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text-indent:0em; } -dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; } -dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; } -.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; } - -dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { text-align:center; margin-top:0; text-indent:0; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Leonardo da Vinci, Pathfinder of Science, by -Henry Sampson Gillette - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Leonardo da Vinci, Pathfinder of Science - -Author: Henry Sampson Gillette - -Release Date: June 2, 2017 [EBook #54827] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEONARDO DA VINCI, PATHFINDER OF SCIENCE *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Leonardo da Vinci: Pathfinder of Science" width="500" height="762" /> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img id="insidecov" src="images/icover.jpg" alt="Leonardo da Vinci: Pathfinder of Science" width="500" height="764" /> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/pg003.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="676" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci, after a woodcut published -in</i> Lives of the Painters, <i>by Vasari. The Latin inscription -reads</i> -<br />LIONARDO DA VINCI PITT. E SCVLTOR FIOR. -<br /><i>Leonardo da Vinci, Painter & Sculptor of Florence.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<p class="center"><i>Immortals of Science</i></p> -<h1><span class="large">LEONARDO -<br />DA VINCI</span> -<br /><i>Pathfinder of Science</i></h1> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p class="center"><span class="larger"><i>Henry S. Gillette</i></span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="smaller">PICTURES BY THE AUTHOR</span></p> -<p class="tbcenter"><i>Franklin Watts, Inc., 575 Lexington Avenue -<br />New York 22, New York</i></p> -</div> -<p class="tbcenter"><i>To my wife Trudy</i></p> -<p class="center smaller">FIRST PRINTING</p> -<p class="center small"><i>Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 62-8426</i> -<br />Copyright © 1962 by Franklin Watts, Inc. -<br /><i>Manufactured in the United States of America</i></p> -<p class="center smaller">DESIGNED BY BERNARD KLEIN</p> -<h3>AUTHOR’S NOTE</h3> -<p>It is natural that, within the -confines of these few pages, many facets of Leonardo’s -extraordinary personality will be missing. That he was -an artist, a man of letters, a poet and a philosopher are -well known. That he was also a man of humor, as well -as a prophet whose vision extended far beyond his times, -are facts that I have also tried to include in this biography. -There are many gaps in our knowledge of his life, -and these I have sometimes filled with my own imagination -to give some continuity to his story. Little is known -of his early days, his period of travels after leaving -Milan and his years in Rome. There is, too, a certain -mystery in his relations to those around him, since our -descriptions of him derive mostly from his often cryptic, -personal notes and from biographers who wrote of him -many years after he had died.</p> -<p>This book is about Leonardo the scientist, and to fully -write of his many accomplishments would require an -encyclopedic mind. My intent has been to extract the -essence of his story in the hopes that it would arouse -the enthusiasm of a reader to further his interest in those -other, more fully documented books—and, above all, -in the notebooks that Leonardo himself wrote.</p> -<p class="jr1">—H. S. G.</p> -<p class="jr1"><i>Rome, August 1961</i></p> -<h2 class="center"><i>Contents</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#c1"><span class="cn">1 </span><i>The Shield</i></a> 1</dt> -<dt><a href="#c2"><span class="cn">2 </span><i>Florence</i></a> 9</dt> -<dt><a href="#c3"><span class="cn">3 </span><i>A Studio of His Own</i></a> 20</dt> -<dt><a href="#c4"><span class="cn">4 </span><i>Years of Frustration</i></a> 28</dt> -<dt><a href="#c5"><span class="cn">5 </span><i>Milan</i></a> 37</dt> -<dt><a href="#c6"><span class="cn">6 </span><i>The Monument</i></a> 49</dt> -<dt><a href="#c7"><span class="cn">7 </span><i>Success</i></a> 60</dt> -<dt><a href="#c8"><span class="cn">8 </span><i>The French</i></a> 73</dt> -<dt><a href="#c9"><span class="cn">9 </span><i>Cesare Borgia</i></a> 86</dt> -<dt><a href="#c10"><span class="cn">10 </span><i>Shattered Hopes</i></a> 98</dt> -<dt><a href="#c11"><span class="cn">11 </span><i>The Return to Milan</i></a> 114</dt> -<dt><a href="#c12"><span class="cn">12 </span><i>Rome</i></a> 129</dt> -<dt><a href="#c13"><span class="cn">13 </span><i>The Last Years</i></a> 147</dt> -<dt><a href="#c14"><span class="cn">14 </span><i>Mankind’s Debt to Leonardo</i></a> 159</dt> -<dt><a href="#c15"><span class="cn"> </span><i>Significant Dates in Leonardo’s Life</i></a> 162</dt> -<dt><a href="#c16"><span class="cn"> </span><i>Index</i></a> 164</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">1</span> -<br /><i>The Shield</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>Dusk was beginning to gather in the valley at the foot -of Monte Albano as young Leonardo turned toward -home. Stopping by a rushing stream to wash the dust -of the day’s explorations from his face, he laid aside his -cap and his leather pouch and plunged his hands into the -cold mountain water. He felt the force of the current -and watched the whirl and flow of bubbles around his -bare arms. There was the same feeling, he thought, to -the flow of air he had experienced blowing around the -<span class="pb" id="Page_2">2</span> -rocky crags of the mountains.</p> -<p>This evening, however, there was no time to sit -awhile and think. He was in a hurry to get home. Hastily -scooping the water in his cupped palms, he splashed -it over his head and face, then shaking the water from -his hair he rose and picked up his cap. He took a satisfied -look in his pouch, slung it over his shoulder and -headed down the stony trail to the village of Vinci.</p> -<p>Vinci was a small hill town situated on a spur of -Monte Albano. Its castle and the bell tower above the -houses seemed like sentinels guarding the slopes of vineyards -and olive groves spreading down into the valley.</p> -<p>Leonardo da Vinci, which means “Leonardo from -the town of Vinci,” thought about his home. He knew -that he had been born in Anchiano, near Vinci, on -April 15 of the year 1452, to a peasant girl named -Caterina. At the age of five, he had been sent for by his -natural father, Piero da Vinci, to come and live at his -family’s house in Vinci, a comfortable and roomy place -with a spacious garden. Piero, five years before, had -married Albiera di Giovanni Amadori, a girl of sixteen. -They had had no children of their own, and Leonardo -was welcomed into the home with affection by his -young stepmother.</p> -<p>When Leonardo was about eleven, young Albiera -died, leaving a darkened and saddened house. Two years -later his father married another girl by the name of -Francesca Lanfredini. Although laughter and song soon -replaced the grief, Leonardo never forgot the love of -his first stepmother.</p> -<p>Also in the house lived Antonio, his grandfather, who -<span class="pb" id="Page_3">3</span> -was eighty-five, his grandmother, his uncle Allessandro -Amadori and family, and, best of all, his uncle Francesco. -The da Vincis, who could trace their beginnings -in the town back to the thirteenth century, had always -been respected lawyers and landowners. Because Uncle -Francesco was neither a lawyer nor a great landowner, -the people of the town said he did nothing; but he -tended the family vineyards, and, to the delight of -Leonardo, he raised his own silkworms.</p> -<p>As Leonardo entered the main gate, he noticed that -the oil lamps were being lit above the stalls of the marketplace, -and the lively confusion of the last hours of -business was in full swing. People nodded and smiled -to him, for as a boy of fifteen he was already a striking -figure. He was tall with long, auburn hair falling to his -shoulders and his face was so charming that it was frequently -compared to those of the angels painted in the -chapels of the church. The music of his lute, the sound -of his voice, and the gentleness of his person were such -that all hearts and doors were open to him.</p> -<p>Tonight, however, Leonardo avoided the usual invitations -to stop and chat. His father would be back from -Florence; he had been going there more and more frequently -as his fame as a lawyer grew. Now Leonardo -was thinking that he had almost finished the assignment -his father, half jokingly, had given him many weeks -ago—so many weeks ago that he was sure his father -had forgotten about it. At that time a peasant, whose -skill in providing fish and game for the table of Piero’s -big household was greatly appreciated, had asked a -favor of him. This man had a round, wooden shield cut -from a fig tree and he had asked Piero to have a design -painted on it for him in Florence. Piero, who had -noticed the sketches his son was making of plants, rock -formations, and scenes in his wanderings about the -countryside, decided to test his son’s ability and gave -the shield to the boy. In the secrecy of his room, into -which no one was allowed, Leonardo had smoothed -and prepared the wood, and on it he was painting a -<span class="pb" id="Page_4">4</span> -monster.</p> -<p>Scrambling over rocks, through streams, and into -caves, Leonardo had been in the habit of gathering all -manner of creeping and crawling life. Patiently he -would bring these home in his leather pouch and carefully -study and draw them. Maggots, bats, butterflies, -locusts, and snakes added to the confusion of the boy’s -already cluttered room. Everywhere he went he collected -the things that aroused his curiosity; and as a -result, his room was always filled with rocks, dried -plants, flowers, the skeletons of small animals—and his -pages of notations and drawings. Now Leonardo had -combined the features of these small forms of life to -make a monster—emerging from a dark grotto and -breathing fire and smoke—a thing more terrifying than -if done from imagination, for each feature was a duplicate -of a reality in nature.</p> -<p>Unobserved, Leonardo reached the privacy of his -<span class="pb" id="Page_5">5</span> -room and emptied this day’s collection on a table beside -the shield. He lit a candle and examined his catch—a -lizard and a large grasshopper. These would complete -his picture; and, the most extraordinary find of the day—a -fossil seashell found high on the slopes of a mountain! -How did it get there? Was it a result of the flood -about which his religion had taught him? Had an immense -wave deposited this ancient sea-life high on the -Albano mountains? Looking more closely he saw that -it was a type of sea-snail and in almost perfect preservation. -This he would have to think about and examine -later.</p> -<p>Now, however, the picture must be completed, for -he hoped to surprise his father in the morning. But just -then, Leonardo heard the family stirring below and -his father calling him to dinner. Reluctantly he left his -table, made himself presentable and went downstairs.</p> -<p>“Ah, Leonardo,” his father said when he appeared in -the family dining room. “I saw Benedetto dell’Abbaco -on the way in town and he tells me you haven’t been -to school as often as you should—is that true?”</p> -<p>“Yes, Papa—but I’m not doing badly.”</p> -<p>“Signor Benedetto might agree, at least in your -mathematics. He tells me you ask him questions that -often make him stop and think. But Leonardo, you -have other subjects—Latin, reading, and writing—as -well as arithmetic. You mustn’t neglect the others, my -boy. But come—let us eat.”</p> -<p>Together they sat down with the rest of the family—a -large, prosperous, and happy gathering. When dinner -was over Leonardo made hurried excuses to all the -family, protesting that he was too tired to sing, and -escaped back into his room. For a long time he worked, -unaware that the house was growing quieter. Finally -he laid down his brushes and his maul stick, pushed his -chair back and smiled a triumphant smile. The shield -was finished. Tomorrow he would ask his father in to -look at it.</p> -<p>Conscious now that everybody had gone to bed, -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -Leonardo blew out his candle and opened the shutters. -The night sky was a panoply of stars and only here and -there was the dark loneliness of the valley relieved by -pinpoints of light. Leonardo leaned his head against the -window frame and stared at the blue infinity above him. -What exactly were the stars? Did all of them move -around the earth? What was the haze that obscured the -horizon ever so faintly? What was that sea-snail doing -in the mountains? Why? How?</p> -<p>The next morning Leonardo found his father and -Uncle Francesco in the garden deep in conversation -about their vineyards and olive groves.</p> -<p>“Papa, I have a surprise for you up in my room—can -you come now?”</p> -<p>“Yes, Leonardo. What is it you have found now—not -a better way to raise my grapes, I’ll wager!”</p> -<p>The elder da Vinci put his arm around the boy’s -shoulder and went with him up to the door of his room.</p> -<p>“Wait here, Papa, until I say to come in.”</p> -<p>Leonardo unlocked his door, lifted the cloth from -the shield standing on the easel and opened the shutter -just a trifle so that a soft light filled the room.</p> -<p>“Papa—you can come in now.”</p> -<p>Piero entered—he had long forgotten the round piece -of wood—and suddenly he froze in the middle of the -room.</p> -<p>“Have mercy on me!” he said when he saw the horrible -fire-breathing creature. In the dimness of the room, -the monster and the murky cave from which it was -emerging were terribly real. Piero actually started to -back out of the room in fright, when Leonardo laid a -hand on his shoulder.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div> -<p>“Papa, this work has served its purpose; take it away, -then, for it has produced the intended effect.”</p> -<p>The shield was the talk of the house; it was set up -and marveled at. As for Piero, he resolved to take it -with him to Florence secretly and sell it, giving his peasant -friend some cheap substitute that he would buy in -the marketplace.</p> -<p>So, a few days later, Leonardo’s father saddled his -horse and had the shield wrapped and packed in his -saddlebag. Also, unknown to his son, he took some of -the boy’s drawings. Piero had now realized that Leonardo -might have a rare talent. Moreover, he was planning -to move to Florence with his family so that he -could be nearer to the Badia, or the law offices of the -city, for whom he had been frequently employed. -There, thought Piero, Leonardo’s talent could be developed -under the best of teachers.</p> -<p>It was many days before Leonardo’s father returned; -when he did, he gathered his family together and it was -obvious to all that he had exciting news. First, Piero -announced that he and Francesca would move to Florence -since he and a law partner were now engaged in -securing office space from the Badia. It was a handsome -office centrally located opposite the palace of the <i>Podestà</i>, -or chief magistrate.</p> -<p>Then, turning to Leonardo, he said: “I have shown -some of your drawings to Master Andrea del Verrochio -and his enthusiasm for your skill has decided me to -place you in his studio as an apprentice. What do you -<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span> -think of that?”</p> -<p>Leonardo was stunned. Verrochio, the great artist -and sculptor! Florence! The city-state whose power -and influence had spread far beyond her own walls. -Now he would study in earnest; now he would find the -answers to his never-ending questions. He embraced his -father and could say nothing.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">2</span> -<br /><i>Florence</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>The Italy of Medieval and Renaissance days was not a -unified country as it is today. It was, of course, part of -the Holy Roman Empire, but the main governing forces -in the land were in the city-states, of which Florence -was one of the most powerful. A city-state was much -more than a city—it was almost a kingdom in itself. -Each had its own army, and very often there were large-scale -wars between such city-states as Milan, Naples, -Rome, Venice—and of course Florence. The Italians of -those days considered themselves citizens—not of Italy -as a whole—but of their particular cities; people coming -from other cities were looked upon as “foreigners,” -even though they looked the same, wore the same style -<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span> -of clothing, and spoke the same language!</p> -<p>All the power, influence, and ideas of this period in -history were concentrated within the city-states. A man -might be a very fine artist, engineer, or philosopher, but -unless he managed to bring his work to the attention -of the ruler of one of the cities, he was likely to remain -in obscurity. Thus it was that Piero da Vinci, knowing -that his son would have to have a powerful patron if he -was to succeed at all, brought Leonardo to Florence.</p> -<p>In 1467, when the da Vinci family entered Florence, -the city had been under the rule of the Medici family -for some thirty-three years. As it was in most of these -city-states, the head of the ruling family—at this time -Piero de’ Medici—was in charge of the government of -Florence and the surrounding countryside. But Piero -was fifty-one years old and ailing, and he had only two -years of life left at the time of Leonardo’s arrival.</p> -<p class="tb">None of this was in Leonardo’s mind as he rode with -his father through one of the great, guarded gates of the -city. He was thinking, not of politics, but of the fabulous -sights that awaited him in this rich center of commerce -and activity.</p> -<p>The narrow streets of the city were so crowded that -is was necessary for the da Vinci family, together with -their servants and the donkeys laden with household -effects, to go single file. Leonardo rode behind his father, -shouting questions, and, at the same time, turning his -head from side to side so as not to miss a thing. Brought -up in the solitude of mountains and valleys, and accustomed -to the quiet life of a village, the boy of fifteen -was overwhelmed with the excitement of the city.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/pg012.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="796" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Leonardo rode behind his father, turning his head from -side to side so as not to miss a thing.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div> -<p>The party was now making its way past the booths -of hundreds of shops, past magnificent palaces built by -wealthy merchants, and across squares filled with the -produce from hundreds of farms. Every now and then, -Leonardo caught a glimpse of the cathedral dome, one -of the architectural marvels of its day. He had seen the -cathedral with its bell tower and also the towering spire -of the Palazzo della Signoria—which means the Palace -of the Lords—from a hill as they approached the city. -This palace still stands and today it is called the Palazzo -Vecchio or Old Palace. But now these sights were lost -to view in the midst of the narrow streets, other -churches, flags, and the lines of washing that seemed to -hang everywhere. Frequently, Piero’s party was pressed -against a wall as a procession shoved its way through -a street. Sometimes it was by armed horsemen escorting -a rich banker to some appointment; other times it was -a file of cowled monks observing some saint’s day and -carrying huge wax candles before them.</p> -<p>After they had crossed the magnificent square of the -Signoria, in front of the Palace of the same name, Piero -leaned down from his horse and asked a blacksmith -where Verrochio’s studio might be. The man shouted -above the din of clanging hammers:</p> -<p>“Everybody knows that shop, Signor—it’s down that -street and to the right! You can’t miss it—ask anybody!”</p> -<p>The man was right, for the workshop of Verrochio -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span> -was not hard to find. Verrochio was considered one of -Florence’s finest artists and everybody knew of him. -He was a short, broad-shouldered man of thirty-two -with a round face, shrewd eyes, a thin mouth and dark -curly hair that reached almost to his shoulders. In his -workshop were two other apprentices—young Pietro -Perugino, who was six years older than Leonardo, and -Lorenzo di Credi, a boy of eight. They all lived in the -house together and, after Leonardo was shown where -he would sleep and had put away the few things he had -brought with him from Vinci, he was taken to the place -where he would work.</p> -<p>Verrochio, whose real name was Andrea di Michele -di Francesco de’ Cioni, had taken the name of his -teacher, a renowned goldsmith, as was the custom in -the shops at that time. Verrochio himself was a skilled -goldsmith. But to be an artist and to have your own -workshop in the year 1467 meant being a specialist in -many things. Into Verrochio’s place came a great variety -of artistic work—painting pictures, sculpting and -architecture, goldsmithing, designing and making armor, -creating decorated furniture, designing mechanical -toys, and even preparing stage scenery.</p> -<p>Verrochio, of course, would attend to the greater -creative tasks, while his apprentices did the chores of -grinding colors, preparing panels for painting, making -armatures for his sculpture, hewing to size the marble -for a statue, preparing molds for casting, building -models for a new palace or church—in fact, all the -countless number of preparations to the finished work. -Sometimes, if an apprentice showed extraordinary talent, -he would be allowed to work on the finished painting -or assist with the final strokes of the chisel. Verrochio -was a busy man and a successful artisan. To further -his own ambitions, he was now absorbed in the perfecting -<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span> -of mathematical perspective and the study of geometry.</p> -<p>The curious Leonardo had come to the right man. In -Verrochio’s workshop, where so many crafts were -learned at the same time, his powers of observation were -able to develop; his hunger to know about mathematics -was fed. In Verrochio, Leonardo found a teacher who -would encourage these investigations and urge him to -study a wide variety of subjects. Leonardo now felt his -lack of a fuller education. He started to borrow mathematics -textbooks and to seek out men who could teach -him what he needed to know. After each day’s work -was over, Leonardo would continue on into the night, -catching up on his neglected studies and discovering -for himself new areas of thought such as anatomy, -movement and weight, botany, and another subject -which was to occupy much of his later years—<i>hydraulics</i>, -or the useful application of water power.</p> -<p>In these early years, Leonardo commenced his famous -<i>Notes</i>. He had developed his own “secret” writing -in his childhood at Vinci. These notes—consisting -of observations, proportions, and reminders to himself—were -inscribed on his drawings. They were, however, -unreadable to the eye—until held up to a mirror. Leonardo -was lefthanded and could write fluently in this -strange manner. It could have been for many reasons -that he did so—perhaps from a natural desire for -secrecy, perhaps for reasons of safety from possible -enemies. In those days, plots and counterplots of all -sorts were commonplace—a rumor or a whisper in the -right ear could destroy a reputation or financially ruin -a career.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<p>Leonardo was popular in Florence. He traveled with -the young men of the town, and his handsome appearance -and enormous strength (he could bend a horseshoe -in his hands) made him a welcome figure in many -houses. He continued to play the lute and the lyre. He -wrote poetry, composed his own music, and sang with -a pleasing voice. His blue eyes were kind and his manner -gentle. He always avoided arguments and competition -when he could. When he walked through the marketplace -and came upon the caged birds, he would buy -them—just to set them free. Indeed, his love of animals -had become so great that he no longer ate meat.</p> -<p>During these years in Verrochio’s service, Leonardo -grew in stature as an artist and rapidly developed into -a scientist of promise. He amazed his master when he -painted an angel in an altarpiece that had been assigned -to Verrochio. He painted it in the new oil colors recently -acquired from the Flemish painters. So astounded -was Verrochio with its grace that the master vowed he -would never lift a brush again if a “mere child” could -so surpass him. In this picture there is a tuft of grass -beside a kneeling figure, also painted by Leonardo, -which indicates by its careful attention to detail the -amount of research he did before committing it to canvas. -In other paintings he made beautiful drawings of -a lily and studies of animals and crabs, giving a hint of -what was to come. For, in these preparatory works, -Leonardo could not be satisfied until he had thoroughly -studied the characteristics of plants and animals in general. -Later in life, he was to become more and more -absorbed in these researches until they occupied the -greater part of his time.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div> -<p>In 1469, when Leonardo had been in Florence only -two short years, Piero de’ Medici died and was succeeded -by his son, the mighty Lorenzo de’ Medici—or -Lorenzo the Magnificent, as he was often called. Now -the city of Florence felt itself under the control of a -man who really knew how to use power. Lorenzo was -Florence; nothing happened without his making it happen, -and he became one of the most prominent patrons -of art and scholarship in all of Italy. If Leonardo was to -make any headway in Florence, he would have to make -himself noticed by this new Medici ruler.</p> -<p>But Leonardo was not yet worrying about how to -make himself a success. A young man of seventeen and -still an apprentice of Verrochio, Leonardo continued -to meet new friends with new ideas. It was at about this -time that he met Benedetto Aritmetico, a prominent -scholar and mathematician. It is probable that this man -drew Leonardo’s attention to the practical needs of -industry and commerce so that some of Leonardo’s energy -was directed toward the study and improvement -of existing machinery and the invention of labor-saving -devices. At any rate, during these months Leonardo -was walking the streets of Florence, wandering into -shops and mills, making careful observations of all the -various methods of manufacturing. The more he saw, -the more he thought to himself that one man could do -the work of many—if only he had the proper machine. -He even made drawings of laborers with picks and -shovels to see if he could determine by mathematics -better ways to swing and hold the tools.</p> -<p>In addition, the particular problems in the engagement -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -of joints fascinated Leonardo, leading him on to -the study of more general problems such as the transmission -of power by gears and the strength of materials. -He also spent long hours studying geometrical theories -and reading Greek and Latin classical works. Laboriously, -he translated these into his own formulas and -made comments about them in his notebooks. He attended -the lectures of John Argyropoulos, a Greek, -who talked of the Aristotelian theories of natural history, -and who had translated Aristotle’s <i>Physics</i>.</p> -<p>The study of physics opened to Leonardo a whole -new world of ideas. He experimented with cogwheels, -and with the improvement of ways to lift weights. He -became fascinated with the then-known laws of friction -and built a bench upon which he tested various devices -for the overcoming of frictional drag; he also tested -the natural power of one body to set another in motion. -This bench with its rollers and weights was similar in -principle to the one used by the French physicist A. C. -Coulomb almost three centuries later. Leonardo was -indeed growing into a man of genius. Now everything -from the stars to the flight of an insect occupied his -thoughts.</p> -<p>At the same time, he continued his studies of drawing -and painting. Frequently he was seen in Florence -following someone whose face had interested him—sometimes -for the better part of the day—and then at -night he would fill a page with sketches of this same -person from memory.</p> -<p>By developing his powers of observation in this way -<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span> -Leonardo came to rely more upon his own experiences -and less upon what he was told or what he read. This -brought him into frequent conflict with the astrologers, -the alchemists and even the Church. The astrologers -were men who told fortunes by the movements of the -stars. The alchemists, with their knowledge of chemistry, -pretended to be able to talk with ghosts and to -tell the future. These men Leonardo held in contempt. -Although he was a devoutly religious man, Leonardo -objected to many attitudes of the Church which he considered -outmoded and which stood in the way of scientific -progress; because of these objections, he was frequently -called a pagan.</p> -<p>In this same year of 1469, Leonardo met the aging -Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli. Toscanelli was a famous -physician, philosopher and mathematician who, just the -previous year, had marked off on the cathedral floor the -famous meridian line for determining the dates of the -various Church holidays. The old man and the boy became -not only the famous teacher and ardent pupil, but -close friends.</p> -<p>One evening at Toscanelli’s house, the old man -showed young Leonardo a globe of the world. Much -of it was marked “unknown,” but Toscanelli had filled -in some areas from his own careful calculations and -from the stories told him by sailors and travelers. Visions -of distant lands, remote mountain ranges and vast oceans -filled Leonardo’s imagination as Toscanelli spoke. Then -Toscanelli tapped the globe to the westward of Spain, -saying:</p> -<p>“Here will be found a quicker route to India than -the world has ever known before.” Then, turning to -Leonardo he murmured, “You will see it happen, my -boy, in your lifetime.”</p> -<p>One by one, Leonardo’s childhood questions were -<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span> -being answered. Toscanelli told him much about the -stars, the fossils of creatures long disappeared from the -world, and how he believed the earth’s early formation -took place. He also taught the boy the art of drawing -a map. Not only did Toscanelli greatly influence Leonardo, -but the course of history as well. Ten years after -Toscanelli had died, Christopher Columbus, struggling -westward over the Atlantic Ocean, was using a map -that old Toscanelli had sent him, carefully notated with -all his accumulated wisdom.</p> -<p>Leonardo, in keeping with his own philosophy, tested -all this knowledge with experiments of his own. Because -astronomical instruments were rare, crude, and -costly, Leonardo borrowed them where he could and -later set about making his own. He went on to experiment -with time measurements, devising the first example -of the application of a pendulum to regulate a clock; by -means of two springs, it measured the minutes as well as -the hours. So for the next three years Leonardo worked -in Verrochio’s studio and continued his studies and experiments.</p> -<p>In 1472 Leonardo’s name was inscribed in the Red -Book of the Painters of Florence, which was the official -<i>guild</i>, or artists’ union of that time. But he was so poor -that he couldn’t afford the dues and hardly had the -money for the necessary candles to be burnt before St. -Luke, the patron saint of all painters. Although his -father now had a spacious apartment in a house on one -of the main squares of Florence, Leonardo continued to -live with Verrochio. In fact, he stayed on past his formal -training period for about four more years, grateful -to the kindly man for the food and bed he offered.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">3</span> -<br /><i>A Studio of His Own</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>On Sunday, April 26, 1478, the bells of the cathedral -were ringing loudly over Florence, almost drowning -out the noise of the crowds in the street. Shutters were -being thrown open and people were shouting excited -questions at each other. Distantly at first, but growing in -volume, was another sound—an ugly one—the sound -of an approaching, angry mob. Leonardo, holding a roll -of drawings closer under his arm, stopped and listened.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<p>Suddenly the questioning voices stopped. The bells -continued ringing and now the angry shouts of the mob -could be heard.</p> -<p>“Lorenzo is dead! Giuliano is dead! Death to traitors! -Pazzi! Pazzi!”</p> -<p>“On to the Palace of the Signoria! They’ve captured -the Archbishop! He’s a prisoner there!”</p> -<p>“Get a ram and we’ll break the door down!”</p> -<p>The people in the street were caught up in the surging -mass. Already soldiers of the Medici were spreading -out through the city. Cobblestones were ripped -from the street, and swords, knives, and clubs were -being brandished in the air.</p> -<p>Leonardo, backed against a wall of a house, was soon -left in an almost deserted street. Still holding the drawings, -he made his way carefully back to his studio.</p> -<p>As it turned out, Lorenzo was not dead at all.</p> -<p>It was on this Sunday that the Pazzi conspiracy had -broken out in Florence. In the cathedral, the ailing -Giuliano de’ Medici, brother of Lorenzo, was killed by -assassins. Lorenzo himself escaped with only a scratched -arm. The Pazzi family were rival bankers of the Medicis -and had joined in this plot with Girolamo Riario, a -relative of Pope Sixtus IV, and Francesco Salviati, a -long-time enemy of Lorenzo. A hired professional thug -completed the members of the conspiracy.</p> -<p>Girolamo Riario hated the Medicis because they refused -him money for his own ambitions, and the Pope -opposed Lorenzo because Lorenzo was supporting raids -against papal territory. As for Archbishop Salviati, he -had for years nursed a personal hatred for Lorenzo.