, he might probably have
-delayed for many years the rise of Russia; but whether from contempt or
-mistake he devoted his whole attention to the war in Poland, and left
-the Czar at liberty to recruit and discipline his army, and improve the
-resources of his kingdom. In these labours he was most diligent. His
-troops, practised in frequent skirmishes with the Swedes quartered in
-Ingria and Livonia, rapidly improved, and on the celebrated field of
-Pultowa broke for ever the power of Charles XII. This decisive action
-did not take place until July 8, 1709. The interval was occupied by a
-series of small, but important additions to the Russian territory. In
-1701–2, great part of Livonia and Ingria were subdued, including the
-banks of the Neva, where, on May 27, 1703, the city of St. Petersburg
-was founded. It was not till 1710 that the conquest of Courland, with
-the remainder of Livonia, including the important harbours of Riga and
-Revel, gave to Russia that free navigation of the Baltic sea which Peter
-had longed for as the greatest benefit which he could confer upon his
-country.
-
-After the battle of Pultowa Charles fled to Turkey, where he continued
-for some years, shut out from his own dominions, and intent chiefly on
-spiriting the Porte to make war on Russia. In this he succeeded; but
-hostilities were terminated almost at their beginning, by the battle of
-the Pruth, fought July 20, 1711, in which the Russian army, not
-mustering more than forty thousand men, and surrounded by five times
-that number of Turks, owed its preservation to Catharine, first the
-mistress, at this time the wife, and finally the acknowledged partner
-and successor of Peter in the throne of Russia. By her coolness and
-prudence, while the Czar, exhausted by fatigue, anxiety, and
-self-reproach, was labouring under nervous convulsions, to which he was
-liable throughout life, a treaty was concluded with the Vizier in
-command of the Turkish army, by which the Russians preserved indeed
-life, liberty, and honour, but were obliged to resign Asof, to give up
-the forts and burn the vessels built to command the sea bearing that
-name, and to consent to other stipulations, which must have been very
-bitter to the hitherto successful conqueror. Returning to the seat of
-government, his foreign policy for the next few years was directed to
-breaking down the power of Sweden, and securing his new metropolis by
-prosecuting his conquests on the northern side of the Gulf of Finland.
-Here he was entirely successful; and the whole of Finland itself, and of
-the gulf, fell into his hands. These provinces were secured to Russia by
-the peace of Nieustadt, in 1721. Upon this occasion, the senate or state
-assembly of Russia requested him to assume the title of Emperor of all
-the Russias, with the adjuncts of Great, and Father of his Country.
-
-Of the private history and character of Peter, we have hitherto said
-nothing. He was passionately fond of ardent spirits, and not only drank
-very largely himself, but took a pleasure in compelling others to do the
-same, until the royal banqueting-room became a scene of the most
-revolting debauchery and intoxication. But towards the close of life,
-his habits, when alone, were temperate even to abstemiousness. In his
-domestic relations he was far from happy. At the age of seventeen he
-married a Russian lady, named Eudoxia Lapouchin, whom he divorced in
-less than three years. According to some accounts, this separation was
-caused by her infidelities; according to others, by her obstinate
-hostility to all his projects of improvement: a hostility inculcated and
-encouraged by the priesthood, in whose eyes all change was an
-abomination, and the worst of changes those made professedly in
-imitation of the barbarous nations inhabiting the rest of Europe. By her
-the Czar had one son, Alexis, heir to the throne; who, under the
-guardianship of his weak and bigoted mother, grew up in the practice of
-all low debauchery, and with the same deference to the priesthood, and
-dislike to change, which had cost herself the society of her husband.
-The degeneracy of this, his eldest, and long his only son, was a serious
-affliction to Peter; the more so, if he reflected justly, because he
-could not hold himself guiltless of it, in having intrusted the
-education of his legitimate successor to one, of whose incapacity for
-the charge he had ample proof. It appears from authentic documents that
-even so early as the battle of the Pruth, Peter had contemplated the
-necessity of excluding his son from the throne. In the close of the year
-1716, he addressed a serious expostulation to Alexis, in which, after
-reviewing the errors of his past life, he declared his fixed intention
-of cutting off the prince from the succession, unless he should so far
-amend as to afford a reasonable hope of his reigning for the good of his
-people. He required him either to work a thorough reformation in his
-life and manners, or to retire to a monastery; and allowed him six
-months to deliberate upon this alternative. At the end of the time
-Alexis quitted Russia, under pretence of going to his father at
-Copenhagen; but instead of doing so he fled to Vienna. He was induced,
-however, to return by promises of forgiveness, mixed with threats in the
-event of his continued disobedience, and arrived at Moscow, February 13,
-1718. On the following day the clergy, the chief officers of state, and
-the chief nobility were convened, and Alexis, being brought before them
-as a prisoner, acknowledged himself unworthy of the succession, which he
-resigned, entreating only that his life might be spared. A declaration
-was then read on the part of the Czar, reciting the various
-delinquencies of which his son had been guilty, and ending with the
-solemn exclusion of him from the throne, and the nomination of Peter,
-his own infant son by Catharine, as the future emperor. To this solemn
-act of renunciation Alexis set his hand. Thus far there is nothing to
-blame in the parent’s conduct, unless it be considered that in the
-promise of forgiveness, a reservation of his son’s hereditary right was
-implied. His subsequent conduct was severe, if not faithless. Not
-content with what had been done, Peter determined to extract from Alexis
-a full confession of the plans which he had entertained, and of the
-names of his advisers. For near five months the wretched young man was
-harassed by constant interrogatories, in his replies to which
-considerable prevarication took place. It was on the ground of this
-prevarication that, in July, 1718, the Czar determined to bring his son
-to trial. By the laws of Russia a father had power of life or death over
-his child, and the Czar absolute power over the lives of his subjects.
-Waving these rights, however, if such oppressive privileges deserve the
-name, he submitted the question to an assembly of the chief personages
-of the realm; and the document which he addressed to them on this
-occasion bears strong evidence to the honesty of his purpose, unfeeling
-as that purpose must appear. On July 5, that assembly unanimously
-pronounced Alexis worthy of death, and on the next day but one Alexis
-died. The manner of his death will never probably be entirely cleared
-up. Rumour of course attributed it to violence; but there are many
-circumstances which render this improbable. One argument against it is
-to be found in the character of Peter himself, who would hardly have
-hesitated to act this tragedy in the face of the world, had he thought
-it necessary to act it at all. Why he should have incurred the guilt of
-an action scarce one degree removed from midnight murder, when the
-object might have been effected by legal means, and the odium was
-already incurred, it is not easy to say. He courted publicity for his
-conduct, and submitted himself to the judgment of Europe, by causing the
-whole trial to be translated into several languages, and printed. His
-own statement intimates that he had not intended to enforce the
-sentence; and proceeds to say that on July 6, Alexis, after having heard
-the judgment read, was seized by fits resembling apoplexy, and died the
-following day; having seen his father and received his forgiveness,
-together with the last rites of the Greek religion. This is the less
-improbable, because intemperance had injured the prince’s constitution,
-and a tendency to fits was hereditary in the family.
-
-If our sketch of the latter years of Peter’s life appear meagre and
-unsatisfactory, it is to be recollected that the history of that life is
-the history of a great empire, which it would be vain to condense within
-our limits, were they greater than they are. Results are all that we are
-competent to deal with. From the peace of Nieustadt, the exertions of
-Peter, still unremitting, were directed more to consolidate and improve
-the internal condition of the empire, by watching over the changes which
-he had already made, than to effect farther conquests, or new
-revolutions in policy or manners. He died February 8, 1725, leaving no
-surviving male issue. Sometime before, he had caused the Empress
-Catharine to be solemnly crowned and associated with him on the throne,
-and to her he left the charge of fostering those schemes of civilization
-which he had originated.
-
-Of the numerous works which treat wholly or in part of the history of
-Peter the Great, that of Voltaire, not the most trustworthy, is probably
-the most widely known. Fuller information will be found in the ‘Journal
-de Pierre le Grand, ecrit par lui-même;’ in the memoirs published under
-the name of Nestesuranoi, and the Anecdotes of M. Stæhlin. For English
-works, we may refer to Tooke’s History of Russia, and the ‘Life of
-Peter,’ in the Family Library.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-                            END OF VOL. II.
-
-
-            Printed by WILLIAM CLOWES, Duke-Street, Lambeth.
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
-
-
- 1. Changed “Ecole” and “Ecoles” to “École” and “Écoles” on p. 92.
- 2. Changed “Eloge” to “Éloge” on p. 88.
- 3. Changed “Veritá” to “Verità” on p. 139.
- 4. Silently corrected typographical errors.
- 5. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
- 6. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
- 7. Superscripts are denoted by a carat before a single superscript
-      character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in
-      curly braces, e.g. M^r. or M^{ister}.
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits, with
-Memoirs. Vol 2 (of 7), by Anonymous
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GALLERY OF PORTRAITS ***
-
-***** This file should be named 55092-0.txt or 55092-0.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/0/9/55092/
-
-Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
diff --git a/old/55092-0.zip b/old/55092-0.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index ff6a3f1..0000000
--- a/old/55092-0.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h.zip b/old/55092-h.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index cdbda0d..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/55092-h.htm b/old/55092-h/55092-h.htm
deleted file mode 100644
index a490356..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/55092-h.htm
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8748 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
-    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
-<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
-  <head>
-    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" />
-    <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Gallery of Portraits Volume II</title>
-    <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" />
-    <style type="text/css">
-       body { margin-left: 8%; margin-right: 10%; }
-       h1 { text-align: center; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large; }
-       h2 { text-align: center; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; }
-       .pageno { right: 1%; font-size: x-small; background-color: inherit; color: silver;
-               text-indent: 0em; text-align: right; position: absolute;
-               border: thin solid silver; padding: .1em .2em; font-style: normal;
-               font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; }
-       p { text-indent: 0; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: justify; }
-       sup { vertical-align: top; font-size: 0.6em; }
-       .sc { font-variant: small-caps; }
-       .large { font-size: large; }
-       .xlarge { font-size: x-large; }
-       .small { font-size: small; }
-       .xsmall { font-size: x-small; }
-       .lg-container-b { text-align: center; }
-       @media handheld { .lg-container-b { clear: both; } }
-       .linegroup { display: inline-block; text-align: left; }
-       @media handheld { .linegroup { display: block; margin-left: 1.5em; } }
-       .linegroup .group { margin: 1em auto; }
-       .linegroup .line { text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em; }
-       div.linegroup > :first-child { margin-top: 0; }
-       .ol_1 li {padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; }
-       ol.ol_1 {padding-left: 0; margin-left: 2.78%; margin-top: .5em;
-               margin-bottom: .5em; list-style-type: decimal; }
-       div.footnote {margin-left: 2.5em; }
-       div.footnote > :first-child { margin-top: 1em; }
-       div.footnote .label { display: inline-block; width: 0em; text-indent: -2.5em;
-               text-align: right; }
-       div.pbb { page-break-before: always; }
-       hr.pb { border: none; border-bottom: thin solid; margin-bottom: 1em; }
-       @media handheld { hr.pb { display: none; } }
-       .chapter { clear: both; page-break-before: always; }
-       .figcenter { clear: both; max-width: 100%; margin: 2em auto; text-align: center; }
-       div.figcenter p { text-align: center; text-indent: 0; }
-       .figcenter img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; }
-       .id001 { width:40%; }
-       .id002 { width:60%; }
-       .id003 { width:30%; }
-       @media handheld { .id001 { margin-left:30%; width:40%; } }
-       @media handheld { .id002 { margin-left:20%; width:60%; } }
-       @media handheld { .id003 { margin-left:35%; width:30%; } }
-       .ic001 { width:100%; }
-       .ig001 { width:100%; }
-       .table0 { margin: auto; margin-top: 2em; }
-       .nf-center { text-align: center; }
-       .nf-center-c1 { text-align: left; margin: 1em 0; }
-       .c000 { margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; }
-       .c001 { page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em; }
-       .c002 { margin-top: 2em; }
-       .c003 { margin-top: 4em; }
-       .c004 { margin-top: 1em; }
-       .c005 { page-break-before:auto; margin-top: 4em; }
-       .c006 { vertical-align: top; text-align: right; padding-right: 1em; }
-       .c007 { vertical-align: top; text-align: left; padding-right: 1em; }
-       .c008 { vertical-align: top; text-align: center; }
-       .c009 { vertical-align: top; text-align: right; }
-       .c010 { margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; }
-       .c011 { text-decoration: none; }
-       .c012 { font-size: 90%; }
-       div.tnotes { padding-left:1em;padding-right:1em;background-color:#E3E4FA;
-              border:1px solid silver; margin:2em 10% 0 10%; }
-       .covernote { visibility: hidden; display: none; }
-       div.tnotes p { text-align:left; }
-       @media handheld { .covernote { visibility: visible; display: block;} }
-       @media handheld {.ol_1 li {padding-left: 1em; text-indent: 0em; } }
-       img {max-height: 100%; width:auto; }
-       .overunder {display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;
-               font-size: 75%; }
-       .ov{ text-decoration: overline; }
-       .ph1 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large;
-               margin: .67em auto; page-break-before: always; }
-    </style>
-  </head>
-  <body>
-
-
-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits, with Memoirs. Vol
-2 (of 7), by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-Title: The Gallery of Portraits, with Memoirs. Vol 2 (of 7)
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: July 11, 2017 [EBook #55092]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GALLERY OF PORTRAITS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class='tnotes covernote'>
-
-<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='small'>UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div>
-  <h1 class='c001'><span class='small'>THE</span><br /> GALLERY OF PORTRAITS:<br /> <span class='xsmall'>WITH</span><br /> <span class='xlarge'>MEMOIRS.</span><br /> <br /> <span class='large'>VOLUME II.</span></h1>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c002'>
-    <div>LONDON:</div>
-    <div>CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE-STREET, AND 13, PALL-MALL EAST.</div>
-    <div class='c002'>1833.</div>
-    <div class='c002'><span class='xsmall'>[PRICE ONE GUINEA, BOUND IN CLOTH.]</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>LONDON:</div>
-    <div>PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES,</div>
-    <div>Duke-Street, Lambeth.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c004' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>PORTRAITS, AND BIOGRAPHIES<br /> <span class='large'>CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0' summary='PORTRAITS, AND BIOGRAPHIES'>
-  <tr>
-    <th class='c006'></th>
-    <th class='c007'>&nbsp;</th>
-    <th class='c008'>Page</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>1.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Lord Somers</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>2.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Smeaton</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>3.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Buffon</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>4.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Sir Thomas More</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>5.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>La Place</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>6.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Handel</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>7.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Pascal</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>8.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Erasmus</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>9.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Titian</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_63'>63</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>10.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Luther</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>11.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Rodney</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_82'>82</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>12.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Lagrange</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>13.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Voltaire</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>14.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Rubens</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>15.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Richelieu</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>16.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Wollaston</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>17.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Boccaccio</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>18.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Claude</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>19.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Nelson</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_141'>141</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>20.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Cuvier</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>21.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Ray</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>22.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Cook</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>23.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Turgot</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c006'>24.</td>
-    <td class='c007'>Peter the Great</td>
-    <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_001fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by T. A. Dean.</em><br /><br />LORD CHANCELLOR SOMERS.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by Sir G. Kneller,<br />in the possession of the Royal Society.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='ph1'>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div>GALLERY OF PORTRAITS.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span>
-<img src='images/i_001.jpg' alt='SOMERS.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>SOMERS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>John Somers was born at Worcester, in an ancient house called the
-White Ladies, which, as its name seems to import, had formerly been
-part of a monastery or convent. The exact date of his birth cannot
-be ascertained, as the parish registers at Worcester, during the civil
-wars between Charles I. and his Parliament, were either wholly lost, or
-so inaccurately kept as not to furnish any authentic information. It
-appears probable, however, from several concurring accounts, that
-he was born about the year 1650. The family of Somers was respectable,
-though not wealthy, and had for several generations been
-possessed of an estate at Clifton, in the parish of Severnstoke, in
-Gloucestershire. Admiral Sir George Somers, who in the reign of
-James I. was shipwrecked on the Bermudas, and afterwards died
-there, leaving his name to that cluster of islands, is said by Horace
-Walpole, in his ‘Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors,’ to have
-been a member of the same family. The father of Somers was an
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>attorney, in respectable practice at Worcester; who, in the civil wars,
-became a zealous Parliamentarian, and commanded a troop in Cromwell’s
-army.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the early education of Somers, we have only a meagre and
-unsatisfactory account. The house called the White Ladies, in which
-he was born, was occupied by a Mr. Blurton, an eminent clothier of
-Worcester, who had married his father’s sister. This lady, having no
-son of her own, adopted Somers from his birth, and brought him
-up in her house, which he always considered as his home till he
-went to the university. He appears for some years to have been a day-scholar
-in the college-school at Worcester, which before his time had
-attained a high character for classical education, under the superintendence
-of Dr. Bright, a clergyman of great learning and eminence.
-At a subsequent period, we find him at a private school at Walsall in
-Staffordshire: he is described by a school-fellow as being then “a
-weakly boy, wearing a black cap, and never so much as looking out
-when the other boys were at play.” He seems indeed to have been a
-remarkably reserved and “sober-blooded” boy. At a somewhat later
-period Sir F. Winnington says of him, that “by the exactness of his
-knowledge and behaviour, he discouraged his father and all the young
-men that knew him. They were afraid to be in his company.” In
-what manner his time was occupied from the period of his leaving
-school until he went to the university, is unknown. It has been
-suggested that he was employed for several years in his father’s
-office, who designed him for his own department of the profession of
-the law. There is no positive evidence of this circumstance, though
-the conjecture is by no means improbable. It cannot, however, be
-doubted that, during this period, he devoted much of his time to the
-study of history and the civil law, and laid in a portion of that abundant
-store of constitutional learning which afterwards rendered him the
-ornament of his profession, and of the age in which he lived. About
-this time also he formed several connexions, which had great influence
-upon his subsequent success in life. The estates of the Earl of Shrewsbury
-were managed by Somers’s father; and as that young nobleman
-had no convenient residence of his own in Worcestershire, he spent
-much of his time at the White Ladies, and formed an intimate friendship
-and familiarity with young Somers. In 1672 he was also fortunate
-enough to be favourably noticed by Sir Francis Winnington,
-then a distinguished practitioner at the English bar, who was under
-obligations to his father for his active services in promoting his election
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>as a Member of Parliament for the city of Worcester. Winnington is
-described by Burnet as a lawyer who had “risen from small beginnings,
-and from as small a proportion of learning in his profession, in
-which he was rather bold and ready, than able.” It is natural to suppose
-that such a man, feeling his own deficiencies, would readily perceive
-with what advantage he might employ the talents and industry
-of Somers in assisting him both in Westminster Hall and in Parliament.
-It was probably with this intention that Winnington advised
-him to go to the university, and to prosecute his studies with a view to
-being called to the bar.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1674 Somers was entered as a Commoner of Trinity College,
-Oxford, being then about three and twenty years of age. The particulars
-of his progress through the university are not recorded; but
-here, as at school, his contemporaries could perceive few indications
-of those splendid talents which afterwards raised him to such extraordinary
-eminence. His college exercises, some of which are still
-extant, are said to have been in no respect remarkable; and he quitted
-the university without acquiring any academical honours beyond his
-Bachelor’s degree. Mr. Somers was called to the bar in 1676, by the
-Society of the Middle Temple; but he continued his residence at the
-university for several years afterwards, and did not remove to London
-until the year after his father’s death, in 1681, upon which event he
-succeeded to his paternal estate at Severnstoke. During his residence
-at Oxford he had the advantage of being introduced by the Earl of
-Shrewsbury and Sir F. Winnington to many of the patriotic opponents
-of the arbitrary measures of the Court. At this time he published
-several tracts, which sufficiently displayed to the world his familiar and
-accurate knowledge of constitutional history. His first acknowledged
-work was the Report of an Election Case, and is entitled ‘The
-Memorable Case of Denzil Onslow, Esq., tried at the Assizes in Surrey,
-July 20, 1681, touching his election at Haslemere in Surrey.’ His
-next performance was ‘A Brief History of the Succession, collected
-out of the Records and the most authentic Historians.’ This work
-was written at the time when the proposal to bring in a Bill to exclude
-the Duke of York from the succession occupied universal attention,
-and excited the most intense interest. The object of Mr. Somers’s
-tract was to exhibit the principles upon which the Parliament of England
-has authority to alter, restrain, and qualify the right of succession
-to the Crown; and he places the historical arguments in support of
-this proposition in a forcible and convincing light. Indeed, though it
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>might be difficult to justify such a proposition by abstract arguments
-upon what is called the theory of the British Constitution, it has been
-so repeatedly acted upon in several periods of our history, that even
-in the time of Charles II. the practice had, as Somers justly contended,
-to all intents and purposes established and sanctioned the
-principle. An excellent tract upon the same subject, entitled ‘A just
-and modest Vindication of the two last Parliaments,’ which appeared
-shortly after the breaking up of the Oxford Parliament in March,
-1681, has been partly ascribed to Somers. Burnet says that this
-tract, which he characterizes as “the best writ paper in all that time,”
-was at first penned by Algernon Sidney, but that a new draught was
-made by Somers, which was corrected by Sir William Jones. Upon
-occasion of the attempt of the Court party in 1681, by the illegal
-examination of witnesses under the direction of the King’s Counsel
-in open court, to induce a grand jury at the Old Bailey to find a true
-bill for high treason against the Earl of Shaftsbury, Mr. Somers
-wrote his celebrated tract entitled ‘The Security of Englishmen’s
-Lives, or the Trust, Power, and Duty of the Grand Juries of England
-explained.’ Of this work, Bishop Burnet says, “It passed as writ by
-Lord Essex, though I understood afterwards it was writ by Somers,
-who was much esteemed, and often visited by Lord Essex, and who
-trusted himself to him, and writ the best papers that came out in that
-time.” In later times, this work has been universally ascribed to
-Somers. During his residence at Oxford, Somers was not inattentive
-to polite literature; he published a translation of some of Ovid’s Epistles
-into English verse, which at the same time that it shows that he could
-never have borne so distinguished a rank as a poet, as he afterwards
-attained as a lawyer and statesman, is by no means a contemptible
-performance. His translations from Ovid, and a version of Plutarch’s
-Life of Alcibiades, are the only published proofs of his classical
-studies at Oxford.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the year 1682 he removed to London, and immediately commenced
-an assiduous attendance upon the courts of law, which at that
-time was considered as the highway of the legal profession. Under
-the powerful patronage of Sir Francis Winnington, who had been
-Solicitor-General, and was then in the full stream of business, he rose
-with considerable rapidity into good practice at the bar. In 1683
-he appeared as junior counsel to Winnington in the defence to an
-important political prosecution instituted against Pilkington and Shute,
-with several other persons, for a riot at the election of sheriffs for
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>the city of London. His employment in a case of so much public
-expectation may be taken as a proof that at that time his professional
-merits were in some degree appreciated; and in the reign of James II.
-his practice is said to have produced £700 a-year, which at that time
-was a very large income for a common lawyer of five years’ standing.
-But such was the character for research and industry which he had
-attained within a very few years from the commencement of his professional
-career, that on the trial of the Seven Bishops in 1688, he was
-introduced as counsel into that momentous cause at the express and
-peremptory recommendation of Pollexfen, one of the greatest lawyers
-of that day. The rank of the defendants, the personal interest of the
-King in the question at issue, the general expectation excited by this
-conflict amongst all classes of the people, and above all, the event of
-the prosecution which drove James from his throne and kingdom, and
-immediately introduced the Revolution of 1688, render the trial of the
-Seven Bishops one of the most important judicial proceedings that ever
-occurred in Westminster Hall. It was no trifling testimony, therefore,
-to the high estimation in which Somers was held by experienced judges
-of professional merit, that he should be expressly selected by the
-counsel for the defendants to bear a part in the defence. We are told
-that upon the first suggestion of Somers’s name, “objection was made
-amongst the Bishops to him, as too young and obscure a man; but old
-Pollexfen insisted upon him, and would not be himself retained without
-the other; representing him as the man who would take most pains
-and go deepest into all that depended on precedents and records<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c011'><sup>[1]</sup></a>.”
-How far the leading counsel for the Bishops were indebted to the
-industry and research of Somers, for the extent of learning displayed
-in their admirable arguments on that occasion, cannot now be ascertained;
-his own speech, as reported in the State Trials, contains a
-summary of the constitutional reasons against the existence of a dispensing
-power in the King, expressed in clear and unaffected language,
-and applied with peculiar skill and judgment to the defence of his
-clients.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kennett’s Complete History, vol. iii. p. 513, n.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The intimate connexion of Somers with the leaders of that political
-party by whom the Revolution was effected, and in particular with his
-early friend Lord Shrewsbury, leaves little room for doubt that he was
-actively employed in devising the means by which that important event
-was brought about. It is said by Tindal that he was admitted into
-the most secret councils of the Prince of Orange, and was one of those
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>who planned the measure of bringing him over to England. Immediately
-upon the flight of James II., the Prince of Orange, by the
-advice of the temporary assembly which he had convened as the most
-proper representative of the people in the emergency of the time,
-issued circular letters to the several counties, cities, and boroughs of
-England, directing them to summon a Parliamentary Convention. On
-this occasion Mr. Somers was returned as a representative by his
-native city of Worcester. We find him taking a conspicuous part in
-the long and laborious debates which took place in that assembly
-respecting the settlement of the government. Upon a conference with
-the Lords upon the resolution, “that James II. having withdrawn
-himself out of the kingdom had abdicated the government, and that
-the throne had thereby become vacant,” Mr. Somers spoke at great
-length, and with much learning, in support of the original resolution
-against some amendments proposed by the Lords. This resolution
-having been ultimately adopted by both Houses of Parliament, and the
-Prince and Princess of Orange having been declared King and Queen
-of England, a committee was appointed, of which Somers was a
-member, to bring in heads of such things as were necessary for securing
-the Protestant religion, the laws of the land, and the liberties of the
-people. The Report of this Committee, which was a most elaborate
-performance, having been submitted to the examination of a second
-committee, of which Somers was chairman, formed the substance of
-the Declaration of Rights which was afterwards assented to by the King
-and Queen and both Houses of Parliament, and thus adopted as the
-basis of the Constitution.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is impossible to ascertain with precision the particular services
-rendered by Somers in the accomplishment of this great measure.
-There was perhaps no individual at that moment in existence who was
-so well qualified to lend important aid in conducting his country
-with safety through the difficulties and dangers of a change of
-government, and in placing the interests of the nation upon a secure
-and solid foundation. Fortunate was it for the people of England and
-their posterity that the services of a man of his industry and settled
-principles, of his sound constitutional information, and his rational
-and enlightened views of the relative rights and duties of kings and
-subjects, were at that critical juncture available to his country; and
-that, at the instant of the occurrence of this momentous revolution,
-his character was sufficiently known and appreciated to render those
-services fully effective.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>Shortly after the accession of William and Mary, Somers was
-appointed Solicitor-General, and received the honour of knighthood.
-Bishop Burnet says, that in the warm debates which took place in
-Parliament on the bill respecting the recognition of the King and
-Queen, and the validity of the new settlement of the government,
-it was strongly objected by the Tories that the convention, not being
-summoned by the King’s writ, had no legal sanction; and that Somers
-distinguished himself by the spirited and able manner in which
-he answered the objection. “He spoke,” says Burnet, “with such
-zeal and such an ascendant of authority that none were prepared to
-answer it; so that the bill passed without more opposition. This was
-a great service done in a very critical time, and contributed not a little
-to raise Somers’s character.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In April, 1692, Sir John Somers became Attorney-General, and in
-the month of March following was appointed Lord-Keeper of the
-Great Seal. While he presided in the Court of Chancery as Lord-Keeper,
-he delivered his celebrated judgment in the Bankers’ case,
-which Mr. Hargrave describes as “one of the most elaborate arguments
-ever delivered in Westminster Hall.” It is said that Lord
-Somers expended several hundred pounds in collecting books and
-pamphlets for this argument. In 1697 he was appointed Lord Chancellor,
-and raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron Somers of
-Evesham.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the year immediately succeeding his elevation to the peerage, it
-was the fate of Lord Somers to experience the virulence of party
-animosity, and the selfishness and instability of royal favour. His
-influence with the King, and the moderation and good sense with
-which he had restrained the impetuosity of his own party, had been
-long the means of preserving the Whig administration; and the Tories
-saw plainly that there were no hopes for the attainment of their
-objects so long as Lord Somers retained the confidence of the King.
-William had been, from the commencement of his reign, continually
-vacillating between the two parties according to the circumstances of
-his affairs; at this period he was so incensed and embarrassed by the
-conduct of the contending parties in the House of Commons, that he
-readily listened to the leaders of the Tories, who assured him that they
-would undertake to manage the Parliament as he pleased, if he would
-dismiss from his councils the Lord Chancellor Somers, whom they
-represented to be peculiarly odious to the Commons. In fact, the
-Tory party in the House of Commons had, in the course of the stormy
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>session of Parliament which commenced in November, 1699, made
-several violent but ineffectual attacks upon the Lord Chancellor. The
-first charge brought against him was, that he had improperly dismissed
-many gentlemen from the commission of the peace: upon a full explanation
-of all the circumstances, this charge was proved to be so utterly
-groundless that it was abandoned by those who had introduced it.
-The second accusation had no better foundation than the first. Great
-complaints having been made of certain English pirates in the West
-Indies, who had plundered several merchant ships, it was determined to
-send out a ship of war for the purpose of destroying them. But as
-there was no fund to bear the charge of such an expedition, the King
-proposed to his ministers that it should be carried on as a private
-undertaking, and promised to subscribe £3,000 on his own account.
-In compliance with this recommendation, Lord Somers, the Duke of
-Shrewsbury, the Earls of Romney, Oxford, Bellamont, and several
-others, contributed a sufficient sum to defray the whole expense of the
-armament. Unfortunately one Captain Kidd was appointed to command
-the expedition, who was unprincipled enough to turn pirate himself,
-and having committed various acts of robbery on the high seas,
-was eventually captured, brought to England, and some time afterwards
-tried and executed for his offences. It was then insinuated that the Lord
-Chancellor and the other individuals who had subscribed towards the
-expedition were engaged as partners in Kidd’s piratical scheme; so that
-an undertaking, which was not only innocent, but meritorious and
-patriotic, was construed by the blindness of party prejudice into a
-design for robbery and piracy. A resolution in the House of Commons,
-founded upon this absurd imputation, was rejected by a great
-majority. Shortly afterwards, after ordering a list of the Privy
-Council to be laid before the House, a question was moved in the
-House of Commons, “that an address should be made to his Majesty
-to remove John Lord Somers, Chancellor of England, from his presence
-and councils for ever.” This motion, however, was also negatived by a
-large majority. The prosecution of these frivolous charges against Lord
-Somers was a source of perpetual irritation to the King, in consequence
-of the vexatious delay it occasioned to the public service, and
-the virulent party spirit which it introduced into the House of Commons;
-and it was under the influence of this feeling, and in order to
-deliver himself from a temporary embarrassment, that he selfishly
-determined to adopt the interested advice of the Tory leaders, and to
-remove the Lord Chancellor from his office. He accordingly intimated
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>to Lord Somers that it was necessary for his service that he should
-resign the seals, but wished him to make the resignation himself, in
-order that it might appear as if it was his own act. The Chancellor
-declined to make a voluntary surrender of the seals, as such a course
-might indicate a fear of his enemies, or a consciousness of misconduct
-in his office; upon which Lord Jersey was sent with an express warrant
-for the seals, and Lord Somers delivered them to him without
-hesitation.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The malignity of party spirit was not satisfied by the dismissal of
-Lord Somers from his office, and from all participation in the government.
-Soon after his retirement, namely in the year 1701, the
-celebrated Partition Treaties gave occasion to much angry debate in
-both Houses of Parliament. His conduct, with respect to these
-treaties, seems to have been entirely irreproachable; but it became the
-subject of much misrepresentation, and the most unreserved invective
-and abuse in the House of Commons. It appears that in 1698, when
-the King was in Holland, a proposal was made to him by the French
-Government for arranging the partition of some of the territories
-belonging to the crown of Spain upon the expected death of Charles II.
-This partition was to be made in certain defined proportions between
-the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, the Dauphin of France, and the
-Archduke Charles, the second son of the Emperor. The King entertained
-these proposals favourably, and wrote to Lord Somers, who was
-at that time Lord Chancellor, desiring his opinion upon them, and
-commanding him to forward to him a commission in blank under the
-great seal, appointing persons to treat with the Commissioners of the
-French Government. Lord Somers, after communicating with Lord
-Orford, the Duke of Shrewsbury, and Mr. Mountague, as he had been
-authorized to do, transmitted to the King their joint opinions, which
-suggested several objections to the proposed treaty, together with the
-required commission. This was the “head and front of his offending”
-in this respect; for the treaty was afterwards negotiated abroad, and
-finally signed without any further communication with Lord Somers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Understanding that he was accused in the House of Commons of
-having advised and promoted the Partition Treaties, Lord Somers
-requested to be heard in that House in his defence. His request being
-granted, he stated to the House, in a calm and dignified manner, the
-history of his conduct respecting the treaties, and contended, with much
-force and eloquence, that in the whole course of that transaction he
-had correctly and honestly discharged his duty both as Chancellor and
-as a Privy Councillor. After he had withdrawn, a warm debate
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>ensued, which terminated in a resolution, carried by a small majority,
-“that John, Lord Somers, by advising his Majesty to conclude the
-Treaty of Partition, was guilty of a high crime and misdemeanour.”
-Similar resolutions were passed against the Earl of Orford and Lord
-Halifax, and all of them were impeached at the bar of the House of
-Lords. The articles of impeachment against Lord Somers principally
-charged him with having affixed the great seal to the blank commission
-sent to the King in Holland, and afterwards to the treaties; with
-having encouraged and promoted the piracies of Captain Kidd; and
-with having received grants from the Crown for his own personal
-emolument. To each of these articles Lord Somers answered
-promptly and fully; to the two first he replied the facts of each case
-as above related; and in answer to the third, he admitted that the
-King had been pleased to make certain grants to him, but denied
-that they had been made in consequence of any solicitation on his part.
-After many frivolous delays and repeated disputes between the two
-Houses, a day was fixed for the trial of the impeachment; on which
-day the Commons not appearing to prosecute their articles, the Lords,
-by a considerable majority, acquitted Lord Somers of the charges and
-dismissed the impeachment.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The violence and folly exhibited in the conduct of these proceedings
-opened the eyes of the King to his error in having changed
-his ministry at so critical a time. He found to his infinite disquietude
-that instead of enabling him to manage the Commons as they had
-promised, the Tory leaders had rendered them more intractable and
-imperious than before; and that instead of sincerely endeavouring to
-promote peace abroad and quiet government at home, they were
-actuated entirely by motives of private passion and revenge. In this
-state of affairs he again directed his attention to Lord Somers, in consequence,
-probably, of the urgent advice of Lord Sunderland, and
-wrote him a note from Loo, dated the 10th of October, 1701, assuring
-him of the continuance of his friendship. By the united exertions of
-Somers and Sunderland a negotiation was entered into with a view to
-the formation of a Whig ministry; but after some little progress had
-been made, the death of the King, in March 1702, put an end to the
-project, and the succession of Queen Anne confirmed the establishment
-of the Tory administration.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The state of parties for some years after the accession of Queen
-Anne excluded Somers from taking any active part in political affairs.
-It is probable that at this period of his life he devoted his attention
-to literature and science, as in 1702 he was elected President of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>Royal Society. He afterwards applied himself with diligence to the
-removal of several gross defects in the practice of the Courts of Chancery
-and Common Law. In 1706 he introduced into the House of Lords
-an extensive and effectual bill for the correction of such abuses. In
-passing through the House of Commons “it was found,” says Burnet,
-“that the interest of under-officers, clerks, and attorneys, whose gains
-were to be lessened by this bill, was more considered than the interest
-of the nation itself. Several clauses, how beneficial soever to the
-subject, which touched on their profit, were left out by the Commons.”
-Still the Act “for the Amendment of the Law and the better advancement
-of Justice,” as it now stands amongst the statutes of the realm,
-effected a very important improvement in the administration of justice.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Lord Somers is said to have had a chief hand in projecting the
-scheme of the Union with Scotland; and in discussing and arranging
-the details of this great measure in the House of Lords, he appears to
-have been one of the most frequent and distinguished speakers, though
-he was then labouring under great bodily infirmity.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the year 1708, on occasion of the temporary return of the Whigs
-to power, Lord Somers again formed part of the administration and
-filled the office of President of the Council. But the powers of his
-mind were at this time much enfeebled by continual ill-health; and it
-was probably with feelings of satisfaction that the change of parties in
-1710, by causing his dismissal from office, enabled him finally to retire
-into private life.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the mode in which the remaining period of his life was spent
-after his removal from public business, little is known. There is,
-however, no doubt that the concluding years of his existence were
-darkened by much sickness and some degree of mental alienation
-on the accession of George I. he formally took his seat at the
-Council-Board; but a paralytic affection, which had destroyed his
-bodily health, had so impaired the faculties of his mind as to incapacitate
-him entirely for business. At intervals, however, when the
-pressure of disease was suspended, he appears to have recurred
-with strong interest to passing events in which the welfare of his
-country was involved. When the Septennial Bill was in progress,
-Lord Townshend called upon him: Lord Somers embraced him,
-congratulated him on the progress of the bill, and declared that
-“he thought it would be the greatest support possible to the liberty
-of the country.” On a subsequent occasion, when informed by the
-same nobleman of the determination of George I. to adopt the advice
-of his ministry, by executing the full rigour of the law against Lord
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>Derwentwater, and the other unfortunate persons concerned in the
-Rebellion of 1715, he is said to have asked with great emotion, and
-shedding many tears, “whether they meant to revive the proscriptions
-of Marius and Sylla?”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He soon afterwards sunk into a state of total imbecility, from which,
-on the 26th of April, 1716, he was happily released by death.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_012.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_013fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by R. Woodman.</em><br /><br />JOHN SMEATON.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture ascribed to Mortimer,<br />in the possession of the Royal Society.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society of the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>
-<img src='images/i_013.jpg' alt='SMEATON.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>SMEATON.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>John Smeaton will long be remembered as one of the most laborious
-and most successful civil engineers whom Britain has produced: a
-class to which our country is deeply indebted for its commercial greatness.
-He was born at Austhorpe, near Leeds, May 28, 1724. His
-father was an attorney, and intended to bring his son up to his own
-profession: but the latter finding, to use his own words, “that the
-law did not suit the bent of his genius,” obtained his parent’s consent
-that he should seek a more congenial employment.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>From a very early age he had shown great fondness for mechanical
-occupations. “His playthings,” it is said by one long acquainted
-with him, “were not the playthings of children, but the tools men
-work with; and he appeared to have greater entertainment in seeing
-the men in the neighbourhood work, and asking them questions, than
-in any thing else.” At the age of eighteen he was in the habit of
-forging iron and steel, and melting metal for his own use: and
-he possessed tools of every sort for working in wood, ivory, and metal.
-Some of these were of his own construction; and among them an
-engine for rose-turning, and a lathe by which he had cut a perpetual
-screw, a thing little known at that time.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the year 1750 he established himself in the Great Turnstile in
-Holborn, as a philosophical instrument-maker. While he followed this
-trade, he became known to the scientific circles by several ingenious
-inventions; among which were a new kind of magnetic compass,
-and a machine for measuring a ship’s way at sea. He was elected
-fellow of the Royal Society in 1753; and contributed several papers
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>to the Philosophical Transactions, one of which, entitled ‘An Experimental
-Enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to
-turn mills and other machines, depending on a circular motion,’
-obtained the gold medal in 1759.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1755 the Eddystone light-house was destroyed by fire. At this
-time Smeaton had never practised as an architect or engineer. But the
-proprietors, to use his own words, “considered that to reinstate it would
-require, not so much a person who had been merely bred, or who had
-rendered himself eminent in this or that given profession, but rather
-one who from natural genius had a turn for contrivance in the
-mechanical branches of science.” Thinking thus, they applied to the
-President of the Royal Society to recommend a fitting person, and he
-without hesitation named Smeaton. We shall speak hereafter of the
-difficulties which attended this work, and the method of its execution;
-the nature of it is familiar to every reader. Two light-houses had
-been destroyed within half a century: his own, after the lapse of
-seventy-three years, stands unimpaired;—a proud monument of the
-power of man to overcome the elements. This building was finished
-in 1759, and established his reputation as a civil engineer: but it was
-some time before he devoted his attention solely to practising in that
-capacity. In 1764 he was appointed one of the Receivers of the
-Greenwich Hospital Estates, and in the discharge of his duty, he
-suggested various improvements which were of material service to
-the property. He resigned that office about 1777, in consequence of
-the increase of his other business. In 1766 he was employed to
-furnish designs for new light-houses at the Spurn Head, at the mouth
-of the Humber, and after considerable delay, was appointed Surveyor
-of the Works in 1771. These were completed in April, 1777.
-Among other undertakings he repaired and improved the navigation of
-the river Calder; he built the bridge over the Tay, at Perth, and some
-others on the Highland road, north of Inverness; he laid out the line,
-and superintended the execution of a considerable portion of the great
-canal connecting the Forth and Clyde. His high reputation was shown
-shortly after the two centre arches of old London bridge had been thrown
-into one. The foundations of the piers were discovered to be damaged,
-and the danger of the bridge was esteemed so imminent that few persons
-would venture to pass over it. The opinions of the architects on
-the spot were deemed unsatisfactory; and Smeaton, being at the time
-in Yorkshire, was summoned by express, to say what should be done.
-He found that the increased volume of water passing through the centre
-arch had undermined the piers; and removed the danger by the simple
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>expedient, the success of which he had proved on the river Calder, of
-throwing in a large quantity of rough stone about them. The interstices
-of the heap soon are filled up by sand and mud, and the whole
-is consolidated almost into one mass, and forms a secure and lasting
-barrier. The best known of Smeaton’s works, after the Eddystone
-light-house, is the magnificent pier and harbour of Ramsgate. This
-undertaking was commenced in 1749, and prosecuted for some time
-with very imperfect success. In 1774 Smeaton was called in; and
-he continued to superintend the progress of the works till their completion
-in 1791. The harbour is now enclosed by two piers, the
-eastern nearly 2000, the western 1500 feet in length, and affords a safe
-and a much needed refuge to ships lying in the Downs, even of five
-and six hundred tons, which before, when driven from their anchors by
-stress of weather, were almost certain to be cast ashore and wrecked.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It would be vain to enumerate all the projects in which he was consulted,
-or the schemes which he executed. The variety and extent of
-his employments may be best estimated from his Reports, of which
-a complete collection has been published by the Society of Civil
-Engineers, in consequence of the liberality of Sir Joseph Banks, who
-had purchased, and presented them to the Society for this purpose.
-They fill three quarto volumes, and constitute a most interesting and
-valuable series of treatises on every branch of engineering; as draining,
-bridge-building, making and improving canals and navigable rivers,
-planning docks and harbours, the improvement of mill-work, and the
-application of mechanical improvements to different manufactures. His
-papers in the Philosophical Transactions are published separately, and
-fill another quarto volume. They contain descriptions of those early
-inventions which we have mentioned, and of an improved air-pump,
-and a new hygrometer and pyrometer; together with his treatise on
-Mill-work, and some papers which show that he was fond of the science
-of astronomy, and practically skilled in it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His health began to decline about 1785, and he endeavoured to
-withdraw from business, and to devote his attention to publishing an
-account of his own inventions and works; for as he often said, “he
-thought he could not render so much service to his country as by doing
-that.” He succeeded in bringing out his elaborate account of the
-Eddystone Light-house, published in 1791. But he found it impossible
-to withdraw entirely from business: and it appears that over-exertion
-and anxiety did actually bring on an attack of paralysis, to which his
-family were constitutionally liable. He was taken ill at his residence at
-Austhorpe, in September, 1792, and died October 28, in the sixty-ninth
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>year of his age. He had long looked to this disease as the probable
-termination of his life, and felt some anxiety concerning the likelihood
-of out-living his faculties, and in his own words, of “lingering over
-the dregs after the spirit had evaporated.” This calamity was spared
-him: in the interval between his first attack and his death, his mind
-was unclouded, and he continued to take his usual interest in the
-occupations of his domestic circle. Sometimes only he would complain,
-with a smile, of his slowness of apprehension, and say, “It cannot
-be otherwise: the shadow must lengthen as the sun goes down.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His character was marked by undeviating uprightness, industry, and
-moderation in pursuit of riches. His gains might have been far larger;
-but he relinquished more than one appointment which brought in a
-considerable income, to devote his attention to other objects which
-he had more at heart; and he declined the magnificent offers of
-Catharine II. of Russia, who would have bought his services at any
-price. His industry was unwearied, and the distribution of his hours
-and employments strictly laid down by rule. In his family and by his
-friends he was singularly beloved, though his demeanour sometimes
-appeared harsh to strangers. A brief, but very interesting and affectionate
-account of him, written by his daughter, is prefixed to his
-Reports, from which many of the anecdotes here related have been
-derived.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the many great undertakings in which Smeaton was engaged,
-the most original, and the most celebrated, is the Eddystone light-house.
-The reef of rocks known by the name of the Eddystone lies
-about nine miles and a half from the Ram Head, at the entrance of
-Plymouth Sound, exposed to the full swell of the Atlantic, which, with
-a very moderate gale, breaks upon it with the utmost fury. The situation,
-directly between the Lizard and Start points, makes it of the
-utmost importance to have a light-house on it; and in 1698 Mr.
-Winstanley succeeded in completing one. This stood till 1703, but
-was entirely carried away in the memorable storm of November 26,
-in that year. It chanced, by a singular coincidence, that shortly
-before, on a doubt of the stability of the building being uttered, the
-architect expressed himself so entirely satisfied on that point, that “he
-should only wish to be there in the greatest storm that ever blew under
-the face of the heavens.” He was gratified in his wish; and perished
-with every person in the building. This building was chiefly, if not
-wholly of timber. In 1706 Mr. Rudyerd commenced a new light-house,
-partly of stone and partly of wood, which stood till 1755, when
-it was burnt down to the very rock. Warned by this accident, Smeaton
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>resolved that his should be entirely of stone. He spent much time in
-considering the best methods of grafting his work securely on the solid
-rock, and giving it the form best suited to secure stability; and one of
-the most interesting parts of his interesting account, is that in which
-he narrates how he was led to choose the shape which he adopted,
-by considering the means employed by nature to produce stability in
-her works. The building is modelled on the trunk of an oak, which
-spreads out in a sweeping curve near the roots, so as to give breadth
-and strength to its base, diminishes as it rises, and again swells out as
-it approaches to the bushy head, to give room for the strong insertion
-of the principal boughs. The latter is represented by a curved cornice,
-the effect of which is to throw off the heavy seas, which being suddenly
-checked fly up, it is said, from fifty to a hundred feet above the very top
-of the building, and thus to prevent their striking the lantern, even
-when they seem entirely to enclose it. The efficacy of this construction
-is such, that after a storm and spring tide of unequalled violence in
-1762, in which the greatest fears were entertained at Plymouth for the
-safety of the light-house, the only article requisite to repair it was a
-pot of putty, to replace some that had been washed from the lantern.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>To prepare a fit base for the reception of the column, the shelving
-rock was cut into six steps, which were filled up with masonry, firmly
-dovetailed, and pinned with oaken trenails to the living stone, so that
-the upper course presented a level circular surface. This part of the
-work was attended with the greatest difficulty; the rock being accessible
-only at low water, and in calm weather. The building is faced with
-the Cornish granite, called in the country, moorstone; a material
-selected on account of its durability and hardness, which bids defiance
-to the depredations of marine animals, which have been known to do
-serious injury by perforating Portland stone when placed under water.
-The interior is built of Portland stone, which is more easily obtained in
-large blocks, and is less expensive in the working. It is an instructive
-lesson, not only to the young engineer, but to all persons, to see the diligence
-which Smeaton used to ascertain what kind of stone was best fitted
-for his purposes, and from what materials the firmest and most lasting
-cement could be obtained. He well knew that in novel and great undertakings
-no precaution can be deemed superfluous which may contribute
-to success; and that it is wrong to trust implicitly to common methods,
-even where experience has shown them to be sufficient in common cases.
-For the height of twelve feet from the rock the building is solid. Every
-course of masonry is composed of stones firmly jointed and dovetailed
-into each other, and secured to the course below by <em>joggles</em>, or solid plugs
-of stone, which being let into both, effectually resist the lateral pressure
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>of the waves, which tends to push off the upper from the under course.
-The interior, which is accessible by a moveable ladder, consists of four
-rooms, one over the other, surmounted by a glass lantern, in which the
-lights are placed. The height from the lowest point of the foundation
-to the floor of the lantern is seventy feet; the height of the lantern is
-twenty-one feet more. The building was commenced August 3, 1756,
-and finished October 8, 1759; and having braved uninjured the storms
-of seventy-three winters, is likely long to remain a monument almost
-as elegant, and far more useful, than the most splendid column ever
-raised to commemorate imperial victories. Its erection forms an era
-in the history of light-houses, a subject of great importance to a maritime
-nation. It came perfect from the mind of the artist; and has left
-nothing to be added or improved. After such an example no accessible
-rock can be considered impracticable: and in the more recent erection
-of a light-house on the dangerous Bell-rock, lying off the coast of
-Forfarshire, between the Frith of Tay and the Frith of Forth, which
-is built exactly in the same manner, and almost on the same model,
-we see the best proof of the value of an impulse, such as was given to
-this subject by Smeaton.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_018.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>Light-houses of (1) Winstanley, (2) Smeaton, and (3) Rudyerd.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_019fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by Robert Hart.</em><br /><br />BUFFON.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture by Drouais in the<br />collection of the Institute of France.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>
-<img src='images/i_019.jpg' alt='BUFFON.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>BUFFON.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>Buffon is reported to have said—and the vanity which was his predominant
-foible may have given some colour to the assertion—“I know
-but five great geniuses, Newton, Bacon, Leibnitz, Montesquieu, and
-myself.” Probably no author ever received from his contemporaries
-so many excitements to such an exhibition of presumption and self-consequence.
-Lewis XV. conferred upon him a title of nobility; the
-Empress of Russia was his correspondent; Prince Henry of Prussia
-addressed him in the language of the most exaggerated compliment;
-and his statue was set up during his life-time in the cabinet of Lewis
-XVI., with such an inscription as is rarely bestowed even upon the
-most illustrious of past ages<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c011'><sup>[2]</sup></a>. After the lapse of half a century we
-may examine the personal character, and the literary merits, of this
-celebrated man with a more sober judgment.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Majestati naturæ par ingenium.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The history of Buffon is singularly barren of incident. At an
-early age he devoted himself to those studies of natural history which
-have rendered his name so famous; and at eighty years old he was
-still labouring at the completion of the great plan to which he had
-dedicated his life.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>George Lewis le Clerc Buffon was born at Montbar, in Burgundy,
-on the 7th September, 1707. His father, Benjamin le Clerc, was a
-man of fortune, who could afford to bestow the most careful education
-upon his children, and leave them unfettered in the choice of an occupation.