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/pg018.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="789" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Leonardo, backed against a wall, was soon left in an almost -deserted street.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<p>When the assassination attempt failed, the Archbishop -and Francesco de’ Pazzi fled to the Palace of the -Signoria for protection. However, the members of the -Council of Florence, who were meeting, then became -suspicious and bolted the doors after them. Both men -were later killed by the Medici followers and their -bodies were hung from the barred windows of the -Palace. In the terror of the days afterward, eighty victims -lost their lives. The Pazzi conspiracy also had an -effect on Leonardo’s future, as we shall see later on.</p> -<p>Leonardo had been on his way to the Palace that -morning. He had been given his first painting assignment, -or commission, the previous January. This was to -paint an altarpiece for the chapel of San Bernardo in the -Palace, and just the month before he had received the -sum of twenty-five florins as a partial payment.</p> -<p>Some time before January of 1478, Leonardo had -left Verrochio and had found a place of his own. The -commission had come to Leonardo through the influence -of his father, who was now one of the leading -notaries, or lawyers, of the city. Though still poor, -Leonardo could now devote this new independence to -his widening fields of study.</p> -<p>Leonardo’s studio was like his childhood room in one -respect—it was still filled with all the different things -that had aroused his curiosity. Books were everywhere—on -his tables and shelves and piled on the floor—books -by Ptolemy, Pliny, and Strabo on geography and -natural history, by Aristotle on physics, even one by -Guido, a tenth-century monk, who has been called the -father of modern music. In addition, there were books -on arithmetic, agriculture, geometry, grammar, philosophy, -fables, poetry and even one containing jokes. A -map of the world hung on the wall, together with his -drawings; and, scattered throughout the whole studio -were the plants, fossils, rocks and animal skeletons he -<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span> -was still collecting from his trips into the country.</p> -<p>There was also a huge table extending down the middle -of Leonardo’s studio upon which were many drawings -and instruments for working geometrical problems. -His easel near the window supported a painting—a -study for his commission in the Palazzo. And on his -desk was a confusion of papers containing notes all -written in his “secret” writing.</p> -<p>At twenty-six Leonardo was deep in the study of -mechanical law, geometry, and botany. For example, he -had observed the rings in trees and their relationship to -the age of the trees. In mechanics, he was absorbed in -drawing models of a “variable speed drive.” By meshing -three cogged wheels of different diameters to a common -lantern wheel, Leonardo saw that different speeds -of rotation could be obtained at the same time. This -same principle is used in the gear shift of modern automobiles. -About mechanics Leonardo wrote that it was -“the paradise of the mathematical sciences because by -means of it one comes to the fruit of mathematics.”</p> -<p>Now, too, he was starting to write about his observations -on the flight of birds, the formations of clouds and -the behavior of smoke in the air. He compared the flying -of birds to the swimming of fish in the sea, and the -flow of air to the flow of water. Two hundred years -before Newton, Leonardo would define the principles -of aerodynamic reciprocity, as contained in Newton’s -Third Law of Motion.</p> -<p>At this time, Leonardo had an idea for making the -<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span> -Arno river navigable all the way from Florence to Pisa -by the addition of canals, thus giving Florence an outlet -to the sea. He also had thoughts for the improvement -of irrigation in order to make use of land that did not -have enough water. Nothing that Leonardo saw in his -day’s activities was too small to pass unnoticed and unquestioned. -The flight of a butterfly, the stratification -of rock in a cliffside, the shape of a mighty cumulus -cloud, the turning of a carriage wheel on a bumpy road, -the play of muscles in a farmer’s back, the curling of -water around a rock in a stream—all of these aroused -Leonardo’s curiosity. Continually, he studied these -things and painstakingly drew them and wrote about -them in his notebooks.</p> -<p class="tb">Unfortunately, Leonardo’s painting commission for -the Palace of the Signoria was never completed. By the -end of the year 1478, the Pope, angered by the killing -of the Archbishop during the Pazzi conspiracy, had declared -war on the Republic of Florence. Ferdinand, the -King of Naples, was persuaded to help in this war against -Florence and the Medicis. As the papal forces were -approaching the fortresses on the Florentine hills, the -Council of Florence discontinued Leonardo’s commission -in order to conserve money for the defense of the -city.</p> -<p>Disappointed though he was, Leonardo did not allow -<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span> -this setback to discourage him. From a page of drawings -in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence on which are sketched -various arms and war materials, we learn that he turned -from his artistic to his mechanical skills and began designing -engines of war. Besides being a Florentine concerned -with the defense of his city, Leonardo was eager -to gain an appointment with Lorenzo as military engineer -to make up for the painting commission he had -just lost. Also, as the fifteenth century was a turning -point in the methods of waging war, Leonardo was -attracted to all the mechanical possibilities of the new -artillery. Before then soldiers had used spears, bows and -arrows, and stone-throwing catapults, among other primitive -methods. One of Leonardo’s designs included a -light cannon whose barrel could be raised or lowered to -proper elevation by means of a hand-cranked screw and -whose horizontal direction could be determined by a -maneuverable cradle.</p> -<p>The military appointment that Leonardo hoped for -didn’t come. Unfortunately for the Medicis, the war -with the papal forces was being lost. One by one, the -fortresses under siege surrendered; more and more of -the Florentine troops were fleeing.</p> -<p>Leonardo continued the work on his military machines -for, although he was having some success painting -Madonnas for private homes and had even received -a commission from the King of Portugal for a tapestry -design, he still wanted official recognition for his inventions -from Lorenzo de’ Medici.</p> -<p>During these weeks late in the year of 1479, Leonardo -conceived many ingenious devices to wage war. -Besides the small artillery piece, he designed a <i>bombard</i>, -or rock-throwing cannon, which did not recoil when -it was fired. This was followed by a light gun arranged -in three tiers of barrels, mounted so that while one tier -was fired, the second was being loaded and the third -was cooling (a forerunner of the modern machine -gun). Another was a device to repel enemy ladders. -It consisted of a horizontal beam laid parallel to the -top of a fortress wall; the beam could be pushed outward -by one man or several men using a system of -<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span> -pulleys.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/pg020.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="344" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Leonardo’s design for a machine gun. It had thirty-three -barrels in three banks of eleven each. While one bank was -fired, one cooled and the other was reloaded.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Unfortunately for Leonardo, just as he was ready to -show these inventions to Lorenzo de’ Medici, the last -fortress outside Florence surrendered and a three-month -truce followed. Lorenzo himself went to Naples and -persuaded King Ferdinand to withdraw from the war. -By 1480, peace returned once again to Florence.</p> -<p>As for the Medicis, military machines no longer interested -them. Greatly disappointed at not having his inventions -used—or even looked at—Leonardo began to -search about for new fields of creative activity.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">4</span> -<br /><i>Years Of Frustration</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>The old monk spread the papers out before him on the -table.</p> -<p>“Master Leonardo,” he said, “these are the terms of -the commission. We at the monastery wish to have an -altarpiece painted for our chapel. Your father has recommended -you, and, as you know, he is our lawyer. Of -course your reputation has already reached our ears, and -we are satisfied in our choice.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div> -<p>The year was 1480. The monk represented the monastery -of San Donato a Scopeto near the Porta Romana, -just outside Florence. Leonardo shook his head slowly -at the terms of the commission. The painting had to be -completed in thirty months at the most. Moreover, he -must pay for his own colors and even—Leonardo -looked up as if to protest but resumed reading—even -pay for any gold or gold leaf he might use. Nevertheless, -it was an opportunity, and Leonardo needed work. -Since the papal war had ended, he had not received any -commissions—and his skill at military engineering was -still too unknown to have won him recognition.</p> -<p>Although Lorenzo de’ Medici was a great supporter -of the arts and sciences, he had not granted Leonardo -any of his patronage. In Lorenzo’s court were many -men with much book-learning but little talent. They -guarded their positions jealously and kept the way to -Lorenzo barred to any applicant whom they did not -like. Of them, Leonardo wrote in his notes: “They strut -about puffed up and pompous, decked out and adorned, -not with their own labors, but by those of others, and -they will not even allow me my own. And if they -despise me who am an inventor, how much more blame -be given to themselves, who are not inventors but trumpeters -and reciters of the work of others?”</p> -<p>In accepting the commission to paint the altarpiece, -Leonardo hoped to attract attention to himself. Perhaps -then Lorenzo might welcome him to his court and grant -him patronage. So, with his usual thoroughness, Leonardo -set about the task of preparing an Adoration of -the Magi—a favorite subject of that time. This was to -be a picture of the Holy Family surrounded by the -three wise men from the East, shepherds and animals, -old and young, rich and poor, paying their adoration to -<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span> -the Christ child.</p> -<p>Since he wanted his subjects perfect in every detail, -Leonardo set about drawing countless youths, old men, -sheep, oxen, horses, and donkeys. In a separate drawing -for the background, he worked out with mathematical -mastery the problems of perspective, that is, drawing -objects to make them appear three-dimensional and -either close or far away in space. In addition, he made -studies for the composition of the whole picture—studies -in which his knowledge of geometry was used to -heighten the excitement of this great religious subject.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/pg022.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="486" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Leonardo’s hygrometer.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Among these sketches that Leonardo made for his -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span> -“Adoration of the Magi” is a page on which appears an -inspiration for one of his greatest masterpieces—a drawing -of the “Last Supper.” And on this same page is another -drawing—one of a hygrometer. A hygrometer is -an instrument for measuring the amount of moisture -in the air. Leonardo’s design consists of a simple, graded -disk with a balanced pointer, weighted at one end with -sand and at the other with a sponge or some salt. As the -sponge or salt absorbed the moisture in the air, the -added weight was indicated on the graded disk, thus -measuring the amount of humidity.</p> -<p>Leonardo’s researches for the altar painting took him -almost a year. Although the monks began to grumble at -his slowness, Leonardo would not be hurried. He was -determined to produce a painting that was perfect in -all respects. To quiet their impatience Leonardo did -odd jobs for them in the cloister. He repainted their old -clock and for this extra work they advanced him some -much-needed money. In March of 1481 Leonardo was -ready to begin the actual drawing for the altarpiece. -As he progressed with the composition, the monks -crowded around with exclamations of delight. So different -was it from all the other Adoration pictures they -had ever seen, that the monks sent Leonardo some sacks -of corn as a token of their appreciation.</p> -<p>One day, Leonardo was walking slowly toward the -monastery over the Ponte Vecchio—the Old Bridge—across -the Arno River. He made his way slowly up the -hill past the construction for the new Pitti Palace. The -morning was hot and the farmers moving into the city -with their heavily laden carts were short-tempered. -Leonardo stood to one side as he watched a pair of oxen -straining to haul a wagon up a rise in the road. Their -owner, his shirt unbuttoned to the waist, was shouting -angrily, lashing the animals with his leather-thonged -whip. It was a cruel sight and Leonardo turned away. -From some experiments he had been making, Leonardo -realized that the poor animals were struggling not only -with the hill, but the drag of friction on the creaking -axle. This drag could be eased, he thought to himself, -by simply resting the axle in two sets of roller-bearings -attached to the bottom of the cart near each wheel. In -his mind he formed the plan for such a model as he -<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span> -made his way to the monastery.</p> -<p>The drawing of the altarpiece was nearing completion. -The monks were fascinated by the spectacle of -the Adoration appearing before their eyes. The soft, -umber outlines deepened with gray, the ochre highlighting -the central figures charmed them and they sent another -gift to Leonardo’s house—a cask of Tuscan red -wine.</p> -<p class="tb">As it turned out, Leonardo never finished this altarpiece. -It is not known why. But the drawing for it can -be seen today in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence just as -Leonardo left it.</p> -<p>It is certain, however, that Leonardo was far from -idle during this time. He drew the design for eliminating -the friction of a turning axle by mounting the axle in -roller-bearings. He experimented with, and solved the -problem of, transmitting motion to revolving machine -parts by friction—the possible forerunner of our modern -friction clutch. Another device, found in modern -automobiles—the differential—was also drawn by Leonardo. -This idea provided for the difference in speed -between the two drive wheels when rounding a curve.</p> -<p>Leonardo also drew the first known plans for a self-propelled -<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span> -vehicle—an “automobile.” It was designed to -operate by a system of elastic springs wound by hand -by the person on the vehicle; the “car” was then supposed -to run the short distance allowed it by the unwinding -of the springs.</p> -<p>In addition, Leonardo continued designing machines -for both offensive and defensive military action. One of -these was a breech-loading cannon, together with the -first known projectiles that took into consideration better -penetration through the air and greater stability in -their trajectory. Indeed, these very much resembled -present-day aerial bombs, with pointed noses and stabilizing -fins.</p> -<p>As the months passed, however, Leonardo began to -feel that his time and talents were being wasted in Florence. -Although the monks and friends of the monastery -were pleased with the work he was doing, other artists -were being called to greater tasks in Rome. For example, -Domenico di Tommaso del Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli, -and even Leonardo’s fellow student, Pietro Perugino, -had left Florence to work in the chapel of Pope -Sixtus IV in Rome—known to us as the Sistine Chapel. -Now, too, it was becoming clear that Lorenzo and his -court had no time for this solitary genius whose ideas -stretched beyond his age.</p> -<p>So Leonardo looked about him. He was thirty years -old and the walls of Florence seemed to bind his spirit. -To what city could he go where his talents would be -put to fruitful use? Rome seemed to hold out no hope, -for no one had offered him a position there.</p> -<p>But Leonardo remembered that there had been a visitor -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span> -to the Medicis from another city in recent months. -This man was Ludovico Sforza, the ruling prince of -Milan, the great city-state of the north. Ludovico, who -was also called “Il Moro” (the Moor) because of his -dark complexion, was seeking the friendship and alliance -of the Medicis. He was fascinated with the art -and culture of Florence and sought to gather to his own -court of Milan as many artists, scientists, philosophers, -and musicians as he could.</p> -<p>Perhaps, thought Leonardo, his future lay in Milan. -So he began collecting his countless drawings, diagrams -of machines and instruments of war, his notes, his plans -for canals and irrigation—even a drawing for a monument -that he knew Ludovico wanted to erect to his -father—and made a package of it to send to Ludovico. -Then he sat down to write a letter to that nobleman. -In it he set forth in ten numbered paragraphs his qualifications -as military and naval engineer, architect, and -hydraulics expert. Almost as an afterthought to the -tenth item, he wrote: “I can carry out sculpture in -marble, bronze, or clay, and also I can do in painting -whatever may be done, as well as any other, be he who -he may.”</p> -<p>When he had finished the letter, Leonardo took out -a strange instrument. It was a lyre of silver in the shape -of a horse’s head. He had designed it himself, and now -with an air of peace, he commenced to play. Its rich -tone was sweet to hear and the music was his own composition.</p> -<p>Leonardo had also designed other instruments—lyres, -<span class="pb" id="Page_35">35</span> -lutes, viols, and a kind of zither. He had perfected the -single-stringed monochord of Pythagoras, replacing the -tablet of wood with thin strips of drum that gave the -instrument a low or high note according to the tightness -of the string. In addition, he introduced stops or small -pistons in the holes of wooden reed instruments; and, -he had even invented a set of mechanical chords by -using a wheel of reeds which plucked a set of strings as -it was turned. His skill as a musician, composer, and -singer was well known among his friends and his bass -voice had retained the pureness of his boyhood.</p> -<p>As it happened, news of Leonardo’s silver lyre had -reached Lorenzo de’ Medici. All Leonardo’s paintings, -all his designs for cannons and fortifications, all his inventions -for commercial machinery had failed to interest -Lorenzo—yet this single musical oddity excited the -ruler’s curiosity. Leonardo was summoned to the -Medici palace.</p> -<p>Lorenzo was enchanted both by the instrument and -Leonardo’s musical talent. When Leonardo had finished -playing, Lorenzo, surrounded by members of his court, -applauded and said,</p> -<p>“It would please us if Master Leonardo da Vinci -would present us with this beautiful instrument so that -we, in turn, could make a gift of it to His Highness, -Ludovico Sforza, of Milan.”</p> -<p>Leonardo bowed and replied,</p> -<p>“Your Grace’s request is my pleasure. Moreover, Sire, -it would further that pleasure to bear the gift myself to -His Excellency in Milan.”</p> -<p>The idea delighted Lorenzo. He immediately directed -that Leonardo be given a letter to Ludovico and that -every protection be given Leonardo for his journey.</p> -<p>Leonardo, with the silver lyre and the letter of recommendation, -hurried home to make his final preparations. -He called on a friend and pupil, young Atalante -Migliorotti, to accompany him.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div> -<p>Toward the end of 1482 or the beginning of 1483, -with the letter to Ludovico folded in a leather pouch, -Leonardo and Atalante mounted their horses and left -Florence for the long journey to Milan.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">5</span> -<br /><i>Milan</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>Milan at this time was one of the greatest and wealthiest -city-states in all Europe. Its battlements and the -spires of its mighty cathedral rose impressively from the -lush plain of Lombardy. Towering over the city in the -distance were the snow-capped peaks of the Alps. -Groves of mulberry trees for the production of its famous -silk industry and vast stretches of rice paddies -extended far into the surrounding countryside.</p> -<p>Leonardo and Atalante rode along the embankment -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span> -of one of the many canals. The sight of the city hastened -their pace although the journey had been a long -one. Frequently on the trip Leonardo had stopped to -make notes. Riding over the mountains and ravines surrounding -Florence he had drawn some of the rushing -streams and the stratifications of exposed cliffs. And -when they had descended to the plains he observed the -irrigation ditches and made notes on ways of improving -the crude systems of dams and waterwheels.</p> -<p>Leonardo was excited by this new city and by his -prospects at the court of Ludovico. On the way to his -lodgings, he also noticed that Milan was a great center -of arms manufacture. Shop after shop displayed its -wares of swords, spears, shields, armor for man and -horse, and signs advertising foundries for the making of -cannon. Perhaps here he might find an outlet for his -military inventions.</p> -<p>In the inn where he and Atalante stayed, Leonardo -overheard the current political rumors. All around him -was talk of the war. Girolamo Riario was again in the -field, and Ludovico’s ally, Alfonso of Calabria, had just -been defeated by the Venetians in a bloody battle at -Campo Morto.</p> -<p>Leonardo reread the letter he had written setting -forth his own accomplishments and decided that now -was the time to present himself as a military engineer. -He would minimize the bronze monument, his music, -and his painting, and instead, he would stress his skills -in the inventions of war.</p> -<p>When Leonardo appeared before Ludovico, he was a -<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span> -handsome young man of thirty-one. Tall and strong, he -was dressed not according to fashion, but simply—almost -severely. His hair hung in curls on his shoulders -and his auburn mustache and neatly trimmed beard accented -his ruddy complexion and deep-set blue eyes. -Indeed, he presented a striking contrast to the nobleman -seated before him. Il Moro, with his dark skin -and straight black hair, his richly embroidered doublet -with its broad sleeves and the heavy gold chains -across his thick chest, was the exact opposite of Leonardo.</p> -<p>Ludovico set aside Leonardo’s letter, rose from his -chair, and walked to the heavy table on which Leonardo -had spread out his drawings.</p> -<p>Plans for all manner of war machines were there—those -that Leonardo had designed for Lorenzo de’ Medici -without success, together with many new additions. -For example, there were plans for a self-propelled bomb -with flames to be shot out in all directions—a bomb -that was later to be called a “rotatory rocket” when it -was actually invented in 1846. Leonardo also explained -to Ludovico his idea for “poison gas” bombs containing -sulfur: the fumes of these bombs would “produce -stupor,” and they could be used both on land and sea, -together with masks to protect those who were using -them. Shrapnel shells, hand grenades, and javelins that -burst into flame when they struck their objectives—these -and many more were among his ideas.</p> -<p>But perhaps the most unusual to Ludovico’s eyes was -the design for an armored vehicle. It was shaped like -a giant turtle, with overlapping sheets of reinforced -wood so that enemy shells would bounce off its surface. -The armor was pierced by loopholes for the breech-loading -cannon and there was an opening at the top for -ventilation. Power for the vehicle was supplied by eight -men inside turning cranks which in turn were cogged -to other wheels, setting in motion the four drive wheels. -This of course was the forerunner of the tank and the -<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span> -armored car used in modern warfare.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/pg027.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="287" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Forerunner of the tank or armored car, as conceived by -Leonardo. Motion was supposed to be supplied by four -cogged wheels turned by manpower. Sheets of reinforced -wood were supposed to serve as “armor” against enemy -projectiles.</i></p> -</div> -<p>In addition, Leonardo laid before Ludovico all manner -of cannons and designs for tunneling under the enemy’s -defenses. Actually, with respect to warfare itself, -Leonardo called it a most brutal “madness”; however, -he recognized the necessity of being prepared. In his -notebook, he wrote, “When besieged by ambitious -tyrants I find a means of offense and defense in order to -preserve the chief gift of nature, which is liberty.”</p> -<p>Ludovico was very much interested in the things -Leonardo had showed him. Although he was a man of -limited imagination and was not able to grasp the scope -of Leonardo’s proposals, he was nevertheless involved -in a war. Since Ludovico’s aging military engineer was -to be replaced, Leonardo left the forbidding castle of -the Sforzas with high hopes of getting the position.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_41">41</div> -<p>In the meantime, he was commissioned to paint the -portrait of a young girl from a noble family in Milan. -At the same time, he began the bronze equestrian statue -of Ludovico’s father, Francesco Sforza. For this work, -he began an intensive study of horses. Since hunting was -the popular sport at the court of the Sforzas, Ludovico -owned a stable of the finest Arabian horses, and here -Leonardo commenced his drawings. Again, his research -for a work of art led him beyond just making preparatory -sketches. His studies developed into notes, and his -notes into a planned book on the anatomy of the horse.</p> -<p>During these months of waiting for the appointment -as military engineer, Leonardo furthered his experiments -with cannon. In the course of these experiments, he came -across a power that would later revolutionize all industry—steam. -He devised—although he attributed the -original idea to Archimedes—a water vessel connected -to a copper tube which was heated by a fire. The water -when flowing into the red-hot tube changed into steam -and the pressure of the steam blew out a ball at the -mouth of the tube with great force. Leonardo experimented -with steam in other ways. He built an apparatus -for measuring the transformation of water into vapor. -It consisted of a metal box in which was a thin animal -bladder partly filled with water. Resting on the top of -the bladder was a flat lid attached by a cord hung from -two pulleys to a counterweight on the outside. As the -water was heated, the steam in the bladder pushed up -the lid. As the lid rose both the volume and the pressure -could be measured. There were distillation experiments -with various condensers, one in particular that anticipated -the modern condenser of Leibig, introducing double -walls that formed a complete jacket for cooling with -<span class="pb" id="Page_42">42</span> -water in continual circulation.</p> -<p>Not content with having an idle moment, Leonardo -again turned to searching out books that he had not -read and trying to fill the gaps in his education. He became -especially interested in the German philosopher, -Cardinal Cusanus. Cusanus, like himself, had been influenced -by Toscanelli and was a man devoted to the -natural sciences. Leonardo also studied the philosophy of -Aristotle and the writings of St. Augustine. Throughout -his life Leonardo believed in an active mind for, as “iron -rusts from disuse, stagnant water loses its purity and in -cold weather becomes frozen, even so does inaction sap -the vigor of the mind.”</p> -<p>Unfortunately, the post of military engineer went to -a man named Ambrogio Ferrari. The extent and variety -of Leonardo’s proposals were too great for Ludovico to -trust. He did not believe that one man could possibly -bring all those ideas into being. Ferrari, on the other -hand, was a military engineer only, and a man who was -content with the customary methods of warfare. Furthermore, -Ludovico had at last decided that peaceful -negotiations would gain him more than fighting. -Thus Leonardo’s chance of recognition was again postponed.</p> -<p>Meanwhile, the money that Leonardo had brought -with him from Florence was almost gone. He had been -forced to move from his apartment to a single room and -now he was barely able to live from day to day. Although -the court of Ludovico Sforza was one of the -richest in the world, artists were frequently treated as -servants; often they were the last to be paid for their -services. Also, Leonardo was a foreigner in the city, -<span class="pb" id="Page_43">43</span> -which meant he was regarded with suspicion.</p> -<p>Because of these reasons, Leonardo finally decided to -do what the Milanese artists did—they banded together -in groups sharing work and costs. Leonardo had met a -young artist of twenty-eight, Giovanni Ambrogio de -Predis, at the court of Ludovico. Ambrogio was court -painter to the Sforza family and had achieved some success. -Ambrogio recognized in the handsome stranger -from Florence, however, the touch of genius, and he realized -that his own talents would be furthered by learning -from Leonardo. The two young men decided to -pool their abilities. Ambrogio offered both lodging and a -studio; and, in association with his two half-brothers, -one a woodcarver, another a miniaturist, and his elder -brother, a minter of coins, they would not lack for commissions.</p> -<p>Commissions weren’t long in coming. On April 25, -1483, a contract was signed between Bartolommeo degli -Scarlione, a prior of the Fraternity of the Immaculate -Conception, and Ambrogio and Leonardo for an altarpiece. -The fee was two hundred ducats, with a promise -of more if it were delivered on time and was satisfactory -to the Fraternity. Delivery date was to be December -8, 1484. Ambrogio was to paint the altar wings and -Leonardo the center piece—a picture of the Blessed -Virgin and Child.</p> -<p>But when the painting was finished, it was not according -<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span> -to the instructions set forth in the contract. Leonardo -had too independent a mind to be bound by conformity. -Nor was it completed on time. Indeed, for -twenty years the quarrel between the Fraternity and -the painters went on. After ten years, Ludovico was -asked to intervene for the money owed; after he failed, -another ten years went by and the King of France himself -was finally asked to settle the dispute. Leonardo -wanted his one hundred ducats and the Fraternity offered -twenty-five. Eventually, a secret agreement was -arrived at and the painting was restored to Leonardo -and Ambrogio. Leonardo’s painting, the masterpiece entitled -the “Virgin of the Rocks,” now hangs in the museum -of the Louvre in Paris.</p> -<p>The day this contract was signed, Leonardo walked -back through the city to Ambrogio’s studio near the -Ticino gate. He was low in spirits from reading the -petty instructions of the contract, and, in this mood, he -became aware of the city streets and crowds about him. -The noise, the confusion, the smells—yes, the smells -were the worst. Garbage, filth, and dust were in heaps -where the last rainwater had left them and they buzzed -with flies.</p> -<p>Moreover the houses were jammed together and shopkeepers -crowded their wares to the edges of the streets, -leaving just enough room for the occasional horseman -to get through. Latrines were only for the better houses; -here, the streets, alleys and even open doorways were -toilets. People flung their scraps out of the window and -at night in the poorly lit streets could be heard the -scurrying of rats. Leonardo stopped, thinking half -aloud:</p> -<p>“Two levels. Streets running one above the other—one -<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span> -for pedestrians and one for carts and horses. Yes, -and cutting through the whole city a system of canals -to carry the city’s waste to a river or to the sea. Why not -even ten cities of, say, five thousand houses in each—say, -no more than thirty thousand people to a city?”</p> -<p>Intent now on his thoughts he hurried to his home, -his mind busy with his visions of new cities.</p> -<p class="tb">During the years 1484 and 1485 the bubonic plague -swept Italy—the same dreaded Black Death so prevalent -in medieval times. Milan was one of the cities most -severely stricken. Every courtyard became a hospital -and the streets were deserted except for the rumbling -carts picking up the dead. On the roads from the city -were lines of refugees fleeing to the country. Surrounding -cities that had not been infected manned their fortress -walls as in wartime to keep the fleeing populations -out.</p> -<p>Ludovico at first tried to protect Milan from the -spread of the disease; then, frightened, he and his court -fled. Even the ruler’s official documents had to be “disinfected” -by perfume and then held for a period of -time before he would allow them near him.</p> -<p>Leonardo, sensing opportunity, drew out his plans for -his new cities. Canals running through them were to be -used for barges and the underground conduits greatly -resembled those of modern sewage systems. Paths were -to have gutters for the adequate drainage of the streets. -Public toilets were to be installed. Leonardo even had -plans for the control of smoke collecting over the city—by -sending it up tall chimneys where it was picked up -by fans and driven away over the roofs. The widths of -the streets were to be in proportion to the heights of the -houses—light and air would circulate freely. Two levels -would be connected by graceful ramps—the lower level -for the commercial traffic and the upper level for the -pedestrians. Where stairs were used they were designed -so one could ascend or descend without one person -seeing the other. Stables were devised so that animals -were fed through openings in their mangers and under -these were tunnels of flowing water for the removal of -waste.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_46">46</div> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/pg030.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="795" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>The results of the bubonic plague in Italy, 1484-85. Streets -were deserted except for the carts picking up the dead.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div> -<p>These sweeping plans Leonardo laid before Ludovico -when the epidemic had subsided. But Ludovico, once -his fear was overcome, brushed them aside as impossible -dreams.</p> -<p>So Leonardo returned to the commission for the Fraternity -and the designs for the bronze monument of -Francesco Sforza. These jobs kept Leonardo from -brooding about his rejections.</p> -<p>Often, too, Leonardo worked with Bernardino de -Predis, the elder brother of Ambrogio. Bernardino was -a minter of coins. As Leonardo watched him at the -laborious task of first cutting disks from ingots and -then hammering the design into the hot metal, he suggested -to Bernardino an easier method, then used in -Germany. This was to prepare smooth ribbons of metal -of the desired thickness and with a punch, impress -the design into the ribbon at the necessary intervals and -then, punch out the coin. Leonardo went on to improve -this system by designing precise punches for both faces -of the coin. A single machine then cut out and stamped -the coins, using a falling weight raised by little winches. -This machine was later destined for the Vatican mint in -Rome.</p> -<p>On March 26, 1485 an event occurred in Milan that -<span class="pb" id="Page_48">48</span> -was viewed with mingled fear, superstition, curiosity -and excitement. There was a total eclipse of the sun. To -some, coming as it did so soon after the plague, it was -a judgment of God; to others, it was regarded as an -omen—a sign for astrologers to use for predicting the -future.</p> -<p>But to Leonardo the eclipse was a moment of great -scientific importance. At this time in history, the Ptolemaic, -or geocentric theory of the universe was the popular -belief. This theory taught that the earth is fixed and -the sun and moon revolve around it. Leonardo himself -had believed this theory for a long time. As he grew -older, however, he read and heard discussions of the -heliocentric theory. This theory proposed that the sun -is fixed and the earth and stars move around it. Now, -as he watched the eclipse, his doubts of the Ptolemaic -concept were renewed and he resolved to make experiments -of his own. The new theory was so daring for his -times, however, that it would be many years before he -became convinced of its truth.</p> -<p>Later that night, deep in thought over the experience -of the day, he noted down his observations of the eclipse -and his doubts of the medieval concept of the heavens. -The Church believed the earth was the fixed center of -the universe. Scholars and scientists supported the belief -of Aristotle in the four elements, earth, water, air, and -fire—but something was wrong. What were the planets—what -was the moon? He picked up his pen and on a -clean sheet of paper he wrote, “Make glasses in order -to see the moon large.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div> -<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">6</span> -<br /><i>The Monument</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>During this time, Leonardo had been struggling with -the design for the bronze equestrian statue. Drawing -after drawing lay scattered on his studio floor. Lately, -however, a daring plan for this statue had come to him. -It was to be a huge bronze warrior, Francesco Sforza, -mounted on a rearing horse. Weighing perhaps a hundred -thousand pounds, it was to be cast in sections in -five furnaces—a fitting monument to the power of the -Sforza family. But there still remained a big problem to -be solved: how could he balance the plunging horse and -<span class="pb" id="Page_50">50</span> -man on just the two rear legs of the horse?</p> -<p>Meanwhile, Leonardo had another problem to work -on—a wooden model of the Milan cathedral. He had -entered his name with the cathedral authorities as a competitor -in the design and construction of the cathedral’s -dome. Many architects had been brought in and had -failed, partly because of the antagonism of the Milanese -workmen to foreign craftsmen, and partly because the -committee found it difficult to decide what designs it -liked. Leonardo had sent them a letter outlining his own -recommendations and had drawn many pages of possible -plans. He put forward his knowledge of various -building materials, his understanding of classical architecture, -and his wish to keep his own ideas in harmony -with the Gothic tradition of the cathedral itself. Often -he would make a point of walking about the city, observing -the different constructions under way and drawing -up plans to shorten the labor by mechanical means.</p> -<p>In July of 1487 Leonardo received a payment from -the cathedral authorities for the wooden model he had -submitted. Still, however, no final decision had been -reached. Now, as Leonardo looked at the model in his -studio, he felt the urge to improve it further—to make -it more perfect. Yet he held his impatience in check and -decided he would wait a little longer. Instead, he decided -to work on some of his ideas for construction devices. -He had already made many drawings, but they could -be improved, he thought, and he began to make calculations.</p> -<p>Among these notes and drawings was an improvement -<span class="pb" id="Page_51">51</span> -on a device for the raising of columns. It was a -mobile windlass with a transmission gear for transporting -and erecting columns and obelisks. Another device -was an earth drill resembling a modern corkscrew with -double handle bars. The upper bar, when turned, drilled -the screw into the earth while the lower bar—when -turned the opposite way—carried the dirt up and out. -Also there was a double crane mounted on a circular -trolley which carried the dirt of excavation up and then -the crane was moved around on its trolley so the dirt -could be unloaded in different directions.</p> -<p>Other labor-saving devices that Leonardo designed -were an automatic pile driver, the weight of which was -raised by a winch and tripped automatically at its height -to fall on the piling; a lift for raising iron bells to bell -towers; and a machine for boring tree trunks to make -pipes for carrying water.</p> -<p>In the fall of 1488, Leonardo was interrupted by a -summons from Ludovico, who wanted him to design -and build the decorations for the forthcoming marriage -of his nephew, young Duke Gian Galeazzo Sforza, to -Isabella of Aragon, granddaughter of the King of Naples. -He worked on this steadily until the wedding -ceremony in February of the following year. When the -day arrived, the street from the cathedral to the grim -castle was trimmed with flags and banners of the two -royal houses. The inner courtyards of the castle were -transformed into delicate arbors of laurel boughs. Yet it -was the evening’s reception and entertainment which -were to be the climax and to them Leonardo had brought -all his mechanical skill. However, the announcement of -the death of the bride’s mother cut short the celebration -and, after the bride and groom had left for Pavia, the -wedding party soon dispersed. Disappointed that his -decorations had not been fully appreciated, Leonardo -<span class="pb" id="Page_52">52</span> -returned to his studio and the problem of the monument.</p> -<p>He was still struggling with the problem of balancing -the rearing horse. And, indeed, a solution was soon -found. By placing a fallen soldier with his arm upraised -in protection under the forefeet of the horse, Leonardo -could balance the enormous weight and provide for -the proper casting of the molten bronze.</p> -<p>Finally, Leonardo made a small wax model of the -proposed statue and showed it to Ludovico. The nobleman -was impressed by its originality. Most of the ideas -contributed by other sculptors were mere variations of -what had already been done many times. Also, the other -plans called for bronze of not more than two thousand -pounds, while Leonardo envisioned a statue fifty times -that size! Ludovico awarded the commission to Leonardo.</p> -<p>Leonardo was to work on this commission for ten -years and it was destined never to be immortalized in -bronze, for reasons that will be explained later. His -energies, as usual, were poured into many schemes. -Growing out of his work on the monument he planned -one book on the subject of casting in bronze and another -on the anatomy of the horse. But the one subject, -which he began to study in this period and which would -occupy the remainder of his life, was the study of human -anatomy. So Leonardo, in the midst of all his other activities, -wrote in his notes, “On the second day of April -1489 the book entitled <i>Of the Human Figure</i>.”</p> -<p>The sources of anatomical study up to Leonardo’s -<span class="pb" id="Page_53">53</span> -day had been the Greeks—Hippocrates and Galen—and -the Arab—Avicenna. Books on this subject were -few, and the anatomical diagrams were crude and inaccurate. -Galen, for example, had based his studies on the -dissection of monkeys. Renaissance anatomists had explained -his errors by pointing out that man had probably -changed since Galen’s time. The Church had stepped -in during the fourteenth century with an edict that was -interpreted as a prohibition against dissection of the -human body. In Italy, however, there were some dissections. -They could only use, for this purpose, the -bodies of criminals, slaves, and people of foreign birth. -In Florence, anatomy was studied by the artists, and -Leonardo had undoubtedly watched Pollaiuolo at work -on a corpse that that artist had dissected.</p> -<p>In 1489 Leonardo, from the results of his own investigation, -produced drawings of the skull and backbone -whose careful attention to detail are—even today—classics -in art and anatomy. With infinite patience and -with a saw of his own invention he had halved a skull -and drew for the first time with accuracy the curves of -the frontal and sphenoid bones. He drew the lachrymal -(tear) canal, and he was the first to show the cavity in -the superior maxillary bone—not discovered again until -1651, by Highmore—now named “the antrum of Highmore.” -He was the first to demonstrate the double curvature -of the spine and its accompanying vertebrae, the -inclination of the sacrum, the shape of the rib cage, and -the true position of the pelvis. He planned a whole series -of books that would include from head to foot and -from inside to outside every section of the human apparatus.</p> -<p>Meanwhile he had been working on the monument, -<span class="pb" id="Page_54">54</span> -redesigning it to conform to the practical needs of casting. -Now it had reached an even grander scale—a colossus -that would require two hundred thousand pounds of -bronze! He recorded in his notes the very day that this -work was started, “On the twenty-third day of April -1490 I commenced this book and recommenced the -horse.” The “horse,” of course, was the monument and -“this book” referred to still another subject which had -grown out of his studies of anatomy and perspective.</p> -<p>The title of the proposed book was to be <i>Light and -Shade</i>. It would include the subject of optics or the mechanism -of the eye, the problems of reflection and refraction -and it would lead him eventually to a re-examination -of his studies of the sun and moon.</p> -<p>In Leonardo’s day, and even for a long while afterwards, -the popular belief of vision was one that had -originally been put forth by the Platonic school and -expanded by Euclid and Ptolemy. This belief was that -the eye sent forth rays that brought back the image to -the soul. Leonardo, in his younger days, had believed -in the same theory. Not content with what had been -written on the subject, however, he began to experiment -for himself.</p> -<p>These experiments led him to an examination of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_55">55</span> -eye itself. He noted the various parts of the eye—the -optic foramen or opening, the pigment layer, and the -iris. These were already known by the Arabs. Leonardo -discovered, however, the crystalline area of the eye. He -explained binocular vision, or three-dimensional images, -by correctly noting the positions of the two eyes in the -head. He described the variations in the diameter of the -pupil according to the surrounding light. Further experiments -with light brought him to the conclusion that -light and images are received by the eye. He took a -piece of paper, for example, and pierced it with a small -hole. With this he looked at the source of light. He -noted the cone shape of the rays funneling into the tiny -hole and then when the paper was held next to a white -wall he noted that the rays spread out again. He established -that light travels in straight lines. He constructed -the first “camera obscura”—a box with a small hole in -it. Inside the box an object was placed near the hole and -behind that a lighted candle. When the box was closed -the image of the object was cast on the wall. Leonardo -was already acquainted with lenses, and he placed a magnifying -lens over the hole to create an enlarged image.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/pg034.jpg" alt="" width="364" height="321" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Leonardo’s “camera obscura” which he used for projecting -an image of an object on a wall or screen.</i></p> -</div> -<p>He also demonstrated various laws relative to optical -<span class="pb" id="Page_56">56</span> -illusion, such as irradiation—when a metal rod is made -red-hot at one end, that end seems thicker than the -other. A brightly lit object seems larger than one exactly -like it that is dimly lit; a dark object placed against a -light background seems smaller than it is; a light object -seems larger than its real size when placed against a dark -background; and the illusion of a light swung in a circle -appears as a complete circle of light.</p> -<p>Many years before Newton, Leonardo described the -experiment of breaking up a ray of white light into the -solar spectrum. Also he compared two sources of light -and measured their intensity by the depth of their shadows -accompanied by a drawing that was the forerunner -of Rumford’s photometer three centuries later! He -stated the law of reflection—that is, that the angle of -reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence.</p> -<p class="tb">About this time Leonardo left the studio of Ambrogio -de Predis and moved into the Sforza Castle. Ludovico -had put at his disposal a studio in the Corte Vecchia -and the use of a room in one of the towers—which -Leonardo always kept locked. To his growing list of -work, Leonardo now had to add the preparations for -the delayed wedding reception of Ludovico’s nephew, -Gian Galeazzo Sforza.</p> -<p>On a cold winter evening of January 1490 the guests -assembled again. Silks, satins and gold brocade, diamonds, -rubies and pearls glittered in the brilliant lights. -Princes of the Church mingled with ambassadors of foreign -lands. Music and perfume filled the air and as the -party quieted down the entertainment began. There -were dances in gay costumes. Poetry was recited that -flattered the bride and groom. There were allegorical -processions. The jokes and antics of the court jester -made the audience laugh.</p> -<p>Then, at midnight, the curtain that hung from wall -<span class="pb" id="Page_57">57</span> -to wall at the end of the ballroom was raised. Applause -and cries of delight greeted the spectacle. The rising -curtain revealed a room in which there was a hemisphere -surrounded by the signs of the zodiac and the planets. -While the planets in their niches flickered with concealed -lights and the signs of the zodiac glowed, lines -were spoken in honor of the house of Sforza to the accompaniment -of a choir. The ancient gods swept down -from the heavens, and the Virtues and Graces moved -across the scene with nymphs waving lanterns. The -music drowned out the sound of the mechanism. This -was the kind of mechanics that Ludovico could understand -and appreciate.</p> -<p>The success of this entertainment so pleased Ludovico -that Leonardo was encouraged to present another -amusing idea. This one was an “alarm clock” and it utilized -what we call today the mechanical relay principle. -When a small power is suddenly switched over, the -power is reinforced. The “alarm” clock worked by placing -a shallow basin of water at one end of a tubed lever. -At the other end was another empty basin. Water was -led drop by drop into the second basin and as this slowly -filled the increasing weight lowered the lever. The shallow -basin of water at the first end was suddenly emptied -and the immediate switch in weight flipped the lever up -and this in turn pushed up the sleeper’s feet.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div> -<p class="tb">Leonardo decided to withdraw from the competition -for the cathedral dome. Although the cathedral authorities -were pleased with his design, they could not decide -to whom the commission should be awarded. In the -summer of 1490 Ludovico was called upon to settle the -issue and he decided in favor of Antonio Amadeo from -Milan. But the work that Leonardo had done so impressed -Ludovico that he sent him to Pavia in company -with an architect from Siena, Francesco di Giorgio -Martini, to inspect the work on the cathedral of that -city. Leonardo, who had his own workshop and apprentices -now, took along one of them, Marco d’Oggionno, -a young boy of twenty.</p> -<p>In Pavia one of the greatest libraries in all of Italy was -in the ducal palace. Here Leonardo wandered among -shelves of books and illuminated manuscripts bound in -rich velvets and gold-embossed leather all bound to their -places with silver chains. One book that he records in -his notes was written in the thirteenth century by -Witelo, a Polish scholar, who wrote extensively on perspective. -Leonardo, by the necessity of his art, had -solved many problems in perspective. He had invented -a pair of proportional compasses, the forerunners of -those used today for the transfer of a drawing from one -scale to duplicate the same drawing in a larger scale. -Leonardo had also designed in very careful detail a parabolic -compass for drawing a parabola in one continuous -movement. He now determined to write his own book -on perspective and, as the subject was so close to his -studies of the eye, he would entitle it <i>Introduction to -Perspective, or the Function of the Eye</i>.</p> -<p>Leonardo submitted a number of plans for the completion -of the cathedral to the authorities in Pavia and -then returned to Milan. He worked through the rest of -the summer on the equestrian statue and at the same time -he continued to expand his notes on anatomy, light and -shade, and perspective.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_59">59</div> -<p>Late on a cold December night in 1490, Leonardo -lit his lamp. This was a very special lamp that he had -invented. It had already created a great deal of comment. -It was so unusual, he had received an order from -the court for another which he made with a richly carved -pedestal. Candles, torches, and oil lamps, the only methods -of artificial illumination in those days, were poor -substitutes for light. They flickered, smoked, went out, -and frequently caused damage with their hot drippings. -As a side result of his experiments in light, Leonardo -had put a glass cylinder in the middle of a larger glass -globe. A wick in olive oil was placed in the cylinder and -the outside globe was then filled with water. The result -was a bright, steady light magnified by the water in the -globe.</p> -<p>He sat down by the small fire and arranged his papers -in front of him. Then, with a glance at his lamp, he -picked up his goose-quill pen and wrote, “No substance -can be comprehended without light and shade; light and -shade are caused by light.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_60">60</div> -<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">7</span> -<br /><i>Success</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>It was January of 1491, and a light snow had fallen in -Milan, edging with white all the roofs, the massive -spires of the cathedral and the red battlements of the -Sforza castle. Soon Ludovico was to be married to Beatrice -d’Este of the ducal house of Ferrara.</p> -<p>Once more the streets of Milan echoed to the carpenters’ -hammers. Messengers rode to and from the castle -and endless carts full of provisions pushed through the -crowded city. Guests began to arrive from all the allied -courts of Italy with their bodyguards and servants. The -rooms of the castle, the palaces of the nobles, and even -the inns were filling with the royal processions.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div> -<p>Leonardo was again summoned by the court to prepare -the decorations, the costumes for the masquerades, -and the arena for the jousting tournaments. An invitation -had been sent to all the friendly courts to attend -these contests-at-arms. So, accompanying each new -party’s arrival was a band of armored knights, their -breast-plates, helmets, and shields glistening in the winter -sun.</p> -<p>Leonardo enjoyed designing mechanical toys and entertaining -the guests with them. One of these was a mechanical -drum. Ordinarily most of the entertainment -began with normal drum rolls, but Leonardo’s rolls were -made on a kind of wheelbarrow. On it was mounted an -enormous drum. When the “wheelbarrow” was pushed, -it put into motion a cogged wheel geared to the axle. -This wheel in turn was geared to two rotary cylinders -with pegs mounted around the top. The pegs moved -against five drumsticks on either side of the drum and -thumped out a rhythm according to the position of the -pegs.</p> -<p>Ludovico’s marriage to Beatrice d’Este, a girl of little -more than fifteen years, further isolated Leonardo from -the court. Being almost a child, Beatrice loved parties -and festivities, and she surrounded herself with people -who catered to her frivolous whims. As a result so serious -a man as Leonardo was forced into the background -of the court life. He was called upon more and more -to act as stage-designer while his more important work -went unnoticed. Because these entertainments were easy -for Leonardo to design, they did give him more time to -work on his giant equestrian monument of Francesco -Sforza. Working one day on the scaffolding surrounding -the clay figure of his statue, Leonardo heard a knock -<span class="pb" id="Page_62">62</span> -at his studio door.</p> -<p>“Come in,” he shouted as he climbed down. “The -door’s open.”</p> -<p>Three peasants cautiously entered the room and -quickly took off their caps. One of them was holding a -carefully wrapped bundle.</p> -<p>“Master Leonardo, we have brought you some shells -we found on a ridge of Monferrato. Remember, you -asked us to bring anything we found that was unusual?”</p> -<p>“Yes, Pietro. Thank you. Put them here on the table.”</p> -<p>Leonardo opened the bundle. He smiled when he saw -the shells. He remembered how, as a young boy, he had -found seashells like these high in the mountains. Leonardo -questioned Pietro and his companions as to where -they had been found and under what circumstances. He -gave them some coins and, when they had gone, he -looked among his growing collection of notes and drawings -on the shelves. It took some time for him to find -what he wanted, for the pages were in such confusion. -Finally, he sat down at the table with several of the -sheets and, putting the seashells in front of him, he -began to make notes.</p> -<p>The shells were fossil shells but, thought Leonardo, -<span class="pb" id="Page_63">63</span> -their presence on the high mountains of Lombardy -could hardly be attributed to the great flood as described -in the Bible. In his notes, Leonardo cited the -case of the cockle which, out of water, is like the snail. -It makes a furrow in the sand and can travel in this -furrow about three to four yards a day. By such -means, he calculated, it could not possibly have reached -Monferrato from the Adriatic in forty days (which was -supposed to have been the duration of the flood)—a -distance of 250 miles. Nor were these simply dead shells -deposited by the waves—for the living creatures are -recognized by being in pairs, and these in front of him -had certainly been traveling in pairs. Consequently, they -could have been left there only when they were alive -and the mountains were covered by the primeval oceans. -Moreover, Leonardo also described how living matter in -prehistoric times fell into the mud and died, and how -this mud, as the waters receded and years had passed, -was changed into rock forming a mold about the fossil—literally -making a cast of its original living appearance.</p> -<p>By such deductive reasoning and the testing of the -evidence before him against the common beliefs, Leonardo -struggled to free the minds of men from medieval -superstitions and beliefs. Indeed, these medieval superstitions -existed everywhere. Astrologers, or men who told -fortunes by the position of the stars at a given moment; -and necromancers, those who by tricks of magic claimed -to be able to talk to departed spirits—these men profited -from the ignorant. The Church, with its preaching of -devils and hells, provided the background against which -these fakers flourished.</p> -<p>Ludovico Sforza was himself a believer in such things. -<span class="pb" id="Page_64">64</span> -His own physician and astrologer was a man by the -name of Ambrogio da Rosate, who had such influence -over the court that he was given a post in the University -of Pavia, and his fame was so great that he was called -upon to predict the future of Pope Innocent VIII! Leonardo’s -dislike of these men was intense. He scorned the -supernatural and asked men to look about them at the -real world and the real heavens. Observation and experiment—these -were Leonardo’s key words. But he was a -lonely figure in his thinking—like a man awake while -the rest of the world slept.</p> -<p>At last the full-size model of the Sforza monument -was nearing completion. Ludovico had ordered it ready -for exhibition in the courtyard of the castle for yet another -marriage festival that was soon to take place. This -time it was the marriage of his niece Bianca Maria to -Maximilian I of Germany. Leonardo and his assistants -were busy with the finishing touches on the monument, -and with building a wagon on which to carry it from -the studio to the courtyard.</p> -<p>During these last months Leonardo had had to struggle -with all kinds of heavy loads. Already he had improved -on pulleys by inventing a new kind of tackle, -and he also had utilized many kinds of levers. One of his -simpler discoveries for raising heavy weights was a jack -which, in appearance and principle, was the forerunner -of our own automobile jack.</p> -<p>In 1493 when the clay model of the Sforza monument -was completed, it was put on the cart and wheeled to its -place of exhibition where a curtain was thrown around -it. Again Milan was the host to a gathering of noble -courts, and this time Ludovico outdid himself in the -display of luxury. Tapestries hung from the buildings -and rich carpets were laid down the steps of the cathedral. -Everything that Milan had to show was on exhibition—even -a crocodile.</p> -<p>But the most impressive sight of all was the unveiling -<span class="pb" id="Page_65">65</span> -of Leonardo’s colossal statue. It rose in majesty against -the red walls of the castle. The name of Leonardo da -Vinci was suddenly on everyone’s lips. As the word of -his artistic achievement spread from city to city, messages -of praise came pouring in. And, for a while the -years of frustration and failure to gain recognition -melted away. Leonardo at forty-one had at last achieved -some success.</p> -<p>Now there was a breathing spell, and Leonardo returned -to some of his own projects. For a long time he -had continued his observations of his two favorite elements—air -and water. To him they were related in their -movements. The birds flying in the currents of air and -the fish swimming in the flow of water seemed very -similar to him. He had already designed various instruments -to tell him about the direction of wind and its -velocity, and he had also commenced to analyze the -wing structure of birds and bats. To soar through the -air like a bird was an ancient dream of man, yet for -Leonardo it had become a passion. Ceaselessly, he -sketched the flights of birds, the flutterings of butterflies -and analyzed their flying patterns.</p> -<p>But to Leonardo, understanding the <i>dynamics</i>, or -motion, of air was the most important thing. He built -an <i>anemoscope</i>, an instrument like a weather-vane for -telling the direction of the wind; and, he also constructed -several types of <i>anemometers</i> for measuring the -velocity or force of the wind. One of these latter consisted -of a thin rectangle of metal hanging straight -down in front of an upward-curving wooden arc. This -arc was marked off in units of measurement. When the -wind blew, it pushed the thin rectangle up the arc; thus, -by noting at which gradation it stopped, Leonardo could -tell the velocity.</p> -<p>In addition, Leonardo at this time constructed a device -<span class="pb" id="Page_66">66</span> -which has been compared to the modern instrument -used for testing the weight-carrying capacity of -airplane wings. He fashioned a wing resembling a bird’s -wing and attached it to a lever so that it would be possible -to lower the wing by pushing rapidly down on the -lever. This wing in turn was mounted on a plank that -was in weight equal to that of a human being. He then -calculated that two wings of this kind would have to be -about twelve meters wide and twelve meters long to -raise a man and his machine together. Another device -resembling those found in airplanes today that Leonardo -constructed was an inclination gauge. He made this by -suspending a heavy ball on a cord within a glass bell. -This ball was then supposed to guide the flyer by telling -him whether he was flying level, diagonally, up, or -down.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/pg040.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="559" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>One of Leonardo’s anemometers. The wind blew against -the strip of metal, pushing it up the curved gauge and -thereby measuring the force of the wind.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_67">67</div> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/pg040a.jpg" alt="" width="431" height="400" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Leonardo’s inclination gauge, designed to guide a man in -flight. The ball in the glass cylinder was supposed to tell -a “flyer” whether or not he was flying level or tipped.</i></p> -</div> -<p>To Leonardo, water was also a phenomenon that -from his youth never failed to excite his curiosity. The -use of water power to run machines, to irrigate fields -and to carry boats inland was a subject that he never -ceased investigating. Out of his experiments at this time -he constructed a device for raising water to high levels. -It was based on the geometric spiral of Archimedes. He -took a piece of gut, inflated it, and let it dry. Then, -covering it with a coat of wax to make it waterproof, -he wound it around a thin staff in a spiral. He put one -end in a stream and attached it by gears to a cogged -water wheel; this set the long screw to turning, and he -was able to raise water from a low level to any height he -desired. With a multiple system of these screws he could -raise water in continuous circulation to the reservoirs on -the highest towers.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_68">68</div> -<p class="tb">In the year 1494, King Charles VIII of France -crossed the Alps at the head of an army of twenty-five -thousand men. Now Ludovico, by a series of diplomatic -maneuvers, had allied himself with Charles and had, by -secret negotiation, actually invited the invasion. By such -an alliance he hoped to use Charles’ army to overcome -the forces of the Pope which stood in the path of Ludovico’s -ambition to become the most powerful ruler in -Italy. Outwardly Charles was asserting his rights to the -Kingdom of Naples, but inwardly he dreamt of leading -a crusade against the infidels in the Holy Land. At the -same time young Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan, -was dying. Ludovico desired this title for himself; however, -until Galeazzo was out of the way, he could not -have it. There were ugly rumors that young Sforza had -been poisoned. Moreover, in 1494, the Medicis—another -powerful obstacle—were expelled from Florence, and -a republic was established.</p> -<p>Soon young Gian Galeazzo died, leaving a son, Francesco. -This son was the rightful heir to the Dukedom of -Milan but Ludovico usurped the boy’s claim and declared -himself Duke of Milan. Now Ludovico was in a -position to await the impending battle between Charles -and the Pope.</p> -<p>With such military and political ambitions in mind, -Duke Ludovico now assigned Leonardo the task of reviewing -Milan’s defenses. Again Leonardo submitted to -Ludovico his plans for strengthening fortresses and designs -for new ones. The great architect Bramante was -also assigned the task of seeing to the city’s defenses, -and for some time the two brilliant men worked together.