-The young Buffon had formed an acquaintance at Dijon with
-an Englishman of his own age, the Duke of Kingston. The tutor of
-this nobleman was, fortunately, an accomplished student of the physical
-sciences; and he gave a powerful impulse to the talents of Buffon,
-by leading them forward in their natural direction. Without the
-assistance of this judicious friend, the inclination of his mind towards
-honourable and useful exertion might have been suppressed by the
-temptations which too easily beset those who have an ample command
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>of the goods of fortune. It was not so with Buffon. Although he
-succeeded, at the age of twenty-one, to the estate of his mother, which
-produced him an annual income of 12,000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i>, he devoted himself with
-unremitting assiduity to the acquisition of knowledge. Having travelled
-in Italy, and resided some little time in England, he returned to
-his own country, to dedicate himself to the constant labours of a man
-of letters. His first productions were translations of two English
-works of very different character—‘Hales’ Vegetable Statics,’ and
-‘Newton’s Fluxions;’ and, following up the pursuits for which he
-exhibited his love in these translations, he carried on a series of experiments
-on the strength of timber, and constructed a burning mirror,
-in imitation of that of Archimedes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The devotion to science which Buffon had thus manifested marked
-him out for an appointment which determined the course of his future
-life. His friend, Du Fay, who was the Intendant of the ‘<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jardin du
-Roi</span></i>’ (now called the ‘<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jardin des Plantes</span></i>’), on his death-bed recommended
-Buffon as the person best calculated to give a right direction
-to this establishment for the cultivation of natural history. Buffon
-seized upon the opportunities which this appointment afforded him of
-prosecuting his favourite studies, with that energetic perseverance for
-which he was remarkable. He saw that natural history had to be
-written in a manner that might render it the most attractive species of
-knowledge; and that philosophical views, and eloquent descriptions,
-might supersede the dry nomenclatures, and the loose, contradictory,
-and too-often fabulous narratives which resulted from the crude
-labours of ill-informed compilers. To carry forward his favourite
-object, it was necessary that the museum, over which he had now the
-control, should be put in order and rendered more complete. He
-obtained from the government considerable funds for the erection of
-proper buildings; and the galleries of the ‘<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jardin des Plantes</span></i>,’ which
-now hold the fine collection of mammals and birds, were raised under
-his superintendence. Possessing, therefore, the most complete means
-which Europe afforded, he applied himself to the great task of describing
-the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms of nature. A
-large portion of this immense undertaking was left unperformed,
-although, to use his own words, he laboured fifty years at his desk;
-and much of what he accomplished was greatly diminished in value
-by his determination to see natural objects only through the clouded
-medium of his own theories. But, nevertheless, he has produced a
-work which, with all its faults, is an extraordinary monument of genius
-and industry, and which will long entitle him to the gratitude of mankind.
-“We read Buffon,” says Condorcet, “to be interested as well
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>as instructed. He will continue to excite a useful enthusiasm for the
-natural sciences; and the world will long be indebted to him for the
-pleasures with which a young mind for the first time looks into nature
-and the consolations with which a soul weary of the storms of life
-reposes upon the sight of the immensity of beings peaceably submitted
-to necessary and eternal laws.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Buffon was in some particulars unqualified for the laborious duty he
-had undertaken. He delighted to indulge in broad and general views,
-and to permit his imagination to luxuriate in striking descriptions.
-But he had neither the patience, nor the love of accuracy, which would
-have carried him into those minute details which give to natural
-history its highest value. He, however, had the merit and the good
-fortune, in the early stages of his undertaking, to associate himself
-with a fellow-labourer who possessed those qualities in which he was
-deficient. The first fifteen volumes of ‘<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Histoire Naturelle</span></cite>,’ which
-treat of the theory of the earth, the nature of animals, and the history of
-man and viviparous quadrupeds, were published between 1749 and 1767,
-as the joint work of Buffon and Daubenton. The general theories,
-the descriptions of the phenomena of nature, and the pictures of the
-habits of animals, were by Buffon. Daubenton confined himself to
-the precise delineation of their physical character, both in their external
-forms and their anatomy. But Daubenton refused to continue his
-assistance in the ‘History of Birds;’ for Buffon, unwilling that the
-fame which he had acquired should be partaken by one whom he considered
-only as a humble and subordinate labourer, allowed an edition
-of the History of Quadrupeds to be published, of which the descriptive
-and anatomical parts had been greatly abridged. In the History of
-Birds, therefore, Buffon had to seek for other associates; and the form
-of the work was greatly changed from that of the previous volumes.
-The particular descriptions are here very meagre, and anatomical
-details are almost entirely excluded. In some of the volumes, Buffon
-was assisted by Guéneau de Montbeillard, who, instead of endeavouring
-to attain the accuracy of Daubenton, affected to imitate the style of his
-employer. To the three last volumes of the Birds the Abbé Bexon
-lent his aid. The nine volumes of Birds appeared between 1770
-and 1783. Buffon published alone his ‘History of Minerals,’ which
-appeared in five volumes, between 1783 and 1788. Seven volumes of
-Supplements complete the Natural History. The first appeared in
-1773; the last was not published till the year after its author’s death,
-in 1789. The fifth volume of these Supplements is a distinct work,
-the Epochs of Nature<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c011'><sup>[3]</sup></a>.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The best edition of the works of Buffon is the first, of 36 vols. 4to.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>The study of natural history, and the composition of his great
-work, occupied the mind of Buffon from his first appointment as
-Intendant of the ‘<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jardin du Roi</span></i>,’ to within a few days of his death.
-In the prosecution of the plan he had laid down, he never permitted
-the slightest interruption. Pleasure and indolence had their attractions;—but
-they never held him for many hours from his favourite
-pursuits. Buffon spent the greater part of his time at Montbar,
-where, during some years, his friend Daubenton also resided. It
-was here that Buffon composed nearly the whole of his works. Many
-interesting details have been preserved of his habits of life, and
-his mode of composition. He was, like all men who have accomplished
-great literary undertakings, a severe economist of his time.
-The employment of every day was fixed with the greatest exactness.
-He used almost invariably to rise at five o’clock, compelling his
-man-servant to drag him out of bed whenever he was unwilling
-to get up. “I owe to poor Joseph,” he used to say, “ten or twelve
-volumes of my works.” At the end of his garden was a pavilion
-which served him as a study. Here he was seated for many hours
-of every day, in an old leathern chair, before a table of black birch,
-with his papers arranged in a large walnut-tree escritoire. Before
-he began to write he was accustomed to meditate for a long time
-upon his subject. Composition was to him a real delight; and he
-used to declare that he had spent twelve or fourteen hours successively
-at his desk, continuing to the last in a state of pleasure. His
-endeavours to obtain the utmost correctness of expression furnished a
-remarkable proof of the persevering quality of his mind. He composed,
-and copied, and read his works to friends, and re-copied, till he was
-entirely satisfied. It is said that he made eleven transcripts of the
-Epochs of Nature. In his domestic habits there was little to admire in
-the character of Buffon. His conversation was trifling and licentious,
-and the grossness which too often discloses itself in his writings was
-ill-concealed in his own conduct. He paid the most minute attention
-to dress, and delighted in walking to church to exhibit his finery to his
-wondering neighbours. Although he was entirely devoid of religious
-principle, and constantly endeavoured in his writings to throw discredit
-upon the belief of a great First Cause, he regularly attended
-high mass, received the communion, and distributed alms to pious
-beggars. In his whole character there appears a total absence of that
-simplicity which is the distinguishing attribute of men of the very
-highest genius.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The literary glory of Buffon, although surpassed, or even equalled,
-during his life, by none of his contemporaries, with the exception perhaps
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>of Voltaire and Rousseau, has not increased, and is perhaps
-materially diminished, after having been tried by the opinions of half a
-century. In literature, as well as in politics, as we have learnt to attach
-a greater value to accurate facts, have we become less captivated by the
-force of eloquence alone. Buffon gave an extraordinary impulse to
-the love of natural history, by surrounding its details with splendid
-images, and escaping from its rigid investigations by bold and dazzling
-theories. He rejected classification; and took no pains to distinguish
-by precise names the objects which he described, because such accuracy
-would have impeded the progress of his magnificent generalizations.
-Without classification, and an accurate nomenclature, natural history
-is a mere chaos. Buffon saw the productions of nature only in
-masses. He made no endeavour to delineate with perfect accuracy
-any individual of that immense body, nor to trace the relations of an
-individual to all the various forms of being by which it is surrounded.
-Although he was a profound admirer of Newton, and classed Bacon
-amongst the most illustrious of men, he constantly deviated from
-the principle of that philosophy upon which all modern discovery
-has been founded. He carried onward his hypotheses with little
-calculation and less experiment. And yet, although they are often
-misapplied, he has collected an astonishing number of facts; and even
-many of his boldest generalities have been based upon a sufficient
-foundation of truth, to furnish important assistance to the investigations
-of more accurate inquirers. The persevering obliquity with which he
-turns away from the evidence of Design in the creation, to rest upon
-some vague notions of a self-creative power, both in animate and
-inanimate existence, is one of the most unpleasant features of his
-writings. How much higher services might Buffon have rendered to
-natural history had he been imbued not only with a spirit of accurate
-and comprehensive classification, but with a perception of the constant
-agency of a Creator, of both of which merits he had so admirable an
-example in our own Ray.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The style of Buffon, viewed as an elaborate work of art, and without
-regard to the great object of style, that of conveying thoughts in the
-clearest and simplest manner, is captivating from its sustained harmony
-and occasional grandeur. But it is a style of a past age. Even in
-his own day, it was a theme for ridicule with those who knew the real
-force of conciseness and simplicity. Voltaire described it as ‘<em>empoulé</em>;’
-and when some one talked to him of ‘<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Histoire Naturelle</span></cite>,’ he drily
-replied, ‘<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Pas si naturelle</span></i>.’ But Buffon was not carried away by the
-mere love of fine writing. He knew his own power; and, looking
-at the state of science in his day, he seized upon the instrument
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>which was best calculated to elevate him amongst his contemporaries.
-The very exaggerations of his style were perhaps necessary to render
-natural history at once attractive to all descriptions of people. Up to
-his time it had been a dry and repulsive study. He first clothed it
-with the picturesque and poetical; threw a moral sentiment around its
-commonest details; exhibited animals in connection with man, in his
-mightiest and most useful works; and described the great phenomena
-of nature with a pomp of language which had never before been
-called to the service of philosophical investigation. The publication of
-his works carried the study of natural history out of the closets of the
-few, to become a source of delight and instruction to all men.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Buffon died at Paris on the 16th April, 1788, aged 81. He was
-married, in 1762, to Mademoiselle de St. Bélin; and he left an only
-son, who succeeded to his title. This unfortunate young man perished
-on the scaffold, in 1795, almost one of the last victims of the fury
-of the revolution. When he ascended to the guillotine he exclaimed,
-with great composure, “My name is Buffon.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A succinct and clear memoir of Buffon, by Cuvier, in the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Biographie
-Universelle</span></cite>, may be advantageously consulted. Nearly all the details
-of his private life are derived from a curious work by Rénault de
-Séchelles, entitled <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Voyage à Montbar</span></cite>, which, like many other domestic
-histories of eminent men, has the disgrace of being founded upon a
-violation of the laws of hospitality.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_024.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_025fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by R. Woodman.</em><br /><br />SIR THOMAS MORE.<br /><br /><em>From an Enamel after Holbein,<br />in the possession of Thomas Clarke Esq.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>
-<img src='images/i_025.jpg' alt='MORE.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>MORE.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>This great man was born in London, in the year 1480. His father
-was Sir John More, one of the Judges of the King’s Bench, a gentleman
-of established reputation. He was early placed in the family of
-Cardinal Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Lord Chancellor of
-England. The sons of the gentry were at this time sent into the
-families of the first nobility and leading statesmen, on an equivocal
-footing; partly for the finishing of their education, and partly in a
-menial capacity. The Cardinal said more than once to the nobility
-who were dining with him, “This boy waiting at table, whosoever
-lives to see it, will one day prove a marvellous man.” His eminent
-patron was highly delighted with that vivacity and wit which appeared
-in his childhood, and did not desert him on the scaffold. Plays were performed
-in the archiepiscopal household at Christmas. On these occasions
-young More would play the improvisatore, and introduce an extempore
-part of his own, more amusing to the spectators than all the rest
-of the performance. In due time Morton sent him to Oxford, where
-he heard the lectures of Linacer and Grocyn on the Greek and Latin
-languages. The epigrams and translations printed in his works
-evince his skill in both. After a regular course of rhetoric, logic, and
-philosophy, at Oxford, he removed to London, where he became a law
-student, first in New Inn, and afterwards in Lincoln’s Inn. He
-gained considerable reputation by reading public lectures on Saint
-Augustine, De Civitate Dei, at Saint Lawrence’s church in the Old
-Jewry. The most learned men in the city of London attended him;
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>among the rest Grocyn, his lecturer in Greek at Oxford, and a writer
-against the doctrines of Wickliff. The object of More’s prolusions
-was not so much to discuss points in theology, as to explain the precepts
-of moral philosophy, and clear up difficulties in history. For
-more than three years after this he was Law-reader at Furnival’s
-Inn. He next removed to the Charter-House, where he lived in
-devotion and prayer; and it is stated that from the age of twenty he
-wore a hair-shirt next his skin. He remained there about four years,
-without taking the vows, although he performed all the spiritual
-exercises of the society, and had a strong inclination to enter the
-priesthood. But his spiritual adviser, Dr. Colet, Dean of St. Paul’s,
-recommended him to adopt a different course. On a visit to a gentleman
-of Essex, by name Colt, he was introduced to his three daughters,
-and became attached to the second, who was the handsomest of the
-family. But he bethought him that it would be both a grief and a
-scandal to the eldest to see her younger sister married before her.
-He therefore reconsidered his passion, and from motives of pity
-prevailed with himself to be in love with the elder, or at all events
-to marry her. Erasmus says that she was young and uneducated,
-for which her husband liked her the better, as being more capable of
-conforming to his own model of a wife. He had her instructed in
-literature, and especially in music.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He continued his study of the law at Lincoln’s Inn, but resided in
-Bucklersbury after his marriage. His first wife lived about seven
-years. By her he had three daughters and one son; and we are informed
-by his son-in-law, Roper, that he brought them up with the most
-sedulous attention to their intellectual and moral improvement. It
-was a quaint exhortation of his, that they should take virtue and
-learning for their meat, and pleasure for their sauce.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the latter part of King Henry the Seventh’s time, and at a very
-early age, More distinguished himself in parliament. The King had
-demanded a subsidy for the marriage of his eldest daughter, who was
-to be the Scottish Queen. The demand was not complied with. On
-being told that his purpose had been frustrated by the opposition of
-a beardless boy, Henry was greatly incensed, and determined on
-revenge. He knew that the actual offender, not possessing anything,
-could not lose anything; he therefore devised a groundless charge
-against the father, and confined him to the Tower till he had extorted
-a fine of £100 for his alleged offence. Fox, Bishop of Winchester, a
-privy councillor, insidiously undertook to reinstate young More in the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>King’s favour: but the Bishop’s Chaplain warned him not to listen to
-any such proposals; and gave a pithy reason for the advice, highly
-illustrative of Fox’s real character. “To serve the King’s purposes,
-my lord and master will not hesitate to consent to his own father’s
-death.” To avoid evil consequences, More determined to go abroad.
-With this view, he made himself master of the French language,
-and cultivated the liberal sciences, as astronomy, geometry, arithmetic,
-and music; he also made himself thoroughly acquainted with history:
-but in the mean time the King’s death rendered it safe to remain in
-England, and he abandoned all thoughts of foreign travel.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Notwithstanding his practice at the bar, and his lectures, which were
-quoted by Lord Coke as undisputed authority, he found leisure for the
-pursuits of philosophy and polite literature. In 1516 he wrote his
-Utopia, the only one of his works which has commanded much of
-public attention in after times. In general they were chiefly of a
-polemic kind, in defence of a cause which even his abilities could not
-make good. But in this extraordinary work he allowed his powerful
-mind fair play, and considered both mankind and religion with the
-freedom of a true philosopher. He represents Utopia as one of those
-countries lately discovered in America, and the account of it is feigned
-to be given by a Portuguese, who sailed in company with the first discoverer
-of that part of the world. Under the character of this Portuguese
-he delivers his own opinions. His History of Richard III. was
-never finished, but it is inserted in Kennet’s Complete History of
-England. Among his other eminent acquaintance, he was particularly
-attached to Erasmus. They had long corresponded before they were
-personally known to each other. Erasmus came to England for the
-purpose of seeing his friend; and it was contrived that they should
-meet at the Lord Mayor’s table before they were introduced to each
-other. At dinner they engaged in argument. Erasmus felt the keenness
-of his antagonist’s wit; and when hard pressed, exclaimed,
-“You are More, or nobody;” the reply was, “You are Erasmus, or
-the Devil.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Before More entered definitively into the service of Henry VIII.
-his learning, wisdom, and experience were held in such high estimation,
-that he was twice sent on important commercial embassies. His
-discretion in those employments made the King desirous of securing
-him for the service of the court; and he commissioned Wolsey, then
-Lord Chancellor, to engage him. But so little inclined was he to
-involve himself in political intrigues, that the King’s wish was not at
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>the time accomplished. Soon after, More was retained as counsel for
-the Pope, for the purpose of reclaiming the forfeiture of a ship. His
-argument was so learned, and his conduct in the cause so judicious
-and upright, that the ship was restored. The King upon this insisted
-on having him in his service; and, as the first step to preferment,
-made him Master of the Requests, a Knight and Privy Councillor.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1520 he was made Treasurer of the Exchequer: he then bought
-a house by the river-side at Chelsea, where he had settled with his
-family. He had at that time buried his first wife and was married to a
-second. He continued in the King’s service full twenty years, during
-which time his royal master conferred with him on various subjects,
-including astronomy, geometry, and divinity; and frequently consulted
-him on his private concerns. More’s pleasant temper and witty
-conversation made him such a favourite at the palace, as almost to
-estrange him from his own family; and under these circumstances his
-peculiar humour manifested itself; for he so restrained the natural
-bias of his freedom and mirth as to render himself a less amusing
-companion, and at length to be seldom sent for but on occasions of
-business.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A more important circumstance gave More much consequence with
-the King. The latter was preparing his answer to Luther, and Sir
-Thomas assisted him in the controversy. While this was going on,
-the King one day came to dine with him; and after dinner walked
-with him in the garden with his arm round his neck. After Henry’s
-departure, Mr. Roper, Sir Thomas’s son-in-law, remarked on the
-King’s familiarity, as exceeding even that used towards Cardinal
-Wolsey, with whom he had only once been seen to walk arm in arm.
-The answer of Sir Thomas was shrewd and almost prophetic. “I
-find his Grace my very good lord indeed, and I believe he doth as
-singularly favour me as any subject within this realm. However,
-Son Roper, I may tell thee, I have no cause to be proud thereof;
-for if my head would win him a castle in France it should not fail
-to go.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1523 he was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons, and displayed
-great intrepidity in the discharge of that office. Wolsey was
-afraid lest this parliament should refuse a great subsidy about to be
-demanded, and announced his intention of being present at the debate.
-He had previously expressed his indignation at the publicity given to
-the proceedings of the house, which he had compared to the gossip of
-an ale-house. Sir Thomas More therefore persuaded the members to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>admit not only the Cardinal, but all his pomp; his maces, poll-axes,
-crosses, hat, and great seal. The reason he assigned was, that should
-the like fault be imputed to them hereafter, they might be able to shift
-the blame on the shoulders of his Grace’s attendants. The proposal
-of the subsidy was met with the negative of profound silence; and the
-Speaker declared that “except every member could put into his one
-head all their several wits, he alone in so weighty a matter was unmeet
-to make his Grace answer.” After the parliament had broken up,
-Wolsey expressed his displeasure against the Speaker in his own
-gallery at Whitehall; but More, with his usual quiet humour, parried
-the attack by a ready compliment to the taste and splendour of the
-room in which they were conversing.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On the death of Sir Richard Wingfield, the King promoted Sir
-Thomas to the Chancellorship of the Duchy of Lancaster. At this
-time the see of Rome became vacant, and Wolsey aspired to the
-Papacy; but Charles V. disappointed him, and procured the election of
-Cardinal Adrian. In revenge, Wolsey contrived to persuade Henry
-that Catharine was not his lawful wife, and endeavoured to turn his
-affections towards one of the French King’s sisters. The case was
-referred to More, who was assisted by the most learned of the Privy
-Council; and he managed, difficult as it must have been to do so, to
-extricate both himself and his colleagues from the dilemma. His
-conduct as ambassador at Cambray, where a treaty of peace was
-negotiated between the Emperor, France, and England, so confirmed
-the favour of his master towards him, that on the fall of the Cardinal
-he was made Lord Chancellor. The great seal was delivered to him
-on the 25th of October, 1530. This favour was the more extraordinary,
-as he was the first layman on whom it was bestowed: but it
-may reasonably be suspected that the private motive was to engage
-him in the approval of the meditated divorce. This he probably suspected,
-and entered on the office with a full knowledge of the danger
-to which it exposed him. He performed the duties of his function for
-nearly three years with exemplary diligence, great ability, and uncorrupted
-integrity. His resignation took place on the 16th May, 1533.
-His motive was supposed to be a regard to his own safety, as he was
-sensible that a confirmation of the divorce would be officially required
-from him, and he was too conscientious to comply with the mandate
-of power, against his own moral and legal convictions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>While Chancellor some of his injunctions were disapproved by the
-common law judges. He therefore invited them to dine with him in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>the council chamber, and proved to them by professional arguments
-that their complaints were unfounded. He then proposed that they
-should themselves mitigate the rigour of the law by their own conscientious
-discretion; in which case, he would grant no more injunctions.
-This they refused; and the consequence was, that he continued
-that practice in equity which has come down to the present day.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It was through the intervention of his friend the Duke of Norfolk
-that he procured his discharge from the laborious, and under the circumstances
-of the time, the dangerous eminence of the chancellorship,
-which he quitted in honourable poverty. After the payment of his
-debts he had not the value of one hundred pounds in gold and silver,
-nor more than twenty marks a year in land. On this occasion his love
-of a jest did not desert him. While Chancellor, as soon as the church
-service was over, one of his train used to go to his lady’s pew, and say,
-“Madam, my Lord is gone!” On the first holiday after his train had
-been dismissed, he performed that ceremony himself, and by saying at
-the end of the service, “Madam, my Lord is gone,” gave his wife the
-first intimation that he had surrendered the great seal.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He had resolved never again to engage in public business; but the
-divorce, and still more the subsequent marriage with Anne Boleyn,
-which nothing could induce him to favour, with the King’s alienation
-from the see of Rome, raised a storm over his head from which his
-voluntary seclusion at Chelsea, in study and devotion, could not shelter
-him. When tempting offers proved ineffectual to win him over to
-sanction Anne Boleyn’s coronation by his high legal authority, threats
-and terrors were resorted to: his firmness was not to be shaken, but his
-ruin was determined, and ultimately accomplished. In the next parliament
-he, and his friend Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, were attainted of
-treason and misprision of treason for listening to the ravings of Elizabeth
-Barton, considered by the vulgar as the Holy Maid of Kent, and countenancing
-her treasonable practices. His innocence was so clearly
-established, that his name was erased from the bill; and it was supposed
-to have been introduced into it only for the purpose of shaking his
-resolution touching the divorce and marriage. But though he had
-escaped this snare his firmness occasioned him to be devoted as a
-victim. Anne Boleyn took pains to exasperate the King against
-him, and when the Act of Supremacy was passed in 1534, the oath
-required by it was tendered to him. The refusal to take it, which
-his principles compelled him to give, was expressed in discreet and
-qualified terms; he was nevertheless taken into the custody of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>Abbot of Westminster, and upon a second refusal four days after was
-committed prisoner to the Tower of London.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Our limits will not allow us to detail many particulars of his life
-while in confinement, marked as it was by firmness, resignation, and
-cheerfulness, resulting from a conscience, however much mistaken, yet
-void of intentional offence. His reputation and credit were very great
-in the kingdom, and much was supposed to depend on his conduct at
-this critical juncture. Archbishop Cranmer, therefore, urged every
-argument that could be devised to persuade him to compliance, and
-promises were profusely made to him from the King; but neither
-argument nor promises could prevail. We will give the last of these
-attempts to shake his determination, in the words of his son-in-law,
-Mr. Roper:—</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“Mr. Rich, pretending friendly talk with him, among other things
-of a set course, said this unto him: ‘Forasmuch as is well known,
-Master More, that you are a man both wise and well learned, as well in
-the laws of the realm as otherwise, I pray you, therefore, sir, let me be
-so bold as of good-will to put unto you this case. Admit there were,
-sir, an act of parliament that the realm should take me for King; would
-not you, Mr. More, take me for King?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ quoth Sir Thomas
-More, ‘that would I.’ ‘I put the case further,’ quoth Mr. Rich, ‘that
-there were an act of parliament that all the realm should take me for
-Pope; would not you then, Master More, take me for Pope?’ ‘For
-answer, sir,’ quoth Sir Thomas More, ‘to your first case the parliament
-may well, Master Rich, meddle with the state of temporal princes; but
-to make answer to your other case, I will put you this case. Suppose
-the parliament would make a law that God should not be God; would
-you then, Master Rich, say that God were not God?’ ‘No, sir,’ quoth
-he, ‘that would I not; sith no parliament may make any such law.’
-‘No more,’ quoth Sir Thomas More, ‘could the parliament make the
-King supreme head of the Church.’ Upon whose only report was Sir
-Thomas indicted of high treason on the statute to deny the King to be
-supreme head of the Church, into which indictment were put these
-heinous words, <em>maliciously</em>, <em>traitorously</em>, and <em>diabolically</em>.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Sir Thomas More in his defence alleged many arguments to the discredit
-of Rich’s evidence, and in proof of the clearness of his own conscience;
-but all this was of no avail, and the jury found him guilty.
-When asked in the usual manner why judgment should not be passed
-against him, he argued against the indictment as grounded on an Act
-of Parliament repugnant to the laws of God and the Church, the government
-of which belonged to the see of Rome, and could not lawfully be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>assumed by any temporal prince. The Lord Chancellor, however, and
-the other Commissioners gave judgment against him.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He remained in the Tower a week after his sentence, and during that
-time he was uniformly firm and composed, and even his peculiar vein of
-cheerfulness remained unimpaired. It accompanied him even to the
-scaffold, on going up to which, he said to the Lieutenant of the Tower,
-“I pray you, Master Lieutenant, see me safe up, and for my coming
-down let me shift for myself.” After his prayers were ended he turned
-to the executioner and said, with a cheerful countenance, “Pluck up thy
-spirits, man, and be not afraid to do thine office. My neck is very short,
-take heed, therefore, thou strike not awry for thine own credit’s sake.”
-Then laying his head upon the block, he bid the executioner stay till he
-had removed his beard, saying, “My beard has never committed any
-treason;” and immediately the fatal blow was given. These witticisms
-have so repeatedly run the gauntlet through all the jest-books that it
-would hardly have been worth while to repeat them here, were it not for
-the purpose of introducing the comment of Mr. Addison on Sir Thomas’s
-behaviour on this solemn occasion. “What was only philosophy in this
-extraordinary man would be frenzy in one who does not resemble him
-as well in the cheerfulness of his temper as in the sanctity of his
-manners.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He was executed on St. Thomas’s eve in the year 1555. The barbarous
-part of the sentence, so disgraceful to the Statute-book, was
-remitted. Lest serious-minded persons should suppose that his conduct
-on the scaffold was mere levity, it should be added that he addressed the
-people, desiring them to pray for him, and to bear witness that he was
-going to suffer death in and for the faith of the holy Catholic Church.
-The Emperor Charles V. said, on hearing of his execution, “Had
-we been master of such a servant, we would rather have lost the best
-city of our dominions than such a worthy councillor.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>No one was more capable of appreciating the character of Sir Thomas
-More than Erasmus, who represents him as more pure and white than
-the whitest snow, with such wit as England never had before, and was
-never likely to have again. He also says, that in theological discussions
-the most eminent divines were not unfrequently worsted by him; but
-he adds a wish that he had never meddled with the subject. Sir
-Thomas More was peculiarly happy in extempore speaking, the result
-of a well-stored and ready memory, suggesting without delay whatever
-the occasion required. Thuanus also mentions him with much respect,
-as a man of strict integrity and profound learning.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His life has been written by his son-in-law, Roper, and is the principal
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>source whence this narrative is taken. Erasmus has also been
-consulted, through whose epistolary works there is much information
-about his friend. There is also a life of him by Ferdinando
-Warner, LL.D., with a translation of his Utopia, in an octavo volume,
-published in 1758.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_033.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_034fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />LA PLACE.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture by Nedeone,<br />in the possession of the Marchioness De la Place.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>
-<img src='images/i_034.jpg' alt='LAPLACE.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>LAPLACE.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>Pierre Simon Laplace was born at Beaumont en Auge, a small
-town of Normandy, not far from Honfleur, in March, 1749. His
-father was a small farmer of sufficient substance to give him the
-benefit of a learned education, for we are told<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c011'><sup>[4]</sup></a> that the future philosopher
-gained his first distinctions in theology. It does not appear
-by what means his attention was turned to mathematical science,
-but he must have commenced that study when very young, as, on
-visiting Paris at the age of about eighteen, he attracted the notice
-of D’Alembert by his knowledge of the subject. He had previously
-taught mathematics in his native place; and, on visiting the metropolis,
-was furnished with letters of recommendation to several of the
-most distinguished men of the day. Finding, however, that D’Alembert
-took no notice of him on this account, he wrote that geometer a
-letter on the first principles of mechanics, which produced an immediate
-effect. D’Alembert sent for him the same day, and said, “You
-see, sir, how little I care for introductions, but you have no need of any.
-You have a better way of making yourself known, and you have a
-right to my assistance.” Through the recommendation of D’Alembert,
-Laplace was in a few days named Professor of Mathematics in the
-Military School of Paris. From this moment he applied himself to the
-one great object of his life. It was not till the year 1799 that he was
-called to assume a public character. Bonaparte, then First Consul,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>who was himself a tolerable mathematician, and always cultivated the
-friendship of men of science, made him Minister of the Interior; but
-very soon found his mistake in supposing that talents for philosophical
-investigation were necessarily accompanied by those of a statesman.
-He is reported to have expressed himself of Laplace in the following
-way:—“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géometre du premier rang, il ne tarda pas a se montrer
-administrateur plus que médiocre. Dés son premier travail, les consuls
-s’aperçurent qu’ils s’étoient trompés. Laplace ne saisissait aucune
-question sous son vrai point de vue. Il cherchait des subtilités
-partout, n’avait que des idées problématiques et portait aufin <em>l’esprit
-des infiniments petits</em> dans l’administration.</span>” Bonaparte removed
-him accordingly to the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Sénat Conservateur</span></i>, of which he was successively
-Vice-President and Chancellor. The latter office he received
-in 1813, about which time he was created Count. In 1814 he voted
-for the deposition of Napoleon, for which he has been charged with
-ingratitude and meanness. This is yet a party question; and the
-present generation need not be hasty in forming a decision which
-posterity may see reason to reverse. After the first restoration
-Laplace received the title of Marquis, and did not appear at the
-Court of Napoleon during the hundred days. He continued his
-usual pursuits until the year 1827, when he was seized with the
-disorder which terminated his life on the 5th of May, in the seventy-eighth
-year of his age. His last words were, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ce que nous connoissons
-est peu de chose; ce que nous ignorons est immense.</span>” He has
-left a successor to his name and title, but none to his transcendent
-powers of investigation.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A scanty account in the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Biographie des Contemporains</span></cite>, and the Eloge read to the
-Institute by M. Fourier, form our only materials for the personal life of <span class='sc'>Laplace</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The name of Laplace is spread to the utmost limits of civilization,
-as the successor, almost the equal, of Newton. No one, however, who
-is acquainted with the discoveries of the two, will think there is so
-much common ground for comparison as is generally supposed. Those
-of Laplace are all essentially mathematical: whatever could be done
-by analysis he was sure to achieve. The labours of Newton, on the
-other hand, show a sagacity in conjecturing which would almost lead
-us to think that he laid the mathematics on one side, and used some
-faculty of perception denied to other men, to deduce these results
-which he afterwards condescended to put into a geometrical form,
-for the information of more common minds. In the Principia of
-Newton, the mathematics are not the instruments of discovery
-but of demonstration; and, though that work contains much which is
-new in a mathematical point of view, its principal merit is of quite
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>another character. The mind of Laplace was cast in a different
-mould; and this perhaps is fortunate for science, for while we may
-safely assert that Laplace would never have been Newton had he been
-placed in similar circumstances, there is also reason to doubt whether
-a second Newton would have been better qualified to follow that
-particular path which was so successfully traversed by Laplace. We
-shall proceed to give such an idea of the labours of the latter as our
-limits will allow.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The solution of every mechanical problem, in which the acting
-forces were known, as in the motions of the solar system, had been
-reduced by D’Alembert and Lagrange to such a state that the difficulties
-were only mathematical; that is, no farther advances could be
-made, except in pure analysis. We cannot expect the general reader
-to know what is meant by the words, <em>solution of a Differential
-Equation</em>; but he may be made aware that there is a process so
-called, which, if it could be successfully and exactly performed in all
-cases, would give the key to every motion of the solar system, and
-render the determination of its present, and the prediction of its future
-state, a matter of mathematical certainty. Unfortunately, in the present
-state of analysis, such precision is unattainable; and its place is
-supplied by slow and tedious approximations. These were begun by
-Newton, whose object being to establish the existence of universal
-gravitation, he was content to show that all the phenomena which
-might be expected to result, if that theory were true, did actually take
-place in the solar system. But here, owing to the comparatively imperfect
-state of mathematical analysis, he could do little more than indicate
-the cause of some of the principal irregularities of that system. His
-successors added considerably to the number of phenomena which were
-capable of explanation, and thereby increased the probability of the
-hypothesis. Lagrange, the great rival of Laplace, if we consider his discoveries,
-and his superior in the originality of his views, and the beauty
-of his analysis, added greatly to the fund; but it was reserved for the
-latter to complete the system, and, extending his views beyond the point
-to which Newton directed his attention, to show that there is no marked
-phenomenon yet observed by astronomers, regarding the relative motions
-of the planets or their satellites, but what must necessarily follow, if
-the law of gravitation be true. We shall select a few instances of the
-success of his analysis. The average motions of Jupiter and Saturn
-had been observed to vary; that of the former being accelerated, and
-of the latter retarded. This fact, which Euler had attempted in vain to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>explain, was linked by Laplace to the general law, and shown to follow
-from it. A somewhat similar acceleration in the moon’s mean motion
-was demonstrated, as we have observed more fully in the life of Halley,
-to arise from a small alteration in the form of the earth’s orbit, caused
-by the attraction of the planets. A remarkable law attending the
-motions of the satellites of Jupiter, viz.—that the mean motion of the
-first satellite, together with double that of the second, is always very
-nearly equal to three times that of the third—was so far connected
-with the general law, that if, in the original formation of the system,
-that relation had been nearly kept, the mutual attractions, instead of
-altering it, would tend to bring it nearer the truth. We can here do no
-more than mention the analysis of the phenomena of the tides, one of the
-most important and most brilliant of Laplace’s performances. Indeed
-there is no branch of Physical Astronomy, we might almost say of
-physics in general, which is not materially indebted to him. Superior
-to Euler in the power of conquering analytical difficulties, he is almost
-his equal in the universality of his labours.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The great work of Laplace is the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Céleste</span>,’ a collection
-of all that had been done by himself or others, concerning the theory
-of the universe. It is far above the reach even of the mathematical
-reader, unless he has given a degree of attention to the subject,
-which few, at least in our day, will exert. But Laplace was an
-elegant and clear-headed writer, as well as a profound analyst. He
-has left, we will not say for the common reader, but for those who
-possess the first elements of geometry, a compendium of the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique
-Céleste</span>, in the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Système du Monde</span>.’ This work is free from mathematical
-details, and, were it his only production, would rank him high
-among French writers. We recommend it as the best exposition of
-the present state of our knowledge of the solar system.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But if it be said that Laplace was much indebted to the labours of
-Lagrange and others, for the methods which form the basis of the
-<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Céleste</span>, which is undoubtedly true, we have a splendid
-instance of what might have been expected from him under any circumstances,
-in the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Théorie des Probabilités</span>.’ The field was here open,
-for though the leading principles of the science had been laid down,
-and many difficult problems solved, yet some method was still wanting
-by which sufficient approximation might be made to problems involving
-high numbers. In the theory of chances the great complexity of the
-operations required, soon renders the application of the clearest principles
-practically impossible; or, we should rather say, would have
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>done so had it not been for the researches of Laplace. His work on
-this subject is, in our opinion, even superior to the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Céleste</span>,
-as a proof of the genius of the author. The difficulties above described
-disappear under an analysis more refined and artificial than any other
-which has ever been used. The mathematician may or may not read
-the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Céleste</span>, according to whether he would wish or not to
-turn his attention to physical astronomy; but the analyst must study
-the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Théorie des Probabilités</span>, before he can be said to know of what
-his art is capable. The philosophical part of his work, with its
-principal results, was collected by the author in the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai Philosophique
-sur les Probabilités</span>,’ in the same manner as those of the
-<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Céleste</span> were exhibited in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Système du Monde</span>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The mathematical style of Laplace is entirely destitute of the simplicity
-of that of Euler, or the exquisite symmetry and attention to the
-principles of notation, which distinguishes that of Lagrange. We
-may almost imagine that we see the first rough form in which his
-thoughts were committed to paper; and that, when by attention to a
-particular case, he had hit upon a wider method, which embraced that
-and others, he was content to leave the first nearly as it stood before
-the generalization opened upon him. His writings abound with parts
-in which the immediate train of investigation is dropped, either not to
-be resumed at all, or at a much later period of the subject. He seems,
-like the discoverer of a new channel, to have explored every inlet
-which came in his way, and the chart of his labours consequently shows
-the unfinished surveys on either side of the main track. This habit
-is no fault, but quite the reverse, in a work intended for finished
-mathematicians, to be the storehouse of all that could be useful in
-future operations: but it makes both the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Céleste</span> and the
-<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Théorie des Probabilités</span> present almost unconquerable difficulties to
-the student. These are increased by the very wide steps left to be
-filled up by the reader, which are numerous enough to justify us in
-saying, that what is left out in these writings would constitute a mass
-four times as great as that which is put in, and this exclusive of
-numerical calculations. When we add that those two works are contained
-in six quarto volumes, which hold more than two thousand five
-hundred pages, some notion may be formed of the extent of Laplace’s
-labours.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It will be perceived that this slight sketch is intended only for those
-who are not mathematicians. In conclusion, we may take the opportunity
-of expressing a hope, that at no distant period analytical knowledge
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>will have become so general, and the public mind be so far
-informed upon the great theory first propounded by Newton, and
-reduced to demonstration by Lagrange and Laplace, that the evidence
-furnished by the two last shall possess equal weight with the authority
-of the first.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>
-<img src='images/i_040.jpg' alt='HANDEL.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>HANDEL.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>George Frederic Handel, whom we will venture to call the
-greatest of musicians, considering the state in which he found his art,
-and the means at his command, was born at Halle, in the Duchy of
-Magdeburg, February 24, 1684. He was intended, almost from his
-cradle, for the profession of the civil law; but, at the early age of
-seven, he manifested so uncontrollable an inclination, and so decided a
-talent for the study of music, that his father, an eminent physician,
-wisely consented to change his destination, and suffered him to continue
-under the direction of a master those studies, which he had been secretly
-pursuing with no other guide than his own genius.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Friedrich Zachau, organist of the cathedral church of Halle, was the
-first and indeed the chief instructor of Handel. He discharged the duties
-of his office so well, that his pupil, when not nine years old, had become
-competent to officiate for his teacher, and had composed, it is said,
-many motets for the service of the church. A set of sonatas, written
-by him when only ten years old, was in the possession of George III.,
-and probably forms part of the musical library of our present sovereign.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_040fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by J. Thomson.</em><br /><br />HANDEL.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture in the Collection of<br />His Majesty at Windsor.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1703 Handel went to Hamburg, where the opera was then
-flourishing under the direction of Reinhard Keiser, a master of deserved
-celebrity, but whose gaiety and expensive habits often compelled
-him to absent himself from the theatre. On one of these occasions
-Handel was appointed to fill his place as conductor. This preference
-of a junior roused the jealousy of a fellow-performer, named Mattheson,
-to such a degree that a rencontre took place between the rivals in the
-street: and Handel was saved from a sword-thrust, which probably
-would have taken fatal effect, only by the interposition of a music-score,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>which he carried buttoned up under his coat. Till this time
-he had occupied but a very subordinate situation in the orchestra, that
-of second <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">ripieno</span></i> violin; for from the period of his father’s death he
-had depended wholly on his own exertions, nobly determining not to
-diminish his mother’s rather straitened income by any demands on her
-for pecuniary assistance. But now an opportunity for making known
-his powers was arrived; for the continued absence of the conductor
-Keiser from his post induced the manager to employ Handel in setting
-to music a drama called Almeria. So great was the success of this
-piece, that it was performed thirty nights without interruption. The
-year following he composed Florinda; and soon after, Nerone, both
-of which were received in as favourable a manner as his first dramatic
-effort; but not one of these is to be found in the collection formed by
-George III., and they seem quite unknown to all writers on music,
-except by their titles.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The success of his operas at Hamburg produced a sum which
-enabled him to visit Italy. Florence was the first city in which he
-made any stay. He was there received in the kindest manner by the
-Grand Duke Giovanni Gaston de Medicis, and produced the opera of
-Rodrigo in 1709, for which he was presented with a hundred sequins,
-and a service of plate. Thence he proceeded to Venice, where he
-brought out Agrippina, which was received with acclamation, and
-performed twenty-seven nights successively. It seems that horns and
-other wind-instruments were in this opera first used in Italy as accompaniments
-to the voice. Here the charms of his music made an
-impression on the famous beauty and singer, Signora Vittoria, a lady
-particularly distinguished by the Grand Duke; but in this, as in every
-instance of a similar kind, Handel showed no disposition to avail
-himself of any partialities exhibited in his favour. His thoughts were
-nearly all absorbed by his art, and it is but just to conclude that he
-was also influenced by those sentiments of moral propriety which so
-distinctly marked his conduct through life. It is to be admitted,
-however, that he was too much inclined to indulge in the pleasures of
-the table.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On visiting Rome he was hospitably and kindly entertained by
-the Cardinal Ottoboni, a person of the most refined taste and princely
-magnificence. Besides his splendid collection of pictures and statues,
-he possessed a library of music of great extent, and kept in his
-service an excellent band of performers, which was under the direction
-of the celebrated Corelli. At one of the parties made by the
-Cardinal, Handel produced the overture to Il Trionfo del Tempo, which
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>was attempted by the band so unsuccessfully, that the composer, in
-his hasty manner, snatched the violin from Corelli, and played the
-most difficult passages with his own hand. The Italian, who was all
-modesty and meekness, ingenuously confessed that he did not understand
-the kind of music; and, when Handel still appeared impatient,
-only said, “<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Ma, caro Sassone, questa musica è nel stilo Francese, di
-ch’io non m’intendo</span>”—(“But, my dear Saxon, this music is in the
-French style, which I do not understand”). And so far Corelli was
-perfectly right; Handel’s overtures are formed after the model of
-Lully, though, it is hardly necessary to add, he improved what he
-imitated. This anecdote indicates the vast superiority in point of
-execution possessed by the moderns. A learner of two years’ standing
-would now play the violin part of any of Handel’s overtures at first
-sight, without a fault.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At Rome Handel composed his Trionfo del Tempo, the words of
-which were written for him by the Cardinal Pamphilii, and a kind of
-<em>mystery</em>, or <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">oratorio</span>, <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">La Resurrezione</span>. The former he afterwards
-brought out in London, with English words by Dr. Morell, under the
-title of the Triumph of Time and Truth. From Rome he went to
-Naples, where he was treated with every mark of distinction. But he
-now resolved, notwithstanding the many attempts made to keep him
-in Italy, to return to Germany; and in 1710 reached Hanover, where
-he found a generous patron in the Elector, who subsequently ascended
-the English throne as George I. Here he met the learned composer,
-Steffani, who, having arrived at a time of life when retirement becomes
-desirable, resigned his office of Maestro di Capella to the Elector, and
-Handel was appointed his successor, with a salary of 1500 crowns,
-upon condition that he would return to the court of Hanover at the
-termination of his travels.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Towards the end of 1710 Handel arrived in London. He was soon
-introduced at court, and honoured with marks of Queen Anne’s favour.
-Aaron Hill was then manager of the Italian opera, and immediately
-sketched a drama from Tasso’s Jerusalem, which Rossi worked into
-an opera under the name of Rinaldo, and Handel set to music. This
-was brought out in March, 1711; and it is stated in the preface that it
-was composed in a fortnight, a strong recommendation of a work to
-those who delight in the wonderful rather than in the excellent: but in
-fact there is nothing in this which could have put the composer to much
-expense either of time or thought. Handel undoubtedly wrote better
-operas than any of his contemporaries or predecessors; but he was
-controlled by the habits and taste of the day, and knew by experience
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>that two or three good pieces were as much as the fashionable frequenters
-of the Italian theatre would listen to, in his time.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At the close of 1711 he returned to Hanover, but revisited London
-late in 1712; and shortly after was selected, not without many
-murmurs from English musicians, to compose a Te Deum and Jubilate
-on occasion of the peace of Utrecht. The Queen settled on him a
-pension of two hundred pounds as the reward of his labour,—and as
-he was solicited to write again for the Italian stage, he never thought
-of returning to his engagement at Hanover, till the accession of the
-Elector to the British throne reminded him of his neglect of his royal
-employer and patron. On the arrival of George I. in London, Handel
-wanted the courage to present himself at court; but his friend, Baron
-Kilmansegge, had the address to get him restored to royal favour.
-The pleasing <em>Water-Music</em>, performed during an excursion made up
-the river by the King, was the means by which the German baron
-brought about the reconciliation; and this was accompanied by an
-addition of two hundred pounds to the pension granted by Queen
-Anne.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>From the year 1715 to 1720, Handel composed only three operas.
-The three first years of this period he passed at the Earl of Burlington’s,
-where he was constantly in the habit of meeting Pope, who, though
-devoid of any taste for music, always spoke and wrote in a flattering
-manner of the German composer. The other two years he devoted
-to the Duke of Chandos, Pope’s Timon; and at Cannons, the Duke’s
-seat, he produced many of his anthems, which must be classed among
-the finest of his works, together with the greater number of his hautbois
-concertos, sonatas, lessons, and organ fugues.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A project was now formed by several of the English nobility for
-erecting the Italian theatre into an Academy of Music, and Handel
-was chosen as manager, with a condition that he should supply a certain
-number of operas. In pursuance of this, he went to Dresden to
-engage singers, and brought back with him several of great celebrity,
-Senesino among the number. His first opera under the new system
-was Radamisto, the success of which was astonishing. But there
-were at that time two Italian composers in London, Bononcini and
-Attilio, who till then had been attached to the opera-house, and were
-not without powerful supporters. These persons did not passively
-notice the ascendancy of Handel, and the insignificance into which
-they were in danger of falling; they persuaded several weak and
-some factious people of noble rank to espouse their cause, and to
-oppose the German intruder, as they called the new manager. Hence
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>arose those feuds to which Swift has given immortality by his well-known
-epigram; and hence may be traced Handel’s retirement from a
-scene of cabal, persecution, and loss. The final result of this, however,
-was fortunate, for it led to the production of his greatest works, his
-oratorios, which not only amply compensated him for all the injury
-which his fortune sustained in this contest, but raised him to a height
-of fame which he could never have gained by his Italian operas.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The two contending parties, wishing to appear reasonable, proposed
-something like terms of accommodation: these were, that an opera in
-three acts should be composed by the three rivals, one act by each, and
-that he who best succeeded should for ever after take the precedence.
-The drama chosen was Muzio Scevola, of which Bononcini set the
-first act, Handel the second, and Attilio the third. Handel’s “won
-the cause,” and Bononcini’s was pronounced the next in merit. But,
-strange to say, though each no doubt strained his ability to the utmost
-in this struggle, not a single piece in the whole opera is known in the
-present day, or is, perhaps, to be found, except in the libraries of
-curious collectors.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This victory left Handel master of the field for some years, and the
-academy prospered. During this period he brought out about fifteen
-of his best operas. But the genius of discord must always have a seat
-in the temple of harmony, and a dispute between the German manager
-and the Italian soprano, Senesino, renewed former quarrels, broke up
-the academy, materially damaged the fortune of the great composer,
-and was the cause of infinite vexation to him during much of his
-future life.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Dr. Arbuthnot, always a staunch friend of Handel, now became his
-champion, and his ridicule had more weight with the sensible portion
-of the public than the futile arguments, if they deserve the name,
-advanced by the noble supporters of Senesino. But fashion and prejudice
-were, as usual, too strong for reason: a rival opera-house was
-opened in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and after having composed several new
-operas, comprising some of his best, and having sacrificed nearly the
-whole of his property and injured his health, in a spirited attempt to
-support the cause of the lyric stage against the presumption of singers,
-and the folly of their abettors, Handel was at last compelled to terminate
-his ineffectual labours, and stop his ruinous expenses, by
-abandoning the contest and the Italian opera together.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The sacred musical drama, or oratorio, was ultimately destined
-to repair his all but ruined fortune, and to establish his fame
-beyond the reach of cavil, and for ever. Esther, the words of which it
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>is said were the joint production of Pope and Arbuthnot, was composed
-for the Duke of Chandos in 1720. In 1732 it was performed
-ten nights at the Haymarket, or King’s Theatre. Deborah was produced
-in 1733, and in the same year Athalia was brought out at
-Oxford. These three oratorios were performed at Covent Garden, in
-the Lent of 1734. Acis and Galatea, and Alexander’s Feast, were
-brought out in 1735; Israel in Egypt, in 1738; L’Allegro ed il
-Penseroso, in 1739. Saul was produced at the theatre in Lincoln’s Inn
-Fields in 1740. But up to this period his oratorios failed to reimburse
-him for the expenses incurred; and even the Messiah, that
-sublime and matchless work, was, as Dr. Burney, Sir John Hawkins,
-and Handel’s first biographer, Mr. Mainwaring, all agree in stating,
-not only ill attended, but ill received, when first given to the public, in
-the capital of the empire, in 1741.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Such miscarriages, and a severe fit of illness, the supposed consequence
-of them, determined him to try his oratorios in the sister kingdom,
-where he hoped to be out of the reach of prejudice, envy, and
-hostility. Dublin was at that time noted for the gaiety and splendour
-of its court, and the opulence and spirit of its principal inhabitants.
-Handel, therefore, judged wisely in appealing to such a people. Pope
-in his Dunciad alludes to this part of his history, introducing a poor
-phantom as representative of the Italian opera, who thus instructs
-Dullness:—</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c012'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>But soon, ah soon, rebellion will commence,</div>
-      <div class='line'>If Music meanly borrows aid from sense:</div>
-      <div class='line'>Strong in new arms, lo! giant Handel stands,</div>
-      <div class='line'>Like bold Briareus, with a hundred hands:</div>
-      <div class='line'>To stir, to rouse, to shake the soul he comes,</div>
-      <div class='line'>And Jove’s own thunders follow Mars’s drums.</div>
-      <div class='line'>Arrest him, empress, or you sleep no more.—</div>
-      <div class='line'>She heard—and drove him to th’ Hibernian shore.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>“On his arrival in Dublin,” we are told by Dr. Burney, in his
-Commemoration of Handel, “he, with equal judgment and humanity,
-began by performing the Messiah for the benefit of the city prison.
-This act of generosity and benevolence met with universal approbation,
-as well as his music, which was admirably performed.” He
-remained in Ireland about nine months, where his finances began to
-mend, an earnest, as it were, of the more favourable reception which
-he experienced on returning to London in 1742. He then recommenced
-his oratorios at Covent Garden; Sampson was the first performed.
-And now fortune seemed to wait on all his undertakings;
-and he took the tide at the flood. His last oratorio became most
-popular, and the Messiah was now received with universal admiration
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>and applause. Dr. Burney remarks, “From that time to the present,
-this great work has been heard in all parts of the kingdom with
-increasing reverence and delight; it has fed the hungry, clothed the
-naked, fostered the orphan,” and, he might have added, healed the
-sick. Influenced by the most disinterested motives of humanity,
-Handel resolved to perform his Messiah annually for the benefit of the
-Foundling Hospital, and, under his own direction and that of his
-successors, it added to the funds of that charity alone the sum of
-£10,300. How much it has produced to other benevolent institutions,
-it is impossible to calculate; the amount must be enormous.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He continued his oratorios till almost the moment of his death, and
-derived considerable pecuniary advantage from them, though a considerable
-portion of the nobility persevered in their opposition to him.