</p> -<p>Then, in the spring of 1494, Leonardo was sent to -<span class="pb" id="Page_69">69</span> -Vigevano where Ludovico’s young wife was staying. -This town was also the birthplace of Ludovico, and -Leonardo was given the job of designing and building a -small summer house and garden there for Beatrice. In -addition, Leonardo built a kind of “air conditioner” for -her bedroom. It consisted of a large waterwheel that -cooled the air circulated into her room. Although this -ancient device had long been known to the Greeks and -Romans, Leonardo was the one who succeeded in perfecting -it.</p> -<p>During this time Leonardo’s highly original mind was -also at work on other devices. One of these was an -<i>odometer</i>, an instrument for measuring the distance -traversed by a vehicle. Dials, turned by a system of gears -attached to the wheel of a wheelbarrow, measured the -distance traveled as the barrow was pushed along the -ground. In addition, Leonardo conceived a kind of -odometer to be used at sea; this consisted essentially of -a spinner that was towed by a ship which registered its -speed. Leonardo even invented an automatic spit operated -by metal vanes mounted in the chimney that revolved -with the pressure of the hot air rising from the -fire—and a pair of large floating shoes for walking on -water!</p> -<p>In the meantime, Charles VIII of France had marched -through Rome and entered Naples. The conquest was -without opposition. Charles was then crowned King of -Naples and all Italy was at his feet. Yet his triumph was -a short one. Ludovico, having used the king to get rid -of his enemies, now plotted against the king himself. He -formed an alliance with the Pope, Venice, Spain, and -the German emperor. Charles, faced with this league, -hastily beat a retreat to France. Fighting his way to the -border, he there signed a peace treaty. Thus Ludovico -had swept Italy clean of all opposition and was now the -<span class="pb" id="Page_70">70</span> -most powerful prince in the land.</p> -<p>Yet Ludovico was quick to realize that his position -could only be held by force and he set about strengthening -himself and his allies. To provide for more cannons, -a hundred and fifty thousand tons of bronze were sent -to manufacturing works in Ferrara. This, however, included -the very bronze Leonardo needed for the casting -of his equestrian statue, and this is why the statue was -never cast. Years of Leonardo’s work now seemed to -vanish overnight. Ludovico also needed large sums of -money to secure friends in high places and Leonardo’s -own payments were suddenly dropped. Forced again to -worry about paying for his daily bread and for his household -and apprentices, he wrote letters to Ludovico complaining -of his lack of funds and asking for money that -was owed him for work done. He looked about for -other commissions, but none were available. Moreover, -because he was still court painter to Ludovico, he was -ordered to paint the decorations of some rooms in the -castle. But this was more than Leonardo could take—he -walked off the job without finishing it.</p> -<p>Despite all of these misfortunes, Leonardo continued -struggling with the problems of flight. He kept working -out the proportions of wing span to the weight of -the load. Indeed, he had already started designs for a -flying machine. He had chosen a room which was the -highest in one of the towers of the castle and which had -access to a roof. Leonardo’s plans for a flying machine -were a secret, and, with the exception of an assistant, no -one knew about them. He made sure that he could not -be seen by the workmen on the dome of the cathedral -and proceeded to block off his room with beams which -<span class="pb" id="Page_71">71</span> -he planned to use as supports for his model.</p> -<p>He had thought at first that any attempted flight -should take place over water in order to cushion a possible -crash—but as his plans progressed he designed a -parachute. It was a pyramid-shaped “tent of linen” -twenty-four feet broad and twenty-four feet high, and -it is believed to have been successfully tried out from a -tower especially constructed for that purpose.</p> -<p>Since Leonardo was no longer working for Ludovico, -he lived more simply than ever. He made regular lists -of his expenses down to the last penny. His habits were -frugal although he always kept himself neat. His meals -were spare; he drank a little wine at meals and never ate -meat. To his pupils and apprentices, he recommended -regular habits such as not sleeping during midday, eating -only when hungry and chewing well, exercising -moderately, and sleeping well covered.</p> -<p>Yet, even though Leonardo lived cheaply, he was now -greatly in need of money. Swallowing his pride, he -wrote to Ludovico, placing himself at the duke’s service -once again. His absence from court, he said, had been -necessary so that he could earn a living. In this and other -ways, Leonardo attempted to heal the break between -them.</p> -<p>It turned out that Ludovico was glad to have Leonardo -<span class="pb" id="Page_72">72</span> -back. Perhaps mindful of the fame that the model -of the equestrian monument had brought the house of -Sforza, he now commissioned Leonardo to paint a picture. -The Dominican monastery of Santa Maria delle -Grazie was the nearest church to the Sforza castle and -a favorite retreat of Ludovico. Here he used to walk in -the quiet garden while the white-robed monks silently -went about their chores. In gratitude for the peace he -found there, Ludovico had had the refectory rebuilt -and on the back wall, a crucifixion scene had been -painted by Montorfano, a Lombard. But the front wall -was given to Leonardo. On this Leonardo decided to -paint a picture of the Last Supper—the painting that -has since become one of the best known in the world.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_73">73</div> -<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">8</span> -<br /><i>The French</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>The noonday sun was baking the deserted streets of -<span class="pb" id="Page_74">74</span> -Milan as Leonardo hurried across the drawbridge of the -castle. The guard dozing in the entrance arch started -to his feet, but when he saw who it was he sat down -again, muttering about a madman. Taking the shortest -way, Leonardo arrived at the monastery gate and pulled -on the bellcord. When the gate opened Leonardo -brushed past the startled monk and made directly for -the scaffolding in the refectory. He looked at his almost -completed painting for a moment, took a brush and -mixed a color swiftly on the large palette. Then he -climbed the scaffolding and very quickly applied three -or four strokes. With this he sighed and smiled. Then, -just as abruptly, he put away his brushes and, without a -backward glance, he left, making his way back to the -castle in the hot sun.</p> -<p>For three years, Leonardo had been working this way -on the “Last Supper.”</p> -<p>Sometimes he would work from dawn to dusk forgetting -to eat; other times, he would stay away for days -and then run back just to add a touch. Once he arrived -and, with his arms folded across his chest, he stood in -front of it for two hours just studying what he had done.</p> -<p>Now, in 1498, the painting was nearing completion -and the only faces still left blank were those of Christ -and Judas. Leonardo had drawn hundreds of sketches, -taking his models wherever he found them—once he -sketched a man just for his hands. Now that his name -had become well known he always had an audience while -he worked. His pupils, the monks, visiting nobility, -church officials, and frequently Ludovico himself -watched him as he painted the “Last Supper.”</p> -<p>But Leonardo, as usual, was involved in many different -<span class="pb" id="Page_75">75</span> -tasks. He was supervising the installation of a hydraulic -pump over seventy feet high beside a stream -which would use the power of the stream itself to pump -water into the castle. Mindful, too, of the uncertainty -of court patronage, he was designing commercial machinery, -hoping thereby to secure an income outside the -court. Among the most notable of these were an olive -press, an automatic file-cutter, a hydraulic saw, and a -needle sharpener. This latter was a forerunner of modern -sharpeners with their mass-production methods. -With it, Leonardo dreamt of sharpening four hundred -needles at a time, or forty thousand an hour so that in -twelve hours one person could sharpen four hundred and -eighty thousand needles! The needles were arranged successively -on a moving belt of leather and brought against -a rotating grindstone. This grindstone was set in such -a way that the needles were sharpened into curvilinear -points rather than the usual triangular points.</p> -<p>In his travels to Vigevano and other parts of the -countryside around Milan, Leonardo had studied flour -mills. He had talked with the workmen, asked the prices -of grain, and noted the time that it took to do the milling. -Then he made calculations on ways to cut down -the time, and, in fact, redesigned the entire mill. He -mounted twelve cylindrical millstones in rows of four -on one side of a canal and another twelve on the other -side. In the canal were hydraulic wheels or paddlewheels. -Each wheel was attached to a rod that ran underneath -four millstones. Geared to the one rod were four grinding -levers to the stones above. In this way it was possible -to have twenty-four millstones operating at the same -time.</p> -<p>But most fascinating to Leonardo now was the construction -<span class="pb" id="Page_76">76</span> -of his flying machine. His first models involved -the principle of an air-screw mounted on a platform on -which a man stood. But where would the necessary -power come from to lift his machine from the ground? -At first he thought of operating his air-screw by means -of a steel spring coiled around a drum, but this he apparently -abandoned. Later, however, Leonardo did design -another model on this principle which has been called -the forerunner of the modern helicopter. It was to be -operated by four men standing on a platform. Each man -would hold a bar which wound a spring-driven mechanism, -much as in a modern clockworks. The air-screw -was a broad blade spiraling about a vertical shaft—the -ancestor of the modern propeller.</p> -<p>The model that Leonardo wanted to construct now, -however, was of a different principle. Instead of an air-screw -he substituted a pair of wings fashioned after those -of the birds. There was still a platform on which the flyer -stood and two springs were still the essential “motor” to -raise and lower the wings. But as Leonardo worked on -his apparatus he began to realize that it would be too -much at the mercy of a sudden gust of wind or a violent -updraft. It was necessary to return to his study of the -air and its currents.</p> -<p>With all of this activity in mechanical devices Leonardo -had reawakened his interest in mathematics. During -this time he was introduced to a man at Ludovico’s -court who became his friend and collaborator. He was -a Franciscan monk named Fra Luca Pacioli who had -been appointed a professor of mathematics by Ludovico. -He, too, came from Florence, and in 1496, when he met -Leonardo, he was forty-six years old and the author of -<i>Summa di Arithmetica</i>, the first printed scientific work -of his time. Pacioli was now at work on a book of geometry -to be entitled <i>De Divina Proportione</i> and he enlisted -Leonardo’s aid in drawing the plates for his book. As -Leonardo had already made a study of human proportions, -the association with Pacioli was of benefit to them -both. Among Leonardo’s best known drawings of human -proportion is a beautifully rendered figure-study of a -standing man with his arms at his sides and then outstretched, -his legs together and then apart, inscribed -within a square and a circle. It was made to illustrate a -passage from Vitruvius on the proportions of a human -figure and demonstrated, among other things, “the span -<span class="pb" id="Page_77">77</span> -of a man’s outstretched arms is equal to his height.”</p> -<p>Moreover, Leonardo found with Pacioli confirmation -of many of his own observations and experiments and -in turn Pacioli gave to Leonardo a confidence in his own -methods. Pacioli also helped Leonardo with his arithmetic, -a subject that Leonardo had neglected in his impatience -to study geometry. The association also helped -to free him further from the cobwebs of medieval beliefs. -For Pacioli, the friendship with Leonardo was a revelation. -Although Pacioli was a learned mathematician, -Leonardo demonstrated to him that the application of -his science encompassed <i>all</i> sciences—even art—for -Leonardo later wrote, “Let no one read me who is not -a mathematician....”</p> -<p>Legend relates that Leonardo became so absorbed in -his studies that the prior of the monastery complained to -Ludovico that the “Last Supper,” although nearly completed, -still lacked the faces of Christ and Judas. Ludovico -summoned Leonardo to court and laid the complaint -before him. Leonardo, however, was quick to -reply.</p> -<p>“The good prior is an esteemed man, your Grace, but -he is a monk and not a painter. Little does he know that -I spend at least two hours a day on my painting.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_78">78</div> -<p>“But Master, he says he never sees you there, so how -do you explain these two hours a day?”</p> -<p>“Excellency, the figure of Judas must be of incomparable -evil. Every day I search for this face in the -criminal quarter, and every day I fail to find the evil -that I am looking for. If I cannot find this man, however, -I can use the head of the prior—it would do admirably, -but I have hesitated for fear of hurting his feelings.”</p> -<p>Ludovico slapped his knees and roared with laughter. -There were no more complaints.</p> -<p>Finally, in 1498, the scaffolding was removed from -the painting and Leonardo’s masterpiece was revealed. -The twelve apostles grouped at the table are shown each -responding in his own way to the words of Christ, -“One of you shall betray me.” Again hundreds flocked -to see this latest marvel of Leonardo’s. Its striking influence -was felt by generations of painters. Even now, more -than four hundred and fifty years later, the world still -comes to stand before the genius of Leonardo da Vinci -in the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie.</p> -<p class="tb">The clouds of war were gathering again over Italy. In -April of 1498, Charles VIII of France died and his successor -was Louis of Orleans, who became Louis XII. The -new King of France laid claim to the Dukedom of Milan, -and Ludovico again tried to form an alliance against -him. But the years of juggling enemy against enemy and -friend against friend were now coming to an end. No one -trusted Il Moro any more, and suddenly he realized that -he was to be alone in this new fight. After nearly twenty -years of power sustained by powerful alliances, Ludovico -was forced to turn to his own people of Lombardy. -Frantically he tried to correct the injustices of years. -The people had been cruelly taxed to support the extravagances -of the Sforza court, and, in addition, they had -been badly treated by petty government officials. Ludovico -now sought to repay the past miseries of his people -and to rally them to his support. In such a spirit he -remembered his court painter, Leonardo da Vinci, and -gave him a vineyard and considerable piece of land not -<span class="pb" id="Page_79">79</span> -far from the Porta Vercellina.</p> -<p>Now, for the first time in his life, Leonardo knew -financial security. With the income from the vineyard, -and in the peace of his estate, he was left free to follow -his own researches. He took no notice that his “peace” -was surrounded by the threat of war. Indeed, he remained -aloof from politics and court intrigues as much as -was possible for a man living in the midst of such chaotic -times.</p> -<p>Leonardo now had the opportunity to follow up an -early interest—the study of plants. He made many -beautiful drawings; no plant was too small to catch -his eye. His notes on botany began to grow. With his -genius for observation and analysis of nature, Leonardo -made some extraordinary discoveries of botanical laws -entirely unknown before his time. He wrote of the -phenomenon of <i>heliotropism</i>, or the movement of plants -toward or away from the sunlight. In addition, he -described the phenomenon known as <i>geotropism</i>, or the -growth of plants according to gravitational law, as for -example, roots growing downward and shoots growing -upward. He also defined the laws of phyllotaxis, which -describe the system or order of leaf arrangement on a -plant’s stem. That is, leaves are arranged spirally around -a stem so that the third leaf above grows out over the -third leaf below on one type of plant; or, on another -type, the two third leaves are over the two third leaves -below. The same natural laws apply to the branches of -plants as well; they occur so that every leaf and branch -can receive sufficient air and light. Amazingly enough, -these laws, which Leonardo described so completely, -<span class="pb" id="Page_80">80</span> -were not rediscovered until almost two centuries later!</p> -<p>Leonardo went even further in his botanical studies. -He experimented with gourds, planting them in various -aqueous solutions; this anticipated modern methods of -growing plants in chemicals. He also tested the actions -of arsenic and mercury poisons in plants. He reproduced -the shape and form of leaves by pressing them on paper -coated with lampblack, a method that was not used again -until the nineteenth century. Carefully noted, too, in his -writings was the rising of sap from the roots to the -branches by capillary action; this, too, was not rediscovered -until much later—in the eighteenth century. Leonardo -also extracted oils and essences from flowers and -studied the influences of altitude on the development of -vegetation. Indeed Leonardo’s very approaches to a systematic -classification of plants were the forerunners of -modern methods of classifying.</p> -<p>In the seclusion of his own home, as he continued his -<span class="pb" id="Page_81">81</span> -studies of geometry with Pacioli, Leonardo again turned -to his observations of the heavens. On the roof of his -house he had set up a small observatory for watching the -sky at night. Often he looked at the stars through a pinhole -in a sheet of paper. Leonardo did this to stop the -“twinkling” of the stars which he recognized as an -optical illusion. Moreover, by looking at the stars in this -manner, he noticed that some were larger than others, -and imagined to himself how our own earth might look -from them. Would we not be but another “star” in a vast -collection of stars? And if that were true—how could the -earth be the center of the universe? By the same imaginary -reasoning, he speculated on how we must look to -someone on the moon. Realizing that the moonlight on -earth faintly illuminates the dark side of the earth, he -reasoned that then there must be an “earthlight” doing -the same on the moon. Thus he was the first to explain -the dim reflected light on the dark side of the moon. -Moreover, Leonardo is known to have looked at the -moon through a convex lens, and perhaps even a form of -telescope. Indeed, he had built telescopic-type tubes with -lenses in them and had written directions for their use. -It seems certain that at about this time Leonardo became -convinced of the heliocentric theory, the theory that -states the sun is the center of our universe. On a sheet of -mathematical notes Leonardo wrote in large letters, “the -sun does not move.”</p> -<p>During this time he continued to seek out books on -astronomy. Leonardo was familiar with Aristotle’s -<i>Meteorology</i>, Archimedes’ <i>On the Center of Gravity</i>, -and with <i>Problems in Aristotle’s Books of the Sky and -the World</i>, a work by Albert of Saxony. This last book -Leonardo had to read with the help of a Latin dictionary, -because his Latin was not good. He had already read -Plutarch, who had defined the moon as a solid. Plutarch -had written further that the “spots” on the moon were -the result of shadows cast by irregularities on its surface. -This theory, that was apparently abandoned during the -Middle Ages, supported the conclusions that Leonardo -had reached by his own observations. But he still struggled -against a mistaken idea of his own. For a long while -he maintained that there were seas and waters upon -the moon which accounted for the sunlight being reflected -<span class="pb" id="Page_82">82</span> -so brilliantly.</p> -<p>Meanwhile, in July of 1499, the French army had -reached Lombardy. Ludovico was now in a state of desperation. -He tried to appeal to the people of Milan, explaining -that their heavy taxes had been due to the constant -threats from abroad. But, however hard he tried to -arouse their sense of loyalty to him, the public of Milan -turned a deaf ear. They had not forgotten how Ludovico -had allied himself with Charles VIII—a foreign king! -Ludovico now had to put his trust in his army commander, -Galeazzo da Sanseverino, despite warnings that -this was a man of doubtful loyalty. Moreover, to make -matters worse, Louis XII had succeeded in forming an -alliance against Ludovico; and, among his allies was a -powerful cardinal, son of Pope Alexander VI—the notorious -Cesare Borgia.</p> -<p>From a note on a page of designs for supplying and -heating a bath we know that Leonardo continued his -quiet life, only vaguely disturbed by the political upheaval -taking place around him. His note reads, “On the -first day of August 1499 I wrote here of movement and -weight.” He had made many experiments and calculations -concerning the movement and weight of objects. -He had drawn, for example, the flight of an arrow to -describe motion through air and although he wrote no -specific formula, he marked the three stages of its trajectory—the -initial push, the slowing and the steeper -downward path as the arrow’s momentum was overcome -by the resistance of the air. He also defined the law of -movement on an inclined plane and he arrived at the -root principle of Newton’s law of gravitation when he -wrote, “every weight tends to fall toward the center by -<span class="pb" id="Page_83">83</span> -the shortest way.”</p> -<p>A diagram of this period is probably the first scientific -graph. Leonardo had experimented with two balls -dropped from a height. First he dropped them together -and then one after the other. In attempting to solve the -mathematical problems presented by these falling bodies -he drew a graph of vertical and horizontal lines. The -times it took for the balls to fall were marked on the -horizontal lines and the distances on the vertical lines—thus, -he could trace their relationship.</p> -<p>But this peaceful time of productive work was running -out for Leonardo. Ludovico’s commander, Galeazzo, -had yielded the fortress of Alessandria to the -French at the first battle. Ludovico himself had sent his -sons and his treasure to his brother, Cardinal Ascanio, -in Germany. When he saw that his cause was lost, he -turned the Sforza castle over to Bernardino da Corte, a -trusted commander, making certain that it was fully -supplied with arms and food. Then in sorrow, Ludovico -Sforza, Duke of Milan, left his city for the last time as -ruler of Lombardy. The gates of Milan were opened to -the French in October of 1499, and Bernardino da -Corte surrendered the Sforza castle.</p> -<p>French soldiers now occupied Milan as conquerors -<span class="pb" id="Page_84">84</span> -and the people of the city were in a state of confusion. -Those who could made their peace with the French; but -others, who had been supporters of Ludovico, fled to -avoid arrest. Leonardo, who would be suspect to the -French, packed up his few possessions—although he did -manage to retain his estate—and left, together with -Pacioli and an apprentice, for Mantua.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_85">85</div> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/pg049.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="794" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Leonardo had to flee Milan.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_86">86</div> -<h2 id="c9"><span class="small">9</span> -<br /><i>Cesare Borgia</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>Leonardo, Pacioli, and Salai, the apprentice, arrived in -Mantua in February of the year 1500. They were given -refuge in the castle of Isabella d’Este, who was the sister -of Beatrice, and the wife of Francesco Gonzaga, governor -of Mantua. Isabella was one of the eminent women -of her time and attracted to her court the intellectual -life of Italy. In Leonardo she recognized the man of -genius; indeed, she treated him as an equal, putting her -castle at his disposal. She persuaded him to paint her -<span class="pb" id="Page_87">87</span> -portrait and Leonardo commenced a preparatory drawing.</p> -<p>In the evenings at the castle there were discussions and -music and here Leonardo again met his pupil and companion -on the trip from Florence so many years ago—Atalante -Migliorotti who had left Milan in 1490 to -assume the post of court musician to Isabella.</p> -<p>Although Leonardo had found a haven of peace in the -political storm that raged about the city state of Mantua, -he and Pacioli took to the road again for reasons unknown. -Isabella d’Este, who still wanted Leonardo at -her court, sent many a letter and messenger in the following -years to bring Leonardo back—first to finish the -portrait and then, when that failed, to sell to her any -picture that Leonardo wished to send. Strangely enough, -however, Leonardo seems to have turned his back upon -the one sympathetic person he had met in a world of -indifference.</p> -<p class="tb">The first, warm breezes of spring were blowing over -the lagoons of Venice when Leonardo and Pacioli -stepped ashore on the Piazzetta, or Little Square of San -Marco. But the beauty of this jewel-like city rising from -the sea was momentarily ignored by the two travelers -for an angry, frightened crowd had gathered about the -Doge’s palace on the Piazzetta.</p> -<p>The people of Venice were fearful because their fleet -<span class="pb" id="Page_88">88</span> -had just suffered a crushing defeat by the Turks. This -meant that their power at sea, once supreme, was now no -more. Year by year, moreover, their possessions in the -east had been slowly whittled away, and now the city -itself was threatened by invasion. At this same time, the -Venetian ambassador, Manenti, hoping to make peace -with the Turks, had been rudely rejected by them. Panic -soon swept the city and rumors of the bloodthirsty infidel -passed from person to person like the rush of an -ugly wind. Barricades were put up and windows were -barred. In this charged atmosphere, Leonardo and -Pacioli sought out their lodgings.</p> -<p>Soon after Leonardo’s arrival here—either because -his reputation had preceded him or, more likely, because -of Fra Luca Pacioli’s recommendations—he became -directly involved with the defenses of Venice. Immediately -he was sent on an inspection trip of the city’s -existing defenses, especially those inland from where an -invasion would probably come. When he had seen -them, he recommended a system of defenses along the -Isonzo river near the present border of Yugoslavia, using -the river itself to the disadvantage of the enemy. He -also made suggestions for the improvement of forts, and -even drew up plans for a completely new type—a circular -fort. This consisted of a central, circular fort surrounded -by two belts of fortresses each separated by a -moat. In the outside moat were four semicircular outposts. -Communication was by underground galleries. -The total absence of superstructure and projecting balconies -was a new idea for the times. Another new defense -idea was to station in the moat itself a low, thick -tower almost completely submerged, defended by a thin -opening near the waterline. It was reached from the -main fort by an underground passage and the gunsmoke -was removed by vents. According to Leonardo no enemy -could conceal himself in any part of the defenses -and not be seen from such an outpost.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_89">89</div> -<p>Leonardo’s most unusual scheme for defending Venice, -however, was his idea of approaching an enemy -fleet under the water and then putting holes in the hulls -of their ships. Actually, the idea of diving was not a -new one. Aristotle had written of diving and diving -bells, and certainly the stories of pearl fishers in the -Orient were well known in the Renaissance. But Leonardo -designed a diver’s suit closely resembling those -used today. This consisted of a complete suit of leather -with helmet and eyepieces; it was made airtight by -spirals of steel at the joints. He then added a bladder for -holding air which fastened inside the suit at the diver’s -chest. It is possible that Leonardo also invented an air -chamber that could be used by the diver while under -water—but he was very secretive about this invention -for fear of how men might abuse such a discovery. He -wrote, “... and this I do not publish or divulge, on -account of the evil nature of man, who would practice -assassinations at the bottom of the seas....”</p> -<p>Leonardo felt the same way about a “submarine” that -he presented to the Councilors and Tribunal of Venice. -This resembled a turtle’s shell with a raised bump on the -center which was the “periscope.” When submerged -the water probably rose to an area just around the -“periscope,” but, again, the information about its air-supply -is missing and the only reference to it is a reminder -to close the “l—.” In addition, he invented a -system of screws mounted in tongs with the borer in -the middle for putting holes in the bottoms of enemy -ships, and at the same time he thought of a defense -against such an attack by designing the defending vessels -with double hulls.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_90">90</div> -<p>Among Leonardo’s other maritime devices were designs -for boats that could dredge canals, harbors, and -lagoons. What was the result of all these plans? We do -not know. Whether any one of them was used against -the Turks is a mystery.</p> -<p>At any rate, Leonardo and Pacioli left Venice that -same spring and arrived in Florence in April of 1500. -One of the purposes of Leonardo’s journey was to visit -his father who was now living on Via Ghibellina with -his fourth wife. Leonardo was now forty-eight. Still -tall and straight with the strength of his youth, his face -prematurely aged and his hair thinning back from his -high forehead, Leonardo was more than ever an outstanding -looking man. He still scorned fashionable -clothes and dressed according to his own comfort which -made him even more noticeable among the crowd. His -deep-set eyes with their direct and penetrating glance, -framed by his full, reddish beard, never missed a thing, -although he now wore spectacles at his work.</p> -<p>Now that he was back in Florence, Leonardo needed -lodgings and a job. He had banked his small savings, -and he did not want to touch that. His father’s house -with the five children of his present wife plus the sons -from his previous marriages was too full to accommodate -Leonardo. Moreover, the relationship between -Piero and Leonardo was polite but distant, as Piero -preferred the children of his later marriages.</p> -<p>Luckily, the place to live and the commission Leonardo -<span class="pb" id="Page_91">91</span> -needed presented themselves at the same time. -The Church of the Annunciation of the Servite Order -of Monks needed an altarpiece, and, as Leonardo’s fame -was great, they offered him and his apprentice quarters -in the monastery. Here, in the solitude of a monastic -cell, Leonardo was able to return to his own researches. -His long association with Fra Luca Pacioli continued as -they worked together on Pacioli’s edition of Euclid’s -<i>Elements</i>. At the same time, with his absorption in -geometry, Leonardo commenced his studies of the transformation -of solids; that is, changing the shape of something -to another shape without diminishing or increasing -its substance.</p> -<p>In his preoccupation with geometry, Leonardo had -apparently done little about the commission which the -Servite monks had given him. He finally yielded to their -complaints, however, and commenced to draw the preliminary -study for the subject, which was “St. Anne -with the Virgin and Child.” Again his knowledge of -geometry is most apparent in the finely constructed -composition, every gesture of which is as plotted as a -geometric exercise. In April of 1501, the drawing was -finished; it caused an immediate sensation throughout -Florence. For two days the public was allowed to pass -in front of it.</p> -<p>But now a change was taking place in Leonardo. He -was no longer content with simply painting. His highly -original researches for pictures had slowly grown to the -point where the research was more important than -painting. In a sense the scientist had taken the brush -from the artist. In two letters from Isabella d’Este’s -emissary in Florence we learn, “He is entirely wrapped -up in geometry and has no patience for painting.” This -excerpt from a letter dated April 8, 1501, was followed -six days later by another which said in part, “In brief, -his mathematical experiments have made painting so distasteful -to him that he cannot even bear to take up a -<span class="pb" id="Page_92">92</span> -brush.”</p> -<p class="tb">A few months after the completion of the St. Anne -drawing, Leonardo received a letter signed by Cesare -Borgia, Duke of Valentinois. Leonardo frowned and -thought back to his last days in Milan. When King -Louis XII of France had entered the city, he had summoned -the painter of the “Last Supper” to an audience. -The king had been generous in his praise and had tried -to persuade Leonardo to remain. At that same audience -had also been Cesare Borgia, an ally of the French. Leonardo -remembered the man now—the dark hair and -eyes, the black, arched eyebrows, and the face marked -by some old disease. He was a powerful-chested, thin-hipped -man who had originally been made a cardinal by -his father, Pope Alexander VI. But the attractions of -secular power soon persuaded him to abandon this title. -With the enthusiastic help of his father, Borgia had -fought, murdered, and deceived his way to a formidable -position of authority in these last years. Leonardo, in -the seclusion of the monastery, had lately heard that -Borgia’s army had even been at the gates of Florence.