-George II., however, was his steady patron, and constantly attended
-his performances, when they were abandoned by most of his court.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the close of life, Handel had the misfortune to lose his sight,
-from an attack of gutta serena, in 1751. This evil for a time plunged
-him into deep despondency; but when the event was no longer doubtful,
-an earnest and sincere sense of religion enabled him to bear his
-affliction with fortitude, and he not only continued to perform, but
-even to compose. For this purpose, he employed as his amanuensis
-Mr. John Christian Smith, a good musician, who furnished materials
-for a life of his employer and friend, and succeeded him in the management
-of the oratorios. “To see him, however,” Dr. Burney feelingly
-observes, “led to the organ after this calamity, at upwards of seventy
-years of age, and then conducted towards the audience to make his
-accustomed obeisance, was a sight so truly afflicting to persons of sensibility,
-as greatly diminished their pleasure in hearing him perform.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His last appearance in public was on the 6th of April, 1759. He
-died that day week, on Good-Friday, thus realizing a hope which
-he expressed a very few days before his decease, when aware that
-his last hours were approaching. He was buried in Westminster
-Abbey; the Dean, Dr. Pearce, Bishop of Rochester, assisted by all
-the officers of the choir, performed the ceremony. A fine monument,
-executed by Roubiliac, is placed in Poet’s Corner, above the spot
-where his mortal remains are deposited; but a still more honourable
-tribute to his memory was paid in the year 1784, by the performances
-which took place under the roof which covers his dust. A century
-having then elapsed from the time of his birth, it was proposed that
-a Commemoration of Handel should take place. The management
-of it was intrusted to the directors of the ancient concert, and eight
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>of the most distinguished members of the musical profession. The
-King, George III., zealously patronised the undertaking, and nearly
-all the upper classes of the kingdom seconded the royal views. A
-vocal and instrumental band of 525 persons was collected from all
-parts, for the purpose of performing in a manner never before even
-imagined, the choicest works of the master. The great aisle in
-Westminster Abbey was fitted up for the occasion, with boxes for
-the Royal Family, the Directors, the Bench of Bishops, and the Dean
-and Prebendaries of the Church; galleries were erected on each side,
-and a grand orchestra was built over the great west door, extending
-from within a few feet of the ground, to nearly half-way up the great
-window. There were four morning performances in the church: the
-tickets of admission were one guinea each; and the gross receipts
-(including an evening concert at the Pantheon) amounted to £12,736.
-The disbursements rather exceeded £6,000, and the profits were given
-to the Society for Decayed Musicians and the Westminster Hospital;
-£6,000 to the former, and £1,000 to the latter. Such was the success
-of this great enterprise, that similar performances, increasing each
-year in magnitude, took place annually till the period of the French
-Revolution, when the state of public affairs did not encourage their
-longer continuance.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As a composer, Handel was great in all styles—from the familiar
-and airy to the grand and sublime. His instinctive taste for melody,
-and the high value he set on it, are obvious in all his works; but he
-felt no less strongly the charms of harmony, in fulness and richness
-of which he far surpassed even the greatest musicians who preceded
-him. And had he been able to employ the variety of instruments
-now in use, some of which have been invented since his death, and to
-command that orchestral talent, which probably has had some share
-in stimulating the inventive faculty of modern composers, it is reasonable
-to suppose that the field of his conceptions would have expanded
-with the means at his command. Unrivalled in sublimity, he might
-then have anticipated the variety and brilliance of later masters.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Generally speaking, Handel set his words with deep feeling and
-strong sense. Now and then he certainly betrayed a wish to imitate
-by sounds what sounds are incapable of imitating; and occasionally
-attempted to express the meaning of an isolated word, without due
-reference to the context. And sometimes, though not often, his want of
-a complete knowledge of our language led him into errors of accentuation.
-But these defects, though great in little men, dwindle almost
-to nothing in this “giant of the art:” and every competent judge,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>who contemplates the grandeur, beauty, science, variety, and number
-of Handel’s productions, will feel for him that admiration which
-Haydn, and still more Mozart, was proud to avow, and be ready to
-exclaim in the words of Beethoven, “Handel is the unequalled master
-of all masters! Go, turn to him, and learn, with such scanty means,
-how to produce such effects!”</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_048.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_049fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by H. Meyer.</em><br /><br />PASCAL.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by Philippe de Champagne,<br />in the possession of M. Lenoir at Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>
-<img src='images/i_049.jpg' alt='PASCAL.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>PASCAL.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>Blaise Pascal was born June 19, 1623, at Clermont, the capital of
-Auvergne, where his father, Stephen Pascal, held a high legal office.
-On the death of his wife in 1626, Stephen resigned his professional
-engagements, that he might devote himself entirely to the education of
-his family, which consisted only of Blaise, and of two daughters.
-With this view he removed to Paris.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The elder Pascal was a man of great moral worth, and of a highly
-cultivated mind. He was known as an active member of a small
-society of philosophers, to which the Academie Royale des Sciences,
-established in 1666, owed its origin. Though himself an ardent
-mathematician, he was in no haste to initiate his son in his own
-favourite pursuits; but having a notion, not very uncommon, that the
-cultivation of the exact sciences is unfriendly to a taste for general
-literature, he began with the study of languages; and notwithstanding
-many plain indications of the natural bent of his son’s genius, he
-forbad him to meddle, even in thought, with the mathematics. Nature
-was too strong for parental authority. The boy having extracted from
-his father some hints as to the subject matter of geometry, went to
-work by himself, drawing circles and lines, or, as he called them in
-his ignorance of the received nomenclature, rounds and bars, and
-investigating and proving the properties of his various figures, till,
-without help of a book or oral instruction of any kind, he had advanced
-as far as the thirty-second proposition of the first book of
-Euclid. He had perceived that the three angles of a triangle are
-together equal to two right ones, and was searching for a satisfactory
-proof, when his father surprised him in his forbidden speculations.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>The figures drawn on the walls of his bed-chamber told the tale, and
-a few questions proved that his head had been employed as well as
-his fingers. He was at this time twelve years old. All attempts at
-restriction were now abandoned. A copy of Euclid’s Elements was
-put into his hands by his father himself, and Blaise became a confirmed
-geometrician. At sixteen he composed a treatise on the Conic
-Sections, which had sufficient merit to induce Descartes obstinately to
-attribute the authorship to the elder Pascal or Desargues.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Such was his progress in a study which was admitted only as the
-amusement of his idle hours. His labours under his father’s direction
-were given to the ancient classics.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Some years after this, the elder Pascal had occasion to employ his
-son in making calculations for him. To facilitate his labour, Blaise
-Pascal, then in his nineteenth year, invented his famous arithmetical
-machine, which is said to have fully answered its purpose. He sent
-this machine with a letter to Christina, the celebrated Queen of Sweden.
-The possibility of rendering such inventions generally useful has been
-stoutly disputed since the days of Pascal. This question will soon
-perhaps be set at rest, if it may not be considered as already answered,
-by the scientific labours of an accomplished mathematician of our own
-time and country.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It should be remarked that Pascal, whilst he regarded geometry as
-affording the highest exercise of the powers of the human mind, held
-in very low estimation the importance of its practical results. Hence
-his speculations were irregularly turned to various unconnected subjects,
-as his curiosity might happen to be excited by them. The late creation
-of a sound system of experimental philosophy by Galileo had roused
-an irresistible spirit of inquiry, which was every day exhibiting new
-marvels; but time was wanted to develope the valuable fruits of its
-discoveries, which have since connected the most abstruse speculations
-of the philosopher with the affairs of common life.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There is no doubt that his studious hours produced much that has
-been lost to the world; but many proofs remain of his persevering activity
-in the course which he had chosen. Amongst them may be mentioned
-his Arithmetical Triangle, with the treatises arising out of it,
-and his investigations of certain problems relating to the curve called
-by mathematicians the Cycloid, to which he turned his mind, towards the
-close of his life, to divert his thoughts in a season of severe suffering.
-For the solution of these problems, according to the fashion of the
-times, he publicly offered a prize, for which La Loubère and our own
-countryman Wallis contended. It was adjudged that neither had fulfilled
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>the proposed conditions; and Pascal published his own solutions,
-which raised the admiration of the scientific world. The Arithmetical
-Triangle owed its existence to questions proposed to him by a friend
-respecting the calculation of probabilities in games of chance. Under
-this name is denoted a peculiar arrangement of numbers in certain
-proportions, from which the answers to various questions of chances,
-the involution of binomials, and other algebraical problems, may be
-readily obtained. This invention led him to inquire further into the
-theory of chances; and he may be considered as one of the founders
-of that branch of analysis, which has grown into such importance in
-the hands of La Place.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His fame as a man of science does not rest solely on his labours in
-geometry. As an experimentalist he has earned no vulgar celebrity.
-He was a young man when the interesting discoveries in pneumatics
-were working a grand revolution in natural philosophy. The experiments
-of Torricelli had proved, what his great master Galileo had
-conjectured, the weight and pressure of the air, and had given a
-rude shock to the old doctrine of the schools that “Nature abhors
-a vacuum;” but many still clung fondly to the old way, and when
-pressed with the fact that fluids rise in an exhausted tube to a certain
-height, and will rise no higher, though with a vacuum above them,
-still asserted that the fluids rose because Nature abhors a vacuum,
-but qualified their assertion with an admission that she had some
-moderation in her abhorrence. Having satisfied himself by his own
-experiments of the truth of Torricelli’s theory, Pascal with his usual
-sagacity devised the means of satisfying all who were capable of being
-convinced. He reasoned that if, according to the new theory, founded
-on the experiments made with mercury, the weight and general
-pressure of the air forced up the mercury in the tube, the height of
-the mercury would be in proportion to the height of the column of
-incumbent air; in other words, that the mercury would be lower at the
-top of a mountain than at the bottom of it: on the other hand, that if
-the old answer were the right one, no difference would appear from
-the change of situation. Accordingly, he directed the experiment to
-be made on the Puy de Dôme, a lofty mountain in Auvergne, and the
-height of the barometer at the top and bottom of the mountain being
-taken at the same moment, a difference of more than three inches
-was observed. This set the question at rest for ever. The particular
-notice which we have taken of this celebrated experiment, made in his
-twenty-fifth year, may be justified by the importance attached to it by
-no mean authority. Sir W. Herschell observes, in his Discourse on
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>the Study of Natural Philosophy, page 230, that “it tended perhaps
-more powerfully than any thing which had previously been done in
-science to confirm in the minds of men that disposition to experimental
-verification which had scarcely yet taken full and secure root.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Whatever may be the value of the fruits of Pascal’s genius, it
-should be remembered that they were all produced within the space
-of a life which did not number forty years, and that he was so
-miserably the victim of disease that from the time of boyhood he never
-passed a day without pain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His health had probably been impaired by his earlier exertions;
-but the intense mental labour expended on the arithmetical machine
-appears to have completely undermined his constitution, and to have
-laid the foundation of those acute bodily sufferings which cruelly
-afflicted him during the remainder of his life. His friends, with the
-hope of checking the evil, sought to withdraw him from his studies,
-and tempted him into various modes of relaxation. But the remedy was
-applied too late. The death of his father in 1651, and the retirement
-of his unmarried sister from the world to join the devout recluses of Port
-Royal-des-Champs, released him from all restraint. He sadly abused
-this liberty, until the frightful aggravation of his complaints obliged
-him to abandon altogether his scientific pursuits, and reluctantly to
-follow the advice of his physicians, to mix more freely in general
-society. He obtained some relief from medicine and change of habits;
-but, in 1654, an accident both made his recovery hopeless, and
-destroyed the relish which he had begun to feel for social life. He
-was in his carriage on the Pont de Neuilly, at a part of the bridge
-which was unprotected by a parapet, when two of the horses became
-unruly, and plunged into the Seine. The traces broke, and Pascal was
-thus saved from instant death. He considered that he had received a
-providential warning of the uncertainty of life, and retired finally from
-the world, to make more earnest preparation for eternity. This accident
-gave the last shock to his already shattered nerves, and to a certain
-extent disordered his imagination. The image of his late danger was
-continually before him, and at times he fancied himself on the brink
-of a precipice. The evil probably was increased by the rigid seclusion
-to which from this time he condemned himself, and by the austerities
-which he inflicted on his exhausted frame. His powerful intellect
-survived the wreck of his constitution, and he gave ample proof to the
-last that its vigour was unimpaired.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In his religious opinions he agreed with the Jansenists, and, without
-being formally enrolled in their society, was on terms of intimate
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>friendship with those pious and learned members of the sect, who had
-established themselves in the wilds of Port Royal. His advocacy of
-their cause at a critical time was so important to his fame and to
-literature, that a few words may be allowed on the circumstances which
-occasioned it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Jansenists, though they earnestly deprecated the name of
-heretics, and were most fiercely opposed to the Huguenots and other
-Protestants, did in fact nearly approach in many points the reformed
-churches, and departed widely from the fashionable standard of
-orthodoxy in their own communion. They were in the first instance
-brought into collision with their great enemies the Jesuits by the
-opinions which they held on the subjects of grace and free-will. As
-the controversy proceeded, the points of difference between the contending
-parties became more marked and more numerous. The rigid
-system of morals taught and observed by the Jansenists, and the
-superior regard which they paid to personal holiness in comparison
-with ceremonial worship, appeared in advantageous contrast with the
-lax morality and formal religion of the Jesuits. Hence, though there
-was much that was repulsive in their discipline, and latterly, not a
-little that was exceptionable in their conduct, they could reckon in
-their ranks many of the most enlightened as well as the most pious
-Christians in France. It was natural that Pascal, who was early
-impressed with the deepest reverence for religion, should be attracted
-to a party which seemed at least to be in earnest, whilst others were
-asleep; and it is more a matter of regret than of surprise, that latterly,
-in his state of physical weakness and nervous excitement, he should
-have been partially warped from his sobriety by intercourse with men,
-whose Christian zeal was in too many instances disfigured by a
-visionary and enthusiastic spirit. The Papal Court at first dealt with
-them tenderly; for it was in truth no easy matter to condemn their
-founder Jansenius, without condemning its own great doctor the
-celebrated Augustin. But the vivacious doctors of the Sorbonne, on
-the publication of a letter by the Jansenist Arnauld, took fire, and by
-their eagerness kindled a flame that well nigh consumed their own
-church.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Whilst they were in deliberation on the misdoings of Arnauld,
-Pascal put forth under the name of Louis de Montalte the first of that
-series of letters to “a friend in the country”—<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">à un provincial par un de
-ses amis</span>—which, when afterwards collected, received by an absurd misnomer,
-the title of the Provincial Letters of Pascal. In these letters,
-after having exhibited in a light irresistibly ludicrous, the disputes of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>the Sorbonne, he proceeds with the same weapon of ridicule, all
-powerful in his hand, to hold forth to derision and contempt the
-profligate casuistry of the Jesuits. For much of his matter he was
-undoubtedly indebted to his Jansenist friends, and it is commonly said
-that he was taught by them to reproach unfairly the whole body of
-Jesuits, with the faults of some obscure writers of their order. These
-writers, however, were at least well known to the Jesuits, their
-writings had gone through numerous editions with approbation, and
-had infused some portion of their spirit into more modern and popular
-tracts. Moreover, the Society of Jesuits, constituted as it was, had
-ready means of relieving itself from the discredit of such infamous
-publications; yet amongst the many works, which by their help found
-a place in the index of prohibited books, Pascal might have looked in
-vain for the works of their own Escobar. However this may be, it is
-universally acknowledged, that the credit of the Jesuits sunk under the
-blow, that these letters are a splendid monument of the genius of
-Pascal, and that as a literary work they have placed him in the very
-first rank among the French classics.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It seems that he had formed a design, even in the height of his
-scientific ardour, of executing some great work for the benefit of
-religion. This design took a more definite shape after his retirement,
-and he communicated orally to his friends the sketch of a comprehensive
-work on the Evidences of Christianity, which his early death,
-together with his increasing bodily infirmities, prevented him from
-completing. Nothing was left but unconnected fragments, containing
-for the most part his thoughts on subjects apparently relating to his
-great design, hastily written on small scraps of paper, without order
-or arrangement of any kind. They were published in 1670, with
-some omissions, by his friends of Port Royal, and were afterwards
-given to the world entire, under the title of the Thoughts of Pascal.
-Many of the thoughts are such as we should expect from a man who
-with a mind distinguished for its originality, with an intimate knowledge
-of scripture, and lively piety, had meditated much and earnestly
-on the subject of religion. In a book so published, it is of course easy
-enough to find matter for censure and minute criticism; but most
-Christian writers have been content to bear testimony to its beauties
-and to borrow largely from its rich and varied stores. Among the
-editors of the Thoughts of Pascal are found Condorcet and Voltaire,
-who enriched their editions with a commentary. With what sort of
-spirit they entered on their work may be guessed from Voltaire’s well
-known advice to his brother philosopher. “Never be weary, my
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>friend, of repeating that the brain of Pascal was turned after his accident
-on the Pont de Neuilly.” Condorcet was not the man to be
-weary in such an employment; but here he had to deal with stubborn
-facts. The brain of Pascal produced after the accident not only the
-Thoughts, but also the Provincial Letters, and the various treatises on
-the Cycloid, the last of which was written not long before his death.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He died August 19th, 1662, aged thirty-nine years and two months.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>By those who knew him personally he is said to have been modest
-and reserved in his manners, but withal, ready to enliven conversation
-with that novelty of remark and variety of information which might
-be expected from his well stored and original mind. That spirit of
-raillery which should belong to the author of the Provincial Letters,
-showed itself also occasionally in his talk, but always with a cautious
-desire not to give needless pain or offence.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He seemed to have constantly before his eyes the privations and
-sufferings to which a large portion of the human race is exposed, and
-to receive almost with trembling, those indulgences which were denied
-to others. Thus, when curtailing his own comforts that he might
-perform more largely the duties of charity, he seemed only to be disencumbering
-himself of that which he could not safely retain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As a philosopher, it is the great glory of Pascal, that he is numbered
-with that splendid phalanx, which in the seventeenth century, following
-the path opened by Galileo, assisted to overthrow the tyranny of the
-schools, and to break down the fences which for ages had obstructed
-the progress of real knowledge; men who were indeed benefactors to
-science, and who have also left behind them for general use an
-encouraging proof that the most inveterate prejudices, the most obstinate
-attachment to established errors, and hostility to improvement
-may be overcome by resolute perseverance, and a bold reliance on the
-final victory of truth. No one, however, will coldly measure the
-honour due to this extraordinary man by his actual contributions to
-the cause of science or literature. The genius of the child anticipated
-manhood: his more matured intellect could only show promises of
-surpassing glory when it escaped from the weak frame in which it was
-lodged.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>For further information the reader is referred to the discourse on
-the life and works of Pascal, which first appeared in the complete
-edition of his works in 1779, and has since been published separately
-at Paris; to the Biographie Universelle; and to the life of Pascal,
-written by his sister, Madame Perier, which is prefixed to her edition
-of his Thoughts.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>
-<img src='images/i_056.jpg' alt='ERASMUS.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>ERASMUS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>Desiderius Erasmus was born at Rotterdam on the 28th of October,
-1467. The irregular lives of his parents are related by him in a
-letter to the secretary of Pope Julius II. It is sufficient to state here,
-that this great genius and restorer of letters was not born in wedlock.
-His unsophisticated name, as well as that of his father, was Gerard.
-This word in the Dutch language means <em>amiable</em>. According to the
-affectation of the period, he translated it into the Latin term, Desiderius,
-and superadded the Greek synonyme of Erasmus. Late in
-a life of vicissitude and turmoil, he found leisure from greater evils
-to lament that he had been so neglectful of grammatical accuracy as
-to call himself Erasmus, and not Erasmius.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In a passage of the life written by himself, he says that “in his early
-years he made but little progress in those unpleasant studies to which
-he was not born;” and this gave his countrymen a notion that as a
-boy he was slow of understanding. Hereon Bayle observes that those
-unpleasant studies cannot mean learning in general, for which of all
-men he was born; but that the expression might apply to music, as he
-was a chorister in the cathedral church of Utrecht. He was afterwards
-sent to one of the best schools in the Netherlands, where his talents at
-once shone forth, and were duly appreciated. His master was so well
-satisfied with his progress, and so thoroughly convinced of his great
-abilities, as to have foretold what the event confirmed, that he would
-prove the envy and wonder of all Germany.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_056fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />ERASMUS.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by G. Penn,<br />in his Majesty’s Collection at Windsor.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>At the age of fourteen Erasmus was removed from the school at
-Deventer in consequence of the plague, of which his mother died, and
-his father did not long survive her. With a view to possess themselves
-of his patrimony, his guardians sent him to three several convents in
-succession. At length, unable longer to sustain the conflict, he
-reluctantly entered among the regular canons at Stein, near Tergou, in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>1486. Much condescension to his peculiar humour was shown in
-dispensing with established laws and customary ceremonies; but he
-was principally led to make his profession by the arts of his guardians
-and the dilapidation of his fortune. He describes monasteries, and
-his own in particular, as destitute of learning and sound religion.
-“They are places of impiety,” he says in his piece ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Contemptu
-Mundi</span>,’ “where every thing is done to which a depraved inclination
-can lead, under the mask of religion; it is hardly possible for any
-one to keep himself pure and unspotted.” Julius Scaliger and his
-other enemies assert that he himself was deeply tainted by these
-impurities; but both himself and his friends deny the charge.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He escaped from the cloister in consequence of the accuracy with
-which he could speak and write Latin. This rare accomplishment
-introduced him to the Bishop of Cambray, with whom he lived till
-1490. He then took pupils, among whom was the Lord Mountjoy,
-with several other noble Englishmen. He says of himself, that “he
-lived rather than studied” at Paris, where he had no books, and often
-wanted the common comforts of life. Bad lodgings and bad diet
-permanently impaired his constitution, which had been a very strong
-one. The plague drove him from the capital before he could profit
-as he wished by the instructions of the university in theology.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Some time after he left Paris, Erasmus came over to England, and
-resided in Oxford, where he contracted friendship with all of any note
-in literature. In a letter from London to a friend in Italy, he says,
-“What is it, you will say, which captivates you so much in England?
-It is that I have found a pleasant and salubrious air; I have met with
-humanity, politeness, and learning; learning not trite and superficial,
-but deep and accurate; true old Greek and Latin learning; and withal
-so much of it, that but for mere curiosity, I have no occasion to visit
-Italy. When Colet discourses, I seem to hear Plato himself. In
-Grocyn, I admire an universal compass of learning. Linacre’s acuteness,
-depth, and accuracy are not to be exceeded; nor did nature ever
-form any thing more elegant, exquisite, and accomplished than More.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On leaving England, Erasmus had a fever at Orleans, which
-recurred every Lent for five years together. He tells us that Saint
-Genevieve interceded for his recovery; but not without the help of a
-good physician. At this time he was applying diligently to the study
-of Greek. He says, that if he could but get some money, he would
-first buy Greek books, and then clothes. His mode of acquiring the
-language was by making translations from Lucian, Plutarch, and other
-authors. Many of these translations appear in his works, and answered
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>a double purpose; for while they familiarized him with the languages,
-the sentiments and the philosophy of the originals, they also furnished
-him with happy trains of thought and expression, when he dedicated
-his editions of the Fathers, or his own treatises, to his patrons.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We cannot follow him through his incessant journeys and change
-of places during the first years of the sixteenth century. His fame
-was spread over Europe, and his visits were solicited by popes,
-crowned heads, prelates, and nobles; but much as the great coveted
-his society, they suffered him to remain extremely poor. We learn
-from his ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Enchiridion Militis Christiani</span>,’ published in 1503, that he
-had discovered many errors in the Roman church, long before Luther
-appeared. His reception at Rome was most flattering: his company
-was courted both by the learned and by persons of the first rank and
-quality. After his visit to Italy, he returned to England, which he
-preferred to all other countries. On his arrival he took up his abode
-with his friend More, and within the space of a week wrote his
-‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Encomium Moriæ</span>,’ the Praise of Folly, for their mutual amusement.
-The general design is to show that there are fools in all stations; and
-more particularly to expose the court of Rome, with no great forbearance
-towards the Pope himself. Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, Chancellor
-of the University, and Head of Queen’s College, invited him to
-Cambridge, where he lived in the Lodge, was made Lady Margaret’s
-Professor of Divinity, and afterwards Greek Professor. But notwithstanding
-these academical honours and offices, he was still so poor as
-to apply with importunity to Colet, Dean of St. Paul’s, for fifteen
-angels as the price of a dedication. “Erasmus’s Walk” in the
-grounds of Queen’s College still attests the honour conferred on the
-university by the temporary residence of this great reviver of classical
-learning.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On his return to the Low Countries, he was nominated by Charles
-of Austria to a vacant bishopric in Sicily; but the right of presentation
-happened to belong to the Pope. Erasmus laughed heartily at the
-prospect of this incongruous preferment; and said that as the Sicilians
-were merry fellows, they might possibly have liked such a bishop.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the year 1516 he printed his edition, the first put forth in Greek,
-of the New Testament. We learn from his letters, that there was one
-college in Cambridge which would not suffer this work to be brought
-within its walls: but the public voice spoke a different language; for
-it went through three editions in less than twelve years. From 1516
-to 1526 he was employed in publishing the works of Saint Jerome.
-Luther blamed him for his partiality to this father. He says, “I
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>prefer Augustine to Jerome, as much as Erasmus prefers Jerome to
-Augustine.” As far as this was a controversy of taste and criticism,
-the restorer of letters was likely to have the better of the argument
-against the apostle of the Reformation.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The times were now become tempestuous. Erasmus was of a
-placid temper, and of a timid character. He endeavoured to reconcile
-the conflicting parties in the church; but with that infelicity commonly
-attendant on mediators, he drew on himself the anger of both.
-Churchmen complained that his censures of the monks, of their
-grimaces and superstitions, had paved the way for Luther. On the
-other hand, Erasmus offended the Lutherans, by protesting against
-identifying the cause of literature with that of the Reformation. He
-took every opportunity of declaring his adherence to the see of
-Rome. The monks, with whom he waged continual war, would
-have been better pleased had he openly gone over to the enemy:
-his caustic remarks would have galled them less proceeding from
-a Lutheran than from a Catholic. But his motives for continuing
-in the communion of the established church, are clearly indicated
-in the following passage: “Wherein could I have assisted Luther,
-if I had declared myself for him and shared his danger? Instead
-of one man, two would have perished. I cannot conceive what he
-means by writing with such a spirit: one thing I know too well,
-that he has brought great odium on the lovers of literature. He has
-given many wholesome doctrines and good counsels: but I wish he
-had not defeated the effect of them by his intolerable faults. But
-even if he had written in the most unexceptionable manner, I had no
-inclination to die for the sake of truth. Every man has not the
-courage necessary to make a martyr: I am afraid that, if I were put
-to the trial, I should imitate St. Peter.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1522 he published the works of Saint Hilary. About the same
-time he published his Colloquies. In this work, among the strokes
-of satire, he laughed at indulgences, auricular confession, and eating
-fish on fast-days. The faculty of theology at Paris passed the following
-censure on the book: “The fasts and abstinences of the church
-are slighted, the suffrages of the holy virgin and of the saints are
-derided, virginity is set below matrimony, Christians are discouraged
-from becoming monks, and grammatical is preferred to theological
-erudition.” Pope Paul III. had little better to propose to the cardinals
-and prelates commissioned to consider about the reform of the
-church, than that young persons should not be permitted to read
-Erasmus’s Colloquies. Colineus took a hint from this prohibition:
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>he reprinted them in 1527, and sold off an impression of twenty-four
-thousand.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1524 a rumour was spread abroad that Erasmus was going to
-write against Luther, which produced the following characteristic
-letter from the Great Reformer: “Grace and peace from the Lord
-Jesus. I shall not complain of you for having behaved yourself as
-a man alienated from us, for the sake of keeping fair with the Papists;
-nor was I much offended that in your printed books, to gain their
-favour or soften their fury, you censured us with too much acrimony.
-We saw that the Lord had not conferred on you the discernment,
-courage, and resolution to join with us in freely and openly opposing
-these monsters; therefore we did not expect from you what greatly
-surpasseth your strength and capacity. We have borne with your
-weakness, and honoured that portion of the gift of God which is in
-you.... I never wished that deserting your own province you should
-come over to our camp. You might indeed have favoured us not a
-little by your wit and eloquence: but as you have not the courage
-requisite, it is safer for you to serve the Lord in your own way.
-Only we feared that our adversaries should entice you to write against
-us, in which case necessity would have constrained us to oppose you to
-your face. I am concerned that the resentment of so many eminent
-persons of your party has been excited against you: this must have
-given you great uneasiness; for virtue like yours, mere human virtue,
-cannot raise a man above being affected by such trials. Our cause is
-in no peril, although even Erasmus should attack it with all his might:
-so far are we from dreading the keenest strokes of his wit. On the
-other hand, my dear Erasmus, if you duly reflect on your own weakness,
-you will abstain from those sharp, spiteful figures of rhetoric,
-and treat of subjects better suited to your powers.” Erasmus’s answer
-is not found in the collection of his letters; but he must have been
-touched to the quick.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1527 he published two dialogues: the first, on ‘The pronunciation
-of the Greek and Latin Languages;’ full of learning and curious
-research: the second, entitled ‘Ciceronianus.’ In this lively piece he
-ridicules those Italian pedants who banished every word or phrase
-unauthorized by Cicero. His satire, however, is not directed against
-Cicero’s style, but against the servility of mere imitation. In a subsequent
-preface to a new edition of the Tusculan Questions, he almost
-canonizes Cicero, both for his matter and expression. Julius Scaliger
-had launched more than one philippic against him for his treatment
-of the Ciceronians; but he considered this preface as a kind of penance
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>for former blasphemies, and admitted it as an atonement to the shade
-of the great Roman. Erasmus had at this time fixed his residence at
-Bâsle. He was advancing in years, and complained in his letters of
-poverty and sickness. Pope Paul III., notwithstanding his Colloquies,
-professed high regard for him, and his friends thought that
-he was likely to obtain high preferment. Of this matter Erasmus
-writes thus: “The Pope had resolved to add some learned men to the
-college of Cardinals, and I was named to be one. But to my promotion
-it was objected, that my state of health would unfit me for
-that function, and that my income was not sufficient.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the summer of 1536 his state of exhaustion became alarming.
-His last letter is dated June 20, and subscribed thus: “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Erasmus Rot.
-ægra manu</span>.” He died July 12, in the 59th year of his age, and was
-buried in the cathedral of Bâsle. His friend Beatus Rhenanus
-describes his person and manners. He was low of stature, but not
-remarkably short, well-shaped, of a fair complexion, grey eyes, a
-cheerful countenance, a low voice, and an agreeable utterance. His
-memory was tenacious. He was a pleasant companion, a constant
-friend, generous and charitable. Erasmus had one peculiarity,
-humorously noticed by himself; namely, that he could not endure
-even the smell of fish. On this he observed, that though a good
-Catholic in other respects, he had a most heterodox and Lutheran
-stomach.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>With many great and good qualities, Erasmus had obvious failings.
-Bayle has censured his irritability when attacked by adversaries; his
-editor, Le Clerc, condemns his lukewarmness and timidity in the business
-of the Reformation. Jortin defends him with zeal, and extenuates
-what he cannot defend. “Erasmus was fighting for his honour and his
-life; being accused of nothing less than heterodoxy, impiety, and blasphemy,
-by men whose forehead was a rock, and whose tongue was a
-razor. To be misrepresented as a pedant and a dunce is no great
-matter; for time and truth put folly to flight: to be accused of heresy
-by bigots, priests, politicians, and infidels, is a serious affair; as they
-know too well who have had the misfortune to feel the effects of it.”
-Dr. Jortin here speaks with bitter fellow-feeling for Erasmus, as he
-himself had been similarly attacked by the high church party of his
-day. He goes on to give his opinion, that even for his lukewarmness
-in promoting the Reformation, much may be said, and with truth.
-“Erasmus was not entirely free from the prejudices of education. He
-had some indistinct and confused notions about the authority of the
-Catholic Church, which made it not lawful to depart from her, corrupted
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>as he believed her to be. He was also much shocked by the
-violent measures and personal quarrels of the Reformers. Though, as
-Protestants, we are more obliged to Luther, Melancthon, and others,
-than to him, yet we and all the nations in Europe are infinitely
-indebted to Erasmus for spending a long and laborious life in opposing
-ignorance and superstition, and in promoting literature and true
-piety.” To us his character appears to be strongly illustrated by his
-own declaration, “Had Luther written truly every thing that he
-wrote, his seditious liberty would nevertheless have much displeased
-me. I would rather even err in some matters, than contend for the
-truth with the world in such a tumult.” A zealous advocate of peace
-at all times, it is but just to believe that he sincerely dreaded the
-contests sure to rise from open schism in the church. And it was no
-unpardonable frailty, if this feeling were nourished by a temperament,
-which confessedly was not desirous of the palm of martyrdom.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is impossible to give the contents of works occupying ten volumes
-in folio. They have been printed under the inspection of the learned
-Mr. Le Clerc. The biography of Erasmus is to be found at large
-in Bayle’s Dictionary, and the copious lives of Knight and Jortin.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i_062.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>From the bronze statue of Erasmus at Rotterdam.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_063fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />TITIAN.<br /><br /><em>From the Picture of Titian &amp; Aretin painted by Titian,<br />in his Majesty’s Collection at Windsor.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>
-<img src='images/i_063.jpg' alt='TITIAN.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>TITIAN.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>On looking back to the commencement of the sixteenth century, by
-far the most brilliant epoch of modern art, we cannot but marvel at
-the splendour and variety of talent concentrated within the brief
-space of half a century, or less. Michael Angelo, Raphael, Correggio,
-Titian, all fellow-labourers, with many others inferior to these mighty
-masters, yet whose works are prized by kings and nobles as their most
-precious treasures—by what strange prodigality of natural gifts, or
-happy combination of circumstances was so rare an assemblage of
-genius produced in so short a time? The most obvious explanation is
-to be found in the princely patronage then afforded to the arts by
-princes and churchmen. By this none profited more largely or more
-justly than the great painter, whose life it is our task to relate.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Tiziano Vecelli was born of an honourable family at Capo del
-Cadore, a small town on the confines of Friuli, in 1480. He soon
-manifested the bent of his genius, and at the age of ten was consigned
-to the care of an uncle residing in Venice, who placed him under the
-tuition of Giovanni Bellini, then in the zenith of his fame. The style of
-Bellini though forcible is dry and hard, and little credit has been given to
-him for his pupil’s success. It is probable, however, that Titian imbibed
-in his school those habits of accurate imitation, which enabled him afterwards
-to unite boldness and truth, and to indulge in the most daring
-execution, without degenerating into mannerism. The elements of his
-future style he found first indicated by Lionardo da Vinci, and more
-developed in the works of Giorgione, who adopted the principles of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>Lionardo, but with increased power, amenity, and splendour. As
-soon as Titian became acquainted with this master’s paintings, he
-gave his whole attention to the study of them; and with such success,
-that the portrait of a noble Venetian named Barbarigo, which he
-painted at the age of eighteen, was mistaken for the work of Giorgione.
-From that time, during some years, these masters held an equal place
-in public esteem; but in 1507 a circumstance occurred which turned
-the balance in favour of Titian. They were engaged conjointly in the
-decoration of a public building, called the Fondaco de Tedeschi.
-Through some mistake that part of the work which Titian had
-executed, was understood by a party of connoisseurs to have been
-painted by Giorgione, whom they overwhelmed with congratulations
-on his extraordinary improvement. It may be told to his credit, that
-though he manifested some weakness in discontinuing his intercourse
-with Titian, he never spoke of him without amply acknowledging his
-merits.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Anxious to gain improvement from every possible source, Titian is
-said to have drawn the rudiments of his fine style of landscape painting
-from some German artists who came to Venice about the time of this
-rupture. He engaged them to reside in his house, and studied their
-mode of practice until he had mastered their principles. His talents
-were now exercised on several important works, and it is evident, from
-the picture of the Angel and Tobias, that he had already acquired an
-extraordinary breadth and grandeur of style. The Triumph of Faith,
-a singular composition, manifesting great powers of invention, amid
-much quaintness of character and costume, is known by a wood
-engraving published in 1508. A fresco of the Judgment of Solomon,
-for the Hall of Justice at Vicenza, was his next performance. After
-this he executed several subjects in the church of St. Anthony, at
-Padua, taken from the miracles attributed to that saint.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These avocations had withdrawn him from Venice. On his return,
-in the thirty-fourth year of his age, he was employed to finish a large
-picture left imperfect by Bellini, or, according to some authorities, by
-Giorgione, in the great Council Hall of Venice, representing the Emperor
-Frederick Barbarossa on his knees before Pope Alexander III. at
-the entrance of St. Mark’s. The Senate were so well satisfied with his
-performance, that they appointed him to the office called La Senseria;
-the conditions of which were, that it should be held by the best painter
-in the city, with a salary of three hundred scudi, he engaging to paint
-the portrait of each Doge on his election, at the price of eight scudi.
-These portraits were hung in one of the public apartments of St.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>Mark. At the close of 1514 Titian was invited to Ferrara by the Duke
-Alphonso. For him he executed several splendid works; among them,
-portraits of the Duke, and of his wife, and that celebrated picture of
-Bacchus and Ariadne, now in our own National Gallery.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The first works executed by Titian after his return to Venice,
-prove that he had already accomplished that union of grand design
-with brilliant colouring, which was designated by Tintoret as the
-highest perfection of painting. His immense picture of the Assumption,
-formerly in the church of Santa Maria Gloriosa, and now in
-the Academy of Venice, exhibits, in the opinion of some first-rate
-judges, various excellences, such as have never been combined in any
-single performance, but by Titian himself<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c011'><sup>[5]</sup></a>. The Virgin, whose
-figure relieves dark on the irradiated back-ground, seems to ascend
-amid a flood of glory. She is surrounded and sustained by angels of
-ineffable beauty, and the disciples below are personifications of apostolic
-grandeur. It will scarcely be credited that the Monks, for whom this
-picture was painted, objected to it on account of its apparent reality;
-but the voice of public admiration soon made them sensible of its
-merits, and they refused a large sum offered for it by the Imperial
-Ambassador. Such a report of this work was made to Leo X. by
-Cardinal Bembo, that Titian received an invitation to Rome from
-the Pontiff, with the offer of honourable appointments. A similar
-proposal from Francis I. of France, whose portrait he painted in
-1515, he had already declined; but he yielded to the temptation of
-visiting Rome, being not less anxious to see the great works of contemporary
-genius, than the wonders of ancient art. He did not,
-however, carry his purpose into effect at this time, but remained at
-Venice; and thus secured to her the possession of those noble works,
-which, when they were produced, formed the brightest ornament of
-her power, and even now, when her other glories are set, confer upon
-her an imperishable distinction.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The writer has been informed by Canova that this was his own opinion, and that of Sir
-Thomas Lawrence.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>To recompense in some degree his relinquishment of this invitation,
-Titian was employed by the Senate to paint the Battle of Cadore,
-fought between the Venetians and the Imperialists; a splendid production,
-which perished when the Ducal Palace was burnt. About
-this time was painted the fine altar-piece of the Pesari Family
-returning thanks to the Virgin for a victory over the Turks. This
-picture, as an example of simple grandeur, has been contrasted by
-Reynolds with the artificial splendour of Rubens; and Fuseli alludes to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>it as constituting the due medium between dry apposition and
-exuberant contrast. The sublime picture of S. Pietro Martire was
-painted in 1523. Of this it is difficult to speak in adequate terms,
-without the appearance of hyperbolical panegyric. The composition
-is well known by engravings; but these convey only a faint notion
-of the original, which unites the utmost magnificence of historical
-design, with the finest style of landscape-painting. The gorgeous
-hues of Titian’s colouring are attempered in this picture by an impressive
-solemnity. The scene of violence and blood, though expressed
-with energy, is free from contortion or extravagance; grandeur pervades
-the whole, and even the figure of the flying friar has a character
-of dignity rarely surpassed. Two pictures on the same subject, the
-one by Domenichino, in the Academy of Bologna, the other by Giorgione,
-in our National Gallery, if compared with that of Titian, convey
-a forcible impression of the difference between first-rate genius and
-the finest talents of a secondary order. The picture of Giorgione is,
-however, most <em>Titianesque</em> in colouring.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1526 the celebrated satirist Aretine, and Sansovino the sculptor,
-came to reside in Venice. With these distinguished men Titian
-contracted an intimacy, which was the source of great pleasure to him,
-and ceased only with their lives. When Charles V. visited Bologna in
-1529, Titian was invited to that city, where he painted an equestrian
-portrait of the Emperor. Charles, not only an admirer but a judge of
-art, was astonished at a style of painting of which he had formed no
-previous conception; he remunerated the artist splendidly, and expressed
-his determination never to sit to any other master. On returning to
-Bologna in 1532, he summoned Titian again to his court, and engaged
-him in many important works, treating him on all occasions with
-extraordinary respect and regard. It is affirmed, that in riding through
-Bologna he kept upon the artist’s right hand, an act of courtesy which
-excited such displeasure among the courtiers that they ventured upon
-a remonstrance. The answer given by Charles is well known, and has
-been since ascribed to other monarchs: “I have many nobles in my
-empire, but only one Titian.” On leaving Bologna, Titian accompanied
-Frederic Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, home to his own state; where,
-besides painting portraits of the Duke and his brother the Cardinal,
-he ornamented an apartment of the palace contiguous to the rooms
-painted by Giulio Romano, with portraits of the twelve Cæsars,
-taking his authorities from medals and antique marbles.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In passing through Parma, on the way to Mantua, he first saw
-the works of Correggio, who had been engaged in painting the dome
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>of the cathedral. So little was that great man’s genius appreciated,
-and such was the ignorance of his employers, that they had actually
-dismissed him as inadequate to the task he had undertaken; nor was
-he allowed to resume it, until the lavish admiration bestowed on his
-work by Titian, had taught them better how to estimate his talents.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On returning to Venice, Titian found that a strong party had been
-raised in favour of Pordenone. He expressed no slight indignation
-at the attempt to exalt that painter to an equality with himself. Pordenone,
-nevertheless, was an artist of considerable powers, although
-certainly not qualified to compete with such an antagonist. The
-number of pictures which Titian continued to execute, would far
-exceed our limits to enumerate, and is so great as to excite astonishment;
-more especially as there is little evidence in his works that he
-was much assisted by inferior hands. In 1543, when Pope Paul III.
-visited Bologna, Titian painted an admirable portrait of him, and
-received an invitation to Rome. But he was unable to accept it, having
-engagements with the Duke of Urbino, whose palace he accordingly
-enriched with portraits of Charles V., Francis I., the Duke Guidobaldo,
-the Popes Sixtus IV., Julius II., and Paul III., the Cardinal
-of Lorraine, and Solyman, Emperor of the Turks.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Truth, it appears, rather than embellishment, was sought for in the
-portraits of those days. Titian’s portrait of Paul III. is executed with
-uncompromising accuracy. The figure is diminutive and decrepit,
-but the eyes have a look of penetrating sagacity. His Holiness
-was greatly pleased with it; and, as a mark of his favour, made offer
-to the artist of a valuable situation in a public department; which
-Titian declined, upon finding that his emoluments were to be deducted
-from the income of those who already held possession of it. He
-obtained, however, the promise of a benefice for his son Pomponio.
-Aretine thought his friend illiberally treated by Paul, and did not
-scruple to publish his opinion on the subject.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1545, when the Venetian Senate was compelled by the public
-exigencies to lay a general tax on the city, Titian was the only person
-exempted from the impost,—a noble homage to genius, which attests
-at once the liberality and the wisdom of that government. In this
-year, Titian having completed his engagements with the Duke of
-Urbino, and being, through the Cardinal Farnese, again invited to
-Rome, determined on a visit to that city; and he set out, accompanied
-by his son Orazio, several pupils, and a considerable number of
-domestics. He was received at Urbino by the Duke Guidobaldo II.,
-and splendidly entertained for some days. On his departure, the Duke
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>accompanied him from Urbino to Pesaro, and from thence sent forward
-with him a suite of horses and servants, as far as the gates of
-Rome. Here he was greeted with corresponding honours, and lodged
-in the Belvedere Palace. Vasari was, at this time, in the employment
-of Cardinal Farnese, and had the gratification of attending the great
-artist about the city. Titian was now engaged to paint a whole length
-portrait of Paul III., with the Cardinal Farnese and Duke Ottavio in
-one group. This picture is at present in the Museo Borbonico; and
-is a fine example of that highest style of portrait painting, which is
-scarce less difficult, or less elevated as a branch of art, than historical
-composition. An “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ecce homo</span>,” painted at the same time, does
-not appear to have excited that admiration which his works usually
-obtained. The taste of the Roman artists and connoisseurs had
-been formed on the severe examples of Michael Angelo, Raphael,
-Polidoro, and others; so that the style of Titian was tried by a new
-and conventional standard, to which it was not fairly amenable. It
-was insinuated that his chief excellence lay in portrait-painting.
-Vasari relates that, in company with Michael Angelo, he made a visit
-to Titian at the Belvedere, and found him employed on the celebrated
-picture of Danae. Michael Angelo bestowed high commendations on
-it; but, as they went away, remarked to Vasari on Titian’s inaccurate
-style of design, observing, that if he had received his elementary
-education in a better school, his works would have been inimitable.
-Nothing, perhaps, has tended more than this anecdote to give currency
-to a belief that Titian was an unskilful draughtsman; an opinion
-which, if tried by the test of his best works, is utterly erroneous.
-There is not perhaps extant on canvass a more exquisite representation
-of female beauty, even in point of design, than this figure of
-Danae; and, with due reverence to the high authority of Michael
-Angelo, it may be doubted whether his notion of correct design was not
-tinctured by the ideal grandeur of his own style; which, however magnificent
-in itself, and appropriate to the scale of the Sistine chapel, is
-by no means a just medium for the forms of actual nature, nor adapted
-to the representation of beauty. Michael Angelo however frequently
-returned to look at this Danae, and always with expressions of increased
-admiration.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>After a residence of two years at Rome, Titian returned to Venice,
-taking Florence in his route. The first work on which he engaged
-after his return, was a picture of the Marquis del Vasto haranguing his
-troops. He likewise began some altar-pieces, but finished little, being
-summoned in 1550, by the Emperor Charles, to Vienna. The princes
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>and ministers assembled at the Imperial Court were astonished at the
-confidence with which Titian was honoured by the Emperor, who gave
-him free access to his presence at all times, a privilege extended only to
-his most intimate friends. The large sums which the Emperor frequently
-sent him, were always accompanied with the courteous assurance that
-they were meant to testify the monarch’s sense of his merits, not in payment
-for his works, those being beyond all price. On one occasion, while
-the Emperor was sitting for his portrait, Titian dropt a pencil; the monarch
-picked it up, and presented it to him, saying, on Titian’s apologizing
-in some confusion, “Titian is worthy to be served by Cæsar.”
-The same jealous feeling which had been evinced towards him at
-Bologna, again manifested itself; but the artist, who amidst his loftier
-studies had not neglected the cultivation of worldly knowledge, found
-means to obviate envy, and to conciliate, by courtesy and presents, the
-good will of the whole court. It was at this time that Charles, sated
-with glory and feeling the advances of infirmity, began to meditate his
-retreat from the world. This intention, it is said, he imparted to Titian,
-with whom he delighted to confer concerning the arrangement of a
-large picture, which he then commissioned the artist to paint, and which
-he intended to be his companion in his retirement. The subject was an
-apotheosis, in which Charles and his family were to be represented as
-introduced by Religion into the presence of the Trinity. At Inspruck,
-whither he accompanied the Emperor, Titian painted a superb picture,
-in which Ferdinand, King of the Romans, and his Queen Anna Maria,
-are represented with the attributes of Jupiter and Juno, and round
-them are the seven princesses, their daughters. From each of these
-illustrious ladies, Titian received a jewel each time they sat to him.
-Here also he collected portraits for the apotheosis.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On the Emperor’s departure for Flanders, Titian returned to Venice;
-where, soon after his arrival, he offered to finish the works which
-were wanting in the great hall of the council. This offer was
-cordially accepted by the Senate; and he was empowered to select the
-artists whom he thought best qualified to be his coadjutors. He
-nominated Paul Veronese and Tintoret, nor did those great painters
-feel themselves humiliated in working under his directions. In 1553
-the Emperor Charles returned to Spain, and being at Barcelona, nominated
-Titian a Count Palatine of the empire, with all the privileges,
-authority, and powers attached to that dignity. He also created him
-a Knight of the Golden Spur, and a noble of the empire, transmitting
-the dignity to his legitimate children and descendants. Crowned with
-these honours, and with faculties scarcely impaired, Titian had now
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>reached his seventy-fifth year; and it would be difficult to select
-a man the evening of whose life has been more fortunate and
-happy. He still found in the practice of his art a source of undiminished
-pleasure; his works were sought by princes with emulous
-avidity; he was considered the chief ornament of the city in which he
-dwelt. He was surrounded by friends distinguished by their worth
-or talents; he had acquired wealth and honour sufficient to satisfy
-his utmost ambition; and he was secure of immortal fame!</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But at this period, to most men one of secession from toil, Titian
-engaged in new undertakings with as much alacrity as if life were
-still beginning, and the race of fortune still to run. He enriched
-Serravalle, Braganza, Milan, and Brescia, with splendid works,
-besides painting a great number for the churches of Venice, for
-different noblemen, and for his friends. Philip II. of Spain showed
-no less anxiety to possess his works, than Charles, his father, had done:
-and nowhere perhaps, not even in Venice, are so many of his pictures
-to be found, as in the palaces of Madrid and the Escurial. When
-Rubens was in Spain, he copied Titian’s picture of Eve tempting
-Adam with the fatal fruit, nobly acknowledging that he had only
-made a Flemish translation of an elegant Italian poem. It is said by
-some of Titian’s biographers, that he himself made a visit to Spain;
-but this has been clearly disproved. The most important works which
-he executed for Philip II. are the pictures of the Martyrdom of St.
-Lorenzo, and the Last Supper. In the first, three different effects of
-light are admirably expressed; the fire which consumes the saint, the
-flame of a tripod placed before a pagan deity, and the glory of a
-descending angel. This picture is said to be equal to any of his earlier
-productions. The Last Supper betrays signs of a feebler execution,
-which is, however, atoned for by more than usual purity of design.
-Titian in this work partially imitated Lionardo da Vinci, but in the
-spirit of congenial feeling, not as a plagiarist. To this picture, which he
-began at the age of eighty, he devoted the labour of nearly seven years.
-For Mary of England, Philip II.’s consort, he painted four mythological
-subjects, Prometheus, Tityus, Sisiphus, and Tantalus, the
-figures as large as life, and conceived in the highest style of grandeur.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1570 died Sansovino the sculptor. Aretine had paid the debt
-of nature some years before, an event which sensibly affected Titian;
-and this second loss plunged him into such affliction, that his powers,
-it is said, from that time perceptibly gave way. We learn, however,
-from Ridolfi, that the Transfiguration on Mount Tabor, which he
-saw when in good condition, was ably executed. Some visions from
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>the Apocalypse, in the monastery of St. John, painted about the same
-time, exhibit vivid imagination and fine colouring.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Henry III. of France, being in Venice in 1574, paid Titian a visit,
-accompanied by a numerous train. The venerable artist, then in his
-ninety-fifth year, received the monarch with dignified respect; his
-fine person was scarcely touched by decrepitude, his manners were
-still noble and prepossessing. In a long conversation with the King,
-he adverted, with the complacency natural to an old man at the close
-of so splendid a career, to honours which he had received from the
-Emperor Charles and King Ferdinand. When Henry, in walking
-through the galleries, demanded the prices of some of the pictures,
-he begged his Majesty’s acceptance of them as a free gift. In the
-mean time the courtiers and attendants were entertained with a
-magnificence, which might have become the establishment of a great
-prince.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Titian had nearly attained his hundredth year, when the plague,
-which had been raging some time in Trent, made its appearance in
-Venice, and swept him off, together with a third part of the inhabitants,
-within three months. He was buried in the church of the
-Frari; but the consternation and disorders prevalent at such a period,
-prevented his receiving those funeral honours which would otherwise
-have attended him to the tomb.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In comparing Titian with the great artists of the Roman and
-Florentine schools, it has been usual to describe him as the painter
-of physical nature, while to those masters has been assigned the
-loftier and exclusive praise of depicting the mind and passions. The
-works on which Titian was most frequently employed, appertaining
-to public edifices and the pomp of courts, were certainly of a class
-in which splendid effect is the chief requisite; but can it be said that
-the painter of the Ascension of the Virgin, and the S. Pietro Martire,
-was unequal to cope with subjects of sublimity and pathos? May
-it not be asked with greater justice, on the evidence of those pictures,
-whether any artist has surpassed him in those qualities? Even
-in design, on which point his capacity has been especially arraigned,
-Titian knew how to seize the line of grandeur without swelling into
-exaggeration, and to unite truth with ideality. Of all painters he was
-most above the ostentation of art; like Nature herself, he worked
-with such consummate skill that we are sensible of the process
-only by its effect. Rubens, Tintoret, Paul Veronese, were proud of
-their execution; few painters are not,—but the track of Titian’s pencil
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>is scarcely ever discernable. His chiaroscuro, or disposition of light
-and shade, is never artificially concentrated; it is natural, as that of
-a summer’s day. His colouring, glorious as it is, made up of vivid
-contrasts, and combining the last degree of richness and depth with
-freshness and vivacity, is yet so graduated to the modesty of nature,
-that a thought of the painter’s palette never disturbs the illusion.