</p> -<p>The letter addressed to Leonardo was an offer to assume -the post of Architect and Military Engineer to -His Excellency, Cesare Borgia. He thought of Ludovico -Sforza—defeated and captured at the battle of Novara -just a year ago as he attempted to regain his dukedom. -Now the duke was a prisoner at Loches in Touraine; -Leonardo had written of him, “The duke lost his State, -his personal possessions and his liberty, and none of his -enterprises have been completed.” And Leonardo also -thought of his equestrian monument still standing in the -castle being used for target practice by the French -archers. Like the duke, nothing of his own had been -completed either. Perhaps this Borgia offer was an opportunity. -<span class="pb" id="Page_93">93</span> -Leonardo decided to accept it.</p> -<p>In May of 1502, after having presented himself to -Cesare Borgia in Rome, Leonardo began his hectic -travels through Tuscany and Umbria. He was to inspect -the fortresses and cities of Cesare’s new conquests there, -and to make whatever recommendations he felt necessary -for their improvements. Arriving in Piombino, he -at once set down a project for draining the marshes and -reclaiming the land. Also, while he was here, he spent -hours by the sea watching the waves curl in from the -Adriatic and studying the crash of water over the -beaches. Moving on to Arrezzo, he drew up the first in -a series of remarkable maps for the army of Vitellozzo -which, with the backing of Cesare Borgia, was marching -against Florence. These maps are bird’s-eye views of -Tuscany and Umbria, and somewhat resemble modern -aerial photographs. Drawn from Leonardo’s own observations, -the green mountains stand, according to their -height, in relief, with the roads winding over them and -down through the valleys. The streams and their tributaries -are in blue and even the villages and cities are -drawn with great exactitude. Indeed Leonardo had -learned his lessons from old Toscanelli well, and he was -one of the first to bring the art of cartography to such -perfection.</p> -<p>In July and August Leonardo was in Urbino and -<span class="pb" id="Page_94">94</span> -Pesaro, and by the 8th of August he had reached Rimini. -Here he strengthened the fortifications and then rode -quickly on to Cesena. Between Cesena, capital of the -Romagna, and Porto Cesanatico, he spent from the middle -of August to September planning a canal between -the two, redesigning government buildings, and drawing -up a new quarter to be built for the city of Cesena. -At this time he constructed an instrument for telling -him the speed of water currents in a stream. It told -him whether the flow was swifter at the surface or at -the bottom or on one side or the other of the stream’s -bed.</p> -<p>In the meantime, Florence, alarmed at the growing -power of Cesare Borgia, appealed to Charles d’Amboise, -Regent of Milan for France, to come to her aid. -Charles responded in the absence of the French King -and helped to protect Florence. The enemies of Cesare -took advantage of this to form an alliance, and soon -Cesare was being forced back from his newly won -possessions. Cesare himself then hastened to Milan, and -there he suddenly came face to face again with Louis, -the King of France, who was on his way to Naples. -Borgia, who could exert great charm and influence -when he wished, persuaded the king that, all rumors -to the contrary, he, Cesare, was fighting the enemies of -France. Again he won over the French, which greatly -strengthened his position. Then, from Pavia, he issued -a decree placing every facility possible at Leonardo’s -disposal. In addition, he instructed all officials to help -Leonardo in every matter, referring to him as “our -highly esteemed court architect.”</p> -<p>While Leonardo was in Porto Cesanatico, a delegation -<span class="pb" id="Page_95">95</span> -from Bayzid II, Sultan of Turkey, paid a visit to -Cesare Borgia. Among other things the delegation was -looking for an engineer to build a bridge between Constantinople -and Pera to replace a temporary wooden -structure. Leonardo designed for them a single-arched -bridge with double ramps at either end (looking very -much like a present-day “thruway” entrance). He provided -that it should be approximately twelve hundred -feet long, eighty feet wide, and one hundred and forty -feet above the water.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/pg054.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="228" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Da Vinci’s proposed bridge from Constantinople (Istanbul) -to Pera. Looking very much like a modern “thruway” -entrance, it was to have double ramps on both sides.</i></p> -</div> -<p>In his travels through the countryside, Leonardo -could not help but notice how primitive the mills were. -Feeling how strongly the wind blew in from the sea, he -designed a windmill with a roof that turned with the -sails. For the mechanism inside he devised a band brake—a -semicircle of wood into which the large cogwheel -of the mill was forced. This mill resembles the “Dutch” -mills of the Netherlands and was among the first of its -type to be brought into existence.</p> -<p>In the fall Leonardo was at Imola. There he created -<span class="pb" id="Page_96">96</span> -another of his beautifully rendered maps. He drew this -with the help of a magnetic compass of his own invention. -It consisted of a board with an arc on it and a -compass needle, and was probably the first magnetic -needle on a horizontal axis. This time the map was of -the city itself, the walls, the castle and the principal -buildings all touched with color and the river winding -through the fields. Drawn in the shape of a circle, it -resembles a view through a telescope from directly -above. In Imola, too, he met Niccolò Machiavelli, the -famous historian and political scientist, who was an -emissary from the Signoria, the Council which now -governed Florence. These two men became friends and, -later, collaborators in Leonardo’s scheme to make the -Arno river navigable to the sea.</p> -<p>At this time Cesare Borgia, having achieved great success -in his military campaigns and confident of his conquests, -decided to return to Rome. With the disbanding -of Borgia’s headquarters at Imola, Leonardo’s duties -were finished. Together with his new friend Niccolò -Machiavelli and two other Florentines, he left Imola and -the service of Cesare Borgia to return to Florence.</p> -<p>In January of 1503, a mathematician named Giovanni -Battista Danti attempted a flight in a machine that he -had designed. This flight was part of the entertainment -at a wedding reception in Perugia. Danti climbed into -his apparatus on top of the tower of St. Mary of the -Virgin. It was pushed off into the air, hovered a few -seconds, then began slowly drifting toward the ground. -But suddenly, one of its wings hit a building projection -and it crashed. Danti was carried away with a broken -leg.</p> -<p>The news of the event traveled quickly to Florence.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_97">97</div> -<p>When Leonardo heard about it, he eagerly questioned -all those who had either seen it or had heard it described -first hand. Danti’s attempted flight excited Leonardo -for now he realized that he was no longer alone in his -search. With a sense of urgency he returned to the -problems of flying. He felt now that the solution to -flight might be in the swift gusts of air through the -ravines and the spread wings of the eagle drifting high -in the sky.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_98">98</div> -<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">10</span> -<br /><i>Shattered Hopes</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>Before Leonardo could return to the problem of flight, -however, he was again faced with the necessity of supporting -himself and his growing household. The small -fees he received for taking on apprentices hardly covered -the cost of housing and feeding them. Moreover, -the equipment he had to buy for his scientific researches -added further to his strained budget. So, when a servant -from Francesco del Giocondo, a rich Florentine merchant, -presented himself at the gate with the request -that Leonardo accept a commission to paint Francesco’s -wife, Leonardo was only too glad to accept. The name -of Francesco’s wife was Madonna Lisa, or Mona Lisa -for short. Leonardo painted her portrait on and off for -the next three years. Thus, what started as a minor commission -ended as the one painting—in addition to the -“Last Supper”—that most people today associate with -<span class="pb" id="Page_99">99</span> -the name of Leonardo da Vinci.</p> -<p>Having secured this work, Leonardo turned back to -his studies of birds in flight and the nature of air. The -soaring wings of eagles and hawks and the way they -rode the currents with hardly a dip of their spread wings -guided Leonardo’s thinking from pure mechanics to -machines that act more on the principle of the glider. -He proposed to write a treatise on the nature of birds’ -flight, and, with his usual thoroughness, he began to -weigh, dissect, and reconstruct various types of birds -and their wing structure. He realized that one of the -main difficulties of gliding was maintaining balance, or, -more accurately, maintaining the center of gravity. -From previous observations Leonardo had noted that -man is capable of making the same motions that a bird -does. He had also measured the strength of a man’s legs -and had calculated that man has twice the power in his -leg muscles that he needs for standing. Consequently -he began to redesign his machine making use of man’s -arms and legs to operate or “flap” the wings instead of -standing him on a platform.</p> -<p>The first of Leonardo’s new designs was a sort of -<span class="pb" id="Page_100">100</span> -harness apparatus strapped across the shoulders of the -flyer who was supposed to be able to keep himself balanced -by moving the lower part of his body. He could -manipulate the flight by handles that were connected -to the flexible, outer parts of the wings. These wings -were designed from the webbed wings of the bat. Surprisingly -enough, this device closely resembled the experimental -gliders used by Otto Lilienthal almost four -centuries later in Germany.</p> -<p>Leonardo was now approaching other solutions to -pure flight when further hostilities interrupted his -work. Florence and Pisa were in bitter rivalry, and their -struggle had assumed the proportions of a major war. -The Florentine army was now practically at the gates -of Pisa. Niccolò Machiavelli urged the Signoria to enlist -the help of Leonardo da Vinci, who might be able to -think of an immediate plan for destroying Pisa and her -army. Never one to think in terms of an immediate -battle or a temporary success, Leonardo put forth a -daring and sweeping plan that would forever reduce -the power of Pisa. The plan was as simple as it was -monumental—divert the Arno river from its course into -two canals that would empty into the sea at Leghorn -south of Pisa. In this way, Pisa would lose her water -supply and her opening to the sea.</p> -<p>The plan met with immediate approval and by the -end of July 1503, Leonardo was sent out to survey the -entire course of the river. He was accompanied by Giovanni -“the Piper,” a man who was frequently employed -on minor engineering projects and who was the -official player of the pipes to the city of Florence. -Giovanni was also the father of Benvenuto Cellini, who -became the most famous goldsmith of the Renaissance. -As they made their way to Pisa, Leonardo made some -more of his extraordinary maps of the area, paying particular -attention to the course of the Arno and its tributaries. -These maps later inspired him to plan a whole -<span class="pb" id="Page_101">101</span> -series showing the main watersheds of Italy.</p> -<p>When he rode into the Florentine camp drawn up -before Pisa, Leonardo designed from his observations -and maps, a dam on the Arno to regulate the course of -the river. This bird’s-eye view map is a marvel of exactness. -It shows the flow of the river hitting the dam with -its swirling backwash and overflow. Leonardo’s knowledge -of the movement of water was so great and his -craftsmanship in drawing so fine that the water in this -map seems to flow before one’s eyes. One of the main -problems in regulating the Arno was its tendency to -continually be shifting its bed by the deposits of new -sediment, and Leonardo realized it would be a long -time before this project could be completed.</p> -<p>When he returned to Florence he presented to the -Signoria, as part of his survey, various machines to -hasten the excavation of the Arno. He had designed a -crane that would assist in the digging out of two different -levels at the same time. He also submitted the results -of his calculations on the saving of muscular energy -by the use of such machines. In addition, Leonardo -proposed to use the water in the canals for irrigation -purposes and had even calculated what the volume and -velocity of a jet of water would be if projected from an -opening in the bottom of the canal wall into an irrigation -ditch. As if this were not enough, he had invented -a practical method of piling as a foundation for the -lock-basins to protect them against the dangers of erosion.</p> -<p>A separate map of this period on the flow of rivers in -<span class="pb" id="Page_102">102</span> -general was intended to relate to his treatise on the -nature of water. In this treatise is the first outline of the -fundamental principles of hydrodynamics, as for example:</p> -<p>The velocity of a current increases with the slope and -decreases with the winding of the riverbed.</p> -<p>The volume of a river is in proportion to the width -of its bed, the slope and the depth of the water being -equal.</p> -<p>The slope and width being equal, the speed of the -current is greatest in the deepest part of the river.</p> -<p>The excavation force increases at the narrowest section -of the river.</p> -<p class="tb">Because of the grumbling of the military commanders -at what they considered a waste of time, Machiavelli -had to intervene with the Signoria before Leonardo was -sent out again with documents of authority to continue -with his plans. He spent well into the fall surveying the -Arno and in October he was back in Florence.</p> -<p>Meanwhile the fighting between Pisa and Florence -had been lessened by two political changes. In August -Pope Alexander VI had died and his son Cesare Borgia -became seriously ill. The Republic of Florence was now -free of its most dangerous enemies—the Borgias. The -city relaxed in its new security and the hostilities between -Florence and Pisa died down to an uneasy armed -watch.</p> -<p>Leonardo quickly took advantage of the situation to -<span class="pb" id="Page_103">103</span> -present an early dream of his to the Signoria. He again -put forth his idea of a commercial canal to the sea and -made mention of the great advantages there would be -for all the mills, lumber yards, forges and other commercial -interests in utilizing the water power that would -be available from his project. Piero Soderini, the governor -of the city-state of Florence, was impressed and -thought of the glory it would bring to Florence and -himself. He told Leonardo he would present it to the -Signoria.</p> -<p>Leonardo now plunged into a winter of great activity. -Forced to draw from his savings, he had rejoined the -guild of painters in October of 1503, and then applied -for the commission of painting the murals in the council -chamber of the Palace of the Signoria. It had been -planned to decorate this great hall with scenes commemorating -famous Florentine victories, and Leonardo -chose the battle of Anghiari where the soldiers of Florence -defeated the Milanese in 1440. In addition to working -on the “Mona Lisa” and continuing with the canal -project—for which he was now designing great suction -pumps to lift rivers from one level to another—he -turned again to astronomy and geology.</p> -<p>Leonardo, while investigating the course of the upper -Arno, had come across much evidence that the land -there had at one time been completely under water. -Various types of ancient ocean life and vegetation lay -scattered in layers along the ridges of the mountains, -and these Leonardo collected and brought back to his -studio. He wrote, “above the plains of Italy where now -birds fly in flocks, fishes were wont to wander in large -shoals.” He reread Ptolemy, the ancient Greek geographer -Strabo, and even Sir John Mandeville, an English -author of travel books, in his quest for knowledge of -distant places. He talked to travelers, sailors, and wrote -to friends to send him information about the countries -they had seen or lived in. Strabo, in particular, had set -forth the doctrine that the earth’s transformation had -taken place by the forces of volcanoes and water, but -the wisdom of these early men had been obscured by -<span class="pb" id="Page_104">104</span> -the closed minds of the Middle Ages.</p> -<p>Even in his own time of reawakening knowledge—the -Renaissance—Leonardo had to contend with the -combined superstition of the Church and the ignorance -of misguided scholars. For example, the Church believed -in the great flood, as described in the Bible, and -the scholars claimed that if what Leonardo said were -true—that the earth was the result of an evolutionary -process—there would have been written records. To -this latter Leonardo responded, “... sufficient for us -is the testimony of things produced in the salt waters -and now found again in the high mountains far from -the seas.” But Leonardo’s conception of the evolution -of the earth was mistaken in one respect. He regarded -the earth as organic—living—and the flow of water he -believed to be like the flow of blood in man. Indeed, -according to Leonardo, all living creatures were reflections -of a living, breathing earth. It was only when he -again turned his eyes inquiringly toward the moon and -the laws of the universe that he began to realize his -error.</p> -<p>It had been the idea that the earth was the center of -<span class="pb" id="Page_105">105</span> -the universe which supported Leonardo’s theory of an -organic earth. Yet after years of observation and study -he abandoned this theory and, with the eye of a man -centuries ahead of his time, he wrote in his notes, “The -moon has every month a winter and a summer. And it -has greater colds and greater heats and its equinoxes are -colder than ours.” He went further and identified the -elements existing on the moon such as “water, air, and -fire,” and described them and their functions as being -like those on our own earth. In so doing he recognized -the existence of the moon as a solid in space, reflecting -the light of the sun—one of many “stars” in a universe. -With his acceptance of this concept he realized that the -earth could not be organic.</p> -<p class="tb">In May of 1504, the Signoria complained to Leonardo -that there had been no progress on the proposed paintings -for their council chamber, even though he had -already been partially paid for them. Accordingly, he -was forced to sign a document that he must be finished -by February of next year or refund all monies paid him. -As was his custom he had made many preliminary drawings. -Although he was well acquainted with horses he -had again researched their anatomy and actions. Pages -of rearing, frightened horses and men in combat covered -his studio tables. On one of these pages there are -sketches of the heads of a lion, some horses and a man—all -with fierce expressions on their faces. Here Leonardo -hinted at the comparative anatomy of expression -in man and animal that Darwin was to write about -almost four hundred years later.</p> -<p>But the paintings could wait, for now the Arno River -<span class="pb" id="Page_106">106</span> -was in spring flood. The time had arrived to make the -first attempts at diverting the river into its new course. -Leonardo was again in the field supervising the work. -There had been much opposition to Leonardo’s canal -from both the army captains and the Signoria. It was -called a whim and a crazy idea, but Piero Soderini and -Niccolò Machiavelli were stubborn in their defense of -Leonardo’s plan and they overcame all opposition to it. -And indeed, the raising of the sluice gates was successful -and the Arno actually flowed into its new bed. The -tensions in the camp and in the Council of Florence -were eased. The only sad person was Leonardo, for he -had just learned of the death of his father.</p> -<p>Leonardo felt the loss deeply. Outwardly, however, -he only acknowledged the death of his father at a distance. -Not only had Leonardo and his father drifted -apart over the years, Piero left nothing to Leonardo in -his will. His father’s other children quarreled among -themselves over what money he did leave. Leonardo’s -one friend in the family was Uncle Francesco, who was -still living in Vinci. When he heard of his brother’s will, -Francesco made out a will of his own and left everything -to the nephew he loved—Leonardo.</p> -<p>After having successfully diverted the Arno river, it -was now necessary for Leonardo to return to the painting -commissioned by the Signoria for its council chamber. -But recently, Leonardo had suffered a rebuff in this -work. Originally he had been given the whole room to -do but now the opposite wall had been assigned to another -man—Michelangelo Buonarroti. Leonardo had -first met the young Michelangelo when he helped to -judge the best location for Michelangelo’s monumental -statue of David. The two men were opposites in every -way. Leonardo, fifty-two years old, carefully dressed, -cool and detached, was a man whose every action was -the result of a thoughtful and analytical mind. Michelangelo, -twenty-six years old, his clothes rumpled and -covered with marble dust, was passionate and moody—an -impulsive youth totally dedicated to art. They did -not like each other, and now Leonardo was forced into -<span class="pb" id="Page_107">107</span> -a rivalry for which he had no heart.</p> -<p>The duel between these two giants of art aroused the -whole of Florence and there was a constant stream of -people watching them at work. Michelangelo was given -a studio in the hospital of Sant’ Onofrio and Leonardo -was working in the Papal Chamber in Santa Maria -Novella. Among the many people who came to watch -Leonardo was a young man of nineteen. He was already -a pupil of Perugino and the experience of meeting and -learning from Leonardo was to influence him the rest of -his life. His name was Raffaello Sanzio—one of the -great Renaissance painters of Italy and known to us -by the name of Raphael.</p> -<p>While Leonardo worked at Santa Maria Novella he -had the opportunity of continuing his studies in anatomy. -Dissections at that time were novelties and when -one was performed the doors were thrown open to the -public. Leonardo must have attended the public dissections -at the Church of Santa Croce. Now at Santa Maria -Novella there was a hospital, and here Leonardo was -able to continue his own dissections without interruption. -In a cool room below the hospital where bodies -were kept Leonardo worked late into the night. By the -flickering lights of candles and in the silence of the world -about him he studied, drew, and wrote in his notes of -the wonders of the human body.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_108">108</div> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/pg061.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="795" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>In a cool room below the hospital, Leonardo worked late -into the night.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_109">109</div> -<p>He performed autopsies on people who had died -natural deaths—a special permission granted to him by -the monks of the church, and among these autopsies are -the first written reports of some of the diseases that are -the causes of death. Arteriosclerosis, or stony growths in -the blood vessels, and pulmonary tuberculosis, a nut-like -growth in the lung, are among the discoveries -Leonardo made in his lonely searches, although he did -not use these medical names for them.</p> -<p>Above all Leonardo was attracted to the function of -the muscles, especially those in the arms and legs. So -faithfully, in fact, did he record the origin and insertion -of all the various muscles that these drawings can be -used as anatomical models today. Moreover, he believed -that a good drawing was worth pages of words describing -human anatomy. The muscles were rendered as cords -so as to better understand their function. He described -this function as one of pulling instead of pushing and he -noted that for every muscle there is an opposing muscle. -When one contracts the other expands. For example, -when you tighten the biceps in your arm you can feel -the looseness of the triceps, the muscle on the opposite -side.</p> -<p class="tb">As the end of the summer of 1504 approached, Leonardo’s -dream of the canal from Florence to the sea was -destroyed. The summer had been hot and without rain. -The water in the canal dried up and the Arno river -returned to its original course. All the old arguments -against the plan were revived. The Florentine army -captains rebelled against the job of defending a useless -project. Again Soderini and Machiavelli intervened. -After heated debates in the Council of Eighty, which -had been called into special session, Machiavelli himself -was sent out to oversee the work. It was brought -almost to completion when in late October disaster -struck. The rains that had failed to come in summer fell -from the heavens in great cloudbursts. Storm after storm -swept the valleys. The workmen left and the soldiers -were recalled. The Pisan army rushed in to fill up the -diggings and one final storm washed away the dream -<span class="pb" id="Page_110">110</span> -to nothing but eroded mounds of dirt.</p> -<p>Leonardo buried his disappointment in other work. -When the drawing for the Battle of Anghiari was ready -for transfer to the wall of the council chamber, he had -a special scaffolding made of his own invention which -worked on the principle of a pair of scissors standing -on end, with a long platform on top. As the legs were -spread the scaffolding was lowered and when they -were pinched together it was raised. The wall had been -prepared with a special mixture which he hoped would -bring out the brilliance of his tempera colors. With several -assistants who had been assigned to him by the -Signoria the violence of the Battle of Anghiari was transferred -to the wall and the actual painting was begun.</p> -<p>During the winter months Leonardo would relax from -his work on the huge painting and his dissections to roam -the country around Florence. He visited the slaughterhouses -where the animals were killed and prepared for -market. Here he was able to examine the hearts of animals -just slaughtered and to note that the heart retained -its action until the body was almost cold. He made a -glass model of the aorta (the main artery leading from -the heart) of an ox with which he could experiment on -the flow of the blood. He intended to add to it a glass -tube for one of the semilunar valves of the heart. He -also experimented with a frog, dissecting its brain, heart, -and entrails and noted that it ceased to twitch only when -the spinal cord was severed. In his notes, he wrote, “The -frog instantly dies when the spinal cord is pierced; and -previous to this it lived without head, without heart or -any bowels or intestines or skin; and here therefore it -would seem lies the foundation of movement and life.” -He was of course searching for the reasons that muscles -<span class="pb" id="Page_111">111</span> -moved and from where the impulses originated.</p> -<p>One of Leonardo’s favorite places to visit was Fiesole -where his uncle Allessandro Amadori lived. Uncle Allessandro -was the brother of Leonardo’s first stepmother -and, since he had loved her so much, he likewise felt -an affection for Allessandro. At Fiesole, which rises -over Florence in a steep ascent, Leonardo could watch -the birds circling in the air below him.</p> -<p>On these lofty heights, he would unfold his drawings -of flying machines. Leonardo had progressed now to a -point where an actual flight was all that was left. He had -designed a sort of flying boat—a shell with wings that -moved up and down and he had introduced a tail like -that of a bird. He had noted that the tail of a bird acts -as a rudder, a stabilizer and a brake when landing.</p> -<p>But Leonardo’s most recent design was one that was -called an <i>ornithopter</i>. It consisted of a wooden frame, -two huge wings like a bat’s, a series of ropes and pulleys -and a windlass, all planned with the lightest of materials. -The flyer, lying prone in the frame, his feet in leather -stirrups connected to the wings by pulleys, would move -his feet up and down to flap the wings while, at the -same time, he operated the windlass with his arms in -order to guide the machine. Soon he hoped to build this -machine and try it out.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_112">112</div> -<p>Meanwhile, Leonardo returned to his painting in the -council chamber with impatience, for spring was approaching -and the time to finally realize his dream of -flying would be at hand. Aside from an assistant who had -tested the pedals and windlass, no one knew of his plan -to actually put his machine in the air.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/pg063.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="282" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>The</i> ornithopter, <i>one of Leonardo’s designs for a “flying -machine.” By pumping his feet in the stirrups, the flyer -could flap the device’s wings.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Weeks passed and the painting was almost finished. -The huge wall was covered with plunging horses and -embattled soldiers. The colors were brilliant on the -special mixture he had prepared for the wall—but they -were not drying as they should have. Something was -wrong. To speed the drying process, Leonardo had a -special fire built in the room that directed the heat onto -the painting. Spectators were allowed to watch as the -waves of hot air rose against the wall. Then—disaster -began slowly with a small trickle of paint from the top! -Before anybody could put out the fire, the great figures -and horses slowly melted down the wall in shiny, sticky -streaks of color. Leonardo fled the room in an agony of -<span class="pb" id="Page_113">113</span> -shame.</p> -<p>With his own friends discouraged, the Signoria hostile, -and the friends of Michelangelo triumphant, Leonardo -went back to Fiesole. He went back with his secret -dream of flight. The world would soon forget the -Battle of Anghiari—but the conquest of the air, if he -could achieve it, would live forever.</p> -<p>In the spring of 1506, from the slopes of Monte Cecero -near Fiesole, legend tells us that a great bird sailed into -the air and disappeared. No one knows whether Leonardo -actually flew his machine or not but Girolamo -Cardano, the son of a friend of Leonardo, wrote, long -after Leonardo had died, “Leonardo da Vinci also attempted -to fly, but he failed. He was a fine painter.” -Another dream had been shattered.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_114">114</div> -<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">11</span> -<br /><i>The Return to Milan</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>Leonardo felt his fifty-four years that spring day in -1506. The bitterness of his failures and the frustration -of his dreams added considerably to the weight of his -years. All morning he had wasted in argument with -Soderini and the Signoria. If it had not been for the -letter from Charles d’Amboise, Viceroy of the King of -France for Milan, he would have felt like a beggar. -Charles d’Amboise had been appointed military governor -of Milan by Louis XII ever since the French had -conquered that city and captured Duke Ludovico -Sforza. But the authority of the letter had finally won -a grudging consent from Soderini. Leonardo looked -about him to see if he had forgotten anything and slowly -climbed onto his horse. He nodded to Salai, his apprentice, -looked back to see if his servant had the pack-horses -ready, and started down the street leading the small -<span class="pb" id="Page_115">115</span> -procession. He was going back to Milan.</p> -<p>Leonardo took out the letter and reread it. The words -were respectful and admiring—and in French. They -requested the presence of “Maître Leonard de Vinci” -at the court of Charles d’Amboise, for purposes of painting -and other “diverse projects” for the King of France. -The letter restored a measure of confidence to Leonardo’s -self-respect. Before Leonardo left, Soderini had -made him sign a letter in which Leonardo promised to -return to Florence within three months and to leave -a deposit of one hundred and fifty florins which would -be held against his return. It was signed, notarized and -dated May 30, 1506. Nevertheless, Leonardo had decided -to accept the French envoy’s offer; moreover, -he looked forward to the prospect of returning to his -vineyard at Porta Vercellina and the understanding of -a sympathetic patron.</p> -<p>Indeed, Charles d’Amboise turned out to be more -than sympathetic. He recognized Leonardo as a great -artist; but even more, he was one of the few patrons -who could appreciate the magnitude of Leonardo’s -scientific and mechanical genius. In the court of Charles, -Leonardo once more enjoyed a time of peace and an -assured income. The French Vice-Chancellor of Milan, -Geffroy Carles, who was second in command, was also -a distinguished scholar and a patron of the arts and -natural sciences. With the admiration and support of -these two men and especially with the distant backing of -King Louis XII of France, Leonardo’s dismal memories -<span class="pb" id="Page_116">116</span> -of Florence began to fade.