-Were it required to point out, amidst the whole range of painting,
-one performance as a proof of what art is capable of accomplishing,
-it is surely from among the works of Titian that such an example
-would be selected.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There is scarcely any large collection in which the works of Titian
-are not to be found. The pictures of Actæon and Callisto in the
-possession of Lord F. L. Gower, and the four subjects in the
-National Gallery, are among the finest in this country. The Venus
-in the Dulwich Gallery must have been fine; but the glazing, a very
-essential part of Titian’s process, has flown.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Details of the life of Titian will be found in Vasari, Lanzi, Ridolfi,
-but more especially in Ticozzi, whose memoir is at once diffuse and
-perspicuous. There is a life of Titian, in English, by Northcote.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_072.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>Titian and Francisco di Mosaico, from a picture by Titian.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_073fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff</em><br /><br />LUTHER.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by Holbein<br />in his Majesty’s Collection at Windsor.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>
-<img src='images/i_073.jpg' alt='LUTHER.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>LUTHER.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>Martin Luther was born at Eisleben in Saxony in the year 1483,
-on the 10th of November; and if in the histories of great men it is
-usual to note with accuracy the day of their nativity, that of Luther
-has a peculiar claim on the biographer, since it has been the especial
-object of horoscopical calculations, and has even occasioned some
-serious differences among very profound astrologers. Luther has
-been the subject of unqualified admiration and eulogy: he has been
-assailed by the most virulent calumnies; and, if any thing more were
-wanted to prove the <em>personal</em> consideration in which he was held by
-his contemporaries, it would be sufficient to add, that he has also
-been made a mask for their follies.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He was of humble origin. At an early age he entered with zeal into
-the Order of Augustinian Hermits, who were Monks and Mendicants.
-In the schools of the Nominalists he pursued with acuteness and
-success the science of sophistry. And he was presently raised to the
-theological chair at Wittemberg: so that his first prejudices were
-enlisted in the service of the worst portion of the Roman Catholic
-Church; his opening reason was subjected to the most dangerous
-perversion; and a sure and early path was opened to his professional
-ambition. Such was <em>not</em> the discipline which could prepare the mind
-for any independent exertion; such were not the circumstances from
-which an ordinary mind could have emerged into the clear atmosphere
-of truth. In dignity a Professor, in theology an Augustinian, in
-philosophy a Nominalist, by education a Mendicant Monk, Luther
-seemed destined to be a pillar of the Roman Catholic Church, and a
-patron of all its corruptions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But he possessed a genius naturally vast and penetrating, a memory
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>quick and tenacious, patience inexhaustible, and a fund of learning
-very considerable for that age: above all, he had an erect and
-daring spirit, fraught with magnanimity and grandeur, and loving
-nothing so well as truth; so that his understanding was ever prepared
-to expand with the occasion, and his principles to change or rise,
-according to the increase and elevation of his knowledge. Nature
-had endued him with an ardent soul, a powerful and capacious
-understanding; education had chilled the one and contracted the
-other; and when he came forth into the fields of controversy, he had
-many of those trammels still hanging about him, which patience,
-and a succession of exertions, and the excitement of dispute, at length
-enabled him for the most part to cast away.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the year 1517, John Tetzel, a Dominican Monk, was preaching
-in Germany the indulgences of Pope Leo X.; that is, he was publicly
-selling to all purchasers remission of all sins, past, present, or future,
-however great their number, however enormous their nature. The
-expressions with which Tetzel recommended his treasure appear to
-have been marked with peculiar impudence and indecency. But the
-act had in itself nothing novel or uncommon: the sale of indulgences
-had long been recognized as the practice of the Roman Catholic
-Church, and even sometimes censured by its more pious, or more
-prudent members. But the crisis was at length arrived in which the
-iniquity could no longer be repeated with impunity. The cup was at
-length full; and the hand of Luther was destined to dash it to the
-ground. In the schools of Wittemberg the Professor publicly censured,
-in ninety-five propositions, not only the extortion of the Indulgence-mongers,
-but the co-operation of the Pope in seducing the
-people from the true faith, and calling them away from the only road
-to salvation.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This first act of Luther’s evangelical life has been hastily ascribed by
-at least three eminent writers of very different descriptions, (Bossuet,
-Hume, and Voltaire,) to the narrowest monastic motive, the jealousy
-of a rival order. It is asserted that the Augustinian Friars had
-usually been invested in Saxony with the profitable commission, and
-that it only became offensive to Luther when it was transferred to a
-Dominican. There is no ground for that assertion. The Dominicans
-had been for nearly three centuries the peculiar favourites of the Holy
-See, and objects of all its partialities; and it is particularly remarkable,
-that, after the middle of the fifteenth century, during a period
-scandalously fruitful in the abuse in question, we very rarely meet
-with the name of any Augustinian as employed in that service.
-Moreover, it is almost equally important to add, that none of the contemporary
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>adversaries of Luther ever advanced the charge against
-him, even at the moment in which the controversy was carried on
-with the most unscrupulous rancour.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The matter in dispute between Luther and Tetzel went in the first
-instance no farther than this—whether the Pope had authority to
-remit the divine chastisements denounced against offenders in the present
-and in a future state—or whether his power only extended to
-such human punishments, as form a part of ecclesiastical discipline—for
-the latter prerogative was not yet contested by Luther. Nevertheless,
-his office and his talents drew very general attention to the
-controversy; the German people, harassed by the exactions, and
-disgusted with the insolence of the papal emissaries, declared themselves
-warmly in favour of the Reformer; while on the other hand,
-the supporters of the abuse were so violent and clamorous, that the
-sound of the altercation speedily disturbed the festivities of the
-Vatican.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Leo X., a luxurious, indolent, and secular, though literary pontiff,
-would have disregarded the broil, and left it, like so many others,
-to subside of itself, had not the Emperor Maximilian assured him
-of the dangerous impression it had already made on the German
-people. Accordingly he commanded Luther to appear at the
-approaching diet of Augsburg, and justify himself before the papal
-legate. At the same time he appointed the Cardinal Caietan, a
-Dominican and a professed enemy of Luther, to be arbiter of the
-dispute. They met in October, 1518; the legate was imperious;
-Luther was not submissive. He solicited reasons; he was answered
-only with authority. He left the city in haste, and appealed “to the
-Pope <em>better informed</em>,”—yet it was still to the Pope that he appealed,
-he still recognized his sovereign supremacy. But in the following
-month Leo published an edict, in which he claimed the power of delivering
-sinners from <em>all</em> punishments due to every sort of transgression;
-and thereupon Luther, despairing of any reasonable accommodation
-with the pontiff, published an appeal from the Pope to a General
-Council.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Pope then saw the expediency of conciliatory measures, and
-accordingly despatched a layman, named Miltitz, as his legate, with a
-commission to compose the difference by private negotiations with
-Luther. Miltitz united great dexterity and penetration with a temper
-naturally moderate, and not inflamed by ecclesiastical prejudices.
-Luther was still in the outset of his career. His opinions had not yet
-made any great progress towards maturity; he had not fully ascertained
-the foundations on which his principles were built; he had not
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>proved by any experience the firmness of his own character. He
-yielded—at least so far as to express his perfect submission to the
-commands of the Pope, to exhort his followers to persist in the same
-obedience, and to promise silence on the subject of indulgences,
-provided it were also imposed upon his adversaries.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is far too much to say (as some have said) that had Luther’s concession
-been carried into effect, the Reformation would have been
-stifled in its birth. The principles of the Reformation were too
-firmly seated in reason and in truth, and too deeply ingrafted in the
-hearts of the German people, to remain long suppressed through
-the infirmity of any individual advocate. But its progress might
-have been somewhat retarded, had not the violence of its enemies
-afforded it seasonable aid. A doctor named Eckius, a zealous satellite
-of papacy, invited Luther to a public disputation in the castle of
-Pleissenburg. The subject on which they argued was the supremacy
-of the Roman pontiff; and it was a substantial triumph for the Reformer,
-and no trifling insult to papal despotism, that the appointed
-arbiters left the question undecided.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Eckius repaired to Rome, and appealed in person to the offended
-authority of the Vatican. His remonstrances were reiterated and inflamed
-by the furious zeal of the Dominicans, with Caietan at their
-head. And thus Pope Leo, whose calmer and more indifferent judgment
-would probably have led him to accept the submission of Luther,
-and thus put the question for the moment at rest, was urged into
-measures of at least unseasonable vigour. He published a bull on the
-15th of June, 1520, in which he solemnly condemned forty-one
-heresies extracted from the writings of the Reformer, and condemned
-these to be publicly burnt. At the same time he summoned the author,
-on pain of excommunication, to confess and retract his pretended
-errors within the space of sixty days, and to throw himself upon the
-mercy of the Vatican.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Open to the influence of mildness and persuasion, the breast of
-Luther only swelled more boldly when he was assailed by menace and
-insult. He refused the act of humiliation required of him; more
-than that, he determined to anticipate the anathema suspended over
-him, by at once withdrawing himself from the communion of the
-church; and again, having come to that resolution, he fixed upon the
-manner best suited to give it efficacy and publicity. With this view,
-he caused a pile of wood to be erected without the walls of Wittemberg,
-and there, in the presence of a vast multitude of all ranks and
-orders, he committed the bull to the flames; and with it, the Decree,
-the Decretals, the Clementines, the Extravagants, the entire code of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>Romish jurisprudence. It is necessary to observe, that he had prefaced
-this measure by a renewal of his former appeal to a General Council;
-so that the extent of his resistance may be accurately defined: he continued
-a faithful member of the Catholic Church, but he rejected the
-despotism of the Pope, he refused obedience to an unlimited and
-usurped authority. The bull of excommunication immediately followed
-(January 6, 1521), but it fell without force; and any dangerous
-effect, which it might otherwise have produced, was obviated by the
-provident boldness of Luther.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Here was the origin of the Reformation. This was the irreparable
-breach, which gradually widened to absolute disruption. The Reformer
-was now compromised, by his conduct, by his principles, perhaps
-even by his passions. He had crossed the bounds which divided insubordination
-from rebellion, and his banners were openly unfurled,
-and his legions pressed forward on the march to Rome. Henceforward
-the champion of the Gospel entered with more than his former
-courage on the pursuit of truth; and having shaken off one of the
-greatest and earliest of the prejudices in which he had been educated,
-he proceeded with fearless independence to examine and dissipate the
-rest.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Charles V. succeeded Maximilian in the empire in the year 1519;
-and since Frederic of Saxony persisted in protecting the person of
-the Reformer, Leo X. became the more anxious to arouse the imperial
-indignation in defence of the injured majesty of the Church. In
-1521 a diet was assembled at Worms, and Luther was summoned to
-plead his cause before it. A safe-conduct was granted him by the
-Emperor; and on the 17th of April he presented himself before the
-august aristocracy of Germany. This audience gave occasion to the
-most splendid scene in his history. His friends were yet few, and
-of no great influence; his enemies were numerous, and powerful, and
-eager for his destruction: the cause of truth, the hopes of religious
-regeneration, appeared to be placed at that moment in the discretion
-and constancy of one man. The faithful trembled. But Luther
-had then cast off the encumbrances of early fears and prepossessions,
-and was prepared to give a free course to his earnest and unyielding
-character. His manner and expressions abounded with respect and
-humility; but in the matter of his public apology he declined in no
-one particular from the fulness of his conviction. Of the numerous
-opinions which he had by this time adopted at variance with the
-injunctions of Rome, there was not one which in the hour of danger
-he consented to compromise. The most violent exertions were made
-by the papal party to effect his immediate ruin; and there were some
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>who were not ashamed to counsel a direct violation of the imperial
-safe-conduct: it was designed to re-enact the crimes of Constance,
-after the interval of a century, on another theatre. But the infamous
-proposal was soon rejected; and it was on this occasion that Charles is
-recorded to have replied with princely indignation, that if honour
-were banished from every other residence, it ought to find refuge in
-the breasts of kings.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Luther was permitted to retire from the diet; but he had not proceeded
-far on his return when he was surprised by a number of armed
-men, and carried away into captivity. It was an act of friendly
-violence. A temporary concealment was thought necessary for his
-present security, and he was hastily conveyed to the solitary Castle of
-Wartenburg. In the mean time the assembly issued the declaration
-known in history as the “Edict of Worms,” in which the Reformer
-was denounced as an excommunicated schismatic and heretic; and all
-his friends and adherents, all who protected or conversed with him,
-were pursued by censures and penalties. The cause of papacy
-obtained a momentary, perhaps only a seeming triumph, for it was
-not followed by any substantial consequences; and while the anathematized
-Reformer lay in safety in his secret <em>Patmos</em>, as he used to
-call it, the Emperor withdrew to other parts of Europe to prosecute
-schemes and interests which then seemed far more important than the
-religious tenets of a German Monk.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>While Luther was in retirement, his disciples at Wittemberg,
-under the guidance of Carlostadt, a man of learning and piety, proceeded
-to put into force some of the first principles of the Reformation.
-They would have restrained by compulsion the superstition of private
-masses, and torn away from the churches the proscribed images.
-Luther disapproved of the violence of these measures; or it may also
-be, as some impartial writers have insinuated, that he grudged to any
-other than himself the glory of achieving them. Accordingly, after
-an exile of ten months, he suddenly came forth from his place of
-refuge, and appeared at Wittemberg. Had he then confined his
-influence to the introduction of a more moderate policy among the
-reformers, many plausible arguments might have been urged in his
-favour. But he also appears, unhappily, to have been animated by a
-personal animosity against Carlostadt, which was displayed both then
-and afterwards in some acts not very far removed from persecution.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The marriage of Luther, and his marriage to a nun, was the event
-of his life which gave most triumph to his enemies, and perplexity to
-his friends. It was in perfect conformity with his masculine and
-daring mind, that having satisfied himself of the nullity of his monastic
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>vows, he should take the boldest method of displaying to the world
-how utterly he rejected them. Others might have acted differently,
-and abstained, either from conscientious scruples, or, being satisfied in
-their own minds, from fear to give offence to their weaker brethren; and
-it would be presumptuous to condemn either course of action. It is
-proper to mention that this marriage did not take place till the year
-1525, after Luther had long formally rejected many of the observances
-of the Roman Catholic Church; and that the nun whom he espoused
-had quitted her convent, and renounced her profession some time before.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The war of the peasants, and the fanaticism of Munster and his
-followers, presently afterwards desolated Germany; and the papal
-party did not lose that occasion to vilify the principles of the reformers,
-and identify the revolt from a spiritual despotism with general insurrection
-and massacre. It is therefore necessary here to observe, that
-the false enthusiasm of Munster was perhaps first detected and
-denounced by Luther; and that the pen of the latter was incessantly
-employed in deprecating every act of civil insubordination. He was
-the loudest in his condemnation of some acts of spoliation by laymen,
-who appropriated the monastic revenues; and at a subsequent period
-so far did he carry his principles, so averse was he, not only from the
-use of offensive violence, but even from the employment of force in
-the defence of his cause, that on some later occasions he exhorted
-the Elector of Saxony by no means to oppose the imperial edicts by
-arms, but rather to consign the persons and principles of the reformers
-to the protection of Providence. For he was inspired with a holy
-confidence that Christ would not desert his faithful followers; but
-rather find means to accomplish his work without the agitation of civil
-disorders, or the intervention of the sword. That confidence evinced
-the perfect earnestness of his professions, and his entire devotion to
-the truth of his principles. It also proved that he had given himself
-up to the cause in which he had engaged, and that he was elevated
-above the consideration of personal safety. This was no effeminate
-enthusiasm, no passionate aspiration after the glory of martyrdom!
-It was the working of the Spirit of God upon an ardent nature, impressed
-with the divine character of the mission with which it was intrusted,
-and assured, against all obstacles, of final and perfect success.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As this is not a history of the Reformation, but only a
-sketch of the life of an individual reformer, we shall at once proceed
-to an affair strongly, though not very favourably, illustrating his
-character. The subject of the Eucharist commanded, among the
-various doctrinal differences, perhaps the greatest attention; and in
-this matter Luther receded but a short space, and with unusual timidity,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>from the faith in which he had been educated. He admitted the
-real corporeal presence in the elements, and differed from the church
-only as to the manner of that presence. He rejected the actual and
-perfect change of substance, but supposed the flesh to subsist in, or
-with the bread, as fire subsists in red-hot iron. Consequently, he
-renounced the term transubstantiation, and substituted consubstantiation
-in its place. In the mean time, Zuinglius, the reformer of Zuric,
-had examined the same question with greater independence, and had
-reached the bolder conclusion, that the bread and wine are no more
-than external signs, intended to revive our recollections and animate
-our piety. This opinion was adopted by Carlostadt, Œcolampadius,
-and other fathers of the Reformation, and followed by the Swiss Protestants,
-and generally by the free cities of the Empire. Those who
-held it were called Sacramentarians. The opinion of Luther prevailed
-in Saxony, and in the more northern provinces of Germany.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The difference was important. It was felt to be so by the reformers
-themselves; and the Lutheran party expressed that sentiment
-with too little moderation. The Papists, or Papalins (<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Papalini</span>), were
-alert in perceiving the division, in exciting the dissension, and in
-inflaming it, if possible, into absolute schism; and in this matter it
-must be admitted, that Luther himself was too much disposed by his
-intemperate vehemence to further their design. These discords were
-becoming dangerous; and in 1529, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, the
-most ardent among the protectors of the Reformation, assembled the
-leading doctors of either party to a public disputation at Marpurg.
-The particulars of this conference are singularly interesting to the
-theological reader; but it is here sufficient to mention, without
-entering into the doctrinal merits of the controversy, that whatever
-was imperious in assertion and overbearing in authority, and unyielding
-and unsparing in polemical altercation, proceeded from the
-mouth and party of Luther; that every approach to humility, and
-self-distrust, and mutual toleration, and common friendship, came
-from the side of Zuinglius and the Sacramentarians. And we are
-bound to add, that the same uncompromising spirit, which precluded
-Luther from all co-operation or fellowship with those whom <em>he
-thought</em> in error (it was the predominant spirit of the church which
-he had deserted) continued on future occasions to interrupt and even
-endanger the work of his own hands. But that very spirit was the
-vice of a character, which endured no moderation or concession in
-any matter wherein Christian truth was concerned, but which too
-hastily assumed its own infallibility in ascertaining that truth. Luther
-would have excommunicated the Sacramentarians; and he did not
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>perceive how precisely his <em>principle</em> was the same with that of the
-church which had excommunicated himself.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Luther was not present at the celebrated Diet of Augsburg, held
-under the superintendence of Charles V. in 1530; but he was in
-constant correspondence with Melancthon during that fearful period,
-and in the reproofs which he cast on the temporizing, though perhaps
-necessary, negotiations of the latter, he at least exhibited his own uprightness
-and impetuosity. The ‘Confession’ of the Protestants, there
-published, was constructed on the basis of seventeen articles previously
-drawn up by Luther; and it was not without his counsels that the
-faith, permanently adopted by the church which bears his name, was
-finally digested and matured. From that crisis the history of the
-Reformation took more of a political, less of a religious character,
-and the name of Luther is therefore less prominent than in the earlier
-proceedings. But he still continued for sixteen years longer to exert
-his energies in the cause which was peculiarly his own, and to influence
-by his advice and authority the new ecclesiastical system.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He died in the year 1546, the same, as it singularly happened, in
-which the Council of Trent assembled, for the self-reformation and
-re-union of the Roman Catholic Church. But that attempt, even had
-it been made with judgment and sincerity, was then too late. During
-the twenty-nine years which composed the public life of Luther, the
-principles of the Gospel, having fallen upon hearts already prepared
-for their reception, were rooted beyond the possibility of extirpation;
-and when the great Reformer closed his eyes upon the scene of his
-earthly toils and glory, he might depart in the peaceful confidence
-that the objects of his mission were virtually accomplished, and the
-work of the Lord placed in security by the same heaven-directed hand
-which had raised it from the dust.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_081.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>
-<img src='images/i_082.jpg' alt='RODNEY.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>RODNEY.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>This eminent officer was descended from a younger branch of an
-ancient family, long resident in the county of Somerset. His father
-lived at Walton upon Thames, where George Brydges Rodney,
-afterwards Lord Rodney, was born, February 19, 1718. He received
-the rudiments of his education at Harrow School, from which he was
-removed when only twelve years old, and sent to sea. He gained
-promotion rapidly, being made Lieutenant in February, 1739, and
-Captain in 1742. He was still farther fortunate in being almost constantly
-employed for several years. In the Eagle, of sixty guns,
-Captain Rodney bore a distinguished part in the action fought by
-Admiral Hawke with the French fleet, off Cape Finisterre, October
-14, 1747. The year after he was sent out with the rank of Commodore,
-as Governor and Commander-in-Chief on the Newfoundland
-station, where he remained till October, 1752.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Returning to England, he took his seat in Parliament for the
-borough of Saltash, and was successively appointed to the Fougueux,
-of sixty-four guns, the Prince George, of ninety, and the Dublin,
-of seventy-four guns. In the last-named ship he served under
-Admiral Hawke in the expedition against Rochefort in 1757, which
-failed entirely, after great expense had been incurred, and great
-expectations raised; and he assisted at the capture of Louisburg by
-Admiral Boscawen in 1758. He was raised to the rank of Rear-Admiral,
-May 19, 1759, after twenty-eight years of active and almost
-uninterrupted service.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In July following he was ordered to take the command of a
-squadron destined to attack Havre, and destroy a number of flat-bottomed
-boats, prepared, it was supposed, to assist a meditated invasion
-of Great Britain. This service he effectually performed.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_082fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />LORD RODNEY.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture by Sir Joshua Reynolds<br />in his Majesty’s Collection at S<sup>t.</sup> James’s Palace.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>He was soon raised to a more important sphere of action, being
-named Commander-in-Chief at Barbadoes and the Leeward Islands,
-in the autumn of 1761. No naval achievement of remarkable brilliance
-occurred during the short period of his holding this command: but
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>the capture of the valuable islands of Martinique, St. Lucia, and
-Grenada, bears testimony to the efficiency of the fleet under his orders,
-and the good understanding between the land and sea forces employed
-in this service. He was recalled on the conclusion of peace in 1763.
-Eight years elapsed before he was again called into service; a period
-fruitful in marks of favour from the crown, though barren of professional
-laurels. He was created a Baronet soon after his return;
-he was raised by successive steps to the rank of Vice-Admiral of the
-Red; and he was appointed Governor of Greenwich Hospital. This
-office he was required to resign on being again sent out to the West
-Indies as Commander-in-Chief at Jamaica in 1771. This was a
-period of profound peace: but the duties of peace are often more
-difficult, and require more moral courage for their discharge, than
-those of war. It is one of Rodney’s best claims to distinction, that he
-suffered none under his command, or within the sphere of his
-influence, to neglect their duties with impunity: and in the mode of
-carrying on naval affairs then practised in the West Indies, he found
-much ground for immediate interference, as well as for representation
-and remonstrance to his superiors at home. He earnestly desired to
-obtain the government of Jamaica; but on a vacancy occurring in
-1773, another person was appointed; and he was recalled, and struck
-his flag at Portsmouth, September 4, 1774.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The next four years of Sir George Rodney’s life were much
-harassed by pecuniary embarrassment. The habits of a sailor’s life
-are proverbially unsuited to strict economy: and moving, when at
-home, in the most fashionable society of London, it is no wonder that
-his expenses outran his professional gains. He was compelled to retire
-to Paris, where he remained until the American war afforded a prospect
-of his being called into active service again. In May, 1778, he
-was promoted to the rank of Admiral of the White: but it was not
-till the autumn of 1779 that he was gratified by being re-appointed to
-the command on the Barbadoes station. He sailed from Plymouth
-December 29, to enter on the final and crowning scene of his glory.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At this time Spain and France were at war with England. The
-memorable siege of Gibraltar was in progress, and a Spanish fleet
-blockaded the Straits. The British navy was reduced unwarrantably
-low in point of disposable force; and was farther crippled by a
-spirit of disunion and jealousy among its officers, arising partly perhaps
-from the virulence of party politics, and partly from the misconduct
-of the Admiralty, which threatened even worse consequences than the
-mere want of physical force. By this spirit Sir George Rodney’s
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>fleet was deeply tainted, to his great mortification and the great
-injury of the country. At first, however, every thing appeared to
-prosper. The fleet consisted of twenty-two sail of the line, and eight
-frigates. Before Rodney had been at sea ten days, he captured seven
-Spanish vessels of war, with a large convoy of provisions and stores;
-and on January 16, near Cape St. Vincent, afterwards made memorable
-by a more important action, he encountered a Spanish fleet commanded
-by Don Juan de Langara, of eleven ships of the line and two
-frigates. The superiority of the British force rendered victory certain.
-Five Spanish ships were taken, and two destroyed; and had not the
-action been in the night, and in tempestuous weather, probably every
-ship would have been captured. These at least are the reasons which
-Rodney gave in his despatches, for not having done more: in private
-letters he hints that he was ill-supported by his captains. Trifling as
-this success would have seemed in later times, it was then very acceptable
-to the country; and the Admiral received the thanks of both Houses of
-Parliament. The scandalous feeling of jealousy of their commander,
-ill-will to the ministry, or whatever other modification of party spirit
-it was, which could prevent brave men (and such they were) from
-performing their duty to the utmost in the hour of battle, broke out
-again with more violence when Rodney next came within sight of the
-enemy. This was near Martinique, April 17, 1780, about a month
-after his arrival in the West Indies. The French fleet, commanded
-by the Comte de Guichen, was slightly superior in force. Rodney’s
-intention was to attack the enemy’s rear in close order and with his
-whole strength; but his captains disobeyed his orders, deranged his
-plan, and careless of the signals for close action, repeatedly made,
-kept for the most part at cautious distance from the enemy. His own
-ship, the Sandwich, engaged for an hour and a half a seventy-four
-and two eighty-gun ships, compelled them to bear away, and broke
-completely through the enemy’s line. Not more than five or six ships
-did their duty. Had all done it, the victory over De Grasse might have
-been anticipated, and the end of the war accelerated perhaps by two
-years. In his despatches Rodney censured the conduct of his captains;
-but the Admiralty thought proper to suppress the passage. In his
-private letters to Lady Rodney, he complains bitterly. One only of
-his captains was brought to trial, and he was broken. That ampler
-justice was not done on the delinquents, is to be explained by the
-difficulty of finding officers to form courts martial, where almost all
-were equally guilty. But this partial severity, with the vigorous
-measures which the Admiral took to recall others to their duty, produced
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>due effect, and we hear no more of want of discipline, or reluctance
-to engage. For this action Rodney received the thanks of the
-House of Commons, with a pension for himself and his family of
-£2000 per annum.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Nothing of importance occurred during the rest of the spring; and
-De Guichen having returned to Europe, Rodney sailed to New
-York, to co-operate, during the rainy season in the West Indies, with
-the British forces engaged in the American war. In November he
-returned to his station. In the course of the autumn he had been
-chosen to represent Westminster without expense, and had received the
-Order of the Bath. The commencement of the following year was
-signalized by acts of more importance. The British ministry had
-been induced to declare war against Holland; and they sent out immediate
-instructions to Rodney, to attack the possessions of the states
-in the West Indies. St. Eustatius was selected for the first blow,
-and it surrendered without firing a shot. Small and barren, yet this
-island was of great importance for the support which it had long
-afforded to the French and Americans under colour of neutrality, and
-for the vast wealth which was captured in it. In the course of the
-spring, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, with the French island
-of St. Bartholomew, were also taken.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the autumn, Rodney returned to Europe for the recovery of
-his health. He was received with distinguished favour by the King,
-and with enthusiasm by the people, and during his stay, was created
-Vice-Admiral of Great Britain, in the place of Lord Hawke, deceased.
-He returned in the middle of January, being invested with
-the command of the whole West Indies, not merely the Barbadoes
-station, as before. The situation of affairs at this time was very critical.
-The French fleet, commanded by the Comte de Grasse, consisted of
-thirty-three sail<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c011'><sup>[6]</sup></a> of the line, two fifty-gun ships and frigates, with a
-large body of troops, and a train of heavy cannon on board. A powerful
-Spanish fleet was also in the West Indies. It was intended to
-form a junction, and then with an overwhelming force of near fifty
-sail of the line, to proceed to Jamaica, conquer that important island,
-and one by one to reduce all the British colonies.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Or thirty-four, according to the official list found on board the Ville de Paris after the
-engagement.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The French quitted Fort Royal Bay, in Martinique, April 8, 1782.
-Intelligence was immediately brought to the British fleet at St. Lucia,
-which lost no time in following them. In a partial action on the 9th,
-two of the French ships were, disabled. A third was crippled by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>accident on the night of the 11th. Thus, on the morning of the
-12th, the decisive day, the French line was reduced to thirty or thirty-one
-ships, and numerically the British fleet was stronger: but this
-difference was more than compensated by the greater weight of metal
-in the French broadside, which was calculated by Sir Charles
-Douglas to have exceeded the British by 4396 pounds. On that
-morning, about seven o’clock, Rodney bore down obliquely on the
-French line, and passed to leeward of it on the opposite tack. His
-own ship was the eighteenth from the van: and the seventeen leading
-ships having pushed on and taken their position each abreast of an
-enemy, Rodney, in the Formidable, broke through the line between
-the seventeenth and eighteenth ships, engaged the Ville de Paris, De
-Grasse’s flag-ship, and compelled her to strike. The battle was obstinately
-fought, and lasted till half-past six in the evening. The loss
-of the British in killed and wounded was severe, but disproportionately
-less than that of the French. Seven ships of the line and
-two frigates fell into the hands of the victors.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This battle ruined the power of the allied fleets in the West Indies,
-and materially contributed to the re-establishment of peace, which was
-concluded in January, 1783. Many other circumstances have combined
-to confer celebrity upon it. It restored to Britain the dominion
-of the ocean, after that dominion had been some time in abeyance; it
-proved the commencement of a long series of most brilliant victories,
-untarnished by any defeat on a large scale; and it was the first
-instance in which the manœuvre of breaking through the enemy’s line,
-and attacking him on both sides, had been practised. The question
-to whom the merit of this invention, which for many years rested with
-Lord Rodney, is due, has of late been much canvassed before the
-public. It has been claimed for Mr. Clerk, of Eldin, author of a
-treatise on Naval Tactics, and for Sir Charles Douglas, Captain of
-the Fleet, who served on board the Formidable, and is said to have
-suggested it, as a sudden thought, during the action. The claim of
-Mr. Clerk appears now to be generally disallowed. The evidence in
-favour of each of the other parties is strong and conflicting; and as we
-have not space to discuss it, we may be excused for not expressing
-any opinion upon it. The claims of Sir Charles Douglas have been
-advanced by his son, Sir Howard Douglas, in some recent publications:
-the opposite side of the question has been argued in the Quarterly
-Review, No. 83. It has also been repeatedly discussed in the United
-Service Magazine. It would appear, however, at all events, that
-as the final judgment and responsibility rested with the Admiral, so
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>also should the chief honour of the measure: and it is certain that the
-gallant and generous officer for whom this claim has been advanced,
-rejected all praise which seemed to him in the least to derogate from the
-glory of his commanding officer.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A change of ministry had taken place in the spring; and one of
-the first acts of the Whigs, on coming into office, was to recall Rodney,
-who had always been opposed to them in politics. The officer appointed
-to succeed him had but just sailed, when news of his decisive
-and glorious victory arrived in England. The Admiralty sent an
-express, to endeavour to recall their unlucky step; but it was too late.
-Rodney landed at Bristol, and closed his career of service, September 21,
-1782. He was received with enthusiasm, raised to the peerage by the
-title of Baron Rodney, and presented with an additional pension of
-£2000 per annum. From this time he lived chiefly in the country,
-and died May 23, 1792, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. He
-was twice married, and left a numerous family to inherit his well-earned
-honours and rewards.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The life of Lord Rodney, published by General Mundy, is valuable,
-as containing much of his official and private correspondence. The
-former proves that his views as a Commander-in-Chief were enlarged,
-judicious, and patriotic; the latter is lively and affectionate, and shows
-him to have been most amiable in domestic life. Memoirs of his life
-and principal actions will be found in most works on naval history
-and biography.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_087.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>Monument of Lord Rodney in St. Paul’s Cathedral.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>
-<img src='images/i_088.jpg' alt='LAGRANGE.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>LAGRANGE.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>Joseph Louis Lagrange was born at Turin, January 25th, 1736.
-His great-grandfather was a Frenchman, who entered into the service
-of the then Duke of Savoy; and from this circumstance, as well as his
-subsequent settlement in France, and his always writing in their
-language, the French claim him as their countryman: an honour
-which the Italians are far from conceding to them.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_088fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by Rob<sup>t</sup>. Hart.</em><br /><br />LA GRANGE.<br /><br /><em>From a Bust in the Library of the<br />Institute of France.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>The father of Lagrange, luckily perhaps for the fame of his son,
-was ruined by some unfortunate speculation. The latter used to say,
-that had he possessed fortune, he should probably never have turned
-his attention to the science in which he excelled. He was placed at
-the College of Turin, and applied himself diligently and with enthusiasm
-to classical literature, showing no taste at first for mathematics.
-In about a year he began to attend to the geometry of the ancients.
-A memoir of Halley in the Philosophical Transactions, on the superiority
-of modern analysis, produced consequences of which the author
-little dreamed. Lagrange met with it, before his views upon the
-subject had settled: and immediately, being then only seventeen
-years old, applied himself to the study of the modern mathematics.
-Before this change in his studies, according to Delambre<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c011'><sup>[7]</sup></a>, after it,
-according to others, but certainly while very young, he was elected
-professor at the Royal School of Artillery at Turin. We may best
-convey some notion of his early proficiency, by stating without
-detail, that at the age of twenty-three we find him—the founder of an
-Academy of Sciences at Turin, whose volumes yield in interest to
-none, and owe that interest principally to his productions,—a member
-of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, an honour obtained through
-the medium of Euler, who shortly after announced him to Frederic of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>Prussia as the fittest man in Europe to succeed himself,—and settling,
-finally, a most intricate question<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c011'><sup>[8]</sup></a> of mathematics, which had given rise
-to long discussions between Euler and D’Alembert, then perhaps the
-two first mathematicians in Europe. He had previously extended the
-method of Euler for the solution of what are called <em>isoperimetrical
-problems</em>, and laid the foundation for the <cite>Calculus of Variations</cite>, the
-most decided advance, in our opinion, which any one has made since
-the death of Newton.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Éloge<a id='t88'></a> de Lagrange, Mémoires de l’Institut.</span> 1812.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The admissibility of discontinuous functions into the integrals of partial differential
-equations.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1764 he gained the prize proposed by the Academy of Sciences
-for an Essay on the Libration of the Moon; and in 1766, that for an
-Essay on the Theory of the Satellites of Jupiter. In the former of
-these we find him, for the first time, using the <em>principle of virtual
-velocities</em>, which had hitherto remained almost a barren truth, but
-which he afterwards made, in conjunction with the principle known
-after the name of D’Alembert, the foundation of the whole of mechanical
-science.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1766, Euler, intending to return to St. Petersburg, resigned the
-situation which he held at the Court of Berlin, that of director of
-the physico-mathematical class of the Academy of Sciences. Frederic
-offered this place to D’Alembert, who refused it for himself, but joined
-with Euler in recommending Lagrange. The King of Prussia
-acceded to their suggestion, and Lagrange was invited to establish
-himself at Berlin, with a salary equivalent to 6,000 francs.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Lagrange remained at Berlin till after the death of Frederic. He
-here married a lady who was related to him, and who came from Turin
-at his request. She died after a lingering illness of several years,
-marked by the most unceasing attention on the part of her husband,
-who abandoned his pursuits to devote himself entirely to her during
-her illness. Nevertheless the period of his sojourn at Berlin is
-perhaps the brightest of a life, most years of which, from the age of
-eighteen to that of seventy, were sufficient to ensure a lasting reputation.
-He here laid the foundation of his Theory of Functions, of his
-general method for determining the secular variations of the planetary
-orbits; and here he wrote his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Analytique</span></cite>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At the death of Frederic, he found that science was no longer
-treated with the same respect at the Court of Berlin. He had found
-from the commencement of his stay there, that foreigners were looked
-upon with dislike, and his spirits had not recovered the loss of his
-wife. Many advantageous offers were made to him by different courts,
-and among the rest by that of France. Mirabeau, who was then at
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>Berlin, first pointed out to the ministers of Louis XVI. the acquisition
-which was in their power. Lagrange removed to Paris in 1787, and
-remained there till his death.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He was then weary of his pursuits, and it is said that his
-<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Analytique</span></cite>, which he had sent from Berlin to be printed
-in Paris, lay unopened by himself for more than two years after its
-publication in 1788. He employed himself in the study of ecclesiastical
-and other history, of medicine, botany, and metaphysics. When the
-discoveries of the chemists changed the theory and notation of their
-science, or rather created a science where none existed before, he
-threw himself upon the new study with avidity, and declared that they
-had made it easy; <em>as easy as algebra</em>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1792, being then fifty-six years of age, he married Mlle. Lemonnier,
-daughter of the astronomer of that name, and daughter, grand-daughter,
-and niece of members of the Academy of Sciences. This
-lady well deserves honourable mention in every memoir of Lagrange,
-for the affectionate care which she took of his declining years.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>When, after the subversion of the monarchy, a commission was
-appointed to examine into the system of weights and measures, Lagrange
-was placed at its head. In this post he continued, not being included
-in the <em>purification</em>, which three months after its formation, deprived
-the commission of the services of Laplace, Coulomb, Brisson, Borda,
-and Delambre. He took no part in politics, and appears to have given
-no offence to any party; hence, when the government of Robespierre
-commanded all foreigners to quit France, an exception was made in his
-favour by the committee of public safety. All his friends had advised
-him to retire from the country; and the fate of Lavoisier and Bailly
-was sufficient to show that scientific talents of the most useful character
-were no protection. He now regretted that he had not followed their
-advice, and even meditated returning to Berlin. He did not, however,
-put this scheme in execution; and as the Normal and Polytechnic
-Schools were successively founded, he was appointed to professorships
-in both. His <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Leçons</span></cite>, delivered to the former institution, appear in
-their published series, and among them we find the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Leçons sur la
-Théorie des Fonctions</span></cite>, which has since appeared as a separate work.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is almost needless to say, so well as the public know how science
-was encouraged under the Consulate and the Empire, that Lagrange
-received from Napoleon every possible respect and distinction. The
-titles of senator, count of the empire, grand cordon of the legion of
-honour, &amp;c. were given to him. It is also gratifying to be able to add
-that his abstinence from political engagements has left his memory
-unstained by such imputations as, we know not how justly, rest upon
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>that of Laplace. We might have omitted to state that he belonged
-to all the scientific academies of Europe; but that it is necessary,
-for the sake of the scientific reputation of this country, to correct
-an inadvertence into which the able author of the ‘Life of Lagrange,’
-in the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Biographie Universelle</span></cite>, appears to have fallen. He states that
-Lagrange was not a member of the Royal Society of London<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c011'><sup>[9]</sup></a>. The
-fact is, that he was elected in 1798, and his name continued on the list
-of foreign members all the remainder of his life.</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les principales sociétés savantes de L’Europe, <em>celle de Londres exceptée</em>, s’empressèrent
-de décorer de son nom la liste de leurs membres.</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>About the end of March, 1813, Lagrange was seized with a fever,
-which caused his death. He had previously been subject to fits of fainting,
-in the last of which he was found by Madame Lagrange, having
-fallen against the corner of a table. He preserved his senses to the
-last, and on the 8th of April conversed for more than two hours with
-M.M. Monge, Lacepède, and Chaptal, who were commissioned by the
-Emperor to carry him the grand cordon of the order of the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Réunion</span></i>.
-He then promised them, not thinking himself so near his end, full
-details of his early life. Unfortunately this promise remains unfulfilled,
-as he died on the 10th of April, in his seventy-eighth year. His
-father had died some years before him at the age of ninety-five,
-having had eleven children, all of whom, except the subject of this
-memoir, and one other, died young. Lagrange himself had no children.
-His private character, as all accounts agree in stating, was most
-exemplary. His manners were peculiarly mild, and though occasionally
-abstracted and absent, he was fond of society, particularly that
-of the young. In the earlier part of his life he was attacked in an
-unworthy manner by Fontaine, who at the same time boasted of some
-discovery which he attributed to himself. Lagrange replied with the
-urbanity which always accompanied his dealings with others, and
-while he overthrew the claim of his opponent, he repaid his incivility
-by the compliment of admitting that his talents were such as would
-have enabled him to attain the discovery, if it had not been previously
-made. Such moderation is rare, and as might be expected, it was
-accompanied by the utmost modesty in speaking of himself. In the
-latter half of his life, it would have been affectation in him to have
-denied his own powers, or spoken slightingly of his own discoveries;
-nor do we find that he ever did so. In giving opinions or explanations,
-he broke off the moment he found that his ideas were not as clear or
-his knowledge as definite, as he had thought when he begun; concluding
-abruptly with <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Je ne sais pas, Je ne sais pas</span></i>. Among his
-studies, music found a place; but, though pleased with the art, he used
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>to assert that he never heard more than three bars: the fourth found
-him wrapped in meditation, and by his own account, he solved very
-difficult problems in these circumstances. He would, therefore, as
-M. Delambre remarks, measure the beauty of a piece of music by the
-mathematical suggestions which he derived from it; and his arrangement
-of the great masters would be not a little curious.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He never would allow a portrait of himself to be taken. A very
-well executed bust, which is now in the Library of the Institute, was
-made from a sketch by a young Italian artist, sent by the Academy of
-Turin. From this bust our portrait is engraved.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the character of Lagrange as a philosopher, no description, in so
-few words, can be better than that of M. Laplace: “Among the
-discoverers who have most enlarged the bounds of our knowledge,
-Newton and Lagrange appear to me to have possessed in the highest
-degree that happy tact, which leads to the discovery of general principles,
-and which constitutes true genius for science. This tact, united
-with a rare degree of elegance in the manner of explaining the most
-abstract theories, is the characteristic of Lagrange.” This power of
-generalization distinguishes all that he has written, and the student of the
-<cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Analytique</span></cite> is amazed when he comes to a chapter headed
-“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Equations Différentielles pour la solution de tous les problèmes de
-Dynamique</span>,” which, on examination, he finds equally applicable, and
-equally applied, to the vibrations of a pendulum or the motion of a
-planet. On the exquisite symmetry of his notation and style, we need
-not enlarge: the mathematician either is acquainted with it, or should
-become so with all speed; and others will perhaps only smile at the
-notion of one set of algebraical symbols possessing more elegance or
-beauty than another.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The separate works of Lagrange are—1. <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mécanique Analytique</span></cite>, the
-second edition of which he was engaged upon when he died; the first
-edition was published in 1788. 2. <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Théorie des Fonctions Analytiques</span></cite>,
-a system of Fluxions on purely algebraical principles; first edition,
-1797; second edition, 1813. 3. <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Leçons sur le Calcul des Fonctions</span></cite>;
-first published separately in 1806. 4. <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Résolution des Equations numériques</span></cite>;
-three editions, in 1798, 1808, and 1826. To give only a list of
-his separate memoirs would double the length of this life: they will
-be found in the <cite>Miscellanea Taurinensia</cite>, tom. i.-v., and 1784–5;
-<cite>Memoirs of the Berlin Academy</cite>, 1765–1803; <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Recueils de l’Académie
-des Sciences de Paris</span></cite>, 1773–4, and tom. ix.; <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires des Savans
-Etrangers</span></cite>, tom. vii. and x.; <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires de l’Institut</span></cite>, 1808–9; <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Journal de
-l’École<a id='t92'></a> Polytechnique</span></cite>, tom. ii. <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cahiers</span></i> 5, 6, tom. viii. <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cahier</span></i> 15; <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Seánces
-des Écoles Normales</span></cite>; and <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Connoissance des Tems</span></cite>, 1814, 1817.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_093fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by Ja<sup>s</sup>. Mollison.</em><br /><br />VOLTAIRE.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture by Largillière<br />in the collection of the Institute of France.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>
-<img src='images/i_093.jpg' alt='VOLTAIRE.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>VOLTAIRE.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>François Marie Arouet, who is commonly known by his assumed
-name, De Voltaire, was born at Châtenay, near Sceaux, February 20,
-1694. He soon distinguished himself as a child of extraordinary
-abilities. The Abbé de Châteauneuf, his godfather, took charge of
-the elements of his education, and laboured successfully to improve
-the talents of his ready pupil without much regard to his morals.
-At three years old the future champion of infidelity had learned by
-heart the Moisade, an irreligious poem of J. B. Rousseau. These
-lessons were not forgotten at college, where he passed rapidly through
-the usual courses of study, and alarmed his Jesuit preceptors by the
-undisguised licence of his opinions. About this time some of his first
-attempts at poetry obtained for him the notice of Ninon de l’Enclos;
-and when the Abbé de Châteauneuf, who had been the last in her
-long list of favourites, introduced him at her house, she was so pleased
-with the promising talents of the boy, that she left him by will a
-legacy of 2,000 francs to purchase books. The <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ecole de Droit</span>, where
-Arouet next studied, was much less suited to his disposition than the
-College of Louis le Grand. In vain his father urged him to undertake
-the drudgery of a profession: the Abbé was a more agreeable
-monitor, and under his auspices the young man sought with eagerness
-the best Parisian society. At the suppers of the Prince de Conti,
-he became acquainted with wits and poets, acquired the easy tone of
-familiar politeness, and distinguished himself by the delicacy of his
-flatteries, and the liveliness of his repartee. In 1713 he went to
-Holland as page to the French ambassador, the Marquis de Châteauneuf.
-This place had been solicited by his father in the hope of
-detaching him from dissipated habits. But little was gained by the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>step, for in a short time he was sent back to his family, in consequence
-of an intrigue with a M<sup>lle.</sup> Du Noyer, whose mother, a
-Protestant refugee at the Hague, gained her living by scandal and
-libels, and on this occasion thought something might be got by complaining
-to the ambassador, and printing young Arouet’s love-letters.
-He was, however, not easily discouraged. He endeavoured to interest
-the Jesuits in his affairs, by representing M<sup>lle.</sup> Du Noyer as a ready
-convert, whom it would be Catholic charity to snatch from the influence
-of an apostate mother. This manœuvre having failed, he
-sought a reconciliation with his father, who remained a long while
-implacable; but touched at last by his son’s entreaties to be permitted
-to see him once more, on condition of leaving the country
-immediately afterwards for America, he consented to receive him into
-favour. Arouet again attempted legal studies, but soon abandoned
-them in disgust. The Regency had now commenced; and among the
-numerous satires directed against the memory of Louis XIV., one
-was attributed to him. The report caused him a year’s imprisonment
-in the Bastille. Soon afterwards he changed the name of Arouet
-for that of Voltaire. “I have been unhappy,” he said, “so long as
-I bore the first: let us see if the other will bring better fortune.” It
-seemed indeed that it did so, for in 1718 the tragedy of Œdipe was
-represented, and established the reputation of its author. It had been
-principally composed in the Bastille, where he also laid the foundation
-of his Henriade, which occupied the time he could spare from amorous
-and political intrigue, until 1724. Desiring to publish it, he submitted
-the poem to some select friends, men of severe taste, who met at the
-house of the President <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">de Maisons</span>. They found so many faults that
-the author threw the manuscript into the fire. The President Hénault
-rescued it with difficulty, and said, “Young man, your haste has cost
-me a pair of best lace ruffles: why should your poem be better than
-its hero, who was full of faults, yet none of us like him the worse?”
-Surreptitious copies spread rapidly, and gained for the author much
-both of celebrity and envy. But it displeased two powerful classes:
-the priests were apprehensive of its religious, the courtiers of its
-political, tendency; insomuch that the publication was prohibited by
-government, and the young king refused to accept the dedication. Soon
-after this, Voltaire was sent again to the Bastille, in consequence of
-a quarrel with the Chevalier de Rohan: and on his liberation, he was
-banished to England. There he remained three years, perhaps the
-most important era of his life, for it gave an entirely new direction to
-his lively mind. Hitherto a wit, and a writer of agreeable verse, he
-became in England a philosopher. Returning to France in 1726, he
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>brought with him an admiration of our manners, and a knowledge of
-our best writers, which visibly influenced his own compositions and
-those of his contemporaries. He now published several poetical and
-dramatic pieces with variable success; but he was more than once
-forced to quit Paris by the clamour and persecution of his enemies.
-After the failure of one of his plays, Fontenelle and some other
-literary associates seriously advised him to abandon the drama, as less
-suited to his talent than the light style of fugitive poetry in which he
-had uniformly succeeded. He answered them by writing Zaire,
-which was acted with great applause in 1732. He had already
-published his history of Charles XII.: that of Peter the Great was
-written much later in life. The <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lettres Philosophiques</span>, secretly
-printed at Rouen, and rapidly circulating, increased his popularity,
-and the zeal of his enemies. This work was burnt by the
-common hangman. About this time commenced that celebrated
-intimacy with Emilie Marquise du Châtelet, which for nearly twenty
-years stimulated and guided his genius. Love made him a mathematician.
-In the studious leisure of Cirey, under the auspices of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la
-sublime Emilie</span>,” he plunged himself into the most abstract speculations,
-and acquired a new title to fame by publishing the Elements of
-Newton in 1738, and contending for a prize proposed by the Academy
-of Sciences. At the same time he produced in rapid succession
-Alzire, Mahomet, and Merope. His fame was now become European.
-Frederic of Prussia, Stanislaus, and other sovereigns honoured him,
-or were honoured by his correspondence. But the perpetual intrigues
-of his enemies at home deprived him of repose, and even at Cirey he
-was not always free from troubles and altercations. Upon the death
-of Madame du Châtelet, in 1749, he accepted the often urged invitation
-of Frederic, and took up his residence at the Court of Berlin.
-But the friendship of the king and the philosopher was not of long
-duration. A violent quarrel with the geometrician, Maupertuis, who
-was also living under the protection of Frederic, ended, after some
-ineffectual attempts at accommodation, in Voltaire’s departure from
-Frederic’s society and dominions (1753). He had just published his
-<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Siècle de Louis XIV.</span>, which was shortly followed by the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai sur les
-Mœurs</span>. After a few more wanderings, for the versatility of his talent
-seemed to require a corresponding variety of abode, Voltaire finally
-fixed himself at Ferney, near Geneva, in the sixty-fifth year of his
-eventful life, and began to enjoy at leisure his vast reputation. From
-all parts of Europe strangers undertook pilgrimages to this philosophic
-shrine. Sovereigns took pride in corresponding with the Patriarch,
-as he was called by the numerous sect of free-thinkers, and self-styled
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span><em>philosophers</em>, who looked up to him as their teacher and leader. The
-Society of Philosophers at Paris, now employed in their great work,
-the Encyclopædia, which, from the moment of its ill-judged prohibition
-by the government had assumed the character of an antichristian
-manifesto, looked up to Voltaire as the acknowledged chief of their
-party. He furnished some of the most important articles in the work.
-His whole mind seemed now to be bent on one object, the subversion of
-the Christian religion. Innumerable miscellaneous compositions, different
-in form, and generally anonymous, indeed often disavowed, were
-marked by this pernicious tendency. “I am tired,” he is reported to
-have said, “of hearing it repeated that twelve men were sufficient to
-found Christianity: I will show the world that <em>one</em> is sufficient to
-destroy it!” Half a century has elapsed, and the event has not
-justified the truth of this boast: he mistook his own strength, as
-many other unbelievers have done. These impious extravagances were
-not, however, the only occupation of the twenty years which intervened
-between Voltaire’s establishment at Ferney and his death. In the
-defence of Sirven, Lally, Labarre, Calas, and others, who at several
-times were objects of unjust condemnation by the judicial tribunals, he
-exerted himself with a zeal as indefatigable as it was meritorious.
-Ferney, under his protection, grew to a considerable village, and the
-inhabitants learned to bless the liberalities of their patron. His mind
-continued to be embittered by literary quarrels, the most memorable
-being that with J. J. Rousseau, commemorated in his poem, entitled
-‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Guerre Civile de Genève</span>’ (1768). He hated this unfortunate exile,
-as a rival, as an enthusiast, and as a friend, comparatively speaking, to
-Christianity. Nor were these his only disquietudes. The publication
-of the infamous poem of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Pucelle</span>, which he suffered in strict
-confidence to circulate among his intimate friends, and which was
-printed by the treachery of some of them, gave him much uneasiness.
-For its indecency and impiety he might not have cared: but all who
-had offended him, authors, courtiers, even the king and his mistress,
-were abused in it in the grossest manner, and Voltaire had no wish
-to provoke the arm of power. He had recourse to his usual process
-of disavowal, and as he could not deny the whole, he asserted that
-the offensive parts had been intercalated by his enemies. In other
-instances his zeal outran discretion, and affected his comforts by
-producing apprehension for his safety. Sometimes a panic terror of
-assassination took possession of him, and it needed all the gentleness
-and assiduities of his adopted daughter, Madame de Varicourt, to
-whom he was tenderly attached, to bring back his usual levity of
-mind. At length, in 1778, Voltaire yielding to the entreaties of his
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>favourite niece, Madame Denis, came to Paris, where at the theatre
-he was greeted by a numerous assemblage in a manner resembling
-the crowning of an Athenian dramatic poet, more than any modern
-exhibition of popular favour. Borne back to his hotel amidst the
-acclamations of thousands, the aged man said feebly, “You are suffocating
-me with roses.” He did not indeed long survive this festival.
-Continued study, and the immoderate use of coffee, renewed a strangury
-to which he had been subject, and he died May 30, 1778. He
-was interred with the rites of Christian worship, a point concerning
-which he had shown some solicitude, in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Abbaye de Scellières</span>.
-In 1791 his remains were removed by the Revolutionists, and deposited
-with great pomp in the Pantheon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is difficult within our contracted limits to give an accurate character
-of Voltaire. In versatility of powers, and in variety of knowledge,
-he stands unrivalled: but he might have earned a better
-and more lasting name, had he concentrated his talents and exertions
-on fewer subjects, and studied them more deeply. It has
-been truly and wittily observed that “he <em>half knew</em> every thing,
-from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop on the wall; and he
-wrote of them all, and laughed at them all.” Of the feeling of
-veneration, either for God or man, he seems to have been incapable.
-He thought too highly of himself to look up to any thing. Capricious,
-passionate, and generally selfish, he was yet accessible to
-sudden impulses of generosity. He was an acute rather than a subtle
-thinker. Perhaps in the whole compass of his philosophical works
-there is not to be found one original opinion, or entirely new argument;
-but no man ever was endowed with so happy a facility for illustrating
-the thoughts of others, and imparting a lively clearness to the most
-abstruse speculations. He brought philosophy from the closet into the
-drawing-room. Eminently skilled to detect and satirize the faults and
-follies of mankind, his love of ridicule was too strong for his love of
-truth. He saw the ludicrous side of opinions in a moment, and often
-unfortunately could see nothing else. His alchymy was directed
-towards transmuting the imperfect metals into dross. All enthusiasm,
-eagerness of belief, magnifying of probabilities through the medium
-of excited feeling, all that makes a sect as well in its author as its followers,
-these things were simply foolish in his estimation. It is impossible
-to gather from his works any connected system of philosophy: they
-are full of contradictions; but the pervading principle which gives
-them some form of coherence is a rancorous aversion to Christianity.
-As a Deist believing in a God, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">rémunérateur vengeur</span>,” but proscribing
-all established worship, Voltaire occupies a middle position
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>between Rousseau on the one hand, who, while he avowed scepticism
-as to the proofs, professed reverence for the characteristics of Revealed
-Religion, and Diderot on the other, with his fanatical crew of Atheists,
-who laughed not without reason at their Patriarch of Ferney, for
-imagining that he, whose life had been spent in trying to unsettle the
-religious opinions of mankind, could fix the point at which unbelief
-should stop. The dramatic poems of Voltaire retain their place among
-the first in their language, but his other poetical works have lost much
-of the reputation they once enjoyed. He paints with fidelity and
-vividness the broad lineaments of passion, and excels in that light,
-allusive style, which brings no image or sentiment into strong relief,
-and is therefore totally unlike the analytic and picturesque mode of
-delineation, to which in this country, and especially in this age, we
-are apt to limit the name and prerogatives of imagination. As a
-novelist, he has seldom been equalled in wit and profligacy. As an
-historian, he may be considered one of the first who authorized the
-modern philosophizing manner, treating history rather as a reservoir
-of facts for the illustration of moral science, than as a department of
-descriptive art. He is often inaccurate, and seldom profound, but
-always lively and interesting. On the whole, however the general
-reputation of Voltaire may rise or fall with the fluctuations of public
-opinion, he must continue to deserve admiration as</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c012'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>“The wonder of a learned age; the line</div>
-      <div class='line'>Which none could pass; the wittiest, clearest pen;</div>
-      <div class='line'><em>The voice most echoed by consenting men;</em></div>
-      <div class='line'><em>The soul, which answered best to all well said</em></div>
-      <div class='line'><em>By others, and which most requital made</em>.”—<span class='sc'>Cleveland.</span></div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_098.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_099fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by J. Posselwhite.</em><br /><br />RUBENS.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by himself,<br />in His Majesty’s Collection.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>
-<img src='images/i_099.jpg' alt='RUBENS.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>RUBENS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>The father of this great painter was a magistrate of Antwerp, who,
-during the desperate struggle of the Netherlands to shake off the
-dominion of Spain, retired from his own city to Cologne, to escape
-from the miseries of war. There, in the year 1577, Peter Paul
-Rubens was born. At an early age he gave indications of superior
-abilities, and his education was conducted with suitable care. The
-elder Rubens returned to Antwerp with his family, when that city
-passed again into the hands of Spain. It was the custom of that age
-to domesticate the sons of honourable families in the houses of the
-nobility, where they were instructed in all the accomplishments
-becoming a gentleman: and in conformity with it, young Rubens
-entered as a page into the service of the Countess of Lalain. The
-restraint and formality of this life ill suited his warm imagination
-and active mind: and on his father’s death, he obtained permission
-from his mother to commence his studies as a painter under Tobias
-Verhaecht, by whom he was taught the principles of landscape
-painting, and of architecture. But Rubens wished to become an
-historical painter, and he entered the school of Adam Van Oort, who
-was then eminent in that branch of art. This man possessed great
-talents, but they were degraded by a brutal temper and profligate
-habits, and Rubens soon left him in disgust. His next master was
-Otho Van Veen, or Venius, an artist in almost every respect the
-opposite of Van Oort, distinguished by scholastic acquirements as
-well as professional skill, of refined manners, and amiable disposition.
-Rubens was always accustomed to speak of him with great respect and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>affection, nor was it extraordinary that he should have conceived a
-cordial esteem for a man whose character bore so strong a resemblance
-to his own. From Venius, Rubens imbibed his fondness for
-allegory; which, though in many respects objectionable, certainly
-contributes to the magnificence of his style. In 1600, after having
-studied four years under this master, he visited Italy, bearing letters
-of recommendation from Albert, governor of the Netherlands, by
-whom he had already been employed, to Vincenzio Gonzaga, duke
-of Mantua. He was received by that prince with marked distinction,
-and appointed one of the gentlemen of his chamber. He remained at
-Mantua two years, during which time he executed several original
-pictures, and devoted himself attentively to the study of the works of
-Giulio Romano.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In passing through Venice, Rubens had been deeply impressed
-with the great works of art which he saw there. He had determined
-to revisit that city on the first opportunity, and at length
-obtained permission from his patron to do so. In the Venetian
-school his genius found its proper aliment; but it is perhaps
-to Paul Veronese that he is principally indebted. He looked at
-Titian, no doubt, with unqualified admiration; but Titian has on all
-occasions, a dignity and sedateness not congenial to the gay temperament
-of Rubens. In Paul Veronese he found all the elements of his
-subsequent style; gaiety, magnificence, fancy disdainful of restraint,
-brilliant colouring, and that masterly execution by which an almost
-endless variety of objects are blended into one harmonious whole.
-Three pictures painted for the church of the Jesuits immediately after
-his return to Mantua, attested how effectually he had prosecuted his
-studies at Venice. He then developed those powers which afterwards
-established his reputation, and secured to him a distinction which he
-still holds without a competitor, that of being the best imitator, and
-most formidable rival of the Venetian school.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Rome, with its exhaustless treasures of art, was still before him,
-and he was soon gratified with an opportunity of visiting that capital.
-The Duke of Mantua wished to obtain copies of some of the finest
-pictures there, and he engaged Rubens to make them, with the double
-motive of availing himself of his talents and facilitating his studies.
-This task was doubtless rendered light to Rubens, as well by gratitude
-towards his patron as by his own great facility of execution.
-In this respect Sir J. Reynolds considers him superior to all other
-painters; and says that he was “perhaps the greatest master in the
-mechanical part of his art, the best workman with his tools, that ever
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>handled a pencil.” He executed for the Duke copies of several great
-works, which could scarcely be distinguished from the originals.
-Among his own compositions, painted while at Rome, the most
-conspicuous are three in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme,
-two of which, Christ bearing the Cross, and the Crucifixion, are
-considered to rank among his finest productions. There is also, in
-the Campidoglio, a picture painted by him at this time, of the finding
-of Romulus and Remus, a work of remarkable spirit and beauty.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Rubens, however, had formed his style at Venice, and was not
-induced by the contemplation of the great works at Rome to alter it in
-any essential particular. It is not thence to be inferred that he was
-insensible to the wonders which surrounded him at Rome; that he did
-not appreciate the epic sublimity of Michael Angelo, the pure intelligence
-of Raphael; his admiration of ancient sculpture is attested by
-his written precepts. Of the antique, certainly, no trace of imitation
-is to be found in his works; but perhaps the bold style of design,
-which he had adopted in opposition to the meagre taste of his German
-predecessors, was confirmed by the swelling outlines of Michael
-Angelo. If he imitated Raphael in any thing, it was in composition;
-and if in that great quality of art he has any superior, it is in Raphael
-alone.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The opinion which the Duke of Mantua had formed of Rubens’s
-general powers was now evinced in an extraordinary manner. Having
-occasion, in 1605, to send an envoy to Spain, he selected Rubens for
-the purpose, and directed him to return immediately from Rome to
-Mantua, in order to set out on his embassy. The young artist
-succeeded equally well as a diplomatist, and as a painter. He executed
-a portrait of the King, who honoured him with flattering marks of
-distinction, and he fully accomplished the object of his mission.
-Shortly after his return to Mantua he revisited Rome, where he contributed
-three pictures to the church of S. Maria in Vallicella. In
-these the imitation of Paul Veronese is particularly conspicuous. He
-next went to Genoa, where he executed several important works, and
-was regarded in that city with an interest and respect commensurate
-to his high reputation. In the midst of this splendid career, Rubens
-received intelligence that his mother, from whom he had been absent
-eight years, lay dangerously ill. He hastened to Antwerp, but she
-had expired before his arrival. The death of this affectionate parent
-afflicted him so severely, that he determined to quit a city fraught
-with painful associations, and to take up his future residence in Italy.
-But the Duke Albert, and the Infanta Isabella, being anxious to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>retain him in their own territory, he was induced to relinquish his
-intention, and finally settled at Antwerp.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There he continued to practise during several years, and enriched
-Europe, the Low Countries especially, with a surprising number of
-pictures almost uniform in excellence. His style, indeed, with all its
-admirable qualities, was one in which the delicacies of form and
-expression were never allowed to stand in the way of despatch. His
-mode of working was to make small sketches, slightly but distinctly;
-these were delivered to his scholars, who executed pictures from them
-on a larger scale, which they carried forward almost to the final stage,
-at which Rubens took them up himself. Thus his own labour was
-given only to invention and finishing, the only parts of the art in
-which the painter’s genius is essentially exercised. Wherever his
-works were dispersed, the demand for them increased, and fortune
-poured in on him in a golden flood. Rubens’s mode of living at
-Antwerp was the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">beau idéal</span></i> of a painter’s existence. His house was
-embellished with such a collection of works of art, pictures, statues,
-busts, vases, and other objects of curiosity and elegance, as gave it
-the air of a princely museum. In the midst of these he pursued his
-labours, and it was his constant practice while painting to have read
-to him works of ancient or modern literature in various languages.
-It is a strong testimony to the variety of his powers, and the cultivation
-of his mind, that he was well skilled in seven different tongues.
-His splendid establishment comprehended a collection of wild beasts,
-which he kept as living models for those hunting pieces, and other
-representations of savage animals, which have never been surpassed.
-Such talents and such success could not fail of exciting envy; a cabal
-headed by Schut, Jansens, and Rombouts, endeavoured to detract from
-his reputation, and it is amusing to find him accused, among other deficiencies,
-of wanting invention! His great picture of the Descent from
-the Cross, painted for the Cathedral of Antwerp, and exhibited while
-the outcry against him was at its height, effectually allayed it. Snyders
-and Wildens were answered in a similar manner. They had insinuated
-that the chief credit of Rubens’s landscapes and animals was due to
-their assistance. Rubens painted several lion and tiger hunts, and
-other similar works, entirely with his own hand, which he did not
-permit to be seen until they were completed. In these works he even
-surpassed his former productions; they were executed with a truth
-power, and energy, which excited universal astonishment, and effectually
-put his adversaries to silence. Rubens condescended to give no
-other reply to his calumniators; and he showed his own goodness of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>heart, by finding employment for those among them whom he understood
-to be in want of it.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1628 he was commissioned by Mary de Medici, Queen of
-France, to adorn the gallery of the Luxembourg with a set of pictures,
-twenty-four in number, illustrative of the events of her life. Within
-three years he completed this magnificent series, in which allegory
-mingles with history, and the immense variety of actors, human and
-superhuman, with appropriate accompaniments, lays open a boundless
-field to the imagination of the artist. The largest of these pictures,
-which is the Coronation of Mary de Medici, combines with the
-gorgeous colouring proper to the subject, a correctness and chastity
-of design seldom attained by Rubens, and is consequently an example
-of that high excellence which might be expected from his style when
-divested of its imperfections. The gallery of the Luxembourg, as long
-as it possessed those ornaments, was considered one of the wonders of
-Europe. The pictures are now removed to the Louvre, and are seen
-perhaps with diminished effect, among the mass of miscellaneous
-works with which they are surrounded.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The two last of the Luxembourg series Rubens finished in Paris.
-On his return to the Netherlands his political talents were again
-called into requisition, and he was despatched by the Infanta Isabella
-to Madrid, to receive instructions preparatory to a negotiation for
-peace between Spain and England. Philip IV., and the Duke de
-Olivarez, his minister, received him with every demonstration of
-regard, nor did they neglect to avail themselves of his professional
-skill. The King engaged him to paint four pictures of large dimensions
-for the Convent of Carmelites, near Madrid, recently founded
-by Olivarez, to whom Philip presented those magnificent works. The
-subjects were the Triumph of the New Law, Abraham and Melchizedec,
-the four Evangelists, and the four Doctors of the Church,
-with their distinctive emblems. He also painted a series of pictures
-for the great Saloon of the Palace at Madrid, which represent the
-Rape of the Sabines, the Battle between the Romans and Sabines,
-the Bath of Diana, Perseus and Andromeda, the Rape of Helen, the
-Judgment of Paris, and the Triumph of Bacchus. The Judgment of
-Paris is now in the possession of Mr. Penrice, of Great Yarmouth, and
-may be considered one of the finest of Rubens’s smaller pictures; the
-figures being half the size of life. The King rewarded him munificently,
-and conferred on him the honour of knighthood.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Rubens returned to Flanders in 1627, and had no sooner rendered
-an account of his mission to the Infanta, than he was sent by that
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>princess to England in order to sound the Government on the subject
-of a peace with Spain, the chief obstacle to which had been removed
-by the death of the Duke of Buckingham. It is probable that
-Rubens’s extraordinary powers as an artist formed one motive for
-employing him in those diplomatic functions. The monarchs to
-whose courts he was sent were passionate admirers of art; and the
-frequent visits which they made to Rubens in his painting room,
-and the confidence with which they honoured him, gave him opportunities,
-perhaps, in his double capacity, of obviating political difficulties,
-which might not otherwise have been so easily overcome. This was
-certainly the case in his negotiations with Charles I. He was not,
-it appears, formally presented in the character of an envoy. But
-the monarch received him with all the consideration due to his
-distinguished character; and it was while he was engaged on the
-paintings at Whitehall, the progress of which the King delighted to
-inspect, that he disclosed the object of his visit, and produced his
-credentials. This he did with infinite delicacy and address; and
-the King was by no means indisposed to listen to his proposals. A
-council was appointed to negotiate with him on the subject of a
-pacification, which was soon after concluded. It was on this occasion
-that Rubens painted and presented to the King the picture of Peace
-and War, which is now in our National Gallery. The relation of
-that work to the object of his mission is obvious: the blessings of
-peace in contradistinction to the miseries of war are beautifully
-illustrated; and whether Rubens paid this compliment to the King
-while his negotiations were in progress, or after they were terminated,
-a more elegant and appropriate gift was never addressed by a
-minister to a monarch. The painter was splendidly remunerated, and
-honoured with knighthood by Charles in 1630. The object of his
-mission being happily accomplished, he returned to the Netherlands,
-where he was received with the distinction due to his splendid genius
-and successful services.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His various and incessant labours appear to have prematurely
-broken his constitution; he had scarcely attained his fifty-eighth year
-when he was attacked by gout with more than usual severity. This
-painful disease was succeeded by a general debility, which obliged him
-to desist from the execution of large works, to relinquish all public
-business, and even to limit his correspondence to his particular friends,
-and a few distinguished artists. His letters, however, when he touches
-on the subject of art, rise into a strain of animated enthusiasm.
-He continued to work, but chiefly on small subjects, till the year
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>1640, when he died at the age of sixty-three. He was interred with
-great splendour in the church of St. James, under the altar of his private
-chapel, which he had ornamented with one of his finest pictures.
-A monument was erected to his memory by his widow and children,
-with an epitaph descriptive of his distinguished talents, the functions
-he had filled, and the honours with which he had been rewarded.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In extent of range the pencil of Rubens is unrivalled. History,
-portrait, landscape under the aspect of every season, animal life in
-every form, are equally familiar to him. His hunting pieces
-especially, wherein lions, tigers, and other wild animals, with men,
-dogs, and horses, are depicted under all the circumstances of fierce
-excitement, momentary action, and complicated foreshortenings, are
-wonderful. Rubens wanted only a purer style in designing the
-human figure, to have been a perfect, as well as a universal painter.
-His taste in this particular is singularly unlike that which the habits
-of his life seemed likely to produce. He had been bred up in scenes
-of courtly elegance, and he was acquainted with whatever was beautiful
-in art; yet his conception of character, especially in relation to
-feminine beauty, betrays a singular want of refinement. His goddesses,
-nymphs, and heroines are usually fat, middle-aged ladies,
-sometimes even old and ugly; and they always retain the peculiarities
-of individual models. His men too, though not without an air of
-portly grandeur, want mental dignity. Faults of such magnitude
-would have ruined the fame of almost any other painter; but while
-the pictures of Rubens are before us, it is hard to criticise severely
-their defects. If, as a colourist, he is inferior to Titian, it is, perhaps,
-rather in kind than in degree: Titian’s colouring may be
-compared to the splendour of the summer sun; that of Rubens
-excites the exhilarating sensations of a spring morning. It is true
-that the artifice of his system is sometimes too apparent, whereas,
-in Titian, it is wholly concealed; Rubens, however, painted for a
-darker atmosphere, and adapted the effect of his pictures to the light
-in which they were likely to be seen. Inferior to Raphael in elegance
-and purity of composition, he competes with him in fertility and clearness
-of arrangement. He drew from Paul Veronese a general idea
-of diffused and splendid effect, but he superadded powers of pathos
-and expression, to which that artist was a stranger. It is, as
-Reynolds justly observes, only in his large works that the genius of
-Rubens is fully developed; in these he appears as the Homer of his
-art, dazzling and astonishing with poetic conception, with grandeur,
-and energy, and executive power.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>Of Rubens’s personal character we may speak in terms of high
-praise. He bore his great reputation without pride or presumption;
-he was amiable in his domestic relations, courteous and affable to all.
-He was the liberal encourager of merit, especially in his own art, and
-he repaid those among his contemporaries who aspersed him, by
-endeavouring to serve them. His own mind was uncontaminated by
-envy, for which perhaps little credit will be given him, conscious, as
-he must have been, of his own most extraordinary endowments. His
-noble admission, however, of Titian’s superiority, when he copied one
-of his works at Madrid, attests the magnanimity of his disposition;
-and his almost parental kindness to his pupil, Vandyke, shows that
-he was equally willing to recognize the claims, and to promote the
-success of living genius.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Rubens’s greatest works are at Antwerp, Cologne, Paris, Munich,
-and Madrid. The paintings at Whitehall might have formed a noble
-monument of his powers, but they have suffered both from neglect and
-reparation. There are smaller works of his in the National Gallery, the
-Dulwich Gallery, and in almost every private collection in this country.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The best memoir of Rubens with which we are acquainted is in
-<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Vie des Peintres Flamands, par Descamps</span>. Notices may also be
-found in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Abrégé de la Vie des Peintres, par De Piles</span>. There is
-an English life in Bryan’s Dictionary of Painters.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_106.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>Entrance to Rubens’ Garden, from a design by himself.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_107fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by T. Woolnoth.</em><br /><br />RICHELIEU.<br /><br /><em>From a Picture,<br />in his Majesty’s Collection.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>
-<img src='images/i_107.jpg' alt='RICHELIEU.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>RICHELIEU.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>The name of Du Plessis was borne by an ancient family of Poitou,
-which subsequently acquired by marriage the property and title of
-Richelieu. Francois Du Plessis was attached to King Henry III.
-while he was yet Duke of Anjou; accompanied him when he became
-King of Poland; and was made Grand Provost of his Court, after
-his accession to the throne of France. In this capacity he arrested
-the followers of Guise, when that duke was assassinated at Blois,
-in 1588.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Armand Jean Du Plessis, the future cardinal, was the third son of
-this dignitary, and was born on the 5th of September, 1585, at Paris,
-say his biographers, Aubery and Leclerc; whilst tradition claims this
-honour for the family <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">château</span> in Poitou. He received the elements of
-education at home, from the Prior of St. Florent; but soon quitted the
-paternal mansion, first for the College of Navarre, subsequently for
-that of Lisieux. From thence he removed to a military academy,
-being intended for the profession of arms. But on his brother, who
-was Bishop of Luçon, resolving to quit the world for the cloister,
-young Armand was advised to abandon the sword for the gown, in
-order that he might succeed to his brother’s bishopric.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He adopted the advice, entered with zeal into the study of theology,
-and soon qualified himself to pass creditably through the exercises
-necessary to obtain the degree of Doctor in Theology. He already
-wore the insignia of his bishopric. But the Pope’s sanction was still
-wanting, and was withheld on account of the extreme youth of the
-expectant. Resolved to overcome this difficulty, he set off to Rome,
-addressed the Pontiff in a Latin oration, and gave such proofs of talent
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>and acquirements above his age, that he was consecrated at Rome on
-the Easter of 1607, being as yet but twenty-two years of age.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This position attained, Richelieu endeavoured to make the utmost
-advantage of it. He acquired the good-will of his diocese by rigid
-attention to the affairs that fell under his jurisdiction; whilst in
-frequent visits to the capital, he sought to acquire reputation by
-preaching. In the Estates General of 1614, he was chosen deputy by
-his diocese, and was afterwards selected by the clergy of the states to
-present their <em>cahier</em> or vote of grievances to the monarch. It was an
-opportunity not to be thrown away by the ambition of Richelieu, who
-instantly put himself forward as the champion of the Queen Mother
-against the cabal of the high noblesse. He at the same time adroitly
-pointed out where she might find auxiliaries, by complaining that
-ecclesiastics had no longer a place in the public administration, and
-were thus degraded from their ancient and legitimate share of influence.
-Richelieu was rewarded with the place of Almoner to the Queen; and
-he was soon admitted to her confidence, as well as to that of her favourite
-the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Maréchal D’Ancre</span>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1616 he was appointed Secretary of State; but aware by what
-slender tenure the office was held, he refused to give up his bishopric.
-This excited not only the animadversions of the public, but the anger
-of the favourite. Richelieu offered to give up his secretaryship, but
-the Queen could not dispense with his talents. The assassination of the
-favourite, however, soon overthrew the influence of the Queen herself.
-Still Richelieu remained attached to her, and followed her to Blois:
-but the triumphant party dreading his talents for intrigue, ordered him
-to quit the Queen, and repair to one of his priories in Anjou. He was
-subsequently commanded to retire to his bishopric, and at last exiled
-to Avignon. Here he sought to avert suspicion by affecting to devote
-himself once more to theological pursuits. During this period he
-published one or two polemical tracts, the mediocrity of which proves
-either that his genius lay not in this path, or, as is probable, that
-his interest and thoughts were elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The escape of the Queen Mother from her place of confinement,
-excited the fears of her enemies, and the hopes of Richelieu. He wrote
-instantly to Court, to proffer his services towards bringing about an
-accommodation. In the difficulty of the moment, the King and his
-favourite accepted the offer. Richelieu was released from exile, and
-allowed to join the Queen at Angoulême, where he laboured certainly
-to bring about a reconciliation. This was not, however, such as the
-Court could have wished. De Luynes, the favourite, accused the Bishop
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>of Luçon of betraying him. The Queen sought to regain her ancient
-authority; the Court wished to quiet and content her without this
-sacrifice; and both parties, accordingly, after seeming and nominal
-agreements, fell off again from each other. De Luynes sought a support
-in the family of Condé; whilst Mary de Medici, refusing to repair to
-Paris, and keeping in her towns of surety on the Loire, flattered the
-Huguenots, and endeavoured to bind them to her party. On this
-occasion Richelieu became intimately acquainted with the designs and
-intrigues and spirit of the Reformers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The division betwixt the King and his mother still continued. The
-discontented nobles joined the latter, and flew to arms. This state of
-things did not please Richelieu, since defeat ruined his party, and
-success brought honour rather to those who fought than to him. He
-therefore exerted himself, first to keep away the chief of the nobility
-from the Queen, secondly, to bring about an accommodation. The
-difficulties were got over by the defeat of the Queen’s forces owing to
-surprise, and by the promotion of Richelieu to the rank of Cardinal.
-The malevolent coupled the two circumstances together; and even the
-impartial must descry a singular coincidence. The event, at least,
-proves his address; for when the agreement was finally concluded, it
-was found that Richelieu, the negotiator, had himself reaped all the
-benefits. He received the cardinal’s hat from the King’s hand at
-Lyons, towards the close of the year 1622.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Not content with this advancement of her counsellor, Mary de
-Medici continued to press the King to admit Richelieu to his cabinet.
-Louis long resisted her solicitations, such was his instinctive dread of
-the man destined to rule him. Nor was it until 1624, after the lapse
-of sixteen months, and when embarrassed with difficult state questions,
-which no one then in office was capable of managing, that the royal
-will was declared admitting Richelieu to the council. Even this grace
-was accompanied by the drawback, that the Cardinal was allowed to
-give merely his opinion, not his vote.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Once, however, seated at the council table, the colleagues of the
-Cardinal shrunk before him into ciphers. The marriage of the Princess
-Henrietta with the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I., was
-then in agitation. Richelieu undertook to conduct it, and overcame the
-delays of etiquette and the repugnance of Rome. De Vieville, the
-King’s favourite and minister, venturing to show jealousy of Richelieu,
-was speedily removed. The affair of the Valteline had given rise to
-endless negotiations. The matter in dispute was the attempt of the
-House of Austria to procure a passage across the Grisons to connect
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>their Italian and German dominions. France and the Italian powers
-had opposed this by protests. Richelieu boldly marched an army,
-and avowed in council his determination to adopt the policy and
-resume the scheme of Henry IV., for the humiliation of the House of
-Austria. The King and his Council were terrified at such a gigantic
-proposal: instead of being awed by the genius of Richelieu, as yet
-they mistrusted it. Peace was concluded with Spain; on no unfavourable
-conditions indeed, but not on such as flattered the new
-minister’s pride.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Whilst these negotiations with Spain were yet in progress, the
-Huguenots menaced a renewal of the civil war. Richelieu advised
-in the council that their demands should be granted, urging that
-whilst a foreign foe was in the field, domestic enemies were better
-quieted than irritated. His enemies took advantage of this, and represented
-the Cardinal as a favourer of heresy. This charge is continually
-brought against those who are indifferent to religious dissensions;
-but it is probable that Richelieu did seek at this time to gain
-the support of the Protestant party, attacked as he was by a strong
-band of malcontent nobles, envious of his rise, and intolerant of his
-authority.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The whole Court, indeed, became leagued against the superiority
-and arrogance of the Minister; the most <em>qualified</em> of the noblesse, to
-use Aubery’s expression, joined with the Duke of Orleans, the monarch’s
-brother, and with the Queen, to overthrow Richelieu. As the
-<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Maréchal D’Ancre</span> had been made away with by assassination, so the
-same means were again meditated. The Comte de Chalais offered
-himself as the instrument: but the mingled good fortune and address
-of Richelieu enabled him to discover the plot, and avoid this, and every
-future peril.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His anchor of safety was in the confidence reposed in him by
-Louis XIII. This prince, although of most feeble will, was not without
-the just pride of a monarch; he could not but perceive that his former
-ministers or favourites were but the instruments or slaves of the
-noblesse, who consulted but their own interests, and provided but for
-the difficulties of the moment. Richelieu, on the contrary, though
-eager for power, sought it as an instrument to great ends, to the consolidation
-of the monarchy, and to its ascendancy in Europe. He
-was in the habit of unfolding these high views to Louis, who, though
-himself incapable of putting them into effect, nevertheless had the
-spirit to admire and approve them. Richelieu proposed to render his
-reign illustrious abroad, and at home to convert the chief of a turbulent
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>aristocracy into a real monarch. It forms indeed the noblest part of
-this great statesman’s character, that he won upon the royal mind, not
-by vulgar flattery, but by exciting within it a love of glory and of
-greatness, to which, at the same time, he pointed the way.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Accordingly, through all the plots formed against him, Louis XIII.
-remained firmly attached to Richelieu, sacrificing to this minister’s
-preeminence his nobility, his brother Gaston, Duke of Orleans, his
-Queen, and finally the Queen Mother herself, when she too became
-jealous of the man whom she had raised. As yet however Mary
-de Medici was his friend, and Richelieu succeeded in sending his
-enemies to prison or to the scaffold. Gaston was obliged to bow the
-knee before the Cardinal. And Anne of Austria, who was accused
-of having consented to espouse Gaston in case of the King’s death,
-was for ever exiled from the affections of the monarch, and from any
-influence over him. If this latter triumph over the young wife of
-Louis, whose enmity certainly the Cardinal had most to fear, was
-excited by coldly invented falsehoods, history has scarcely recorded
-a more odious crime.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is said that Richelieu himself was enamoured of Anne of Austria,
-and that he found himself outrivalled by the Duke of Buckingham.
-What credit should be assigned to the existence and influence of such
-feelings it is difficult to determine. But certainly a strong and personal
-jealousy of Buckingham is to be perceived in the conduct of Richelieu.
-Policy would have recommended the minister to cajole rather than
-affront the English favourite at a time when the Huguenot party was
-menacing and the nobility still indignant. The Cardinal had not
-long before concluded the marriage of the Princess Henrietta with
-Charles, in order to secure the English alliance, and thus deprive the
-Huguenots of a dangerous support. Now he ran counter to these
-prudent measures, defied Buckingham, whom he forbade to visit Paris,
-and thus united against himself and against the monarchy, two most
-powerful enemies, one foreign, one domestic.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>If Richelieu thus imprudently indulged his passion or his pique, he
-redeemed the error by activity and exertion unusual to the age. He
-at once formed the project of attacking the Huguenots in their chief
-strong-hold of La Rochelle. Buckingham could not fail to attempt
-the relief of this sea-port; and the Cardinal anticipated the triumph
-of personally defeating a rival. He accordingly himself proceeded to
-preside over the operation of the siege. To render the blockade effectual,
-it was requisite to stop up the port. The military officers whom
-he employed could suggest no means of doing this. Richelieu took
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>counsel of his classic reading; and having learned from Quintus
-Curtius how Alexander the Great reduced Tyre, by carrying out a
-mole against it through the sea, he was encouraged to undertake a
-similar work. The great mound was accordingly commenced, and
-well-nigh finished, when a storm arose and destroyed it in a single
-night. But Richelieu was only rendered more obstinate: he recommenced
-the mole, and was seen with the volume of Alexander’s History
-in his hand, encouraging the workmen and overruling the objections of
-the tacticians of the army. The second attempt succeeded, the harbour
-was blocked up, and the promised aid of England rendered fruitless.
-The Cardinal triumphed, for La Rochelle surrendered. In his treatment
-of the vanquished, Richelieu showed a moderation seldom
-observable in his conduct. He was lenient, and even tolerant towards
-the Huguenots, content with having humbled the pride of his rival,
-Buckingham.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>La Rochelle was no sooner taken, and Richelieu rewarded by the
-title of Prime Minister, than he resumed those projects of humbling the
-House of Austria, in which he had previously been interrupted. A
-quarrel about the succession to Mantua afforded him a pretext to
-interfere; and he did so, after his fashion, not by mere negotiations,
-but by an army. This expedition proved a source of quarrel between
-him and the Queen Mother, Mary de Medici, who hitherto had been
-his firm and efficient friend. Private and family reasons rendered
-Mary averse to the war. Both the French Queens of the House of
-Medici had shown the reverence of their family for the princes of the
-blood of Austria. Mary, on her accession to the regency, had interrupted
-Henry IV.’s plans for humbling the influence of that house.
-Richelieu’s endeavour to revive this scheme called forth her opposition.
-He was obstinate from high motives; she from petty ones. But she
-could not forgive the ingratitude of him whom she had fostered, and
-who now dared to thwart and counteract her. The voice of the
-conqueror of La Rochelle triumphed in council, and his project
-in the field. The French were victorious in Italy, and the minister
-equally so over the mind of the monarch.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But Mary de Medici could not forgive; and she now openly showed
-her hatred of Richelieu, and exerted herself to the utmost to injure him
-with the King. Though daily defeating her intrigues, the Cardinal
-dreaded her perseverance, and resolved to drag the King with him to
-another Italian campaign. Louis obeyed, and the court set out for
-the south, the Queen Mother herself accompanying it. Richelieu,
-however, did not tarry for the slow motions of the monarch. He flew
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>to the army, took upon him the command, and displayed all the abilities
-of a great general in out-manœuvring and worsting the generals
-and armies of Savoy. In the mean time Louis fell dangerously ill at
-Lyons. His mother, an affectionate attendant on his sick couch,
-resumed her former empire over him. At one moment his imminent
-death seemed to threaten the Cardinal with ruin. Louis recovered,
-however; and his first act was to compel a reconciliation, in form at
-least, between the Cardinal and the Queen Mother.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The King’s illness, although not so immediately fatal to Richelieu
-as his enemies had hoped, was still attended with serious consequences
-to him. The French army had met with ill success through the
-treachery of the general, Marillac, who was secretly attached to the
-Queen’s party: and the failure was attributed to Richelieu.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Mary de Medici renewed her solicitations to her son, that he would
-dismiss his minister. Louis, it appears, made a promise to that effect;
-a reluctant promise, given to get rid of her importunity. Mary calculated
-too securely upon his keeping it; she broke forth in bitter
-contumely against Richelieu; deprived him of his superintendence over
-her household; and treated Madame de Combalet, the Cardinal’s
-niece, who had sunk on her knees to entreat her to moderate her anger,
-almost with insult. The King was present, and seemed to sanction
-her violence; so that Richelieu withdrew to make his preparations for
-exile. Louis, dissatisfied and irresolute, retired to Versailles; whilst
-Mary remained triumphant at the Luxembourg, receiving the congratulations
-of her party. Richelieu in the mean time, ere taking his
-departure, repaired to Versailles, and, once there, resumed the
-ascendant over the monarch. The tidings of this was a thunderstroke
-to Mary and her party, who became instantly the victims of the
-Cardinal’s revenge. Marillac was beheaded; and Mary de Medici,
-herself at length completely vanquished by her rival, was driven out
-of France to spend the rest of her days in exile.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Richelieu had thus triumphed over every interest and every personage
-that was, or was likely to be, inimical to his sway. The young Queen,
-Anne of Austria, and the Queen Mother, Mary de Medici, had alike
-been sacrificed to his preeminence; and it appears that he employed
-the same means to ruin both. One of the weak points of Louis XIII.
-was jealousy of his brother, Gaston, Duke of Orleans, whom he could
-never abide. Notwithstanding his sloth, the King assumed the
-direction of the Italian army, and went through the campaign, to
-prevent Gaston from earning honour, by filling the place of command.
-Richelieu made effectual use of this foible; he overcame Anne of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>Austria, by bringing proofs that she preferred Gaston to the King;
-and he overcame Mary de Medici by a similar story, that she favoured
-Gaston, and was paving the way for his succession.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Duke of Orleans was now indignant at his mother’s exile,
-and espoused her interest with heat. He intruded upon Richelieu,
-menacing him personally; nor did the latter refrain from returning
-both menace and insult. Gaston fled to Lorraine, and formed a league
-with its duke, and with the majority of the French noblesse, for the
-purpose of avenging the wrongs of his mother, and driving from
-authority the upstart and tyrannical minister.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The trial of Marillac had roused the spirit and indignation even of
-those nobles, who had previously respected and bowed to the minister
-of the royal choice. This nobleman and <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">maréchal</span> was seized at the
-head of his army, and conveyed, not to a prison, but to Richelieu’s
-own country-house at Ruel. Instead of being tried by his Peers or
-in Parliament, he was here brought before a Commission of Judges,
-chosen by his enemy. He was tried in the Cardinal’s own hall, condemned,
-and executed in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Place de Grève</span>.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The iniquity of such a proceeding offered a popular pretext for the
-nobility to withstand the Cardinal: and they were not without other
-reasons. Richelieu not only threatened their order with the scaffold,
-but his measures of administration were directed to deprive them of
-their ancient privileges, and means of wealth and domination. One
-of these was the right of governors of provinces to raise the revenue
-within their jurisdiction, and to employ or divert no small portion of it
-to their use. Richelieu to remedy this transferred the office of collecting
-the revenue to new officers, called the <em>Elect</em>. He tried this in
-Languedoc, then governed by the Duc de Montmorenci, a noble of
-the first rank, whose example consequently would have weight, and
-who had always proved himself obedient and loyal. Moved, however,
-by his private wrongs, as well as that of his order, he now joined
-the party of the Duke of Orleans. That weak prince, after forming his
-alliance with the Duke of Lorraine, had raised an army. Richelieu
-lost not a moment in despatching a force which reduced Lorraine, and
-humbled its hitherto independent duke almost to the rank of a subject.
-Gaston then marched his army to Languedoc, and joined Montmorenci.
-The <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Maréchal de Brezé</span>, Richelieu’s brother-in-law, led the royal
-troops against them, defeated Gaston at Castelnaudari, and took
-Montmorenci prisoner. This noble had been the friend and supporter
-of Richelieu, who even called him his son; yet the Cardinal’s
-cruel policy determined that he should die. There was difficulty in
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>proving before the Judges that he had actually borne arms against
-the King.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The smoke and dust,” said St. Reuil, the witness, “rendered it
-impossible to recognize any combatant distinctly. But when I saw
-one advance alone, and cut his way through five ranks of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">gens-d’armes</span>,
-I knew that it must be Montmorenci.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This gallant descendant of five Constables of France perished on
-the scaffold at Toulouse. Richelieu deemed the example necessary,
-to strike terror into the nobility. And he immediately took advantage
-of that terror, by removing all the governors of provinces, and
-replacing them throughout with officers personally attached to his
-interests.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Having thus made, as it were, a clear stage for the fulfilment of his
-great political schemes, Richelieu turned his exertions to his original
-plan of humbling the House of Austria, and extending the territories
-of France at its expense. He formed an alliance with the great
-Gustavus Adolphus, who then victoriously supported the course of
-religious liberty in Germany. Richelieu drew more advantage from
-the death than from the victories of his ally; since, as the price of
-his renewing his alliance with the Swedes, he acquired the possession
-of Philipsburg, and opened the way towards completing that
-darling project of France and every French statesman, the acquisition
-of the Rhine as a frontier.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The French having manifested their design to get possession of
-Treves, the Spaniards anticipated them; and open war ensued betwixt
-the two monarchies. The Cardinal allied with the Dutch, and drew
-up a treaty “to free the Low Countries from the cruel servitude in
-which they are held by the Spaniards.” In order to effect this, the
-French and Dutch were to capture the fortresses of the country, and
-finally divide it between them.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But Richelieu’s views or means were not mature enough to produce
-a successful plan of conquest. Surrounded as France was by the
-dominions of her rival, she was obliged to divide her forces, attack
-on many sides, and make conquests on none. The generals, whom he
-was obliged to employ, were remarkable but for servility to him,
-and jealousy of each other. The Cardinal de la Valette headed one of
-his armies, but with no better success than his lay colleagues. Instead
-of crushing Spain, Richelieu endured the mortification of witnessing
-the irruption of her troops into the centre of the kingdom, where they
-took Corbie, and menaced the very capital.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This was a critical moment for Richelieu, who is said to have lost
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>courage amidst these reverses, and to have been roused to confidence
-by the exhortations of his Capuchin friend and confidant, Father
-Joseph. He was obliged on this occasion to relax his severity and
-pride, to own that the generals of his choice were little worthy of their
-trust, and to call on the old noblesse and the princes of the blood to
-lead the French troops to the defence of the country. Both obeyed the
-summons, and exerted themselves to prove their worth by the recapture
-of Corbie, and the repulse of the Spaniards. The enemies of the
-Cardinal were aware how much the ignominy of these reverses, as the
-result of his mighty plans, must have abated the King’s confidence in
-him. They endeavoured to take advantage of the moment, and Louis
-seemed not averse to shake off his minister. There was no trusting
-the King’s intentions, however, and it was agreed to assassinate
-Richelieu at Amiens. The Comte de Soissons had his hand on his
-sword for the purpose, awaiting but the signal from Gaston; but the
-latter wanted resolution to give it, and Richelieu again escaped the
-murderous designs of his foes.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The character of Louis XIII. left his courtiers without hope. It
-was such a general mass of weakness, as to offer no particular weak
-point of which they could take advantage. Too cold to be enamoured
-of either wife or mistress, his gallantries offered no means of captivating
-his favour; nor was he bigot enough to be ruled through his
-conscience by priestly confessors. It is singular that the gallant,
-peremptory, and able Louis XIV. was governed and influenced by
-those means which had no hold upon his weak sire. Still as these
-were the received ways for undermining the influence of a dominant
-minister, Louis XIII. was assailed through his supposed mistresses,
-and through his confessors, to induce him to shake off Richelieu. But
-all attempts were vain. The ladies Hauteville and Lafayette, who
-had pleased Louis, retired to a convent. His confessors, who had
-hinted the impiety of supporting the Dutch and German Protestants,
-were turned out of the palace. And the Queen, Anne of Austria, with
-whom Louis made a late reconciliation, the fruit of which was the
-birth of the future Louis XIV., was exposed to disrespect and insult.
-Her apartments and papers were searched by order of the Cardinal,
-a letter was torn from her bosom, she was confined to her room, and
-menaced with being sent back to Spain.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Richelieu in his wars was one of those scientific combatants who
-seek to weary out an enemy, and who husband their strength in order
-not to crush at once, but to ruin in the end. Such at least were the
-tactics by which he came triumphant out of the struggle with Spain.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>He made no conquests at first, gained no striking victories; but he compensated
-for his apparent want of success by perseverance, by taking
-advantage of defeat to improve the army, and by labouring to transfer
-to the crown the financial and other resources which had been previously
-absorbed by the aristocracy. Thus the war, though little brilliant at
-first, produced at last these very important results. Arras in the north,
-Turin in the south, Alsace in the east, fell into the hands of the French;
-Rousillon was annexed to the monarchy; and Catalonia revolted
-from Spain. Richelieu might boast that he had achieved the great
-purposes of Henry IV., not so gloriously indeed as that heroic prince
-might have done, but no less effectually. This was effected not so
-much by arms as by administration. The foundation was laid for that
-martial preeminence which Louis XIV. long enjoyed; and which he
-might have retained, had the virtue of moderation been known to him.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It was not without incurring great personal perils, with proportionate
-address and good fortune, that Cardinal Richelieu arrived at
-such great results. The rebellion of the Comte de Soissons, the same
-whose project of assassination had failed, menaced the Minister
-seriously. In a battle against the royal army, the Count was
-completely victorious, an event that might have caused a revolution
-in the government, had not fortune neutralized it by his death.
-He fell by a pistol-shot, whilst contemplating the scene of victory.
-His friends asserted that he was murdered by an emissary of the
-Cardinal: according to others, the bullet was accidentally discharged
-from his own pistol.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But the most remarkable plot which assailed Richelieu, was that of
-Cinq-Mars, a young nobleman selected to be the King’s favourite, on
-account of his presumed frivolity. But he was capable of deep
-thoughts and passions; and wearied by the solitude in which the
-monarch lived, and to which he was reduced by the Minister’s monopoly
-of all power, he dared to plot the Cardinal’s overthrow. This
-bold attempt was sanctioned by the King himself, who at intervals
-complained of the yoke put upon him.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Great interests were at stake, for Richelieu, reckoning upon the
-monarch’s weak health, meditated procuring the regency for himself.
-Anne of Austria, aware of this intention, approved of the project of
-Cinq-Mars, which of course implied the assassination of the Cardinal.
-No other mode of defying his power and talent could have been contemplated.
-But Richelieu was on the watch. The Court was then
-in the south of France, engaged in the conquest of Roussillon, a situation
-favourable for the relation of the conspirators with Spain. The
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>Minister surprised one of the emissaries, had the fortune to seize a
-treaty concluded between them and the enemies of France; and with
-this flagrant proof of their treason, he repaired to Louis, and forced
-from him an order for their arrest. It was tantamount to their condemnation.
-Cinq-Mars and his friends perished on the scaffold;
-Anne of Austria was again humbled; and every enemy of the Cardinal
-shrunk in awe and submission before his ascendency. Amongst them
-was the King himself, whom Richelieu looked upon as an equal in
-dignity, an inferior in mind and in power. The guards of the Cardinal
-were numerous as the Monarch’s, and independent of any authority save
-that of their immediate master. A treaty was even drawn up between
-king and minister, as between two potentates. But the power and the
-pride of Richelieu reached at once their height and their termination.
-A mortal illness seized him in the latter days of 1642, a
-few months after the execution of Cinq-Mars. No remorse for his
-cruelty or abatement of his pride marked his last moments. He summoned
-the monarch like a servant to his couch, instructed him what
-policy to follow, and appointed the minister who was to be his own
-successor. Even in the last religious duties, the same character and
-the same spirit were observable. As his cardinal’s robe was a covering
-and excuse for all crimes in life, he seemed to think that it exempted
-him from the common lot of mortals after death.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Such was the career of this supereminent statesman, who, although
-in the position of Damocles all his life, with the sword of the assassin
-suspended over his head, surrounded with enemies, and with insecure
-and treacherous support even from the monarch whom he served, still
-not only maintained his own station, but possessed time and zeal to
-frame and execute gigantic projects for the advancement of his country
-and of his age. It makes no small part of Henry IV.’s glory that he
-conceived a plan for diminishing the power of the House of Austria.
-Richelieu, without either the security or the advantages of the king
-and the warrior, achieved it. Not only this, but he dared to enter
-upon the war at the very same time when he was humbling that aristocracy
-which had hitherto composed the martial force of the country.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The effects of his domestic policy were indeed more durable than
-those of what he most prided himself upon, his foreign policy. The
-latter was his end, the former his means; but the means were the
-more important of the two. For half a century previous, kings had
-been acquiring a sacro-sanctity, a power founded on respect, which
-equalled that of Asiatic despots; whilst at the same time their real
-sources of power remained in the hands of the aristocracy. From this
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>contradiction, this want of harmony betwixt the theoretic and the real
-power of monarchs, proceeded a state of licence liable at all times to
-produce the most serious convulsions. To this state of things Richelieu
-put an end for ever. He crushed the power of the great nobility,
-as Henry VII., by very different means, had done before him in
-England. He made Louis a sovereign in the most absolute sense;
-he reformed and changed the whole system of administration, destroyed
-all local authorities, and centralized them, as the term is, in the capital
-and the court. We see, accordingly, that it was only the capital which
-could oppose Mazarin; all provincial force was destroyed by Richelieu.
-He it was, in fact, who founded the French monarchy, such as it
-existed until near the end of the eighteenth century, a grand, indeed,
-rather than a happy result. He was a man of penetrating and commanding
-intellect, who visibly influenced the fortunes of Europe to an
-extent which few princes or ministers have equalled. Unscrupulous
-in his purposes, he was no less so in the means by which he effected
-them. But so long as men are honoured, not for their moral excellences,
-but for the great things which they have done for themselves,
-or their country, the name of Richelieu will be recollected with respect,
-as that of one of the most successful statesmen that ever lived.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His measures with respect to commerce were very remarkable. He
-proposed to render the French marine as formidable as the French
-armies, and chose the wisest means in favouring colonization and commercial
-companies for the purpose. The chief part of their successful
-settlements in the east and west the French owe to Richelieu. In
-financial measures he showed least sagacity, and the disordered state in
-which he left this branch of the administration was the principal cause
-of the difficulties of his successor.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As a patron of letters, Richelieu has acquired a reputation almost
-rivalling that of his statesmanship. His first and earliest success in
-life had been as a scholar supporting his theses; and, as it is continually
-observed that great men form very erroneous judgments of their own
-excellences, he ever prided himself especially in his powers as a penman:
-it was a complete mistake on his part. He has left a considerable
-quantity of theological tracts of trifling merit.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Not content with his own sphere of greatness, he aspired to the minor
-praise of being skilled in the fashionable literature of the day; and
-amused himself by composing dramatic pieces, some of which Corneille
-was employed to correct. The independence of the poet, and the pride
-of the patron, led to a quarrel of which we have given some account in
-the life of the great tragedian. In 1635 Richelieu founded the French
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>Academy. We should expect to find in his political writings traces
-of the master-hand of one, who, with a mind of unusual power, had
-long studied the subject of which he wrote. But those which are
-ascribed to him, for none, we believe are avowed, or absolutely known
-to be his, are of unequal merit. The ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires de la Mère, et
-du Fils</span>,’ are mediocre, and unworthy of him. The ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Testament Politique
-du Cardinal de Richelieu</span>’ (the authenticity of which is strongly
-contested by Voltaire) bears a much higher reputation as a work upon
-Government. La Bruyere has said of it, that the man who had done
-such things ought never to have written, or to have written in the
-style in which it is written.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>There are several English lives of Cardinal Richelieu, most of
-them published in the seventeenth century, but none which we know
-to be of authority. In French, we may recommend the reader to the
-life of Aubery. The best account of Richelieu, however, is said to be
-contained in the ‘Histoire de Louis XIII.’ by P. Griffet.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_120.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_121fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />J. H. WOLLASTON.<br /><br /><em>From the original Picture by J. Jackson<br />in the possession of the Royal Society.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>
-<img src='images/i_121.jpg' alt='WOLLASTON.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>WOLLASTON.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>No record of this eminent philosopher has yet appeared, except his
-scientific papers, and a few meagre biographical sketches published
-shortly after his death. It is to be hoped that some one duly qualified
-for the task will become the historian of his life and labours before it
-is too late.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>William Hyde Wollaston was born August 6, 1766. His grandfather
-was well known as the author of a work, entitled ‘The
-Religion of Nature Delineated.’ He completed his education at
-Caius College, Cambridge. It has been said, in most of the memoirs
-of him, that he obtained the honour of being senior wrangler. This
-is a mistake, arising from Francis Wollaston, of Sidney, having
-gained the first place in 1783. It appears from the Cantabrigienses
-Graduati that he did not graduate in Arts; but, with a view to
-practising medicine, proceeded to the degrees of M.B. in 1787, and
-M.D. in 1793. He was not unversed, however, in mathematical
-studies. He first established himself as a physician at Bury St.