</p> -<p>Leonardo’s three months’ allotted absence from Florence, -however, were soon past and a letter arrived from -Soderini demanding either Leonardo’s return or a forfeiture -of the one hundred and fifty florins deposit. Now -a tug-of-war developed between the Viceroy of Milan -and the governor of Florence over Leonardo. The Signoria -reminded Charles that Leonardo had his work to -complete, while Charles d’Amboise and Geffroy Carles -demanded an extension of time. One month more was -granted. More letters were exchanged until the affair became -so heated that the King of France himself intervened. -In January of 1507 the French King informed -Soderini and the Signoria that Leonardo was “not to -move from Milan until our arrival.” Since Florence at -this time was under the protection of the French, such -final authority silenced the Signoria. Shortly afterwards -Leonardo discharged his obligation to the Signoria by -relinquishing the one hundred and fifty florins, and he -at last became free from the demands of his native city.</p> -<p>On May 24, 1507 King Louis XII re-entered Milan -with all the splendor and color that France and the -Dukedom of Milan could confer upon their ruler. -Knights in armor and the ladies of the courts followed -the king who rode in flowing white and gold under a -canopy of blue decorated with the lilies of France.</p> -<p>With such pomp and display in Milan, Leonardo was -<span class="pb" id="Page_117">117</span> -soon back at his old occupation of designing pageants -and tournaments. While some of the people from the -days of the Sforzas returned, not many remembered -Duke Ludovico, who was slowly dying in a French -dungeon. Among the people that Leonardo now met, -there appeared Francesco de’ Melzi, a noble from an old -Milanese family, who entered Leonardo’s life at this -time as a pupil. Soon the young man became like a son -to Leonardo. Of handsome appearance, he had the sensitivity -to appreciate the essential loneliness of Leonardo -and so, almost without realizing it, he filled a gap in -Leonardo’s life that was to last until the end of his days.</p> -<p>Yet, as Franceso de’ Melzi opened one door of Leonardo’s -life another door closed. He received word that -his beloved uncle Francesco had died at Vinci and that -he had become the heir to his uncle’s property. No -sooner had this news been delivered when Leonardo was -notified that Giuliano, a son of Piero, and now a lawyer -in his own right, was contesting the will. All the frustrations -of his life in Florence now rose to an angry pitch -and he set out once again for Florence to fight for his -own rights.</p> -<p>Wisely, Leonardo had armed himself with letters from -his new, influential patrons and even one from King -Louis himself recommending, “... we request that you -will cause this dispute to be settled in the best and briefest -delivery of justice....” In August of that same year—1507—Charles -d’Amboise added his personal letter -suggesting that the king could not spare Leonardo too -long from the court at Milan.</p> -<p>It was with the title of Painter and Engineer to the -<span class="pb" id="Page_118">118</span> -King of France that Leonardo rode back to Florence to -await the outcome of the judges in his case. He went to -stay with a sculptor friend, Giovanni Rustici, a man of -thirty-five and also an ex-student of Verrochio. They -lived in a house lent to Rustici by a wealthy scholar and -patron named Piero Martelli.</p> -<p>Leonardo soon found that he and Rustici had much in -common. Rustici, too, collected the odds and ends of -his journeys into the country. Flying about the house -were a tame eagle and a raven, while, at dinner, a pet -porcupine begged for food. Rustici, however, was a -believer in alchemy and magic. To practice these arts -the young man devoted one room to the strange mixtures -which bubbled over flames as he attempted to change -base metals into gold, or to call upon the spirits to predict -the future.</p> -<p>Leonardo settled into the life of the house very -quickly and even helped his friend on an important -sculpture commission. This was a group composition of -St. John between the Pharisee and the Levite for over -the doors of the baptistry. He also started to gather together -his scattered notes on all the subjects that he had -written about, going through them making corrections -and erasing the repetitions. Possibly Leonardo was considering -the publication of all his material for he wrote, -“Begun at Florence in the house of Piero di Braccio -Martelli, on the 22nd day of March, 1508. This will be -a collection without order, made up of many sheets -which I have copied here, hoping afterwards to arrange -them in order in their proper places according to the -subjects of which they treat....” This “collection -without order” of almost forty years extended into practically -all branches of human knowledge, founded on -years of observation and experiment. Indeed, it was the -magnificent effort of one extraordinary mind to push -back the curtains of ignorance in order to let the light of -<span class="pb" id="Page_119">119</span> -natural truth shine through to mankind.</p> -<p>In addition, Leonardo returned to his studies of anatomy -and comparative anatomy. For this latter he made -many beautiful drawings of the legs of animals as compared -to those of man. With them, Leonardo tried -to indicate man’s place in the natural order of the world. -He pointed out that our physical bodies are basically -the same as those of animals, and that the muscular and -organic differences are those of function only. For example, -bird and man have the same chest muscles, called -the pectoralis. But the bird, in order to fly, has developed -these into powerful instruments of motion. Man, on the -other hand, has learned to stand and move in an upright -position. He has developed the muscles of the back, -called the erectores spinae, and those of the buttocks to -hold him erect. Leonardo intended to enlarge upon his -studies of comparative anatomy to include all living -creatures, even the insects.</p> -<p>Meanwhile, the Viceroy of Milan was becoming impatient -for Leonardo’s return. The judgment against his -half-brothers had been settled in Leonardo’s favor, and -he hastened back to Milan. By the summer of 1508 he -was once more in the routine of the court’s activities. -King Louis had granted Leonardo a regular allowance -and it was the first time he had enjoyed such a long -freedom from the concerns of earning a living. With -these steady payments Leonardo now had the leisure and -support to pursue his own multitude of interests.</p> -<p>As his notes began to take shape and he thought of -<span class="pb" id="Page_120">120</span> -printing them, it was natural for the inventive Leonardo -to design his own printing press. It is one of the -earliest such designs on record. Because the carrying bed -which held the type and the paper was automatically -adjusted to the handlebar, the press could be operated by -one man. Besides his notes Leonardo also considered -printing a work by Roger Bacon, the thirteenth century -English scientist.</p> -<p>This project for printing his own books, however, -was never realized by Leonardo. Lately, he had received -a commission which took him back in memory to the -days of Ludovico. The subject was Marshal Gian Giacomo -Trivulzio, a soldier-of-fortune. Originally this man -was a loyal commander of Galeazzo Sforza’s but when -Ludovico came to power he had had Trivulzio banished -from Milan. Embittered, Trivulzio had become a stubborn -enemy of Ludovico from that time on, serving -under any banner that marched against the house of -Sforza. A stocky, square-faced man, his body was covered -with the scars of many battles. He had been fighting -with the French ever since the time Ludovico had betrayed -Charles VIII. Trivulzio had seen the great monument -that Leonardo had modeled and, although it was -riddled by French arrows and damaged by wind and -rain, the Marshal was impressed and wished for a similar -memorial to himself.</p> -<p>Leonardo set to work immediately. His past experience -with the Sforza monument was now to his advantage. -This time there was no need for experimenting. -He knew how much material he needed and the approximate -cost of everything including the casting. He -submitted an estimate of three thousand and forty—six -ducats for the completed work, one hundred of which -would go to Leonardo. The sum was acceptable to Trivulzio -<span class="pb" id="Page_121">121</span> -and Leonardo began his preliminary studies.</p> -<p>As he gathered the material for this new equestrian -statue, Leonardo and the French Viceroy Charles d’Amboise -became interested in the further canalization of -the plains of Lombardy. The use of canals and locks had -been in practice for roughly a hundred years and around -Milan there were already some fifty miles of canals and -about twenty-five locks. Leonardo started another survey -of the area. In his imagination, he envisioned a vast -hydraulic engineering project.</p> -<p>On September 12, 1508 Leonardo announced in his -notes the beginning of a book on the nature of water. He -had decided to separate this book from the one on hydraulics -because it was necessary to separate theory and -practice. His pages treating the science of hydraulics, -or the practical applications of water power, had reached -to “forty books of benefits.” By the spring of 1509 he -had expanded his notes on the nature of water to include -the greatest wave to the smallest raindrop.</p> -<p>Concerning the practical applications of water power, -Leonardo put forth many designs for new locks. He -introduced new methods of raising the gates by windlasses -and chains which could easily be set in motion by -one man. But most important is Leonardo’s discovery of -the use of centrifugal force for draining marshes—the -ancestor of the centrifugal pump. When you rapidly -rotate a stick in a pail of water, the water spins in a spiral -rising on the sides, and, if you rotate the stick fast enough -it bares the bottom of the pail. When you remove the -stick suddenly, the water continues to whirl as it slowly -subsides.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_122">122</div> -<p>This is basically the same principle Leonardo used to -raise the water from a marsh to a level above the sea -so that it could be drained away.</p> -<p>The centrifugal pump was also used with a hydraulic -screw which converted water power to mechanical -power. The force of a stream of water was injected into -the base of a vertical cylinder. In the base of this cylinder -was a six-bladed propeller mounted on a vertical shaft. -The force of the water turned the screw and at the same -time the water was forced to rise in the cylinder to an -outlet above. The turning propeller revolved the vertical -shaft. This shaft, emerging from the top of the -cylinder, turned a cogged wheel. This wheel was joined -to another cogged wheel mounted on a horizontal shaft, -thus providing the mechanical power. Not only is this -the forerunner of the turbine, but the use of the propeller, -itself, for propulsion in water, was a new idea not -to be thought of again until the eighteenth century. For -certain types of hydraulic pumps he conceived of the -cone-headed mitre valve still in use today.</p> -<p>Leonardo, besides studying the practical applications -of water power, explored the very nature of water itself. -In his proposed books on this subject he intended to -examine why clouds and fog form, why rain falls and -the raindrop itself—even how the raindrop is held together. -He understood the nature of capillary attraction, -which holds the raindrop together, and his notes show -us that he was exploring the science of hydrostatics -which relates to the pressure and equilibrium of liquids in -general.</p> -<p>Now that Leonardo had a steady income and the -<span class="pb" id="Page_123">123</span> -relief from meeting painting commissions by fixed dates, -he was free to explore his other favorite avenues of -knowledge. It seemed that his ever-active mind could -never stop roaming over the whole field of scientific -knowledge. He continued with his early interests—the -nature and movement of air, astronomy and geometry. -He was also still concerned with movement and weight, -for he set down in his notes, “The thing which moves -will be so much the more difficult to stop as it is of -greater weight.” This is a hint at a principle formulated -by Isaac Newton almost two hundred years later -in his First Law of Motion—the law concerning inertia. -For example, the motion of an arrow shot into the air -maintains itself in flight so long as the influence of the -initial force is maintained in it.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/pg068.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="597" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Da Vinci’s cone-headed mitre valve for use in a hydraulic -pump.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_124">124</div> -<p>On a note dated April 28, 1509 he wrote, “Having for -a long time sought to square the angle of two curved -sides ... I have solved the proposition at ten o’clock -on the evening of Sunday.” As always, Leonardo was -deeply involved in the study of mathematics. Too deep -perhaps to recognize the new rumblings of war.</p> -<p>Louis XII, still pursuing his campaign in northern -Italy, had again arrived in Milan amid the salutes of the -French artillery. Following his personal banner of a -gold porcupine on a white field, he had come back prepared -to do battle with the Venetians whose power, as -it diminished in the east, was extending westward into -Italy. Alarmed at this Venetian expansion, the French -King had allied himself with Pope Julius II and the -powers of Europe to form the League of Cambrai to -push back this threat. Charles d’Amboise, the French -Viceroy, had already taken to the field and at the castle -of Cassano, overlooking the Adda river near Milan, he -awaited the arrival of his king.</p> -<p>By the end of May, Leonardo was in the saddle once -more. Surrounded by the best knights of France and -the nobles of Milan, he personally accompanied the -French King as military engineer to the meeting with -the Viceroy of Milan at Cassano.</p> -<p>During the next three months, through the battles -and defeat of the Venetians at Aquadello where sixteen -thousand dead were left on the field, and the siege -of Caravaggio and the capture of Peschiera, Leonardo -served as military consultant and map maker. More than -ever his eye was attracted to the possibilities of utilizing -the many rivers they crossed both for warfare and commerce. -He envisioned making the Adda river navigable -from Milan to Lake Como. During this time, he devised -not only a revolving bridge but even one of two layers -in a single span—the upper level for pedestrians and the -<span class="pb" id="Page_125">125</span> -lower one for vehicles.</p> -<p>By July, Leonardo had returned with the king and -the French army to Milan. Here was planned a great -celebration of the French victory over the Venetians. -In front of the cathedral, to the delight of the hundreds -of spectators, Leonardo devised a mechanical lion scaring -a dragon out of an artificial lake into the beak of a cock -which picked the dragon’s eyes out. After the festivities -Leonardo returned to his everyday work. In time, he -had a thriving workshop and as he became more and -more preoccupied with his scientific explorations, his -art commissions were turned over to his assistants. He -did continue, however, to work on the plans for Marshal -Trivulzio’s monument and in his preparatory work for -this assignment he expanded his notes and drawings of -comparative anatomy.</p> -<p>This renewed interest in anatomy led him to attend -a lecture in the winter of 1509. The lecturer was Marcantonio -della Torre, a young man in his late twenties -and one of the best-known anatomists of the times. He -had been a professor at the University of Padua, but this -city had fallen into the hands of the Venetians. Marcantonio -was forced to flee Padua and had settled at Pavia. -The two men, when they met, recognized in each other -a devotion to science and they began a professional collaboration -that grew into a friendship. Leonardo now -developed his anatomy studies to the point where he is -today recognized as the foremost medical anatomist of -the Renaissance.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_126">126</div> -<p>Returning to his dissections, Leonardo now proceeded -to explore the heart and system of veins in the human -body. His drawings of the heart are nearly perfect. Indeed, -he was probably the first to discover the endocardium -membrane that sheathes the valves and sinews -of the heart. Also, he pictured and described the moderator -band, “the first cause of the motion of the heart.” -His work on this organ led him to the doorstep of discovering -the circulation of the blood—later to be carried -out by William Harvey in the seventeenth century.</p> -<p>Further, Leonardo was the first to accurately draw a -representation of the <i>foetus</i>, or unborn child, in the -womb of its mother, writing in his notes that, “we conclude -therefore, that a single soul governs the bodies and -nourishes the two.” In addition, he drew a remarkable -picture of the female figure and for the first time accurately -placed her organic structure. In his notes, he also -pointed the way to the laws governing metabolism when -he wrote, “The body of anything whatsoever that receives -nourishment continually dies and is continually -renewed....” By pouring wax into a hole in the skull -he made the first casts of the ventricles of the brain. Several -hundred years were to pass before this method was -rediscovered.</p> -<p>As Leonardo’s work progressed, his admiration for -the complexity of the human body grew. Many times -in the middle of explaining a section of anatomy he inserted -a sentence or two of wonder or praise at the -magnificent creation that is the human being. Indeed, -these drawings and notes represent the sum of many, -many dissections; moreover, Leonardo had to work -under conditions that placed many obstacles in his -path—the crude lights and instruments, the difficulties of -obtaining corpses and, above all, the opposition of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_127">127</span> -superstitious and ignorant.</p> -<p>The following year Leonardo entered in his notes, -“This winter of the year 1510 I look to finish all this -anatomy.” And yet, however sincerely he might express -such a wish, Leonardo was a person who was literally -never “finished.” The scientific and artistic tasks he had -chosen for himself were clearly beyond the limits of any -one man. Besides, the pressures of the outside world -were once more threatening the peace and quiet of his -home and work.</p> -<p>Pope Julius II became increasingly fearful of the -French victories over the Venetians. Secretly, he concluded -a peace with Venice and, allying himself with -his former enemy, he now turned against the French. -When the conflict continued, Charles d’Amboise, the -patron of Leonardo, was killed at the battle of Correggio. -He was replaced by a new French Viceroy, Gaston -de Foix. Although the Pope now hired Swiss mercenaries, -this invasion from the North was defeated by the -young Gaston. Not to be outdone, the Pope then -brought in Spanish troops.</p> -<p>In the ensuing bloody battle at Ravenna, the French -completely defeated the armies of the Pope and Spain, -despite their use of battle-cars armed with razor-sharp -sickles on their wheels—strangely like the early inventions -that Leonardo designed for Lorenzo de’ Medici! -Although the French were victorious, they lost their -brilliant young leader, Gaston de Foix, and with him -they lost their heart. As a result, they were soon disorganized. -The Pope’s armies renewed their attacks, -<span class="pb" id="Page_128">128</span> -and the French began a long retreat.</p> -<p>Once again the plague infested Milan and Leonardo’s -friend, Marcantonio della Torre, died of it. After some -futile attempts at recovery, the French fled across the -Alps and with them went Marshal Trivulzio. Milan was -left temporarily under the martial rule of the Swiss, -and Leonardo with only his few apprentices was left -again without a patron.</p> -<p>Tired and prematurely old at sixty-one, Leonardo resignedly -gathered his possessions together once more -and with Francesco de’ Melzi and four of his loyal pupils, -he turned his back on Milan for the last time. The date -was September 29, 1513. Their destination was Rome.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_129">129</div> -<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">12</span> -<br /><i>Rome</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>“Name?”</p> -<p>“Leonardo da Vinci.”</p> -<p>“Where from and where are you staying?”</p> -<p>“We are coming from Milan by way of Florence. I -have quarters being prepared for me at the Belvedere in -the Vatican—by order of the Pope. Now, young man, -let us pass.”</p> -<p>The guard at the Porta del Popolo changed his manner. -He dropped his halberd and motioned to the other -guards to let the riders through. He touched his helmet -roughly and with a grin he said,</p> -<p>“I’m sorry, Sire—but you know how it is. All these -<span class="pb" id="Page_130">130</span> -people—there’s bound to be them that we don’t want -here. Go ahead, your Excellency. Make way there!”</p> -<p>With these words he laid his spear against a jostling -group of broad-hatted pilgrims blocking the entrance -to the city of Rome.</p> -<p>Leonardo heeled his horse and with Francesco de’ -Melzi at his side, followed by his servant and students, -pushed past the crowd at the gate. To the left rose the -Pincio hill with its stately pines where, in the days of -Imperial Rome, Lucullus had walked in his gardens. -But Leonardo had no time to look about. It was a damp -December day, and rain threatened from the gray skies. -He was tired, and as Francesco glanced at him he could -see Leonardo pull his cape around him with a little -shiver as the chill wind stirred the long, graying hair -on his shoulders. They made their way through the -crowded, noisy city. They crossed the Tiber and rode -past Castel’ Sant’ Angelo, the papal fortress built on the -tomb of Emperor Hadrian. After another inspection -by the Swiss guards in beribboned uniforms of white, -green and gold under their shining breastplates, they -entered the walls of the Vatican. That evening after -he had settled himself in the Belvedere apartments and -dinner had been eaten, Leonardo, gazing into the embers -of the fire, looked back over his new stroke of fortune.</p> -<p>The Medicis had returned to power. Pope Julius II -<span class="pb" id="Page_131">131</span> -had died, and Giovanni de’ Medici, son of Lorenzo, had -become Pope Leo X at the age of thirty-seven. With -his election to the head of the Christian world, the Republic -of Florence became a city of the Medicis once -more and Leonardo had received an appointment in -Rome. Giuliano de’ Medici, Pope Leo’s favorite younger -brother, in his new rise to power and wealth, became -Leonardo’s patron. The two must have met sometime -during the Medici’s exile. Leonardo was given the apartments -in the Vatican and a salary of thirty-three ducats -(approximately eighty-five dollars) a month and a -workshop was fitted for him and his pupils. He was also -assigned an exclusive German assistant named Georg.</p> -<p>The Pope’s court in the Vatican was like the Medici -court in the Florence of Leonardo’s youth—multiplied -by hundreds. Leo X saw himself as the center of the -artistic world, and being a man of luxurious tastes with -the wealth of the church behind him, the Vatican was -soon filled with a mixture of the wise and foolish. Pompous -classic-quoters, third-rate poets and clowns mixed -with the world’s scholars and statesmen. The two greatest -artists were Bramante, the architect and friend of -Leonardo’s first years in Milan, and Bramante’s pupil -Raphael, the painter.</p> -<p>Bramante was busy building the new church of St. -Peter’s and, as the architect of this favorite project of -the Popes, he was sole master of the Roman art world. -Raphael, as his protege, was the recipient of the better -painting commissions in Rome. The elderly Bramante -and the thirty-year-old assistant were a famous pair in -the Rome of 1513. Equally as famous, however, was -Michelangelo; he was still living in Rome, but was without -patronage after Julius II’s death. Leonardo’s old -rival had scored his triumph with his extraordinary paintings -in the Sistine Chapel.</p> -<p>Although the young Raphael, who owed so much to -<span class="pb" id="Page_132">132</span> -the example of Leonardo, now rode through the streets -as a wealthy nobleman, Leonardo himself received no -great commissions. While Pope Leo was indulgent of -his brother’s whims he himself had no use for this tall, -serious old man who roamed the shaded walks of the -Vatican poking at the strange plants in the botanical -garden or making drawings of the foreign animals in the -private zoo. In reality, Leonardo’s patron, Giuliano de’ -Medici was a weak man. He played at being a patron -but, like his brother the Pope, he lacked the force and -decision of his famous father Lorenzo. Nevertheless, -he did give Leonardo one small commission for a picture. -Immediately Leonardo, excited by the exotic plants in -the Vatican gardens, commenced to experiment with -them to find a resin to make a varnish with which to -cover the future painting. Pope Leo made fun of him -exclaiming, to the delight of his court, “This man will -never get anything done, he thinks of the end before -the beginning.”</p> -<p>This ridicule by the Pope made Leonardo a joke to -many in the circles of the Vatican who were a little -afraid of this strange man with the searching eyes. Leonardo -also suffered the humiliations of a man who did -not conform to the fashions of his day. His knowledge -of Latin, for example, was weak and although he could -read it with the help of a dictionary he could not speak -it. And, among the people who surrounded the Pope, -Latin was the only language allowed. Prizes of great -sums of money and important positions were often -granted on the strength of an improvised speech in -Latin (with many quotations from the classical authors) -or a flattering Latin verse. Faced with such setbacks and -ridicule, Leonardo—not surprisingly—began to withdraw -into himself.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_133">133</div> -<p>And yet, Leonardo refused to remain idle—he had -to work. The need for mirrors in the vast halls and rooms -of the papal palace was great. Leonardo turned his -mechanical skill to redesigning and improving methods -of making them, and even inventing his own machines -for the grinding of the glass. Also, for Giuliano, who -dabbled in alchemy and magic, he made distorting mirrors -and burning lenses. In addition, Leonardo invented -a machine which could be run hydraulically for producing -long strips of copper of equal width for use in soldering -the mirrors.</p> -<p>But, with the making of these mirrors, Leonardo began -to run into trouble with his German assistant, Georg. -The boy was a loafer; he spoke little Italian and took -every opportunity to spend his days with his countrymen -in the Swiss guard. Leonardo tried to alter the situation -by suggesting that the boy have his meals with him -at his worktable, thus giving Georg a better chance to -learn the language. This however did not appeal to him. -Then, because Leonardo’s inventions were so extraordinary, -he began to give away the secrets of their mechanisms -to Johannes the mirror-maker, another German, -who had been replaced by Leonardo in the favors of -Giuliano. This naturally made Johannes jealous of Leonardo. -Georg gossiped, too, and told stories about the -old, eccentric man who lived like a miser in the midst of -all the luxury and who drew crazy circles on pages of -paper.</p> -<p>These “crazy circles” were geometric exercises that -<span class="pb" id="Page_134">134</span> -had fascinated Leonardo from the time he had wandered -across Italy with Fra Luca Pacioli. Pacioli’s book <i>De -Divina Proportione</i>, containing sixty illustrations from -designs of Leonardo, had been published in Venice in -1509. Leonardo intended to entitle these geometric exercises -<i>De Ludo Geometrico</i>. In geometry a lune is a -crescent-shaped figure bounded by two intersecting -arcs of circles on a plane or a sphere. Leonardo drew -pages of these lunes and then proceeded to transform -their curvilinear figures into squares of equal area. He -also reviewed Archimedes’ method of squaring a circle -and developed it into a variety of ways for cubing -spheres and cylinders.</p> -<p>He returned as well to formulating theories of friction. -He wrote in his notes, “the tallest wheel is the easiest -to pull”—for example, a big wheel turning at the same -speed as a smaller one has less friction to overcome because -it makes less revolutions. His experiments in friction -predated men like Amontons and Coulomb by two -and three centuries. He established a formula for the -building arch which he described as “a strength caused -by two weaknesses”—if one half of an arch is removed, -the other half collapses. They support and give strength -to each other. In addition, Leonardo determined, before -Galileo, the center of gravity of any pyramid and of a -tetrahedral, or four-sided body.</p> -<p>As the days went by and he waited for commissions -to come, Leonardo took to wandering about the streets -of Rome. He stood in the half-buried Forum of the -Caesars surrounded by grazing sheep and grunting pigs. -Wooden shacks where crude cartwheels were made and -where the marble from the ancient temples was cut and -sold, were built against the sides of crumbling ruins. -The old triumphal arches, now overgrown with creepers, -were boarded into towers and cattle were penned -<span class="pb" id="Page_135">135</span> -between the shafts of columns that once supported the -grandeur of temple roofs. Here and there a classical -scholar would be sketching or writing from the worn, -Latin inscriptions on a marble slab tilted crazily from the -ground where it had fallen hundreds of years ago. -Goats wandered on the Palatine hill, once the home of -Emperors, and the great baths of the Emperor Diocletian -were now a deer park and a hunting ground for royalty.</p> -<p>During the course of these wanderings, Leonardo became -interested in the primitive methods of carpentry. -Such things as screws, for example, were rare. Those -that were used were either made of wood or, if of metal, -by goldsmiths laboriously making each one by hand, -soldering wire around a pin and another wire into the -hole to hold the screw. Sometimes they were made by -filing pieces of metal individually. All these methods -were time-consuming and costly.</p> -<p>Leonardo had thought of this problem before, and -now he concentrated on perfecting his ideas about it. -Previously, he had thought of casting the metal in -wooden molds and then turning the metal on thread-cutters. -The designs he finally drew in careful detail, -however, are essentially the methods used today. The -new machines did with a few turns of a handle and -adjustments of a few cogged wheels what it took one -man many hours to perform. He also drew designs for -a mechanical plane and a machine for drawing wire that -worked by water power.</p> -<p>Leonardo now lived and worked in the Belvedere of -the Vatican—more a man on exhibition than an active -participant in the great artistic activities taking place -around him. True, he received his thirty-three ducats -a month, but Michelangelo had been paid three thousand -for his work in the Sistine Chapel, while Raphael had -earned twelve thousand for each room he painted in the -Vatican.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_136">136</div> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/pg075.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="797" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Leonardo became interested in various methods of carpentry.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_137">137</div> -<p>Thus Leonardo drifted farther and farther away from -his painting. This, in itself, caused people to talk in the -papal city. For he had earned fame as a painter, but his -passion for science was regarded as strange and whimsical. -Occasionally, he did receive a small commission -from the workshop of Raphael, yet these were like the -crumbs from a rich man’s table.</p> -<p>Even the toys Leonardo made at this period for the -amusement of his patrons were looked upon as somewhat -weird. For example, he would take small pieces -of wax and mold them into strange little animals and -then inflate them so that they floated in the air in front of -a startled guest. Once he caught a curious lizard in the -garden and spent hours putting scales all over the tiny -body, attached to it a little beard and horns, then let -it out from a box at a banquet. The guests jumped back -with fear and the women became hysterical.</p> -<p>One of Leonardo’s jokes that has been passed down -in accounts of his life at this period must have created -quite a sensation. He showed the company the cleaned -entrails of a sheep resting on the palm of his hand. After -telling them to wait and watch he took the entrails in -another room and with a bellows inflated them with -warm air. As the entrails filled with air they expanded -and extended. They crept into the room where the company -waited. Slowly they grew and grew until they began -to fill the room. The guests overturned their chairs -in their hurry to get out of the way of this shapeless, -translucent creature. Then Leonardo appeared, the air-filled -<span class="pb" id="Page_138">138</span> -entrails giving way before him, and said:</p> -<p>“Sires, this is but an example and symbol of virtue. -As you can see, the smallest virtue is capable of the -greatest growth.”</p> -<p>The guests laughed, but it was an uncomfortable -laugh. Thus another story was added to the legend of -Leonardo as an odd old man.</p> -<p>Leonardo, whose work—particularly his anatomical -studies—had constantly been interrupted by the fortunes -of war, had found another hospital in Rome where he -could continue these studies. This time it was his intention -to write a treatise on speech. He dissected and -drew the anatomy of the larynx (the voice box), the -vocal cords and the trachea (the air passage to the lungs), -and all the muscles that control the movements of the -tongue and the lips. If you pronounce each letter of the -alphabet you will feel these muscles of the lips, especially -with the letters “o,” “p,” and “f.” Carefully he noted -how the air vibrations from the trachea form themselves -into vowels and consonants, and he drew the membrane -which, when air is pressed against it, makes the sound -“aah.”