-Edmunds, in Suffolk; but meeting with little encouragement, removed
-to London. Soon after this change of abode, he became a
-candidate for the office of physician to St. George’s Hospital, in opposition
-to Dr. Pemberton. The latter was elected, and Wollaston, in
-a fit of pique, declared that he would abandon the profession, and
-never more write a prescription, were it for his own father.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He kept to his resolution, hasty and unwise as it may seem; and
-from this time forward devoted himself solely to the cultivation of
-science. Even in an economical view he had no cause to regret this,
-for he acquired wealth by the exercise of his inventive genius. One
-single discovery, that of a method by which platinum can be made
-ductile and malleable, is said to have produced him about thirty thousand
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>pounds. It has been objected that he derogated from the dignity of
-the philosophic character by too keen an eye towards making his
-experiments profitable: but in this field, if in any, the labourer is
-surely worthy of his reward; and unless it can be shown that he turned
-away from any train of discovery, because it did not promise pecuniary
-gain, surely not a shadow of blame can be attached to him for profiting
-by the legitimate earnings of his industry and talents. That
-he was fond of acquiring money, there is good reason to believe; but
-there is a story, which has been before told, and which we have
-ourselves some reason to consider authentic, which proves that he
-could use nobly that which he had gained frugally. A gentleman, in
-embarrassed circumstances, requested his interference to procure some
-place under government. He replied, “I have lived to sixty without
-asking a single favour from men in office, and it is not, after that age,
-that I shall be induced to do it, were it even to serve a brother. If
-the enclosed can be of any use to you, in your present difficulties, pray
-accept it; for it is much at your service.” The enclosure was a
-cheque for ten thousand pounds.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>One of Wollaston’s peculiarities was an exceeding jealousy of any
-person entering his laboratory. “Do you see that furnace?” he once
-said to a friend, who had penetrated unbidden to this sacred ground.
-“Yes.” “Then make a profound bow to it, for this is the first,
-and will be the last time of your seeing it.” It is not a necessary
-inference, that this dislike to having his processes observed arose from
-jealousy either of his fame or his profit: it may have been merely
-the result of a somewhat saturnine and reserved temper, which seems
-to have shunned unnecessary publicity on all occasions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Wollaston was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1793. He
-was appointed one of its Secretaries, November 6, 1806. His first
-paper, which is on medical subjects, is published in the Philosophical
-Transactions for 1797; and, until his death, he continued to be a
-frequent contributor. His papers amount in number to thirty-nine,
-and must be well examined before a just idea can be formed of
-the extent and variety of his scientific knowledge. They embrace
-various subjects connected with Pathology, Optics, Electricity, Chemistry,
-Crystallography, and mechanical contrivances of various sorts.
-He contributed a few papers to other philosophical works. Of the
-Geological Society he was an active member, though he sent no
-memoirs to its Transactions; and on the first annual meeting of that
-body after his death, the president, Dr. Fitton, bore testimony to the
-high value of his services to the science of Geology.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>The lives of Wollaston and Davy began and ended nearly at the
-same time, and ran parallel to each other; they never crossed. Each
-was original, and independent of the other; their minds were unlike,
-their processes different, and the discoveries of one never interfered with
-those of the other. “The chemical manipulations of Wollaston and
-Davy,” we quote from Dr. Paris, “offered a singular contrast to each
-other, and might be considered as highly characteristic of the temperaments
-and intellectual qualities of these remarkable men. Every
-process of the former was regulated with the most scrupulous regard
-to microscopic accuracy, and conducted with the utmost neatness of
-detail. It has been already stated with what turbulence and apparent
-confusion the experiments of the latter were conducted; and yet each
-was equally excellent in his own style; and as artists, they have not
-unaptly been compared to Teniers and Michael Angelo. By long
-discipline, Wollaston acquired such power in commanding and fixing
-his attention upon minute objects, that he was able to recognize
-resemblances, and to distinguish differences, between precipitates
-produced by re-agents, which were invisible to ordinary observers, and
-which enabled him to submit to analysis the smallest particle of matter
-with success. Davy on the other hand obtained his results by an
-intellectual process, which may be said to have consisted in the
-extreme rapidity with which he seized upon, and applied, appropriate
-means at appropriate moments.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“To this faculty of minute observation, which Dr. Wollaston
-applied with so much advantage, the chemical world is indebted for the
-introduction of more simple methods of experimenting: for the substitution
-of a few glass tubes and plates of glass for capacious retorts
-and receivers, and for the art of making grains give the results which
-previously required pounds. A foreign philosopher once called on
-Dr. Wollaston with letters of introduction, and expressed an anxious
-desire to see his laboratory. ‘Certainly,’ we replied; and immediately
-produced a small tray containing some glass tubes, a blow-pipe, two or
-three watch-glasses, a slip of platinum, and a few test bottles.” We
-may conclude, however, that this was not the whole of Wollaston’s
-apparatus, nor he in this quite ingenuous; and the anecdote forms
-another illustration of his dislike to admitting any one into his workroom.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>To this ingenious turn of mind and love of minute accuracy we owe
-several valuable instruments. Of these the most important is his reflective
-Goniometer, or angle-measurer, which by calling in the unerring
-laws of optics, enables the observer to ascertain within a small limit of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>error, the angle contained between two faces of a crystal, and introduced,
-in the words of Dr. Fitton, “into crystallography a certainty and precision,
-which the most skilful observers were before unable to attain.”
-Another of his contrivances is the sliding Scale of chemical equivalents,
-an instrument highly useful to the practical chemist. We also owe
-to him the Camera Lucida, which enables persons unacquainted with
-drawing, to take accurate sketches of any objects presented to their
-view. An amusing and characteristic anecdote of his fondness for
-producing great results by small means, is told by Dr. Paris. Shortly
-after he had witnessed Davy’s brilliant experiments with the galvanic
-battery, he met a brother chemist in the street, and taking him aside,
-pulled a tailor’s thimble and a small phial out of his pocket, and
-poured the contents of the one into the other. The thimble was a
-small galvanic battery, with which he instantly heated a platinum wire
-to a white heat.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We have already spoken of the profits which he derived from the
-manufacture of platinum. This intractable metal, most valuable in the
-arts from its extreme difficulty of fusion, and power of resisting almost
-all agents, was rendered by these very qualities almost incapable of
-being reduced into that malleable form, in which alone it would be
-made extensively useful. His method of working it is detailed at
-length in his last Bakerian Lecture, published in the Philosophical
-Transactions for 1829, and must be read before a person unacquainted
-with metallurgy can imagine how tedious and laborious were the processes
-by which he succeeded in bringing platinum to bear the hammer.
-By an ingenious contrivance, described in the Transactions of 1813, he
-drew platinum into wire <span class='overunder'>1<br /><span class='ov'>5000</span></span> of an inch in diameter, highly valuable for
-the construction of telescopes; and even reduced some portions to the
-inconceivable tenuity of <span class='overunder'>1<br /><span class='ov'>30,000</span></span>. Several of his papers are devoted to the
-consideration of platinum, and of the two new metals, palladium and
-rhodium, which, in the course of his inquiries, he discovered in small
-quantities in the ores of platinum. These also he succeeded in
-rendering malleable. Rhodium is remarkable for its hardness, which
-has caused it to be used to point the nibs of metallic pens.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the autumn of 1828 Dr. Wollaston suffered from an affection
-of the brain, of which he died, December 22, 1828, retaining his faculties
-to the last. During the period of his illness, feeling that his life was
-precarious, he devoted himself to communicating, by dictation, his
-various discoveries and improvements to the world. Five papers by
-him were read during the last session of the Royal Society during that
-year, in one of which he alludes affectingly to his illness, as obliging
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>him to commit his observations to writing more hastily than he
-was wont. Another is the Bakerian Lecture on the manufacture of
-platinum, already mentioned.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Previous to his death he invested 1000<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.</span></i> stock in the name of the
-Royal Society, the interest of which he directed to be employed for the
-encouragement of experiments in Natural Philosophy. He was never
-married, and was Senior Fellow of Caius at his death. He was
-privately buried at Chiselhurst in Kent; of which parish his father
-had been rector.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Dr. Wollaston’s philosophical character is thus described in the
-preface to a late edition of Dr. Henry’s ‘Elements of Experimental
-Chemistry:’—“Dr. Wollaston was endowed with bodily senses of
-extraordinary acuteness and accuracy, and with great vigour of understanding.
-Trained in the discipline of the exact sciences, he had
-acquired a powerful command over his attention, and had habituated
-himself to the most rigid correctness both of thought and language.
-He was sufficiently provided with the resources of the mathematics, to
-be enabled to pursue with success profound inquiries in mechanical
-and optical philosophy, the results of which enabled him to unfold the
-causes of phenomena not before understood, and to enrich the arts
-connected with those sciences by the invention of ingenious and
-valuable instruments. In chemistry he was distinguished by the
-extreme nicety and delicacy of his observations; by the quickness
-and precision with which he marked resemblances and discriminated
-differences; the sagacity with which he devised experiments and
-anticipated their results; and the skill with which he executed the
-analysis of fragments of new substances, often so minute as to be
-scarcely perceptible by ordinary eyes. He was remarkable, too, for
-the caution with which he advanced from facts to general conclusions:
-a caution which, if it sometimes prevented him from reaching at once
-to the most sublime truths, yet rendered every step of his ascent a
-secure station from which it was easy to rise to higher and more
-enlarged inductions. Thus these illustrious men, Wollaston and
-Davy, though differing essentially in their natural powers and acquired
-habits, and moving independently of each other, in different paths,
-contributed to accomplish the same great ends, the evolving new
-elements; the combining matter into new forms; the increase of
-human happiness by the improvement of the arts of civilized life;
-and the establishment of general laws that will serve to guide other
-philosophers onwards through vast and unexplored regions of scientific
-discovery.”</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>
-<img src='images/i_126.jpg' alt='BOCCACCIO.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>BOCCACCIO.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>The family of this celebrated writer, who claims a distinguished
-place among the founders of Italian literature, came from the village
-of Certaldo, in the valley of the Elsa, about twenty miles south-west
-of Florence. His father, Boccaccio di Chellino, was a Florentine
-merchant, who, in his visits to Paris, became acquainted with a
-Frenchwoman, of whom Giovanni Boccaccio, the subject of this
-memoir, was born, <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A. D.</span></span> 1313. It is uncertain whether Paris or
-Florence was the place of his nativity. He commenced his studies at
-Florence, under Giovanni da Strada, a celebrated grammarian; but
-was apprenticed by his father, when hardly ten years old, to another
-merchant, with whom he spent six years in Paris. Attached to
-literature, he felt a strong distaste to his mercantile life. He manifested
-the same temper after his return to Florence; upon which his
-father sent him to Naples, partly upon business, partly because he
-thought that mingling in the pleasures of that gay city might neutralize
-his son’s distaste to the laborious profession in which he was engaged.
-Robert of Anjou, the reigning king of Naples, encouraged learning,
-and his court was the most polished of the age: and during an abode
-of eight years in that capital, Boccaccio became acquainted with most
-of the learned men of Italy, especially Petrarch, with whom he contracted
-a friendship, broken only by death. There also he fell in love
-with a lady of rank, whose real name he has concealed under that
-of Fiametta. Three persons have been mentioned as the object of his
-passion: the celebrated Joanna of Naples, grand-daughter of Robert;
-Mary, the sister of Joanna; and another Mary, the illegitimate daughter
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>of Robert, who seems to have the best claim to this distinction. It
-was at Naples, that Boccaccio, inspired by a visit to Virgil’s tomb,
-conceived his first longings after literary fame. He determined to
-give up commerce, and devote himself entirely to study; and his
-father consented to this change, but only on condition that he should
-apply himself to the canon law. This was a new source of annoyance.
-For several years he pored over “dry decisions and barren
-commentaries,” as he expresses himself; until he obtained his doctor’s
-degree, and was left at liberty to follow his own pursuits.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_126fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by W. Hopwood.</em><br /><br />BOCCACCIO.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by Cornelius Van Dalen.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>After remaining some time at Florence he returned to Naples;
-where he employed himself in writing prose and verse, the Decameron
-and the Teseide. His father died in 1349: and having turned his
-inheritance into money, he travelled to Sicily, Venice, and other parts
-of Italy, collecting manuscripts, frequenting universities and libraries,
-studying Greek under Leontius Pilatus of Thessalonica, astronomy
-under Andalone del Negro, and Roman literature and antiquities.
-Manuscripts at this time were very costly; and he soon exhausted his
-patrimony in these pursuits. He then applied himself to transcribing
-works; and, by dint of expense and labour, collected a considerable
-library, which he bequeathed to the Augustine friars of Santo
-Spirito, at Florence. But his means were inadequate to gratify his
-liberal tastes: and at times he found himself in very straitened
-circumstances. It is said that he sometimes availed himself of his
-skill as a copyist, to eke out his resources. In Petrarch he found a
-generous friend and a wise counsellor.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Boccaccio enjoyed a high reputation among his countrymen for
-learning and ability; and he was several times employed by them on
-embassies and affairs of state. But of all his missions, the most
-pleasing was that of repairing to Padua, to communicate to Petrarch
-the solemn revocation of the sentence of exile passed on his father
-during the factions of 1302; and to inform him that the Florentines,
-proud of such a countryman, had redeemed his paternal property, and
-earnestly invited him to dwell in his own land, and confer honour on
-its then rising university. Though much affected by this honourable
-reparation, Petrarch did not at the time comply with their request.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>About 1361, a singular circumstance wrought a total change in
-Boccaccio’s feelings and mode of life. A Carthusian monk came to
-him one day, and stated that father Petroni of Sienna, a monk of the
-same order, who had died not long before in the odour of sanctity, had
-commissioned him to exhort Boccaccio to forsake his studies, reform
-his loose life, and prepare for death. To prove the truth of his
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>mission, he revealed several secrets, known only to Boccaccio and
-Petrarch, to both of whom both the monks were totally unknown.
-Terrified at this mysterious communication, Boccaccio wrote to
-Petrarch, expressing his resolution to comply with the advice, and
-shut himself up in a Carthusian cloister. Petrarch’s answer, which
-may be found among his Latin epistles, is full of sound sense. He
-tells his friend, that though this disclosure of secrets, supposed to be
-unknown to any living soul, appeared a mystery, yet “there is such
-a thing as artifice in imposture which may at times assume the
-language of supernatural inspiration; that those who practise arts of
-this kind examine attentively the age, the aspect, the looks, the habits
-of the man they mean to delude, his theories, his motions, his voice,
-his conversation, his feelings, and opinions: and from all these derive
-their oracles.” He adds, that as to the prediction of approaching
-death, there was no occasion for a message from the next world to say,
-that a man past the middle age, and infirm of body, could not expect
-to have many years to live: and, in conclusion, advises his friend to
-tranquillize his imagination, and to avail himself of the warning towards
-leading a more regular life; retaining at the same time his liberty, his
-house, and his library, and making a good use even of the heathen
-authors in the latter, as many holy men, and the fathers of the church
-themselves, had done before him. This letter restored Boccaccio to
-reason. He gave up his intention of retiring from the world, and
-contented himself with assuming the ecclesiastical dress; and being
-admitted to the first gradation of holy orders, he adopted a regular
-and studious course of life, and turned his attention to the study
-of the Scriptures.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>About the following year he again visited Naples, but he was disgusted
-by the neglect which he experienced; and, in 1363, he went
-to Venice, and abode three months with Petrarch. He was sent
-twice, in 1365 and 1367, to Pope Urban V. upon affairs of the
-republic. In 1373, the Florentines determined to appoint a lecturer
-to explain the Divina Commedia of Dante, much of which was even
-then obscure or unintelligible without the aid of a comment. Boccaccio
-was chosen for this honourable office, with the annual stipend of
-one hundred florins. He had long and deeply studied, and knew by
-heart almost the whole of that sublime poem, which he had several times
-transcribed. He left his written comment on the Inferno, and also a
-life of Dante, both of which have been published among his works.
-But illness interrupted his lectures, and induced him to resort again
-to his favourite country residence at Certaldo. A disorder of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>stomach, aggravated by intense application, terminated his existence,
-Dec. 21, 1375, at the age of sixty-two. He was buried in the parish
-church of Certaldo, and the following modest inscription, which he
-had himself composed, was placed over his tomb:—</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b c012'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hac sub mole jacent cineres ac ossa Johannis.</span></div>
-      <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mens sedet ante Deum, meritis ornata laborum</span></div>
-      <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mortalis vitæ. Genitor Bocchaccius illi,</span></div>
-      <div class='line'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Patria Certaldum, studium fuit alma poesis.</span>”</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>A monument was also raised to him in the same church, with an
-inscription by Coluccio Salutati, secretary to the republic, an intimate
-friend of the deceased. This monument was restored, in 1503,
-by Tedaldo, Podestà, or justice, of Certaldo, who placed another inscription
-under the bust of the deceased. The republic of Florence,
-in 1396, voted monuments to be raised in their capital to Boccaccio,
-Dante, and Petrarch, but this resolution was not carried into effect.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>By a will, which was dated the year preceding that of his death,
-and which is published among his Latin works, Boccaccio constituted
-his two nephews, the sons of his brother Jacopo, his heirs. His library
-he left to his confessor, Father Martin of Signa, an Augustin friar,
-whom he also appointed his executor, directing, that after the father’s
-death it should revert to the convent of Santo Spirito at Florence,
-for the use of students. A fire which broke out in the convent, in
-the year 1471, destroyed this valuable collection, which had cost
-the proprietor so many years of labour and care, and in which
-he had expended the greater part of his patrimony. Boccaccio
-having, in his book <cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Genealogia Deorum</span></cite>, quoted several ancient
-authors whose works have not reached us, it is supposed that some
-of these must have been included in the catastrophe that befel his
-library. He has been accused, however, of quoting fictitious authors
-in this treatise.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Boccaccio’s private character was stained by licentiousness. Besides
-his Fiammetta, he had several mistresses whom he mentions in his
-Ameto. A natural daughter, whose name was Violante, he lost
-while she was an infant, and he mourns over her in his eclogues
-under the name of Olympia. He had also an illegitimate son who
-survived him, but who is not mentioned in his testament.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the latter years of his life, Boccaccio was poor, though not in
-absolute want, and his friend Petrarch, who died little more than
-one year before him, left him by his will fifty golden florins, “to buy
-him a winter pelisse to protect him from cold while in his study at
-night,” adding, that if he did no more for Boccaccio, it was not
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>through want of inclination but want of means. Boccaccio, on his
-part, had given Petrarch several works copied by his own hand,
-among others, a Latin translation of Homer, Dante, and some works
-of St. Augustine.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His modest dwelling at Certaldo, in which he died, still remains. The
-Princes of the House of Medici protected it by affixing their armorial
-ensigns on the outside, with an inscription. A Florentine lady, of
-the name of Medici Lenzoni, purchased it in 1822, in order to
-preserve it from dilapidation as a relic of departed genius. The
-appearance of the house is exactly similar to the sketch given by
-Manni a century since, in his life of Boccaccio. It is built of brick,
-according to the fashion of the fourteenth century, with a square
-turret on one side of it commanding a fine view of the surrounding
-hills; one of which is still called by the country people, “the hill of
-Boccaccio,” from a tradition that this was his favourite place of resort
-for meditation and study in the summer heats. The grove which
-crowned its summit was cut down not long ago. A curious circumstance
-is said by Professor Rosellini to have happened some years
-before the purchase of the house by the Signora Lenzoni. An old
-woman, who tenanted the premises, was busy weaving in a small
-room next to the sitting apartment, when the repeated shaking of her
-loom brought down part of the wall, and laid open a small recess
-hollowed in the thickness of it, from which a large bundle of written
-papers tumbled down. The old woman, through ignorance or superstition,
-or both, thought it a pious duty to consign the whole of the
-MSS. to the flames. Probably many interesting autographs of Boccaccio
-have thus been lost.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Much has been said about Boccaccio’s tomb being “torn up and
-desecrated by bigots;” and Lord Byron has made this the subject of
-his eloquent invective. The story seems, however, to have originated
-in mistake. Rosellini has given an authentic account of the whole
-transaction. It appears that many years since, after a law had been
-passed by the Grand Duke Leopold in 1783, forbidding the burial of
-the dead under church pavements, the tomb of Boccaccio, which lay
-in the centre of the church of St. James and St. Michael at Certaldo,
-covered by a stone bearing his family escutcheon, his effigy, and the
-four lines above quoted, was opened. Nothing was found, except a
-skull, and a tin tube containing several written parchments, which the
-persons present could not understand. What became of these is not
-known, perhaps they were destroyed like the MSS. found by the old
-woman. The tombstone was purchased by some one on the spot,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>and having since been broken, one fragment alone remains, which the
-Signora Lenzoni has recovered and placed inside Boccaccio’s house.
-All this is asserted in a notarial document drawn up at Certaldo in
-1825, and certified by ocular witnesses then surviving, who were present
-at the opening of the vault. But, besides this gravestone, there
-was a monument placed high on one of the side-walls of the church,
-consisting of Boccaccio’s bust, which is a good likeness, holding with
-both his arms against his breast a book, on which is written ‘Decameron,’
-and under the bust are the two inscriptions by Salutati and
-Tedaldo, such as Manni transcribed them. To this monument, and
-not to the tomb, Byron’s reproach partly applies, for it was of late
-years removed by some fanatics from its place, and thrown in a corner
-at the end of the church. But the authorities interfered and caused it
-to be restored in a more conspicuous position, facing the pulpit, where
-it is now to be seen.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Boccaccio wrote both in Latin and in Italian, in prose and in verse.
-His Latin works are now mostly forgotten, although the author
-evidently thought more of them than of his Italian novels. Petrarch
-fell into the same mistake with regard to his own productions in
-both languages. The language of the country, especially in prose
-composition, was then esteemed below the dignity of learned men, and
-suited only to works of recreation and amusement. Boccaccio wrote
-a book on mythology (<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Genealogia Deorum, lib. xv.</span>) which he
-dedicated to Hugo, King of Cyprus and Jerusalem, at whose request
-he had composed it. He acknowledges that he had derived much
-information on the subject from Pietro Perugino, librarian to King
-Robert of Naples, an assiduous inquirer after ancient and especially
-Greek lore, and who had availed himself in his researches of his
-intimacy with the Monk Barlaam, a learned Greek emigrant, residing
-in Calabria. Boccaccio’s other Latin works are ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De montium,
-sylvarum, lacuum, fluviorum, stagnorum, et marium nominibus,
-liber</span>,’ a sort of gazetteer. ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De casibus virorum et fæminarum
-illustrium, libri ix.</span>’ where he eloquently relates, in the last book, the
-tragic catastrophe of the unfortunate Templars who were executed at
-Paris in 1310–14; at which his father was present. ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De claris
-mulieribus opus</span>,’—and lastly, sixteen ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eclogæ</span>,’ amounting to about
-three thousand lines, which have been published with those of
-Petrarch and others at Florence in 1504. Boccaccio left a key to the
-real personages of these eclogues in a long letter written to the already-mentioned
-father Martin of Signa. Both he and Petrarch allude in
-these poems to the vices and corruptions of the Papal Court.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>Of Boccaccio’s Italian works, the Decameron is that by which his
-memory has been immortalized. This book consists of a series of
-tales, one hundred in number, ten of which are told on each afternoon
-for ten successive days, by a society of seven young women and three
-young men, who having fled from the dangers of the plague which
-afflicted Florence in 1348, assembled at a villa a short distance from
-the town. The stories turn chiefly on amorous intrigues and devices,
-disappointments and enjoyments, very broadly narrated; and can by
-no means be recommended for indiscriminate perusal. They are
-admirably told, and are full of wit and humour; but the pleasantry is
-for the most part of a nature which modern manners cannot tolerate.
-There are, however, better things than mere loose tales in the Decameron:
-several of the stories are unexceptionable; some highly pathetic.
-They have furnished many subjects for poetry, and especially for the
-drama; as, for instance, the tale of Ginevra, the ninth of the second
-day, and the affecting story of Griselda, the last of all. With regard
-to the merit of the invention, it is true that some of Boccaccio’s tales
-are taken from the ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Cento Novelle Antiche</span>,’ one of the oldest books
-in the Italian language. But the greater number are original: and
-many refer to persons and events well known in Italy, especially in
-Tuscany at that time, as is demonstrated by Manni. The skill with
-which this multitude of tales is arranged and brought forward, constitutes
-one of the chief merits of the work. It has been remarked
-that out of a hundred introductions with which he prefaces them, no
-two are alike. His narrative is clear; free from metaphors and repetition;
-avoiding superfluity as well as monotony, and engaging without
-tiring the attention. His descriptions, though minute, are graceful
-and lively. Generally humorous, not to say broad, he can, at
-pleasure, be pathetic; at pleasure, grave and dignified.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Here our praise of this celebrated work must stop. Of its indecencies
-we have already spoken. The narrative, though clothed in
-decent words, frequently runs in such a strain as no company of
-women above the lowest grade of shame would now listen to, much
-less indulge in. Bad as this is, a still deeper stain is to be found in
-the utter absence of all moral principle, and callousness to all good
-feeling. Long planned seduction, breach of hospitality, betrayal of
-friendship, all these are painted as fortunate and spirited adventures,
-and as desirable objects of attainment. Unlucky husbands are sneered
-at; jealousy of honour is censured as stupidity or tyranny. Some of
-the female characters are even worse than the male; and the world
-of the Decameron is one which no man of common decency or honour
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>could bear to live in. Boccaccio saw the mischief he had done, and
-was sorry when it was too late. In a letter to Mainardo de’ Cavalcanti,
-Marshal of Sicily, he entreated him not to suffer the females of his
-family to read the Decameron; because, “although education and
-honour would keep them above temptation, yet their minds could not
-but be tainted by such obscene stories.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He is fond of introducing monks and friars engaged in licentious
-pursuits, and exposed to ludicrous and humiliating adventures. He
-also at times speaks of the rites of the church in a profane or sarcastic
-manner. From this it has been inferred that he was a sceptic or
-heretic. The conclusion is erroneous. Like other wits of that ignorant,
-superstitious, and debauched age, Boccaccio sneered, reviled, and yet
-feared: and while he ridiculed the ministers and usages of the church,
-he was employed in collecting relics, and ended his loose tales with
-invocations of heaven and the saints. Besides, the secular clergy
-themselves bore no love towards the monks and mendicant friars: they
-were jealous of the former, and they hated and despised the latter.
-From Dante down to Leo X. the dignitaries of the church spoke of
-friars in terms nearly as opprobrious as Boccaccio himself. Leo
-made public jest of them. Bembo, the secretary of Leo, and a cardinal
-himself, and Berni, the secretary to several cardinals, give no more
-quarter to them than is given in the Decameron. No wonder then that
-laymen should take similar liberties, and that a friar should be regarded,
-as Ugo Foscolo observes, as a sort of scape-goat for the sins of the
-whole clergy. These considerations may explain how the Decameron
-went through several editions, both at Venice and Florence, without
-attracting the censures of the Court of Rome. The earliest editions
-bear the dates of 1471–2, but these became extremely scarce, since the
-fanatic Savanarola had a heap of them burnt in the public square of
-Florence in 1497. Of the Valdarfer edition of 1471, only one copy
-is known to exist. This has long been an object of interest to book
-collectors; and was purchased, at the Roxburgh sale, by the Marquis
-of Blandford, for the enormous sum of £2260. After the reformation
-in Germany, a more watchful censorship was established, and the
-Decameron was placed in the list of proscribed books. An expurgated
-edition however was allowed to appear, under the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">imprimatur</span></i> of Pope
-Gregory XIII. in 1573, in which many passages marked by the
-Inquisition were expunged, and laymen were made to take the places
-of the clergy in the more indecorous adventures. The MS. from
-which this and most of the subsequent editions are taken, was written
-by Mannelli, the godson, and friend of Boccaccio, in 1384, nine years
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>after the author’s death. It is now in the Laurentian library at Florence.
-Mannelli has copied scrupulously what he calls “the text,”
-whether an autograph of Boccaccio, or an earlier copy, even to its
-errors and omissions, noting from time to time in the margin “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sic
-textus</span>,” or “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">deficiebat</span>,” or “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">superfluum</span>.” It may therefore be presumed
-that the author had not put the last finish to his work.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Boccaccio began the Decameron soon after the plague of 1348, and
-seems to have circulated the days, or parts, among his friends as he
-completed them. He was a long time in completing the work, which
-he seems to have laid aside, and resumed at leisure; and it is believed
-that he was eight years employed upon it, and that he wrote the latter
-tales about 1356. From that time he seems to have taken no more
-notice of it. He never sent it to Petrarch, to whom he was in the
-habit of transmitting all his other compositions; and it was only by
-accident, many years after, that the poet saw a copy of it. This he
-mentions in one of his letters to Boccaccio, and says that he “supposes
-it to be one of his juvenile productions.” Petrarch praised only the
-description of the plague, and the story of Griselda. This he translated
-into Latin.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Boccaccio’s other Italian prose works are ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Il Filocopo</span>,’ a prose
-romance, written at the request of his Fiammetta. It is a dull composition,
-far inferior to the Decameron in style, and displaying an
-anomalous mixture of Christian and Pagan images and sentiments.
-‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">L’Amorosa Fiammetta</span>’ is also a prose romance, in which the lady
-relates her passion and grief for the absence of Pamfilo, by which
-name the author is supposed to have designated himself. ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Il Corbaccio</span>,’
-or the ‘Labyrinth of Love,’ in which he relates his adventures
-with a certain widow, the same probably as he has introduced in the
-seventh tale of the eighth day of the Decameron. ‘Ameto,’ a drama of
-mixed prose and verse. ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Origine, vita, e costumi di Dante Alighieri</span>,’
-the life of Dante already mentioned. Several letters remain, but the
-bulk of his correspondence is lost. A life of Petrarch by Boccaccio,
-written originally in Latin, has been recently discovered, and published
-in 1828 by Domenico Rossetti, of Trieste.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Boccaccio wrote a quantity of Italian verse, of which he himself
-thought little, after seeing those of Petrarch; and posterity has confirmed
-his judgment. His Teseide, a heroic poem, in ottava rima,
-may be excepted. This metre, generally adopted by the Italian epic
-and romantic poets, he has the merit of having invented. Though
-imperfect, and little attractive as an epic poem, the Teseide is
-not destitute of minor beauties. Chaucer is indebted to it for his
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>Knight’s Tale, remodelled by Dryden under the name of Palamon
-and Arcite.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>An edition of Boccaccio’s Italian prose works was printed at
-Naples, with the date of Florence, in 1723–4, in 6 vols. 8vo.; but a
-better edition has been lately published at Florence, corrected after
-the best approved MSS. in 13 vols. 8vo. 1827–32.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The editions of the Decameron are almost innumerable. The best
-and most recent ones are those of Poggiali, 1789–90, in 5 vols. 8vo.;
-that of Ferrario, Milan, 1803; that of Colombo, Parma, 1812; all
-with copious notes and comments; a small one by Molini, Florence,
-1820; and the one by Pickering, London, to which the late Ugo
-Foscolo prefixed an elaborate and interesting historical dissertation.
-Domenico Maria Manni wrote a ‘History of the Decameron,’
-Florence, 1742, in which he has collected a store of curious information
-concerning that work and its author.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The principal biographers of Boccaccio are Filippo Villani, who may
-be considered as a contemporary of our author; Giannozzo Mannetti,
-Francesco Sansovino, Giuseppe Betussi, Count Mazzuchelli, and lastly,
-the Count G. Battista Baldelli, who published a new life of Boccaccio
-in 1806 at Florence.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_135.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>[Scene from the Introduction to the Decameron, after a design by Stothard.]</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>
-<img src='images/i_136.jpg' alt='CLAUDE.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CLAUDE.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>Claude Gelée, commonly called Claude Lorraine, was born in
-1600, at the village of Chamagne in Lorraine, of very indigent
-parents. He was apprenticed to a pastry-cook; but at the end of
-his term of service, whether from disgust at his employment, desire
-of change, or perhaps influenced by the love of art, he engaged
-himself as a domestic to some young painters who were going to
-Italy. On arriving at Rome he was employed as a colour-grinder by
-Agostino Tassi, an artist then in high repute whose landscapes are
-spirited and free, and particularly distinguished by the taste displayed
-in the architectural accompaniments. Tassi first induced him to try
-his abilities in painting. His earliest essays were implicit imitations
-of his master’s manner, and evinced no symptom of original genius;
-perhaps even in his matured style some indications of Tassi’s influence
-may be traced. He continued, as opportunity occurred, to exercise
-his pencil, obtaining little notice and still less reward. By degrees
-however he succeeded sufficiently to venture on giving up his menial
-employment; and having acquired from Tassi a tolerable expertness
-in the mechanical part of his profession, he appears from thenceforth
-to have given little attention to the works of other painters,
-relying on his own discernment and diligent observation of nature.
-Many years elapsed, however, before the talents of Claude reached
-their full maturity, whence his biographers have inferred that he
-owed his excellence rather to industry than genius: as if such excellence
-were within the reach of mere application.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_136fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />CLAUDE.<br /><br /><em>From the original<br />in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Musée Royale</span>, Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>He drew with indefatigable diligence, both from antique sculpture
-and from the living model, but to little purpose; and he was so
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>conscious of his incapacity, that he used to observe, “I sell the landscapes,
-and throw the figures into the bargain:” and sometimes he
-employed Filippo Lauri and Courtois to insert them. But his figures,
-however faulty in themselves, are always well adapted to promote the
-harmony of the whole composition; being judiciously placed, and
-shaded, illuminated, sharpened out, or rendered indistinct, with nearly
-as much skill as is shown in the other parts of the picture. And
-not unfrequently, however feebly drawn, they partake of that classical
-and poetic air, which Claude, beyond every other landscape painter,
-has diffused over his works.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It is said, and the circumstances of his early life render it probable,
-that he was very deficient in general acquirements. Assuredly
-he had no opportunities of becoming a profound scholar, nor in
-relation to his art was it necessary that he should; why should he
-have sought through the medium of books that imagery which lay
-before him in reality? Rome, and its environs, the banks of the
-Tiber, and the broad Campagna, supplied his imagination with
-the best food, and his pencil with inexhaustible materials. He was
-accustomed to spend whole days in the open air, not only studying
-Nature in her permanent aspects, but making memorandums of every
-accidental and fleeting effect which presented itself to his observation.
-Sandrart, who sometimes accompanied Claude in his excursions, relates
-that he was accustomed to discourse on the visible phenomena of
-nature with the intelligence of a philosopher; not only noting effects,
-but explaining their causes with precision and correctness, whether
-produced by reflection or refraction of light, by dew, vapour, or other
-agencies of the atmosphere. Broad as is his style, he entered minutely
-into detail, and made drawings of trees, shrubs, and herbage, marking
-all their peculiarities of shape, growth, and foliage. By this practice
-he was enabled to represent those objects with undeviating accuracy,
-and to express, by a few decided touches, their general character.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Amidst the splendour of his general effects, the distinguishing
-qualities of objects are never neglected; fidelity is never merged
-in manner; and hence it is, that the longer we look at his pictures,
-the more vivid is the illusion, the more strongly is the reality of the
-represented scene impressed upon us. Combining with his fine imagination
-the results of observation thus long and intensely exercised,
-he accomplished in his works that union of poetic feeling with
-accurate representation of nature, which forms the highest excellence
-of art, and in which, as a landscape painter, he stands unrivalled.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Claude found in Rome and its neighbourhood the materials of his
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>scenery, but the combination of them was his own: he selected and
-copied portions, but he seldom or never painted individual views from
-nature. His favourite effects are those of sunrise and sunset, the periods
-at which nature puts on her most gorgeous colouring. Beauty and
-magnificence are the characteristics of his compositions: he seldom
-aims at sublimity, but he never sinks into dulness. Above all he never
-brings mean or offensive objects into prominent view, as is so often the
-case in the Dutch pictures. His fore-grounds are usually occupied by
-trees of large size and noble character, and temples and palaces, or with
-ruins august in their decay. Groves and towers, broad lakes, and the
-continuous lines of arched aqueducts enrich the middle space; or a
-boundless expanse of Arcadian scenery sweeps away into the blue
-mountainous horizon. In his admirable pictures of seaports, he
-carries us back into antiquity; there is nothing in the style of the
-buildings, the shape of the vessels, or the character of any of the
-accompaniments which, by suggesting homely associations, injures the
-general grandeur of the effect. The gilded galleys, the lofty quays,
-and the buildings which they support, all belong to other times, and
-all have the stamp of opulence, magnificence, and power.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As Claude’s subjects are almost uniformly those of morning or
-evening, it might naturally be supposed that his works possess an air
-of sameness. To remove such an impression, it is only necessary to
-look at his pictures side by side. We then perceive that he scarcely
-ever repeats himself. The pictures of St. Ursula and the Queen of
-Sheba, in the National Gallery, are striking instances of that endless
-variety which he could communicate to similar subjects. In each of
-these pictures there is a procession of females issuing from a palace,
-and an embarkation. The extremities of the canvas are occupied by
-buildings, the middle space being assigned to the sea and shipping,
-over which the sun is ascending. After the first glance, there is no
-resemblance in these pictures. The objects introduced in each are
-essentially different in character; in that of the Queen of Sheba
-they are much fewer in number; the masses are more broad and
-unbroken, and the picture has altogether more grandeur and simplicity
-than its companion. Its atmosphere too is different: it is
-less clear and golden, and there is a swell on the waves, as if they
-were subsiding from the agitation of a recent storm. The picture of
-St. Ursula is characterized by beauty. Summer appears to be in its
-meridian, and the whole picture seems gladdened by the freshening
-influence of morning. The vapoury haze which is just dispersing,
-the long cool shadows thrown by the buildings and shipping, the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>glancing of the sun-beams on the water, and the admirable perspective,
-all exhibit the highest perfection of art. It was thus that Claude,
-although he painted only the most beautiful appearances of nature,
-diversified his effects by the finest discrimination. Sea-ports such as
-these were among his most favourite subjects; and there are none in
-which he more excelled: yet perhaps it is with his pastoral subjects
-that we are most completely gratified. The Arcadia of the poets
-seems to be renewed in the pictures of Claude.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the general character of his genius, Claude bears a strong
-affinity to Titian. He resembles him in power of generalization,
-in unaffected breadth of light and shadow, and in that unostentatious
-execution which is never needlessly displayed to excite wonder,
-and which does its exact office, and nothing more. But the
-similitude in colour is still more striking. The pictures of both
-are pervaded by the same glowing warmth; and exhibit the true
-brilliancy of nature, in which the hues of the brightest objects are
-graduated and softened by the atmosphere which surrounds them.
-The colours by which both produced their wonderful effects were for
-the most part simple earths, without any mixture of factitious compounds,
-the use of which has been always prevalent in the infancy,
-and the decline of art, administering as it does to that unformed or
-degenerate taste which prefers gaudiness to truth.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Claude’s success raised a host of imitators. He was accustomed,
-on sending home the works which he had been commissioned to paint
-to make a drawing of each, which he inscribed with the name of the
-purchaser, as a means by which the originality of his productions
-might be traced and authenticated. He left six volumes of these
-drawings at the time of his death, which he called his <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Libri di Verità</span><a id='t139'></a>.
-One containing two hundred designs is in possession of the Duke of
-Devonshire; these have been engraved by Earlom, and published by
-Boydell under the title of <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liber Veritatis</span>. Another of these books
-was purchased a few years since in Spain, and brought into this
-country; where it came into the possession of Mr. Payne Knight, and
-was bequeathed by him to the British Museum. Some of Claude’s
-pictures have been finely engraved by Woollet. There are twenty-eight
-etchings extant of landscapes and seaports, by Claude’s own
-hand, executed with the taste, spirit, and feeling which we should
-naturally expect.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>England is rich in the pictures of Claude, some of the finest of
-which were imported from the Altieri Palace at Rome, and from the
-collection of the Duc de Bouillon at Paris. There are ten in the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>National Gallery: the two to which we have adverted, that of St.
-Ursula especially, he has perhaps never surpassed. The little picture
-of the Death of Procris is also singularly beautiful. The Earl
-of Radnor’s Evening, or Decline of the Roman Empire, is one of the
-most exquisite of Claude’s works. The Marquis of Bute’s collection
-at Luton, is also enriched by some of the finest specimens of this artist
-in England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>His private history is entirely devoid of incident. From the time of
-his arrival in Italy he never quitted it: and though claimed by the
-French as a French artist, he was really, in all but birth, an Italian.
-He lived absorbed in his art, and never married, that his devotion to
-it might not be interrupted by domestic cares. His disposition was
-mild and amiable. He died in 1682, aged eighty-two.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>For more detailed information we may refer to Sandrart ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Academia
-Artis Pictoriæ</span>.’ It is extraordinary that in Felibien’s elaborate
-work, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sur les Vies et sur les Ouvrages des plus excellens Peintres
-anciens et modernes</span>,” Claude is entirely omitted. The English
-reader will find the substance of the information given by Sandrart, in
-Bryan and Pilkington.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_140.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>[From a Picture by Claude.]</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_141fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by T. Woolnoth.</em><br /><br />LORD NELSON.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture by Hoppner<br />in his Majesty’s Collection at S<sup>t.</sup> James’s.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>
-<img src='images/i_141.jpg' alt='NELSON.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>NELSON.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>The services of our great naval Captain need no long description. The
-recollection of them is still fondly cherished by his countrymen, and
-they have been worthily commemorated by Mr. Southey, with whose
-Life of Nelson few readers are unacquainted. To that most animated
-and interesting work, which by its late re-publication in the Family
-Library is placed within the reach of every one, we must refer those
-who desire fuller information concerning the hero of the Nile,
-Copenhagen, and Trafalgar, than is contained in this memoir.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Horatio Nelson was born at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, September
-29, 1758. His father, the rector of that parish, was burthened
-with a numerous family: and it is said to have been more with a view
-to lighten that burden than from predilection for the service, that at
-the age of twelve he expressed a wish to go to sea, under the care of
-his uncle, Captain Suckling. Of his early adventures it is unnecessary
-to speak in detail. In 1773 he served in Captain Phipps’s voyage of
-discovery in the Northern Polar seas. His next station was the East
-Indies; from which, at the end of eighteen months, he was compelled
-to return by a very severe and dangerous illness. In April, 1777, he
-passed his examination, and was immediately commissioned as second
-lieutenant of the Lowestoffe frigate, then fitting out for Jamaica.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Fortunate in conciliating the good-will and esteem of those with
-whom he served, he passed rapidly through the lower ranks of his profession,
-and was made post-captain, with the command of the Hinchinbrook,
-of twenty-eight guns, June 11, 1779, when not yet of age.
-In 1782 he was appointed to the Albemarle, twenty-eight; and in
-1784 to the Boreas, twenty-eight, in which he served for three years
-in the West Indies, and though in time of peace, gave signal proof of
-his resolution and strict sense of duty, by being the first to insist on
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>the exclusion of the Americans from direct trade with our colonies,
-agreeably to the terms of the Navigation Act. He had no small
-difficulties to contend with; for the planters and the colonial authorities
-were united against him, and even the Admiral on the station
-coincided with their views, and gave orders that the Americans should
-be allowed free access to the islands. Still Nelson persevered.
-Transmitting a respectful remonstrance to the Admiral, he seized four
-of the American ships, which, after due notice, refused to quit the
-island of Nevis; and after a long and tedious process at law, in which
-he incurred much anxiety and expense, he succeeded in procuring their
-condemnation by the Admiralty Court. Many other ships were condemned
-on the same ground. Neither his services in this matter, nor
-his efforts to expose and remedy the peculations and dishonesty of the
-government agents, in almost all matters connected with naval affairs
-in the West Indies, were duly acknowledged by the Government at
-home; and in moments of spleen, when suffering under inconveniences
-which a conscientious discharge of his duty had brought on him, he
-talked of quitting the service of an ungrateful country. In March,
-1787, he married Mrs. Nisbet, a West-Indian lady, and in the same
-year returned to England. He continued unemployed till January,
-1793; when, on the breaking out of the revolutionary war, he was
-appointed to the Agamemnon, sixty-four, and ordered to serve in the
-Mediterranean under the command of Lord Hood.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>An ample field for action was now open to him. Lord Hood, who
-had known him in the West Indies, and appreciated his merits,
-employed him to co-operate with Paoli in delivering Corsica from its
-subjection to France; and most laboriously and ably did he perform
-the duty intrusted to him. The siege and capture of Bastia was
-entirely owing to his efforts; and at the siege of Calvi, during which he
-lost an eye, and throughout the train of successes which brought about
-the temporary annexation of Corsica to the British crown, his services,
-and those of the brave crew of the Agamemnon, were conspicuous.
-In 1795 Nelson was selected to co-operate with the Austrian and
-Sardinian troops in opposing the progress of the French in the north
-of Italy. The incapacity, if not dishonesty, and the bad success of
-those with whom he had to act, rendered this service irksome and
-inglorious; and his mortification was heightened when orders were
-sent out to withdraw the fleet from the Mediterranean, and evacuate
-Corsica and Elba. These reverses, however, were the prelude to a
-day of glory. On February 13, 1797, the British fleet, commanded
-by Sir John Jervis, fell in with the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>In the battle which ensued, Nelson, who had been raised to the
-rank of Commodore, and removed to the Captain, seventy-four, bore a
-most distinguished part. Apprehensive lest the enemy might be
-enabled to escape without fighting, he did not hesitate to disobey
-signals; and executed a manœuvre which brought the Captain into
-close action at once with four first-rates, an eighty, and two seventy-four-gun
-ships. Captain Trowbridge, in the Culloden, immediately
-came to his support, and they maintained the contest for near an hour
-against this immense disparity of force. One first-rate and one
-seventy-four dropped astern disabled; but the Culloden was also
-crippled, and the Captain was fired on by five ships of the line at
-once; when Captain Collingwood, in the Excellent, came up and
-engaged the huge Santissima Trinidad, of one hundred and thirty-six
-guns. By this time the Captain’s rigging was all shot away; and she
-lay unmanageable abreast of the eighty-gun ship, the S. Nicolas.
-Nelson seized the opportunity to board, and was himself among the
-first to enter the Spanish ship. She struck after a short struggle;
-and, sending for fresh men, he led the way from his prize to board the
-S. Josef, of one hundred and twelve guns, exclaiming, “Westminster
-Abbey or victory.” The ship immediately surrendered. Nelson
-received the most lively and public thanks for his services from the
-Admiral, who was raised to the peerage by the title of Earl St. Vincent.
-Nelson received the Order of the Bath; he had already been made
-Rear-Admiral, before tidings of the battle reached England.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the spring, Sir Horatio Nelson commanded the inner
-squadron employed in the blockade of Cadiz. He was afterwards
-despatched on an expedition against Teneriffe, which was defeated with
-considerable loss to the assailants. The Admiral himself lost his right
-arm, and was obliged to return to England, where he languished
-more than four months before the cure of his wound was completed.
-His services were rewarded by a pension of £1,000. On this
-occasion he was required by official forms to present a memorial of the
-services in which he had been engaged; and as our brief account can
-convey no notion of the constant activity of his early life, we quote
-the abstract of this paper given by Mr. Southey. “It stated that he
-had been in four actions with the fleets of the enemy, and in three
-actions with boats employed in cutting out of harbour, in destroying
-vessels, and in taking three towns; he had served on shore with the
-army four months, and commanded the batteries at the sieges of
-Bastia and Calvi; he had assisted at the capture of seven sail of the
-line, six frigates, four corvettes, and eleven privateers; taken and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>destroyed near fifty sail of merchant vessels, and actually been
-engaged against the enemy upwards of a hundred and twenty times;
-in which service he had lost his right eye and right arm, and been
-severely wounded and bruised in his body.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Early in 1798 Nelson went out in the Vanguard to rejoin Lord St.
-Vincent off Cadiz. He was immediately despatched with a squadron
-into the Mediterranean, to watch an armament known to be fitting out
-at Toulon; the destination of which excited much anxiety. It sailed
-May 20, attacked and took Malta, and then proceeded, as Nelson
-supposed, to Egypt. Strengthened by a powerful reinforcement, he
-made all sail for Alexandria; but there no enemy had been seen or
-heard of. He returned in haste along the north coast of the Mediterranean
-to Sicily, refreshed the fleet, and again sailed to the eastward.
-On nearing Alexandria the second time, August 1, he had the
-pleasure of seeing the object of his toilsome cruise moored in Aboukir
-Bay, in line of battle. It appeared afterwards that the two fleets
-must have crossed each other on the night of June 22.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The French fleet consisted of thirteen ships of the line and four
-frigates; the British of the same number of ships of the line, and one
-fifty-gun ship. In number of guns and men the French had a decided
-superiority. It was evening before the British fleet came up. The
-battle began at half-past six; night closed in at seven, and the struggle
-was continued through the darkness, a magnificent and awful spectacle
-to thousands who watched the engagement with eager anxiety. Victory
-was not long doubtful. The two first ships of the French line were
-dismasted in a quarter of an hour; the third, fourth, and fifth were
-taken by half-past eight; about ten, the L’Orient, Admiral Bruey’s flag-ship,
-blew up. By day-break the two rear ships, which had not been
-engaged, cut their cables and stood out to sea, in company with two
-frigates, leaving nine ships of the line in the hands of the British, who
-were too much crippled to engage in pursuit. Two ships of the line
-and two frigates were burnt or sunk. Three out of the four ships
-which escaped were subsequently taken; and thus, of the whole armament,
-only a single frigate returned to France.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This victory, the most complete and most important then known in
-naval warfare, raised Nelson to the summit of glory; and presents and
-honours were showered on him from all quarters. The gratitude of
-his country was expressed, inadequately in comparison with the
-rewards bestowed on others for less important services, by raising him
-to the peerage, by the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile, with a pension
-of £2,000. The Court of Naples, to which the battle of Aboukir
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>was as a reprieve from destruction, testified a due sense of their
-obligation by bestowing on him the dukedom and domain of Bronte,
-in Sicily. From Alexandria Nelson went to Naples, much shattered
-in health by the fatigue and intense anxiety which he had experienced
-during his long cruise, and suffering from a severe wound in the head,
-received in the recent battle. He was most kindly received by Sir
-William Hamilton, the British ambassador; and here commenced that
-fatal intimacy with the celebrated Lady Hamilton, which ruined his
-domestic peace, and led to the only stains upon his public life. Her
-influence ruled him in all transactions in which the Neapolitan Court
-was interested: and as she sought in all things to gratify the Queen,
-to whom she was devotedly attached, the passions and follies of a court
-corrupt and childish beyond example, were too often allowed to warp
-the conduct of a British Admiral, who hitherto had sought the welfare
-of his country, even in preference to his own honour and prospects of
-advancement. His best friends saw and lamented the consequences of
-his weakness, and remonstrated, but to no purpose; and he himself,
-unable to control this passion, or to stifle the uneasy feelings to which
-it gave birth, appears from his private letters to have been thoroughly
-unhappy. Overpowering that influence must have been, when it
-could induce the gallant and generous Nelson to annul a treaty of
-surrender concluded with the Neapolitan revolutionists, under the joint
-authority of the Neapolitan Royalist General, and the British Captain
-commanding in the Bay of Naples, and to deliver up the prisoners to
-the vengeance of the court, on the sole plea that he would grant
-no terms to rebels but those of unconditional submission.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The autumn of 1798, the whole of 1799, and part of 1800, Nelson
-spent in the Mediterranean, employed in the recovery of Malta, in
-protecting Sicily, and in co-operating to expel the French from the
-Neapolitan continental dominions. In 1800 various causes of discontent
-led him to solicit leave to return to England, where he was
-received with the enthusiasm due to his services.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Soon afterwards, still mastered by his passion, he separated himself
-formally from Lady Nelson. In March, 1801, he sailed as second in
-command of the expedition against Copenhagen, led by Sir Hyde
-Parker. The dilatoriness with which it was conducted increased the
-difficulties of this enterprise; and might have caused it to fail, had not
-Nelson’s energy and talent been at hand to overcome the obstacles
-occasioned by this delay. The attack was intrusted to him by Sir Hyde
-Parker, and executed April 2, with his usual promptitude and success.
-After a fierce engagement, with great slaughter on both sides, the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>greater part of the Danish line of defence was captured or silenced.
-Nelson then sent a flag of truce on shore, and an armistice was concluded.
-He bore honourable testimony to the gallantry of his opponents.
-“The French,” he said, “fought bravely, but they could not
-have supported for one hour the fight which the Danes had supported
-for four.” May 5, Sir Hyde Parker was recalled, and Nelson
-appointed Commander-in-Chief: but no further hostilities occurred,
-and suffering greatly from the climate, he almost immediately returned
-home. For this battle he was raised to the rank of Viscount.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At this time much alarm prevailed with respect to the meditated
-invasion of England; and the command of the coast from Orfordness
-to Beachy Head was offered to him, and accepted. But he
-thought the alarm idle; he felt the service to be irksome; and gladly
-retired from it at the peace of Amiens. When war was renewed in
-1803, he took the command of the Mediterranean fleet. For more than
-a year he kept his station off Toulon, eagerly watching for the French
-fleet. In January, 1805, it put to sea, and escaped the observation of
-his look-out ships. He made for Egypt, and failing to meet with them,
-returned to Malta, where he found information that they had been
-dispersed in a gale, and forced to put back to Toulon. Villeneuve put
-to sea again, March 31, formed a junction with the Spanish fleet in
-Cadiz, and sailed for the West Indies. Thither Nelson followed him,
-after considerable delay for want of information and from contrary
-winds; but the enemy still eluded his pursuit, and he was obliged to
-retrace his anxious course to Europe, without the longed-for meeting,
-and with no other satisfaction than that of having frustrated by his
-diligence their designs on our colonies. June 20, 1805, he landed at
-Gibraltar, that being the first time that he had set foot ashore since
-June 16, 1803. After cruising in search of the enemy till the middle
-of August, he was ordered to Portsmouth, where he learned that an
-indecisive action had taken place between the combined fleets returning
-from the West Indies, and the British under Sir Robert Calder.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He had not been many days established at home before certain news
-arrived that the French and Spanish fleets had entered Cadiz. Eager
-to gain the reward of his long watchings, and laborious pursuit, he
-again offered his services, which were gladly accepted. He embarked
-at Portsmouth, September 14, 1805, on board the Victory, to take the
-command of the fleet lying off Cadiz under Admiral Collingwood, his
-early friend and companion in the race of fame. The last battle in
-which Nelson was engaged was fought off Cape Trafalgar, October 21,
-1805. The enemy were superior in number of ships, and still more
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>in size and weight of metal. Nelson bore down on them in two lines;
-heading one himself, while Collingwood in the Royal Sovereign led
-the other, which first entered into action. “See,” cried Nelson, as
-the Royal Sovereign cut through the centre of the enemy’s line, and
-muzzle to muzzle engaged a three-decker; “see how that noble fellow
-Collingwood carries his ship into action.” Collingwood on the other
-hand said to his Captain, “Rotherham, what would Nelson give
-to be here.” As the Victory approached an incessant raking fire
-was directed against her, by which fifty of her men were killed and
-wounded before a single gun was returned. Nelson steered for his old
-opponent at Cape St. Vincent, the Santissima Trinidad, distinguished
-by her size, and opened his fire at four minutes after twelve, engaging
-the Redoutable with his starboard, the Santissima Trinidad and Bucentaur
-with his larboard guns.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>About a quarter past one, a musket-ball, fired from the mizen-top
-of the Redoutable, struck him on the left shoulder, and he fell. From
-the first he felt the wound to be mortal. He suffered intense pain,
-yet still preserved the liveliest interest in the fate of the action; and
-the joy visible in his countenance as often as the hurrahs of the crew
-announced that an enemy had struck, testified how near his heart, even
-in the agonies of death, was the accomplishment of the great work to
-which his life had been devoted. He lived to know that his victory
-was complete and glorious, and expired tranquilly at half-past four.
-His last words were, “Thank God, I have done my duty.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He had indeed done his duty, and completed his task; for thenceforth
-no hostile fleet presumed to contest the dominion of the sea. It
-may seem mournful, that he did not survive to enjoy the thanks and
-honours with which a grateful country would have rejoiced to recompense
-this crowning triumph. But he had reached the pinnacle of
-fame; and his death in the hour of victory has tended far more than
-a few years of peaceful life, to keep alive his memory in the hearts
-of a people which loved, and a navy which adored him. In the
-eloquent words of the distinguished author from whom this sketch is
-compiled, “He cannot be said to have fallen prematurely whose work
-was done; nor ought he to be lamented, who died so full of honours,
-and at the height of human fame. The most triumphant death is that
-of the martyr: the most awful, that of the martyred patriot: the most
-splendid, that of the hero in the hour of victory. He has left us a
-name and an example which are at this hour inspiring thousands of
-the youth of England: a name which is our pride, and an example
-which will continue to be our shield and our strength.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>A few words, before we conclude, on those points which appear to
-us to have constituted the peculiar excellence of Nelson’s character,
-the real source of his greatness. We cannot attribute it solely to
-personal courage, or professional skill: fearless as he was, the navy
-contained thousands of hearts as fearless as his own; skilful as he
-was, there may have been other officers not less skilful than himself.
-But to courage, talent, and a thorough knowledge of nautical affairs,
-he joined a degree of political and moral courage, and disinterestedness
-rarely equalled. To do his duty seems always to have been
-his first object: not to do all that was required, but all that could
-be done. With this view he never hesitated to run the risk of professional
-censure when the emergency seemed to demand it. Many
-instances are on record in which he acted contrary to orders: some,
-when he knew that strict obedience would have been mischievous,
-in circumstances which the framers of the orders could not have
-foreseen: others where he disobeyed the commands of a superior
-on the spot, because he knew them to be illegal, or prejudicial to the
-interests of his country. The most remarkable of these is his conduct
-in the West Indies, because he had then no established reputation
-to support him. But Nelson was well aware that this is a course
-which no officer can be justified in pursuing, except under the full and
-clear conviction, not only that his own views are just, but that the
-occasion is of sufficient importance to justify such a deviation from
-the rules of service; and that, even when the transgression is justified
-by the event, it yet involves a most serious degree of responsibility.
-“Well,” he said, after the battle of Copenhagen, “I have fought
-contrary to orders, and I shall perhaps be hanged. Never mind, let
-them.” The feeling which prompted these words, though uttered half
-in jest, can hardly be mistaken. Another of the most admirable qualities
-of his character is the extraordinary power which he possessed of
-attaching all who served under him. His sailors adored him; and
-many touching anecdotes might be told of their affection. “Our
-Nel,” they used to say, “is as brave as a lion, and as gentle as a
-lamb.” To his officers he was equally kind and considerate. Happy
-was the midshipman who in Nelson’s younger days could obtain a berth
-in his ship. He himself attended to their instruction, and was diligent
-in so training them, as to become ornaments to the service by their
-gentlemanly feeling and deportment, as well as by their professional
-skill. Humane as brave, it was ever his object to avoid needless bloodshed:
-and though the virulence of national enmity led him into the
-most bitter expressions of hatred to the French, he was ever eager to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>rescue a drowning, or afford hospitality and protection to a beaten
-enemy. “May humanity after victory be the predominant feature in
-the British fleet,” was part of the prayer which he composed on the
-morning of Trafalgar. There is indeed one stain on his humanity, one
-stain on his good faith;—the deliverance of the Neapolitan revolutionists
-to the vengeance of a cowardly and cruel court. Of this we
-have already spoken; and far from excusing, we do not even wish to
-palliate it. It was the result of his fatal attachment to Lady Hamilton:
-and it is the duty of the biographer to point out that the one great blot
-on his domestic, led to the one great blot upon his public character.
-He has added another to the list of great men, who, proof against
-other temptations, have yielded to female influence; and we may add
-(for it is a valuable lesson) that in so doing he not only blemished his
-fame, but ruined his happiness.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Towards his country, however, Nelson was faultless; and its gratitude
-has been worthily shown by heaping honours on his memory.
-His brother was made an earl, and an estate was purchased for the
-family, and a pension granted to support the title. His remains were
-brought to England, and interred with the utmost pomp of funeral
-ceremony in the cemetery of St. Paul’s. His ship, the Victory, is
-still preserved at Portsmouth, and will long continue to be a chief
-object of interest to the visitors of that mighty arsenal.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_149.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>Nelson’s Pillar, at Yarmouth.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>
-<img src='images/i_150.jpg' alt='CUVIER.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>CUVIER.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>George Leopold Christian Frederic Dagobert Cuvier was
-born August 23, 1769, at Montbeliard, a small town in Alsace, which
-then formed part of the territory of the Duke of Wurtemburg. His
-father was a retired officer, living upon his pension, who had formerly
-held a commission in a Swiss regiment in the service of France. He
-had the inestimable advantage of possessing a very sensible mother
-who even in infancy attended with sedulous care to the formation of his
-character, and the development of his mind. He gave early indications
-that nature had endowed him with her choicest intellectual gifts. A
-memory of extraordinary strength, joined to industry, and to the power
-of fixing his attention steadily upon whatever he was engaged in,
-enabled him to master all the ordinary studies of youth with facility;
-and by the time he was fourteen years of age he had acquired a fair
-knowledge of the ancient, and of several modern languages, and had
-made considerable progress in the mathematics, besides having stored
-his mind by a wide range of historical reading. He very early gave
-proofs of a talent for drawing, which in after-life proved of material
-service in his researches into natural history. When he was twelve
-years old he read the works of Buffon with avidity, and he no doubt
-received from the writings of that accomplished and elegant historian
-of nature an early bias towards the study of zoology. While he was
-at school he instituted a little academy of sciences among his companions,
-of which he was elected the president: his sleeping-room
-was their hall of meeting, and the bottom of his bed the president’s
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>chair. They read extracts from books of history, travels, and natural
-philosophy, which they discussed; and the debate was usually followed
-by an opinion on the merits of the question, pronounced from
-the chair.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_150fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by J. Thomson.</em><br /><br />CUVIER.<br /><br /><em>From an original Drawing in the possession of<br />the Baroness Cuvier, at Paris.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1783 the reigning Duke of Wurtemburg visited Montbeliard;
-and became acquainted with the unusual attainments of young Cuvier,
-who had then reached the fourteenth year of his age. Struck by the
-early promise of future eminence, he offered to take him under his own
-protection. The proposal was readily accepted, and the future philosopher
-went to Stutgard to prosecute his studies in the university of
-that place. He continued there four years, and did not fail to turn
-to good account the excellent opportunities which were afforded to
-him, of laying the foundation of that extensive acquaintance with
-every great department of human knowledge, for which he was in
-after-life so eminently distinguished. The universality of his genius
-was as remarkable as the depth and accuracy of his learning in that
-particular field of science, with which his name is more especially
-associated. He not only gained the highest academical prizes, but
-was decorated by the Duke with an order; a distinction which was
-only conferred upon five or six out of the four hundred students at
-the university.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He had now arrived at an age when it was necessary for him to
-choose a profession, and his inclination led him to seek employment in
-one of the public offices in the country of his patron. This he would
-probably have obtained; but, happily for science, the circumstances of
-his parents made it impossible for him to linger in expectation, and
-he changed his views. In July, 1788, being then in his nineteenth
-year, he accepted the office of tutor in a Protestant family in Normandy,
-having been himself brought up in that faith.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The family lived in a very retired situation near the sea; and
-Cuvier was not so constantly engaged with his pupils as to prevent
-him from cultivating those branches of science, for which he had
-imbibed a decided taste while listening to the lectures of Abel, the
-professor of natural history at Stutgard. He devoted himself especially
-to the study of the Mollusca, for which his vicinity to the sea
-afforded him good opportunities; and continued his researches uninterruptedly
-for six years in this retirement. The reign of terror at
-Paris, which spared neither virtue nor talent, drove M. Tessier, a
-member of the Academy of Sciences, to seek refuge in Normandy.
-He became acquainted with the young naturalist, and soon learned to
-appreciate his talents; and he introduced him to the correspondence
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>of several of the more eminent men of science in Paris, among
-whom were Lametheric, Olivier, and Lacepède. The impression
-which Cuvier made upon his correspondents was so great, that when
-tranquillity was restored, they invited him to come to the capital. He
-accepted the invitation, and in the spring of 1795 removed to Paris.
-He was soon afterwards appointed Professor of Natural History in the
-central school of the Pantheon.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Being very desirous of obtaining some official connexion with the
-Museum of Natural History at the Jardin des Plantes, with the view
-of gaining free access to the valuable collections there deposited, he
-solicited the aid of his scientific friends, and by their exertions,
-particularly those of De Jussieu, Geoffroy, and Lacepède, he was
-nominated assistant to Mertrud, the professor of comparative anatomy,
-a chair which had been recently instituted. Here he had free scope
-to indulge his passion for that branch of science, and by his indefatigable
-exertions he speedily brought together a very copious supply
-of illustrations for his lectures. He never ceased to make the museum
-a primary object of his care, and at last formed the most perfect and
-the most splendid collection of comparative anatomy which exists in
-the world. The excellence of his lectures, in which the interest of
-the subject was heightened by his eloquence and easy delivery, attracted
-a crowd of auditors; and while he thus excited and extended a taste for
-a department of science previously but little cultivated, those who
-listened to him spread the fame of the young professor.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>At the establishment of the Institute in 1796 he was chosen one of
-the original members; and the papers which he read before that body,
-giving an account of his researches and discoveries in comparative
-anatomy, enriched their memoirs, and procured for him a high and
-widely extended reputation at an early period of life. In 1800 he was
-appointed Secretary to the Institute. In the same year Bonaparte was
-appointed President. Cuvier thus, by virtue of his office, was brought
-into immediate and frequent communication with that extraordinary
-man; an event which had a material influence upon his future destiny,
-and opened to him new and wide fields of usefulness and distinction.
-Such were the powers of his mind, and so great was the versatility
-of his genius, that in whatever situation he was placed his superiority
-was soon acknowledged by his associates.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the year 1802 the attention of the First Consul was directed to
-the subject of public instruction, and six inspectors-general were commissioned
-to organize lyceums or colleges in thirty towns of France.
-Cuvier was one of them, and he left Paris to execute the duties which
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>had been assigned to him in the provinces. From this period his
-attention was always particularly directed to the subject of education;
-and his labours in that cause have had the most important influence
-upon every institution for public instruction in France, from the
-University of Paris down to the most humble village school. At the
-foundation of the Imperial University in 1808, Cuvier was named a
-member of its council for life. When Italy was annexed to the
-French empire, he was charged at three different times with missions
-to that country, for the purpose of re-organizing the old academies
-and colleges, and of establishing new ones: and in the last of those
-missions in 1813, although a Protestant, he was sent to form the
-University at Rome. In 1811 he went into Belgium and Holland to
-perform the same duties; and the reports which he drew up on that
-occasion, which were afterwards printed, possess great interest, especially
-in those parts where he speaks of the schools in Holland for the
-lower classes. He felt how important it is to the welfare of a nation,
-that good education should be within reach even of the poor: and there
-is no country in Europe where that subject is attended to with more
-enlightened views than in Holland, where excellent primary schools
-have been in operation for nearly half a century. When the great
-measure for the general introduction of schools for the lower orders
-throughout France, was brought forward in 1821, the duty of drawing
-up the plan upon which they were to be established was confided to
-Cuvier; and his enlightened benevolence and practical good sense are
-equally conspicuous in the system which on his recommendation was
-adopted. It has proved admirably adapted to the ends in view. The
-direction of the Protestant schools was more particularly intrusted to
-him, and he introduced into all those which had previously existed
-many important improvements.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In February, 1815, the university was remodelled by the Bourbon
-government, and Cuvier was appointed a member of the Royal Council
-of Public Instruction. Shortly afterwards came the events of the
-Hundred Days, and among them the restoration of the Imperial
-University. Cuvier was re-appointed to his seat in the Council, for
-they felt that they could not do there without him. In four months
-another revolution took place in the university, as in other public
-establishments; and as it was found that the system of the Royal
-University could not be resumed, a commission was appointed to execute
-the functions of the Grand Master, the Chancellor, and the Treasurer.
-In this commission the duties which had belonged to the
-Chancellor were assigned to Cuvier. In this station he was eminently
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>useful in maintaining the rights of the university under circumstances
-of no ordinary difficulty. He was twice President of the Commission,
-and each time for a year; but on account of his being a Protestant
-he could not retain that place permanently. But the Bishop, who,
-as a member of the commission, had discharged the duties which
-belonged to the Grand Master of the University, was appointed
-minister for ecclesiastical affairs; and Cuvier was nominated as his
-successor, so far as concerned the Protestant faculty of theology, and
-continued to act in this capacity for the rest of his life. As a member
-of the Council of State, and attached to the department of the
-Minister of the Interior, he had the direction of all matters relating
-to Protestant, and other religious congregations, not Catholic.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During his mission to Rome in 1813 he was appointed by Napoleon
-a member of the Council of State; and on the restoration of the
-Bourbons his political opinions formed no obstacle to his continuing
-in that place. Although he was left undisturbed in his situation at
-the university, he was removed from the Council of State during the
-Hundred Days; but resumed his seat when the fate of his former
-patron and master was sealed. It is to be regretted that a mind so
-powerful as that of Cuvier should not have felt the paramount importance
-of having settled opinions on the great principles of government;
-and the facility with which he made himself acceptable to the
-despotic Emperor, the weak and bigoted Bourbons, and the liberal
-government of Louis Philippe, showed a want of fixed public principle
-which casts a shade upon the memory of this great man.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>As a member of the Council of State he took a distinguished lead,
-which indeed he never failed to do wherever he was placed, and he
-was eminently useful by his extraordinary talent for the despatch of
-business. He was a patient listener, and was never forward with
-his opinion; he allowed the useless talkers to have their course, and,
-while he appeared indifferent to what was going on, he was often
-drawing up a resolution, which his colleagues usually adopted without
-farther discussion, after he had given a short and luminous exposition
-of his views. For thirteen years previous to his death he was
-chairman of the Committee of the Council of State, to which the
-affairs of the interior belong; and the quantity of business which
-passed through his hands was wonderful. It was accomplished by
-his great skill in making those useful with whom he acted; by his
-talent in keeping his colleagues to the point in their discussions; and
-by his prodigious readiness of memory, which enabled him to go back
-at once to former decisions where the principle of the question under
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>deliberation had been already settled. His reading in history had
-been very extensive, and his attention was ever alive to what was
-passing around him, as well in other countries as in France; so
-that he brought to bear on the matter in debate, not speculative
-opinions merely, but maxims drawn from the experience of past
-and present times. In the Chamber of Deputies, of which he was
-a member for several years, he took an active part, and often
-originated measures. His manner as a speaker was very impressive,
-and the rich stores of his mind, and his ready and natural eloquence
-commanded attention. At the end of 1831 he was created a peer;
-and during the short time he sat in the Upper Chamber, he took
-a prominent part in its business, and drew up some important reports
-of committees to which he belonged.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>But his reputation as a statesman was confined to France: his
-achievements in science have spread his fame over the civilized world.
-We can in this place do little more than mention the titles of the
-most important of Cuvier’s works; even to name all would carry
-us beyond our limits. His earliest production was a memoir read
-before the Natural History Society of Paris, in 1795, and published
-in the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Décade Philosophique</span>. In this paper he objects to
-the divisions of certain of the lower animals adopted by Linnæus, and
-proposes a more scientific classification of the mollusca, crustacea,
-worms, insects, and other invertebrate animals. His attention had
-been long directed to that branch of natural history, and his subsequent
-researches in the same department, most of which have been
-communicated to the world through the medium of the ‘Annales
-du Museum,’ have thrown great light on that obscure and curious
-part of the creation. Three years afterwards, he published his
-Elementary View of the Natural History of Animals, which contains
-an outline of the lectures he delivered at the Pantheon. In this work
-he displayed the vast extent of his acquaintance with the works of his
-predecessors, and, at the same time, the originality of his own mind,
-by introducing a new arrangement of the animal kingdom, founded
-on more exact investigation and comparison of the varieties which
-exist in anatomical structure. With the assistance of his friends,
-Dumeril and Duvernay, he published, in 1802, his ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Leçons d’Anatomie
-Comparée</span>,’ in two volumes, octavo, afterwards extended to five.
-These are singularly lucid and exact, and form the most complete
-work on the subject which has yet appeared.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The next important publication we have to notice, is one in which
-he embodied the results of his extensive researches in a very interesting
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>field of inquiry, concerning the remains of extinct species of
-animals which are found enveloped in solid rocks, or buried in the
-beds of gravel that cover the surface of the earth. We are disposed
-to think his ‘Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles’ the most important
-of his works, the most illustrious and imperishable monument
-of his fame. The quarries in the neighbourhood of Paris abound
-in fossil bones; and he had great facilities for collecting the valuable
-specimens which were almost daily discovered in the ordinary
-working of the quarry. When he went to Italy, he had an opportunity
-of seeing animal remains of the same sort procured by the
-naturalists of that country from their native soil, and preserved in
-their museums. His attention became now specially attracted to the
-subject; and having accumulated materials from all parts of the world,
-he announced the important truths at which he had arrived in the
-work above-mentioned, in four quarto volumes, in the year 1812. A
-new edition, enlarged to five volumes, appeared in 1817, and in 1824
-it was extended to seven volumes, illustrated by two hundred engravings.
-No one who was not profoundly skilled in comparative anatomy
-could have entered upon the inquiry with any prospect of success;
-and Cuvier not only possessed that qualification, but was singularly
-constituted by nature for the task. His powerful memory was particularly
-susceptible of retaining impressions conveyed to it by the eye:
-he saw at a glance the most minute variations of form, and what he
-saw he not only never forgot, but he had the power of representing
-upon paper with the utmost accuracy and despatch. It is very
-seldom that the entire skeleton of an animal is found in a fossil
-state: in most instances the bones have been separated and scattered
-before they were entombed, and a tusk, a jaw, or a single joint of the
-back-bone is very often all that is met with, and frequently too in a
-mutilated state. But an instructed mind like that of Cuvier was able
-to re-construct the whole animal from the inspection of one fragment.
-He had discovered by his previous researches such a connexion
-between the several bones, that a particular curvature, or a small
-protuberance on a jaw, or a tooth, was sufficient to indicate a particular
-species of animal, and to prove that the fragment could not have
-belonged to any other. The ‘Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles’
-have made us acquainted with more than seventy species of animals
-before unknown.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The preliminary discourse in the first volume is a masterly exposition
-of the revolutions which the crust of the earth has undergone:
-revolutions to which the animal creation has been equally subject. It
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>is written with great clearness and elegance, and is so much calculated
-to interest general readers as well as men of science, that it has been
-translated into most of the European languages. The English translation,
-by Professor Jameson, published under the title of ‘Essay on the
-Theory of the Earth,’ has gone through several editions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In his examination of the fossil bones found near Paris, Cuvier was
-led to inquire into the geological structure of the country around that
-capital. He assumed M. Alexander Bronguiart as his associate, and
-the result of their joint labours is contained in one of the volumes of
-the work now under consideration, in an Essay on the Mineralogy of
-the Environs of Paris. This essay formed a great epoch in geological
-science, for it was then that the grand division of the tertiary formations
-was first shown to form a distinct class. A new direction and a
-fresh impulse was thus given to geological investigations; and many
-of the most important general truths at which we have now arrived
-in this science, have been established by discoveries to which the
-essay of Cuvier and Bronguiart led the way.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1817 appeared the first edition of the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Règne Animal</span>,’ in four
-octavo volumes, one of which was written by the celebrated naturalist
-Latreille. This work gives an account of the structure and history
-of all existing and extinct races of animals: it has subsequently been
-enlarged. Cuvier began, in conjunction with M. Valenciennes,
-an extensive general work on fishes, which it was calculated
-would extend to twenty volumes. Eight only have appeared;
-for the embarrassments among the Parisian booksellers, in 1830,
-suspended the publication, and it has thus been left incomplete;
-but a great mass of materials was collected, and we may hope
-that they will yet be published. In addition to these great undertakings,
-he had been for years collecting materials for a stupendous
-work, a complete system of comparative anatomy, to be illustrated
-by drawings from nature, and chiefly from objects in the
-Museum at the Jardin des Plantes. Above a thousand drawings,
-many executed by his own hand, are said to have been made. Looking
-back to what he had already accomplished, and considering his
-health and age, for he was only in his sixty-third year, it was not
-unreasonable in him to hope to see the great edifice erected, of which
-he had laid the foundation and collected the materials. But unfortunately
-for the cause of science it was ordered otherwise, and there is
-something particularly touching in the last words he uttered to his
-friend the Baron Pasquier, and in sounds, too, scarcely articulate, from
-the malady which so suddenly cut short his career—“<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vous le voyez, il
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>y a loin de l’homme du Mardi (nous nous étions rencontrés ce jour là)
-à l’homme du Dimanche: et tant de choses, cependant, qui me restaient
-à faire! trois ouvrages importans à mettre au jour, les matériaux préparés,
-tout était disposé dans ma tête, il ne me restait plus qu’à écrire.</span></i>”
-“You see how it is, how different the man of Tuesday (we had met
-on that day) from the man of Sunday: and so many things too
-that remained for me to do! three important works to bring out, the
-materials prepared, all disposed in order in my head, I had nothing
-left to do but to write.” In four hours afterwards that wonderfully
-organized head had become a mere mass of insensible matter.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Besides the works above enumerated, and many memoirs in the
-transactions of the scientific bodies of Paris, he has given to the world,
-in four octavo volumes, a History of the Progress of the Physical
-Sciences, from 1789 to 1827, which evince his genius and extensive
-erudition. The first volume is a reprint of a report which he
-presented, as Perpetual Secretary of the Institute, to Napoleon, in
-1808, on the Progress of the Physical Sciences from 1789 to 1807.
-In the same capacity, during thirty-two years, he pronounced the
-customary Eloges upon deceased members of the Institute. These
-are collected in three octavo volumes, and bear witness to the versatility
-of his genius and the extent of his attainments; for whether he is
-recording the merits of a mathematician, a chemist, a botanist, a
-geologist, or the cultivator of any other department of science, he
-shows himself equally conversant with his subject.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He lived at the Jardin des Plantes for nearly forty years, surrounded
-by the objects which engrossed so great a portion of his
-thoughts, and there received every Saturday the men of science of
-Paris, and all others who visited that capital from any part of the
-world. Professors and pupils met in his rooms to listen with instruction
-and delight to his conversation, for he was accessible to all.
-Although compelled to be a very rigid economist of his time, he was
-so goodnatured and considerate, that if any person who had business
-to transact with him called at an unexpected hour, he never sent
-him away; saying, that one who lived so far off had no right to deny
-himself. Every thing in his house was so arranged as to secure
-economy of time: his library consisted of several apartments, and each
-great subject he attended to had a separate room allotted to it; and he
-usually worked in the apartment belonging to the subject he was
-at the moment engaged with, so that he might be surrounded with
-his materials. His ordinary custom, when he returned from attending
-public business in Paris, was to go at once to his study, passing a few
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>minutes by the way in the room where his family sat; which latterly
-consisted of Madame Cuvier and her daughter by a former marriage.
-He came back when dinner was announced, usually with a
-book in his hand; and returned soon after dinner to his study, where
-he remained till eleven. He then came to Madame Cuvier’s room,
-and had generally some of the lighter literature of the day read
-aloud to him. Sometimes the book selected was of a graver cast,
-for it is said that during the last year of his life he had the greater
-part of Cicero read to him. His manner was courteous, kind, and
-encouraging: every one who took an interest in any subject with
-which Cuvier was familiar, felt assured that he might approach him
-without fear of meeting with a cold or discouraging reception.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He had four children, but lost them all. The last taken from him
-was a daughter, who was suddenly carried off by consumption on the
-eve of her marriage. He was most tenderly attached to her, and it
-required all the efforts of his powerful mind to prevent his sinking
-under the blow. He found distraction by intense thought on other
-subjects, but not consolation, for the wound never healed.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>On Tuesday, the 8th of May, 1832, he opened his usual course
-at the College of France, with a particularly eloquent introductory
-lecture, full of enthusiasm in his subject, to the delight of his numerous
-audience. As he left the room he was attacked with the first
-symptoms of the disease which was so soon to prove fatal: it was a
-paralytic seizure. He was well enough, however, to preside the next
-day at the Committee of the Council of State, but that was the last
-duty he performed. He died on the following Sunday, leaving
-behind him an imperishable name, which will be held in honour in
-the most advanced state of human learning.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_159.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p>Skeleton of the Megatherium.</p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>
-<img src='images/i_160.jpg' alt='RAY.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>RAY.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>John Ray, whom Haller describes as the greatest botanist in the
-memory of man, and whose writings on animals are pronounced by
-Cuvier to be the foundation of all modern zoology, was born on the
-29th of November, 1628, at Black Notley, near Braintree, in Essex.
-His father was a blacksmith, who availed himself of the advantages of
-a free grammar school at Black Notley to bestow upon his son a liberal
-education. John was designed for holy orders; and was accordingly
-entered at Catherine Hall, Cambridge, in his sixteenth year. He
-subsequently removed to Trinity, of which college he was elected a
-Fellow, in the same year with the celebrated Isaac Barrow. In 1651
-he was appointed Greek Lecturer of his college; and afterwards Mathematical
-Lecturer and Humanity Reader.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the midst of his professional occupations Ray appears to have
-devoted himself to that course of observation of the works of nature,
-which was afterwards to constitute the business and pleasure of his
-life, and upon which his enduring reputation was to be built. In
-1660 he published his ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam
-nascentium</span>,’ which work he states to be the result of ten years of
-research. He must, therefore, have become a naturalist in the best
-sense of the word—he must have observed as well as read—at the
-period when he was struggling for university honours, and obtaining
-them in company with some of the most eminent persons of his own
-day. Before the publication of his catalogue, he had visited many
-parts of England and Wales, for the purpose chiefly of collecting
-their native plants; and his Itineraries, which were first published in
-1760, under the title off ‘Select Remains of the learned John Ray,’ show
-that he was a careful and diligent observer of every matter that could
-enlarge his understanding and correct his taste. His principal companion
-in his favourite studies was his friend and pupil, Francis Willughby.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_160fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by H. Meyer.</em><br /><br />RAY.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture<br />in the British Museum.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>In December, 1660, Ray was ordained Deacon and Priest at the
-same time. But the chances of preferment in the church of England,
-which his admirable talents and learning, as well as the purity of his
-life and the genuine warmth of his piety, would probably have won
-for him, were at once destroyed by his honest and inflexible resolution
-not to subscribe to the conditions required by the Act of Uniformity of
-1662, by which divines were called upon to swear that the oath
-entitled the Solemn League and Covenant was not binding upon
-those who had taken it. Ray was in consequence deprived of his
-fellowship. The affection of his pupil, Willughby, relieved him from
-the embarrassment which might have been a consequence of this
-misfortune. The two friends from this time appear to have dedicated
-themselves almost wholly to the study of natural history. They travelled
-upon the Continent for three years, from 1663 to 1666; and
-during the remainder of Willughby’s life, which unfortunately was
-terminated in 1672, their time was principally occupied in observations
-which had for their object to examine and to register the various productions
-of nature, upon some method which should obviate the difficulty
-of those arbitrary and fanciful classifications which had prevailed
-up to their day. In the preface to his first botanical attempt, the
-Catalogue of Cambridge Plants, Ray describes the obstacles which he
-found in the execution of such a work;—he had no guide to consult,
-and he had to form a method of arrangement, solely by his own
-sagacity and patience. At that period, as he says in his ‘Wisdom of God
-in the Creation,’ “different colour, or multiplicity of leaves in the flower,
-and the like accidents, were sufficient to constitute a specific difference.”
-From a conversation with Ray a short time before his death, Derham
-has described the object which the two friends had in their agreeable
-but laborious pursuits. “These two gentlemen, finding the history of
-nature very imperfect, had agreed between themselves, before their
-travels beyond sea, to reduce the several tribes of things to a method;
-and to give accurate descriptions of the several species, from a strict
-view of them.” That Ray entered upon his task, however perplexing
-it might be, with the enthusiastic energy of a man really in love with his
-subject, we cannot doubt. “Willughby,” says Derham, “prosecuted his
-design with as great application as if he had been to get his bread
-thereby.” The good sense of Ray saw distinctly the right path in
-such an undertaking. There is a passage in his ‘Wisdom of God,’
-which beautifully exhibits his own conception of the proper character
-of a naturalist: “Let it not suffice us to be book-learned, to read what
-others have written, and to take upon trust more falsehood than truth.
-But let us ourselves examine things as we have opportunity, and converse
-with nature as well as books. Let us endeavour to promote and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>increase this knowledge, and make new discoveries; not so much distrusting
-our own parts or despairing of our own abilities, as to think
-that our industry can add nothing to the invention of our ancestors, or
-correct any of their mistakes. Let us not think that the bounds
-of science are fixed like Hercules’ pillars, and inscribed with a <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ne
-plus ultra</span></i>. Let us not think we have done when we have learnt
-what they have delivered to us. The treasures of nature are inexhaustible.
-Here is employment enough for the vastest parts, the most
-indefatigable industries, the happiest opportunities, the most prolix and
-undisturbed vacancies.” It is not difficult to imagine the two friends
-encouraging each other in their laborious career by sentiments such as
-these; which are as worthy to be held in remembrance now that we
-are reaping the full advantage of their labours, and those of their
-many illustrious successors, as in the days when natural history was,
-for the most part, a tissue of extravagant fables and puerile conceits.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1667 Ray was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society; and he
-executed, about that time, a translation into Latin of his friend Bishop
-Wilkins’ work, on a philosophical and universal language. In 1670
-he published the first edition of his ‘Catalogue of English Plants;’
-and in 1672 appeared his ‘Collection of English Proverbs;’ which
-he probably took up as a relaxation from his more systematic
-pursuits. In this year he suffered the irreparable loss of his friend
-Willughby. The history of letters presents us with few more striking
-examples of the advantages to the world, as well as to the individuals
-themselves, of such a cordial union for a great object. The affection
-of Ray for Willughby was of the noblest kind. He became the
-guardian and tutor of his children; and he prepared his posthumous
-works for publication, with additions from his own pen, for which he
-claimed no credit, with a diligence and accuracy which showed that he
-considered the reputation of his friend as the most sacred of all trusts.
-In 1673, being in his forty-fifth year, Ray married. Willughby had
-left him an annuity of £60. He had three daughters. During the
-remainder of his long life, which reached to his 77th year, he resided
-in or near his native village, living contentedly, as a layman, upon
-very humble means, but indefatigably contributing to the advancement
-of natural history, and directing the study of it to the highest end,—the
-proof of the wisdom and goodness of the great Author of Nature.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The most celebrated of Ray’s botanical publications is his ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Synopsis
-Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum</span>.’ Sir James Smith, in a memoir
-of Ray, in Rees’s Encyclopædia, declares that of all the systematical and
-practical Floras of any country, the second edition of Ray’s Synopsis is
-the most perfect. The same writer, in the Transactions of the Linnæan
-Society, vol. iv., says of this Synopsis, “he examined every plant
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>recorded in his work, and even gathered most of them himself. He
-investigated their synonyms with consummate accuracy; and if the
-clearness and precision of other authors had equalled his, he would
-scarcely have committed an error.” Ray’s ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Methodus Plantarum Nova</span>,’
-first published in 1682, has been superseded by other systems; but
-the accuracy of his observations, the precision of his language, and the
-clearness of his general views, tended greatly to the advancement of
-botanical science. His ‘Historia Plantarum,’ in three vols. folio, a
-vast compilation, including all the botanical knowledge of his day, is
-still in use, as a book of reference, by those who especially devote
-themselves to this study.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The zoological works of Ray have had a more direct and permanent
-influence upon the advancement of natural history, than his botanical.
-Amongst his zoological productions, the best authorities are agreed
-that we ought to include the greater part of those edited by him as the
-posthumous works of his friend Willughby. They are conceived upon
-the same principle as his own History of Plants, and are arranged upon
-a nearly similar plan; whilst the style of each is undoubtedly the same.
-In the original division of their great subject, Ray had chosen the
-vegetable kingdom, and Willughby the animal; and Ray, therefore,
-may have felt himself compelled to forego some of his own proper
-claims, that he might raise a complete monument to the memory of his
-friend. The Ornithology appeared in 1676; the History of Fishes in
-1686. Ray, however, prepared several very important zoological works,
-of his entire claims to which there can be no doubt. The chief of
-these are, ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Synopsis methodica animalium quadrupedum et serpentini
-generis</span>,’ 1693, which he published during his life; ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Synopsis methodica
-avium</span>,’ and ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Synopsis methodica piscium</span>,’ edited by Derham,
-and published in 1713; and ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Historia insectorum</span>,’ printed at the
-expense of the Royal Society, in 1710. “The peculiar character of the
-zoological works of Ray,” says Cuvier, “consists in clearer and more
-rigorous methods than those of any of his predecessors, and applied
-with more constancy and precision.” The divisions which he has introduced
-into the classes of quadrupeds and birds have been followed by
-the English naturalists, almost to our own day; and one finds very evident
-traces of his system of birds in Linnæus, in Brisson, in Buffon,
-and in all the authors who are occupied with this class of animals. The
-Ornithology of Salerne is little more than a translation from the
-Synopsis; and Buffon has extracted from Willughby almost all the
-anatomical part of his History of Birds. Daubenton and Hauy have
-translated the History of Fishes, in great part, for their Dictionary of
-Ichthyology, in the ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Encyclopédie Methodique</span>.’</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>‘The Wisdom of God in the Creation’ is the work upon which the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span>popular fame of Ray most deservedly rests. It is a book which perhaps
-more than any other in our language unites the precision of science to
-the warmth of devotion. It is delightful to see the ardour with which
-this good man dedicated himself to the observation of nature entering
-into his views of another state of existence, when our knowledge shall
-be made perfect, and the dim light with which we grope amidst the
-beautiful and wondrous objects by which we are surrounded, shall
-brighten into complete day. “It is not likely,” says he, “that eternal
-life shall be a torpid and inactive state, or that it shall consist only in
-an uninterrupted and endless act of love; the other faculties shall be
-employed as well as the will, in actions suitable to, and perfective of
-their natures: especially the understanding, the supreme faculty of the
-soul, which chiefly differs in us from brute beasts, and makes us
-capable of virtue and vice, of rewards and punishments, shall be busied
-and employed in contemplating the works of God, and observing the
-divine art and wisdom manifested in the structure and composition of
-them; and reflecting upon their Great Architect the praise and glory
-due to him. Then shall we clearly see, to our great satisfaction and
-admiration, the ends and uses of those things, which here were either
-too subtle for us to penetrate and discover, or too remote and unaccessible
-for us to come to any distinct view of, viz. the planets and fixed stars;
-those illustrious bodies, whose contents and inhabitants, whose stores
-and furniture we have here so longing a desire to know, as also their
-mutual subserviency to each other. Now the mind of man being not
-capable at once to advert to more than one thing, a particular view and
-examination of such an innumerable number of vast bodies, and the
-great multitude of species, both of animate and inanimate beings, which
-each of them contains, will afford matter enough to exercise and employ
-our minds, I do not say to all eternity, but to many ages, should we
-do nothing else<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c011'><sup>[10]</sup></a>.”</p>
-
-<div class='footnote' id='f10'>
-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Wisdom of God in the Creation, p. 199, fifth edition.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c000'>In addition to his ‘Wisdom of God,’ Ray published three ‘Physico-Theological
-Discourses, concerning the Chaos, Deluge, and Dissolution
-of the World.’ “This last presents to us,” to use the words of Cuvier,
-“a system of geology as plausible as any of those which had appeared
-at this epoch, or for a long time afterwards.” He also printed a work
-expressly of a theological character, ‘A Persuasive to a Holy Life.’</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Ray died on the 17th January, 1705, at his native place of Black
-Notley, whither he had retired, at Midsummer, 1679, as he himself
-expressed, “for the short pittance of time he had yet to live in this
-world.” His memory has been done justice to by his countrymen.
-A most interesting commemoration of him was held in London, on the
-29th Nov., 1828, being the two hundredth anniversary of his birth.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_165fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by E. Scriven.</em><br /><br />CAPTAIN COOK.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture by Dance<br />in the Gallery of Greenwich Hospital.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>
-<img src='images/i_165.jpg' alt='COOK.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>COOK.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>James Cook was born October 27, 1728, at Marton, a village in the
-North Riding of Yorkshire, near Stockton-upon-Tees. His parents,
-who were farm-servants, of good esteem in their rank of life, apprenticed
-him when not thirteen years of age to a haberdasher at the fishing
-town of Staith, near Whitby. The employment proved ill suited to
-his taste; and he soon quitted it, and bound himself to a ship-owner at
-Whitby. In course of time he became mate of one of his master’s
-vessels in the coal trade; that best of schools for practical seamanship.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the spring of 1755 he was lying in the Thames, when war was
-declared between England and France, and a hot press for seamen
-ensued. He volunteered to serve on board the Eagle frigate, commanded
-by Captain, afterwards Sir Hugh Palliser, and soon won the
-esteem of his officers by his diligence and activity. In May, 1759, he
-was promoted to be master of the Mercury, in which he was present
-at the celebrated siege of Quebec. At the recommendation of Captain
-Palliser, he was employed to take soundings of the river St. Lawrence,
-opposite to, and preparatory to an attack on the French fortified camp;
-and in this hazardous service he manifested so much sagacity and resolution,
-that he was afterwards ordered to survey the river below Quebec.
-The accurate chart, which was published as the result of his labours,
-furnishes a most satisfactory proof of Cooke’s natural talents and steady
-industry; for he could have derived little aid in such pursuits from
-the habits of his early life. In the autumn he was removed into the
-Northumberland man-of-war, stationed at Halifax, in Nova Scotia;
-and he employed his leisure during the long winter in making up for
-the defects of his education, which had been merely such as a village
-school could supply. He now read Euclid for the first time, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>applied himself to study those branches of science, which promised
-to be most useful in his profession. Towards the end of 1762 he
-returned to England, and married; but in 1763 he again went out to
-make a survey of Newfoundland. In 1764, his steady friend, Sir
-Hugh Palliser, being appointed Governor of Newfoundland, Cook was
-made Marine Surveyor of Newfoundland and Labrador. He held this
-office nearly four years, and his charts of those coasts remain in use up
-to this day.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1767 Government determined, at the request of the Royal
-Society, to send out astronomers to the South Pacific Ocean to observe
-the transit of Venus across the sun’s disc. Cook’s able discharge of
-his duties at Newfoundland, and the skill with which he observed an
-eclipse of the sun there, pointed him out to Mr. Stephens, Secretary to
-the Admiralty, as a proper person to conduct the expedition: and
-at that gentleman’s recommendation, backed by Sir Hugh Palliser,
-he was selected for this purpose, and raised to the rank of Lieutenant.
-He sailed from Plymouth, August 23, 1768, in the Endeavour, of
-three hundred and seventy tons, accompanied by Mr. Green as astronomer,
-and by Mr. Banks. Passing round Cape Horn, they anchored,
-April 11, 1769, at Otaheite, or Tahiti, as it is named by the latest
-visitors, which had been discovered by Captain Wallis, and was now
-selected as a proper place to observe the transit. As it was necessary
-to remain some time on the island, and highly expedient to be on
-good terms with the natives, Lieutenant Cook used much precaution
-to place the traffic between them and the strangers on an equitable
-footing; and to prevent the wanton injuries which the sense of
-superior power, and an unjust contempt, too often induce Europeans
-to inflict upon the rude inhabitants of newly-discovered regions. And
-we may here mention, as one of the good points of Cook’s character,
-that he always showed a scrupulous regard to the rights of property,
-taking no articles from the natives except on fair terms of gift or
-barter; and that he had a tender regard for human life, not only
-avoiding to use our deadly weapons, as discoverers have too often
-done, in revenge for petty depredations, harmless insults, and contemptible
-attacks, but even restraining a natural curiosity, where the
-indulgence of it seemed likely to shock prejudices, or to lead to
-collision and bloodshed. The inhabitants of Otaheite are a gentle
-race, and no serious misunderstandings occurred between them and
-their visitors. The transit was satisfactorily observed June 3; and,
-July 13, the Endeavour resumed her voyage, pursuant to Cook’s
-instructions, which were to prosecute his discoveries in the Southern
-Ocean, after the astronomical purposes of the expedition had been
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>fulfilled. He cruised a month among the then unknown group of
-the Society Islands, and afterwards proceeded in search of the Terra
-Australis, the great southern continent, so long supposed by geographers
-to exist, as a necessary counterpoise to the extensive continents of
-the northern hemisphere. Land was seen October 6, displaying lofty
-ranges of mountains; and it was generally supposed that the long
-wished for discovery was made. It proved, however, to be New Zealand,
-unvisited by Europeans since Tasman first approached its shores,
-in 1642. Cook spent six months in circumnavigating this country, and
-ascertained that it consisted of two large islands. March 31, 1770, he
-commenced his voyage home. He directed his course along the eastern
-coast of New Holland, then quite unknown; laid down a chart of it
-through nearly its whole extent; and took every opportunity to increase
-our stock of knowledge in natural history, as well as geographical
-science. For more than 1300 miles he had safely navigated this most
-dangerous shore, where the sharp coral reefs rise like a wall to the
-surface of the water, when, on the night of June 10, the ship suddenly
-struck. She was found to be aground on a coral reef, which rose
-around her to within a few feet of the surface. Though lightened
-immediately by every possible means, two tides elapsed before she
-could be got off; and then with so much injury to her bottom, that
-she could only be kept afloat by working three pumps night and day.
-When the men were all but worn out by this labour, a midshipman
-suggested the expedient of <em>fothering</em> the ship, or passing a sail charged
-with oakum, and other loose materials, under her keel: which succeeded
-so well, that the leak was then kept under by a single pump;
-and the navigators proceeded in comparative security till the 14th,
-when a harbour was discovered, afterwards named Endeavour River,
-suitable for making the necessary repairs. It was then found that a
-large fragment of coral rock had stuck in the ship’s bottom, so as in
-great measure to close the leak, which must otherwise have admitted
-a body of water sufficient to set the pumps at defiance. To this providential
-occurrence they owed their safety; for, had the ship foundered,
-the boats could not have contained the whole crew. Among many
-dangers, Cook pursued his course through that intricate tract of reefs
-and islands, which he named the Labyrinth, to the northern point of
-New Holland: and having now explored the whole eastern coast, from
-lat. 38° to 10° 30´, he took possession of it by the name of New South
-Wales. He then made sail for New Guinea, having proved that New
-Guinea and New Holland are separate islands, and from thence proceeded
-to Batavia, which he reached October 9. Here they obtained
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>refreshments and repaired the ship, which was found to be in a most
-perilous state: but these advantages were dearly bought by a sojourn in
-that pestilential place. Seven persons died at Batavia, and twenty-three
-more during the voyage to the Cape. June 12, 1771, the Endeavour
-dropped anchor in the Downs, and terminated her long and adventurous
-voyage.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The manner in which Lieutenant Cook had performed his task gave
-perfect satisfaction, and he was promoted to the rank of Commander.
-The public curiosity was strongly roused to know the particulars of
-his adventures; and it was gratified by an account of the several expeditions
-to the Southern Ocean, commanded by Byron, Wallis, and
-Cook, composed by Dr. Hawkesworth from the original materials, and
-illustrated by charts and plates, engraved at the expense of Government.
-Cook communicated to the Royal Society an ‘Account of the
-flowing of the Tides in the South Sea,’ published in their Transactions,
-vol. lxii. His voyage had proved two things: first, that neither New
-Zealand or New Holland were parts of the great southern continent,
-supposing it to exist; secondly, that no such continent could exist to
-the northward of 40° S. lat. He had not, however, ascertained its
-non-existence in higher latitudes, nor did it enter into his commission
-to do so. Now, however, it was resolved to send out a second expedition,
-to ascertain this point, under the command of him who had so
-ably conducted the former one. Two ships were fitted out with
-every thing conducive to the health and comfort of the voyagers: the
-Resolution, of four hundred and sixty tons, and a smaller vessel, the
-Adventure, Captain Furneaux; which, however, was separated from
-her consort early in the second year of the voyage. They sailed from
-Plymouth, July 13, 1772. Captain Cook’s instructions were, to circumnavigate
-the globe in high southern latitudes, prosecuting his
-discoveries as near to the South Pole as possible, using every exertion
-to fall in with the supposed continent, or any islands which might
-exist in those unknown seas; and endeavouring, by all proper means,
-to cultivate a friendship and alliance with the inhabitants. The expedition
-left the Cape of Good Hope Nov. 22, and cruised, for near four
-months, between the Cape and New Zealand, from E. long. 20° to
-170°, their extreme point to the southward being lat. 67° 15´. Having
-satisfied himself that no land of great extent could exist between
-these longitudes, to the northward of 60° S. lat., Cook made sail for
-New Zealand, to refresh his crew, and reached it March 26, 1773.
-The winter months, corresponding to our midsummer, he spent at
-the Society Islands; and returning to New Zealand, he again sailed,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>November 26, in quest of a southern continent, inclining his course to
-the east. He first fell in with ice in lat. 62° 10´, W. long. 172°, and
-continued to steer S.E. to lat. 67° 31´, W. long. 142° 54´, when, finding
-it impossible at that time to get farther south, he returned northwards,
-as far as lat. 50°, that he might be certain that no extensive country
-had been left in that direction. January 6, 1774, he again shaped
-his course southward, and on the 30th reached his extreme point of
-southing, lat. 71° 10´, W. long. 106° 54´. Here he was stopped by ice,
-which it was the general opinion might extend to the Pole, or join
-some land to which it had been fixed from the earliest time. Returning
-northwards, during the winter months he traversed nearly the whole
-extent of the Pacific Ocean between the tropics, visiting Easter
-Island, the Marquesas, the Society and Friendly Islands, the New
-Hebrides, and another island, the largest yet discovered in the Pacific,
-except those of New Zealand, which he called New Caledonia. He
-then returned to New Zealand, and having passed three weeks in
-friendly intercourse with the natives, took his departure, November 10.
-Having cruised in various latitudes between 43° and 56°, a portion of
-the ocean which he had not yet explored, and being in W. long.
-138° 56´, he determined to steer direct for the western entrance of
-the Straits of Magellan, and thence, along Tierra del Fuego, to the
-Straits of Le Maire. December 29 he passed Cape Horn, and
-re-entered the Atlantic Ocean, and standing southward, discovered
-Sandwich Land, a desolate coast, the extreme point of which he named
-the Southern Thule, lat. 59° 13´, as the most southern land that had
-then been discovered. Later navigators have found land nearer to the
-Pole. “I concluded,” Captain Cook observes, “that Sandwich Land
-was either a group of islands, or else a point of the continent, for I
-firmly believe that there is a tract of land near the Pole, which is the
-source of most of the ice which is spread over this vast southern ocean.
-I also think it probable that it extends farthest to the north, opposite
-the Southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans, because ice was always
-found by us farther to the north in these oceans than any where else.”
-Having now encompassed the globe in a high latitude, and thinking it
-impossible to prosecute further researches in those tempestuous seas
-with a worn-out ship, and nearly exhausted provisions, Cook made sail
-for the Cape; and arrived there March 22, 1774, having sailed 20,000
-leagues since he had left it, without so much injury to the ship as
-springing a mast or yard. July 30 he anchored at Spithead.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He was received in England with high applause, posted, and made a
-Captain of Greenwich Hospital. On this occasion he published his
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>own Journal, illustrated by maps and engravings; and the composition,
-unpretending, but clear and manly, does honour to one whose
-education had been so rude. Being elected Fellow of the Royal
-Society, he contributed two papers to their Transactions, published in
-vol. lxvi., one relating to the tides in the South Seas, the other containing
-an account of the methods which he had taken to preserve the health
-of his ship’s crew. The ravages of scurvy are now so much checked,
-that few know from experience how dreadfully earlier navigators suffered
-from that disease. It is one of Cook’s peculiar merits, that he
-attended to the health of his seamen with such eminent success, that
-during this long and painful voyage, not one man died of scurvy.