</p> -<p>At this same time he was also busy finishing a treatise -on painting which he had begun when he was working -on the “Last Supper” for Ludovico Sforza. But it was -for his knowledge of military engineering that he was -sent to the city of Parma by the Pope on September 25, -1514. Here he stayed at the Bell Inn while examining the -fortifications and other defenses of the city.</p> -<p>Leonardo’s patron, Giuliano de’ Medici, had been -<span class="pb" id="Page_139">139</span> -appointed governor of this particular area and, since -Pope Leo X was fearful of two powerful countries, -France and Spain, he was preparing the papal territory -against possible invasion. Another fear of the Pope—and -indeed of everybody in Rome—was malaria, the -disease carried by the mosquitoes that bred in the Pontine -marshes west and southwest of the city. At that -time, however, no one knew the cause was mosquitoes; -rather, they thought it was the bad air from the -marshes.</p> -<p>As Leonardo had already been effective in draining -the pestilential marshes of Piombino for Cesare Borgia -and, later, those around Milan for Charles d’Amboise, -he was assigned the same task for the Pontine marshes. -He surveyed the entire area to the sea and made another -extraordinary aerial type map. His recommendations -included draining the entire area, enlarging and regulating -the Martino river and cutting an extra outlet from -the river Livoli to the sea. These plans were adopted -some years later and parts of the marshes were drained -successfully, yielding new land for the cultivation of -crops.</p> -<p>By December of 1514 Leonardo had finished his -treatise on speech and, possibly in an effort to attract the -attention of the Pope, he submitted it to the Privy-Chamberlain, -Battista dell’Aquila. As Pope Leo was surrounded -by an army of secretaries and assistants who -passed on everything submitted, this manuscript with its -beautiful drawings was mislaid and lost and only a few -notes and sketches remain.</p> -<p>The continual discouragement of his life in Rome was -<span class="pb" id="Page_140">140</span> -offset by a visit from his half-brother, Giuliano, around -Christmas. Leonardo was held in esteem by his family -despite the quarrel over his father’s and his uncle Francesco’s -will, and his half-brothers were pleased to tell -of their famous relative who lived in the Belvedere as -guest of the Medicis. Yet they knew little of Leonardo’s -scientific dreams and his lack of recognition in the papal -city.</p> -<p>Often, Leonardo’s greatest comfort was to return to -his notes. The challenge of geometry and the mysteries -of the movement of air and water kept him from brooding -about his lonely life. Francesco de’ Melzi, Leonardo’s -young friend, had more and more taken over -the practical responsibilities of his everyday life. Except -for his workshop, where the troublesome Georg -worked at the making of mirrors, and an occasional -small commission for a painting, Leonardo was free to -study.</p> -<p>In addition to his geometrical investigations, Leonardo -now experimented with the science of <i>statics</i> (objects -that are stationary), and <i>dynamics</i> (objects in motion). -One of his most important discoveries in the -science of mechanics came about during this period. -Concerning the division of weight, he wrote, “There -are three conditions of gravity of which the one is its -simple natural gravity, the second is its accidental gravity, -the third the friction produced by it. But the natural -weight is in itself unchangeable, the accidental which -is joined to it is of infinite force, and the friction varies -according to the places wherein it occurs, namely rough -or smooth places.” Thus he realized and formulated -what composes the movement of an object. He found -that movement is the result of separate forces acting -upon the object from different directions, as for example, -the initial push, the pull of gravity and the -resistance of friction. And, before Galileo, Leonardo -further experimented with objects dropped from a -height. As the result of repeated experiments, he noted -that the fall was being affected by the earth’s rotation. -That is, the object dropped always fell in a slight eastward -direction rather than vertically downward—a -fact later proved conclusively by Isaac Newton and -<span class="pb" id="Page_141">141</span> -Robert Hooke in the next century.</p> -<p>He also became fascinated with spiral motion, such -as is found in a spinning top or in a whirlpool of water. -Because of his interest in <i>hydrodynamics</i>, or the movement -of water, he began to sketch imaginary “Deluge -compositions.” These were drawings showing the -world—probably inspired by the Bible—in a chaos of -wind and floods. They were based on his years of scientific -research. Indeed, his drawings of actual whirlpools -are still among the greatest of his scientific art. Today, -with all the latest technical aids, such as dusting a whirlpool -with powdered rosin and then photographing it, an -accurate three-dimensional picture is impossible. Yet -Leonardo, by sheer observation and analysis coupled -with his genius for drawing, could reproduce the complicated -shape of whirling water.</p> -<p>In the relatedness of his explorations of water, air and -movement, and weight, he worked out the similarity -between the laws of equilibrium controlling solids and -liquids. The equation between the motive force and -resistance that makes for equilibrium or balance in solids -can be compared to the equation between the upward -pressure of liquids and the downward pressure exerted -on them.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_142">142</div> -<p>Far into the night Leonardo worked on his papers. -He tired more easily now, and his eyes had grown -weaker. To provide the increase in light that his failing -eyesight demanded, he had improved on his original oil -lamp by making the wick rise as the oil was burned -away, and he had extra lamps fitted to the ceiling.</p> -<p>On January 9, 1515 Leonardo wrote in his notes, “Il -Magnifico Giuliano de’ Medici set out on the ninth day -of January 1515 at daybreak from Rome, to go and -marry a wife in Savoy. And on that day came the news -of the death of the King of France (Louis XII).” This -meant that his new patron had left and his old patron -had died. Leonardo’s note was a sad one and perhaps -he felt, in the departure of his patron, more alone than -ever in the crowded life of the Vatican. Giuliano, on the -urging of his brother, was marrying Philiberta of Savoy, -in an effort to strengthen the prestige of the Medici. -Louis XII, before he died, had formed a league against -Spain, and with the marriage of the Pope’s brother to a -noble house of France, the league would be strengthened -by keeping the Pope on the side of France. Actually -Pope Leo was playing both sides, for at the time -he was also friendly with Spain.</p> -<p class="tb">Shortly after Giuliano’s departure from Rome, Leonardo -fell ill, presumably from a mild heart attack complicated -by a touch of malarial fever. The doctor had -been called. It was a warning, the doctor told Francesco -de’ Melzi, and Leonardo must remain quiet for quite -awhile.</p> -<p>By the end of the winter Leonardo was back on his -feet and apparently feeling completely well again. -<span class="pb" id="Page_143">143</span> -Giuliano himself had fallen ill about the same time and -the news that he had recovered and was finally returning -to Rome cheered Leonardo. He sat down and wrote -a long letter to his patron expressing his joy. This letter -also included a long list of complaints against Georg -and Johannes. Georg was now using his room in Leonardo’s -apartment to do work for others. He lied to -Leonardo and flew into such a rage when he was questioned -that no one could go near him. Moreover, -Johannes, the mirror-maker, was now moving back -into the Vatican and turning out mirrors for everyone, -even using Georg’s room as his own workroom. -Johannes boasted of his skill and told everybody that -Leonardo did not know what he was doing. Thus, it -was not surprising that Leonardo, in his long complaint, -was taking out the anger and frustration he felt against -all the injustices of his life in Rome.</p> -<p>But by summer Leonardo was again employed as a -military engineer. Francis I had succeeded to the throne -of France. The new French King was anxious to secure -his lost title to the Dukedom of Milan and was preparing -another invasion of Italy. Pope Leo X, still trying to -play both sides at once, was making secret agreements -with Francis while at the same time joining the King of -Spain, Milan, Genoa, and the Swiss in an alliance against -France. Consequently, he sent Leonardo out to inspect -the fortifications of Civitavecchia, a city on the Tyrrhenian -coast not too far from Rome. When, in August, -Francis I crossed into Italy with an army of thirty-five -thousand men including Marshal Trivulzio, the Pope -ordered his brother, Giuliano, to take command of the -papal forces. On the way to assume this command, -Giuliano fell ill and collapsed. His sickness this time was -<span class="pb" id="Page_144">144</span> -soon to be fatal.</p> -<p>Leonardo returned to Rome with his survey of -Civitavecchia, where he immediately learned of his -patron’s latest illness. Perhaps realizing that Giuliano -was fatally ill, Leonardo made a desperate effort to gain -the recognition he felt should be his. He entered the -competition for a new façade of San Lorenzo in Florence. -Among the other competitors was Michelangelo, -his younger and yet oldest rival.</p> -<p>In October of 1515, Francis I had recaptured Milan -and by Christmas was in Rome. Leonardo may have met -the new King of France in Bologna where Pope Leo X -had personally traveled in order to settle a peace treaty -with France. Certainly it is known that he attended -Francis’ court in Rome. Leonardo’s name was well respected -in French circles and, as Francis had already -admired the pictures by Leonardo, the meeting was a -happy occasion for them both. Indeed, the recognition -that Leonardo had sought in his native land was never -as great as that accorded to him by the French.</p> -<p>As Francis I prepared to leave for France in January -he must have offered Leonardo a position at his court. -While he still hoped that Giuliano de’ Medici would -recover from his illness and return to Rome, Francis’ -offer gave him support in the knowledge that he had a -powerful, new friend.</p> -<p>March of 1516 brought the first of three events that -<span class="pb" id="Page_145">145</span> -were to change the course of Leonardo’s last years. -Giuliano de’ Medici died, leaving Leonardo not only -without a patron, but without a friend in the Vatican. -Now sixty-four years old, he was reluctant to leave his -comfortable quarters in the Belvedere with its workshop -and pleasant gardens. Besides, deep within himself, he -felt that Rome could still offer him the fame that had -always escaped him.</p> -<p>Spring ripened into summer and the second event -occurred. The competition for the new façade of San -Lorenzo in Florence was won by Michelangelo. To -Leonardo the news was a blow. The success of his old -rival weakened his position in the Vatican even further -and added to the growing hostility he had felt in the -people surrounding the Pope.</p> -<p>The third event was the sum of many small events. -Georg and his friend Johannes, in their jealousy, had -spread much gossip about Leonardo in court circles. -They now took advantage of Giuliano’s death to circulate -stories about Leonardo’s dissections of bodies in -the hospital. These were added to vicious gossip that -Leonardo was pro-French. This news eventually -reached Pope Leo X. The Pope himself was perfectly -aware of the practice of dissection and, personally, he -had turned his eyes the other way. However, as dissection -was contrary to Church doctrine, an official -complaint to the head of the Church could not be -ignored. The Pope used it as an excuse to be rid of this -tiresome old man whom he had tolerated only for his -brother’s sake. Leonardo was abandoned.</p> -<p>The year 1516 was drawing to a close. Leonardo had -<span class="pb" id="Page_146">146</span> -decided to seek the patronage offered him by Francis -I. So he and Francesco de’ Melzi, his loyal young friend, -left Rome for the long journey into France. As he left -his native land for the last time, Leonardo looked back -over his years—from the silver lute that had sent him -to Milan, to the death of Giuliano, to the final rejection -of Pope Leo X. Remembering how Lorenzo de’ Medici -had sent him to Ludovico so many years before, Leonardo -thought to himself with great sadness, “The -Medici created and destroyed me.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_147">147</div> -<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">13</span> -<br /><i>The Last Years</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>Leonardo looked around from where he was leaning -on the parapet of the Chateau d’Amboise to watch a -group of young lords and ladies playing croquet on the -emerald-green lawn. The click of the mallets and balls -was mingled with the shouts and laughter of the young -people. It was late afternoon in May and although the -sun was warm the breeze from the west was chilly. -Leonardo looked down again from the sheer height of -the castle wall across the wide sweep of the Loire river -and the valley extending as far as the eye could see. -Swallows were swooping low over the banks below and -the wind carried their shrilling cries up to him. The -forested islands and sandbars interrupted the steady -flow of the river and Leonardo could see the reflections -sway in the current. He had been studying the river -but he realized that his aging eyes were not up to the -task of concentrating for long. The wind made them -<span class="pb" id="Page_148">148</span> -water, so he turned away and started back to his home.</p> -<p>There was much that was familiar in the castle at -Amboise. The thick, high walls and round towers and -especially the graceful, lacy spires of the king’s residence -brought back much that he had known in his native -land. The gardens had been planted by Italians—there -were orange trees and even a mulberry tree from his -beloved plains of Lombardy. The king’s residence and -chapel had been constructed and the decorations carved -in stone by Italian artisans. Leonardo could stop and -talk in his native tongue with many of the men employed -by the king. Since the time of Charles VIII, the -French had brought in the latest Renaissance styles -from Italy. Leonardo’s steps took him back from the -castle grounds and down a path with a hand-railing. The -steep roofs of the town of Amboise with their chimneys -could be seen below him. The path led to a small -manor house, like a miniature castle with sharp spires -and lacy, carved-stone gables that was set in green lawns -and gravel paths.</p> -<p>The Manoir de Cloux, as Leonardo’s house was -called, had been a hunting lodge for Francis I, but when -Leonardo had arrived he gave the house to Leonardo -for his home. Francis, in his admiration for this great -man, also gave him seven hundred crowns a year, together -with a pension of four hundred for Francesco -de’ Melzi.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_149">149</div> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/pg081.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="810" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Leonardo at Chateau d’Amboise on the Loire.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_150">150</div> -<p>The long journey from Rome had left Leonardo tired -and weak and he had fallen ill again shortly after his -arrival. This time the attack was more serious and had -left him with his right hand permanently crippled. He -looked at it now as he opened the door to his room. -“Another warning,” he thought, “and there’s still so -much to do.”</p> -<p>The young, robust King Francis was everywhere at -once. He gloried in knightly tournaments, hunts, and -sports of all kinds. Always restless, he might appear at -any place unannounced. Frequently there would be a -clamor at the gates of Leonardo’s home and the king -would ride in with one or two of his nobles. With a -great jingling of spurs he would bound up the stairs of -the manor house calling for Leonardo. He delighted in -long talks with the old man, and would listen respectfully -as Leonardo, his deep-set eyes brooding over his -notes, would demonstrate some scientific point on a -blank sheet of paper.</p> -<p>At this time, Leonardo was engaged on three projects -which demanded his immediate attention. One -was the entertainment for a banquet that Francis was -giving for his sister, Marguerite de Valois, and her husband. -Another was a new design for the king’s castle -at Amboise, and the third was a design for making a -navigable waterway from Amboise to Romorantin. Although -these three projects were the main ones that -occupied Leonardo’s time, there was always the supervising -of his pupils’ painting on the walls in the little -chapel of the manor house, his own work on a painting -of St. John the Baptist, and the continual ordering and -<span class="pb" id="Page_151">151</span> -revising of his notes.</p> -<p>The banquet took place in October of 1517, and the -mechanical lion Leonardo had made was an immediate -success. It “walked” by means of a spring motor, into -the hall, opening and closing its fierce mouth while -swaying its head from side to side. With a wand that -he had been given, Francis I stepped down from his -seat and tapped the lion three times. The toy fell apart -and from it a cascade of white lilies poured out at the -king’s feet.</p> -<p>Also at this time there was a distinguished guest at -the castle of Amboise. He was a fellow-countryman of -Leonardo and his name was Cardinal Luigi d’Aragona. -With him was his secretary Antonio de’ Beatis. As -Leonardo was now a famous member of King Francis’ -court, the cardinal paid him a visit accompanied by -Antonio. The extraordinary anatomy drawings and all -his notes were shown to the cardinal; he and his secretary -were deeply impressed. They were also surprised -to learn that Leonardo had never been accorded the -same recognition by his own countrymen. Antonio -de’ Beatis wrote home that “This gentleman has written -a treatise on anatomy, showing by illustrations the members, -muscles, nerves, veins, joints, intestines and whatever -else is to discuss in the bodies of men and women, -in a way that has never yet been done by anyone else. -All this we have seen with our own eyes; and he said -that he had dissected more than thirty bodies, both of -men and women of all ages. He has also written of the -nature of water, and of divers machines, and of other -matters which he has set down in an endless number of -volumes, all in the vulgar tongue [meaning Italian not -Latin], which, if they be published, will be profitable -<span class="pb" id="Page_152">152</span> -and delightful.”</p> -<p>By now Leonardo had accumulated thousands of -pages of notes, and they lay stacked in all manner of -chests and boxes. Often now, as Leonardo surveyed the -work of his lifetime, he realized that he would never -see the day of their publication. Time was slipping -through his fingers. Already summer had come and -gone and now the sharp winds of fall were lifting the -leaves from the ground in dancing whirls. Fortunately -these were years of peace and for the first time in a -long while the people were free of wars. The scheme -to canalize the waterway to Romorantin had grown to -a vast idea for making a thoroughfare of water from the -Loire river all the way down France to Lyons and then -into Italy! Leonardo, old and ailing as he was, had surveyed -parts of the rivers Loire and Cher, braving the -rough roads and crude accommodations.</p> -<p>In addition, Leonardo had designed a castle for Francis -I’s widowed mother in Romorantin. This castle was -never built, but many of the ideas that Leonardo had -incorporated in its design were used in the gigantic and -magnificent castle of Chambord. Also, at Francis’ request, -he had reviewed the work being done at the castle -in Blois and there is reason to think that the beautiful -outside stairwell that spirals from left to right might -have been designed by Leonardo.</p> -<p>In February of 1517, a son had been born to Queen -<span class="pb" id="Page_153">153</span> -Claude and Francis I. The king decided to postpone the -baptism of the dauphin (the title given to the eldest son -of a French King) until May of the following year. At -that time there would be a double celebration at Amboise, -for a nephew of Pope Leo X, the young Lorenzo -de’ Medici, was being married to Madelaine d’Auvergne. -As usual, Leonardo was given the assignment -of preparing the festivities. Although he was fond -of preparing these entertainments, Leonardo now felt -the pressure of time; for indeed, the interruptions of this -eager young king were sometimes a hardship. He felt -that his years were drawing to an end. His notes were -unfinished and his dreams of extending man’s knowledge -of his world and of himself were hindered not only by -such petty chores but also by the limits of his own physical -endurance.</p> -<p>As Leonardo was sketching one day from the window -of his room where he could see the castle walls and -the chapel of Saint-Hubert, he set aside the drawing -for a moment to write a memorandum to himself. -“Write of the quality of time as distinct from its -mathematical divisions.” Was this extraordinary man -sensing the road down which Einstein—in his studies of -relativity—was to travel hundreds of years later?</p> -<p>Spring arrived again and with it came the first wild -<span class="pb" id="Page_154">154</span> -flowers and roses, the songs of the birds in the woods -and the blossoming of the chestnut trees. The time for -the double celebration came, too, and Leonardo was -seen busily preparing the decorations and mechanical -delights for the large crowds already assembling. In -addition to the tournaments-at-arms that so delighted -the king, there was to be a mock battle with a besieged -city, and for this Leonardo had had constructed imposing -castle walls of wood with a backdrop of a city’s -spires and towers. The party lasted for weeks, and the -climax was performed on the lawns of Leonardo’s house -where a great ballroom had been set up. Here he repeated -an earlier success, the one that had so enchanted -Ludovico’s guests so many years ago in the Sforza castle -at Milan. There was again a dome over the ballroom -across which the stars moved mechanically and artificial -figures representing various gods and goddesses spoke -and sang by means of a hidden choir, while the sun and -moon shone in their own lights.</p> -<p>This display ended the festivities. It was already late -June and Leonardo was anxious to return to his plans -for the water route to Italy. There was the area near -Sologne which, when flooded, would make the surrounding -countryside a marshland. This would have to -be drained by the same method as he had planned for -the Piombino and the Pontine marshes. Francis I was -interested, too, in the improvements Leonardo had suggested -for his own castle, and he would have to talk -with the castle superintendent about them. As always, -there seemed to be so many things to do, to plan, to -work on. Then Leonardo wrote in his notes: “On the -24th of June, the day of St. John, 1518, at Amboise, in -the palace of Cloux....” and underneath, “I will continue—”</p> -<p>“<i>I will continue</i>—” It was almost a note of defiance -against the obstacles of advancing age and sickness and -the interruptions of the practical world.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_155">155</div> -<p class="tb">The sound of jingling spurs and bridle chains and the -snorting of many horses announced another surprise -visit from the young king. Leonardo could hear him -below shouting something to Battista, the servant who -had come to Amboise with Leonardo. Now, as usual, -Francis was running up the stairs with all the energy of -youth shouting for “le maître” (the master). Resignedly -and with patient humor, Leonardo stepped out to greet -the king. The gold chains around Francis’ thick neck -and over his broad chest glinted in the semi-light of the -hall, and he was holding his plumed hat at his side and -mopping his forehead with a dainty embroidered handkerchief.</p> -<p>“Master Leonardo! We are going on a tour of the -river and I want you to look at the place that I told you -about. Where I want to put that bridge. You remember?”</p> -<p>“Sire, give me but a moment to gather some material -together.”</p> -<p>A chest was made ready and soon Leonardo was at -the door, calling to Francesco and Battista to help him -into the saddle of his horse, while the king’s servants -hoisted the chest onto one of the carts already piled -high with tents and provisions.</p> -<p>When Francis was restless—which was often—a -“tour” could mean many hours or many days of travel. -Wagons were always kept ready with all the equipment -for a long journey and Leonardo, himself, had learned -to accept these sudden whims and kept chests of his -own ready for any such trip. Now, as always, the king -kept his horse reined back out of regard for this tall, -stooped man with the long beard and simple clothes.</p> -<p>Yet when Leonardo returned from this “tour” he -<span class="pb" id="Page_156">156</span> -realized that he could no longer make such trips. The -hardships of sleeping in tents, riding over the hot roads, -and the necessary work involved in surveying the possible -sites for a bridge had left him almost exhausted. He -had made one suggestion, however, and that was to -build houses that could be carried and then assembled -with a few wooden locking devices, then just as quickly -taken down and moved to the next place. They could -also be left standing where the country people could -use them while the court was away. Indeed, such -structures would seem to be the ancestors of our own -prefabricated houses.</p> -<p>The winter of 1519 was a bitter one. When the cold -fog spread over the valley shrouding the bare trees it -chilled the big, white-washed rooms of Cloux. The -wind blew down from the north sending blasts down -the chimneys and scattering ashes and sparks. Leonardo, -huddled against the huge fireplace with its roof projecting -into the room, pulled his black cloak lined in soft -leather around him and reminded himself to include -it in his will for Mathurine, the faithful domestic who -cooked for him and took care of his house.</p> -<p>The aged Leonardo, who had observed and analyzed -so much of man and nature, knew now that his own -days were numbered. When the first, pale sunlight of -March shone through the small leaded-glass windows of -his house, he applied to the king for permission to make -out his own will. French law demanded that the property -of any foreigner dying in France went to the -Crown. The permission was granted, and on April 23, -1519, Guillaume Boureau, the Royal Notary of Amboise -was summoned with witnesses.</p> -<p>To his half-brothers in Florence Leonardo left his -<span class="pb" id="Page_157">157</span> -property at Fiesole and four hundred ducats. To his -faithful friend and companion, Francesco de’ Melzi, -nobleman of Milan, Leonardo willed his notes, drawings, -and paintings. Battista was given the income that -Louis XII had granted Leonardo from the tolls of the -canal at San Cristoforo near Milan. Mathurine was -granted the “good black cloth, trimmed with leather” -and two ducats. Moreover, Leonardo outlined in detail -the plans for his own funeral, right down to the use of -ten pounds of candles.</p> -<p>Too weak now to stand any more, Leonardo was -confined to his big four-poster bed with the canopy. -From it he could see the tracery of the Chapel of Saint-Hubert -against the pale, foreign sky through the little -window in the corner. The vicar of the church of -Saint-Denis was called, with two priests and two Franciscan -friars, and Leonardo received the last sacraments -at his bedside.</p> -<p>An entry in his notes reads, “While I thought I was -learning to live, I have been learning how to die.” But -death was not easy for him. With tears rolling down his -sunken cheeks for “his wasted life,” he died on May 2, -1519—fighting even this final interruption to all his -work.</p> -<p>King Francis I, who was at St. Germain-en-Laye -<span class="pb" id="Page_158">158</span> -with his court, wept when the news was brought to -him. Francesco de’ Melzi was so overcome with grief -that he waited until June before writing to the half-brothers -of Leonardo of the Master’s death. He wrote, -in part, “He was to me the best of fathers, and it is -impossible for me to express the grief that his death has -caused me. Until the day when my body is laid under -the ground, I shall experience perpetual sorrow, and not -without reason, for he daily showed me the most devoted -and warmest affection.”</p> -<p>And in a closing paragraph Francesco added these -words: “His loss is a grief to everyone, for it is not in -the power of nature to reproduce another such man.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_159">159</div> -<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">14</span> -<br /><i>Mankind’s Debt to Leonardo</i></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/chapter.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="49" /> -</div> -<p>When Leonardo died his notebooks began their separate -journeys into obscurity. They traveled to different lands -and became parts of widely disparate collections. It -has only been within the last fifty years that efforts were -made to bring them all together between the covers of -one volume—a dream that Leonardo himself entertained -but never realized. As the manuscripts and drawings -were brought to light, translated and published, the -extraordinary scope of Leonardo’s scientific explorations -was revealed.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_160">160</div> -<p>Mathematician, anatomist, botanist, astronomer and -geologist form only part of the long list of his accomplishments -and give the clue to the man who considered -all the natural world within his province of study. -Because of the universality of Leonardo’s scientific -thought he has been frequently mentioned as the forerunner -of such men as Galileo Galilei, Sir Isaac Newton, -James Watt, Francis Bacon and William Harvey. -Although Leonardo cannot be credited with the actual -discoveries that these men made, his methods of investigation -pointed the way down the paths that they would -follow.</p> -<p>The key to Leonardo’s methods lies in a quotation -from his notes on vision. He wrote of vision as <i>saper -vedere</i>—“to know how to see”—and he referred to the -eye as “the window of the soul.” Again and again, he -stressed the importance of observation and personal experience. -Although he himself was well read, he emphasized -that “science comes by observation not by -authority.” His supreme talent for drawing underlines -his credo and is inseparable from his science. What he -saw in the natural world about him needed investigating. -The results of these investigations were transformed -into drawings as the most certain method for passing -this knowledge along to others. The best example of -this attitude is represented by his anatomical studies. -To merely draw the living figure in front of him was -not sufficient—it was imperative to know what he was -drawing. He turned to the dissecting room and after -intensive study produced some of the finest anatomical -drawings in the world—and among the easiest for others -to understand.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_161">161</div> -<p>What Walter Pater wrote of the Renaissance—“in -many things great rather by what it designed or aspired -to than by what it actually achieved”—could be a -summation of Leonardo’s own lifetime of effort in -science. He labored to bring mankind from the morass -of medieval superstitions onto the firm ground of natural -facts. With an insatiable curiosity Leonardo attempted -the impossible task of encompassing all knowledge. Thus -he established his right to immortality—for it was an -attempt that shone like a beacon in a world dark with -ignorance.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_162">162</div> -<h2 id="c15"><span class="small"><i>Significant Dates in Leonardo’s Life</i></span></h2> -<table class="center" summary=""> -<tr><td class="r">1452 </td><td class="l">April 15. Birth of Leonardo.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1467 </td><td class="l">Commences apprenticeship with Verrochio in Florence.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1478 </td><td class="l">Commissioned for altarpiece in the Palace of the Signoria.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1481 </td><td class="l">Commissioned to paint an altarpiece for Convent of San Donato.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1482-83(?) </td><td class="l">Leonardo leaves Florence for the court of Ludovico Sforza in Milan.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1483 </td><td class="l">Begins equestrian monument of Francesco Sforza for Ludovico.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1484-86 </td><td class="l">Plague in Milan.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1490 </td><td class="l">April 23. Recommences equestrian monument and starts book on light and shade.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1496 </td><td class="l">Meets with Fra Luca Pacioli, professor of mathematics.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1498 </td><td class="l"><i>The Last Supper</i> completed.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1499 </td><td class="l">Apr. Land awarded to Leonardo near Porta Vercellina. Oct. French occupy Milan. Dec. Leonardo leaves Milan with Pacioli.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1500 </td><td class="l">Leonardo arrives in Mantua. Travels to Venice and returns to Florence.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1502 </td><td class="l">In the service of Cesare Borgia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1503 </td><td class="l">Returns to Florence, commences work on a canal to sea.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1504 </td><td class="l">Begins the painting of battle of Anghiari. Father dies. Attempt at flight (?).