-Four only died, out of a hundred and twelve persons on board the
-Resolution, and of these but one was carried off by disease. That this
-was, in a great degree, the merit of the Captain, is proved by the
-Adventure having suffered much more, though fitted out exactly in
-the same way. Sailors usually dislike changes in their mode of life;
-and it required judgment and perseverance to induce them to adopt a
-healthy regimen. Cook, however, succeeded in reconciling them to his
-innovations; of the utility of which they were perfectly convinced, long
-before the end of the voyage. The means which he used will be found
-fully detailed in his paper, which was honoured by the Society with
-the gold medal: those on which he chiefly relied were a large supply
-of antiscorbutic stores, as malt, sour krout, and portable broth; the
-enforcement of a vegetable diet, whenever vegetables could be procured;
-and great care not to expose the crew unnecessarily to the weather,
-and to keep their persons, their clothes, and their berths, clean, dry,
-and well aired. Cook was justly proud of his success in this respect, and
-he closed the account of his second voyage with words which show the
-humanity and modesty of his temper. “Whatever may be the public
-judgment about other matters, it is with real satisfaction, and without
-claiming any other merit but that of attention to my duty, that I can
-conclude this account with an observation, which facts enable me to
-make, that our having discovered the possibility of preserving health
-among a numerous ship’s company for such a length of time, in such
-varieties of climate, and amid such continued hardships and fatigues,
-will make this voyage remarkable, in the opinion of every benevolent
-person, when the disputes about the southern continent shall have
-ceased to engage the attention and to divide the judgment of philosophers.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Another geographical question, of still greater interest, engaged the
-attention of the nation at this time; the practicability of a north-east
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>passage to China and the Indies. During Cook’s absence, one expedition
-had been sent out, under Captain Phipps; it was now determined
-to send out a second, reversing the usual order, and trying
-to find a passage from the Pacific into the Atlantic Ocean. Cook
-volunteered to quit his well-earned repose, and take the direction of
-this enterprise; and the offer was gladly accepted. He was directed to
-proceed, by the Cape of Good Hope, to New Zealand, thence through
-the chain of islands scattered along the tropics, which he had already
-visited. This done, he was to proceed northward, with all dispatch, to
-the latitude of 65°, and to direct his attention to the discovery of a
-passage into the Atlantic; and by the extension of an existing Act of
-Parliament, the ship’s company, if successful, were entitled to a reward
-of £20,000. With a most praiseworthy benevolence, the ships were
-charged with cattle, sheep, and other useful animals, to be left, and
-naturalized, if possible, in New Zealand, Otaheite, and other islands.
-The Resolution and Discovery were fitted out for the voyage, with
-every attention to the health and comfort of their crews. They sailed
-from Plymouth July 12, 1776, and touching at New Zealand, reached
-the Friendly Islands so late in the spring of 1777, that Captain Cook
-thought it impossible to visit the Polar Seas to any purpose that year.
-He therefore spent the whole summer in this part of the ocean, where
-fresh provisions were abundant; and his men were relieved from the
-hardships and sicknesses commonly incident to a long voyage, while, at
-the same time, the ship’s stores were economized. He remained therefore
-near three months among the Friendly Islands, using all means of
-adding to the geographical knowledge of this intricate archipelago,
-and acquiring information relative to the natural history of the country,
-and the manners of the inhabitants, with whom an uninterrupted
-friendship was maintained. July 17, Cook pursued his course to the
-Society Islands. Both here and at the Friendly Islands, especially at
-Otaheite, he left a number of European animals; and the prudence, as
-well as benevolence, of this conduct, is evinced by the valuable supplies
-which whalers and other navigators of the southern seas have since
-drawn from them. Early in December he took a final leave of these
-regions; and, January 18, 1778, came in sight of an unknown group,
-to which he gave the name of Sandwich Islands. March 7, the west
-coast of North America was seen; and after spending a month in
-executing necessary repairs in Nootka Sound, the voyagers advanced
-to the Aleutian Islands, and up Behring’s Strait. Here Cook ascertained
-the continents of Asia and America to be only thirteen leagues
-apart; and laid down the position of the most westerly point of America,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>just without the Arctic Circle, which he named Cape Prince of Wales.
-August 18 he reached lat. 70° 44´, W. long. about 162°, his extreme
-point, and continued to traverse those frozen regions till August 29,
-when, the ice being daily increasing, it was time to seek a more genial
-climate. But before proceeding to the south, he employed some time
-in examining the coasts of Asia and America, and found reason to
-admire the correctness of Behring, the discoverer of the strait which
-bears that name. He passed the winter at the Sandwich Islands,
-intending to return northward early enough to reach Kamtschatka by
-the middle of May in the ensuing year.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During this second visit was discovered the island of Owhyhee, the
-largest and most important of the group, at which the strangers were
-received with unusual generosity and confidence. Near ten weeks
-were spent in sailing round it, without any serious disagreement
-arising with the natives; and Cook ceased to regret that he had as
-yet failed in meeting with a northern passage home. It is remarkable
-that his Journal concludes with the following words: “To this disappointment
-we owed our having it in our power to revisit the Sandwich
-Islands, and to enrich our voyage with a discovery, which though
-the last, seemed in many respects to be the most important that had
-hitherto been made by Europeans, throughout the extent of the
-Pacific Ocean.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>This island, which he had rejoiced so much to see, was the spot
-where our great navigator’s life was prematurely closed. We have the
-testimony of an eye-witness to his own belief, that no premeditated
-and treacherous assault had been planned; but that the fatal affray
-was one of those accidents which human foresight cannot always
-prevent. The natives of these, as of all the South Sea Islands, were
-much addicted to stealing the new and tempting articles presented to
-their view; a fault for which Captain Cook, with the benevolence
-usually displayed in his dealings with them, has offered a charitable
-and sensible apology. But on the night of February 13, one of the
-ship’s boats was stolen. To recover this was a matter of importance;
-and Cook went on shore, guarded only by a small number of marines,
-hoping by amicable means to gain possession of the person of the king
-of the district, which he had always found the most effectual method
-of regaining stolen articles. The king consented to go on board the
-Resolution; but a crowd collected, and indications of alarm and
-hostility gradually increased, until blows were made at Captain Cook,
-and he was obliged to fire in self-defence. A shower of stones was
-then discharged at the marines, who returned it with a volley, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>this drew on the fire of the boats’ crews. Cook turned round to stop
-the firing, and order the boats to come close in to shore; but a rush
-had been made on the marines as soon as their muskets were discharged,
-and they were driven into the water, where four were killed,
-the rest escaping to the boats. Cook was the last person left on shore;
-and he was making for the pinnace, when an Indian came behind
-him and struck him with a club. He sunk on one knee, and as he
-rose was stabbed by another Indian in the neck. He fell into shallow
-water within five or six yards of one of the boats; but there all was
-confusion, and no united effort was made to save him. He struggled
-vigorously, but was overcome by numbers; and at last was struck
-down, not to rise again. His body, with the other slain, was abandoned
-to the natives, and though every exertion was subsequently made,
-nothing more than the bones, and not all of them, were recovered.
-These were committed to the deep with military honours; honoured
-more highly by the unfeigned sorrow of those who sailed under his
-command.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Captain Clerke, of the Discovery, succeeded to the command of the
-expedition, and returned in the ensuing summer to the Polar Seas;
-but he was unable to advance so far as in the former year. The chief
-object of the voyage therefore failed. The ships returned along the
-coast of Kamtschatka to Japan and China, and reached England in
-October, 1780. Captain Clerke died of consumption in his second
-visit to the Polar Seas, and Lieutenant King succeeded to the Discovery,
-whose name is honourably associated with that of his great
-commander, in consequence of his having continued the account of
-the voyage, from the period at which Cook’s Journal ends. He has
-borne testimony to Cook’s virtues in the following terms:—</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>“The constitution of his body was robust, inured to labour, and
-capable of undergoing the severest hardships. His stomach bore
-without difficulty the coarsest and most ungrateful food. Great was
-the indifference with which he submitted to every kind of self-denial.
-The qualities of his mind were of the same hardy, vigorous kind with
-those of his body. His understanding was strong and perspicacious.
-His judgment, in whatever related to the services he was engaged in,
-quick and sure. His designs were bold and manly; and both in the
-conception, and in the mode of execution, bore evident marks of a great
-original genius. His courage was cool and determined, and accompanied
-with an admirable presence of mind in the moment of danger.
-His temper might, perhaps, have been justly blamed as subject to hastiness
-and passion, had not these been disarmed by a disposition the most
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>benevolent and humane. Such were the outlines of Captain Cook’s
-character; but its most distinguishing feature was that unremitting
-perseverance in the pursuit of his object, which was not only superior
-to the opposition of dangers, and the pressure of hardships, but even
-exempt from the want of ordinary relaxation. During the long and
-tedious voyages in which he was engaged, his eagerness and activity
-were never in the least abated. No incidental temptation could detain
-him for a moment: even those intervals of recreation which sometimes
-unavoidably occurred, and were looked for by us with a longing, that
-persons who have experienced the fatigues of service will readily
-excuse, were submitted to by him with a certain impatience, whenever
-they could not be employed in making a farther provision for the more
-effectual prosecution of his designs.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The life of Captain Cook is, in effect, the history of his voyages, and
-will best be found in the accounts of those works. But the memoir by
-Dr. Kippis, the whole of which is printed in the Biographia Britannica,
-is more adapted for general use. Samwell’s Narrative of the Death
-of Captain Cook contains the fullest account of that lamentable event.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_175fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by W. T. Fry.</em><br /><br />TURGOT.<br /><br /><em>From an original Picture in the<br />Gallery of the Louvre.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the diffusion of Useful Knowledge<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>
-<img src='images/i_175.jpg' alt='TURGOT.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>TURGOT.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>Anne Robert James Turgot was born at Paris May 10, 1727.
-He was descended from one of the oldest and most noble families
-of Normandy.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Turgot’s childhood was passed under the superintendence of an
-injudicious mother, whose affection for her son seems to have been
-much lessened in consequence of his shy and awkward manners before
-strangers. His father, on the contrary, was a man of sense and
-humanity. He was Provost of the Corporation of Merchants, an
-office which he long filled with deserved popularity. He lived till
-1750, and by his example as well as by his precepts exerted no small
-influence over the character of his son. If Turgot’s reserved and
-silent manners are to be attributed to the one parent, the uprightness,
-benevolence, and boldness of his conduct may perhaps in an
-equal degree be ascribed to the other. At an early age he was sent
-to the school of Louis le Grand, where he had little opportunity of
-making progress; for the master though a kind-hearted man, was not
-in other respects peculiarly qualified for his station. He afterwards
-went to the school of Plessis. Here he was more fortunate in meeting
-with two professors of superior abilities, Guérin and Sigorgne; the
-latter honourably distinguished as being the first member of the universities
-of France, who introduced the Newtonian philosophy into
-the schools. Under their tuition, assisted by his own unremitting
-assiduity, Turgot advanced rapidly, and the pupil soon acquired the
-respect and friendship of his teachers.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>It was the custom in France, during the period of Turgot’s boyhood,
-that parents should decide upon the profession to which their
-children should be educated, even from the cradle; little voice in this
-most important question being allowed to those who were most deeply
-interested in it. Turgot was the youngest of three sons; of whom
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>the eldest was destined to the magistracy, the second to the army,
-the third, the subject of this memoir, was set apart for the church.
-The premature determination of his parents seemed amply justified as
-his character was gradually developed. Great simplicity of manner,
-pensiveness of mind, extreme diffidence and reserve, a distaste to dissipation
-of any kind, habits of intense application, and an ardent love of
-knowledge, were his prominent qualities, and well suited to the ecclesiastical
-life. Nevertheless he had hardly reached the age of reflection,
-and become capable of appreciating the objects of ambition, which,
-from the political consideration in which his family was held, he
-might reasonably aspire to, before he resolved to sacrifice all to an
-unfettered conscience; and to follow that path in which he thought he
-could be most useful to his fellow-citizens and mankind. Deeply
-impressed however with a sense of what was due to the feelings of his
-parents, he waited till a favourable opportunity should occur to disclose
-his secret determination; and was in the mean time, at the age of
-twenty-one, admitted to the establishment of the Sorbonne, as a student
-of theology. Here he remained two years; prosecuting his studies with
-vigour, but without confining them to a profession which he had resolved
-not to follow. Nothing seemed too vast to discourage him, or too trifling
-to escape his notice. Mathematics and natural philosophy, metaphysics,
-logic, morals, legislation and law; history, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">belles lettres</span>, poetry, Latin,
-Greek, Hebrew, together with most of the modern languages, entered
-into the comprehensive catalogue of his pursuits. So great an activity
-of mind, joined to a memory so retentive that he could repeat two
-hundred lines of verse after hearing them read twice, and sometimes
-only once, stored his mind with an extent and variety of knowledge
-unusual at his, or indeed at any age. After taking his degree, and
-being elected Prior of the establishment, he could no longer conceal
-his intention of relinquishing the profession of the church. His
-friends and associates, amongst others the Abbés Bon, Morellet, and
-de Brienne, remonstrated with him in vain on his determination.
-“Follow the advice,” he replied, “which you offer, since you are
-able to do so: for my own part, it is impossible for me to wear a
-mask all my life.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He had determined to pursue his fortune in the civil service of
-the state; and his father’s death obviated the difficulties which might
-have embarrassed him in carrying his resolution into effect. He
-obtained the office of <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Procureur du Roi</span> as a first step in his new
-career, and soon after that of Master of Requests. In this situation
-he had to make several reports, and to deliver them <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">vivâ voce</span></i> before
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>the King. Aware of his extreme diffidence, he resolved to counteract
-it by writing out and revising his speech with great attention.
-He did so; nothing was omitted, and yet the subject was
-summed up with such severe conciseness as greatly to fatigue the
-patience of his hearers. Some of them, complimenting him on his
-performance, at the same time criticised its length. “The next
-time,” they added, “try to abridge what you have to say.” Turgot,
-who knew that it was impossible to have abridged more, learnt
-by this remark that he had abridged too much; and on the next
-occasion, profiting by his singularly acquired knowledge, he developed
-his facts at length, repeated his arguments, and recapitulated all that he
-had urged; and in doing so, fixed without fatiguing the attention of
-his audience. When he had finished, the same friends, as he expected,
-congratulated him warmly on having corrected his former defect,
-saying, “This time you have told us a great deal and you have been
-very brief.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In 1761 he was made Intendant of Limoges; and on his appointment
-Voltaire wrote to him, saying, “I have lately learnt from one
-of your colleagues that an Intendant can do nothing but mischief:
-you, I trust, will prove that he can do much good.” These anticipations
-were fully realized. The inhabitants of his province, over-burthened
-at all times by the oppressive imposts of the Taille, the
-<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Corvée</span>, and the Militia service, were then suffering under the added
-pressure of three successive years of scarcity. The <em>Taille</em> was in the
-nature of a land-tax: which fell upon the landlords in those parts of
-the country which were cultivated by farmers; but principally upon the
-labourers themselves, wherever the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Métayer</span></i> system was in force, as
-in Limousin. A more equal distribution of this tax, and an improved
-method of collection, relieved the peasant from the great injustice of
-the burden. The <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Corvée</span></i> was an obligation to furnish labour in kind,
-twice every year, for the construction and repair of public roads; for
-which the peasantry received no remuneration. Turgot proposed
-that this task should for the future be executed by hired labourers,
-whose wages were to be paid by a rate levied upon the districts
-adjacent to the road. The evils of the Militia service were obviated
-in a similar way; and the people who had received their new Intendant
-with suspicion, as only a new specimen of their former oppressors,
-now looked upon him as a benefactor and a friend. Nevertheless
-his popularity could not overcome all prejudices; and when he
-endeavoured to mitigate the evils occasioned by the late scarcity,
-by introducing a free traffic in grain, both the magistrates and the
-peasantry did all in their power to counteract his wise and benevolent
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>exertions. In spite of his new regulations, supported by a clear
-explanation of the grounds upon which they rested, the land-owners and
-corn-merchants could not transport their grain to those places where
-the price was highest, the want therefore most urgent, and the supply
-most beneficial, without exposing their persons to insults, and their
-property to the pillage of the people, as well as to the local taxes
-imposed by the magistrates. Turgot lost no time in addressing a
-circular to the proper officers, in which he urged them, by the pleas
-both of reason and authority, to put in force the laws, and check
-the popular irritation. He showed that the difference of weather
-often produces an abundant harvest in some districts, and a deficient
-one in others; and that the only effectual way of relieving the necessary
-distress in the latter, is to permit the free transport of the
-surplus produce of the former: that if one town were to arrogate the
-right of prohibiting the transit or export of grain, other towns would
-justly pretend to the same privilege; and that what might be felt
-as a benefit to the inhabitants of one spot in a year of external
-scarcity, would be deprecated by the same persons as a curse in a
-year of internal famine. The clearness and conciliatory tone with
-which the principle of the freedom of trade was laid down, produced
-the desired effect; and the writer had the satisfaction of seeing the
-wants of the people supplied, without recurring to the demoralizing
-expedient of indiscriminate charity.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Soon after the success of this experiment, the Minister of Finance
-consulted the Intendants of the kingdom upon the laws relating to
-the commerce of grain. Turgot wrote seven letters in answer, in
-which he developed at length his views on the subject of free trade;
-and not long after he composed an essay on the Formation of
-Wealth, which, as his celebrated biographer Condorcet observes, may
-be considered as the germ of Smith’s Wealth of Nations.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These unremitting exertions, joined to views so just and at that
-time so original, attracted the attention of the public; and on the death
-of Louis XV. Turgot was called to the first offices of the state, as the
-only man who seemed likely to restore the failing credit of the nation,
-do justice to the people, and prevent those political troubles which did
-in fact ensue, and ended in confiscation and bloodshed. He undertook
-the difficult task with cheerfulness, but not without some misgivings.
-The aristocracy and the court could not long remain favourable to a
-minister who would not cater to their luxuries; the clergy naturally
-viewed with suspicion one who was devoted to the most rigid economy;
-public opinion was not sufficiently advanced to appreciate the measures
-of a statesman whose genius far surpassed the knowledge of his day;
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>and even if it had been more enlightened, it had not the means of
-expressing itself powerfully and almost simultaneously as in England.
-Turgot therefore had no support to rely on but that of the King; but
-while the monarch remained firm, there was still a hope that the statesman
-might accomplish his objects. After filling the post of Minister
-of Marine for one month, he was raised to the office of Minister of
-Finance, August 24, 1774. Nothing could be more encouraging to
-him than his first audience of the King; it was more like the confidential
-intercourse of two friends considering in truth and sincerity
-the best means of promoting the happiness of their common
-country, than a cold and formal state conference. Turgot, with the
-permission of his sovereign, recapitulated what had occurred at this
-meeting, in a letter which is above all praise. In it he enforced
-the absolute necessity of the most rigid economy, in order to prevent
-a national bankruptcy, any increase of taxes, or any new loans. “No
-bankruptcy, either avowed, or disguised under compulsory reductions.
-No increase of taxes. The reason your Majesty will find in the situation
-of your people, and still more in your own heart. No new loans;
-for every loan, by diminishing the free revenue, necessarily leads at
-last to a bankruptcy or an increase of taxes.” The means by which
-he proposed to bring about these ends were the most rigid retrenchments.
-“But,” he adds, “it is asked, in what is the retrenchment
-to be made? and every department will maintain that as far as relates
-to itself there is scarcely a single expense which is not indispensable.
-The reasons alleged may be very good; but as there can be none for
-performing impossibilities, all these reasons must give way to the
-irresistible necessity of economy. Your Majesty knows that one
-of the greatest obstacles to economy is the multitude of solicitations
-to which you are perpetually exposed. Your benevolence, Sir,
-must be the shield against your bounty. Consider whence the
-money distributed amongst your courtiers is drawn; and contrast the
-misery of those from whom it is sometimes necessary to wrest it by
-the most rigorous measures, with the situation of those who have the
-best title to your liberality.” Such a course was sure to raise up
-enemies on every side. He anticipates the calumnies which will be
-heaped upon him; he points them out to the King, and then reminds
-him, “It is upon the faith of your Majesty’s promises that I take upon
-myself a burthen which is perhaps heavier than I can bear; it is to
-yourself personally, to the honest, the just, and the good man, rather
-than to the King, that I devote myself.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>From this letter it might be supposed by those who are not
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>acquainted with all Turgot’s principles, that his first step would be
-to stop the payment to every useless pensioner upon the state, and
-abrogate every local tax which had been unjustly levied by individuals
-in times of anarchy and oppression. But he respected the right
-of property; and the more so, because he understood its full extent.
-Every unjust impost was indeed taken off, and every monopoly
-destroyed; but not without first giving to the possessors an indemnification
-equal to their loss: and two years’ arrears of pensions, which
-had been stopped for three years previous to his entering upon office,
-were punctually discharged without loss of time where the amount
-was small, and the creditor therefore in all probability not in affluent
-circumstances; whilst the payment of the remaining ones was accelerated
-as much as possible. It was not therefore by injustice that he
-endeavoured to relieve the people, but by enabling them more easily
-to bear their burdens. The faithful discharge of all claims upon the
-state, restored the credit of the country; the destruction of monopolies,
-and of restrictions upon commerce and manufactures, increased the
-wealth of the people, and thus rendered comparatively light an amount
-of taxation which was before most burdensome. Thus, his first regulations
-established a free trade in corn throughout the kingdom, and
-took away the exclusive privileges of bakers, the obligation to grind
-corn at particular mills, and several market dues upon corn when sold.
-A similar edict permitted the free circulation of wine; and brandy,
-cider, and perry were meant to have been subsequently included in this
-law. The manufacturers of France were also freed from the absurd
-and vexatious regulations which prescribed the size of different stuffs,
-and the method of making and dying them, under severe penalties and
-even corporal punishments; and ingenuity was allowed to exert itself
-according to the taste and demand of the public. Glass, powder,
-saltpetre, nitre, oil of poppies, and many other articles, were either
-freed on the one hand from the exclusive privileges in their manufacture,
-which enhanced their price and interfered with their quality;
-or on the other, from restrictions upon their free transport through
-the kingdom, which prevented the manufacturer from obtaining the
-best price for his goods.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>These changes were brought about in little more than a year and a
-half, during which his labours were interrupted by attacks of illness,
-and by two events which could not be averted or foreseen. The
-first of these was a contagious disorder which broke out among the
-cattle of Guienne, and spread far and wide, until the salutary measures
-taken by Turgot arrested the evil: the other was more serious,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>and required all the decision and courage of the minister for its
-suppression. The season had been unfavourable; and in times of
-scarcity the people had been accustomed to vent their fury against the
-corn-merchants, whom the government often weakly abandoned. A
-repetition of these scenes was approaching. A few riots in the provincial
-towns were soon quelled, but a heavier storm impended
-over the capital. A band of lawless insurgents, after plundering
-the corn-markets upon the Seine and Oise, entered Paris, rifled
-many bakers’ shops, and endeavoured to excite the people to outrage
-and violence. The powers of government seemed paralysed.
-The superintendents of the police were frightened and inactive;
-and the parliament published a proclamation, promising that the
-King should be petitioned for a reduction in the price of bread.
-Turgot lost no time in sending troops to the disturbed district, who
-soon dispersed the pillagers; the superintendents of the police were
-immediately dismissed from office; and government proclamations
-were posted over those of the parliament during the very night in
-which the latter were issued, prohibiting the assembling of the
-people on pain of death. These energetic and salutary measures soon
-restored tranquillity and confidence; the property of the merchants
-was respected; and the price of provisions found the lowest level
-which the nature of the case would admit of. A month after, the
-King in passing through a district in which these riots had prevailed,
-was cheered by subjects who blessed his government. “It is Turgot
-and I alone who love the people,” was the expression which fell from
-his lips; and the sentence was repeated and confirmed by a nation’s
-voice. In spite, however, of Turgot’s indefatigable and honest
-exertions in the cause of his country, his dismission from office was
-soon demanded. The privileged orders insisted upon remaining
-exempt from the payment of the taxes; the court parasites upheld the
-necessity of sinecures and pensions; all who lived upon the resources
-of the country without serving it, united in denouncing a minister who
-was the friend of the people and of justice; nor had the clergy any
-sympathy with one who laid down the most comprehensive principles
-of toleration. The King had the culpable weakness of yielding to
-this dishonest clamour. He sacrificed his minister, and not many years
-after died himself upon the scaffold; that scaffold which was destined
-to reek with the blood of his family, his friends, and his subjects.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Turgot had been in office only twenty months, but during that time
-he had prepared the way for a new era of extensive happiness and
-prosperity for his fellow-countrymen. A friend reproached him one
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>day with being too precipitate. “How can you say so,” he replied,
-“you who know so well the pressing wants of the people, and are
-aware that none of my family survive the gout beyond the age of fifty.”
-His prediction was but too nearly fulfilled; he died of this hereditary
-disease a few years afterwards, March 20, 1781, in the fifty-fourth
-year of his age.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the interval between his retiring from office, and his death,
-Turgot devoted himself to literary and scientific pursuits. His works
-are contained in nine volumes octavo, 1808–11; they are composed
-principally of state papers connected with his administration, of some
-articles written for the <span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Encyclopédie</span>, and a few translations from
-classical and modern literature.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Turgot was a great and a good man; endowed with depth and
-originality of thought, he discovered and acted upon sound principles of
-political economy, before the science had been even dignified with a
-name; and whilst his predecessors in office were ever seeking for
-temporary expedients to increase the revenue of the state by the
-oppression of the people, he first endeavoured to unite the interests of
-both. Mild and conciliating in his manners, just and benevolent in all
-his view’s, he was the firm and uncompromising opponent of every
-species of injustice. He was ambitious, but his ambition was of the
-highest order. He despised the tinsel grandeur of office, the smiles of
-courtiers, or even the applause of the multitude; but he courted the
-means of doing good to mankind, and his reward has been the
-esteem of discerning friends and the applause of a later and a more
-enlightened age.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>A disquisition on the life and opinions of Turgot, by Dupont de
-Nemours, is prefixed to the edition of his works which we have
-already mentioned. His life, written by Condorcet, is one of the
-best specimens of biography in any language. Lacretelle’s ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire
-du dix-huitième Siècle</span>’ contains a short sketch of his ministry,
-well deserving attention: and several interesting details of his character
-are to be found in the Memoirs of the Abbé Morellet.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i_183fp.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><em>Engraved by W. Holl.</em><br /><br />PETER THE GREAT.<br /><br /><em>From a Print by Smith after a Picture by Kneller.</em><br /><br />Under the Superintendance of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.<br /><br /><em>London, Published by Charles Knight, Pall Mall East.</em></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>
-<img src='images/i_183.jpg' alt='Peter the Great.' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'><span class='sc'>PETER the GREAT.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c010'>At the close of the sixteenth century, the dominions of Russia, or
-Muscovy, as it was then more generally called, were far thrown back
-from the more civilized nations of southern Europe, by the intervention
-of Lithuania, Livonia, and other provinces now incorporated in
-the Russian empire, but then belonging either to Sweden or Poland.
-The Czar of Muscovy therefore possessed no political weight in the
-affairs of Europe; and little intercourse existed between the Court of
-Moscow and the more polished potentates whom it affected to despise
-as barbarians, even for some time after the accession of the reigning
-dynasty, the house of Romanof, in 1613, and the establishment of a
-more regular government than had previously been known. We only
-read occasionally of embassies being sent to Moscow, in general for the
-purpose of arranging commercial relations. From this state of insignificance,
-Peter, the first Emperor of Russia, raised his country, by introducing
-into it the arts of peace, by establishing a well organized and
-disciplined army in the place of a lawless body of tumultuous mutineers,
-by creating a navy, where scarce a merchant vessel existed before, and,
-as the natural result of these changes, by important conquests on
-both the Asiatic and European frontiers of his hereditary dominions.
-For these services his countrymen bestowed on him, yet
-living, the title of Great: and it is well deserved, whether we look
-to the magnitude of those services, the difficulty of carrying into effect
-his benevolent designs, which included nothing less than the remodelling
-a whole people, or the grasp of mind, and the iron energy
-of will, which was necessary to conceive such projects, and to overcome
-the difficulties which beset them. It will not vitiate his claim to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>the epithet, that his manners were coarse and boisterous, his amusements
-often ludicrous and revolting to a polished taste: if that claim
-be questionable, it is because he who aspired to be the reformer of
-others, was unable to control the violence of his own passions.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The Czar Alexis, Peter’s father, was actuated by somewhat of the
-spirit which so distinguished the son. He endeavoured to introduce
-the European discipline into his armies; he had it much at heart to
-turn the attention of the Russians to maritime pursuits; and he added
-the fine provinces of Plescow and Smolensko to his paternal dominions.
-At the death of Alexis, in 1677, Peter was but five years
-old. His eldest brother Theodore succeeded to the throne. Theodore
-died after a reign of five years, and named Peter his successor. We
-pass in silence over the intrigues and insurrections which troubled
-the young Czar’s minority. It was not until the close of the year
-1689, in the eighteenth year of his age, that he finally shook off the
-trammels of an ambitious sister, and assumed in reality, as well as in
-name, the direction of the state. How he had been qualified for this
-task by education does not clearly appear; but even setting aside the
-stories which attribute to his sister the detestable design of leading
-him into all sorts of excess, and especially drunkenness, with the hope
-of ruining both his constitution and intellect, it is probable that no
-pains whatever had been taken to form his intellect or manners for
-the station which he was to occupy. One of the few anecdotes told of
-his early life is, that being struck by the appearance of a boat on the
-river Yausa, which runs through Moscow, which he noticed to be of
-different construction from the flat-bottomed vessels commonly in use,
-he was led to inquire into the method of navigating it. It had been
-built for the Czar Alexis by a Dutchman, who was still in Moscow.
-He was immediately sent for; he rigged and repaired the boat; and
-under his guidance the young prince learnt how to sail her, and soon
-grew passionately fond of his new amusement. He had five small
-vessels built at Plescow, on the lake Peipus; and not satisfied with
-this fresh-water navigation, hired a ship at Archangel, in which he
-made a voyage to the coast of Lapland. In these expeditions his
-love of sailing was nourished into a passion which lasted through
-life. He prided himself upon his practical skill as a seaman; and
-both at this time and afterwards exposed himself and his friends to no
-small hazard by his rashness in following this favourite pursuit.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>The first serious object of Peter’s attention was to reform the army.
-In this he was materially assisted by a Swiss gentleman named
-Lefort; at whose suggestion he raised a company of fifty men, who
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>were clothed and disciplined in the European manner; the Russian
-army at that time being little better than a tribe of Tartars. As soon
-as the little corps was formed, Peter caused himself to be enrolled in
-it as a private soldier. It is a remarkable trait in the character of the
-man, that he thought no condescension degrading, which forwarded
-any of his ends. In the army he entered himself in the lowest rank,
-and performed successively the duties of every other: in the navy he
-went still further, for he insisted on performing the menial duties of
-the lowest cabin-boy, rising step by step, till he was qualified to rate
-as an able seaman. Nor was this done merely for the sake of singularity;
-he had resolved that every officer of the sea or land service
-should enter in the lowest rank of his profession, that he might
-obtain a practical knowledge of every task or manœuvre which
-it was his duty to see properly executed: and he felt that his
-nobility might scarcely be brought to submit to what in their eyes
-would be a degradation, except by the personal example of the Czar
-himself. By the help of Lefort and some veteran officers, several
-of whom, and those the objects of his especial confidence, were
-Scotchmen, he was enabled in a short time to command the services
-of a large body of disciplined troops, composed, one corps principally
-of foreigners, another of natives. Meanwhile he had not been negligent
-of the other arm of war; for a number of Dutch and Venetian
-workmen were employed in building gun-boats and small ships of war
-at Voronitz, on the river Don, intended to secure the command of
-the sea of Asof, and to assist in capturing the strong town of Asof,
-then held by the Turks. The possession of this place was of great
-importance, from its situation at the mouth of the Don, commanding
-access to the Mediterranean seas. His first military attempts were
-accordingly directed against it, and he succeeded in taking it in 1696.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>In the spring of the ensuing year, the empire being tranquil, and
-the young Czar’s authority apparently established on a safe footing, he
-determined to travel into foreign countries, to view with his own eyes,
-and become personally and practically familiar with the arts and institutions
-of refined nations. There was a grotesqueness in his manner
-of executing this design, which has tended, more probably than even
-its real merit, to make it one of the common places of history. Every
-child knows how the Czar of Muscovy worked in the dock-yard of
-Saardam in Holland, as a common carpenter. In most men this
-would have been affectation; and perhaps there was some tinge of
-that weakness in the earnestness with which Peter handled the axe,
-obeyed the officers of the dock-yard, and, in all points of outward manners
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>and appearance, put himself on a level with the shipwrights who
-were earning their daily bread. Most men too would have thought it
-unnecessary, that a prince, intent upon creating a navy, should learn
-the mere mechanical art of putting a ship together; and that his time
-would have been better employed in studying the sciences connected
-with navigation, and the discipline and details of the naval service as
-established in the best schools. It seems, however, to have been the
-turn of Peter’s mind always to begin at the beginning; a sound maxim,
-though here perhaps pushed beyond reasonable bounds. We have
-said, that he scrupulously went through the lowest services in the
-army and navy: probably he thought it as necessary that one who
-aimed at creating and directing a navy should not be ignorant of the
-practical art of ship-building, as that a general should be capable of
-performing himself the movements which he directs the private to
-execute. And his abode and occupations in Holland formed only part
-of an extensive plan. On quitting Russia he sent sixty young
-Russians to Venice and Leghorn to learn ship-building and navigation,
-and especially the construction and management of the large
-galleys moved by oars, which were so much used by the Venetian
-republic. Others he sent into Holland, with similar instructions;
-others into Germany, to study the art of war, and make themselves
-well acquainted with the discipline and tactics of the German troops.
-So that while his personal labour at Saardam may have been stimulated
-in part by affectation of singularity, in part perhaps by a love of
-bodily exertion common in men of his busy and ardent temper, it
-would be unjust not to give him credit for higher motives; such as the
-desire to become thoroughly acquainted with the art of ship-building,
-which he thought so important, and to set a good example of diligence
-to those whom he had sent out on a similar voyage of education.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Peter remained nine months in Holland, the greatest part of which
-he spent in the dock-yard of Saardam. He displayed unwearied zeal
-in seeking out and endeavouring to comprehend every thing of interest
-in science and art, especially in visiting manufactories. In January,
-1698, he sailed for London in an English man-of-war, sent out expressly
-to bring him over. His chief object was to perfect himself in the
-higher branches of ship-building. With this view he occupied Mr.
-Evelyn’s house, adjoining the dock-yard of Deptford; and there
-remain in that gentleman’s journal some curious notices of the manners
-of the Czar and his household, which were of the least refined
-description. During his stay he showed the same earnestness in
-inquiring into all things connected with the maritime and commercial
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>greatness of the country, as before in Holland; and he took away near
-five hundred persons in his suite, consisting of naval captains, pilots,
-gunners, surgeons, and workmen in various trades, especially those
-connected with the naval service. In England, without assuming his
-rank, he ceased to wear the attire and adopt the habits of a common
-workman; and he had frequent intercourse with William III., who
-is said to have conceived a strong liking for him, notwithstanding the
-uncouthness of his manners. Kneller painted a portrait of him for
-the King, said to be a good likeness, from which our print is engraved.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He left London in April, 1698, and proceeded to Vienna, principally
-to inspect the Austrian troops, then esteemed among the best in
-Europe. He had intended to visit Italy; but his return was hastened
-by the tidings of a dangerous insurrection having broken out, which,
-though suppressed, seemed to render a longer absence from the seat
-of government inexpedient. The insurgents were chiefly composed
-of the Russian soldiery, abetted by a large party who thought every
-thing Russian good, and hated and dreaded the Czar’s innovating
-temper. Of those who had taken up arms, many were slain
-in battle; the rest, with many persons of more rank and consequence,
-suspected of being implicated in the revolt, were retained in
-prison until the Czar himself should decide their fate. Numerous
-stories of his extravagant cruelties on this occasion have been told,
-which may safely be passed over as unworthy of credit. It is certain,
-however, that considerable severity was shown. Many citizens who
-had not borne arms were condemned to death as instigators of the
-rebellion, and their frozen bodies exposed on the gibbets, or thrown
-by the way-side, remained throughout the winter, a fearful spectacle
-to passers by. In some accounts it is stated that two thousand of the
-soldiery were put to death: but the absurd falsehoods told of Peter’s
-conduct on this occasion afford opportunity for a doubt, which we
-gladly entertain, whether justice was suffered to lead to such wholesale
-butchery. This insurrection led to the complete remodelling of
-the Russian army, on the same plan which had already been partially
-adopted.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>During the year 1699 the Czar was chiefly occupied by civil
-reforms. According to his own account, as published in his journal,
-he regulated the press, caused translations to be published of various
-treatises on military and mechanical science, and history; he founded
-a school for the navy; others for the study of the Latin, German, and
-other languages; he encouraged his subjects to cultivate foreign trade,
-which before they had absolutely been forbidden to do under pain of
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>death; he altered the Russian calendar, in which the year began on
-September 1, to agree in that point with the practice of other nations;
-he broke through the Oriental custom of not suffering women to mix
-in general society; and he paid sedulous attention to the improvement
-of his navy on the river Don. We have the testimony of Mr. Deane,
-an English ship-builder, that the Czar had turned his manual labours
-to good account, who states in a letter to England, that “the Czar
-has set up a ship of sixty guns, where he is both foreman and master
-builder; and, not to flatter him, I’ll assure your Lordship, it will
-be the best ship among them, and it is all from his own draught: how
-he framed her together, and how he made the moulds, and in so short
-a time as he did, is really wonderful.”</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>He introduced an improved breed of sheep from Saxony and
-Silesia; despatched engineers to survey the different provinces of his
-extensive empire; sent persons skilled in metallurgy to the various
-districts in which mines were to be found; established manufactories
-of arms, tools, stuffs; and encouraged foreigners skilled in the
-useful arts to settle in Russia, and enrich it by the produce of their
-industry.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>We cannot trace the progress of that protracted contest between
-Sweden and Russia, in which the short-lived greatness of Sweden was
-broken: we can only state the causes of the war, and the important
-results to which it led. Peter’s principal motive for engaging in it
-was his leading wish to make Russia a maritime and commercial
-nation. To this end it was necessary that she should be possessed
-of ports, of which however she had none but Archangel and Asof,
-both most inconveniently situated, as well in respect of the Russian
-empire itself, as of the chief commercial nations of Europe. On the
-waters of the Baltic Russia did not possess a foot of coast. Both sides
-of the Baltic, both sides of the Gulf of Finland, the country between the
-head of that gulf and the lake Ladoga, including both sides of the river
-Neva, and the western side of lake Ladoga itself, and the northern end
-of lake Peipus, belonged to Sweden. In the year 1700, Charles XII.
-being but eighteen years of age, Denmark, Poland, and Russia,
-which had all of them suffered from the ambition of Sweden, formed
-a league to repair their losses, presuming on the weakness usually
-inherent in a minority. The object of Russia was the restoration of
-the provinces of Ingria, Carelia, and Wiborg, the country round the
-head of the Gulf of Finland, which formerly had belonged to her; that
-of Poland, was the recovery of Livonia and Esthonia, the greater part
-of which had been ceded by her to Charles XI. of Sweden. Denmark
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>was to obtain Holstein and Sleswick. But Denmark and Poland
-very soon withdrew, and left Russia to encounter Sweden single-handed.
-To this she was entirely unequal; her army, the bulk of
-it undisciplined, and even the disciplined part unpractised in the
-field, was no match for the veteran troops of Sweden, the terror of
-Germany. In the battle of Narva, a town on the river which runs
-out of the Peipus lake, fought November 30, 1700, nine thousand
-Swedes defeated signally near forty thousand Russians, strongly
-intrenched and with a numerous artillery. Had Charles prosecuted
-his success with vigour, he might probably have delayed for many
-years the rise of Russia; but whether from contempt or mistake he
-devoted his whole attention to the war in Poland, and left the Czar at
-liberty to recruit and discipline his army, and improve the resources of
-his kingdom. In these labours he was most diligent. His troops, practised
-in frequent skirmishes with the Swedes quartered in Ingria and
-Livonia, rapidly improved, and on the celebrated field of Pultowa broke
-for ever the power of Charles XII. This decisive action did not take
-place until July 8, 1709. The interval was occupied by a series of
-small, but important additions to the Russian territory. In 1701–2,
-great part of Livonia and Ingria were subdued, including the banks
-of the Neva, where, on May 27, 1703, the city of St. Petersburg was
-founded. It was not till 1710 that the conquest of Courland, with the
-remainder of Livonia, including the important harbours of Riga and
-Revel, gave to Russia that free navigation of the Baltic sea which Peter
-had longed for as the greatest benefit which he could confer upon his
-country.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>After the battle of Pultowa Charles fled to Turkey, where he
-continued for some years, shut out from his own dominions, and intent
-chiefly on spiriting the Porte to make war on Russia. In this he
-succeeded; but hostilities were terminated almost at their beginning,
-by the battle of the Pruth, fought July 20, 1711, in which the Russian
-army, not mustering more than forty thousand men, and surrounded by
-five times that number of Turks, owed its preservation to Catharine,
-first the mistress, at this time the wife, and finally the acknowledged
-partner and successor of Peter in the throne of Russia. By her coolness
-and prudence, while the Czar, exhausted by fatigue, anxiety, and
-self-reproach, was labouring under nervous convulsions, to which he
-was liable throughout life, a treaty was concluded with the Vizier in
-command of the Turkish army, by which the Russians preserved indeed
-life, liberty, and honour, but were obliged to resign Asof, to give up
-the forts and burn the vessels built to command the sea bearing that
-name, and to consent to other stipulations, which must have been very
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>bitter to the hitherto successful conqueror. Returning to the seat of
-government, his foreign policy for the next few years was directed to
-breaking down the power of Sweden, and securing his new metropolis
-by prosecuting his conquests on the northern side of the Gulf of
-Finland. Here he was entirely successful; and the whole of Finland
-itself, and of the gulf, fell into his hands. These provinces were
-secured to Russia by the peace of Nieustadt, in 1721. Upon this
-occasion, the senate or state assembly of Russia requested him to
-assume the title of Emperor of all the Russias, with the adjuncts of
-Great, and Father of his Country.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the private history and character of Peter, we have hitherto
-said nothing. He was passionately fond of ardent spirits, and not only
-drank very largely himself, but took a pleasure in compelling others
-to do the same, until the royal banqueting-room became a scene of
-the most revolting debauchery and intoxication. But towards the close
-of life, his habits, when alone, were temperate even to abstemiousness.
-In his domestic relations he was far from happy. At the age of
-seventeen he married a Russian lady, named Eudoxia Lapouchin,
-whom he divorced in less than three years. According to some accounts,
-this separation was caused by her infidelities; according to
-others, by her obstinate hostility to all his projects of improvement: a
-hostility inculcated and encouraged by the priesthood, in whose eyes all
-change was an abomination, and the worst of changes those made professedly
-in imitation of the barbarous nations inhabiting the rest of
-Europe. By her the Czar had one son, Alexis, heir to the throne; who,
-under the guardianship of his weak and bigoted mother, grew up in the
-practice of all low debauchery, and with the same deference to the
-priesthood, and dislike to change, which had cost herself the society of
-her husband. The degeneracy of this, his eldest, and long his only son,
-was a serious affliction to Peter; the more so, if he reflected justly,
-because he could not hold himself guiltless of it, in having intrusted the
-education of his legitimate successor to one, of whose incapacity for
-the charge he had ample proof. It appears from authentic documents
-that even so early as the battle of the Pruth, Peter had contemplated
-the necessity of excluding his son from the throne. In the close of the
-year 1716, he addressed a serious expostulation to Alexis, in which,
-after reviewing the errors of his past life, he declared his fixed intention
-of cutting off the prince from the succession, unless he should so
-far amend as to afford a reasonable hope of his reigning for the good
-of his people. He required him either to work a thorough reformation
-in his life and manners, or to retire to a monastery; and allowed him
-six months to deliberate upon this alternative. At the end of the time
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>Alexis quitted Russia, under pretence of going to his father at Copenhagen;
-but instead of doing so he fled to Vienna. He was induced,
-however, to return by promises of forgiveness, mixed with threats in
-the event of his continued disobedience, and arrived at Moscow,
-February 13, 1718. On the following day the clergy, the chief officers
-of state, and the chief nobility were convened, and Alexis, being brought
-before them as a prisoner, acknowledged himself unworthy of the succession,
-which he resigned, entreating only that his life might be spared.
-A declaration was then read on the part of the Czar, reciting the various
-delinquencies of which his son had been guilty, and ending with
-the solemn exclusion of him from the throne, and the nomination of
-Peter, his own infant son by Catharine, as the future emperor. To
-this solemn act of renunciation Alexis set his hand. Thus far there
-is nothing to blame in the parent’s conduct, unless it be considered
-that in the promise of forgiveness, a reservation of his son’s
-hereditary right was implied. His subsequent conduct was severe, if
-not faithless. Not content with what had been done, Peter determined
-to extract from Alexis a full confession of the plans which he had
-entertained, and of the names of his advisers. For near five months
-the wretched young man was harassed by constant interrogatories,
-in his replies to which considerable prevarication took place. It was
-on the ground of this prevarication that, in July, 1718, the Czar
-determined to bring his son to trial. By the laws of Russia a father
-had power of life or death over his child, and the Czar absolute power
-over the lives of his subjects. Waving these rights, however, if such
-oppressive privileges deserve the name, he submitted the question to
-an assembly of the chief personages of the realm; and the document
-which he addressed to them on this occasion bears strong evidence to
-the honesty of his purpose, unfeeling as that purpose must appear.
-On July 5, that assembly unanimously pronounced Alexis worthy of
-death, and on the next day but one Alexis died. The manner of his
-death will never probably be entirely cleared up. Rumour of course
-attributed it to violence; but there are many circumstances which
-render this improbable. One argument against it is to be found in
-the character of Peter himself, who would hardly have hesitated to
-act this tragedy in the face of the world, had he thought it necessary
-to act it at all. Why he should have incurred the guilt of an action
-scarce one degree removed from midnight murder, when the object
-might have been effected by legal means, and the odium was already
-incurred, it is not easy to say. He courted publicity for his conduct,
-and submitted himself to the judgment of Europe, by causing the
-whole trial to be translated into several languages, and printed. His
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>own statement intimates that he had not intended to enforce the
-sentence; and proceeds to say that on July 6, Alexis, after having heard
-the judgment read, was seized by fits resembling apoplexy, and died
-the following day; having seen his father and received his forgiveness,
-together with the last rites of the Greek religion. This is the less
-improbable, because intemperance had injured the prince’s constitution,
-and a tendency to fits was hereditary in the family.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>If our sketch of the latter years of Peter’s life appear meagre and
-unsatisfactory, it is to be recollected that the history of that life is the
-history of a great empire, which it would be vain to condense within
-our limits, were they greater than they are. Results are all that we
-are competent to deal with. From the peace of Nieustadt, the exertions
-of Peter, still unremitting, were directed more to consolidate
-and improve the internal condition of the empire, by watching over
-the changes which he had already made, than to effect farther conquests,
-or new revolutions in policy or manners. He died February 8, 1725,
-leaving no surviving male issue. Sometime before, he had caused the
-Empress Catharine to be solemnly crowned and associated with him
-on the throne, and to her he left the charge of fostering those schemes
-of civilization which he had originated.</p>
-
-<p class='c000'>Of the numerous works which treat wholly or in part of the history
-of Peter the Great, that of Voltaire, not the most trustworthy, is probably
-the most widely known. Fuller information will be found in
-the ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Journal de Pierre le Grand, ecrit par lui-même</span>;’ in the memoirs
-published under the name of Nestesuranoi, and the Anecdotes of
-M. Stæhlin. For English works, we may refer to Tooke’s History of
-Russia, and the ‘Life of Peter,’ in the Family Library.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id002'>
-<img src='images/i_192.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c1'>
-<div class='nf-center c002'>
-    <div>END OF VOL. II.</div>
-    <div class='c002'>Printed by <span class='sc'>William Clowes</span>, Duke-Street, Lambeth.</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c004' />
-</div>
-<div class='tnotes'>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 class='c005'>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2>
-</div>
- <ol class='ol_1 c002'>
-    <li>Changed “Ecole” and “Ecoles” to “École” and “Écoles” on p. <a href='#t92'>92</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed “Eloge” to “Éloge” on p. <a href='#t88'>88</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Changed “Veritá” to “Verità” on p. <a href='#t139'>139</a>.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Silently corrected typographical errors.
-
-    </li>
-    <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
-    </li>
-  </ol>
-
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gallery of Portraits, with
-Memoirs. Vol 2 (of 7), by Anonymous
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GALLERY OF PORTRAITS ***
-
-***** This file should be named 55092-h.htm or 55092-h.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/0/9/55092/
-
-Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-  </body>
-  <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.56n on 2017-07-11 04:06:20 GMT -->
-</html>
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/cover.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 49fd8f4..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/cover.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_001.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_001.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4f72ec2..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_001.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_001fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_001fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1af47e7..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_001fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_012.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_012.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7a856b8..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_012.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_013.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_013.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 216e912..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_013.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_013fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_013fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 30b69db..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_013fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_018.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_018.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8fbe945..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_018.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_019.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_019.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0aee124..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_019.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_019fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_019fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 31f9ea5..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_019fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_024.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_024.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a05d578..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_024.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_025.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_025.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cdf1ad2..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_025.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_025fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_025fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b9b63cf..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_025fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_033.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_033.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9e79c1e..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_033.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_034.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_034.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e9e3dfb..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_034.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_034fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_034fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a40e3fc..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_034fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_040.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_040.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 859bba0..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_040.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_040fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_040fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1316cad..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_040fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_048.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_048.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 896bdcd..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_048.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_049.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_049.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 381a3fd..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_049.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_049fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_049fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 01b50fa..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_049fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_056.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_056.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7f9ad56..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_056.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_056fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_056fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 70c2e28..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_056fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_062.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_062.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6a49568..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_062.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_063.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_063.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2555260..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_063.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_063fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_063fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0ba5635..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_063fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_072.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_072.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d7723a4..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_072.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_073.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_073.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f7bf63b..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_073.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_073fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_073fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 095e5c0..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_073fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_081.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_081.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e5aa33a..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_081.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_082.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_082.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 75cadf5..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_082.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_082fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_082fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index be7eff0..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_082fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_087.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_087.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index af64559..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_087.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_088.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_088.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 038902a..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_088.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_088fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_088fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9f6334f..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_088fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_093.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_093.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ba1e330..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_093.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_093fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_093fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 116be43..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_093fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_098.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_098.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d679acf..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_098.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_099.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_099.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 00c61da..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_099.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_099fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_099fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9ff853d..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_099fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_106.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_106.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a50adab..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_106.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_107.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_107.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0d0dadc..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_107.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_107fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_107fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f0669dd..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_107fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_120.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_120.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8852506..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_120.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_121.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_121.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3f52a4d..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_121.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_121fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_121fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c8dbc6c..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_121fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_126.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_126.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ab54321..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_126.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_126fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_126fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 38cd03c..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_126fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_135.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_135.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0079ff2..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_135.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_136.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_136.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1c185b6..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_136.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_136fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_136fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ed4f064..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_136fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_140.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_140.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 41bb632..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_140.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_141.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_141.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 83e32ef..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_141.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_141fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_141fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d47a019..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_141fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_149.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_149.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5d091b2..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_149.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_150.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_150.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6903fad..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_150.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_150fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_150fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 14a2ea4..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_150fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_159.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_159.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7330553..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_159.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_160.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_160.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index deb6b99..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_160.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_160fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_160fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 37d9f65..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_160fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_165.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_165.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e51e9e7..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_165.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_165fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_165fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 119fa85..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_165fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_175.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_175.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 317589c..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_175.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_175fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_175fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 36aeea7..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_175fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_183.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_183.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cd79fed..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_183.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_183fp.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_183fp.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 786dc42..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_183fp.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55092-h/images/i_192.jpg b/old/55092-h/images/i_192.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 3d49d7a..0000000
--- a/old/55092-h/images/i_192.jpg
+++ /dev/null