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1506 </td><td class="l">May. Leaves Florence for Milan at summons of Charles d’Amboise, French military governor.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1507 </td><td class="l">Sept. Goes to Florence to settle father’s will.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1508 </td><td class="l">July. Returns to Milan.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1511 </td><td class="l">Works with Marc Antonio della Torre on anatomical research.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1512 </td><td class="l">French lose Milan.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1513 </td><td class="l">Leonardo leaves Milan for Rome. Serves Giuliano de’ Medici, brother of Pope Leo X.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1516 </td><td class="l">Leonardo leaves Rome for France to serve King Francis I.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r">1519 </td><td class="l">May 2. Death of Leonardo.</td></tr> -</table> -<div class="pb" id="Page_164">164</div> -<h2 id="c16"><span class="small"><i>Index</i></span></h2> -<p class="center"><a href="#index_A" class="ab">A</a> <a href="#index_B" class="ab">B</a> <a href="#index_C" class="ab">C</a> <a href="#index_D" class="ab">D</a> <a href="#index_E" class="ab">E</a> <a href="#index_F" class="ab">F</a> <a href="#index_G" class="ab">G</a> <a href="#index_H" class="ab">H</a> <a href="#index_I" class="ab">I</a> <a href="#index_J" class="ab">J</a> <a href="#index_K" class="ab">K</a> <a href="#index_L" class="ab">L</a> <a href="#index_M" class="ab">M</a> <a href="#index_N" class="ab">N</a> <a href="#index_O" class="ab">O</a> <a href="#index_P" class="ab">P</a> <a href="#index_Q" class="ab">Q</a> <a href="#index_R" class="ab">R</a> <a href="#index_S" class="ab">S</a> <a href="#index_T" class="ab">T</a> <a href="#index_U" class="ab">U</a> <a href="#index_V" class="ab">V</a> <a href="#index_W" class="ab">W</a> <span class="ab">X</span> <a href="#index_Y" class="ab">Y</a> <span class="ab">Z</span></p> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_A"><b>A</b></dt> -<dt>Abbaco, Benedetto dell’, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt> -<dt>Adda river, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt> -<dt>“Adoration of the Magi,” <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt> -<dt>Adriatic, the, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt> -<dt>“Air conditioner,” <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dt> -<dt>Air, study of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt> -<dt>“Alarm clock,” <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt> -<dt>Albert of Saxony, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt> -<dt>Alessandria, fortress of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt> -<dt>Alfonso of Calabria, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt> -<dt>Alps, the, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt> -<dt>Amadeo, Antonio, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt> -<dt>Amadori, Albiera di Giovanni, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></dt> -<dt>Amadori, Alessandro, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dt> -<dt>Amboise, <i>see</i> Chateau d’Amboise</dt> -<dt>Amontons, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt> -<dt>Anatomy, human, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-127, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt> -<dt>Anchiano, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></dt> -<dt>Anemometer, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></dt> -<dt>Anemoscope, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></dt> -<dt>Anghiari, battle of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt> -<dt>Aquadello, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt> -<dt>Aquila, Battista dell’, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt> -<dt>Arabs, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt> -<dt>Archimedes, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt> -<dt>Architecture, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt> -<dt>Argyropoulos, John, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt> -<dt>Aristotle, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt> -<dt>Arithmetic, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></dt> -<dt>Arithmetico, Benedetto, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt> -<dt>Armored vehicle, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt> -<dt>Arno river, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-106, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dt> -<dt>Arrezzo, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt> -<dt>Ascanio, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt> -<dt>Astronomy, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-82, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt> -<dt>Atlantic Ocean, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt> -<dt>“Automobile,” <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt> -<dt>Autopsies, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt> -<dt>Avicenna, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_B"><b>B</b></dt> -<dt>Bacon, Francis, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt> -<dt>Bacon, Roger, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt> -<dt>Badia, the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></dt> -<dt>Battista, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt> -<dt>Bayzid II, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></dt> -<dt>Beatis, Antonio de’, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt> -<dt>Bianca Maria, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dt> -<dt>Bible, the, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt> -<dt>Birds, flight of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dt> -<dt>Black Death, <i>see</i> Bubonic plague</dt> -<dt>Blois, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt> -<dt>Bologna, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dt> -<dt>Bombard, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt> -<dt>Bombs, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt> -<dt>Borgia, Cesare, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-97, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt> -<dt>Borgias, the, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></dt> -<dt>Botticelli, Sandro, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt> -<dt>Boureau, Guillaume, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt> -<dt>Bramante, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt> -<dt>Bridge building, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt> -<dt>Bubonic plague, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-47</dt> -<dt>Buonarroti, Michelangelo, <i>see</i> Michelangelo</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_C"><b>C</b></dt> -<dt>“Camera obscura,” <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt> -<dt>Campo Morto, battle of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_165">165</dt> -<dt>Cannon, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt> -<dt>Caravaggio, siege of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt> -<dt>Cardano, Girolamo, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt> -<dt>Carles, Geffroy, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></dt> -<dt>Carpentry, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt> -<dt>Cassano, castle of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt> -<dt>Castel’ Sant’ Angelo, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt> -<dt>Caterina, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></dt> -<dt>Cellini, Benvenuto, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt> -<dt>Centrifugal pump, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt> -<dt>Cesena, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></dt> -<dt>Chambord, castle of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt> -<dt>Charles d’Amboise, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-117, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt> -<dt>Chateau d’Amboise, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-156</dt> -<dt>Cher river, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt> -<dt>Christ, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt> -<dt>Church of the Annunciation of the Servite Order of Monks, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></dt> -<dt>Church, the, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></dt> -<dt>Cioni, Andrea di Michele di Francesco de’, <i>see</i> Verrochio, Andrea del</dt> -<dt>City Planning, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dt> -<dt>City-states, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt> -<dt>Civitavecchia, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dt> -<dt>Cloux, Manoir de, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt> -<dt>Coins, minting of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dt> -<dt>Collections, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></dt> -<dt>Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt> -<dt>Constantinople, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt> -<dt>Corte, Bernardino da, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt> -<dt>Corte Vecchia, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt> -<dt>Coulomb, A. C., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt> -<dt>Council of Eighty, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dt> -<dt>Council of Florence, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt> -<dt>Councilors and Tribunal of Venice, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt> -<dt>Credi, Lorenzo di, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt> -<dt>Cusanus, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_D"><b>D</b></dt> -<dt>Dams, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt> -<dt>Danti, Giovanni Battista, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dt> -<dt>d’Aragona, Cardinal Luigi, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt> -<dt>Darwin, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt> -<dt>d’Auvergne, Madelaine, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></dt> -<dt>David, statue of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt> -<dt><i>De Ludo Geometrico</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt> -<dt>d’Este, Beatrice, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt> -<dt>d’Este, Isabella, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></dt> -<dt>Diocletian, Emperor, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt> -<dt>Diseases, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dt> -<dt>Dissection, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></dt> -<dt>Diver’s suit, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt> -<dt>Drawing, <i>see</i> Painting</dt> -<dt>Drum, mechanical, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt> -<dt>Dynamics, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_E"><b>E</b></dt> -<dt>Earth, the, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt> -<dt>Eclipse of the sun, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt> -<dt>Einstein, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></dt> -<dt>Equilibrium, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt> -<dt>Euclid, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></dt> -<dt>Eye, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_F"><b>F</b></dt> -<dt>Ferdinand, King of Naples, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt> -<dt>Ferrara, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></dt> -<dt>Ferrari, Ambrogio, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt> -<dt>Fiesole, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt> -<dt>Flemish painters, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></dt> -<dt>Flight,</dt> -<dd>of arrow, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dd> -<dd>of birds, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dd> -<dd>problems of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-100, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-113</dd> -<dt>Florence, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-19, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-27, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-96, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-103</dt> -<dt>Flying machine, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt> -<dt>Foix, Gaston de, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt> -<dt>Forts, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt> -<dt>Forum of the Caesars, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt> -<dt>Four elements, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt> -<dt>France, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-69, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-84, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-120, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-145, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt> -<dt>Francis I, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-145, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-157</dt> -<dt>Fraternity of the Immaculate Conception, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dt> -<dt>Friction, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_G"><b>G</b></dt> -<dt>Galen, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt> -<dt>Galileo, Galilei, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt> -<dt>Genoa, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt> -<dt>Geocentric theory, <i>see</i> Ptolemaic theory</dt> -<dt>Geography, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt> -<dt>Geology, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt> -<dt>Geometry, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt> -<dt>Georg, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></dt> -<dt>Geotropism, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_166">166</dt> -<dt>Germany, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dt> -<dt>Ghirlandaio, Domenico di Tommaso del, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt> -<dt>Giocondo, Francesco del, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt> -<dt>Giovanni “the Piper,” <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt> -<dt>Gonzaga, Francesco, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt> -<dt>Gothic tradition, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt> -<dt>Gravity, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt> -<dt>Greeks, the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dt> -<dt>Guido, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt> -<dt>Guild, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_H"><b>H</b></dt> -<dt>Hadrian, Emperor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt> -<dt>Harvey, William, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt> -<dt>Heavens, observation of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt> -<dt>Heliocentric theory, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt> -<dt>Heliotropism, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt> -<dt>Highmore, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt> -<dt>Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></dt> -<dt>Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt> -<dt>Hooke, Robert, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt> -<dt>Horse, anatomy of the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt> -<dt>Hydraulic pump, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt> -<dt>Hydraulics, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></dt> -<dt>Hydrodynamics, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt> -<dt>Hygrometer, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_I"><b>I</b></dt> -<dt>Imola, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dt> -<dt>Inclination gauge, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt> -<dt>India, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt> -<dt><i>Introduction to Perspective, or the Function of the Eye</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt> -<dt>Inventions, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-27, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-40</dt> -<dt>Irradiation, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt> -<dt>Irrigation, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt> -<dt>Isabella of Aragon, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt> -<dt>Isonzo river, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt> -<dt>Istanbul, <i>see</i> Constantinople</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_J"><b>J</b></dt> -<dt>Johannes, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></dt> -<dt>Judas, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_K"><b>K</b></dt> -<dt>King Charles VIII, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-69, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_L"><b>L</b></dt> -<dt>Lake Como, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt> -<dt>Lamps, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt> -<dt>Lanfredini, Francesca, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></dt> -<dt>“Last Supper,” <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt> -<dt>League of Cambria, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt> -<dt>Leghorn, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt> -<dt>Leibig, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt> -<dt>Leonardo da Vinci,</dt> -<dd>and the Church, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></dd> -<dd>birth of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></dd> -<dd>death of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dd> -<dd>early years of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>-8</dd> -<dd>illness of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dd> -<dd>moves to Florence, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dd> -<dd>notebooks of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dd> -<dt>Levite, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt> -<dt><i>Light and Shade</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt> -<dt>Lighting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt> -<dt>Lilienthal, Otto, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt> -<dt>Livoli river, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt> -<dt>Loches, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt> -<dt>Loire river, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt> -<dt>Lombardy, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,148</dt> -<dt>Louis XII (of Orleans), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt> -<dt>Louvre, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dt>Lucullus, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt> -<dt>Lyons, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt> -<dt>Lyre, silver, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_M"><b>M</b></dt> -<dt>Machiavelli, Niccolò, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dt> -<dt>Machine gun, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt> -<dt>Machinery, improvement of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt> -<dt>Madonna Lisa, <i>see</i> Mona Lisa</dt> -<dt>Malaria, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt> -<dt>Mandeville, Sir John, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dt> -<dt>Manenti, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt> -<dt>Mantua, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt> -<dt>Mapmaking, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt> -<dt>Martelli, Piero, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt> -<dt>Martini, Francesco di Giorgio, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt> -<dt>Martino river, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt> -<dt>Mathurine, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt> -<dt>Maximilian I, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dt> -<dt>Medici, Giovanni de’, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt> -<dt>Medici, Giuliano de’, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-146</dt> -<dt>Medici, Lorenzo de’, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></dt> -<dt>Medici, Piero de’, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt> -<dt>Medicis, the, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></dt> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_167">167</dt> -<dt>Melzi, Francesco de’, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt> -<dt>Michelangelo, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></dt> -<dt>Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt> -<dt>Migliorotti, Atalante, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-38, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt> -<dt>Milan, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-48, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-128, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dt> -<dt>Milan cathedral, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt> -<dt>Military,</dt> -<dd>defenses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dd> -<dd>machines, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-27, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-40</dd> -<dt>Millstones, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></dt> -<dt>Mitre valve, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt> -<dt>Mirrors, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dt> -<dt>“Mona Lisa,” <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dt> -<dt>Monferrato, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></dt> -<dt>Monte Albano, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt> -<dt>Monte Cecero, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt> -<dt>Montorfano, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt> -<dt>Muscles, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dt> -<dt>Music, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_N"><b>N</b></dt> -<dt>Naples, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dt> -<dt>Needle sharpener, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></dt> -<dt>Netherlands, the, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt> -<dt>Newton, Isaac, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt> -<dt>Newton’s First Law of Motion, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt> -<dt>Newton’s law of gravitation, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt> -<dt><i>Notes</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></dt> -<dt>Novara, battle of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_O"><b>O</b></dt> -<dt>Odometer, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dt> -<dt>Oggionno, Marco d’, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt> -<dt>Orient, the, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt> -<dt>Ornithopter, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_P"><b>P</b></dt> -<dt>Pacioli, Fra Luca, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-91, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dt> -<dt>Padua, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt> -<dt>Painting, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-7, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-32, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt> -<dt>Palatine hill, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt> -<dt>Palazzo della Signoria, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-25, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dt> -<dt>Palazzo Vecchio, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt> -<dt>Parachute, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dt> -<dt>Paris, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dt>Parma, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt> -<dt>Pater, Walter, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt> -<dt>Pavia, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt> -<dt>Pazzi conspiracy, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></dt> -<dt>Pazzi, Francesco de’, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt> -<dt>Pera, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt> -<dt>“Periscope,” the, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt> -<dt>Perugia, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dt> -<dt>Perugino, Pietro, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt> -<dt>Pesaro, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt> -<dt>Peschiera, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt> -<dt>Pharisee, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt> -<dt>Philiberta, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></dt> -<dt>Phyllotaxis, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt> -<dt>Physics, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt> -<dt>Piazzetta, the, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt> -<dt>Pincio hill, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt> -<dt>Piombino, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt> -<dt>Pisa, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-102, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt> -<dt>Pitti Palace, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt> -<dt>Plague, <i>see</i> Bubonic plague</dt> -<dt>Plants, study of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></dt> -<dt>Platonic school, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt> -<dt>Pliny, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt> -<dt>Plutarch, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt> -<dt>Pollaiuolo, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt> -<dt>Ponte Vecchio, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt> -<dt>Pontine marshes, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt> -<dt>Pope Alexander VI, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></dt> -<dt>Pope Innocent VIII, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt> -<dt>Pope Julius II, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt> -<dt>Pope Leo X, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-132, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-146, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></dt> -<dt>Pope Sixtus IV, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt> -<dt>Porta del Popolo, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt> -<dt>Porta Romana, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt> -<dt>Porta Vercellina, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt> -<dt>Porto Cesanatico, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></dt> -<dt>Portugal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt> -<dt>Predis, Bernardino de, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dt> -<dt>Predis, Giovanni Ambrogio de, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt> -<dt>Ptolemaic theory, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt> -<dt>Ptolemy, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_Q"><b>Q</b></dt> -<dt>Queen Claude, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_R"><b>R</b></dt> -<dt>Raphael, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dt> -<dt>Ravenna, battle of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt> -<dt>Red Book of the Painters of Florence, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_168">168</dt> -<dt>Reflection, law of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt> -<dt>Renaissance, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt> -<dt>Riario, Girolamo, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt> -<dt>Rimini, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt> -<dt>Rome, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-146</dt> -<dt>Romorantin, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt> -<dt>Rosate, Ambrogio da, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt> -<dt>Rumford, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt> -<dt>Rustici, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_S"><b>S</b></dt> -<dt>“St. Anne with the Virgin and Child,” <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt> -<dt>St. Augustine, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt> -<dt>Saint-Denis church, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt> -<dt>St. Germain-en-Laye, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt> -<dt>Saint-Hubert, chapel of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt> -<dt>St. John, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt> -<dt>St. John the Baptist, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt> -<dt>St. Luke, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt> -<dt>St. Mary of the Virgin, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dt> -<dt>St. Peter’s, church of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt> -<dt>Salai, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt> -<dt>Salviati, Francesco, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt> -<dt>San Bernardo, chapel of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt> -<dt>San Cristoforo, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt> -<dt>San Donato a Scopeto, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt> -<dt>San Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></dt> -<dt>San Marco, Little Square of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt> -<dt>Sanseverino, Galeazzo da, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></dt> -<dt>Sant’ Onofrio, hospital, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt> -<dt>Santa Croce, church of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt> -<dt>Santa Maria delle Grazie, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt> -<dt>Santa Maria Novella, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt> -<dt>Sanzio, Raffaello, <i>see</i> Raphael</dt> -<dt>Savoy, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></dt> -<dt>Scarlione, Bartolommeo degli, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt> -<dt>Sculpture, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-54, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-64, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt> -<dt>Sforza, Duke Gian Galeazzo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt> -<dt>Sforza, Francesco, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dt> -<dt>Sforza, Francesco (child), <a href="#Page_68">68</a></dt> -<dt>Sforza, Ludovico, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-47, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-72, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-79, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>-84, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt> -<dt>Sforza monument, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-59, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt> -<dt>Sforzas, the, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt> -<dt>Shells, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt> -<dt>Signoria, the, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-106, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></dt> -<dt>Sistine Chapel, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dt> -<dt>Soderini, Piero, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-116</dt> -<dt>Sologne, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt> -<dt>Spain, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt> -<dt>Statics, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></dt> -<dt>Steam, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt> -<dt>Strabo, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt> -<dt>Swiss, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_T"><b>T</b></dt> -<dt>Ticino gate, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dt>Torre, Marcantonio della, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dt> -<dt>Toscanelli, Paolo del Pozzo, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt> -<dt>Touraine, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt> -<dt>Trivulzio, Marshal Gian Giacomo, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt> -<dt>Turks, the, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-90, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></dt> -<dt>Tuscany, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt> -<dt>Tyrrhenian coast, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_U"><b>U</b></dt> -<dt>Uffizi Gallery, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></dt> -<dt>University of Padua, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt> -<dt>University of Pavia, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt> -<dt>Urbino, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_V"><b>V</b></dt> -<dt>Valentinois, Duke of, <i>see</i> Borgia, Cesare</dt> -<dt>Valois, Marguerite de, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt> -<dt>Vatican, the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-145</dt> -<dt>Venice, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-89, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt> -<dt>Verrochio, Andrea del, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-19, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt> -<dt>Via Ghibellina, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></dt> -<dt>Vigevano, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></dt> -<dt>Vinci, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt> -<dt>Vinci, da, Giuliano, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dt> -<dt>Vinci, da, Piero, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-7, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dt> -<dt>“Virgin of the Rocks,” <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dt>Vitellozzo, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt> -<dt>Vitruvius, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_W"><b>W</b></dt> -<dt>Water, study of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt> -<dt>Watt, James, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt> -<dt>Witelo, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="index_Y"><b>Y</b></dt> -<dt>Yugoslavia, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt> -</dl> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/pg098.jpg" alt="Endpaper, portraits of scientists" width="600" height="777" /> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/pg099.jpg" alt="Endpaper, names of scientists" width="600" height="725" /> -</div> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is 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